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THE PROPORTIONS OF THE HUMAN BODY. 
 
FIG. 1. Drawing by Michel Angelo Bnonarrotti, from the copper 
 engraving by Giov. Fabbri (Choulant). 
 
THE PROPORTIONS 
 
 THE HUMAN BODY 
 
 BERTRAM 
 
 A. Vk 
 
 n 
 
 \jfINDLE, M.A., M.D., D.Sc., 
 
 QOBBK'S raoraenR or AXATOMY iv THE MAMOM COLLBOB, 
 
 PROrCMOR or AMATOMT TO THE ROYAL SOCIETY OT ARTIWT1I, 
 A HP LCCTVRER IN THE Ml'XICIPAL BCMOOL Or ART, 
 BIRMl 
 
 LONDON: 
 BAILLIERE, TINDALL AND COX, 
 
 20 & iM. KIN<; WILLIAM STREET, STRAND. 
 1892. 
 
 [AU riffktt rtttrved.} 
 
THE PRESIDENT AND MEMBERS 
 
 OP THE 
 
 ROYAL BIRMINGHAM SOCIETY OF ARTISTS. 
 
 M374382 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 THE following pages were prepared and delivered as a 
 course of lectures for the members of the Royal Birming- 
 ham Society of Artists. I have expressed my obligations 
 to various books from which my information has been 
 drawn, and should like here also to add the names of the 
 following works, of which, us will be seen, I have made 
 much use : Marshall, 4 Proportions of the Human Body ' ; 
 Duval, 'Artistic Anatomy' (English translation by Frederick 
 E. Fenton ; Cassell and Co.). I have to thank the pub- 
 lisher of the last work for permission to reproduce some 
 illustrations. The subject of the proportions of the human 
 body is one of great interest to artists, and if I have been 
 able, by bringing together in one place the observations 
 \vhii-h have appeared upon it, to assist them in any way, I 
 shall be well pleased. 
 
 BERTRAM C. A. WINDLE. 
 MASON COLLEGE, BIRMINGHAM, 
 October 1, 1892. 
 
LIST OF FIGURES, 
 
 i -\..i: 
 
 1. Scale of Proi>ortions of Michel Angelo - Front* 
 
 2. The Egyptian Canon, or Canon of LepsiuH 22 
 
 3. Scheme of Proportions of the Germanicus and the 
 
 Apoxyomenos -7 
 
 4. Canon of Paul Topinard 41 
 it. Canon of Chrisostorao Martinez - 44 
 
 Diagrams comparing Diameters of the Hips with 
 
 Diagrams of the Shoulders in the Male and Female - <>J 
 
 K. The Human Body described within a Circle >.l 
 
 '.. The Human Body inscribed within a Square '* 
 
 1<). Comparison of the Infantile and Adult Proportions T."> 
 
 11. Diagrams showing Increase of Thorax and Upper Part of 
 
 Abdomen - - 7; 
 
THI; I'liohnmnNs OF THE HUMAN BODY. 
 
 [NTBODUCTOBY, 
 
 IN the course of lectures which, l>y the courtesy of the 
 members of this society, I am permitted to commence this 
 evening, I propose, so far as is possible to me, to lay before 
 you an historical account of the various methods which 
 have been inverted in successive ages and by diverse 
 nations, to establish a rule of proportion for the human 
 body. So far as I am able I shall endeavour to criti. !-. 
 these various methods, and in conclusion I shall supply 
 you with the best authenticated information as to the pro- 
 portions of the human body, with the varieties \\hich are 
 due to differences of age, sex, or race. I do not know 
 whether in this place, and to such an audience as this, any 
 defence is necessary for one who presumes to offer hard 
 definite scientific facts to those interested in the study of 
 art alone. Is science, using the term now in a restricted 
 sense, really of any use to the true artist ? or is the true 
 artist he or she who is from power of observation and force 
 of genius able to grasp so completely and reproduce so fully 
 all the characters of the human body, in their constantly 
 varying complexity, as to be independent of all outside 
 knowledge of cognate subjects ? The question has been so 
 well dealt with by one who is at the same time one of the 
 most charming of writers and a skilled artist, that you 
 will, I am sure, pardon me if I give you his words instead 
 
14 THE PROPORTIONS OF THE HUMAN BODY. 
 
 of any of iny own. ' The sciences of, perspective, optics 
 and anatomy,' he says, ' are useful to artists just as the 
 science of geography is useful to a traveller. Take the 
 very best of maps ; what does it tell you of the countries 
 you intend to explore? It is not a substitute for your 
 observation as a traveller, but simply a reliable informant 
 as to where the places lie, where you will find them, and a 
 help to your topographic memory. After having studied 
 the map you must observe the country itself in all its 
 detail if you want to know its life. But the map has 
 helped you, nevertheless, in the arrangement of the work 
 before you. It has saved you time and trouble ; it has 
 prevented you from missing your way. What a map is to 
 the traveller, scientific study wisely pursued is to the artist. 
 It can never serve him as a substitute for his own observa- 
 tion, but it may tell him when to apply his power as an 
 observer and guard him against innumerable mistakes. If 
 artists could always have nature before them exactly as 
 they desired to paint it, they might dispense with the help 
 of science altogether. Any artist who sees quite clearly in 
 the artistic sense, sees also as much of organic structure as 
 is necessary to his perfect performance. But when nature 
 is not present, or is constantly changing, which very nearly 
 amounts to the same thing, artists need everything which 
 may counteract the natural infirmities of the memory.' 
 
 Anatomy, rightly understood, whether for the artist or for 
 the scientific student, is not merely the study of dry bones 
 and the muscular masses which put them in motion, it is, 
 or should be, far more. It includes the knowledge of the 
 peculiarities of infancy, youth, or age ; of sickness or robust 
 health; of the contrasts between manly and muscular 
 strength and feminine delicacy ; of the appearances which 
 pain or death presents. Such knowledge belongs to its 
 province as much as the study of the muscles of the face 
 when aftected with emotion. And, as the writer just quoted 
 proceeds, viewed in this comprehensive light, anatomy 
 forms a science, not only of great interest, but one which 
 will be sure to give the artist a true spirit of observation, 
 
15 
 
 teach him to distinguish what is essential to just expression, 
 and direct his attention to appearances on which the effect 
 and force, as well as the delicacy of his delineations will 
 be found to depend. But whilst anatomy is, to use Bell's 
 phrase, the grammar of art, a complete knowledge of 
 anatomy will no more make an artist than deep learning 
 in grammar will make a master of composition. The 
 trained observation of the artist will sometimes discover 
 btofti which have been missed by the anatomist. I may 
 perhaps be permitted to make mention of an instance of 
 thi>. An attack made upon the accuracy of tin- M-ulptor of 
 the Venus of Milo on account of certain a>\ mmetries in 
 the face of that statue, led a (it-mum anatomist to examine 
 the figure carefully. He found that whilst the portion 
 lying below the nose was comparatively *\imuetrical, the 
 upper part presented various deviations. Thus the nose 
 deviates to the left, the left ear >tand> higher than the 
 ri^ht, and the left eye is higher and nearer the middle line 
 than the right. Struck h\ these facts, he was led to make 
 i art fill observations of the measurements of skulls and of 
 the heads of living persons. As a result he found that 
 whilst symmetry of the lower half of the face is the rule, 
 deviations such as those occurring in the statue commonly 
 occur in the upper half. Anatomy can supply the artist 
 with hard and fast rules arrived at from the study of 
 averages. It is the truly ^reat sculptor or painter who, 
 appreciating that 
 
 * Variety's the very spice of life, 
 That gives it all ite flavour,' 
 
 and employing it, 
 
 4 Not chaos-like together crushed and bruised, 
 But as the world harmoniously confused, 
 Where order in variety we see, 
 And where, though all things differ, all agree,' 
 
 produces the masterpiece of art to be a joy to all succeeding 
 generations. The quest for the ideal human figure upon 
 which, as upon a scaffolding, the artist may build up the 
 creature of his imagination, is one which has exercised 
 many minds, some approaching it from what I may he 
 
16 THE PROPORTIONS OF THE HUMAN BODY. 
 
 allowed to call the aesthetic direction,, others from that of 
 pure science. Hogarth, who states that there is no 
 practicable rule by lines for minutely setting out propor- 
 tions for the human body, and that if there were, the eye 
 alone must determine us in our choice of what is most 
 pleasing to itself, was yet desirous of showing the 
 importance of appreciating the just proportions of the ideal 
 human figure. ' I fear,' he says, ' it will be difficult to 
 raise a very clear idea of what constitutes or composes the 
 utmost beauty of proportion, such as is seen in the 
 Antinous, which is allowed to be the most perfect in this 
 respect of any of the antique statues, and, though the 
 lovely likewise seems to have been as much the sculptor's 
 aim as in the Venus, yet a manly strength in its propor- 
 tion is equally expressed from head to foot in it. Let us 
 try, however, and as this masterpiece of art is so well 
 known, we will set it up before us as a pattern, and 
 endeavour to fabricate, or put together in the mind, such 
 kind of parts as shall seem to build another figure like it. 
 In doing which we shall soon find that it is chiefly to be 
 effected by means of the nice sensation we naturally have 
 of what certain quantities or dimensions of parts are fittest 
 to produce the utmost strength for moving or supporting 
 great weights ; and of what are most fit for the utmost 
 light agility, as also for every degree, between these two 
 extremes. He who hath best perfected his ideas of these 
 matters by common observations, and by the assistance of 
 arts relative thereto, will probably be most precisely just 
 and clear in conceiving the application of the various parts 
 and dimensions that will occur to him, in the following 
 descriptive manner of disposing of them, in order to form 
 the idea of a fine-proportioned figure. Having set up the 
 Antinous as our pattern, we will suppose there were placed 
 on one side of it the unwieldy elephant-like figure of an 
 Atlas, made up of such thick bones and muscles as would 
 best fit him for supporting a vast weight, according to his 
 character of extreme heavy strength ; and on the other 
 side, imagine the slim figure of a Mercury, everywhere 
 
INTRODUCTION. 17 
 
 neatly formed for the utmost light agility, with slender 
 bones and taper muscles fit for his nimble bounding from 
 the ground. Both these figures must be supposed of equal 
 height, and not exceeding six feet. Our extremes thus 
 placed, now imagine the Atlas throwing off by degrees 
 certain portions of bone and muscle proper for the 
 attainment of light agility, as if aiming at the Mercury's 
 airy form and quality, whilst, on the other hand, see the 
 Mercury aii^nicnting his taper figure by equal degrees, and 
 growing towards an Atlas in equal time, by receiving to the 
 like places from whence they came the very quantities 
 that the other had been casting off, when, as they approach 
 each other in weight, their forms of course may be 
 imagined to grow more and more alike, till, at a certain 
 point of time, they meet in just similitude ; which, being 
 an exact medium between the two extremes, we may 
 thence conclude it to be the precise form of exact propor- 
 tion fittest for perfect active strength or graceful 
 movement, such as the Antinous we proposed to imitate 
 and figure in the mind/ It is with more exact methods 
 than tin- i hut I have in these lectures to deal, yet would I 
 crave your permission, before proceeding to them, to lay 
 before you those luminous passages in which Sir Joshua 
 Reynolds showed his appreciation of the existence of a 
 type-form of the human body, together with his knowledge 
 of the order which really exists under the seemingly 
 indefinite variations from that type. * All the objects,' he 
 says, * which are exhibited to our view by Nature, upon 
 close examination will be found to have their blemishes 
 and defects. The most beautiful forms have something 
 about them like weakness, minuteness, or imperfection. 
 But it is not every eye that perceives these blemishes. It 
 must be an eye long used to the comparison of these forms, 
 and which, by a long habit of observing what any set of 
 objects of the same kind have in common, has acquired the 
 power of discerning what each wants in particular. By 
 this means we acquire a just idea of beautiful forms ; we 
 correct Nature by herself, her imperfect state by her more 
 
 2 
 
18 THE PROPORTIONS OF THE HUMAN BODY. 
 
 perfect, and make out an abstract idea of forms more 
 perfect than any one original. From reiterated experience 
 and a close comparison of the objects of Nature, the artist 
 becomes possessed of a central form from which every 
 deviation is deformity. To the principle I have laid down, 
 that the idea of beauty in each species of being is an 
 invariable one, it may be objected that in every particular 
 species there are various central forms, which are separate 
 and distinct from each other, and yet are undoubtedly 
 beautiful ; that in the human figure, for instance, the 
 beauty of Hercules is one, of the Gladiator another, of 
 Apollo another, which make so many different ideas of 
 beauty. It is true, indeed, that these figures are each 
 perfect in their kind ; but still, none of them is the 
 representation of an individual, but of a class. And as 
 there is one general form which belongs to the human 
 kind at large, so in each of these classes there is one 
 common idea and central form which is the abstract of the 
 various individual forms belonging to that class. Thus, 
 though the forms of childhood and age differ exceedingly, 
 there is a common form in childhood and a common form 
 in age which is the more perfect as it is more remote from 
 peculiarities. But I must add further, that though the 
 most perfect forms of each of the general divisions of the 
 human figure are ideal, and superior to any individual 
 form of that class, yet the highest perfection of the human 
 figure is not to be found in any one of them. It is not in 
 Hercules, nor in the Gladiator, nor in the Apollo, but in 
 that form which is taken from them all, and which 
 partakes equally of the activity of the Gladiator, of the 
 delicacy of the Apollo, and the muscular strength of the 
 Hercules. There is, likewise, a kind of symmetry or 
 proportion which may properly be said to belong to 
 deformity. A figure lean or corpulent, tall or short, 
 though deviating from the type, may still have a certain 
 union of the various parts which may contribute to make 
 them, on the whole, not unpleasing.' 
 
PART L HISTORICAL. 
 
 IN considering the various systems of proportion it will be 
 convenient to deal with them under the headings of the 
 nations amongst whom they were originated or used. One 
 of the earliest known canons is that given in an early 
 Sanscrit work, the * Silpa Sastra,' or ' of the fine arts.' 
 In this canon a vertical line is divided into 480 parts, which 
 are thus distributed throughout the body : 
 
 Upper part of Head - - 1 .' 
 
 Face .... 
 
 Neck- ... 
 
 Chert 
 
 To umbilicus 
 
 Lower part of Abdomen 
 
 To knee ... - 90 
 
 Knee - 30 
 
 Leg. - I"- 1 
 
 If this canon be estimated in terms of the head, it will 
 be found that the entire body is made to contain a little 
 less than seven and a half heads. According to Quetelet, 
 this scheme of proportion is met with in several of the 
 paintings of Raphael. 
 
 The earliest information which we possess as to the 
 canon of the wonderful Egyptian people is due to Diodorus 
 Siculus. Unfortunately, this writer, who was a contem- 
 porary of Julius Caesar and Augustus, though he travelled 
 over a great part of Europe and Asia to collect materials 
 for his * Bibliotheca Historica,' is far from being reliable, 
 and I only mention his stories because they find a place in 
 most works on the subject with which we are concerned. 
 According to this writer, the Egyptians divided the body 
 
20 THE PROPORTIONS OF THE HUMAN BODY. 
 
 into twenty-one and a half parts, and worked under rules 
 so rigid that the height of the statue once decided upon, the 
 stones from which it was to be constructed were distributed 
 to different workmen to be finally fitted together when all 
 had completed their tasks. In illustration of this he tells 
 a probably apocryphal story respecting the two sons of a 
 certain Phcecus, of Samos, Taleclos and Theodorus by 
 name, who, having studied art in Egypt, and employing the 
 canon of that country, constructed a statue of Apollo 
 Pythius in two halves. The height having been agreed 
 upon, one half of the figure was executed by one brother 
 in Samos, and the remainder by the other in Ephesus. 
 On being placed together, when completed, it was found 
 that they accurately fitted to one another. To understand 
 the Egyptian works, certain points require to be borne in 
 mind, the first of which is the conventionality by which 
 they were, to a certain extent, bound down. Thus, in their 
 sculptures in relief, the head was almost always repre- 
 sented in profile, but with a full-face eye, the bust was also 
 full-face, the trunk three-quarters, and the legs profile. 
 Again, the gods were represented larger than men, kings 
 than subjects, and the dead than the living. The same 
 conventionality of treatment was observed in the colours 
 with which their sculptures were overlaid. The flesh tints 
 of men were of a dark reddish-brown, and those of women 
 a pale yellow. This scheme of colour is, however, occa- 
 sionally departed from. Thus, at Sakharah, under the 
 fifteenth dynasty, and at Aboo Sumbel under the nine- 
 teenth, there are represented men with skins as yellow as 
 those of women, and in tombs at Thebes and Abydos, about 
 the time of Thothmes IV. at Horenheb, and also at Bayt-el- 
 Wely, flesh tints of rose-colour and crimson are met with. 
 Then, in the second place, it must be remembered that the 
 peculiar religious views of the Egyptians had an important 
 bearing upon their art. The ' ka,' the double, or spirit of 
 the body, was supposed to perish miserably if it had not the 
 dead body, in the shape of a mummy, or at least a counter- 
 feit presentment of the same, to attach itself to. Now, as 
 
PART I. HISTORICAL. 21 
 
 the mummy might be stolen, there were provided for the 
 ' ka ' in that case one or more figures of the deceased 
 person. These were not intended as memorials for the 
 children or friends to gaze upon, since they were shut up in 
 rooms to which no entrance was afforded. In figures con- 
 structed for this purpose, extreme accuracy of facial 
 resemblance was the only thing to be sought for, and we 
 find, therefore, that whilst the head and face are most 
 carefully represented, the remaining parts of the body were 
 less accurately rendered merely sketched in, if we may 
 use such a phrase in connection with sculpture. It is 
 obvious that figures executed under conditions such as 
 these would not require any carefully devised canon of 
 proportion for their construction. With respect to the 
 manner in which the mural sculptures were executed, an 
 interesting account is given by Jones in his handbook to 
 the Egyptian Court of the Crystal Palace. He says, ' A 
 \\;ill was first chiselled as smooth as possible, the imper- 
 fections of the stone were filled up with cement or plaster, 
 and the whole was rubbed smooth and covered with a 
 coloured wash. Lines were then ruled perpendicularly 
 and horizontally with red colour, forming squares all over 
 the wall corresponding with the proportions of the figure 
 to be drawn upon it. The subjects of the paintings and of 
 the hieroglyphics were then drawn upon the wall, with a 
 red line, most probably by the priest or chief scribe, or by 
 some inferior artist, from a document divided into similar 
 squares. Then came the chief artist, who went over every 
 figure and hieroglyphic with a black line and a firm and 
 steady hand, giving expression to each curve, deviating 
 here and confirming there, the former red line. The line 
 thus traced was then followed by the sculptor. In this 
 stage there are instances of a foot or head having been 
 completely sculptured, whilst the rest of the figure remains 
 in outline. The next process was to paint the figure in the 
 prescribed colours ; and in some cases the painted line 
 deviates from the sculptured line, showing that the painter 
 was the more important workman, and that even in this 
 
22 
 
 THE PROPORTIONS OF THE HUMAN BODY. 
 
 process no possible improvement was, omitted. There are 
 other instances where a considerable deviation from the 
 position of an arm or leg has been made. After the 
 sculpture was finished and painted, the part was recarved, 
 and the defective portion filled in with plaster, which, 
 having since fallen off, furnishes us with this curious 
 evidence of their practice.' 
 
