GIFT or E. Janes HISTORY OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH; BY DR. CHARLES HASE, PROFESSOR OF THEOLOGY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF JENA. JErattslatofc fr0m % Stlwrtfc.iroi Mtlj iwpatei (Senro <3rftiii0n, BY CHARLES E. BLUMENTHAL, PROFESSOR OF HEBREW AND OF MODERN LANGUAGES IN DICKINSON COLLEGE, CON WAY P. WING, PASTOR OF THE FIRST PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH IN CARLISLE, PENNSYLVANIA. NEW YORK: D. APPLETON" & CO., 90, 92 & 94 GRAND STREET. 1870. OY\ IT^ U -3 O n ^^ ENTERED, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1S5, tf D. APPLETON & COMPANY. In the Clerk's Office of the District Court for the Southern District of New York. TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE. THIS translation was undertaken because its authors knew of no work in English which precisely corresponded with it. The his- tories of Milner, Waddington, Milman, Stebbing, Hardwicke and Robertson, and the translations of Mosheim, Neander, Dol- linger, Thiersch and Schaff, have severally specific merits^ with reference to the objects of their composition ; but many of them are incomplete as general histories, most of them were written so as to give undue prominence to some single aspect of the characters and events of which they treat, and all of them are too large to be used either as manuals for the scholar, as text-books for the instructor, or as compendiums for the general reader. Some attempts to supply the deficiency by Palmer, Timpson, Foulkes, Hinds, Goodrich and Enter, have met with no very general acceptance. A miniature representation of a vast mass of facts, in which each personage and event shall appear in their individual freshness and relative proportions, requires for its exe- cution peculiar talents and rare opportunities. The Germans appear to possess these in a greater degree than any other people. Their learned men highly appreciate the value of such manuals, and their literature abounds in them. One of these, by Dr. Gieselei, has been translated, and is almost invaluable. Bat its text is a mere epitome of results, and bears no proportion to the v at materials in the notes , and the narrative awakens no in- terest. It would be difficult to find a graphic picture, or an ex- IV TRANSLATOR S PKEFACE. pression of feeling in the whole work. Even the posthumous ivolumie which has been promised, will leave the history incomplete. The delay which has taken place in the appearance of this ^vork has afforded many opportunities of learning how much this deficiency was appreciated by competent scholars in England and America. From the letters we have received, and from public journals, we might present many testimonies, not only that such a work was needed, but that nothing in the literature of the present day was so likely to supply the deficiency as a transla- tion of the work we had announced. The style of our author is especially adapted to the Anglo-Saxon mind ; his astonishing- power of condensed expression, his aesthetic, if not religious sym- pathies, with every variety of intellectual and moral greatness, his skilful daguerreotypes of characters by means of the trans- mitted light of contemporary language, the delicate irony and genial humor which pervade his descriptions, the picturesque liveliness with which a single character or incident brings out the manners and spirit of an age, the precision with which his scientific arrangement is preserved, the critical judgment with which the minutest results of recent investigations are in- troduced, and the graceful proportion and animation with which the whole stands out before us, render his history attractive to all kinds of readers. He throws away every name or event which has no historical utility or organic life ; he appreciates an heroic spirit wherever it appears, and each period is estimated as nearly as possible in its own light. His is not merely a history of the hierarchy, of the nobility, or of great men, but of the Church. His descriptions, therefore, embrace especially traits of common life, the progress of the arts, and indications of advancement in social freedom. If his theological opinions do not quite coincide with our own, he seldom, at least in this work, obtrudes them upon our attention. His object seems to have been to maintain historical accuracy, rather than to exhibit his own opinions ; and if sometimes our favorite characters, or views, do not appear in the light in which we have usually contemplated them, his uni- form impartiality and intelligence make us suspect our earlier judgments. None but those who observe the structure rather than the particular dogmatic expressions of this work, will be TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE. v likely to detect the author's peculiar views, and such readers can afford to give them whatever consideration they deserve. A strik- ing comparison has been drawn between him and a living English historian and essayist, but the reference can be only to the live- liness and brilliancy of his historical scenes, and not to the mi- nute space in which the picture of more than eighteen centuries is presented. As soon as we had determined to translate the work, the author was informed of our intention, and we publish his reply to our communication. Unforeseen difficulties, however, delayed, the publication of our work, and when more than a hundred pages had been stereotyped, we received a copy of the seventh edition, with numerous corrections and additions. We have cer- tainly no reason to regret such an occurrence, although it im- posed on us the necessity of recalling and rewriting a large' portion of our manuscript. We submitted, however, with cheer- fulness to the necessity, since we are now able to present an? edition in which some errors have been corrected, the results of recent research, especially with respect to the second and third centuries, have been incorporated, and the eventful history of the last seven years has been added. In an Appendix, we present every thing of importance added by the author in the part which had been already struck off. But as we were obliged in this first part to retain the numbers of the sections used in the sixth edition, and subsequently to adopt those used in the seventh, some confusion has necessarily been created. Should a new edition be called for, we hope not only to remove this defect, but to adapt the work to an American position. The section on America ( 462) has been already, with the author's concur- rence, rewritten and enlarged. Considerable pains have also been taken to adapt the references and authorities to the present state of English literature, and some references to German trans- lations of English and French works have been omitted, but every addition is indicated by brackets. We are well aware that our work has many faults after all our revisions and efforts to correct them, but, like the author, we see no end to the labor which might be bestowed on that which is, by its nature, neces- sarily imperfect. Dr. Hase has given a large part of his atten- vi TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE. tion to the original history for more than twenty years. He was born in the year 1800 at Steinbach. In 1823, he was a private instructor in Theology at Tubingen ; in 1829, he was elected a Professor of Philosophy in Leipsic ; and in 1830. he became a Professor of Theology in Jena, where he still continues. His other works are : The Old Pastor's Testament, Tub. 1824 ; The Murder of Justice, a Vow of the Church, Lps. 1826 ; A Manual of Evang. Dogmatik, Lps. 1826, 4th and much enlarged edit., Lps. 1850 ; Gnosis, Lps. 1827-29, 3 vols. ; Hutterus Bedivivus, or Dogmatik of the Evang. Luth. Church, Lps. 1829, 7 ed. in 1848 (a work whose purely historical account involved him in a controversy with Kohr, the great champion of nationalism, and led to a series of polemical works on that subject) ; The Life of Christ, Lps. 1829, 4th imp. edit. 1854 ; Libri Symbolic! Ecclesiae Evangelicae sive Concordia, of which the 3d ed. ap- peared in Lps. 1846 ; The Two Archbishops, (referring to the difficulties in the dioceses of Cologne and Posen,) Lps. 1839 ; The Good Old Law of the Church, two academical discourses, 2d ed. Lps. 1847 ; The Evang. Prot. Church of the German Empire, on Ecclesiastical Law, 2d ed. Lps. 1852 ; The Modern Prophets, three Lectures on the Maid of Orleans, Savonarola, and the Kingdom of the Anabaptists, Lps. 1851. He has also recently been engaged in the publication of Didot's new edition of Stephanus' Thesaurus Grecae Linguae, of which the seventh part has just appeared. AUTHOR'S LETTER TO THE TRANSLATORS. To Prof. C. E. Blumenthal and Rev. C. P. Wing : DEAR SIRS : Between him who incorporates in a book the results of his most serious and profound mental labors, and those who from a cordial preference endeavor to introduce and interpret it to a foreign nation, must naturally spring up such an intimate intellectual sympathy, that it would seem surprising for them, if contemporaries, to remain strangers to each other. I, therefore, hail with grateful feelings the kind letter you have sent me across the ocean, and in imagination grasp the hand of fraternal fellowship extended to me from the land of William Penn. You have doubtless already discovered that no ordinary obstacles were to be surmounted before a good translation of my Church History could be made, as my object was to compress the most perfect picture of the religious life developed in the Church into the smallest frame ; and hence I was compelled to be very parsimonious in the use of words, and to refer to the original authorities for many things plain to the learned, but obscure to the learner. A French translation, once at- tempted, split upon this rock. I hope, however, that in a sister lan- guage, so essentially Germanic as the English, these difficulties may be more easily overcome, and such a confidence is encouraged by the fact, that in a Danish translation they have been completely vanquished. If I remember correctly, an attempt to translate my work was once made in England, but was abandoned on account of its supposed incon- sistency with the views of the Established Church. You have doubtless considered how far this objection should prevail with reference to the Church of your country, if the numerous and varied communities which have pitched their tents under the banner of the stars and stripes may viii AUTHOR'S LETTER TO THE TRANSLATORS. be truly spoken of as a single Church. I trust, however, that among those who study history from a higher position than that of a party, an assimilation of views will gradually prevail respecting the silent opin- ions and facts which lie behind us in the past. I have at least honestly aimed to recognize in its proper light every element in any way drawn around our common Lord. I have thus endeavored to approach as nearly as possible that exalted position from which the history of his Church will be regarded by Christ himself, not merely as the Judge of ^uick and dead, but as the faithful Shepherd seeking the lost lamb. May my poor book, therefore, be dressed once more in a language spoken on every ocean and coast, and so come back to me from a world to which, as to another holy land, hosts of peaceful crusaders are an- nually pouring to plant anew their hopes, and to realize their long- cherished ideals in subsequent generations. The brief notice of the Church in the United States you propose to substitute for my section on that subject, will doubtless better adapt the work to your country. Whenever the universal interest of the Church was the topic, I have myself given more space to the Church of my fathers. I have no doubt that the alliance commenced between German and American the- ology will prove a blessing to both. Both nations have certainly a great mission assigned them in ecclesiastical history, which each must accomplish in its own peculiar manner. The sixth edition made its appearance just before the storm which has since broken over central Europe. Pius IX., having been driven from his beautiful Babylon by an insurrection which he could not allay by kindness, has been restored by republican France, to substitute a government of priests and Jesuits for a Roman Republic. The French clergy have also hastily concluded to send up the petition " Domine, salvam fac rempublicam," as long as a democratic republic can be main- tained in France. In Germany, our national Assembly at Frankfort not only proclaimed the gospel of liberty for the Church, and the fun- damental rights of the German nation, but going beyond the people whom they professed to regard as their model, they threatened to di- vest the state of all Christian or religious character. The more con- siderate of our nation sent forth their warnings against such a rupture with all historical traditions, and painful political events have since shown that the immediate object of the Protestant German Church should be much more cautious and consonant with the national spirit This object unquestionably is, to give to the Church the administration of its own affairs, in alliance with a state under which the right of citizenship shall depend upon no creed, and the gospel of Christ shall be proclaimed as the highest principle of right. AUTHOR'S LETTER TO THE TRANSLATORS. ix In the Catholic Church, the independence of the state secured tc the hierarchy by the revolution, was made subservient to such an enor- mous increase of its 'powers, that the freedom of the inferior clergy and of the congregations is seriously endangered. What was called Ger- man Catholicism, has shown, as the more sagacious perceived from the commencement, that it lacked the religious energy necessary to effect a reform in the Christian Church. Since it has ceased to be harassed by political obstructions it has dwindled into an insignificant sect. But in the contest between a merely prescriptive Christianity, and the pro- gressive spirit of modern improvement, many a severe conflict must doubtless yet take place, before Christ in this respect also will manifest himself as the Mediator. KAEL HASE. JENA, May *lt\ 1850. PEEFACE TO THE FIEST EDITION. IN composing the following work, my intention was to present a text- book to the public, and to accomplish this, I resolved to devote to it all the severe labor and concentration of effort which such an object requires. But I was aware that however the general outline might be condensed, the living freshness which we find in the original monuments and documents of each historical period, should be preserved unimpaired. Instead, therefore, of endeavoring, like most of those who have prepared such works, to present only that which is general and indefinite, I have con- tinually aimed to hold up that which in each age possessed most of in- dividual and distinct character ; and when it became indispensable that some general grand features should be rendered prominent, I have sought to make these so suggestive of the particular facts, that recollec- tions of the most minute circumstances should throng the mind of the instructor. In this way, the attention will be aroused while in the pro- cess of preparation, and the memory will be strengthened in its recollec- tions, since whatever is characteristic awakens sympathy, and fastens itself in the memory. In this respect, it may be said that what belongs to a good text-book, is also an essential part of every historical repre- sentation. In every century many noble spirits have found their prin- cipal delight, and expended all their energies, in investigating subjects connected with ecclesiastical history. And yet for a long time the com- position of ecclesiastical history seems by no means to have retained the eminent relative position which it held in former days. Without refer- ring to historians of an earlier period, where have we any works upon Church History whose