 Turning now to the canon adopted by the Egyptians, 
 Jomard states that they used one of seven and a half heads 
 as proved by measurements of a figure made by Delile. 
 He also states that they made the foot one-sixth of the 
 length of the body and the cubit one-fourth. These 
 
 proportions are not true to nature 
 as shown by the following table, 
 which he supplies : 
 
 Stature 
 
 Foot 
 
 Cubit 
 
 Egyptiao. 
 - 24 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 Natural. 
 
 - 26 
 
 - 4 
 
 - 7 
 
 Blanc considered that the Egyp- 
 tian canon was founded upon the 
 length of the middle finger, which 
 should be contained nineteen 
 times in the body. Topinard calls 
 this the canon of Lepsius, and 
 states that the head and neck con- 
 tain this measure three times, the 
 upper extremity eight times, the 
 inferior from the pubes, ten times, 
 thus giving the relation of the 
 upper to the lower extremities as 
 4 is to 5. The term ' canon of 
 Lepsius ' is due to the fact that in 
 the ' Selection of Funeral Monu- 
 ments ' published by that author, 
 
 FIG. 2. The Egyptian Canon,,, . L . J , . , .. 
 
 or Canon of Lepsius (Duval). there is a figure in which the body 
 
 is divided by horizontal lines into 
 
 nineteen parts (Fig. 2). Of this figure Duval says, ^A.s 
 several passages in different ancient authors seem to indicate 
 
PART I. HISTORICAL. 23 
 
 that the Egyptian sculptors have taken the finger as the unit 
 of the system, Charles Blanc very ingeniously remarks this 
 fact, that in the figure in question, one of the horizontal lines, 
 the eighth, beginning at the soles of the feet, passes exactly 
 at the base of the middle finger in the right hand (closed, hold- 
 ing a key), while the seventh touches the extremity of the 
 middle finger of the extended left hand. It seems to him, 
 then, very probable that the distribution of these horizontal 
 lines indicates a system of measuring the figure, and that the 
 space between the seventh and the eighth lines measures 
 the length of the middle finger, which thus becomes the 
 standard of this system of proportion. According to the 
 Egyptian tule, the length of the middle finger will be 
 found nineteen times in that of the height ; it may be that 
 this rule was adopted by the Greek artists, and Charles 
 Blanc does not hesitate to think that Polycletus, who has 
 composed a " Treatise on Proportions," with a model in 
 marble known by the name of Doryphorus, used no other 
 system but the Egyptian ; there has always been found in 
 a number of antique figures this same proportion of nine- 
 teen times the middle finger to the height of the body, and 
 in the Achilles, for example, the iotul lu-ight does not 
 exceed by more than one-twentieth of an inch the length 
 of the middle finger multiplied by nineteen.' MM. Perrot 
 and Chipiez, whose position as authorities on Egyptian art 
 stands very high, are inclined to doubt the existence of any 
 fixed canon of stature in use amongst artists of this nation. 
 They point out that though the figure above alluded to is 
 contained in nineteen squares, others have been found in 
 which the height of the figure occupies sixteen, twenty-two 
 and a quarter, and twenty-three squares respectively. 
 They look upon these squares not as related to a canon, 
 but as being merely the method used to copy accurately 
 from another, and possibly smaller, representation in the 
 manner well known to artists, and alluded to in the 
 description of the procedure of the sculptors as given 
 above. There seems some possibility that the Greeks 
 received their knowledge of a canon of stature from the 
 Egyptians. Such a theory is supported by Blanc's state- 
 
24 THE PROPORTIONS OF THE HUMAN BODY. 
 
 ment, by the stories of Diodorus Sicttlus, which probably 
 had at least some foundation, and receives some confirma- 
 tion from an incident related by Broca, the celebrated 
 French anthropologist. M. Fock, in 1866, gave an order 
 to Tramond, the well-known preparer of skeletons, to find 
 him one with certain proportions, which he indicated, and 
 which were those which he had obtained from the examina- 
 tion of the statue of the Apollo Belvedere. Tramond not 
 being able to find a skeleton satisfying these requirements, 
 particularly in so far as they concerned the fore-arm, 
 applied to Broca. After a search, he found a skeleton 
 which fulfilled the requirements. It was that of Abdallah, 
 a superb negro from the Soudan, which is still in existence 
 in the museum of the Society of Anthropology of Paris. 
 Broca drew from this the conclusion, that the statue of the 
 Apollo Belvedere was fashioned without doubt upon the 
 Egyptian canon, which had been drawn up from Nubian 
 negroes, who were used as models. Whether they obtained 
 their canon from Egypt or not, there can be no doubt that 
 rules of proportion were studied and employed by the 
 Greeks. Schadow says that a canon was probably used in 
 the workshops of the oldest Greek sculptors, and calls 
 attention to the fact that in the group of the JEginetans 
 in Munich, the proportions used for the wrestlers are the 
 same. The most celebrated canon of which we have any 
 knowledge was that of Polycletus, after whom Schadow's 
 work is named. This artist was a native of Argos and a 
 contemporary of Phidias, flourishing between the years 
 B.C. 452-412. He was a pupil of Ageladas, and designed 
 the temple and theatre of Epidaurus. He composed a 
 commentary upon the proportions of the human body, and 
 also constructed a figure in illustration of his views, the 
 Doryphorus or Lancebearer, which he called the ' Canon.' 
 This figure is mentioned by various old writers, Galen 
 twice alluding to it as follows : ' Carvers, painters, sculptors 
 and artists in general, strive to paint and represent the 
 most beautiful forms they can find, whether of human 
 beings or animals. Such a form is exemplified by the 
 
PART I. HISTORICAL. 25 
 
 canon of Polycletus. This statue owed its name to the 
 fact that its parts are of perfect proportion and in harmony.' 
 And again : ' The beauty of the human body is shown in 
 the symmetry of the various parts, as clearly explained in 
 the canon of Polycletus ' (here the commentary is probably 
 alluded to). 'In these writings the master has described 
 his law of all the proportions of the body, and has illus- 
 trated this by means of a statue made in exact conformity 
 with his rules. The name of canon was given by him both 
 to his writings and to the statue.' Winckelmanns, in his 
 ' History of Greek Art,' states that amongst the ancients 
 the foot was the standard of all large measurements, and 
 by its length sculptors determined the height of their 
 statues, giving to them, as Vitruvius states, six lengths of 
 the foot ; for the foot has a more determinate length than 
 the head or the face, from which modern sculptors and 
 painters generally deduce the proportions of their figures. 
 Hence Pythagoras calculated the height of Hercules from 
 the length of his foot, with which he measured the Olympic 
 st:i<liiim at Elis. As regards the number of heads in 
 height, the various artists seem to have at times adopted 
 different scales. Thus the Farnese Hercules and the 
 Gladiator measure eight heads, the Apollo and the Laocoon 
 seven and two-thirds, and the Antinous seven and a half. 
 The Venus of the Medici has a similar measurement. We 
 are ignorant of the exact rule which the Greek artists 
 made use of, but various attempts have been made to 
 arrive at it by measurements of various masterpieces. I 
 here reproduce some of the figures arrived at by Quetelet : 
 
 Stature 1,000 
 
 Height of the head 130 
 
 Neck, from the chin to the clavicles - 
 Trunk, from the clavicles to the pubis 
 Lower Limb, from the pubis to the ground 
 Lower Limb, from the perineum to the ground 
 
 37 
 
 :iu; 
 513 
 482 
 
 Upper Limb, from the acromion to the extremity of the middle 
 
 finger .... . 455 
 
 Length of the hand - .... 109 
 
 Length of the foot - 141) 
 
 A good idea of the variation in proportions may be 
 
26 
 
 THE PROPORTIONS OF THE HUMAN BODY. 
 
 obtained from the following table, prepared by Professor 
 L anger, of Vienna, which gives the measurements of certain 
 parts of the body reduced to terms of the stature, which is 
 considered as consisting of 1,000 parts. 
 
 Measures reduced to 1.000 parts 
 
 Apollo 
 
 Venus 
 
 ot .Body stature. (so-called). | menos. 
 
 (Vatican). 
 
 (Medicean 
 
 Height of the head 
 
 127-3 
 
 119-0 
 
 117-5 
 
 127-5 
 
 Height of upper part of 
 
 
 
 
 
 body (above symphysis 
 
 
 
 
 
 pubis) 
 
 480-0 
 
 446-2 
 
 461-5 
 
 470-4 
 
 Height of lower part of 
 
 
 
 
 
 body (helow symphysis) - 
 
 520-0 
 
 553-8 
 
 538-5 
 
 529-6 
 
 Difference between two last 
 
 
 
 
 
 measurements - 
 
 40-0 
 
 107-6 
 
 77-0 
 
 59-2 
 
 Length of Thigh 
 
 220-4 
 
 264-8 
 
 233-5 
 
 235-0 
 
 Length of Leg 
 
 221-0 
 
 266-1 
 
 267-8 
 
 260-0 
 
 It will be noticed that in the first and last the head is 
 contained 7*8 times in the body, whilst in the second and 
 third it is contained about 8'5 times. The effect produced 
 by this difference of proportion, as well as by the other 
 variations in measurement, is well shown by Fig. 3, from 
 the same author, which gives linear schemes of the pro- 
 portions of the so-called Germanicus (A) and the Apoxyo- 
 raenos (B). 
 
 Winckelmanns states that the following rule of proportion 
 for the face is, in his opinion, the exact method observed by 
 the ancients. It was devised by Antonio Eaphael Mengs. 
 ' Draw a vertical line and divide it into five equal parts, 
 the uppermost fifth is for the hair. Again divide the 
 remainder of the line into three equal parts. Draw a 
 horizontal line through the lower extremity of the first of 
 these three divisions, forming with the perpendicular line 
 a cross. The horizontal line must be as long as two of the 
 three parts into which the length of the face is divided. 
 Let curved lines be drawn from the extreme points of this 
 line to the upper extremity of the fifth part originally set 
 off; these form the smaller end of the oval of the face. 
 Now divide one of the three parts of the length of the face 
 into twelve equal portions. Let three of them, that is to 
 say, one-fourth of one of these thirds, or one-twelfth of the 
 
PART 
 
 -HISTORICAL. 
 
 27 
 
 length of the face, be measured off on both sides of the 
 point of intersection of the horizontal and perpendicular 
 lines ; these two portions indicate the space between the 
 eyes. Let three other portions be measured off on both 
 outer extremities of the horizontal line. The space which 
 now remains included between the quarter at the outer 
 end of the horizontal line and the quarter at the point of 
 
 9 ^ 
 
 FIG. 3. Linear scheme of the proportions of the so-called Germanicus 
 and of the Apoxyomenos (Langer). 
 
 intersection of the two lines is equal to two quarters, or six 
 of the twelve portions mentioned above, and gives the 
 length of an eye. One quarter is the width of the eye, and 
 also the distance from the tip of the nose to the opening of 
 the lip, and from this point to the curvature of the chin, 
 and thence to the tip of the chin. The breadth of the 
 nose to the wings of the nostrils contains just a quarter. 
 The length of the mouth requires two quarters; it is 
 
28 THE PROPORTIONS OF THE HUMAN BODY. 
 
 therefore equal to the length of the ey&, or to the height of 
 the chin from its point to the line of junction of the lips. 
 
 One-half of the face measured from the roots of the hair 
 gives the length from the chin to the pit at the lower 
 extremity of the neck. The German editor of this work 
 notes that instead of ' and thence to the tip of the chin ' 
 we should read ' from the depression to the point of the 
 chin is two portions.' He also points out that the length 
 of the mouth is half as long again as the eye. 
 
 ^The best known Roman canon is that of Yitrjisiu&, who 
 flourished B.C. 46. According to this rule the head forms 
 the eighth part of the body ; the face, from the roots of the 
 hair to the chin, is equal to the length of the hand, and 
 forms the tenth part of the body. The foot is the seventh 
 part, and the fore-arm and hand taken together is the 
 fourth. Yitruvius is also the authority for the incorrect 
 statement that the umbilicus is the central point of the 
 body. He says, 'The umbilicus is naturally the centre 
 of the body, so that if a man lies down flat on his back 
 with his arms and legs stretched out, and if a circle be 
 described with the umbilicus as its centre, the line will 
 touch the points of the digits of both hands and feet.' He 
 is also the authority for the statement that the height of 
 the body is equal to the distance between the tips of the 
 fingers when the arms are stretched out as far as possible 
 from the sides. 
 
 Having thus described so far as they are known the 
 canons adopted by ancient artists, we must now turn to the 
 consideration of those of more modern times. Amongst 
 the Italians, Giotto (1276-1336), is said to have written on 
 the subject, but I am not aware that any remains of his 
 writings are extant. Alberti (1398-1475) made a much 
 more successful attempt than any other early modern 
 to deal with the subject of proportion. In fact, Topinard 
 says of his work that it is an essay in rational anthro- 
 pometry, and a very remarkable attempt for the period. 
 Alberti took the foot as his unit, and states that it is 
 included six times in the body, in which he followed 
 
PART I. HISTORICAL. 29 
 
 Yitruvius and, according to Winckelmanns, various of the 
 ancient sculptors. The foot he divided into ten parts, and 
 each of these again into ten minutes, each of which thus 
 formed the six-hundredth part of the body. Alberti's 
 figures were based upon a number of measurements of the 
 body relating to its height, transverse and antero-posterior 
 diameters, and reduced to averages. Leonardo da Viiu-i 
 (1445-1520), in his * Treatise on Painting,' often mentions 
 a standard of measurement, but uever seems^to-kav* been 
 satisfied with any. He took the face for his starting-point, 
 and says that in his first infancy man has the width of his 
 shoulders equal to the length of his face, and to that 
 portion of the arm which is between the shoulder and the 
 elbow when the arm is bent. It is also equal to the 
 distance between the middle finger of the hand and the 
 fold of the elbow, and to the interval between the bend of 
 the knee and that of the ankle. But when man has come 
 to his full stature all these measurements double in length, 
 except the face, which, as the whole head, undergoes little 
 change, and so the man who at adult stature is of a well- 
 proportioned figure should have ten faces' height, the size 
 of his shoulders should be two faces, ' and so all the parts 
 of which I have spoken are alike of two faces.' He also 
 says : ' Divide the head into twelve degrees, and each 
 degree into twelve minutes, and each minute into twelve 
 seconds, and so on until you have found a measure equal to 
 the smallest parts of your figure,' a statement upon which 
 possibly is based Rossi's surely sarcastic story that 
 Leonardo had divided the face into 248,882 parts. 
 Michael Angelo (1474-1568) left a sheet of proportions of 
 which a representation is given in Fig. 1. It represents a 
 man standing in three-quarter face, the head being in 
 profile. The right arm is only partly shown, and the right 
 leg and foot are incompletely represented. The skin is not 
 removed, but the muscles are clearly shown, and the position 
 of the left trochanter major is marked by a star. On the 
 right side of the figure is a divided scale for the whole body, 
 together with a special one for the arm. On the left side 
 
30 THE PROPORTIONS OF THE HUMAN BODY. 
 
 is a smaller representation of the proportions of the human 
 body, which shows the bony skull, the cervical vertebrae, the 
 first rib, clavicle and upper part of the scapula. The 
 corresponding proportions of the outstretched arm to those 
 of the middle line of the body are shown by three quadrants. 
 From the vertex to the sole of the foot is described a semi- 
 circle whose diameter is formed by the length of the body. 
 Along the perpendicular line in the smaller figure are the 
 words : testa, collo, peto (petto), soto peto (sotto petto), col 
 corpo, natura, coscia, congiunta, gamba, congiata di piedi. 
 On the horizontal line, spala (spalla), congionta, oso (osso) 
 di sopra, congionto, oso di soto (osso di sotto), congionto, 
 oso (osso) de la rnano. Under the clavicle, ingumiatura 
 sopra il petto. But Michael Angelo has stated his opinion 
 that the artist must rely upon his own eye as the surest 
 guide to correct proportions. A curious statement made by 
 Lamozzo respecting Michael Angelo seems to have a 
 bearing upon his ideas as to proportion, but it is phrased 
 in as enigmatical a style as the directions of the alchemists, 
 and to me is at least as unintelligible. Lamozzo says : 
 'And because in this place there falleth out a certain 
 precept of Michael Angelo much for our purpose, I will not 
 conceale it, leaving the farther interpretation and under- 
 standing thereof to the judicious reader. It is reported, 
 then, that Michael Angelo upon a time gave this observation 
 to the painter Marcus de Sciena his scholler; that he 
 should alwaies make a figure pyramidall, serpent-like, and 
 multiplied by one, two and three. In which precept (in 
 mine opinion) the whole mysterie of the arte consisteth.' 
 (The quotation is as given by Hogarth.) 
 
 Amongst other Italians who wrote about the canon of 
 proportion may be mentioned Paggi (1554-1629), who in a 
 work entitled ' Acus Nautica,' which was published in 1601, 
 gave some tables of proportions from which it is believed 
 those subsequently issued by Testelin were copied. 
 Barbaro, in his ' Practica della Perspectiva,' gave a series of 
 proportions which he proposed as intermediate between 
 those of Diirer, which he considered to be too minute, and 
 
PART I. HISTORICAL. 31 
 
 those of Vitruvius, which, on the other hand, he thought 
 too general. Barca of Milan (1620) issued a sheet con- 
 taining the proportions of Jupiter, Hercules, Minerva and 
 Venus. 
 
 The Germans, as might have been expected from a 
 nation always anxious to reduce all possible matters to 
 scientific rules, and filled with a genuine love of art, have 
 supplied various works on our subject. Of these, perhaps 
 the earliest, and certainly one of the most famous, is that 
 of Albrecht_Durer (1470-1528), who had a very high 
 opinion of the science of proportion, bestowed much thought 
 upon the subject, and eventually published a work concern- 
 ing it. His opinion of the potentialities of the subject 
 was, in fact, almost overstrained, if one may judge from his 
 statement that ' by means of outward proportion one can 
 indicate the natures of men which correspond to fire, air, 
 water, and earth, for the power of art is supreme.' His 
 first book was entitled, * Instruction in the Measurement, 
 with the Compass and Rule, of Lines, Surfaces and Solid 
 Bodies, drawn up by Albrecht Diirer, and printed for the 
 use of all lovers of art, with appropriate diagrams, in 
 1525.' This book contains a course of applied geometry in 
 connection with Euclid's elements; in fact, Diirer states from 
 the commencement of it that his book will be useless to 
 anyone who understands the geometry of * the very acute 
 Euclid, for it has been written only for the very young and 
 for those who have no one to instruct them accurately.' 
 This work was followed by his book on Proportion, which 
 was published with the following title : ' Herein are com- 
 prised four books on human proportions, composed and 
 printed by Albrecht Diirer, of Niirnberg, for the use of all 
 those who love this art, MDXXVIII.' In his system of 
 measurement of the human body he adopts two plans, for 
 in the first book he uses as a standard a fraction of the 
 entire height, whilst in the second his scale is composed of 
 six hundred parts, like that of Alberti, a proof, says 
 Thausing, that he had some acquaintance with the, at that 
 time unpublished, writings of the Florentine. In the third 
 
32 THE PROPORTIONS OF THE HUMAN BODY. 
 
 book the varying proportions of the figures given in the first 
 two are changed according to definite rules, the scale being 
 increased and diminished in all kinds of different ways, but 
 always with a certain consistency. The fourth book 
 indicates 'where and how the figures are to bend.' It is, in 
 point of fact, ' an application of the science of geometrical 
 projection to the drawing of the human body expressed by 
 lines and plane surfaces, and represented under different 
 aspects and in different positions.' He declares in his 
 preface that he intends to write nothing about the inward 
 parts of the body, and at the beginning of the fourth book 
 says : ' But how to describe the limbs, and how wonderfully 
 they fit into each other, is known to those who occupy them- 
 selves with anatomy, and I leave it to them to speak of 
 these things.' He himself is content with briefly pointing 
 out the limits within which the body can be bent, and how 
 the joints become enlarged when they are stretched and in 
 action. In the first book he gives figures of bodies vary- 
 ing from six to nine, and even ten, heads in stature, 
 though the latter proportions are only treated as suppo- 
 sititious cases, and not as actually occurring conditions. 
 Thus he represents a pair of robust peasants, male and 
 female, in whom he makes the foot one-sixth, the head one- 
 seventh, and the hand one-tenth, of the entire stature. 
 He then gives another pair of figures, also male and 
 female, of a less robust and more slender form, in whom 
 the head is one-eighth, the hand one-tenth, and the foot, 
 in the male, one-sixth, and in the female one-seventh, of 
 the entire stature. ' The vertical and horizontal lines into 
 which he divides the head,' says Topinard, ' merit special 
 attention. He established his first horizontal line to orient 
 the head in profile, and drew it so as to pass by the lower 
 part of the lobule of the ear and the lower part of the 
 nose. Amongst the other lines are two called slanting 
 the one a tangent to the chin and to the two lips, the other 
 a tangent to the frontal eminences, to the glabella and to the 
 nose. At the point of meeting of this line with the 
 horizontal line above mentioned is an angle which the 
 
PART I. HISTORICAL. 33 
 
 authors of the " Crania Ethnica " have described as a sort 
 of facial angle which preceded that of Camper. It is a 
 fact that on a figure of a negro given by Diirer, in which 
 the two lines are represented, the angle is more acute than 
 amongst Europeans, and the forehead therefore rendered 
 more retiring.' Very different opinions seem to have been 
 held respecting the value of Durer's work ; Michael Angelo 
 is said to have thought but little of it, whilst Hogarth, in 
 the book from which I have already quoted, says : * Albert 
 Diirer, who drew mathematically, never so much as 
 deviated into grace, which he must sometimes have done in 
 copying the life, if he had not been fettered with his own 
 impracticable rules of proportion.' On the other hand, 
 Francisco Pacheco, the master of the great Velasquez, in 
 his book on painting, recommends that the female figure 
 should be studied from Durer's drawings, instead of from 
 the living model. Passing to other Germans, Bergmuller, 
 who published in 1728 a book entitled ' Anthropometria,' 
 Lichtensteger and Zeising, all devised canons which were 
 more or less fantastic and artificial. The last-named 
 author published his ' Lebre von der Proportionen ' in 
 1854, the details of which rested upon the following pro- 
 position : Proportion is a fundamental necessity for beauty 
 of form ; if the division of a whole consisting of unequal 
 parts is to appear proportional, the relation of the unequal 
 parts to one another must be the same as the relation of 
 the parts to the whole ; that is, the smaller parts must be 
 related to the greater, as the greater to the whole. From 
 this rule he deduced his so-called ' Goldenen Schnitt ' as a 
 canon of ideal beauty in the division of all structures. 
 This section consisted in a line so divided that the smaller 
 part bore the same portion to the larger as that did to the 
 whole. 
 
 Schadow, who was sculptor at the court of the King of 
 Prussia, published in 1834 his work on proportions, en- 
 titled ' Polycletus,' a name which was that of one of the 
 earliest devisers of a canon, the author of the celebrated 
 4 Doryphorus.' Of Schadow so great an authority as 
 
 3 
 
34 THE PROPORTIONS OF THE HUMAN BODY. 
 
 Quetelet had a high opinion within certain limitations. ' We 
 find him,' he says, ' an artist before all things : that which 
 unceasingly occupied him was grace, was the elegance of 
 forms, much more than the law of proportions and of 
 stature, and he is correct up to a certain point.' In his 
 system he describes the face as the portion between the 
 upper part of the orbit and the lower part of the chin, and 
 he states that this distance is in a full-grown man five 
 inches. He divides this space into six parts, the first 
 extending to midway between the orbit and the lower limit 
 of the nose, the second to the last-named point, the third 
 to the angle of the mouth, the fourth midway from this to 
 the chin, and the last to the point of the chin itself. 
 The foot of a man of five foot six inches in stature should 
 be ten inches this is the same length as the ulna, and both 
 are, therefore, double the length of the face according to his 
 definition of that region. In the female the face is four 
 and a half inches, and the foot nine ; whilst in the child 
 the head is six and a half inches, and the foot five and a 
 half. One of the most interesting attempts to solve the 
 question of proportions is that of Carus, the celebrated 
 Dresden physiologist, who published a work called * Die 
 Proportions-Lehre der Menschlichen Gestalt ' in 1854. 
 His views are well expressed in a letter to Quetelet, which 
 the latter quotes. He says : ' I have considered the pro- 
 portions of man as an object of morphology, and I have 
 tried to find in consequence physical laws to fix that which we 
 may call the canon, or, according to the expression of archi- 
 tects, when they are dealing with the column, the module, 
 of our organization.' Having then given an account of the 
 progress of his ideas, and having stated that the statuary 
 Rictochel had made a figure from his directions, he pro- 
 ceeds : ' It is twenty years and more since I repeated in 
 several places in my writings if anyone wishes to find the 
 true key to our proportion he must set out with the vertebral 
 column, which is, so to speak, the true organic ell divided 
 into twenty-four inches (free vertebrae). When the ovum 
 of a mammal is opened at the commencement of its 
 
PART I. HISTORICAL. 35 
 
 formation there is found, as the first model of the future 
 animal, the germinal area grooved in the middle with a 
 line, which becomes the vertebral column at a later period. 
 This line elongates, and in time there may be observed, as 
 a model somewhat more complete of the future animal, a 
 division of this line by the rudiments of vertebrae. To 
 speak correctly, this form is then the first canon of all the 
 other organs of the future skeleton, for after the manner of 
 its production and development should be regulated all the 
 organism. There are extremely interesting relations when 
 the ratios of the length of the free vertebral column are 
 examined in the new-born child and in the adult. In the 
 first (i.e. at the end of fatal life) it is found that the length 
 of all the twenty-four free vertebrae from the atlas to the 
 last lumbar vertebra correspond in a normal infant pre- 
 cisely to one-third of the same column of free vertebrae, 
 consisting of twenty- four vertebrae, measured in the adult 
 at the end of the epoch of growth by a line from the spine 
 <>f the atlas to the spine of the last vertebra/ 
 
 The modulus, therefore, which lie employed, and which 
 he considered to be both physiologically and philosophi- 
 cally justified, was one-third of the length of the human 
 spine. By applying this rule, then, it ought, in his opinion, 
 to be possible to draw the various parts of the body with 
 mathematical accuracy. 'His investigations,' says Sir 
 George Humphry, 'conducted with all the assiduity and 
 accuracy which characterize the German anatomists, 
 appeal* to justify the selection, for he found the various 
 parts of the frame to correspond in a remarkable manner 
 with this standard. Thus the length of the skull from the 
 forehead to the occiput equals one module. The height 
 from the vertex to the lower margin of the upper jaw is 
 the same. The circumference of the skull is three modules, 
 or the whole length of the spine. The length of the 
 breast-bone and of the shoulder-blade is in each case one 
 module. The width of the chest from the extremity of one 
 clavicle to that of the other is two modules. In the pelvis 
 each of the measurements from the highest point of the 
 
36 THE PROPORTIONS OF THE HUMAN BODY. 
 
 ilium to the symphysis pubis, from the anterior superior 
 spine to the tuber ischii, and from one anterior inferior 
 spine to the other, corresponds with one module. The arm 
 and fore-arm give three modules and the hand one. The 
 thigh-bone gives two and a half, the tibia two, and the foot, 
 from the ankle to the tip of the toe, one. The height of 
 the body is nine and a half modules. The module measures 
 eighteen centimetres, or rather more than seven inches, 
 making the entire figure five feet six and a half inches, or 
 five feet seven inches. These,' he proceeds, ' are the ideal 
 proportions of the well-developed European, deduced from 
 the measurements of numerous skeletons. They represent 
 the mean between the male and the female, and are stated 
 by Carus to be generally true, though not applicable with 
 mathematical accuracy to any one person, slight devia- 
 tions from the |tandard being essential to the endless 
 varieties of individual form. The measurements which I 
 myself have made for the purpose of testing the value of 
 this means of determining the scale of proportions of the 
 figure, though in a general manner confirmative of the 
 results obtained by Carus, have proved that the exceptions 
 to the rules laid down by him are very numerous.' It has 
 been already mentioned that Carus caused to be constructed, 
 according to directions drawn up by himself, a statuette or 
 canonical figure, as he called it. Of this he says : ' No sex 
 has been assigned to this little statue, and it is easy to see 
 that, in order to form a living individuality, the modulus 
 or canon must always be made to vary slightly. For 
 instance, if I wished to depict a woman's body I should 
 give a little less breadth to the shoulders, and I should 
 make some members more voluminous ; while I should act 
 exactly the contrary in the case of a man. In the same 
 way the individualities might be varied : if I wished to re- 
 present a Cicero or a Leibnitz I should give to the head 
 more than a module in height and length, and less at the 
 extremities ; on the other hand, if I wished to represent 
 an athlete or a giant, I should add to the limbs, and should 
 take ten modules or more as the height of the whole body. 
 
PART I. HISTORICAL. o7 
 
 By this means one could even succeed in depicting every 
 sort of expression by an algebraical formula, where one 
 would have the same elements, but increased or diminished 
 in their value.' Mr. Roberts' criticism of the foregoing 
 facts and figures is of so much interest that I shall here 
 quote it. ' Thus,' he says, * it appears that Professor Cams 
 uses his " canon " either as a kind of artist's lay-figure, 
 which he dresses out according to his fancy, or as a 
 skeleton, which he clothes with flesh according to his 
 anatomical and physiological knowledge knowledge, it 
 must be remembered, which must be first obtained from 
 actual observation and measurement of the living model. 
 The canon may, indeed, be theoretically correct, but it can 
 be of little practical use for scientific purposes. The 
 greater breadth of shoulders required to convert the statue 
 into the figure of a man must first be determined by actual 
 measurement, as must also the greater breadth of pelvis to 
 convert it into the form of a woman, before we can be 
 satisfied that it represents the natural human form. The 
 difficulty would be still greater if it were attempted to re- 
 present any decided deviation from the typical form. In 
 the case of a giant, for instance, it is not sufficient to add 
 half a module in equal proportions to the nine and a half 
 modules representing the stature of an ordinary man in 
 order to produce the giant ; for actual observation and 
 measurement show that the size of the head and trunk of 
 giants differs little from those of men of ordinary stature, 
 and that the excess of height of the former is chiefly due 
 to an unusual development of the lower extremities rela- 
 tively to the rest of the body. Professor Carus' canon, 
 moreover, renders no assistance to the study of the pro- 
 gressive development of the body, as we know that the 
 different parts of the body develop at various rates. * Thus, 
 in the young child the middle point is near the navel, but 
 in the adult man it is below the pubis.' 
 
 Liharzik of Vienna proceeded by the method of averages, 
 his figures being drawn from measurements of three 
 hundred persons, and his researches extending over 'seven 
 
38 THE PROPORTIONS OF THE HUMAN BODY. 
 
 years. " He makes the following statements : The distance 
 above the pubis is to that below as 81 is to 94. The length 
 of the forearm and the hand taken together is to that of 
 the arm as 91 is to 63. The height of the head and neck 
 taken together is to that of the body as 33 is to 175. The 
 length of the foot is equal to that of the forearm. The 
 length of the hand is equal to that of the clavicle, and 
 both are equal to six-sevenths of the forearm or to two- 
 thirds of the humerus. The distance from the centre of 
 the trunk to the extremity of the middle finger is equal to 
 one half the stature. 
 
 Amongst the French the older writers on the subject of 
 proportion may be briefly dismissed, though those of a 
 later period will require a longer consideration. Cousin 
 (1502-1590) is the author of a system in which the limbs 
 are enclosed in squares, and the head and neck and the 
 torso in quadrilaterals. Certain of his figures will be 
 referred to hereafter. Poussin (1594-1665) dealt particu- 
 larly with Leonardo da Vinci's ideas. Testelin (1616) was 
 the author of a work entitled ' Conferences de 1' Academic 
 avec les Sentiments des plus habiles Peintures.' His pro- 
 portions are supposed by Schadow to have been copied 
 from the ' Acus Nautica ' of Paggi. Pader (164$), in 
 his ' Traite de la Proportion Naturelle et Artificielle des 
 Choses,' gave exact copies of Diirer's figures, although he 
 only mentioned that artist in his preface. Bardon of 
 Marseilles gave similar tables to those of Testelin, and 
 Horace Yernet, with others, also wrote on the subject of 
 proportion. Gerdy, in his ' Anatomic des Formes Exte- 
 rieures du Corps Humain,' published in Paris in 1829, set 
 himself the task of finding simple proportions for the 
 human body. He divided the head into four equal parts, 
 and made it the eighth part of the body. The trunk con- 
 tained three heads, the first from the chin to the nipple, 
 the second from the nipple to the umbilicus, and the third 
 from the umbilicus to the pubis. The lower extremity con- 
 tained four heads, two from the pubis to the spine of the 
 tibia below the knee, and two more from this point to the 
 
PART I. HISTORICAL. 39 
 
 ground. The upper extremity contained three and a 
 quarter heads, one from the shoulder to the front of the 
 elbow, a second from thence to the wrist, and the third 
 from this point to the extremity of the middle finger. 
 
 Of this system Quetelet says : ' The relations expressed 
 by the table are extremely simple ; but in order to obtain 
 this simplicity it has been necessary to make great sacrifices 
 of truth.' According to Topinanl, the canon most in use 
 in French studios is that of Cousin, somewhat modified by 
 Blanc. In this canon the whole body is divided into thirty 
 parts, four of which, equivalent to the seventh and a half 
 part of the body, are allotted to the head, nine to the trunk 
 from the supra-sternal notch to the genitalia, two to the 
 neck, and the remaining fifteen to the lower extremity, of 
 which fifteen, six are allotted to the thigh from the genitalia 
 J>o above the knee. Topinard gives the following table as 
 the canon of the studios, the total stature equalling 100. 
 