excellence as historical compositions can be com- pared with those of Macjiiavel, Hume, and John M tiller ? Even among the most recent ecclesiastical histories, that of Spittler is the only work which can stand the test of a critical examination by the con- temporary literary world ; but its Christian character is so obviously one-sided, that every one perceives that in this respect it is far inferior PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. XI to that of Neander. In thus expressing my general design, my object is to show what has been my aim, however far I have come short of at- taining it. In these remarks, however, I have had very little reference to the mere literary style ; for, with respect to this, we in Germany generally need, and actually receive, much allowance for the dry form of a compendium. I rather refer to such a careful study of original authorities that the objects and events assume the living freshness of reality, and to a complete intellectual apprehension of the facts. I have also bestowed some attention upon a peculiar department of history, which, though it has in former times been noticed by all genuine eccle- siastical historians, never became prominent until the appearance of the venerable Neander's History of the Christian Religion. I do not, how- ever, by any means expect that my present work will receive very de- cided favor from those who, in a peculiar sense, belong to the school of Neander, since it was certainly not so much my special object to search out what was spiritual and devotional among the people, as it was al- ways to seize upon what was characteristic of the popular religion. In the greatness and completeness of such a representation, there must of course always be much adapted to inspire devotional feelings, and, ac- cordingly, I have constantly felt that I was writing the history of the actual kingdom of God on earth. But as men have often turned that which was really sublime into a caricature, many individual points must necessarily be far enough from edifying. There are some subjects not usually introduced into an ecclesiastical history, to which I have awarded a right to a position there, because they had their origin in the Church. Indeed, in most of the larger Church Histories, nearly all of them have had a certain kind of con- sideration already bestowed upon them. Such is, e. g., the treatment which Schroeckh has given to the subject of Christian art, although the style in which he has written must be confessed to have been singularly awkward. In his Encyclopedia, Rosenkranz has also assigned a due degree of importance to the subject of ecclesiastical architecture. On the other hand, I have omitted many things ordinarily mentioned even in the smallest compendiums. I have, however, so little disposition to offer an apology for this, that I am rather inclined to reproach myself that, especially on the subject of Patristies, I so far yielded to usage that I allowed many topics to retain their ordinary position, which certainly have no right to a place in history. On various occasions it has recently been asserted that ecclesiastical history ought, at least in a course of academical instruction, to throw out a portion of its ballast. And yet we can hardly think that a proper remedy for our difficulties would be found in the plan proposed by Tittmann, according to which xii PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. our future histories must be confined to an account of the promulgation of Christianity, and of the internal constitution of the Church. For, it must readily be perceived, that no true representation of the actual oondition of the Church could ever be made by one who confined him- self to such arbitrary restrictions. If, indeed, an ecclesiastical history should attempt merely to present a connected account of all theological . iterature, it would go beyond its peculiar province, and become an en- cyclopedia of theological knowledge. No particular event connected with theological science ever needs to be noticed, except when it becomes important as a prominent circumstance belonging to the age, and may properly be regarded as characteristic of the times. We cannot, how- ever, entirely dispense with some account of the received doctrines of the Church. Although a separate history of these is of the highest im- portance to the interests of theological science, the ecclesiastical his- torian cannot on that account omit all reference to the subject; for how could the ecclesiastical movements of the fourth, fifth and sixth centuries be adequately described without noticing the various forms and processes through which the doctrinal views of the Church, and its different sects, then passed, and by which the character of those great movements was determined ? Indeed, how could a clear representation be given of any period of the Church, unless it included some account of the system of faith which animates and sustains the whole. There is, in reality, only a formal distinction between the history of doctrines as a special science, and as an element in the general history of the Church ; for, aside from the difference in the outward extent with which the subject is necessarily treated, they only refer to the different poles of the same axis, the former presenting the doctrine rather as an idea unfolding its own self, and the latter exhibiting it in its relation to surrounding events. But the principal method by which ecclesiastical history was to be simplified, was by discarding a mass of useless material. Nothing is a part of history which has not at some period possessed actual life, and con- sequently become immortal, by exhibiting in itself a true refraction of the Christian spirit ; for, as God is only the God of the living, so history is not a record of that which is lifeless and dead, but of that which has a perpetual life. We have, however, hitherto dragged along a vast multitude of these still-born trifles. Of what benefit can it be, at least for students, to have it in their power to repeat the names of all those persons who have been only remotely connected with the different events mentioned in history, of Synods which decided upon nothing, of popes who never governed, and of authors who wrote nothing of importance. A veneration for the names of these silent personages, of whom nothing is recorded but the year of their death, has induced many even of our PKEFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. Xlll greatest ecclesiastical historians to fill whole pages of their works with the useless catalogue. Should any one think that it is the business of the instructor to quicken these dry bones by giving an account of their works, he certainly has very little idea of the range of topics embraced in the academic lecture ; and I appeal to the experience of any one who has ever gone through with the text-book of Staudlin or of Muenscher, and inquire whether he has found it possible to animate the masses found in them ; or if he has been successful in this, whether he has found any advantages worth the trouble 1 I have endeavored, as far as possible, to avoid such useless verbiage in the text, for, although a man- ual should be expected to require much explanation from the living teacher, it should also possess some character of its own. By adopting this plan, opportunity has been acquired for a more extensive notice of those matters which were really important, and it will sometimes be found that I have given to such topics as much space as they ordinarily receive in larger works. It is possible, indeed, that a degree of dispro- portion may be discovered between the attention bestowed upon different individual subjects ; but it was never intended that the most diffuse por- tions should take the place of the oral lecture, but rather excite the reader to examine more thoroughly into the minutest particulars. The principle on which this has been done may be found expressed in the third section of the work. The academic instruction will at least assist the student in gaining a complete view of an age, if it only presents that age most thoroughly in the lives of its individual men ; and it is pre- cisely by such a concrete representation of exalted particular agents that the most distinct impression is produced upon the memory. Shakspeare says, in one of his prologues, " I pray you, look upon the broil of a few players as if it were a real battle ! " In like manner, the historian may request his readers to regard the intellectual chiefs and representatives of a particular period as the age itself. Such a course is not one which I have myself originally discovered, but it is the necessary result of the multiplication of those admirable biographies of which Neander has given us such eminent specimens, and to the compo- sition of which his example has so much contributed. . . , The reader will sometimes meet with very peculiar expressions, such as no one would reasonably have expected from my own pen. . The ex- perienced reader of history will readily perceive that these are quotations which I have taken as a kind of catch-words from the original authori- ties. I might frequently have designated them as such by some mark, but they are generally so interwoven and imperceptibly blended with my own words, that if I had attempted to distinguish the words of other xiv PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. authors from my own, my history would hare had almost the aspect of mosaic work. Although I have never concealed my own opinions, I have generally preferred to let the facts of the narrative speak for themselves. I was also far more anxious to show why any particular event came to pass, and how it was regarded when it took place, than to indulge in those pedantic reflections, in which men every where attempt to act as judges. And yet even with respect to secular matters, I have never shrunk from calling every thing by its right name. In the very darkest times, those who occupied positions purely ecclesiastical, were allowed freely to call that unchristian which was really so. But probably most persons will think that when judging of things inconsistent with true religion, I have used the full liberty which naturally belongs to my position and my character more frequently on the side of leniency than of severity. I have no doubt, however, that in both respects I have given ample grounds for offence to those who apply to other ages the standard of intelli- gence and improvement to which their own has attained, or who judge them by the contracted rules of piety which they have adopted ; in whose eyes Catharine of Siena was merely " a silly kind of woman," and Julius II. " il novum monstrum ; " and who say of Cardinal Hildebrand, that, " the scoundrel even pretended to work miracles ; " or who, on the other side, relate that the word of the cross was ecclesiastically abolished in Weimar in the year 1833. But judicious men will not fail to recog- nize the same disposition in all the apparent changes of opinion which have taken place. They can regard the same words as seasonable, and indicative of an exalted mind, when used by Gregory VII., which are nothing but the helpless lamentations of a feeble old age when they ap- pear in a Bull of Gregory XVI. With regard to the bright side of the mediaeval hierarchy, and the dark side of the Reformation, I do not suppose I need, in a purely theological circle of readers, to guard against misconstructions with a solicitude like that which Van Raumer recently exhibited, when writing for the more general body of the people. I might, indeed, allege that the Reformation was so pure, and so exalted in its nature, that it needs no concealment of its darker passages ; but even if this were untrue, I should nevertheless withhold nothing from the light. Something may be exacted from those for whom the present work is intended ; for, though they may be young, they should be trained to take independent and comprehensive views of history. I have, there- fore, in every instance expressed the whole truth so far as I have myself known it. The only sections in which I have allowed any restrictions were those which contain notices of doctrinal history. Among students with whom I am acquainted, it is always a rule to attend lectures upon PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. XV Ecclesiastical History before those upon Didactic Theology; and it ap pears to me right that this should always be the case. I have, there- fore, in some instances sacrificed something of the profundity of a scientific investigation, that I might address myself more intelligibly to the popular mind. I have also taken some liberty in the general arrangement. No one conversant with the subject would require that each historical period should be accommodated to the same immutable framework. Who would think of bringing the apostolic Church into the same frame which has been found so appropriate to the age of the Reformation ? And if some exceptions must be conceded by those who are most zealous in be- half of an invariable system, we shall not hesitate to abandon this phan- tom of uniform periods. Neither have I thought it necessary when no change had taken place in some particular state of affairs, in all instances to announce in a formal manner, that such was the fact, or to introduce the most unimportant details as I should have felt obliged to do, if I had had just so many spaces to fill in each period. If an event appears not to have possessed much influence until a period after that in which it had its commencement, it will be mentioned only in that in which it be- came fully developed. In all cases, I have recognized no other law than that which requires that each age should be so presented that the clear- est view of it may be obtained, and most firmly fixed in the memory. In some instances, especially in modern history, I was doubtful what arrangement would be best adapted to my purpose. In such cases, my final decision was determined by a very slight preponderance of reasons in its favor, and I shall not, therefore, be surprised if others should come to a different conclusion. If, however, they actually consider all the ad- vantages and results of each method, they will at least appreciate the motives by which I was directed in my selection. A selected -literature is the only thing, in itself of no importance, which is yet essential to a text-book. Where it has been possible, I have distinguished between original authorities and revised editions. I have referred to particular passages at the bottom of the page, not often as proof-passages, but merely as significant and distinct expres- sions of the age in which they were written, and to be communicated verbally by the lecturer himself. The small number of them will cer- tainly not be imputed to my indolence by those who are aware how easily such citations are now to be obtained, and how trifling an evidence they are of genuine study. They will be found most abundant in the present work with reference to recent times (though without regard to the views of the contemporary writers), because it was then more diffi- cult to refer to general original authorities, or to revised editions of them. Xvi PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION. It is, indeed, possible, that if I had waited ten years longer, I could have established some of my positions with more circumspection. But if I had done so, I might at that time have had neither the opportunity nor the inclination to write such a work as is needed for a text-book ; and as I shall be just as able then to make any improvements within my power upon the present work, I hope my friends will kindly accept what I now have to present them, although from the nature of such a work the writer is likely to console himself at its close with the hope that he will at some future day be able to improve and perfect it. JENA, Ascension Day, 