 [Vertex to roots of hair - - - 1 nose, 
 -a _ . 1 Roots of the hair to root of the nose 1 
 
 } Root of the nose to its base - 1 . 
 
 (Base of the nose to the chin - - 1 
 NECK Chin to supra-sternal notch 4 bead 2 
 
 f Supra-sternal notch to edge 
 Tunvic of Pctoral - - - 1 face :i 
 
 ] Pectoral to umbilicus - - 1 ,. B . 
 (Umbilicj^to root of penis - 1 3 
 [Penis to above the knee - U head 6 
 
 INFERIOR JKnee I 2 
 
 EXTREM IT vj Below the knee to the instep U G 
 (Instep to the ground - - $ 2 
 
 102-5 
 /Shoulder to upper part of 
 
 La" -'i - ? 2 ?nw* 
 
 S5SiJ- : : -" : : "k 
 
 Shoulder to elbow - -It head 5 
 (Cousin). Elbow to npper part of 
 
 wrist - - - - 1 4 
 \Hand and wrist - - - 1 4 
 Span of arms is equal to the stature. 
 Maximum breadth of the shoulders is equal to the 
 
 stature (Blanc). 
 
 VARIOUS 
 
 Maximum breadth of the hips is equal to 1 the stature 
 
 (Blanc). 
 
 Clavicle to pubis or trunk \ 
 Ilium to patella or thigh 'are equal (Cordier). 
 .Patella to ground or leg J 
 
40 THE PROPORTIONS OF THE HUMAN BODY. 
 
 In examining this table it should b& remembered that, in 
 Blanc's canon, the nose is the 30th part of the body, and 
 is therefore to the stature as 3*33 is to 100. In that of 
 Cousin, the nose is the 32nd part, or 3*124. The head, in 
 that of Gerdy, is 12*5 parts of the 100 comprised in the 
 stature. I shall have occasion further to quote from the 
 great French anthropologist Topinard when dealing with 
 the differences of stature in different races, and with other 
 points at a later period ; but this will, perhaps, be the best 
 place to quote his remarks upon the standard European 
 canon, which, on account of their importance, I shall give 
 in extenso. He points out, in the first place, that in order 
 to arrive at really accurate results it would be necessary to 
 obtain thoroughly accurate measurements of at least one 
 hundred absolutely typical Europeans, measurements of 
 which, at the time of writing his book, he was not 
 possessed. ' However,' he says, ' as it is urgent that we 
 should possess a standard of comparison to which a 
 traveller can refer his measurements, so that he may be 
 understood when he says that in a certain population the 
 upper or lower extremities are long or short, and since, 
 naturally, the European nations are those on which such a 
 canon should be based, I have set aside my scruples and 
 devised a canon relating to the adult male of our countries of 
 about 1*65 m. in stature. In order to do this I have put 
 together all the partial results on which I believe that I can 
 rely, have taken into account my own measurements, and 
 have adopted the most justifiable compromise amongst 
 them all. The canon of proportion for the anthropologist, 
 I need scarcely say, is the vertical figure of a man divided 
 into one hundred parts, in which are represented the 
 segments of the body, each with the number of parts which 
 enter into its composition in the vertical as well as in the 
 transverse directions so far, at least, as possible. I have 
 not considered it necessary,' he proceeds, ' to endeavour to 
 obtain an approximation nearer than that of 0'5, although 
 two-tenths added or subtracted from any part of the body 
 have often a great importance in the differentiation of races 
 
FIG. 4.- Scheme of proportions of Pan! Topinard. The human body 
 divided in the vertical direction into one hundred equal parts. 
 
42 THE PROPORTIONS OF THE HUMAN BODY. 
 
 from this aspect, and in the determination of the influences 
 of environment and of education on the proportions. The 
 following table gives the elements which have served for the 
 construction of the figure : 
 
 Mean canon of the European male. Stature = 100. 
 Head, vertex to chin - - - 13-3^ 
 Neck, chin to supra-sternal notch - 4*2 (_ 100 
 Trunk, notch to 'seat - - - 35'0 j 
 Inferior extremity, seat to ground - 47 'oJ 
 Q, TArm, acromion to olecranon - - 19'5 ^ 
 
 EXTREMITY I Fore - arm > olecranon to styloid process 14*0* - 45'0 
 
 [Handf 11-5 J 
 
 /Thigh, seat to centre of knee - - 20'0) 
 INFERIOR ' Leg, knee to malleolus - - - 23'0[ ,-K 
 EXTREMITY 1 Malleolus to ground - - - - 4-51 
 
 IFoot 15-0/ 
 
 Height of umbilicus - 60'0 
 
 pubis - ... 50-5 
 
 Span of arms 104'4 
 
 Maximum width of shoulders - - 23'0 
 
 pelvis - - 16*9 
 
 hips - - - 18-8 
 
 ' It will now be interesting to compare the canon which 
 has just been given with that already stated as the canon 
 of the studios. The chief differences are as follow 7 : 
 The head, higher than that of Cousin and Gerdy, is practi- 
 cally the same as that of Blanc ; that is to say, it is 
 contained seven and a half times in the stature. The neck, 
 which all artists find too long in the canon of Blanc, is 
 nearly that of Cousin. The inferior extremity in its entire 
 length, estimated by the height of the pubis to permit of 
 comparison, is notably too long in the system of Blanc. It 
 is, on the contrary, too short in the two canons of Cousin 
 and Gerdy ; the divisions are bad in the system of the 
 latter. The span of the arms used by artists is absolutely 
 false, for it is equal to the height only once in every ten 
 cases. The shoulders and the hips are too large, and the 
 umbilicus is too high. The height of the pubis can only 
 
 * The line of separation between the arm and fore-arm is here 
 taken at the superior part of the olecranon. 
 
 f * This proportion, being the total of the three segments of the 
 limb, is less when the member is measured in a straight line from the 
 acromiou to the extremity of the middle finger. I have considered, 
 however, that this difference might be neglected.' 
 
PART I. HISTORICAL. 43 
 
 be measured approximately, but it has an exceptional 
 importance, because it is in its neighbourhood that the 
 centre of the body in the vertical direction is to be found. 
 M. Sappey, whose measurements relate especially to this 
 point, places it 13 mm. below the pubis, at the root of 
 the penis. This agrees very well with my conclusions, but 
 not with the canon of Blanc, which places it lower still.' 
 
 Before leaving for the present the observations of 
 Topinard, to which I shall have again to recur, it should 
 be remembered that his conclusions are of the greatest 
 weight, being based upon accurate measurements and 
 comparisons. They will be used as a touchstone by which 
 the various canons may be judged at a later part of this 
 work. 
 
 In Spain, Philip Borgogna is the author of a system 
 which estimates the stature of the adult male as being 
 equivalent to nine and one-third times the height of the 
 face. Juan de Arphe y Yillufane, who, like Borgogna, 
 studied at Toledo, published in Seville, in 1585, a work 
 en titled ' Varia Commensuracion para la Escultura y Arqui- 
 tectura,' in four books, of which the second dealt with 
 human proportions. According to Choulant, this book 
 contains a large number of plates, some of which ^ivu 
 figures of the whole body, and others separate portions 
 thereof, with scales of measurement, from which we gather 
 that the author had seen Diirer's figures of proportions. 
 The representations are, however, more true to nature, 
 more living and more spirited. Two male and two female 
 figures are represented, in each of which the stature is 
 made equal to the length of the faces. Chrisostomo 
 Martinez (1650-1691 or 4) was the author of a work in 
 which appeared the plate represented in Fig. 5. According 
 to Quetelet, he made the stature contain eight heads. It 
 may be noted of this last writer, that his figures of skeletons 
 were regarded by the great anatomist Winslow as models of 
 what such drawings should be. 
 
 In Holland, S. van Hoogstraeten, born at Dordrecht in 
 1627, published at Rotterdam in 1678 his * Polymnia,' in 
 
44 THE PROPORTIONS OF THE HUMAN BODY. 
 
 which he gave three plates illustrative 'Of the proportions of 
 man. In the first plate he represents two men, one being 
 fifteen, the other sixteen, palms in height ; and as his head 
 
 FIG. 5. Plate by Chrisostomo Martinez (Choulant). 
 
 contained two palms, it follows that these two figures were 
 respectively of seven and a half and eight heads in height. 
 In his second plate he represents a female figure divided 
 into fifteen parts : seven of these are from the ground to the 
 
PART I. HISTORICAL. 45 
 
 genitalia, and seven from this point to the line of the eyes, 
 by which method of division the legs are made shorter than 
 the upper part of the body. The arms and hands of both 
 his male and female figures are made too short. 
 
 In Belgium, Johan de Laet, of Antwerp, published an 
 edition of Vitruvius, in the appendix of which he quotes 
 Pomponius' canon, as given in his work on sculpture, as 
 being nine faces. Geerardt de Lairesse (1640-1711) makes 
 the following statements : * The eyes are at such a distance 
 apart that a third can be placed between the two. The 
 nose is one-third of the length of the face. The mouth is 
 as large as an eye. The ears are at the level of the eyes 
 above and of the nose below, however long or short it may 
 be.' Van Bree of Antwerp published in 1821 his * Leyons 
 du Pessin,' in which he uses the head as a modulus, 
 dividing it into four parts. This writer, who was the first 
 professor in the Academy at Antwerp, gives in his books a 
 number of measurements from ancient statues, which are, 
 however, according to Quetelet, of doubtful accuracy. The 
 most useful work which has appeared in Belgium, an epoch- 
 making book, is that of the last-named author ' Anthropo- 
 iih trie ou mesure des differentes Facultes de 1'Homme.' In 
 this work Quetelet commenced by giving a sketch of the 
 labours of former writers in the same field, to which I have 
 to express my indebtedness for many of the facts which I 
 have laid before you. Having thus cleared the ground, he 
 proceeds to give the result of his own observations as to the 
 proportions of the adult male and female body, the laws of 
 growth, the influence of locality, food, profession, and other 
 factors of the environment upon the stature and propor- 
 tions. As I shall have to mention many of his observations 
 at a later stage, I shall not in this chiefly historical 
 portion delay longer over his writings. I have now to 
 pass to the English writers on the subject of proportion, 
 to whom Quetelet pays the high compliment of saying that 
 ' amongst the different schools which have occupied them- 
 selves with the proportions and symmetry of man, there is, 
 perhaps, none which has considered this important subject 
 
 I 
 
46 THE PROPORTIONS OF THE HUMAN BODY. 
 
 from a. higher and juster standpoint than that of England.' 
 In the first rank he mentions Sir Joshua Eeynolds, some of 
 whose observations I have already quoted. Flaxman, in 
 his lectures on Sculpture, has dealt with the same question. 
 John Chamberlain published in 1796 a book in reversed 
 writing, in which he reproduced Leonardo da Vinci's 
 designs. The late John Marshall, who filled the Chair of 
 Anatomy in the Eoyal Academy, published a work on the 
 Proportions of the Human Body, of which it will be neces- 
 sary to give a more detailed account. He divided the axial 
 portion of the body into four principal parts, to each of 
 which again he assigned nine units. Thus the head, neck 
 and trunk, are divided into thirty-six portions. The four 
 portions are thus allotted ; the first is the head, which he 
 thus takes as his standard, though dividing it into nine, 
 and not, as many earlier writers had done, into four parts. 
 The second is from the chin to near the lower end of the 
 sternum, a little below the nipples. The third extends 
 from this point to the highest part of the crest of the 
 ilium, and the fourth is placed one unit and a half below 
 the tuberosity of the ischium, that is to say, half a unit 
 below the gluteal fold. I cannot give all his figures, which 
 can be easily consulted by those desirous of pursuing the 
 subject further, but some few are of such importance as to 
 require mention now, whilst I shall return later to the 
 consideration of others. The upper extremity, according 
 to his system, contains twenty-nine and a half units, and 
 the lower forty-one. The entire stature contains sixty- 
 seven units. Now, as the mean height of the inhabitants 
 of the British Isles is 67*3 inches, it follows that his unit 
 is, in the case of the average man, very nearly equal to 
 one inch. Again, if the number of units be reduced to 
 heads, it will be found that the entire stature includes 
 seven heads and four units, or very nearly seven and a 
 half heads, which, from all accurate observations, we may 
 regard as the correct estimate, the classical canon of eight 
 heads to the body making the head too small. In another 
 place he mentions that the supra-sternal notch is equal to 
 
PART I. HISTORICAL. 47 
 
 one unit. His comparison of the stature of the female 
 with that of the male is also of much interest. The axial 
 portion of the female he also divides into four parts, each 
 containing nine units, but in this case the units are pro- 
 portionately smaller than those of the male, being in the 
 proportion of '988 inches to 1 inch. The four divisions in 
 the female are, first the head, second from the chin to the 
 lower part of the sternum just below the nipples, the third 
 to the upper part of the pelvis, and the fourth to half a 
 unit below the tuberosity of the ischium. The gluteal fold 
 being one and a half units below this, it follows that the 
 female axis is one and a half units longer than four heads. 
 Thus the trunk of the female is proportionately longer 
 than that of the male. The stature of the female is sixty- 
 seven and a half units, or exactly seven and a half heads, 
 and thus the head in the female is slightly smaller pro- 
 portionately than that of the male. The lengthened 
 proportions of the female torso are due to three facts. 
 First there is a proportional or actual elongation of the 
 spine, and especially of its lower portion, the lower limit of 
 the third of Marshall's divisions reaching in the female to 
 the upper part of the fifth lumbar vertebra, and in the male 
 to the lower part of the same vertebra ; secondly, there is a 
 greater arching of the lumbar column, making the anterior 
 wall more convex supero-inferiorly ; and, thirdly, there is 
 the greater obliquity of the pelvis, which also causes a 
 lowering of the hips. Before leaving the English writers, 
 I should not omit to mention Mr. Roberts' book, ' A Manual 
 of Anthropometry,' published in 1878, which, though not 
 primarily intended for artists, contains many useful figures 
 and observations to which I shall have shortly to recur. 
 
 In concluding this historical part, it may be convenient 
 to tabulate the names of the authors who have dealt 
 with the subject of the Proportions of the Human Body. 
 I also add the names of several works in which the 
 student who is desirous of pursuing his studies in the 
 history of the subject further will find more full in- 
 formation. 
 
48 
 
 THE PROPORTIONS OF THE HUMAN BODY. 
 
 fc 
 
 1 
 
 . 
 
 { 1 j 
 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 s 
 1 a 
 II 5| 
 
 i 
 
 BELGIUM AND 
 HOLLAND. 
 
 | j. 1 
 
 4 Mil 
 
 i Is! 1 il 
 
 -S.M-C x-ss J u ~ o 
 
 IS! l|i *I i li 
 
 w > tfpsoo o S s s 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 <y 
 
 O 
 
 3 ? ^* - *0 
 
 w a - Is ="- 
 
 - 4 6 - f ff 13 
 
 1 |l 1 11 iflsHlili 
 
 < J > Q < 03u wO 
 
 
 | 
 
 S |S5 S 
 
 a I| 1^ 
 
 1 HloJ ll|11| 1 
 
 .3 jjjlj lwjlll IJ 
 
 Topinard 
 
 ITALY. 
 
 ! ll|5!Ailfii. 1 
 
 
 
 lalil .*i^ll8|'3<ja | a 
 
 3llll ri f|ifil|4i* I : 
 
 t^P^OOJCHC^&^iJCO * O 
 
 
 1 
 
 o oooc c o o o oooo o a o o jjo 
 
 i 
 
 > 
 
 
 
PART I. HISTORICAL. 49 
 
 Boole* dealing with the History of the Subject. 
 
 Schadow, J. 6., Polyclet oder von den maassen des menschen, nach 
 dem geschlechte und alter mit angabe der wirklicben 
 naturgrosse, u.s.w. Folio and 4to. Berlin, 1834. 
 (German and French.) 
 
 Quetelet, L. A. J., Antbropometrie ou mesure des differentes Faculte* 
 de 1'Homme, 8vo., Bruxelles, 1870. 
 
 Topinard, P., Elements d'Anthropologie Generale, 8vo., Paris, 1885. 
 
 Choulant, L., Gescbicbte und Bibliographic der Anatomischen Abbil- 
 dungen, u.s.w., Leipzig, 18.VJ. 
 
 Roberts, C., A Manual of Anthropometry. London, 1878. 
 
PART II. CRITICAL. 
 
 IN the foregoing pages I have endeavoured, though neces- 
 sarily briefly, to lay before you an account of the labours of 
 the numerous workers in the field of proportion. It re- 
 mains for me to point out, so far as they are known, what 
 exactly are the proportions of the human body, and how 
 and under what circumstances they undergo modification. 
 
 Before doing so, however, it may be well to call atten- 
 tion to two points which strike one forcibly in reviewing 
 the history of the subject. The first is, that the credit 
 of commencing, and for many years carrying on this study, 
 is due to artists, and not to men of science. Long before 
 Anthropometry as a branch of Anthropology had taken its 
 place as an object of scientific study, artists in many 
 countries had devoted their time and attention to endea- 
 vouring to ascertain and lay down for their own guidance, 
 and for that of their pupils, a law of proportion for the 
 human body. But when the scientific study of the 
 measurements of the human body was commenced, an 
 important difference between the methods which were then 
 adopted and those of the preceding workers at once became 
 apparent, and this is the second point upon which I wish 
 to dwell. What the artist observers, very naturally, had 
 chiefly striven after, was grace and elegance; what the 
 scientific observer sought was absolute accuracy. The 
 artist had in some cases, as in that of Sir Joshua Reynolds, 
 contented himself with giving a poetic, or perhaps it would 
 be more accurate to say a purely aesthetic explanation of 
 the proportions of the body, or in other cases he was led 
 
PART II. CRITICAL. ">1 
 
 away by his artistic feelings into giving rules for the 
 construction of impossible or non-existent forms. And in 
 this they were followed by some of the writers representing 
 the science of their day. I have a curious book by William 
 Salmon, the author of an English edition of ' Diemerbrock's 
 Anatomy,' himself a professor of physic, which is entitled 
 1 Polygraphice, or the Arts of Drawing, Engraving, Etching, 
 Limning, Painting, Washing, Varnishing, Gilding, Colouring, 
 Dyeing, Beautifying and Perfuming.' It also contains 
 incongruously enough * The one hundred and twelve 
 Chymical Arcanums of Petrus Johannes Faber, a most 
 learned and eminent Physician, translated out of Latin 
 into English, and an Abstract of Choice Chymical Prepara- 
 tions, fitted for Vulgar Use, for curing most Diseases 
 incident to Humane Bodies.' It was evidently a popular 
 lxx)k, and one of which the author was proud, for the copy 
 in my possession is stated to be 'The fifth Edition; En- 
 larged with above a thousand considerable Additions; 
 Adorned with XXV. Copper Sculptures; the like never yet 
 \t;mt.' In his fourteenth chapter, Salmon gives an 
 account of human proportions, to which he adds directions 
 how to make a ' side way head,' and how to describe the 
 1 fore-right face.' He commences by stating that the 
 length of an upright body is equal to eight times the 
 length of the face or head, thus falling into the error of 
 the ancient writers. But he afterwards proceeds to give 
 instructions for the proportion of a man of ten faces, the 
 face being the same as what we now call the head, since 
 the first of his ten equal divisions begins at the top of the 
 head and reaches to the root of the chin. He also gives 
 the proportions of a man of eight faces, of a young man 
 of nine faces, and finally the proportion of a body of seven 
 heads, which last I shall quote, since I think it affords a key 
 to the idea which permeated this custom of drawing figures 
 of different proportions. He says, ' The length from the 
 crown of the head to the sole of the foot is seven times the 
 length of the head ; this is a large head, and all the 
 members and limbs are answerable to it viz., strong, 
 
52 THE PROPORTIONS OF THE HUMAN BODY. 
 
 sturdy, and raised. Yet the ancient Grecians painted only 
 the goddess Yesta with this proportion, it being grave and 
 matron-like. But you may give it to any other goddess 
 which has any kind of grave or solid resemblance, as also 
 to the more staid and ancient sort of women, to Sibylls, 
 Prophetesses and such like, whom to draw with a slender 
 and delicate proportion would be a great oversight as also 
 to draw a prophet with the proportions of a young man.' 
 Here we see the conventionalism which was, I think, in 
 some measure accountable for these unnatural canons of 
 stature, the same conventionalism which rendered it 
 necessary for certain characters to be played on the stage in 
 certain conventional dresses, regardless of whether such 
 dresses were correct or not. From this spirit of con- 
 ventionalism, art has been by degrees emancipated, and as 
 this has taken place, there has sprung up a greater desire 
 for accuracy of details anatomical or otherwise. 
 
 I shall now proceed to examine in order the proportions 
 of each part of the body, giving in connection with 
 each what appears to me to be the best established opinion. 
 I shall also mention the differences existing between the 
 two sexes, and between various races, leaving the question 
 of the changes due to growth and age to be dealt with in a 
 subsequent section. In this part I shall take the measure- 
 ments of Topinard as my standard of comparison, since 
 they appear to me to be the most careful and complete. 
 
 Head. The head was by the ancients generally con- 
 sidered to be contained eight times in the body, though this 
 proportion is one which, as we have already had occasion to 
 note, is frequently departed from. I give here a few figures, 
 with the authority for each, and others appear in the more 
 elaborate table of Topinard : 
 
 Statue. Heads. A uthority. 
 
 Pythian Apollo 8 Humphry. 
 
 Farnese Hercules 8 - Quetelet. 
 
 Laocoon - 7| - - Duval. 
 
 Antinous - 7i Ibid. 
 
 Gladiator ... - 8" - - Ibid. 
 
 Moreover, more modern artists have varied the canon con- 
 
PART II. CRITICAL. 53 
 
 siderably ; thus, in some of Michael Angelo's figures the size 
 is equal to nine, or even to twelve heads, in order to com- 
 municate more grace to a stooping attitude (Humphry). 
 Roberts errs in making it the seventh part of the whole 
 height, though he also says that the proportion may vary 
 between six and eight, and in the case of giants, nine 
 times ; while in dwarfs it may form a fourth part of the 
 height. 
 
 Quetelet makes the male head 7*4, or very nearly seven 
 and a half times included in the stature. 
 
 Topinard gives the following table showing the proportion 
 of the head to the body, as expressed by various artists. 
 The second column shows what this amounts to in 
 numerical terms of the stature, the latter being taken 
 as 100. 
 
 Canon. 1 1 <ul$ t Stature = ] CO 
 
 Hindoo .... 6* 14*6 
 
 Egyptian (two statues) - 7J 
 Greek (mean of 11 statues varying from 
 
 7 to 8tt 7. 
 
 Roman (Vitruvius) - 8 12'5 
 
 Italian (Alberti) - - 7! i:.J 
 
 Prussian (Schadow) . 7j 186 
 
 French (Cousin) ... - 8* 1-' 
 
 (Gerdy) - - 8 12-f> 
 
 Having thus laid down the figures employed by various 
 artists, and after tabulating a number of figures ascer- 
 tained by anthropologists, he makes the following remarks 
 upon the two sets : The canon of Vitruvius adopted by 
 Gerdy and Cousin exists only in the imagination of the 
 authors ; the Greek canon is that of Europeans with small 
 heads, and more particularly, perhaps, of those of Mediter- 
 ranean races ; the Hindoo canon, which relates to the 
 yellow Dravidian races, is approximately correct ; and, 
 finally, the canon of Schadow, which was formed from 
 fair races of tall stature with long and narrow faces, is 
 also approximately correct. The European races have 
 shorter heads, although amongst these are met with 
 higher types, such as the Belgians. The yellow races 
 have very notably higher heads. The negroes of Africa 
 
54 THE PROPORTIONS OF THE HUMAN BODY. 
 
 are in this respect nearer the first,' and the negroes of 
 Oceania are nearer the second. Using the language of 
 artists, and speaking of the large average, it may be said 
 that the stature of Europeans is equal to seven and a half 
 heads, that of negroes to seven, and that of typical yellow 
 races to six and a half. This figure Topinard has expressed 
 in his own canon, which I gave at a former period; he 
 there makes the head 13*3 of the stature, an amount 
 which is contained a trifle more (*25) than seven and a 
 half times in the one hundred parts allotted to the stature. 
 This also coincides with the canon of Marshall, in which 
 the head is nine parts of a stature of sixty-seven, giving 
 seven heads and four units, or very nearly seven and a half 
 heads for the stature. 
 
 We may, I think, conclude that in representing the 
 average European male this figure may be accepted as 
 accurate. When the number of heads is decreased an 
 appearance of heaviness and dwarfishness is imparted to 
 the figure. . When it is increased slightly it may give an 
 appearance of greater gracefulness to the person, yet still 
 without sacrifice of truth ; but when it is carried to eight 
 heads the boundary is passed. A good idea of the effect 
 produced by altering the number of heads in the stature of 
 a figure will be gained by examining the linear scheme of 
 the Germanicus and Apoxyornenos (Fig. 3, p. 27), the former 
 containing rather more than seven and a half heads, and 
 the latter nearly eight and a half. Camper has given an 
 example of the difference produced by adopting these two 
 standards, by comparing the pictures of Watteau with 
 those of Eubens. The figures of the former, having eight 
 heads instead of seven, are more graceful than those of the 
 latter, notwithstanding the wonderful power of execution 
 and colouring exhibited by that great master. It should 
 also be remembered that some of the great artists and 
 this specially applies to the sculptors varied the propor- 
 tions, and even totally falsified them, because of the 
 peculiar circumstances under which their work was to be 
 viewed. Thus, as I have already mentioned, Michael 
 
PART II. CRITICAL. 5-5 
 
 Angelo made some of his stooping figures as much as 
 twelve heads ; and, as Topinard points out, if the head 
 was to be seen from below and in perspective, being placed 
 in an elevated situation, it was increased in size, and the 
 body was made to contain it no more than six times. 
 With regard to differences in proportion between the male 
 and female head, there is some variety of opinion. 
 Quetelet says that the male head is contained 7*4 times 
 in the stature, and the female 7*2, thus the head in 
 woman is somewhat longer proportionately than in man. 
 Topinard also says that in general the head is higher in 
 women than in men, and that this is probably the case in 
 all races. On the contrary, Marshall makes his female 
 figure contain exactly seven and a half heads, and his 
 male seven and four-ninths, the former thus having pro- 
 portionately a smaller head. The following relations 
 between the different parts of the face are given by 
 Quetelet, who says : * \V may remark an admirable 
 harmony which exists between the principal parts of the 
 human physiognomy. Each of its essential parts has an 
 extremely simple relation with the neighbouring portion, 
 and this harmony is so striking that it cannot escape the 
 most superficial observation, even without the aid of 
 measurements. Thus, artists have well recognised that 
 in a regularly proportioned body the size of the eye is 
 equal to the distance between the two eyes; it is also 
 equal to the length of the nose. This proportion is so 
 simple, and at the same time so constant, that it enters 
 into the first notions of design. It has, perhaps, been less 
 remarked that the ear, an organ apparently of little im- 
 portance and of irregular form, remains at all ages exactly 
 equal to the size of the two eyes. The measurement must 
 be taken in the direction of the greatest size of the ear. 
 This rule is subject to so few variations that in my tables 
 the greatest differences in the averages do not amount to 
 more than a millimetre; this regularity is still more 
 remarkable since the ear is of all the organs of sense that 
 which attracts usuallv the least attention. The size of the 
 
56 THE PROPORTIONS OF THE HUMAN BODY. 
 
 ear is- also half the distance from 'its opening to the 
 summit of the head. A relationship not less curious is 
 that which exists between the size of the eye and that of 
 the mouth, the values being in the ratio of two to three. 
 This relation is absolute at the period of puberty ; the 
 mouth is smaller in infancy on account of the fatness of 
 the cheeks ; it becomes a little larger at a more advanced 
 age. These relationships can be pushed still further, and 
 it will then be found that the eye is contained five times 
 in that diameter of the head which is taken through the 
 temples, and seven times in the antero-posterior diameter.' 
 Neck. When we come to consider the measurements of 
 the remaining portions of the axial part of the body, we 
 are met with the difficulty that different observers have 
 not always taken the same points for their observations, 
 which makes any comparison of them exceedingly difficult. 
 This is especially the case in connection with the measure- 
 ments of the trunk proper, as we shall shortly have occa- 
 sion to notice ; but it is not less true of the neck. According 
 to Quetelet, this is defined as being the area included 
 between two parallel lines drawn, the one below the chin, 
 the other above the point of junction of the clavicles. This 
 is a trifle higher than the measurements which are taken, 
 as in Topinard's work, to the suprasternal fossa, but so little 
 so as to be negligable in the case of artists. Marshall makes 
 the length of the neck in the male three units, or one- 
 third of a head ; and in the female three and a half units, 
 or a little longer, the difference in proportional length 
 being explained by him by the fact that in the female the 
 sternum is placed at a lower level, the clavicles being thus 
 also depressed internally, and the upper ribs have a greater 
 obliquity. If we compare these measurements with Topi- 
 nard's standard, which for the neck is 4'2 parts of one 
 hundred, we find that, calculated in the same manner, 
 Marshall's figure would amount to 4*4 for the male, or a 
 little longer than that of the French author. Blanc, on the 
 contrary, makes it one nose or one-fourth head in length, 
 which is too short. The transverse measurement of the 
 
PART II. CRITICAL. 57 
 
 neck in the male is four and a half units, or exactly one 
 half head; in the female it is four units. The antero- 
 posterior measurements in the two sexes are five units and 
 four and a half units respectively ; thus the female neck is 
 proportionately more slender than that of the male. 
 
 Tmnk. There are three methods of considering the 
 trunk as an object of measurement. The first of these is 
 to take the measurements of the spinal column from the 
 first dorsal vertebra to the termination. The second, 
 which is strictly anatomical, is to disregard the clavicles 
 and other portions of the shoulder-girdle above as belong- 
 ing properly to the upper extremity, and to confine the 
 measurements to the thoracic, abdominal, and pelvic 
 cavities. The third, which is certainly the most useful 
 from an artistic point of view, is to include the portion 
 omitted in the second, and to measure the trunk as it 
 appears to exist in the nude figure clothed with its skin and 
 muscles. This is the system adopted by the French Society 
 of Anthropologists, whose directions state that measure- 
 ments are to be taken from the suprasternal notch to the 
 seat, that is, to that portion of the body which rests upon 
 the ground, or upon a chair, in the sitting posture. Topi- 
 nard's conclusions drawn from measurements made in 
 various ways are as follows: The relation of the trunk, 
 considered as the vertebral column, varies within narrow 
 limits, as Carus, who on this account took it as his 
 standard of comparison, had already pointed out. At the 
 same time differences do exist ; thus, the Esquimaux and 
 the Tasmanians, so far as the measured cases go, have a 
 trunk shorter than the average ; the Samoyedes, the Indo- 
 Chinese, the Polynesians, and the South Americans, all 
 yellow races, have one which is longer. The mean of 108 
 Europeans examined being 88*8, we may say, in order to 
 assist the memory, that the average of humanity is 88*88, 
 or one-third of the stature. The character seems to vary 
 somewhat in different races ; but amongst Europeans the 
 female has proportionately a longer trunk. Finally sum- 
 ming up all the evidence which lie has been able to obtain 
 
58 THE PROPORTIONS OF THE HUMAN BODY. 
 
 from various sources, he concludes that' in whatever manner 
 measurements be taken, provided that similar observations 
 be compared with one another, the trunk will be found to 
 be longer in the yellow races, shorter in those of the negro 
 type, and of intermediate length in white races, though 
 exceptional cases are met with in each which are contrary 
 to the rule. The female has a longer trunk, at least 
 amongst European nations; and in individuals of lofty 
 stature the trunk is longer. Turning now to Marshall's 
 directions, it will be found that he agrees with Topinard in 
 making the female trunk longer, and this for reasons 
 which I have already detailed. His measurements are 
 taken to a point one and a half units below the tuberosity 
 of the ischium, which is the bony point on which the body 
 rests in the sitting posture, and we must, therefore, sub- 
 tract this figure from the twenty-seven units which he 
 allows for the trunk and neck. We have seen that he 
 allows three of these for the neck, thus four and a half 
 must be deducted in all. If we reduce the figure of twenty- 
 two and a half units thus obtained to the same terms as 
 those employed by Topinard, we find that it comes out as 
 33*5, which is very nearly the figure given by the French 
 author. 
 
 The intrinsic measurements of the trunk have also been 
 dealt with by Marshall, and the following are his principal 
 results. In the transverse direction the measurement from 
 one deltoidf prominence to the other that is, the extreme 
 breadth of the shoulders in the nude subject is in the 
 male two heads ; that is exactly one-half of the length of 
 the axis, that from one acromion process to the other, or 
 the maximum breadth of the skeletal shoulders, being one 
 unit less. In the female the deltoid measurement is seven- 
 teen units, or one unit less than two heads, and thus it is 
 proportionately shorter than in the female. The distance 
 between the nipples is one head in the male, one unit less 
 or eight units in the female. The normal waist in both 
 sexes is ten units, being thus one sixty-seventh of the 
 stature more than a head. The width of the brim of the 
 
PART II. CRITICAL. 59 
 
 pelvis is eleven units, and the measurement across the 
 trochanters the same in the male, whilst in the female 
 these two figures are twelve and a half and fourteen and a 
 half units respectively. The following tahle gives three of 
 the more important antero-posterior measurements in the 
 male and female respectively : 
 
 Mult. Female. 
 
 Level of nipples ... ID' ) 
 
 Waint - - 8" B > units. 
 
 Gloteal prominence 9 lOi ) 
 
 From these measurements it will be obvious that iu the 
 male the transverse and antero-posterior diameters are 
 greater above that is, in the region of the shoulders 
 than below, in the region of the hips ; whilst in the female, 
 though the superior are also greater, the difference is not 
 so marked as in the male. On this important point Duval 
 has the following remarks, which I think worthy of quota- 
 tion. Comparing the diameter of the hips with that of the 
 shoulders, he says : ' What strikes us most in this com- 
 parison, at the first glance at a series of skeletons, is tin- 
 great projection which the hips form in the female. In 
 order to express this, various formula have been proposed. 
 They consist in considering the trunk as a figure more or 
 less regularly oval, of which one extremity corresponds to 
 the shoulders, the other to the hips, and in determining, 
 according to the sex, which diameter exceeds the other. 
 The ancients did not hesitate to express this formula in the 
 following manner : In the male and in the female the 
 trunk represents an ovoid that is to say, an oval similar 
 to that of a figure of an egg, having a greater and a lesser 
 extremity ; but in the male this has its greater extremity 
 superior, while in the female the greater is inferior. There- 
 fore in the female the diameter of the hips exceeds that of 
 the shoulders, while in the male it is the diameter of the 
 shoulders which exceeds that of the hips. This formula, 
 as regards the female, is evidently exaggerated, as we see 
 in a moment by comparing the actual figures. It seems, 
 in fact, to Savage and Malgaigne, to be exaggerated, and 
 
60 THE PROPORTIONS OF THE HUMAN BODY. 
 
 in their works on anatomy they propose substituting the 
 following formula : Allowing that the trunk of the male is 
 an ovoid, with the greater extremity superior, the trunk of 
 the female forms an ellipse that is to say, a figure in 
 which both extremities are of the same dimensions ; there- 
 fore in the male the diameter of the shoulders exceeds that 
 of the hips, and in the female the diameter of the hips 
 does not exceed that of the shoulders, but is only just 
 equal to it. Now, this last formula also exaggerates the 
 real proportions of the hips in the female. The correct 
 formula is as follows : In the male, as well as in the female, 
 the trunk represents an ovoid with the greater extremity 
 superior; but while in man the difference between the 
 greater extremity and the lesser is very considerable, in 
 the female this difference is very slight. We shall see by 
 figures that in the female the diameter of the hips, though 
 always less, differs very little from that of the shoulders. 
 In the male the distance from the head of one burner us 
 to the corresponding part on the opposite side (inter- 
 humeral diameter) is on the average 15 J inches, and the 
 measure taken from one great trochanter to the other 
 (inter-trochanteric diameter) is 12 J inches ; therefore there 
 is between the two diameters a difference of about one-fifth. 
 In the female the inter-humeral diameter is on the average 
 14 inches, the inter-trochanteric diameter is 12J inches ; 
 therefore there is between the two diameters a difference 
 of only one- twelfth. These figures also serve to demon- 
 strate that the diameter of the shoulders is much greater 
 in the male than in the female (15 to 14), and that in- 
 versely the diameter of the hips is much greater in the 
 female than in the male (12 to 12|) ; so that if a man 
 and a woman of average stature are supposed to throw 
 their shadow on the same portion of a screen, the shadow 
 of the shoulders of the male would cover a much larger 
 surface than the shadow of the shoulders of the female ; 
 and, on the contrary, the shadow of the hips of the woman 
 would exceed the shadow of the hips of the man, but only 
 to a very small extent. 
 