1834. PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. THIS Church History has been every where so kindly appreciated and noticed, that I have nothing but my thanks to offer, as I present to the public another edition. With regard to the division into periods, and some minor details, I have recently had occasion to explain my views to a considerable extent in the second number of my polemic treatises. JENA, March 9A, 1836. PREFACE TO THE THIKD EDITION. I CERTAINLY have reason to rejoice in the reception with which this book has been favored, as it has been circulated far beyond the sphere for which it was originally intended. Such a result is especially pleas- ing, as it indicates that the interest recently awakened in ecclesiastical and kindred subjects is not confined to matters pertaining exclusively to the present generation, but that men are anxious to become thoroughly acquainted with the condition of things in earlier times, and to become animated by the rich life of the Church during its whole past existence. But while this is true, literature itself certainly gains but little by this rapid succession of new editions, and it has really been a source of vex- ation to me that I was obliged to allow so fine an opportunity to pass without contributing more to the perfection of this work. The improve- ments introduced have generally been in matters of no great importance, and even where some considerable changes have been made, they have not been the result of any comprehensive investigations of my own, but PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION. XV11 rather of the labors of others. Thus, the section which relates to Savonarola has received some accession to its materials from the re- searches pursued for a while in Florence, by my former beloved col- league Meier, and the history of the Popes since the Reformation has gained something from the ingenious examinations and careful extracts from original documents lately made by Ranke. Although the brevity of a text-book has not allowed frequent references to the German Mythology of Grimm, this work has afforded me much valuable assist- ance when attempting to gain a complete view of the history of the Germanic Church. Prof. Krdbbe, in the Literary Advertiser (1837. N. 10-12.), besides giving a detail of individual facts, which is instructive to any one, and is especially worthy of my particular thanks, has passed a judgment upon the spirit of my book, by comparing it with Neander's Church History as a standard. In this respect, we Germans are a very strange people. If any one has succeeded in accomplishing any thing excellent in his own peculiar way, we always think that if another attempts any thing in the same department, he must set about it in precisely the same style. But the very fact that this particular kind of historical writing has had for its representative and cultivator one so eminently endowed as Neander confessedly is, renders it comparatively needless that others should enter the same field, and unlikely that any should equal him. "We can only hope that he may have health sufficient, and life long enough, to complete his great work. If, however, it is thought that a text-book in his style is desirable, Dr. Guerike has certainly made the most diligent use of his pages, and should it be objected that Guerike's orthodoxy is extreme, Neander himself has trained up a num- ber of clever pupils, of whom more than one is competent to write a text-book. I have received in my own way much advantage from Neander, but my original constitution is so different from his, and my mind has passed through a process of development so very different, that I should have gained but little, whatever efforts I had made to imitate him. No one should expect to gather grapes of thorns, though possibly roses might be found upon them. The judgment of the Hegelian school has been expressed in a review by Prof. Hasse, in the Annual Register of Scientific Criticism (1836. N. 66-68.). The liberal spirit of true science, and the friendly disposition of the writer cannot be mistaken in the piece, in spite of the severe terms in which that judgment is expressed. He has, how ever, done me some injustice when he asserts that I attempted in my remarks respecting general and indefinite expressions in my first preface, to escape from the universal principles of philosophical thought. I XV111 PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION only intended there to speak against those indefinite phrases which are so common in our ordinary text-books, as, e. g., the very example which I then adduced, where whole pages are filled with names distinguished only by a cross and a date, which give to them the appearance of a Moravian cemetery, rather than of an abundant and varied individual life. Against the objection that I indulged too much in the description of minute details, which might be urged more correctly against historical representations, I will not reply that it certainly requires more labor to collect such minor particulars from the original authorities than it does to make general reflections upon the events, for I am well aware that my worthy opponent would contend for the former as a part of his own plan, and that he really would require such an earnest investigation of facts, as cannot be performed without a severe exercise of thought. But this earnest inquiry into the origin and nature of things, I have in no instance avoided. With regard to the general principles contained in the facts of history, it will be found that the summaries prefixed to the periods contain nothing else, and that the subsequent details of particular and distinct events may really be regarded as a more ex- tended illustration of them. But his account of my method of procedure in this matter is not altogether correct. He says; "The author, e. g., instead of giving us the true origin of monasticism, presents us with a description of St. Anthony ; and even of him, we have merely a series of peculiar traits of character expressed in the most pithy style." And yet just before the section alluded to, a complete general view of the origin and spirit of that whole theory of religious life out of which necessarily proceeded a style of living, of which that of the anchorets was an extreme form, had been presented (now 64.), and in the next period, when that which properly may be called the monastic life came before us, a similar general representation of the true object and spirit of this style of life is given (now 134.). The reviewer proceeds: " We are then presented in a similar style with a portraiture of Cyprian (now 84.), as the representative of the whole ecclesiastical life of his age, and a characteristic incident in the life of Leo the Great is given as a specimen of the mode in which the Roman bishops drew into their own hands the administration of the government of the whole Church." But in the first instance here mentioned, the account of Cyprian was preceded by a history of the process by which the legal relations of the Church had been formed, and by some notice of the general character- istics of the ecclesiastical life ; and in the other case, all the antecedent principles had already been mentioned by means of which the Roman see had gained a consciousness of its future destiny. Cyprian and Leo are described to a greater extent than others, because they were re- PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION. XIX garded as the natural representatives of this peculiar phase of the eccle- siastical life. My object was in this way to bring the abstract principles which I had laid down into a concrete representation by means of these important individual characters, inasmuch as I had certainly supposed this to be the proper method in which history should be written. I suppose I must submit when our critic condescends to impute every thing which he approves in this history to what he calls " the happy tact of the writer, which enables him to discover things as it were by instinct or divination," because he did not find them proceeding from Hegelian principles, and they were not embellished with the well-known formulae of his own school. I am not, indeed, one of those who strive to affect ignorance of those results of the Hegelian philosophy which have had so general an influence upon the history of our world. But with respect to historical writing, Marheineke's History of the Reforma- tion has put the question beyond all doubt, that a man can be an emi- nent historian, and at the same time a friend of the Hegelian philosophy ; and yet there are already some symptoms that a zealous Hegelian may pretty thoroughly ruin the history which he attempts to write. Indeed, there can be no doubt that if a history of the Church were written, even by a writer as profound as Daub himself, on the principles and method lately recommended by him in the Journal for Speculative Theology, it would turn out to be utterly unreadable to most of our race. At any rate, we may console ourselves with the recollection, that since the time of Thucydides there have been some writers who, by a happy tact, or by divination, have been able to produce something like tolerable his- tories, although it does not appear that they were guided by Hegelian principles, or used Hegelian formulae. It has been pleasant to me to find that some learned men of the Catholic Church have recognized my honest intention to be uniformly just toward their Church, and to declare the whole truth in every case. It would hardly be candid in the different parties generally to expect from each other more than such acknowledgments of good will, since it must necessarily be a condition of their different ecclesiastical positions that the same events should have a different aspect in the view of each, and that one should always find something of which it disapproves in the accounts of the other. But it is no small gain when both are con- vinced of each other's good will. I refer particularly to a criticism by Prof. Hefek, in the Quarterly Journal of Tubingen, (1836, N. 4.) He is entirely correct when he says, that what I have written in 333, where it is said, " the idols were burned," was not intended to express my own view. Nor is it precisely meant as an expression of what Zwingle himself believed on the subject. It is rather the view and the XX PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION. language of the whole generation in that vicinity from which this de struction of the images proceeded ; and although the expression is rather rude, it was selected as the briefest by which the motives of the actors could be made known. In the passage in which Amsdorf 's installation as Bishop of Naumburg (now 337), is mentioned, I am better agreed with the honored Reviewer than he seems to have suspected. For when it is there said, " The elector could not resist the temptation to provide an apostolic bishop for that see," it is not merely intended that such was the purpose of the elector and his counsellors, and such the reason by which they satisfied their own consciences in this proceeding, but a slight touch of irony is blended with the whole, and is indicated in the expression, that the elector could not resist such a temptation, since the apostolic character of ( this bishop, in the opinion of the court, consisted principally in the fact, that the new incumbent would draw but a small salary, and consequently the electoral treasury would be enriched by the ample revenues of the bishopric. I confess, too, that I can see very little of a more apostolic character in our Lutheran zealot Amsdorf than in the mild and learned Julius von Pflug. But whatever one may think with regard to these points, the whole proceeding was in violation of long established rights. Although a little surprised that he should have called the style of my work enigmatical, I was happy to find that this Reviewer fully appreciated the view which I had expressed with regard to the relation of a text-book to the oral lecture. It would seem, however, from the historical examples which he adduces, that he at least succeeded in completely understanding my meaning when I re- marked, that the subjects which are more generally treated, and barely hinted at, in the text-book, are founded upon distinct historical views, and are so presented as to invite the instructor, who is well informed on the minute details, to communicate and enlarge upon them. Tho style required for this I should not call enigmatic, merely because those who have not become familar with the original authorities of the history may find something not properly obscure, but to be passed over more superficially than other subjects, and without a complete exhaus- tion of its contents. A germ, or a bud, cannot, indeed, be fully seen until it has become expanded in the flower ; but whoever sees the bud, has before him not merely an enigma, but what is already an intelligible reality. This is very much like the comparison which the Reviewer made between the Florentine and the Roman schools of painting, to illustrate the distinction between Catholic history and my own, or the ordinary orthodox histories of the Church. Every well-educated person will readily perceive the import, and the striking nature of this com parison. But any one familar with the peculiarities of the two schools. PREFACE TO THE FIFTH EDITION. XXI and has a vivid conception of their productions, will appreciate the profound truth, and the extensive applicability of this ingenious com- parison. JENA, June 4=th, 1837. PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION. DURING the years which have elapsed while the previous editions have been given to the public, I have had time and inclination enough not only more thoroughly to investigate many particulars (though I must not withhold my heartiest thanks from those who have assisted me), but also to revise the whole, without, however, changing the essential char- acter of the book. The object for which it was originally intended would allow of no augmentation of its size. The vastness of its subject rendered all attempts to render the contents themselves more perfect in their relations and in their distinctness an absolutely interminable task. But on this anniversary of the morning on which, seven years ago, the first preface of this work was written, I am painfully oppressed by the recollection, that a large part of the most vigorous and most tranquil portion of my life has been spent in efforts to improve a work of such a limited extent ; and I cannot venture upon any further prom- ises with regard to future efforts in this matter. JENA, Ascension Day, 1841. PREFACE TO THE FIFTH EDITION. THE ten years to which I alluded at the close of the preface to the first edition have now passed, and it is certain that in an animated in- tercourse with the age in which I live, many of the positions I first as- sumed have either been more carefully verified, or have been changed. Either in the German, or in a foreign language, this work has found its way through the hands of the youth into the quiet residences of many pastors, and even into palaces. Thus, under the divine blessing, may it proceed onward in its course, producing in the Church a sound consciousness of her historical development until it shall have fulfilled its mission. JENA, Jan. 1st, 1844. PREFACE TO THE SIXTH EDITION. PEEFACE TO THE SIXTH EDITION. WHATEVER is new in this edition will be found principally in those portions relating to the most ancient and the most modern times. Most of what I have added to the former has been occasioned by the researches of the new school of Tubingen. These were not altogether unknown to me during the composition of the original work, but in con sequence of the works of Baur, Paulus and Schwegler, with reference to the period immediately after the apostles, they now appear in more per- fect relations. I was in no danger of maintaining an obstinate resistance to the fundamental principles of their historical scheme, to avoid the necessity of taking back my former assertions on the same subject, for, in the first edition, I had maintained that a primary form of ecclesi- astical orthodoxy was Ebionism, although afterwards, in consequence of the progress of other views, this was regarded as a heresy. The very earliest theological treatise which I published, as long ago as 1824, and which was quoted by Dr. Schwegler himself, was written to show that the Epistle to the Hebrews belonged to an Ebionite party. And yet I have never been convinced that the struggle between the Jewish and the Pauline parties continued as late as a century after the death of the apostles, and in countries beyond the limits of Palestine, and constituted the great moving principle of the history and literature of that century. It did not belong to a mere text-book to discuss the ingenious arguments which Dr. von Baur has brought forward, but my present revision has certainly gone quite far enough into this matter, and my history of this oldest period of Church history seems almost every where like a quiet conference with the Tubingen school, by adopting or controverting whose positions it has been much benefited. I was, of course, unable to make use at that time of the new edition (4 ed. 1847.) of Neander's history of the apostolic Church. The abundant materials which the last four years have afforded, were easily added, like new annual rings and shoots, to the old trunk of the most modern history. I have, for this once, spared myself the disagreeable task of reading the proof-sheets for the correction of typographical errors, but an un- pleasant mistake has caught my eye in note b, under 8, where my diligent proof-reader, even in opposition to grammatical propriety, has allowed ab orbe condita to stand as in the preceding edition. In quoting from the Fathers, and from some other authors, I was sometimes obliged to give the page, and I therefore here mention the editions to which I referred : Athanasii Opp. Par. 1627. dementia Alex. Opp. ed. Potter. Oxon. 1715. Cypriani Opp. ed. Fell. Amst. PREFACE TO THE SEVENTH EDITION. XX111 1713. Epiphanii Opp. ed. Petav. Par. 1622. Hieronymi Opp. ed. Martianay, when that of Vallarsi is not expressly mentioned. Justini Opp. ed. Otto. Jen. 1842s. Leon M. Opp. edd. Ballerini. Origenis Opp. ed. Delarue. G-erson. ed. Da Pin. Antu. 1706. G-uicciardini. Yen. 1583-4. Mattheus Paris. Par. 1644. Melancth. Epp. in the Corpus Reformatorum ed. Bretschneider. Platina. 1664. Dutch edition. Trithemi Annales Hirsang. S. Gralli. 1690. In the notes to the latest modern history, the abbreviations A. K. Z. mean the (Darmstadt) Allegemeine Kirchen-Zeitung ; Ev. K. Z. mean Evangelische Kirchen-Zeitung ; Brl. A. K. Z. mean Berliner Allgemeine Kirchen-Zeitung; A. Z. mean Augsburger Allgemeine Zeitung ; L. A. Z., or D. A. Z., mean Leipziger, afterwards Deutsche Allgemeine Zeitung. It may be that some public documents which had been published in the religious, are quoted from the political journals, because I had first met with them in the latter, but it is certainly very desirable for future historical purposes, that our religious periodicals should collect in a more perfect manner than they have done the original documents, especially of foreign Churches. This will become especially important, if the Acta historico-ecclesiastica, which poor Rheinwald com menced, should never be continued. JENA, First Sunday in Advent, 184V. PKEFACE TO THE SEVENTH EDITION. ALTHOUGH I had supposed that I had before neglected nothing, the re- vision of this work for a new impression has given occasion for so many improvements, or at least alterations, that the immensity of the affair has once more forced itself upon my attention. Hence the necessity, to my present annoyance, of a much enlarged edition. I might very properly excuse myself by saying, as Pascal did, in one of his Provin- cial Letters, that I have no time to make it briefer. An author ought, indeed, always to take time for a book, since generally he is under no necessity of publishing prematurely. But the publication of a new edition is sometimes beyond his control. When, last Spring, I re-com- menced my lectures upon Church History, a sufficient number of copies of this text-book were not to be obtained ; I was therefore obliged to supply my pupils with the separate sheets as they came from the press, and to finish the preparation within a limited time. 3 PREFACE TO THE SEVENTH EDITION. I have been accustomed generally to correct the last proof-sheets with my own hands, but on the present occasion I spared myself the un- pleasant task of reading to find typographical errors ; and I committed to my students the work of diligently watching for these marks of human frailty. Their keen young eyes have discovered some mistakes of this kind ; and not to mentibn those which are unimportant, and are easily seen and corrected, I will only notice that instead of Eugeniu* VI., on p. 279, Eugenius IV., should be inserted; and instead of 1835, in the third line from the bottom of p. 405, 1853 should be printed. ******** Where quotations are made from the Fathers, and some other writers, and frequently the precise number of the page must be men- tioned, I have referred to the following editions : Cypriani Opp. ed. Fell. Amst. 1713. Epiphanii Opp. ed. Petav. Par. 1622. Hieronymi Opp. ed. Martianay, where Villarsi is not expressly mentioned. Justini Opp. ed. Otto, Jen. 1847s. Leon. M. Opp. ed. Ballerinii. Origenis Opp. ed. Delarue. Gerson, ed. Du Pin. Antu. 1706. Guicciardini ; Yen. 1583-4. Mattheus Paris; Par. 1644. Melancth. Epp. in the Corpus Reforrnatorum. Platina 1664. Dutch edit. Trethemii Annales Hirsaug. S. Galli. 1690. Sleidan. Argent. 1555. Sarpi 1699-4. Seckendorf. Francof. 1688. Ranke, deutsche Gesch. 3. ed. While the work was passing through the press, and after those sections to which they referred had been printed, many important works have appeared, which might have had an influence upon my statements. I will not mention them here, for after a few months such a list would be as imperfect as before. The author of a monograph must be ex- pected, of course, to understand his subject better than others ; but he who writes a general history, must learn from many, and be corrected by almost all. JEXA, Feb. 27^, 1864. CONTENTS. INTRODUCTION. CHAP. I PLAN. RCT. PAGH 1. The Church and the World, ..... 1 2. Idea of Church History, * . . . . . 1 3. Proper Province of Church History, ..... 2 4. Relation to the General History of Religion, .... 2 5. Mode of Treating Church History, ..... 3 6. Value of Church History, . . . . . 3 7. Sources, . . . . . . . .8 8. Auxiliary Sciences, ....... 4 9. Division ......... 5 CHAP. II GENERAL LITERATURE. 10. Polemical Church History, ...... 7 11. French Ecclesiastical Historians, ...... 8 12. Protestant Scientific Church History, .... 8 13. Writers of the German Catholic Church, . . . . . U ANCIENT CHURCH HISTORY. PERIOD I. FROM QHRIST TO CONSTANTINE. 14. General View and Original Authorities, . . . . .18 DIVISION L ESTABLISHMENT OF THE CHURCH. CHAP. L INTRODUCTORY HISTORY. L CLASSIC HEATHENISM. 15. Popular Life among the Greeks, . . . . . .15 16. Limits of Grecian Refinement, . . . . . 15 17. The Religion of the Greeks, . . . . . .16 18. Relation of Philosophy to the Popular Religion, . .16 XXVI CONTENTS. BCT. FAOI 19. Rome as a Republic, ....... 17 20. Decline of Greece, ... ... 18 21. Elevation and Decline of Rome, . . . .18 22. Decline of the Popular Religion, . . . . . 19 IL JUDAISM. 23. The Religious Life of the People, . . . . . .20 24. The Dispersed Jews, . . . . . . 21 25. Hellenism, ........ 21 26. The Three Sects, . . ... . . . 22 27. The Samaritans, ........ 23 28. Proselytes, ........ 23 CHAP. IL THE APOSTOLIC CHURCH. 29. The First Pentecost, ....... 24 30. Fortune of the Church of Jerusalem, .... 25 31. Jewish Christianity, . . . . . . .26 32. Samaritan Christians and Sects, ..... 26 33. Paul, 27 34. Peter, ......... 30 35. Position of Parties in the time of Paul, . . . . .31 86. John, ......... 33 "37. Parties in the Time of John, . . . . . .34 38. Traditions Respecting the Apostles, ..... 86 39. Apostolical Fathers of the First Century, . . . .86 40. Political Overthrow of Judaism, ..... 36 41. The Roman Civil Power, ....... 87 42. Constitution of the Local Churches, ..... 88 43. Ecclesiastical Life, ....... 39 44. Mode of Worship, ....... 40 45. Doctrines of the Church, ....... 41 DIVISION IL FORMATION OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. CHAP. I. STRUGGLE OF THE CHURCH FOR ITS OWN EXISTENCE. 46. The Jews, ......... 42 47. The Roman People and Empire, ..... 43 48. Conduct of the Individual Emperors of the Second and Third Centuries, 44 49. Internal History of Paganism, . . . . . .46 50. New-Platonism, ....... 47 51. Literary Controversies of Christianity, . . . . .49 52. The Christian Apologists, ...... 60 53. Religion of Barbarous Nations, . . . . . .53 54. Spread of Christianity, ...... 63 55. The Last Persecution, ....... 54 56. The Martyrs, ........ 55 CHAP. IL SOCIAL CONSTITUTION OF THE CHURCH. 57. Original Documents on Ecclesiastical Law, . . . .56 58. The Clergy and the Laity, . . . . ,/,'..*'. 57 59. Bishops, ......... 59 60. Synods, ........ 60 61. Metropolitans, . . . , . . .60 62. The Three Great Bishops, . . . . . . 61 63. The Catholic Church and its Branches, . . . . .62 CONTENTS.- XXVU CHAP. HI ECCLESIASTICAL LIFE. 64 Christian Morals, . . . . . . .63 65. St. Anthony, ........ 64 66. Ecclesiastical Discipline, .... ... 65 67. The Montanists, ....... 6 68. The Novatians, ........ 67 69. Holy Seasons, and the Controversy about Easter, . . 67 70. Sacred Places, and their Decoration, . . . . .69 71. Sacred Services, ..... .69 CHAP. IV. DOCTRINES OF THE CHUKCH, AND OPINIONS OPPOSED TO THEM. 72. Sources from which the Church derived its System of Faith, . .71 73. Apostolic Fathers of the Second Century. Cont. from 39, . 72 74. Ecclesiastical Literature and Heresy, . . . .73 75. Ebionism. Cont. from 35, . . . . . . 74 76. I. Gnosticism, . . . . . . .75 77. II. Syrian Gnostics, ....... 77 78. III. Hellenistic Gnostics, ...'.... 78 79. IV. Gnostics, in an especial sense Christian, . . . . 81 80. V. Judaizing Gnostics, . . . . . . .83 81. VI. Influence of Gnosticism upon the Church, ... 85 82. Manichaeism, .... .... 86 83. Historico-Ecclesiastical Theology, ..... 88 4. Thascius Caecilianus Cyprianus, . . . . . . 89 85. I. The School of Alexandria, ...... 91 86. II. Characteristics of the Alexandrian Theology, . . .93 87. III. Influence of Origen, . . . . . . 94 88. Appendix to the Literary History, . . . . .96 89. Apocryphal Literature, ...... 96 90. Subordinationists and Monarchians, . . . . .98 PERIOD II. FROM OONSTANTINE TO CIIAKLES THE GEEAT. 91. General View, . . . . . . . .101 DIVISION L THE IMPERIAL CHURCH. 02. Original Authorities, . . . . . . . 101 CHAP. I. VICTORY AND DEFEAT OF CHRISTIANITY. 93. Constantine and his Sons, . .... 103 94. Julianus Apostata, ... ... 104 95. The Fall of Paganism, . . ... 105 96. Massalians and Hypsistarians, . . . ,107 97. Christianity under the Persians, ...... 107 98. Abyssinia and the Diaspora, . . . 108 99. Mohammed, . ..... 108 100. Victories of Islam, . ..... 110 CHAP. IL THEOLOGY AND SCIENCE. 01. Conflicts and Sources of the Ecclesiastical Life, . . . .110 XXVlil CONTENTS. BCT. FA its course. In its scientific form, it is the combination of all those individual elements which have had any influence upon its composition, since it is, 1) critically, an im- partial, honest, and strict inquiry into facts, and into the extent of the confi- dence which can be reposed in their proofs, so that where certainty cannot be attained, a knowledge of this extent in its different degrees may determine the scientific character of the narrative ; 2) genetically, a statement of the facts in connection with their causes, taking care, however, that no explana- tions are given inconsistent with the proper nature of the idea developed in the events, or with the peculiar character of the active agents in them ; 8) theologically , an estimation of the facts in their precise relation to the reli- gious spirit, allowing no preconceived opinions to determine what has actu- ally occurred but only to assist in understanding them as we find them. The correct manner of narration, or the historical style, is that which the student naturally adopts when he has acquired a true conception of the events, and then fully expresses this in living freshness and reality. 3. Proper Province of Church History. Within the appropriate department of Church History lie all facts which either proceed directly from the common Christian spirit, or indirectly are dependent upon the opposition or co-operation of the world. Some of these belong necessarily to the history, and are essential points of development by which the Christian spirit must be represented ; but others are only carefully selected representatives of the age in which they occur, or peculiar manifes- tations of the Christian spirit in some important individuals. 4. Relation to the General History of Eeligion. Hist g6n6rale des ceremonies, mcenrs et coutumes rel. de tousles peuples, represented par figures dessinees de la main de JB, Picard, avec des explicst hist (Amst 1728ss. 7 vote.) Par. 1741ss. 8 vols. J. Meiners, Allg. Krit Gesch. d. Rellgionen. Hann. 1806s. 2 Th. JR V. WeUler, Idcen z. Gesch. d. Entw. ) Hist ecclesiastique. Par. 1991-1720. 20 Th. 4. and often (till 1414.) transl. into the Lat ItaL and Germ, continued, without suitable qualifications for the work, by Jean Claud Fabre. Par. 1726-40. 20 Th. 4. and by Alex. La Croix. Par. 1776-78. 6 Th. [The work of Fleury is in part transl. into Eng. in 5 vols. 4. and is in course of publ. by J. H. N&ioman. Oxon. 1842.] c) Discours sur THistoire universelle depuis le commencement du monde jnsqu'A Tempire de Charles Magne ; [Par. 1846. 18mo. and in 2 mag. vols. 8. transl. by Rich. Spencer. Lond. 1730. 8.] d)'Memoires pour servir k 1'Hist eccl. des six pr6miere slecles, justifies par les citations des auteure originaux. Par. 1693ss. 16 Th. 4. and often. 12. SEMLER. 8CHROECKH. HENKE. 9 couraged by his Pietism, and a strong predilection for such studies, to search eagerly for traces of the Christian life in those persons who had in each cen- tury been rejected by the Church, (a) The liberal tendency of the former, and the pious spirit of the latter writer, were equally opposed to the established Church of their day. Weismanri's gentle love of truth, made him strive to re- concile both these tendencies in his selection of important events. (b) Mo- slieim, conscious of historical talents, with a power of combination always bold, and sometimes extravagant, and an acquaintance with men in various and friendly relations, is universally acknowledged to have been a master of ecclesiastical historical writing, (c) Next to him, Cramer was distinguished for his accurate delineation and careful investigation of the dogmatic history of the middle ages, (d) while Semler, with no attractions of style, and no per- ception of the peculiar condition of earlier times, but with a lofty indepen- dence, was always plunging anew into the trackless abyss of ancient sources, (e) In the position thus acquired, but with a more believing spirit, Schruckh has written a Church History, which, after it ceased to be a tedious Header, as it seemed to be in the earlier volumes, and rose to the dignity of a scientific work, is equally trustworthy with respect to its materials, and ample in its details. The last volumes were added by TzscMrner, with a fresher energy, and more decided sentiments. (/) Writers of a liberal tendency followed the path marked out by Semler. Spittler gave to Church History a more anima- ted and secular aspect, and at the same time traced more perfectly its con- nections with General History, (g) Henke treated it rather as if it were a history of religious errors, and a court before which was to be arraigned all kinds of spiritual despotism. "When writing of events subsequent to the Ee- formation, his work is especially valuable for its accurate regard for even un- important matters ; but it is often lifeless, and tinged with the strongest pre- judices of his age. (K) As soon as the opposition to the ecclesiastical spirit of earlier times had become developed into a well-defined subjectivity, a higher scientific character was supposed to be attained by the affectation of extreme indifference. Schmidt collected materials exclusively from the sources, (i) Engelhardt gives us a clear, calm, and frigid account of the na- a) Unpartheyische Kitchen- u. Ketzer-Hist (Frkf. 1699s. f. 1T29. 