PART II. CRITICAL. 61 
 
 ' By the diameter of the hips we have in the preceding 
 considerations understood the inter-trochanteric diameter. 
 There is, however, a method of considering the subject 
 which justifies to a certain extent the formulae adopted by 
 the authors previously mentioned. It consists in com- 
 paring on the skeleton in both sexes the diameter of the 
 pelvis (the femora being removed) with the diameter of the 
 shoulders (the humeri being removed). Then the shoulders 
 are represented by the inter-acroniial ilitum-tcr, and the hips 
 by the intcr-ilim- (from one iliac crest to the other). Under 
 these circumstances the exact measurements show that in 
 the male the inter-acromial diameter is twelve and three- 
 quarter inches and the inter-iliac eleven inches; there- 
 fore, as in the preceding, the trunk, deprived of its 
 members, still represents an ovoid, with its greater ex- 
 tremity superior. But we see that in the female, the 
 inter-acromial diameter being eleven and a half inches, 
 the inter-iliac increases to twelve inches, and therefore that 
 here the trunk, deprived of its members, represents an 
 ellipse or an ovoid, with its greater extremity inferior, the 
 superior extremity differing very little in size from the 
 inferior. But this mode of mensuration does not express 
 the subject as it exists ; for the artist does not consider the 
 trunk as otherwise than complete that is to say, provided 
 with its superior and inferior members and it is necessary 
 to take into account the part which they take in the 
 diameters of the trunk by the presence of their extremities 
 (the head of the humerus and the great trochanter). We 
 have thought fit, however, to show here this mode of men- 
 suration, for it explains clearly the greater diameter of the 
 pelvis in the female compared with that of the male. If 
 we arrange in a table the figures given in the preceding for 
 the inter-humeral, inter-trochanteric, inter-acromial, and 
 inter-iliac diameters in the male and in the female, or if, 
 better still, we represent those figures by proportionate 
 lines intended to express, on the profile of a man and that 
 of a woman, the proportionate value of the diameters of the 
 pelvis and the hips, and if we cause vertical lines to pass 
 
62 
 
 THE PROPORTIONS OF THE HUMAN BODY. 
 
 through the extremities of the inter-Iliac and inter-tro- 
 chanteric diameters, we obtain two figures which express 
 in a striking manner all that has been pointed out (Figs. 
 6 and 7). We see, in fact, that in the male subject 
 (Fig. 6) the vertical lines (y, y) passing through the ex- 
 tremities of the inter-trochanteric (d, d) and the inter-iliac 
 (c, c) diameters, both fall within the extremity of the inter- 
 humeral diameter (68), and also the inter-acromial (a, a). 
 On the contrary, in the female (Fig. 7) we find that these 
 same vertical lines both fall within the extremities of the 
 
 !L 
 
 FIGS. 6 AND 7. Diagrams comparing the diameters of the hips with 
 the diameters of the shoulders in the male (Fig. 6) and in the 
 female (Fig. 7). 
 
 inter-humeral diameter, but on the outer side of the inter- 
 acromial.' 
 
 The following table will supply accurate information on 
 this point, and show the exact relations of the parts in the 
 two sexes : 
 
 Relation of the maximum size of the hips to that of the shoulders = 100 
 
 100 male Parisians - 83'0 
 
 30 female Parisians - - - - 91 "8 
 
 30 male Belgians - - - - 82 '5 
 
 30 female Belgians - 94'5 
 
 Before leaving the subject of the trunk, there are certain 
 points of some interest to artists which may well be dis- 
 posed of in this connection, and the first of these is the 
 
PART II. CRITICAL. >:> 
 
 position of the umbilicus. According to Vitruvius, as we 
 have already seen, this was placed at the central point of 
 the body, so that if a man were laid on his back with the 
 arms and legs extended a circle might be described around 
 them, having the umbilicus as its centre. This statement 
 is incorrect, save for one period, and that an early one of 
 life that is, at two years of age. The central point of the 
 body is, according to Roberts, at the time of birth, when 
 the child is about the sixth of the height it will ultimately 
 attain to, a little above the umbilicus ; at two years it is at 
 the umbilicus ; at three years, when the child has attained 
 half its total height, the central point is on a line with the 
 upper borders of the iliac bones ; at ten years of age, wlu-n 
 the child has attained three-quarters of its total height, 
 the central point is on a line with the trochanters ; at 
 thirteen years it is at the pubes, and in the adult man it is 
 nearly half an inch lower. In the adult woman the central 
 point is a little above the pubes. Topinard gives the fol- 
 lowing table, which shows the position of the umbilicus 
 according to various artists and anthropologists. The 
 stature is considered as 100, and the figures show the pro- 
 portion of that amount between the ground and the 
 umbilicus : 
 
 Greek sculptors .... 60*7 
 Albert! - - 600 
 
 Schadow ... . 60*9 
 
 Gerdy - - - t, 
 
 10 Belgians, 2f> years old (Quetelet) - fiO'4 
 100 Parisians (A. Bertillon) - - 68 9 
 
 The position of the centre of gravity also differs slightly 
 in the two sexes. The line of gravity passes through the 
 occipital condyles, the middle of the sacrum, the head of 
 the femur, the patella, and the arch of the foot ; it is thus 
 a little in front of the knee, and a great deal in front of 
 the ankle. The centre of gravity in the male is three and 
 a half units above the upper border of the acetabulum 
 that is to say, thirty-nine and a half units above the 
 ground. In the female the centre of gravity is four units 
 above the upper border of the acetabulum. 
 
64 THE PROPORTIONS OF THE HUMAN BODY. 
 
 Uppw Extremity. There are several methods of arriving 
 at the measurements of the upper extremity, which may 
 be divided into direct and indirect. The former are three 
 in number. The first is to measure from the acromion to 
 the extremity of the middle finger, the arm being extended, 
 
 FIG. 8. The human figure described within a circle. 
 
 by which means, however, the length arrived at is some- 
 what too short, since the head of the humerus, which lies 
 in the axilla, is not fully taken into account. The second 
 is to add together the measurements of the various 
 segments of which the extremity is composed. This also 
 gives a somewhat false figure, since the limb in a natural 
 condition is not extended in a perfectly straight line, the 
 arm and forearm meeting at an obtuse angle at the elbow. 
 
PART II. CRITICAL. 65 
 
 The third is to measure from the acromion to the extremity 
 of the middle finger when the arm is lying by the side of 
 the body. The two indirect methods are, firstly, to 
 ascertain the distance between the extremity of the middle 
 finger and the superior border of the patella when the arms 
 are lying straight by the side, as in the military position 
 known as ' attention.' The second method is to measure 
 the full span of the two arms when fully extended from 
 the shoulders a method to which I shall have shortly to 
 return. 
 
 The length of the whole upper extremity in the male is, 
 according to Marshall, twenty-nine and a half units, and in 
 the female twenty-nine. The following table will show the 
 division of these figures between the different segments of 
 the limb : 
 
 ,,tle. 
 
 Horaerus - IS units IL' A units 
 
 Radiua - '.' .. '.' 
 
 Hand - - J^.. 71 .. 
 
 J'.'A 29 
 
 Reducing the figure in the male to terms of the stature, 
 the latter being considered as 100, so as to compare the 
 result with that given by Topinard, we find that the pro- 
 portion is forty-four, whilst that of the French author is 
 forty-five. The differences in the points of measurement 
 adopted by the two authors may account for this dis- 
 crepancy, which is in any case not very large. With 
 regard to the relation of the limb to other parts of the body, 
 it may first be mentioned that, according to Marshall, the 
 top of the shoulder-joint is thirteen units below the vertex. 
 It must not, however, be forgotten that this is a figure 
 which may vary within certain limits in persons of the 
 same stature and possessing limbs of the same length, 
 according to whether they are square-shouldered or round- 
 shouldered, to use the common phrases. The position of 
 the middle finger, with regard to the trunk, in the position 
 of ' attention ' is also one of importance. In the European 
 of average height it corresponds usually to the middle of 
 
66 THE PROPORTIONS OF THE HUMAN BODY. 
 
 the thigh ; in subjects of short stature the extremity of the 
 hand descends a little lower than the middle, and in very 
 tall men it is a little higher. In the yellow and black races 
 the extremity of the middle finger descends considerably 
 lower than the middle of the thigh. It is interesting to 
 note that in the highest apes the position of the same point 
 gradually descends still farther. Thus in the chimpanzee 
 it is placed below the knee ; in the gorilla it corresponds to 
 the middle of the leg ; whilst, finally, in the orang-utang and 
 in the gibbon it nearly reaches to the ankle. The facts 
 respecting the position of the middle finger in different 
 races are also brought out by the following table, which 
 give the distance between its point and the centre of the 
 patella in figures relative to the stature ( = 100) : 
 
 1,061 sailors (white) - 8'73 
 
 10,875 American soldiers - - 7*49 
 
 517 Iroquois Indians - - 5'36 
 
 2,020 negroes 4'37 
 
 Turning now to the intrinsic measurements of the upper 
 limb, we may first consider the relation between the arm 
 and the forearm, a subject which has received considerable 
 attention, what is known as the antibrachial index being 
 founded on the measurements of the two parts when com- 
 pared with one another. In the first place, in the adult 
 condition, the forearm, of the negro is much longer in com- 
 parison with the arm than that of the European. The 
 measurements, for example, of five Congo negroes gave an 
 average of 93*4, the arm being considered as 100, whilst the 
 measurements of thirty Germans gave 83 '5 to 100 as the 
 proportion between the same two parts. Amongst white 
 and yellow races, however, there is no special rule to 
 differentiate one from another by the comparison of the 
 segments of the limb. The relation of the hand to the 
 body stature is a matter of considerable interest to artists, 
 since it has been taken as the canon by several writers. 
 Respecting the racial variations of this part, Topinard says 
 that, speaking generally, Europeans have the smallest 
 hands, with the exceptions of the true gipsies (Tziganes), 
 
PART JL CRITICAL. 
 
 67 
 
 who have still smaller. The largest hands are met with 
 amongst the yellow races, whilst the negroes hold a middle 
 place in this respect. The following table will give an idea 
 of the manner in which the hand has been used as a canon, 
 the figures being the number of times which it was included 
 in the stature : 
 
 Greek artists (Topinard) 
 
 Vitruvias - 
 
 Diirer 
 
 Cousin - 
 
 Duval 
 
 Roberts - 
 
 Quetelet - 
 
 Marshall - 
 
 Topinard - 
 
 10-9 
 
 10-0 
 
 10-0 
 
 9-3 
 
 ion 
 9-0 
 
 ,.-.) 
 
 8-69 
 
 From this table it will be noticed that artists in general, 
 and those of antiquity in particular, have made the hand 
 too small in proportion to the stature. It should, however, 
 be mentioned that Duval says that his figure is subject to 
 great variations. Taking all the figures into consideration, 
 we may say that the hand is contained nine times in the 
 stature of the average European. 
 
 The full span of the arms when extended at right angles 
 from the trunk is another measurement which has attracted 
 the attention of artists; it is the ////;// o//v/v/">'<' of the 
 French. We have already noticed Yitruvius's statement 
 that the span was equal to the stature, and that this is 
 accepted as accurate in the canon of the French studios as 
 given by Topinard. Duval says respecting this matter: 
 ' The relation of the span of the upper limbs to the height 
 has been expressed long since by the fonnula known as the 
 square figure of the ancients. If we cause two horizontal 
 lines to pass, one at a tangent to the soles of the feet, the 
 other at a tangent to the summit of the head, and two 
 vertical lines at right angles to the extremities of the two 
 arms extended horizontally, these four lines form by their 
 junction a perfect square; in other words, the man having 
 the arms horizontal is enclosed within a square. This 
 shows that the span of the arms is equal to the height. 
 This statement is correct for a man of the Caucasian race 
 
68 
 
 THE PROPORTIONS OF THE HUMAN BODY. 
 
 of the middle height ; but it is not so for the yellow and 
 black races, in whom the span of the arm is greater than 
 the height. If from man we pass on to the superior 
 monkeys called anthropoid (chimpanzee, gorilla, etc.), we 
 find that the span of the arms in these becomes more and 
 more extended as compared with the height until it be- 
 comes almost double. Thus, in the gorilla, the height 
 being 5 feet 7i inches, the span becomes 8 feet 9J inches ; 
 and in the chimpanzee, to a height of 5 feet 5J inches, the 
 
 FIG. 1>. The human figure iosoribed within a square. 
 
 corresponding span is 6 feet 6 inches.' The statement, 
 however, that the span equals the stature is not absolutely 
 correct, for the relation between the two, though very 
 variable, is in favour of the span as compared with the 
 height. 
 
 Roberts states that the theory which holds that the span 
 is equal to the height is true only within certain limits, 
 namely, from the time of birth to that of puberty, a state- 
 
PART II. CRITICAL. 69 
 
 inent which is true of both sexes. After puberty more 
 decided changes in the proportions take place, the hori- 
 zontal bein^ greater than the perpendicular measurement, 
 especially in men, whose chest and shoulders have a 
 greater development in breadth than women. The ratio of 
 height to the measurement of the extended arms is in the 
 adult man as 1 to 1*045, and in women as 1 to 1*015. Duval 
 notes certain relationships between parts of the upper 
 extremity, which may conveniently be given here in the 
 form of a table : 
 
 The length of the hand, less the third phalanx of the middle finger, is 
 equal to : 
 
 the clavicle, 
 
 the vertebral border of the scapula, 
 
 the manubrinm and gladiolus sterni, taken together, 
 
 the distance between the scapulae when the bauds are hanging 
 
 by the sides, 
 
 half the length of the humerus, 
 two-thirds of tbe length of the forearm. 
 
 1 5 lit, as he remarks, these proportions are so variable 
 1 1 nit they cannot be insisted upon. 
 
 Ln-> r 1: ' itr> mitt/. The difficulties of measuring this 
 li in I) are even greater than those attaching to the upper, 
 since the head of the femur is buried in the acetabulum 
 ;uul covered over by amass of muscles, which render its 
 identification extremely difficult. The following table 
 shows the proportions of the various parts according to 
 Marshall : 
 
 Mnlr. I-' mule. 
 
 Femur- - - - 18 units 18 unite 
 
 Tibia - - 14 14 
 
 Foot, from lower border of tibia 
 
 to end of second toe - 9 H 
 
 41 40 
 
 From this it appears that the lower extremity in the 
 female is proportionately one unit smaller than in the 
 male, and that this difference is found altogether in the 
 foot. 
 
 Another useful series of figures, readily to be remem- 
 
70 THE PROPORTIONS OF THE HUMAN BODY. 
 
 bered also, are those relating to the* position of different 
 joints from the vertex, which are : 
 
 Male. Female. 
 
 Shoulder - - 1 head 4 units 1 head 4?; units 
 
 Hip - - - 3 4 3 5~ 
 
 Knee- - - 5 4 3 5 
 
 Sole of foot - - 7 4 ,, 7 4 
 
 The following antero-posterior measurements are also 
 worthy of notice : 
 
 Male. Female. 
 
 Knee - - ... 41 units 5 units 
 
 Calf - - 5- 4J 
 
 Foot - 10J 9J 
 
 From the difference in the points from which measure- 
 ments are taken it is difficult to compare Topinard's 
 measurements with these, save in the case of the foot. 
 According to the latter author, this forms 15 parts, the 
 stature being represented as 100. Marshall's proportion, 
 reduced to the same terms for the male, comes to 15*6, for 
 the female to 14*17, and the average between the two to 
 almost 15. The difference between the figures may, of 
 course, be racial. 
 