4 Th. 4.) Schaffh. 1740ss. 8 Th. f. &) Introductio in memorabilia eccl. maxime Saeculorum primorum et novissimorum (Tub. 1718. 2 vols.) Hal. 1T45. 2 vols. 4. c) His principal complete work is, Institutionum Hist. eccl. antiquae et recentioris, 1. IV. Helmst (1755. 4.) 1764. 4 ; Ubers. u. verm. v. J. v. Einem. Lpz. 1769-78. 9 vols. and by J. R. Schlegel, Heilbr. (1 & 2 vols. 1770s.) 1786ss. 7 vols. ; comp. Lucke, Narratio de J. L. Moshemio. GStt 1837. 4 ; [Transl. into Eng. with notes, by J. Murdoch. New York. 3 vols. 8vo. 8 ed. 1841. and by A. McLaine, with notes, and often reprinted; his Commentarii d reb. Chr. ante Const has been recently transl. into Engl. by Dr, Murdoch.] d) Bossueffs Einl. in d. Gesch. d. "Welt u. Eel. ubers. mit Abhandl. verm. u. fortges. v. Cramer. Lpz. (1748ss.) 1757ss. 8 vols.. e) Historiae eccl. selects capita. Hal. 1767ss. 3 Th. ; Versuche e. fruchtb. Ausz. d. KGesch. Hal. 1773ss. 3 Th. ; Vers. Christl. Jahrb. Hal. 1782. 2 vols. /) Christl. KGesch. (till the Reform.) Lp>c. 1768-1803. 35 Th. 2 ed. 1-13 vols. 1772-1802 ; KGesch. since the Eef. Lpz. 1804-10. 10 Th. g~) Grund- riss der Gesch. d. Christl. Kirche. Gcitt 1782. 5 ed. cont till the present time by G. J. Planck, Gott 1812 ; in SpUtler^ works. Stuttg. 1827. vol. II. K) Allg. Gesch. d. Chr. Kirche nach d. Zeit- folge. Braunschw. 1788-1818. 8 vols. 5 ed. of 1st & 2d vols. 4 ed. of 3d & 4th vols. and 2 ed. of 5th & 6th vols. ; the last ed. of vols. Is. 5s. after a careful revision (so as even to lose many of its origi- nal peculiarities), edited and cont (7th & 8th vols.) by J. & Vater. The Hist since the Reform, vols. 8-8. Vater has also comprised in 1 Th. (1823.) and published as Th. 9. i) Handb. d. Chr. KGesch 10 INTRODUCTION. CHAP. II. LITERATURE. ked facts, and he often descends to the minutest particulars. (&) The publi- cation of the original authorities, which had been cautiously commenced with a profusion of literary treasures by Danz, (T) was continued by Gieseler, with much judgment in his selections and in his critical remarks, and a running commentary upon his citations, (ra) Sometimes Tables, and well digested ex- tracts, are useful in giving a general view of the whole field, (ri) Stdudlirfs Text-Book is a convenient collection of general facts, with a few traces ol the Kantian philosophy. Narle's was compiled with diligence, and not with- out elegance, but it is without accuracy or character. August? s is a rapid and convenient survey of the whole subject, especially of that part which relates to the Keformation. ReJini's is an extended table of contents, espe- cially with respect to the secular department of ecclesiastical history. Lange's is a return to the Protestant controversial style of writing, but with a laxer faith in the authority of the Bible and of human reason itself, (o) The attempt which MarJieineclce made to construct a philosophical system of Church History was abandoned at an early stage of the work, but it was full of promise, (p) The decidedly pietistic tendency was for a long time repre- sented only by Milner, whose object was entirely practical and devotional and did not lead him to study the sources, (q) until Neander gave it a scien- tific character, by referring to the original authorities, developing its doc- trines in an intelligent manner, and giving prominence to the long-neglected representations of the Christian life. Though affectionately attached to the Church, he was tolerant toward all who opposed it on merely doctrinal grounds, and clothed all his descriptions with an ample devotional drapery, (r) In these respects, as well as in others, the Church History of Guericke is only a dependent abstract of his work, characterized by the same Christian sin- cerity, but with a zeal so ardent for strict Lutheranism, that it finally became little more than a severe lecture upon the apostasies of more recent times. () In the Reformed Church, Jacob Homage still pursued the plan of repelling Bos- suet's reproaches, by fastening them upon his opponent's own Church ; but he has imitated too closely the models which he had chosen from the French Giess. 1801-20. 6 Th. 2 ed. 1-4 Th. 1825-27. (till Innocent IIL) cont by F. W. Rettberg, 1 Th. Giess. 1834. k) Handb. d. KQescb. ErL 1888s. 4 vols. I) Lehrb. d. KGesch. Jena. 1818-26. 2 vols. ; Kurzgef. Zusammenst d. KGesch. Jena. 1S24. m) Lehrb. d. KGesch. Bonn. 1824-40. 2 vols. and 8 vols. ; 1 Abth. (till 1648.) 4 ed. of 1st vol. ; 1 & 2 Abth. 1844s. 8 ed. of 2d voL ; 1 & 2 Abtb. 1831s.; [transl. in 8 vols. by & Davidson, Edinb. 1846-63.] TO) Voter, Bynchron. Tabellen d. KGesch. Hal. (1803.) cont by J. O. Thilo, 6 ed. Hal. 1838. f. ; Tetens ffald, Hist. eccl. VI. priorum Saec. synoptice enarrata. Havn. 1880; Medii aevi (604-858.) P. 1. 1832. 4; J. T. L. Dam, Kirchen- hist. Tab. Jena. 1838. f. ; C. Wahl, KGesch. in Bildern, fiir Studirende u. Candidaten. Meissen. 1840. f; (Amusements) L. Lange, Tab. d. K-. n. DGesch. Jena. 1841. 4; J. M. Schroeckh, Hist re- ligionis et eccl. Christ Ber. 1777. ed. 7. cur. STarheinecke. 1828 ; J. G. C. Schmidt, Lehrb. d. KGesch. Giess. (1800. 1808.) 1826. o) Stdudlin, Universalgesch. der Chr. Kirche. Han. 1807. 5. verb. u. fortges. A. v. f. A. JTolzhausen. 1833; F. A. Naebe, Comp. Hist Eccl. ac sacrornm Christ Lpz. 1832; Att- gusti, Hist ecc. Epitome. Lpz. 1834; F. Rehm, Grundr. d. Gesch. d. Kirche, mit bes. Rucks, auf. d. Yerfass. ders. Marb. 1835 ; Lobeg. lange, Lehrb. d. Chr. KGesch. zur Vertheid. Befest u. Fort- bild. d. Prot Kirche. Lpz. 1846. p) Universal-Kirchenhlst d. Christenth. Erlang. 1806. 1 Th. q) [Hist of the Church of Christ. Lond. 5 vols. 8vo. 1824 4 vols. 8. 1834. with a continuation by J. Seott. Lond. 1826. 4 vols. 12; Philad. 2 vols. 12. 1845.] r) Allg. Gesch. d. Chr. Rel. u. K. bis auf Bonifaz VIII. 10 vols. Hamb. 1846; [Gen. Hist of the Ohr. Rel. and Church, trausL by J. Torrey, 4 vols. 8vo. Boston. 1847-51.] ) Handb. d. KGesch, Hal (1833-46. 3 vols.) 8 vols. ; Abriss d. 12. VENEMA. SCHLEIEEMACIIEE. 13. STOLBEEG. 1 1 literature of Iris time, (t) VenemcCs Church History is simply an excellent collection of original authorities, (u) A few compendiums contain all the re- sults of the studies in ecclesiastical history, so far as these had been attained when they were respectively written. That of Royaard especially was writ- ten with remarkable accuracy and care, (v) Schleiermacher, in his oral com- munications, endeavored to effect a union of the liberal and pietistic tenden- cies, and has executed in a rather fragmentary manner, a plan, in which, the ordinary materials being presupposed, is represented the intensive and exten- sive development of the new principle of divine life which emanated from Christ, (w) Ni-edner has contributed, in addition to this, a work which is something between a text-book and a manual, presenting not merely a dry col- lection of thoughts, but an abundance of elementary views of individual subjects, (x) Among the histories adapted to popular use, (y} may be men- tioned the work of Gfrorer, which was at first designed to be a history for the German people ; but it finally became an ample representation of the subject, and generally depended for its materials upon the best authorities. The strongly marked peculiarity of this work, sometimes in a paradoxical manner, but frequently with much good sense, breaks through the devotional phrases even of his authorities, (z) 13. Writers of the German Catholic Church. It was not until Joseph II. attempted to draw away the German Church from its connection with Rome, that an independent and liberal, but rather rash and contracted interest in the ecclesiastical affairs of previous times, began to be cultivated in Germany. In the commencement of this movement, RoyTco, in his rough style, neglected nothing which could injure the hier- archy, (a) Dannenmayr, with more caution, and more general views, pre- pared a text-book for the Austrian schools, (&) and B. Wolf sent forth what de- servea to be called a satire rather than a history, (c) A movement of a higher order received its original impulse from the Protestant Church. Stolberg, with the zeal, the unction, and the unconditional faith of a proselyte, but with a benevolent and glowing spirit, has presented the more benign aspect of Catholicism, while writing and singing the History of the Jewish people, KGesch. Hal. 1842. t) Histoire de 1'eglise depuis Jesus Chr. Rotterd. 1699 ; [Par. 1725. 2 vols. 4.] u) Institutiones Hist eccl. V. et N. Lugd. 1777ss. 7 Th. 4 till 1600. v) J. A. Turretini, Hist. Eccl. comp. usque ad. a. 1700. Gen. 1734. ed. et continuavit J, 8/imonls. Hal. 1750 ; TJebers. u. fortges. v. Tollner. Konigsb. 1759 ; P. E. JaUonski, Institt. Hist Christ Frcf. ad V. 1753ss. 2 Th. ed. 3. emend. E. A. Schulze. 1783s. Th. III. ; Historiam Saec. 18. add. Stosch. 1767; emend. ScMckedans, 1786; W. Munscher, Lehrb. d. KGesch. Marb. 1804; 2d ed. by Wachler, 1815; Sded. by Beckhaus, 1826 ; P. Jlofstede de Groot, Institt. Hist ecc. Gronov. 1835 ; IT. J. Royaards, Comp. Hist ecc. chr. Traj. ad. Eh. 1840-5. 2 Fasc. w) Gesch. d. Chr. Kirche, edit by J&mnett. Brl. 1840 ; (Works, Abth. I. vol. II.) a) Gesch. d. Chr. Kirche, Lehrbuch. Lpz. 1846. y) Especially: C. Judd, Gesch. d. Chr. Kirche. Brl. 1838 ; H. Thiele, Kurze Gesch. d. Chr. Kirche. Zur. 1840 ; Alb. Baur, d. KGesch. in gedrangter Ubersicht. Weim. 1846 ; Heribert Itau, Allg. Gesch. d. Chr. Kirche (deutschkath.). Fur das deutsche Volk. Frkf. 1846. z) Allg. KGesch. Stnttg. 1841^14. 3 vols. (till the commence- ment of the llth cent) a) Synopsis Hist Eel. et Eccl. Chr. methodo systematica adumbrata. Prag. 1785. Eiul. in d. Chr. Eel. u. KGesch. Prag. 1788ss. 2d (modified) ed. 1790. Chr. Eel. u. KGesch. (but one Per.) Pr. 1789-95. 4 vols. &) Institt Hist Eccl. Vien. (1788.) 1806. 2 Th. Thread of the narrative after Dan- nenm. (Collegienheft) 2 ed. BottweiL 1826-8. 4 Th. c) Gesch. d. Christl. EeL u. Kirche. ZQr. 1792. 12 INTRODUCTION. CHAP. II. LITEEATUEE. I and of the ancient Church. A continuation of his history by another hand was merely a labored effort to attain the same style, (d) With the same gen- eral views, but with more accuracy and science, Katerkamp wrote a history, in which he has exhibited a more profound acquaintance with the original au- thorities in his representations of the particular characters and circumstances of the Church, (e) The liberal school, which now sought to accommodate matters as much as possible with the hierarchy, was represented by Ritter, (/) and in the extensive and popular work of Lochcrer, (nd. 1842.] ANCIENT CHURCH HISTORY. FIRST PERIOD. FKOM CHKIST TO CONSTANTINE. 14. General View and Original Authorities. L 1) All ecclesiastical writers of this time. Fragments of those works which have been lost in : Grale, Spicilegium Patrum et Haereticorum Saec. I. II. et III. Oxon. (1698.) 1TOO. 1714. 3 vols. Rvuth, Beliquiae sacrae, s. auctorum fere deperditorum I. et II. Saec. Fragmenta. [Edit, altera. Oxon. 1847. 4 vols.] 2) Fragments of Hegesippi vironv^p-ara. ruv 4KK\T)ffiaariKuif irpd^euv in Roufh, vol. I. p. 187ss. Eusebii eK/cATjo-taartK^ Iffropla. Ed. Valesius. Par. 1659. f. K Zimmermann, Frcf, 1822. 2. P. 4 Heiniehen. Lpz. 1827s. 3 Th. 4. Burton, Oxon. 1838. 3 vols. [A new transl. with Life of Ens. Lond. 1842. 8.] 3) Ruinart, Acta primorum martyrum, ed. 2. Amst 1713. f. rep. Galura, Aug. V. 1802. 3 vols. 4) Passages from writers not Christian : Josephus, Suetonius, Tacitus, Plinius, Dio Cassius, Scriptores Hist. Augustae, etc. explained in Nath. Lardner ; Collection of the Jewish and Heathen testimonies of the Christian religion. Lond. 1764ss. 4 vols. 4. II. Tillemont ( 11. nt d.) Clerici Hist. ecc. duorum priorum Saec. Amst 1716. 4. Moshemii&e rebus Christianorum ante Const Commentarii. Helmst. 1753. 4. [transl. by Vidal, 2 vols. 8. Lond. 1813.] Semleri Obss. quibus Hist Christian, illustratur usque ad Const. Hal. 1784. H. W. Mill-man, Hist of Christianity from the Birth of Christ to the extinction of Paganism in the Eoman Empire. Lond. 1840. 8 vols. [with notes by Murdoch. 8vo. New York. Kaye, Eccles. Hist of 2 and 8 Centt. 8vo. 1826. 2 vols. S. Hinds, Hist, of the Else and early Prog, of Christianity. 2 vols. 8vo. Lond. W. B. Taylor, The Hist of Christian- ity, from its Promulg. to its legal estab. in the Eom. Empire. 12mo. Lond. 1844. E. Burton, Lectures upon the Hist of the Chr. Church from the Ascen. of J. Christ to the conversion of Const. 4 ed. 12mo. Lond. 1840. Robert Millar, Hist of the Propag. of Christ Lond. 2 vols. 8vo. 1731. 8 ed. Wm. Cave, Lives of Fathers of the first four ages of the Church. Lond. 2 vols. fol. 1683-87. new ed. by H. Cary, 1840. 3 vols. 8. H. Cave, Prim. Chr. or Eel. of the Anc. Christians, ed. by Cary. Ox 1840. 8. Philip Schaff. H. of the Apostolic Church, transl. by E. D. Yeomans. New York. 1853. 8. vol. I. Samuel Elliot, Hist, of the Early Christians. Lond. 1853. J. C. Robertson, Hist of the Christian Church to the Pontif. of Greg, the Great Lond. 1853. 8.] In the history of the world, Classic Heathenism appears as a single form of human life, on the development of which, its time was fulfilled ; and Ju- daism appears as a great prophetic system accomplished hy Christianity. The Jewish veil, under which the latter made its appearance, was removed by Paul, and when the Gospel had been proclaimed in all parts of the Roman 14 ANCIENT CHUECH HISTORY. PEE. L empire, the forms of Greek and Roman civilization became incorporated in the Church. But in the mean time a prodigious struggle was commenced by the general spirit of antiquity. The Church, not so much by intellectual weapons, as by its labors and sacrifices, was so completely victorious, that at the end of this period the Roman empire was under the necessity of either becoming Christian, or of being utterly subverted. During this struggle, with no aid from the State, and with no external interference, the Church devel- oped its appropriate Constitution. With the exception of individual in- stances of extravagance or timidity, its morals and its discipline were of the strictest kind, and the private life of its members was serious and heavenly. The religious feelings of the people, excited by Grecian philosophy, and strag- gling with subtle foreign elements, now sought to attain definite and fixed forms of thought. The Period may be naturally divided into two sections, the first containing the historical conditions under which Christianity was introduced, and the history of the Apostolic Church, until the death of the last of the Apostles, near the close of the first century, and the other embra- cing the formation of the Catholic Church. The Acts of the Apostles, by Luke, are the commencement of a Church History, limited by the personal knowledge, position, and object of the writer. It presents us with the actual establishment of the Church in its two principal departments among the Jews by Peter, and among the Greeks by Paul, (a) The authentic epistles of these apostles are the most trustworthy monuments of the Apostolic Church. Hege&ippus, about the middle of the second century, committed to writing every thing he thought worthy of preservation in the Apostolic traditions. (5) The first proper history of the Church (till 324) was written by Ewebiw of Caeswea, under the impression which the great revolutions of his age pro- duced upon his mind. Though he was affected by the prejudices, he possessed also the advantages of his position, and while he probably omitted some things, we have no evidence that he has stated what is untrue, (c) a) ScliMckenberger ft. d. Zweck d. App. Gesch. Bern. 1841. &) Euseb. H. ecc. II. 23. III. 16. 