 The measurement of the foot, like that of the hand, is 
 of peculiar interest to artists, since it has also been used 
 as a canon of stature. The following table shows the 
 number of times which the foot is included in the stature 
 according to various authorities : 
 
 Greeks G'44 
 
 Vitruvius ----- 5*9 
 
 Alberti - - 6'5 
 
 Diirer - 6'0 
 
 Schadow - 6-6 
 
 Quetelet (male) - - - 6'75 
 
 (female) - - 6'25 
 
 Duval 633 
 
 Marshall - 6'38 
 
 Topinard - 6'6 
 
 The remarks of some of the authors on this point are of 
 interest. Roberts says that at all ages of life and in both 
 sexes it forms from the 0' 15 to 0*16 of the total height of 
 the individual ; it is, however, comparatively a little longer 
 
PART II. CRITICAL. 71 
 
 at the period of adolescence, but rather shorter in children 
 and adults. Taking the length of the foot for unity, the total 
 height of man would he six and three-fourths, and of women 
 six and one-fourth. It is generally helieved that the length of 
 the foot is equal to the height of the head ; but this is 
 only true of the age of ten years ; before that period the 
 head is longer, and after it shorter, than the foot. Duval 
 notes the interesting point that the length of the foot 
 being considered as six and one-third times contained in the 
 stature, as he believes to be correct, if one-third of the 
 foot be taken as a canon, it will be found to be contained 
 nineteen times in the stature. But the number nineteen 
 is the same as that which, according to Blanc, in the 
 Egyptian canon expresses the proportion which the middle 
 finger bears to the height. 
 
 Quetelet, from whom the remarks quoted above by 
 Koberts are taken, also says: 'It is in drawing the foot 
 that mistakes are most frequently maU- : in fact, it is so 
 customary to make it too small that the proportion is 
 falsified in all designs where the artist has preferred to 
 please the public rather than to express the truth. Often, 
 in fact, in fashion plates the foot is not represented one- 
 half its correct size. We may say that there is scarcely 
 any human measurement which is more frequently altered ; 
 there is a species of foolishness which prevents nature from 
 producing the exact size of this member, and substitutes 
 for it another, which at the same time destroys the 
 harmony of the body and the firmness of its support. The 
 Chinese have even carried these exaggerated tastes to such 
 a pitch that their most distinguished women blush if they 
 know how \o walk. It appears that this faculty should 
 only belong to servants.' The same author mentions that, 
 speaking generally and starting from the age of puberty, 
 the height of the head forms a proportional arithmetical 
 nu an between the length of the hand and that of the foot. 
 Examining this by Topinard's figures, which give for the 
 foot 15*0, for the head 13*3, and for the hand 11*5 respec- 
 tively, we find that the statement is approximately correct. 
 
72 THE PROPORTIONS OF THE HUMAN BODY. 
 
 Quetelet also notes that, according -."to a well-established 
 belief, the length of the foot is equal to the circumference 
 of the fist, so that we often see drapers wrap the foot of a 
 stocking round the fist in order to avoid the trouble of 
 direct measurement of the hand. This belief, he thinks, is 
 fairly established by his tables, although Eoberts does not 
 consider that there is much foundation for it. 
 
 Duval endeavours to establish some easy relations be- 
 tween the parts of the lower limb, and says that here, as in 
 the case of the hand, we cannot make the foot a common 
 measure for the interior extremity. It is easy, he says, to 
 perceive upon the skeleton that the distance from the 
 superior extremity of the head of the femur to the inferior 
 border of the internal condyle is equal to two feet ; but 
 this has no practical value ; it cannot be used on the living 
 body, as it is difficult to recognise the level of the superior 
 part of the femur. If, instead of the head of this bone, we 
 take the superior border of the great trochanter (a part 
 easily felt beneath the skin), we find that the length from 
 that point to the inferior border of the external condyle 
 scarcely ever measures two lengths of the foot ; in fact, the 
 great trochanter is upon a considerably lower level than 
 the head of the femur. The leg, including the thickness of 
 the foot, does not contain the length of the foot an even 
 number of times; in fact, the distance from the inferior 
 border of the internal condyle of the femur to the ground 
 (or the sole of the foot) is not equal to twice the length of 
 the foot ; but it is interesting to observe in general that 
 the length of the leg, plus the thickness of the foot, is equal 
 to the distance from the great trochanter to the inferior 
 border of the external condyle ; therefore, the middle of 
 the lower limb (starting from the great trochanter) corre- 
 sponds exactly to the line of the knee. When we com- 
 pare the length of the foot with the leg, beginning from 
 below upwards, we find a regular proportion and one 
 of practical interest, viz., that from the ground to the 
 middle of the patella usually measures twice the length of 
 the foot. 
 
PART II. CRITICAL. 73 
 
 I have now concluded that portion of my lectures which 
 deals with the proportions of the adult human body, and 
 before passing to the final section, in which I shall give 
 some notes as to the growth of the body and its con- 
 stituent parts, I think it well to make one remark. I have 
 throughout that portion of my remarks which I am now 
 concluding contrasted Marshall's canon of proportion with 
 the careful figures given by Topinard, and the reader can 
 scarcely have failed to notice that the two correspond in a 
 very remarkable and uniform manner. Now, Marshall's 
 rule was devised for artists ; it was intended to meet their 
 requirements, and, so far as I am aware, though here I 
 speak under correction, it is well fitted to do so. It is 
 s;iti.-f;ictory to find that his conclusions are so well 
 grounded and so corroborated by the scientific figures, so 
 that in using his rule, use is made of one which is 
 scientifically accurate, as well as artistically useful. I have 
 now to turn to the consideration of the method of increase 
 of the human body and of its various parts, a portion of my 
 subject which I tru^t will not be without usefulness and 
 interest. 
 
 It will be noticed that the proportions of the infant when 
 first it makes its appearance in the world are very different 
 from those \\hich it has when it arrives at the period of 
 adult existence, and that between these two epochs the 
 proportions are constantly altering, one part of the body 
 chiefly increasing at one time and a second at another. 
 It will also be noticed that the proportion in two sexes, 
 which, as we have seen, are in many instances different in 
 the adult, for some time remain the same during childhood, 
 and that on arriving at a certain age they commence to 
 take on their adult characters and to differentiate from one 
 another. 
 
 The facts stated in this section are chiefly from the 
 works of Roberts and Quetelet ; having made which 
 acknowledgment, I need not refer more particularly to 
 the author of any individual statement. 
 
 As regards height, at the time of birth there is but little 
 
74 THE PROPORTIONS OF THE HUMAN BODY. 
 
 difference between the stature of tKe male and female 
 infant, the average for the former being 19*34 inches, and 
 for the latter 18*98 inches. Thus, the actual longitudinal 
 proportions almost coincide, whilst the relative ones abso- 
 lutely do so. Between the fourth and the ninth years the 
 relations remain much the same, but towards the thirteenth 
 year the female gets in front of the male, and is larger and 
 heavier. After this period the growth of the male becomes 
 more -rapid ; he soon passes the female, and eventually 
 the adult differences between the sexes are established. 
 The difference between the sexes in respect to height are 
 due to several causes. In the first place, as noticed 
 above, the female is a little smaller at birth. In the 
 second place, after the thirteenth or fourteenth year 
 the growth of the female is considerably feebler than that 
 of the male, and finally the growth of the former is 
 concluded about two years before that of the latter. The 
 last of these causes is the most potent in determining 
 the difference in stature, for the initial difference is 
 abolished, or indeed reversed, at the thirteenth year ; but 
 at the period when growth is terminated there is an 
 average advantage in stature of males over females of four 
 inches. 
 
 Taking the head, this portion of the body is contained 
 three times in the axis at the time of birth, a proportion 
 which is maintained until the fourth year ; at the ninth 
 year the axis is three and a quarter times as long as the 
 head, at the fifteenth three and three-quarters, and at the 
 twenty-fifth four times. In relation to the stature, the 
 head is at birth contained four times in the body-length. 
 But we have already seen that in the adult it is contained 
 seven and a half times, from which facts it follows that the 
 head grows only half as rapidly (nearly) as the remainder 
 of the body. As a matter of fact, it doubles its height 
 between the time of birth and that of adult life. This 
 increase is, however, not evenly distributed over the whole 
 head, since the lower part grows more than the upper. 
 This is shown by the fact that the lower part of the nose, 
 
PART II. CRITICAL. 
 
 75 
 
 which in the adult divides the face into two equal parts, is 
 in the infant placed much nearer to the chin. 
 
 The neck, which is short at birth, apparently becomes 
 shorter during the first few years of life ; this apparent 
 decrease in size is due to the accumulation of fat at the 
 chin of the infant. 
 
 The torso triples in length and in width. The relations 
 of its antero-posterior diameters in the infant and in the 
 
 FH;. 10. A comparative representation of the infantile and adult 
 figures, both being shown as of the same height. The relation 
 between the various parts of the body and of the limbs is shown by 
 the dotted lines. Convergence of the line towards the side of the 
 adult shows proportional diminution of size, and divergence increase, 
 or, in other words, less or greater increase of size during the time of 
 growth (Langer). 
 
 adult are as 1 to 2*86 ; thus, increase in this direction is 
 not as great as in the other two. Quetelet has shown by 
 the employment of two triangles that the increase in size of 
 the torso, like that of the head, is not the same in all its 
 
< ') THE PROPORTIONS OF THE HUMAN BODY. 
 
 parts. If we construct a triangle having its base situated 
 at a line drawn between the two nipples and its apex at 
 the suprasternal notch, it will be found that the two sides are 
 less in then- respective measurements than the base. After 
 the first year this difference is twenty-one millimetres, and 
 this difference is maintained almost exactly throughout the 
 period of development ; thus, the growth of this portion is 
 proportionately even. The proportions between the base in 
 the infant and the adult are as 1 is to 2'81, and those of the 
 sides at the same epochs as 1 to 3 '41. The height of the 
 
 FIG. 11. Tiiangles showing growth of thorax and upper part of 
 abdomen (Quetelet). 
 
 triangle in the infant is to that of the adult as 1 to 3*78, 
 so that, as we have seen that the whole torso triples during 
 growth, the increase of this part is more rapid than that of 
 the whole. If now the length from the base of this triangle 
 to the umbilicus be taken, and the differences between the 
 child and the adult represented proportionately, it will be 
 found that they are as 1 to 2*42, or less than the general 
 growth of the torso. From these figures we may conclude 
 that the portion between the nipples and the upper part of 
 the thorax grows more rapidly than that between the first- 
 
PART II. CRITICAL. 77 
 
 named points and the umbilicus. I am now assuming that 
 Quetelet's figures are correct on this point, and should 
 mention that he expressly states that they apply only 
 to the male sex, since this part of the body is subjected 
 to so much artificial treatment in the female that it is 
 not possible to come to accurate conclusions respecting it. 
 
 The upper extremity, with the hand included, is three 
 and a half times longer in the adult than in the infant. 
 The hand, however, grows more slowly than the remaining 
 parts, doubling between the fifth and seventh years, and 
 tripling between this date and the termination of develop- 
 ment. If the arm be considered without the hand, it 
 doubles between four and five, triples between thirteen and 
 fourteen, and is four times the infant size at the termina- 
 tion of growth. The forearm grows more than the arm 
 proportionately, the proportion between the former in the 
 child and adult being as 1 to 4*26, and of the latter as 
 1 to 8'78. The circumferences at the biceps and elbow 
 iiK n list two and three-quarter times nearly. 
 
 The lower extremities, measured from the fork to the sole 
 of the foot, double their length before the third year ; at 
 t \\rlve years they are four times, and at twenty years five 
 times, their original length. These are Quetelet's figures. 
 According to Marshall, the whole lower extremity increases 
 four and a half times during the process of development. 
 The various segments do not increase at the same rate, for 
 the thigh grows more rapidly than the leg, and the leg than 
 the foot. Thus there is this difference between the growth 
 of the upper and the lower extremities : that the greatest 
 amount of growth in the former takes place in the middle 
 segment, whilst in the latter it is in the segment which is 
 nearest to the trunk. It will also be remarked that the 
 lower extremity increases proportionately to a greater 
 extent than either the stature, the torso, or the upper 
 extremity. Turning now more particularly to the growth 
 of the various segments of the lower limb, the thigh in the 
 adult is 7*31 times the length of the same part in the 
 child. Thus the increase in this part is far in excess of 
 
78 THE PROPORTIONS OF THE HUMAN BODY. 
 
 that of any other part of the body. The leg, measured from 
 the lower edge of the patella, increases four and a half 
 times, the height of the foot three and a quarter times, and 
 its length three and a half times. 
 
 As I have had occasion at an earlier part of this lecture 
 to call your attention to the differences between the pro- 
 portions of the arm and the forearm in the -European and 
 the negro, I think that the following remarks on that 
 subject in connection with the rate of increase with which 
 I have just been dealing may not be without interest to you. 
 ' With regard to the proportions of the different segments 
 of the extremities,' says Humphry, 'in the earliest periods 
 the arm and thigh are respectively shorter than the forearm 
 and leg, and the latter are respectively shorter than the 
 hand and foot. During development and growth these 
 proportions gradually become reversed ; but the final re- 
 lations between the several segments are not established 
 until after puberty. At birth the arm, leg, and foot are of 
 about equal length, and the hand is a little longer than the 
 forearm. These facts are interesting as showing clearly 
 that in its earlier conditions the most perfect human form 
 presents more numerous approximations to the type of the 
 negro, and likewise to that of the quadrumanous animal, 
 than at subsequent periods. They show, also, that it is 
 during the work of development and growth that the lower 
 extremities attain their greater relative dimensions, and 
 that the proximal segments of both upper and lower ex- 
 tremities come to bear that large proportion to their distal 
 parts whereby the European type is characterized. Thus 
 the difference in type between the negro and the European 
 is reduced to a mere matter of growth, and it is shown 
 that, so far as the extremities are concerned, a transient 
 condition of the one corresponds with a permanent condition 
 of the other. The same remark applies also to the dimen- 
 sions of the trunk. Till the period of puberty the European 
 and the negro more nearly correspond. It is not till after 
 that period that the greater proportionate breadth of chest 
 and pelvis is attained in the former.' 
 
PART II. CRITICAL. 79 
 
 I must iii conclusion say a very ft-\v words as to the 
 influence of occupation upon the proportions of man. 
 This, however, is a matter upon which much further work 
 will be necessary before it is possible to draw any con- 
 i -fusions of real value. Everyone is aware that occupation, 
 or at least certain occupations, produce a very marked 
 effect upon the person and the physiognomy, but exactly 
 in what this difference anatomically consists is not al\\ays 
 so easy to say. The same remarks may be made respect- 
 ing the influence of the general environment upon the 
 stature a subject on which Quetelet, from observations 
 made upon dwellers in the cities and country parts of 
 Belgium, remarks that the average stature in the towns is 
 very much the same as that of the country people, though 
 tht former have a slight advantage in point of height. 
 Speaking on this point, Topinard says: 'Have moun- 
 taineers longer or shorter legs? Both opinions have been 
 maintained, but theoretically. Do some professions lengthen 
 the parts employed and atrophy those disused? Every- 
 body says so, but there are no direct proofs/ The most 
 important document which was at Topinanl > disposal 
 in this matter is a comparison between soldiers, sailors, 
 and students in America, which I give in a tabular 
 form : 
 
 10,- !,',; 1 291 
 
 soldiers. sailors. students. 
 
 Vertex to seventh cervical vertebra 14-1 U-s-j 
 
 Seventh cerv. vert, to perineum .7 JJ 3834 
 
 Perineum to knee - - - - 1 is.V.) 
 
 Perineum to ground - - 2771 28'iHi 28'25 
 
 Acromion to elbow - - - * >_;, 20-14 
 
 Elbow to end of middle finger - -J:J -Hi 2328 82*47 
 
 Each of these figures is referable to the stature, which is 
 considered as 100. From the table it follows that the 
 sailors have, in relation to the soldiers, a shorter trunk, 
 longer portions of the lower extremity, a shorter arm, and 
 a slightly larger forearm. Amongst the students, in com- 
 parison with the soldiers, the trunk, the leg, and the 
 
80 THE PROPORTIONS OF THE HUMAN BODF. 
 
 forearm are a little shorter. What can be deduced from 
 these facts ? Is it the influence of occupation which ought 
 to be invoked ? In the case of the sailors, undoubtedly so. 
 But amongst the students there is another factor to be 
 considered, that of age, for their average age was only 
 about twenty years, that of the soldiers being thirty-five; 
 
INDEX 
 
 ArHll.LKS, thr. ! 
 