19. IV. 7s. 11. 22. Comp. Jlleron. cataL c. 22. SchvMhesa, lieges, princeps auctor rerum Chr. Tur. 1882. c) With regard to hla authorities and credibility : ModUr, Hafh. 1818. (Archiv. f. KGesch. vol. IIL fit 1.) Dana, Jen. 1815. P. L Kestner Goett 1817. 4. Keuterdahl, Lond. Goth. 1826. Rienstra, Traj. ad. Eh. 1888. Jachmann, in Illgens Zeitschr. 1839. H. 2. F. C, Baur, comparator EUS. Historiae eoo. parens cum parente Historiarum Ilerodoto. Tub. 1884. 4. CHAP. I. HEATHENISM. 15. GEEEK LIFE. 15 DIVISION I. ESTABLISHMENT OF THE CHURCH. CHAP. I. INTRODUCTORY HISTOEY. I. CLASSIC HEATHENISM. Creuster, Symbolik u. Mythologie d. alien Volker, bes. d. Griechen, Lps. u. Darmst. (ISlOss.) 1319ss. Th. ; JBaur, Syinb. u. Myth. o. die Naturrel. d. Alterth. Stuttg. 1825 ; Lobeck, Aglaophamus s. de Theol. mysticae Graecorum causis. Eegtom. 1829. 2 Th. ; 0. Mutter, Prolegomena zu e. wiss. MythoL Gott. 1825. [Introd. to a Scientific Syst of Myth, transl. by J. Leitch. Lond. 1844. 8] ; P. van Lim- lurg Brouwer, Hist, de la civilisation morale et rel. des Grecs. Groen. 1883-43. 8 Th. ; Hegel, Phil, d. Eel. Brl. 1833. vol. 2. p. 148ss. Phil. d. Gesch. Brl. 183T. p. 232ss. ; P. F. Stuhr, die Eel. Systeme d. Hellenen in ihrer gesch. Entw. Brl. 1838 ; M. W. Heffter, d. Eel. d. Griechen u. Eomer, Brandenb. 1845. [W. Smith, Diet, of Gr. & Eom. Myth. Lond. 1844-49. 3 vols. 8. T. Dwight, Gr. & Eom. Myth. New York. 1849. 12] ;Benj. Constant, du Polytheisme remain. Par. 1833. 2 Th. ; Hartung, d. Eel. d. Eomer. Erl. 1836. 2 vols. ; Ch. Walz, de rel. Eom. antiquiss. Tub. 1845. 4. P. l.Tholuck, U. d. Wesen u. sittl. Einfl. d. Heidenth. (Neandor's Denkwiirdigk, vol. L modified in the 2d ed.) [A. TholucJc. Nature & Moral Infl. of Heathenism, transl. by E. Emerson, in Biblical Eep. for 1832. and in Clarke'8 Bibl. Cab. vol. 28. Edinb. 1841] ; Im. Nitssch, il. d. Eeligionsbegr. d. Alten. (Stud. u. Krit 1828. vol. L H. 8s.) ; F. Jacobs, u. d. Erziehung d. Hellenen z. Sittlichk. (Verm. Schrr. Lpz. 1829. P. III.) Heidenth. u. Christenth. (Lpz. 183T. Th. VI.) ; K. Gruneisen, iL d. Sittliche d. bild. Kunst b. d. Griech. Lpz. 1833. (Illg. Zeitschr. vol. III. st. 2.) \J. St. John, Manners, Custt. Arts, &c, of Anc. Gr. Lond. 1842. 3 vols. 8; K ffase, Publ. & Priv. Life of the An. Greeks, transl. from Germ. Lond. 1836. 8 ; W. A. Becker, Gallus, or Eom. Scenes of the time of Augustus, illust the manners and custt. of the Eomans, transl. from the Germ, by F. Metcalfe. Lond. 1844. 8. On the State of Man before Chris- tianity. Lond. 1848. 12.] 15. Popular Life among the Greeks. The original civilization which had prevailed in some portions of the East had finally become torpid within limits immutably fixed by the com- bined influence of caste and despotism. But under the delightful sky of beau- tiful Greece, the purely earthly life of man, in the midst of efforts to attain social freedom, and triumphant struggles against the monarch of the Eastern world (after 490, B. o.), became developed in its fairest natural perfection. Borne on by youthful energies and a noble spirit of refinement, directed by a clear understanding and a wise moderation, it received still higher lustre and distinctness from a state of art which gave utterance to what is beyond expression, and proclaimed the reconciliation of the spirit with outward na- ture. Even when it presented nature in its utmost nakedness, it preserved a chaste moderation, and when it portrayed the darker aspects of our earthly existence, it always made liberty and beauty triumphant. Grecian manners and science were carried by travelling expeditions and colonies to the shores of Asia Minor, Sicily, and Southern Italy, and finally, by means of Alexan- der's conquests (after 334), Grecian civilization became established over all the Eastern shores of the Mediterranean. 16. Limits of Grecian Refinement. Man was regarded only as a citizen, and all virtues had relation to the glory of his native land. The free action of the citizen was founded upon an order of slaves. A part of the women were confined within the narrow limits of domestic life, and another purchased a participation in manly plea 16 ANCIENT CHUBCH HISTORY. PEE. I. DIV. I. TILL A. D. 100. sures and more attractive refinements, with a proportionate loss of womanly dignity and domestic happiness. The political power of the several States was developed and consumed in factious contests and civil wars. Even in the brightest days of Greece, civilization had to contend with remnants of ancient barbarism and its bloody crimes. IT. The Religion of the Greeks. The celestial world, in which the Greeks believed, was only an ideal transcript of their ordinary life, embellished by the hand and for the pur- poses of art. Even the fanciful relation of sex, which they ascribed to their deities, though borrowed from oriental allegories, was so modified by the poetic imaginations of the Greeks, as only to reflect and justify, as in a mir- ror, the playful spirit of the people. This, however, exerted no very cor- rupting influence upon a people whose matrimonial life was guarded by usages and laws, and whose vigorous energies were controlled by the gymnasium, and a predominant taste for the beautiful. But every thing great or beauti- ful in common life, was adorned and consecrated by some connection with the gods of their country. It was for this reason that, although the people were sincerely attached to their deities, and their religious services were joy- ous festivals embellished with all that art could contribute, they could enjoy the keen wit of the poet when he ridiculed the weaknesses of the gods, no less than when he laughed at those of the sovereign people of \thens. The religion of the Hellenes was necessarily a deification not so much of nature in its mysterious depths, as of the spirit in its various manifestations. The real Deity revealed to them was beauty. The piety best conformed to the national character was so far from rising above the earth, that it never went even beyond their native land. The mysteries could of course transmit no doctrine of religion inconsistent with this spirit of the popular faith. They were simply celebrations of the festivals of the ancient gods. They served not only to preserve the memory of the old and fallen deities of na- ture, but to create a presentiment of a supreme Deity, who, at some future period, would extend his sovereignty over the universe. The point at which the Hellenic theology found its termination and constructed an altar to the Unknown God, was where it submitted to an absolute necessity, ruling over gods and men. 18. Relation of Philosophy to the Popular Religion. Socrates (469-899) brought back Philosophy from its attempts to ex- plain the universe by ingenious fancies, to its appropriate Grecian object, which was, to render the mind conscious of its nature, and thus to become the supreme rule of life for a freeborn man. In doing so, however, he was aware that as a citizen of a moral community he was liable to come into conflict with Athenian usages. From the position which he had attained, Plato (428-348) and Aristotle (384-322) sought to discover the ultimate prin- ciple of all knowledge and being. Both recognized a spiritual and indepen- dent author of the universe, and both appreciated the supreme importance of the intellectual and moral life. Aristotle, commencing with sensible pheno- CHAP. I. HEATHENISM. 18. GBECIAN PHILOSOPHY. 17 mena, and proceeding by successive steps of reasoning to general laws, may 4 be regarded as the most perfect specimen of a healthy intellectual educa- tion among the Greeks. If Plato, on the one hand, by the matter as well as the form of his speculations, shows that the highest point of Grecian life con- sisted in adorning the present existence by moral excellence and beauty, on the other, he far transcends this, and stands like a prophet, incomprehensible by his own age, on account of his earnest consciousness of sinfulness, and his absolute exaltation of the eternal above the temporal.* Those who un- dertook the further development of Philosophy, attached themselves once more to the purely practical tendency of Socrates, and to the various parties already springing up among his disciples. They, however, seized upon only disconnected elements of Grecian life. Epicurus (342-271) laid hold of pleasure alone, to which virtue was subservient as a necessary means, and Zeno, his contemporary, selected power, with which virtue is herself satisfied. The former regarded the universe as the sport of chance, and the latter be- lieved it animated by a divine omnipresent soul. In opposition to the views of these teachers, and especially to those of Plato, there arose in the midst of the Academy itself, a party under Arcesilaus (316-241) and Carneades (214- 129), which advocated a system of overwrought logic, teaching that man was never designed to know the truth with certainty, and that consequently his only peace was to be found in dealing with probabilities, and in the conscious- ness of this universal uncertainty. Philosophy, in all its forms, had passed beyond the limits of Polytheism. The Socratic school, however, regarded the popular faith as a mode of conceiving truth indispensable to a people bound in the fetters of sensuality. Its disciples therefore, without hesitation, adopted the usages and modes of expression prevalent around them. The way in which Epicurus maintained the existence of the gods was in fact an adroit denial of it, but, satisfied with having freed his followers from all fear of the gods, he was wise enough to warn them of the danger of contending with public opinion. Stoical Pantheism allowed that the deities existed t merely as names and allegories for the various manifestations of the universal life, but the deportment of the sages toward them was proud and independent. The later Academy maintained that the existence or non-existence of the gods was equally probable, and its adherents thought it safest to honor them with the ordinary forms of worship. While therefore Philosophy was not directly hostile to the idolatry which had prevailed from ancient times, the educated portion of the nation were elevated by it above the popular faith. 19. Rome as a Republic. The Eoman people had sprung up in the midst of violence, they had been kept together by a rigid discipline, and they had to attain maturity in the battle-field, contending first for their existence, and then for their greatness. At an early period, the opinion began to prevail, and soon became a predomi- * G. Ackermann, das Christl. im Plato u. in d. plat Phil. Hainb. 1835 ; F. C. JSaur, d. Christl. d. Platonism. o. Sokr. u. Christus. Tub. 1837 ; [Plato contra Atheos, or Platonic Theology, by T. Lewis New York. 1845. K Pond, Life, Works, Opinions, &c. of Plato. Portland. 8.] 2 18 ANCIENT CHUECH HISTOEY. PEE. L DIV. I. TILL. A. D. 100. naut popular sentiment, that they were destined to attain universal dominion All the virtues which constitute the true hasis of civil and domestic pros- perity were practised with simplicity and purity. But the keen enjoyment of life, natural to youth, hecame passionate only in individual instances, for we find among them no general refinement, or cultivation of the elegant arts. Religion was wholly under the control of the State, and its sacred rites were for a long time only in the hands of the Patricians. Its serious cere- monies pervaded every relation, both of the family and the State. While, therefore, it was regarded as indispensable to society, it was in reality only a respectful reverence for a superior power, recognized in the highest degree by the boldest and mightiest minds. 20. Decline of Greece. During the strifes of contending factions, political power had become despotic, in the hands sometimes of the nobles, and sometimes of the popu- lace. The consequence was that Greece was distracted by internal divisions, and became subject, first to the Macedonians, and then, with these masters, (146) to the Romans. The virtues of the people, which had been founded upon their relation to their native country, could not, of course, survive the loss of their independence. The individuality of character, which had be- fore so nobly distinguished them, now degenerated into selfishness ; art be- came subservient to the grossest sensuality, and it now became evident, in the midst of public misfortunes, that a life consumed in the mere embellish- ment of an earthly existence must be totally unsatisfactory. Yet so abundant was the inheritance of art and science bequeathed to them by their ances- tors, that their private life was for a long time enriched by its stores, and Greece gave laws to its conquerors. 21. Elevation and Decline of Rome. When Augustus, in his testament, advised the Roman people never to surpass the limits which nature had assigned to them, as the permanent bul- warks of the Empire, all nations inhabiting the coasts of the Mediterranean had already submitted to the majesty of the Roman power, and all nationali- ties had been broken up by the stern unity of the Empire. As the Romans had conquered the civilized world, they now resolved to participate in its ad- vantages, by enjoying not only its coarse sensual pleasures, but its intellectual treasures. But Grecian civilization was so far in advance of them, that it could not be conquered without calling forth creative powers in the con- querors. By the subjugation and government of so many provinces, such an inequality in power and possessions was introduced, that universal freedom was no longer tolerable, and the popular character became so degraded, that in spite of republican forms, no one thought of combining public freedom with the monarchy. The will of the prince was acknowledged to be the su- preme law, but the supreme power was actually in the army. Accordingly, the successors of Augustus, while they knew that they were masters of the world, knew quite as well that they could never call one day their own. They therefore either stupified themselves in the wildest enjoyment of the CHAP. L HEATHENISM. 22. DECLINE. 19 present moment, or sought safety in a reign of terror. The wretchedness of the Roman populace, and the exhausted condition of the provinces, were in desperate and frightful contrast with an affluence which strove with shame- less ingenuity to wrest from nature more enjoyment than she was able to give or endure. And yet for centuries after the old Roman virtues had been lost, there remained a noble national spirit, the valor of the legions, and in private life, the supremacy of the law. 22. Decline of the Popular Religion. The Greek religion was adapted only to such as were in the enjoyment of prosperity. To those who were struggling with misfortune, it offered neither consolation nor strength, and the gods themselves had apparently deserted the cities from which they were now invited by the conquerors. The deifi- cation of Roman despots threw scandal on the gods, and revealed the secret of their origin. The explanation of the Greek myths undermined also the veneration which had before been felt for Roman ceremonies.* Philosophy no longer hesitated to mock a religious worship already abandoned by its deities. The Roman statesmen, it is true, thought it necessary to maintain a religion of whose nullity they were persuaded, because it seemed to be the very foundation of their State. "When, however, a people are governed by a falsehood, the fact cannot long be concealed from them. The human mind, ordinarily dissatisfied with infidelity, and especially impatient with it in seasons of peculiar difficulty, now sought for the peace it had lost in all kinds of barbarous forms of worship. In the midst, too, of those frequent changes of fortune to which despotic governments are subject, it made an effort to obtain a knowledge and a control of the dark future, by means of magical arts. Unbelief and superstition were thus boldly and distinctly ar- rayed by the side of each other. When the peculiar spirit of each nation had been destroyed, a popular religion could no longer be generally upheld, and the gods were all united in the Roman Pantheon. Philosophy, however, had neither the inclination nor the power to found a new religion. II. JUDAISM. Flav. JosepU Opp. ed. ffaverkamp, Amst. 1T26. 2 Th. f. ; Small ed. by Olerthur, Wiirtzb. 1782ss. 8 Th. and In the 1 Abth, of the Bibl. sacra. Lps. 1826ss. 5 Th. [Transl. into Eng. by W. Whixton, fe- ed, by IT. SteVbing. 8vo. Lond. 1841. and a new Transl. by R. Trail, with notes, Essays, &c. and ed. by I. Taylor, Lond. & New York. 1847.] F. C. Meier, Judaica s. veterum Scrr. profanorum de reb. jud. fragmm. Jen. 1832; Vitringa, de Synagoga vet (Franeq. 1696.) Leucop. 1726. 4 ; [Vitringa's Synag. & the Church, transl. by Bernard, 8vo. Lond.] J. D. Mickaelis, mos. Eecht. Frkf. 1775ss. 6 Th. [Transl. into Eng. by A. /Smith, 4 vols. 8vo. Lond. 1814] ; J. J. Hess, Gesch. d. Israel, Zur. 766se. 12 Th.; De Wette, Lehrb. d. hebr. Archaol. nebst Grundr. d. hebr. Gesch. Lps. (1814.) 1830; J. M, Jost, allg. Gesch. d. Isr. Brl. 1832. 2 vols. ; [Josfs Hist of the Jews, from the Maccabees to the present day, transl. from Germ, by J. It. Hopkins, 1848. New York ;] H. Leo, Vorles. u. d. Gesch. d. jud. Staats. Brl. 1828. retracted in his Lehrb. d. Universalgesch. ed. 2. vol. I. p. 563ss. comp. Stud. u. Krit 1330. vol. I. p. 137ss.; Bertiwau, zur Gesch. d. Isr. Gott 1842; H. Ewald, Gesch. d. Yolkes ^srael b. Christus. Gott 1843ss. 3 vols. ; J. Salvador, Hist, des Institutions de Moiise et du peupla Ja6br. Par. 1828. 8 vols. [This work was answered by M. Dupin, the elder, in " Jesus devant Caiphe * L. EraTiner Grundlinien z. Gesch. d. Verfalls d. rom. Staaterel. Hal. 1837. 4. 20 ANCIENT CHUECH HISTOEY. PER. L DIV. I. TILL A. D. 100. et Pilate," Par. 1828. 8] ; Gramberg, krit Gesch. d. E. Ideen d. A. T. Brl. 1829s. 2 Th. ; Vaike, . Baur, u. d. Apost. Zeita. aufgestellten Vermuthungen. Hal. 1845;) [K. R. Hagenbach, F. C Baur, and J. P. Lange, have each published Histories of the Primitive and Apostolic Church, in Germ. ; G. Benson, Hist of the First Planting of Christian iy, Lond. 1756. 8 vols. 4; F. W. P. Greenwood, Lives of the Twelve Apostles, &c. Bost 1846. 12; L. Coleman, Anc. Christianity exemplified. Philad. 1858. 2 vols. 8 ; IT. W. J. ThiertcJi, Hist of the Chr. Church, vol. I. Apostolic Age, Transl. by T. Carlyle, Lond. 1852.] 29. The First Pentecost. I. Acts, 2. 1-41 ; IL Herder, Gabe d. Sprachen. Elg. 1794; Amman, de novls linguis. ErL 1808; Ha.se, Zur Gesch. d. ereten Chr. Pflngstf. ; ( Winer's Zcitschr. t Wiss. TheoL 1827. H. 2 ;) Bletk, u. 'd. Gabe des y\uff. Schulx, d. Geisteegaben d. ersten Christen, insbes. d. sogen. Gabe d. 8pr. BresL 1836; Baur, Krit Uebera. (Stud. u. Krit 1838, p. 61888.) Seinecke, Sprachgabe d. ersten Christen. Lpz. 1842. As the founder of a new popular religion, and as the Messiah and Son of God, who must fulfil all the longings of the people, and the prophecies of the Scriptures, Jesus had awakened a spirit which in independent spirituality was to rise above every thing earthly, unite men in love, by regeneration, with the Father of all, and regardless of all national distinctions, bring them un- der one great bond of brotherhood in the kingdom of God. A few faithful disciples, on whom exclusively this Spirit had before rested, waited in close fellowship at Jerusalem for the promised manifestation of this Spirit. Early in the morning of the feast of Pentecost, soon after the Resurrection (about 33), on the occurrence of a remarkable natural phenomenon, they felt con- scious of an extraordinary inspiration, which they regarded as a shedding forth of the divine Spirit upon their hearts, from without and above them- selves. This internal influence manifested itself to others principally by an animated and copious style of speaking a speaking with tongues, which, ac- cording to Luke, was generally regarded as a decisive evidence that Chris- tianity had arrived at its completion. () Such phenomena were regarded in the primitive Church as the gift of the Spirit, bestowed without reference to the ordinary state of the heart, and were indeed frequently abused so as to become subservient to vanity. (&) Such was the fact until far into the second o) Juven. Sat VI. 543. Senec. de superett (in August, de Civ. Dei. VL 11); JosepM Antiqq VIII. 2. 5. XVIII. 8. 5. a) Acts 10, 46s. 19, 6. comp. 8, 15ss. 5) 1 Cor. 14. CHAP. II. APOST. CHURCH. 29. PENTECOST. '80. JERUSALEM. 25 century, (c) and even to a still later period, in seasons and congregations in which powerful excitements prevailed. At this feast of Pentecost, accord- ing to the rather obscure account of Luke, a discourse was delivered in seve- ral foreign languages. A power to do this, however, was not regarded in the apostolic Church as the ordinary attendant of this gracious gift ; we have no account of its repetition, and it is of importance only as indicating that Christianity was destined to become universal. But the great fact which then took place, was the revelation of the new spirit, through which the Church was visibly and publicly to be established. 30. Fortune of the Church of Jerusalem. The rage of the people had been appeased by the death of Jesus ; and when the recollection of his benevolent deeds revived, the feeling began to prevail throughout the city, that they had imbrued their hands in the blood of an innocent man, and possibly in that of their own Messiah. When, there- fore, his timid disciples suddenly announced with great earnestness and con- fidence that he had risen from the dead, thousands, by baptism, professed themselves his t disciples, and the popular favor was turned toward them. Alarmed at this, and divided in their own counsels (since many of the Phari- sees, out of hatred to the Sadducees, were willing that the gospel, which pro- claimed a resurrection, should prevail), the Sanhedrim were irresolute, and adopted no efficient measures, while the apostles were full of courage, will- ing to suffer shame for Christ, and determined to obey God rather than men. Still, no sooner had those friendly to their cause become connected with them, than the Galileans, or Nazareans, became, as before, a much-hated sect. A party zealous for the law were allowed to stone Stephen (about 36*, and Herod Agrippa looked upon it as a popular measure to persecute the Christians. James, the brother of John, was beheaded, and Peter escaped the same fate only by mysterious aid (44). (a) But when, on the sudden death of Herod Agrippa, (&) all Palestine became a Eoman province, the con- gregation was allowed to become tranquilly established and enlarged. When most of the disciples fled, on the persecution after the death of Stephen, the apostles remained at Jerusalem. There stood together those pillars of the Church, Peter, James, and John, even as late as near the middle of the cen- tury. After that, James the Just, the brother of our Lord, is mentioned as the principal leader among the Christian Jews, although all authentic ac- counts agree in ascribing to him a high degree of circumspection and mod- eration even in his Judaism, (c) To judge from the epistle bearing his name, he must have been a pious and earnest teacher, especially in his admonitions in favor of morality, but with no prominent characteristics peculiar to Chris- tianity, (d) By Jewish Christians he has since been honored as a kind of na- tional saint ; and although the disciple of Jesus is not very prominent in his rigid discipline, and in the remote occasion of his death, this was only to c) Iren. V. 6. a) Acts 6, 87, GO; 12, 1-19. 6) Acts 12, 20ss. comp. Josephi Antiqq. XIX. 7, 2. c) Gal. 2, 9. comp. Acts 15, 13ss. d ) Liter. Review, in Theile, Comm. in Ep. Jac. p. 28ss. ; F. IT. fern, Char- acter u. Ursprung d. Br. Jak. (from the Tub. Zeitschr.) Tub. 1835. 26 ANCIENT CHUKCH HISTORY. PEE. I. DIV. I. TILL A. D. 100. prove himself more perfectly a Christian hero when he was called actually to die. (e) The plain testimony of history declares, that the High Priest Ana- nus, a Sadducee, availing himself of the interregnum which took place after the death of the procurator Felix, had James, and a few others, stoned tc death, as transgressors of the Mosaic law (63). (/) 31. Jewish Christianity. D. van Neyat, Da. de Judaeo-Christianismo ejusque vi et efficacitate, quam exseruit In rem Chr. Saec. I. Lugd. B. 1828. comp. 85. The dispersion of the congregation after the death of Stephen was the commencement of its propagation in other regions. The knowledge of Christ was probahly carried by pilgrims from Jerusalem into all parts of the Ro- man empire, and yet hut a small part of the Jewish population actually he- came Christian. The principal Beat of Christian Judaism among the dis- persed portion of the nation was at Antioch, where the name of Christian was first applied to the Church by those who were not its members. The Jewish law was observed with the utmost strictness. Christianity waa regarded as a perfected Judaism, whose hopes were already in part, or soon to be completely fulfilled. It was only with this understanding that it could have gained general acceptance in Palestine. The Pharisees were inclined to receive, and zealously to advocate It, so far as the doctrine of the resurrec- tion of Jesus was concerned ; and the Essenes were favorable to its religious spirituality. The assertion, that a Jewish Christianity of an Essene com- plexion sprung up at an early period, by an accession of a considerable num- ber of Essenes to the Church, is rendered probable by partial affinities be- tween the two systems, and certain by witnesses after the middle of the se- cond century. But as the gospel was proclaimed principally in public assem- blies, and as conversions from a community so rigidly secluded must have been extremely difficult, we can hardly suppose that such an accession could have taken place in any large numbers, till after the dispersion of the Essene settlements, and the desolation of the Jewish country. Besides, it does not appear that Christianity, in its earliest form, possessed any prominent traits of an Essene character. As it was believed to be intended for all men, those who looked upon it through an old Hebrew medium, must have regarded the reception of the law as a necessary part of the process. According to Luke's account (Acts x. 11-18), Peter could be induced to baptize a proselyte of the gate, and could justify himself for the act before his brethren, in no other way than by the assurance of a divine revelation. But as the Church could not at that time conveniently separate its blessings, the more rigid Jewish Christians demanded that baptized proselytes should afterwards be circum- cised. 32. Samaritan Christians and Sects. The first decisive instance in which Christianity broke over the pro- per limits of the Jewish nation, was that in which the gospel was car- ried to Samaria. The seed which Jesus, regardless of the popular hatred, e) Euseb. H. ecc. IL 1. 28. f) Josephi, Antiqq. XX. 9, 1. CHAP. IL APOS1. CHUECH. 82. SIMON. 38. PAUL. 27 had sown in Sychem, was harvested by the apostles, (a) The Samaritans, however, were at that time too much taken up with the claims of certain founders of new religions in their own midst, strange phantoms of the truth, to he much interested in a Messiah from Judea. Dositheus, professing to he the prophet promised in the likeness of Moses (Deut. 18, 18), had appeared among them with a severe exaggeration of the letter of the law, and had finally starved himself in a cave. (5) Simon Magus obtained many adherents in Samaria, and perhaps also some in Eome. According to his own assertion, or at least that of his followers, he was an incarnation of the Spirit which had created the world, to deliver the soul of the world, in bondage to the earthly powers, by whom it had been confined in a woman, and at that time in his own wife, Helena. With the deliverance of this world-soul, all be- lievers were also to be released from their imprisonment. He was, however, anxious to purchase the Holy Ghost from the apostles, and trembled before their malediction, (c) In some accounts, he appears degraded to a mere pan- der to lewdness, (d) and in popular traditions he became the representative of all magical arts and their fortunes during his day, in contrast with the triumph- ant simplicity of pious faith, (e) Menander also aspired to the honor of be- ing a Messiah, and a divine incarnation, with power to make his followers immortal. (/) The influence of each of these three impostors was continued through some minor sects until some time in the sixth century. They were often confounded, by those who were not well informed on the subject, with the followers of Christ ; and perhaps some of them, like Simon himself, at one time, from worldly policy, may have passed themselves off as such. It is possible, too, that they may sometimes have really claimed to be Chris- tians, in accordance with a doctrine by which all religions were mingled to- gether, and the same God was said to have revealed himself to the Samari- tans as the Father, to the Jews as the Son, and to the Gentiles as the Spirit 33. Paul. J. Pearson, Annales Paul. Hal. 1718. [Lond. 1638. 4. transl. into Eng. by Williams, Cambr. 1826. 12.] W. Paley, Horae Paul, or the Truth of the Scriptural Hist of Paul evinced. [With a suppl. by E. Biley. Lond. 1840. Illustrated by Tate. Lond. 183T. Publ. in New York. 1843. In works. Cambr. (Mass.) 1830.] J. T. Hemsen, der Ap. P. Gott. 1830 ; K. Schroder, der Ap. P. Lpz. 1830SS. 5 vols.; Tholuck, Lebensumstande, Character u. Sprache d. P.; (Stud. u. Krit 1835. H. 2. and Verm. Schrr. vol. II. p. 272ss.) [Life and Char, of Paul, transl. from the Germ, of A. Tho- luck, and publ. in the Edinb. Bibl. Cabinet, vol. 28.] IT. A. Schott, ErSrtr. einiger Chronol. Punkte in d. Lebensgesch. d. P. Jena. 1832 ; J. F. Warm, ii. d. Zeitbest im Leben d. P. ; (Tub. Zeitschr. f. Theol. 1838. H. 1) ; L. Usteri, Entw. d."P. Lehrbegr. Ziir. 1824. ed. 5. 1834. A. F. Dahne, Entw. d. P. Lehrbegr. Hal. 1835 ; Baur, Panlus (p. 24.) The development of Christianity as a spiritual religion for the whole world, was accomplished principally by the agency of Saul, called after the Eoman form Paul. The idea of its liberation from Judaism did not, indeed, originate with him, for certain Hellenists from Cyprus had before preached a) Acts 8, 5-1T; John 4, 85-88. V) Orig. de princ. IV, IT. (vol. I. p. 1T8) in Jo. torn. 13. (vol. IV p. 237); Epiphan. Opp., vol. I. p. 30. c) Acts 8, 9-24; Justin. Apol. I. c. 26, 56; Tryph. c. 120 (Simoni Deo Sancto. Semoni Sanco Deo Fidio;) Iren. I. 20. Extracts from both Euseb. H. ecc. H 18. Epiph. Haer. 21. d) Josephi, Antiqq. XX, 7. 2. e) Arndb. II, 12; Clement, Homil. II, 29ss. Eecognitt. I, 72. IT, 7ss.; com p. Targum Jeruahalemi, ad Num. 31, 8; Sueton. Vita Neron. c. 12. /) Justini, Apol. I. c. 26; Epiph. Haer. 22. 