 ;. t.tn-, th-, l ; l 
 Ages, proportion of sizes of sexes at 
 
 different, 73 
 AllHjrti, 28 
 
 AntiWai-hial inoVx, the, 66 
 AntinmiM, thr I- 
 AiH)ll.i, tli.-, -J, 
 Apoxyoiuenon, tli- 
 
 :>tii>n,' middle finger in position 
 
 of, 66 
 
 Harbaro, 30 
 
 Barca, 31 
 
 Bardon, 38 
 
 Belgian writers, 45 
 
 Burgmuller, 33 
 
 Blanc, 39 
 
 Borgogna, Philip, 43 
 
 Bre"e, van, 45 
 
 Broca on the Greek canon, 24 
 
 Camper, 33, 54 
 Canon of Alberti, 53 
 
 Carua, 34 
 
 Egyptians, 22, 53 
 
 French studios, 39, 53 
 
 Greeks, 24, 53 
 
 Hindoos, 19, 53 
 i-, 9.2 
 
 Polycletua, 24 
 
 I'omponius, 45 
 
 Salmon, 51 
 
 Schaduw, 53 
 
 Canonical figure of Car us, 36 
 CaruH, 34 
 
 Central point of body, 63 
 Choulant, 43, 49 
 Cordier, 39 
 Cousin, 38 
 
 Diodorus Siculus, 19 
 Doryphorus of Polycletus, the, 24 
 Durer, 31 
 Dutch writer*, 43 
 
 Duval on the foot, 71 
 
 ,, hips and shoulders, 59 
 
 ,, relation of the parts of 
 
 the upper and lower 
 extremities, 69, 7-J 
 span of the arms, 67 
 
 Egyptian canon, the, 22 
 
 ,, conventionality, 20 
 
 methods, 19 
 
 religious views, 20 
 Ell, organic, of Cams, 34 
 English writers, 45 
 
 Flax man, 46 
 
 11 relation to the stature, the, 70 
 French canon, the, 39, 53 
 French writers, 38 
 
 Galen, 24 
 
 German writers, 31 
 Germanicns, the, 26 
 Gerdy, 38 
 Giotto, 28 
 
 Gladiator, the, 25, 52 
 Goldenen Schnitt, der, 33 
 Grande Envergure, la, 67 
 Greek canon, the, 24 
 
 Hand in relation to the stature, the, 67 
 Head, growth of the, 74 
 
 ,, proportions of the, 52 
 Herculed, the Farnese, 25, 52 
 
 t, proportion of, in two sexes at 
 different ages, 74 
 Hips compared with shoulders, the, 
 
 59 
 Hogarth, 16 
 
 on DUrer, 33 
 Hoogstraeten, van, 43 
 Humphry on Cams, 35 
 
 ,, the arm and forearm, 78 
 
 Indian canon, 19 
 Italian writers, 28 
 
82 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Jones, 21 - 
 'Ka,'the, 20 
 
 Laet, J. de, 45 
 
 Lairesse, G. de, 45 
 
 Larnozzo on Michael Angelo, 30 
 
 Langer on the Greek canon, 26 
 
 ,, infant and adult propor- 
 tions, 75 
 
 Laocoon, the, 25, 52 
 Leonardo da Vinci, 29 
 Lepsius, the canon of, 22 
 Lichtensteger, 33 
 Liharzik, 37 
 Lower extremity, 69 
 
 growth of, 77 
 
 Malgaigne, 59 
 Marshall, 46 
 
 compared with Topinard, 73 
 Martinez, C., 43 
 Mengs on the Greek canon of the 
 
 face, 26 
 Michael Angelo, 29, 55 
 
 Neck, growth of, 75 
 proportions of, 56 
 
 Occupation, influence of, 79 
 
 Pacheco, Francisco, 33 
 
 Pader, 38 
 
 Paggi, 30 
 
 Perrot and Chipiez on the canon of 
 
 Lepsius, 23 
 
 Phcecus,- story respecting his sons, 20 
 Polycletus, canon of, 24 
 Poussin, 38 
 Proportions at different ages, 74 
 
 Quetelet, 45, 49 
 
 ,, on the face, 55 
 foot, 71 
 ,, ,, Greek canon, 25 
 
 Raphael, 1 
 
 Reynolds, Sir J., 17, 46 
 
 Richtochel, 34 
 
 Roberts, 47, 49 
 
 ,, on the central point of body, 
 
 63 
 
 ,, ,, Cams' Canon, 37 
 ,, ,, the span of the arms, 69 
 
 Rossi on L. da Vinci, 29 
 
 Rubens, 54 
 
 Salmon, 51 
 
 Sappey, 43 
 
 Savage, 59 
 
 Schadow, 33, 49 
 
 Shoulders compared with hips, 59 
 
 Silpa Sastra, 19 
 
 Span of arms, 67 
 
 Spanish writers, 43 
 
 Table of writers, 48 
 Testelin, 38 
 Topinard, 40, 49 
 
 ,, and Marshall compared, 73 
 Trunk, growth of the, 75 
 ,, proportions of the, 57 
 
 Umbilicus, position of the, 63 
 Upper extremity, growth of the, 77 
 , , proportions of the, 65 
 
 Venus, Medicean, 25, 26 
 
 ,, of Milo, 15 
 Vernet, H., 38 
 Villafane, 43 
 Vinci, L. da, 29 
 Vitruvius, canon of, 28 
 
 ,, on the centre of the body, 63 
 
 Watteau, 54 
 
 Winckelmanns on the Greek canon 
 
 25 
 Writers, table of, 48 
 
 Zeising, 33 
 
 THE END. 
 
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ALPHABETICAL INDEX OF AUTHORS. 
 
 PACK 
 
 AIJF.RCROM15IK (J.) On Tetany in Young Children 15 
 
 ADAMS (W.) Deformities (in (lant's Surgery) 33 
 
 ALLAN (F. J.) Aids to Sanitary Science ..' 31 
 
 ALLAN (J. H.) Tables of Doses 25 
 
 ALLEN (Alfred) Microscopical Science -V 
 
 \LLI.\tiHAM (II. W.)Colotomy ... .... J 
 
 IJAKF.K (Benson) How to Feed an Infant ... 28 
 
 r-ANHAM -Veterinary Posological Tables 39 
 
 I \\N A T\ \i: <A.) Aids to Pathology ... 29 
 
 BARTON JJ. K.) The Diag frphflii 34 
 
 BEACH (Fletcher) Psychological Medicine 31 
 
 i:i:K\ AKI) (Claude) and HL'ETTK'S Text-book of Operative Surgery 33 
 
 11LA< K < \. Atlas of the Male (>; aeration IO 
 
 BiACKLEY (C. H.) Hay 1 auses and Treatment 22 
 
 BODDV (K. M.) History of Salt 32 
 
 Hydropathy 23 
 
 BORTH\VI( K (T.) The Demography of South Australia 23 
 
 i;i >\YI>!< II MrO Confidential Chats with .Motlh . 16 
 !'.< )\YLi;> ( R. I..) On Stertor and A|x>ple.\y 
 
 l;> >\ D (Stanley) Movable Atlas of the Foot, its Bones and Muscles n 
 
 I'.KAND A. T.) Pocket Case lkx.' f . 10 
 
 15KANDT Tr.-.ument ..f Tterine Disease 22 
 
 i;K< M'MAkD il.) Practical Cuidefor the Young Mother . 14 
 
 U ROW N (dcorgc) The Student^ Case-book .. 28 
 
 Aids to Anatomy 14 
 
 Aids to Surgery 36 
 
 r,U)\VNi: Lenunc] Ihe Throat and Nose, and their Diseases 
 
 Movable Atlases of the Throat and Ear 10 
 
 15RO\\ Influence on Weather 
 
 I : I' K K I i -Tropical Diseases of the I Ion* ... 27 I 
 
 i;rk\l>S (A. (i.) The Specific Action of Drugs 39 
 
 n'sGout 22 
 
 'AMKRON (Chas.) Microbes in Fermentation, Putrefaction, and Disease ... 13 
 
 - The Cholera Microbe and How to Meet It 15 
 
 CAM I:K< >N (Sir C. A.) History of the Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland 23 
 
 < AMl'i;i.I,L(C. M.Jan.l HARK1F.S (A.) Lupus, a Clinical Study 32 
 
 Skin Diseases of Infancy ami Early Life 32 
 
 ( AM LIE (J as.) Atlas of the Hand 10 
 
 Text-book of Naked-Eye Anatomy 9 
 
 CARTER (R. Brudenell) Training of the Mind.. 27 
 
 CASSELLS (J. Patterson) Deaf-mutism and the Education of the Deaf-mute 17 
 
 (HARCOT (J. M.) Hright's Disease of the Kidne, 24 
 
 CHRISTY (T.) Dictionary of Materia Medica 25 
 
 CLARKE (Percy) Medical Laws 26 
 
 CLARKE (E. H.) The Building of a Brain 13 
 
 COCKLE (John) Contributions to Cardiac Pathology 22 
 
 Insufficiency of the Aortic Valves 22 
 
 COFFIN (R. I. Maitland) Obstetrics 28 
 
 COOMBE (Russell) Epitome of B. P 20 
 
 COOPER (R. T.) On Vascular Deafness is 
 
 COSGRAVE (C. M.) Botany, Glossary of 15 
 
2 Bailliere, Tindall, and Cox s Books. 
 
 . ^ 
 
 PAGE 
 
 COTTERELL (Ed.) The Pocket Gray, or Anatomist's Vade Mecum 9 
 
 COURTENAY (E.) Practice of Veterinary Medicine 39 
 
 COZZOLINO (V.) The Hygiene of the Ear 19 
 
 CROOKE (G. F.) The Pathology of Tuberculosis 16 
 
 CRUISE (F. R.) Hydropathy 23 
 
 CULLIMORE (D. H.) Consumption as a Contagious Disease 16 
 
 The Book of Climates 16 
 
 DARLING (W. ) Anatomography, or Graphic Anatomy 9 
 
 The Essentials of Anatomy 9 
 
 DAWSON (W. E.) Guide to the Examinations of the Apothecaries' Society 19 
 
 DAY (W. H.) Irritable Brain in Children 13 
 
 DENNIS ( Hy. T- ) Second-Grade Perspective Drawing 1 1 
 
 DENNIS (Hy. '].) Third-Grade Perspective Drawing 12 
 
 DOLAN (T. M.) Whooping Cough, its Pathology and Treatment 35 
 
 DOWSE (T. Stretch) Apoplexy n 
 
 Syphilis of the Brain and Spinal Cord 13 
 
 Skin Diseases from Nervous Affections 32 
 
 The Brain and the Nerves and Influenza 13 
 
 DRAGENDORFF (Prof. G.) Plant Analysis 15 
 
 DRYSD ALE (C. R. ) Nature and Treatment of Syphilis 34 
 
 DRYSDALE (John) The Protoplasmic Theory of Life 34 
 
 Germ Theories of Infectious Diseases 12 
 
 DUDGEON (R. E.) The Sphygmograph 31 
 
 DUFFEY (G. F.) Note-taking 14 
 
 DUTTON (T.) Sea Sickness 32 
 
 EBSTEIN (Prof.) The Treatment of Gout 22 
 
 ERSKINE (T.) Hygiene of the Ear 18 
 
 EVANS (C.'W. De Lacy) How to Prolong Life? 18 
 
 Consumption: its Causes, Treatment, etc 16 
 
 E W ART (W.) Cardiac Outlines 14 
 
 How to Feel the Pulse 31 
 
 Symptoms and Physical Signs 14 
 
 FAU (J.) Artistic Anatomy of the Human Body II 
 
 Anatomy of the External Form of Man n 
 
 FIELD (G. P.) Diseases of the Ear 18 
 
 FINNY (F. M.) Clinical Fever Chart 21 
 
 FITZGERALD (H. P.) Dictionary of British Plants and Flowers 13 
 
 FLAXMAN (J.) Elementary Anatomical Studies for Artists 11 
 
 FLEMING (G.) Text-book of Veterinary Obstetrics 39 
 
 Neumann's Parasites of Domestic Animals 39 
 
 Text-book of Veterinary Surgery 40 
 
 Actinomykosis 40 
 
 Roaring in Horses 40 
 
 Practical Horse-Shoeing 40 
 
 Animal Plagues, their History, Nature and Treatment 40 
 
 Contagious Diseases of Animals 40 
 
 Tuberculosis 40 
 
 Human and Animal Variolae 40 
 
 Heredity and Contagion in the Propagation of Tuberculosis 40 
 
 FORD Ophthalmic Notes 20 
 
 FOTHERGILL (J. Milner) Chronic Bronchitis 13 
 
 Aids to Diagnosis (Semeiological) 18 
 
 Aids to Rational Therapeutics 38 
 
Baillifere, Tindall, and Cox's Books. 3 
 
 PACK 
 
 FOTHKKGILL (J. Milner) The Physiological Factor in Diagnosis 17 
 
 - The Physiologist in the Household 30 
 
 Diseases of Sedentary and Advanced Life 28 
 
 Vaso- Renal Changes 24 
 
 1 < )\ '.sthetics: Ancient and Modern <> 
 
 FUCHS I )r. ) The Causes and Prevention of Blindness 
 
 i.ANT (F. J.j Text-hook of the Science and Practice of Surgery 33 
 
 Diseases of the Bladder, Prostate Gland, and I'rethra 13 
 
 Examinations by the Conjoint Board 19 
 
 Student*' Surgery 33 
 
 GARMANY (J. J.) Surgery on the Cadaver 
 
 ! . . \\ m. I >crmtc Memoranda 
 
 G.) Aseptic and Antiseptic Surgerv 
 
 GIRAUD-1 I. ri.N -Anomalies of \ .. 20 
 GLASGOW-PATTESON (R.) Skin and Hair. 
 
 GOODALL 1 M roscopical Examination of Brain, Spinal Cord and Nerve- 22 
 
 G< >KDON (Chas. A.) Our Trip to Burmah 14 
 
 Life on the Gold Coast 8 
 
 Lessons in Military Hygiene and Surgery ... -.23 
 A Manual of Sanitation . 23 
 
 Rabies and Hydrophobia 23 
 
 Reports of the Medical Officers of Chi; i ; 
 <.<>kl>0\ (T. Hurdi actical Chemistry ... .... 36 
 
 a Services Under the Crour. 
 
 Medieal Hi-tory of African Campaign- .. S 
 
 Memory . . 27 
 
 Detection of Colour Blindness 20 
 
 GRE1 '(J.) Laws Affecting Medic. .26 
 
 GR1 IN WOOD (Major) Aids to Zoology 
 
 5SWELL ! I -uid A. C,.) Manual of Equine Medicine and other works 40 
 
 IIJ.I. (II. Leicester) Student's Hand-book of ChemisT i; 
 
 GRIFFITHS (A. &) Ificro-OanhM 12 
 
 GRIFFITHS ,\V. 11., Te\t-l)ook of Materia Medica and Pharmacy 25 
 
 Notes for Pharmacopcrial Preparation 30 
 
 Posological Table- 31 
 
 , r HIM Alfred S.) Aids to Gymvcology 37 
 
 GUBB A t.Kll I I 11I>. MatCffe Molica and Pharmacy 25 
 
 GUBLER (Professor) The Principles and Methyls of Theratx:utics 34 
 
 lULLKMAKlMK. II. II.) Kndemic H.ematuria . 20 
 
 HAIG-BKOWN -Tonsillitis 35 
 
 HALTON (R. J.) Short Lectures on Sanitary Subjects 24 
 
 HAKRIS (\ incent) Manual for the Physiological Labtiratory 30 
 
 HARRIS (\ '. I).) Kuhne's Guide to the Demonstration of Bacteria 12 
 
 HARRIES and CAMPBELL (CM.) Lupus: a Clinical Study 32 
 
 HARTMANN (Prof.) On Deaf-mutism, Translation by Dr. Cassells 17 
 
 IIAVNES (Stanley) Healthy Homes 23 
 
 HA/AUl)(\V. P.) Diseases of Live Stock 41 
 
 II Ml BERG (Jacob) Atlas of Cutaneous Nerve Supply 27 
 
 HEMMING (W. D.) Aids to Examinations 36 
 
 Aids to Forensic Medicine 36 
 
 Otorrhcea 18 
 
 HEPPEI Analytical Conic Sections 21 
 
 HERSCHELL(Geo.) Indigestion 21 
 
4 Bailliere, Tindall, and Cox's Books. 
 
 HAG F. 
 
 HEWITT (Frederic) Anesthetics 9 
 
 HILL (J. W.) Principles and Practice of Bovine Medicine 40 
 
 Management and Diseases of the Dog 40 
 
 HIME (T. W.) Cholera: Ho\v to Prevent and Resist It 15 
 
 The Practical Guide to the Public Health Acts 31 
 
 HOGG (Jabez) The Cure of Cataract 20 
 
 The Impairment of Vision from Shock 20 
 
 Parasitic or Germ Theory of Disease 12 
 
 HOPGOOD (T. F.) Notes on Surgical Treatment 34 
 
 HORNER (Professor) On Spectacles 20 
 
 HOWAT (G. R.) How to Prevent and Treat Consumption 16 
 
 HUNTER (Ch.) Manual for Dental Laboratory 17 
 
 HUSBAND (H. Aubrey) Handbook of Forensic Medicine 21 
 
 Aids to the Analysis of P\>od and Drugs 36 
 
 Handbook of the Practice of Medicine 26 
 
 Student's Pocket Prescriber 31 
 
 Urine 35 
 
 IIUTCHIXSON (Jonathan) Aids to Ophthalmic Medicine and Surgery 37 
 
 TNCE (T.) Latin Grammar of Pharmacy ^o 
 
 INTERNATIONAL MEDICAL CONGRESS 24 
 
 JAMES (Brindley) Replies to Questions in Therapeutics 38 
 
 JAMES (M. P.) Laryngoscopy and Rhinoscopy in Throat Diseases 35 
 
 Therapeutics of the Respiratory Passages 34 
 
 Vichy and its Therapeutical Resources 35 
 
 JENNINGS (C. E.) On Transfusion of the Blood and Saline Fluids 35 
 
 Cancer and its Complications 14 
 
 JENNINGS (Oscar) On the Cure of the Morphia Habi' 27 
 
 JESSETT (F. B.) Surgical Diseases of Stomach and Intestines 8 
 
 Cancer of the Mouth and Tongue 14 
 
 JONES (H. Macnaughton) The Diseases of Women 22 
 
 Subjective Noises in the Head and Ears 18 
 
 Hints for Mid wives 28 
 
 and STEWART Handbook of Diseases of the Ear and Naso- 
 
 Pharynx 19 
 
 JONES (H.) Guide to Sanitary Science Exams 31 
 
 TONES (T. Wharton) Blood in Inflammation 24 
 
 JUKES-BROWNE (A. J. ) Paleontology (in Penning's Field Geology) 21 
 
 KEETLEY (C.R. B.) Guide to the Medical Profession 26 
 
 Surgery of Knee Joint 33 
 
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Bailliere, Tindall, and Cox s Books. 25 
 
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Bailltere, Tindall, and Cox s Books. 27 
 
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28 Bailliere, Tindall, and Cox's Books. 
 
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Bailliere, Tindall, and Cox's Books. 29 
 
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30 Bailliere, Tindall, and Cox s Books. 
 
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Bailliere, Tindall, and Cox's Books. 31 
 
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32 Baillifere, Tindall, and Cox's Books. 
 
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Bailliere, Tindall, and Cox's Books. 33 
 
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34 Bailliere, Tindall, and Cox's Books. 
 
 , 
 
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