28 ANCIENT CHUECH HISTORY. PEE. I/ DIV. I. TILL A. D. 10D. the gospel to the Greeks in Antiooh, (a) and Stephen did not deny the charge, that Jesus had come to destroy the temple, and to change the ceremonial law. (5) But it was reserved for Paul successfully to justify and triumph- antly to carry out this idea. He belonged to the tribe of Benjamin, was a Koman citizen born at Tarsus the capital of Cilicia, had been educated for a learned Pharisee in the school of Gamaliel at Jerusalem, and was by occupa- tion a tentmaker. The traces of a Greek education, which his writings sometimes exhibit, may be ascribed either to the school in which he had been educated, or to his subsequent pursuits and associations. With a character not only great but exalted, able and energetic in worldly things, though full of longings after those which are heavenly, he placed himself, in defence of the law of his fathers, at the head of those who persecuted the followers of Christ. Stephen fell before his eyes, and Gamaliel warned the rulers that they should not contend against God. But while journeying to Damascus, to persecute those Christians whom he might find there (probably 86), he and his companions were suddenly struck to the earth by fire from heaven. Christ now revealed himself to his spirit as the Saviour of the world, and he could no longer resist the mighty power of truth, (c) His rich natural en- dowments were now illuminated by the gracious influences of the Holy Spirit, his former self was cast off, and Christ alone lived within him. After a residence of three years in Arabia and Damascus, he fled from the latter city to Jerusalem (89), that he might form an acquaintance with Peter. He was soon after invited by Barnabas from Tarsus, to assist in the work of the gospel at Antioch. When both had conveyed provisions from that congrega- tion to Jerusalem, for the relief of the brethren there (44), they were sent on a missionary tour to Cyprus, and some provinces of Asia Minor. They commenced their labors by preaching in the synagogues ; (fl) but as they were generally treated with contempt, and often with much abuse by the Jews, while they were generally favored by proselytes, they soon began to form independent churches, composed principally of Greeks. These they re- garded, according to the custom at Antioch, as not bound to observe the cere- monial law, and it was even rumored that Paul had gone so far as to prevent the Jews from circumcising their children. He himself, however, conformed to the ritual of the law, at least as far as appeared expedient to prevent all unnecessary offence to his brethren ; and accordingly, in Christian liberty, he was a Greek with Greeks and a Jew with Jews. But at Antioch, some from Jerusalem maintained that circumcision was indispensable to salvation. In consequence of the division created by this party, Paul and Barnabas under- took a journey to Jerusalem (about 50), where, after hearing what God had already accomplished by their means in carrying the gospel to the heathen, the three apostles of Jewish Christianity extended to them the hand of fel- lowship. A charter of privileges was then agreed upon, which was imme- a) Acts 11, 20-22. 5) Acts 6, 13s. c) Gal. 1,15s.; 1 Cor. 9, 1; 15. 3; Acts 9, 1-22; 22, 8-16; 26,9-18; Ammon, de repentina Sauli conversion^ ErL 1798 (Opp. theoL p. IBS.); Greiling, Hist Psychol. Vers. u. d. plotzl. Ueberg. d. P. (Henke'a Mus. 1806. voL III. p. 220.) Strauss, Streitschrr. II. 1. p. 61ss. ; comp. K Bengel, Obss. de P. ad rem Chr. convere. 2 P. (Opp. Hamb. 1834) ; C. G. Kuchler, de anno, quo P. ad sacra chr. conversus est, Lpa, 182i d) Comp. Rom. 1, 16; ?, IM. CHAP. II. APOST. CHURCH. 83. PAUL. 29 diately sent forth in a solemn edict to all Gentile Christians, forbidding any yoke to be imposed upon them, except a few observances like those which were required of proselytes. This proceeding could not be reconciled with the original covenant (Gal. 2, Iss.) without considerable ingenuity of rea- soning, and was not very consistent with the course which Paul sometimes pursued, but it was a well-intended scheme to harmonize those conflicting tendencies which were just springing up in the Church, and of which tradi- tion gives us an account (Acts 15). (e) It was not until Paul, fully believing himself called of God to be the apostle to the Gentiles, had extensively pro- pagated the Church among the Greeks, that it became practically indepen- dent of the prejudices which prevailed in Palestine. During his two long journeys, and his protracted residences in Ephesus and Corinth, he established numerous churches in the several cities of Asia Minor, Macedonia, and Achaia, encountering far greater difficulties (2 Cor. 11, 20ss.) than are men- tioned in the Acts of the Apostles. Hated equally by Jews and by Jewish Christians, with many presentiments of his approaching death, he went, about Pentecost in the year 58, to Jerusalem. There, abandoned if not be- trayed by Christians, he was delivered from the hands of the exasperated mob in the temple by the Roman guards. For two years he was kept in bonds as a Roman citizen, by the procurator Felix in Cesarea ; and when Festus came into the same office, as the successor of Felix, in consequence of his appeal to the emperor he was sent late in the year 60 to Rome. After a stormy voyage, he was kept in slight confinement in that city, and during two years he labored in behalf of the great object of his life, not only with those around him, but by means of epistles and friends with those at a dis- tance. It is hardly possible that he could' have survived the persecution under Nero, but he was probably beheaded at Rome (64). That he was liberated, and that he then for the first time visited the utmost limits of "Western Europe ,(/) and finally ended his life during a second imprisonment in Rome, appears more like a learned conjecture than an ancient tradition, (g) His epistles abound in/abbinical explanations, in arguments stated in the form of bold and complex syllogisms, in evidences of a highly wrought intelligence in connection with a profound spirit glowing with benevolence, and in waves of thought which appear to straggle with and break upon one another. His style was concise and often difficult, but he always had the right word for every variety of condition, sometimes powerfully convincing or threatening, and at other times carrying all along with him by his cordial expressions of affection. A nature like his may have ascribed some things to a divine reve- lation through visions, which were the result of intelligent reflection, and which may have been influenced by his peculiar physical temperament. (7i) 6) SchnecJceriburger, Apostelgesch. p. 71ss. ; Schwegler, nachapostol. Zeitalt. vol. I. p. llGss. ; comp. Neander, [Hist of Plant and Train. &c. B. III. Ch. 4 p. 76ss. 3 ed. Philad. 1844. 8.]. /) Clem. Rom. Ep. I. ad Corinth, c. 5. g) Euseb. H. ecc. II, 22 ; J. P. Mynster, de ultimis annis muneris ap. a P. gesti. Havn. 1815 \ J.T.L. Dans, de loco Eusebii, qui do altera P. captivitate agit, Jen. 1816. 4;K F. R. Wolf, de alt P. captiv. dss. II. Lps. 1819s. ; Baur, die Sogen. Pastoralbr. d. Paul. Stuttg. 1835. p. 63ss ; comp. Tub. Zeitschr. 1838. H. 3. 48ss. ; Stud. u. Krit. 1841. H. 1, /i) The visions related by Luke in the Acts of the Apostles, and the allusions to similar things in gen- ral in the Clementines, are confirmed in 2 Cor. 12, 1-9. SO ANCIENT CHUECH HISTOEY. PEE. I. DIV. I. TILL A. D. 109 His doctrines are essentially tlie same with those of Jesus, so far as they pro- ceed from the acknowledgment that Jesus was the Messiah, and are the views of a profoundly religious mind, affected by similar rational prepossessions. They were, however, at the same time, independently founded upon his own peculiar life and conflicts. In the first, he had experienced the remarkable contrast between a period of enmity tc Christ, and another in which Christ had become his only life. This private experience he regarded as a specimen of the life of mankind fallen from God by sin, and reconciled to God by Christ, and hence his evangelical instructions were specially directed to the awakening of the consciousness of sinfulness. His conflicts had been princi- pally directed to the liberation of the Christian spirit from the Jewish law. He therefore maintained, that if our whole salvation must come from Christ, the law is not necessary to salvation. The connection between these princi- ples was made out by showing, that as man has not fulfilled the law, the works of the law can only lead to condemnation, and salvation can be ob- tained only by a complete surrender of the heart to Christ ; i. e. by faith alone, not by a descent from Abraham, not by the merit of our own works, but wholly from the free grace of God. Paul acknowledged that the old covenant was divine, but ho contended that it was completed by the new covenant of God with man by Christ, so that now it had become an abroga- ted institution. In his estimation, Christ was the substance of all religion, and the sole ruler of the world. The advent of Christ toVrar world was the lofty central point of all human history, from which he looked back upon the preliminary revelation which had* been given to Jews and Gentiles, and per- verted by them both, and forward to the final triumph of the kingdom of God, when all opposition shall be overcome, and Christ himself shall with- draw, that God may be all in all. 84. Peter. Mayerkoff, Einl in d. Petrln. Schrf. Iltmb. 1885; comp. K Hast, Leben Jeso. p. 112s. [A. Lee, Life of the Ap. Peter. Lond. 1862. 12.] The practical energy which Peter possessed, and on which our Lord him- self appears to have founded considerable expectations, made him the princi- pal representative at least of the external affairs of the Church, as long as he tarried at Jerusalem (until about 60). At a later period, when at Antioch, principally from regard to particular persons, he relapsed to the exclusively national view of Christianity, he was decidedly opposed by Paul (Gal. 2, lls.), who advocated a gospel free for all mankind. In an apostle so prone to extremes, such an act, which almost seems like a second denial of his Lord, is no more incredible on the ground that he had before not only toler- ated, but even been the first to defend Gentile Christianity, than it was in Barnabas. But his former relation to Paul appears never to have been fully restored, for the first epistle which bears his name contains no conclusive evidence of this, and in the memory of the next generation, Peter and Paul were at the head of opposite parties in the Church. According to testimony derived from times after the middle of the second century, mingled, indeed, with many errors, legends and party statements, but proving what must have CHAP. II. APOST. CHUPvCH. 34. PETER. 83. PAETIE3. 3l been the opinion of the Eoman Church, Peter suffered crucifixion at Rome (about 67). (a) Jerome is the first who informs us (catal. c. 1), that he at one time resided at Antioch, and afterwards was for twenty-five years Bishoj of Borne. ' Although satisfactory evidence from the history of Paul proves that he could not have resided for so long a time at Rome, and even older traditions show that he could have sustained no particular office in the church of that place, since they mention, in different orders of succession, Linus, Anacletus, and Clement, as the first bishops of Rome ; (&) it is nevertheless certain, that wherever Peter was, his personal influence would always give him the first position, unless Paul had been by his side. His character is well reflected in the legend of his flight, from which he was recalled by some pungent reproof from the lips of Christ himself, and in that of his crucifixion with his head downwards, (c) 35. Position of Parties in the Time of Paul. In its progress among the heathen, the gospel necessarily appealed entire- ly to the general religious spirit which the apostle to the Gentiles recognized even among them, (a) since, with the exception of a few myths which might serve as types of Christ, and some prophetic announcement, made by the Platonic philosophy with which the apostles were unacquainted, it found no promises handed down from the fathers, and only the most obscure expecta- tions. Even after Christianity had torn itself entirely away from the Mosaic law, in consequence of its own origin as well as of that of its principal teachers, the Jewish element was still prominent in the phrases, doctrines, di- vine worship, and polity of the Church, and it was not remodelled until it gradually became affected by Grecian modes of thought. Jewish and Gen- tile Christianity existed side by side, either mutually recognizing or exclud- ing one another. The former was sustained by the influence of those who had been called the pillars among the apostles, and possessed an external sup- port in the necessities of the poor saints at Jerusalem. (5) An internal basis was also supplied, by the concession, that it was a duty which national if not religious piety required, for a Jew to adhere firmly to the law. Each of these forms of Christianity, however, must finally have felt, that its own rights de- pended upon the rejection of the other. It was therefore always urged to adopt the exclusive policy, which was at first precipitated by certain zealots among the Jewish Christians, perhaps through a refusal of social intercourse, or possibly by the uneasiness created in the minds of some Gentile Chris- a) Dionysius Corinth, and Cajus Rom. in Eu*eb. H. ecc. II, 25; (The doubtful testimony of Pa- pias, ib. II, 15 ;) Iren. Ill, 1. 8 ; Tertul. c. Marc. IV. 5 ; S. van Til, de Petro Eomae martyre, non pontifice, L. B. 1710. 4; J. G. fferbst, in d. Tub. Quartalschr. 1820. H. 4. p. 567ss. ; on the other hand, Fr. Spanhemli, Ds. de ficta profectione Petri in urbem Eomam. (Opp. Miscell. Lugd. B. 1708. Th. II. P. 331S6.); aur, in d. Tub. Zeitschr. 1831. H. 4; a F. v. Ammon, Fortb. d, Chr. z. Welt- rel. Lpz. 1840. vol. IV. p. 819ss. &) Euseb. H. ecc. Ill, 2 ; Rujmi, Praef. ad Eecogn. Petri ; even the Catalogue Liberianus, about 354. On the other hand, the most recent Cath. assertion : Dbl- tinger, KGesch. vol. I. Abth. 1. p. 65sa ; Windischmann, Vindiciae Petrinae, Eatisb. 1836- Stenglein, in d. Tub. Quartalschr. 1840. H. 2s.; comp. Baur, z. Literatur d. Petrus-Sage, in his Paulus, p. 671ss. c) Euseb. H. ecc. Ill, 1 ; Hieron. cataL c. 1. On the other hand : Tertul. de pracscr. c. 86. [Art in Kitto'a Journal of Bibl. Lit vol. V.] a) Horn. 1, 19 ; Acts 17, 22-29. 6) Gal. 2, 10 : 1 Cor. 16, Iss. 32 ANCIENT CHUECH HISTORY. PEE. L DIV. I. TILL A. D. 100. tians with respect to the law. (c) If, therefore, Paul himself spoke somewhat equivocally of the exorbitant respect paid to the apostles of Jewish Chris- tianity (2 Cor. 12, 11. Gal. 2, 6), his apostleship, which was referred to by every opponent as destitute of all external proof of a divine call, would be barely tolerated by the more liberal portion of the Jewish Christians, and by the more intolerant portion would be positively rejected. Jewish Christian ity was certainly in the ascendant in Palestine, and there, until the violent measures used by Hadrian, no bishops at Jerusalem were chosen except from among the circumcision, with a decided preference for the acquaintance or kindred of Jesus according to the flesh. ((I) In like manner, in the circle of Paul's influence, Gentile Christianity alone could have been predominant ; and in proof of this, an undeniable document exists in the epistle to the Ro- mans, in which the principal idea is the overwhelming superiority of the number of Gentiles in the Church. It is not, however, probable, that after Paul had been removed, and the destruction of the holy city seemed like a divine judgment against Judaism, any churches composed of persons born and educated as Greeks or Romans would be persuaded to observe the Jew- ish law, although attempts were not wanting even long after the commence- ment of the second century to form associations, and exclude members on this ground. Accordingly, when we find that Hegesippus called the Church, which had existed prior to the death of the apostles, a pure virgin, and on his way to Rome found what he called the irue doctrine with the bishops, we conclude that he must have belonged to that class of Jewish Christians, which, after the example of the prophets, and of our Lord himself, was not op- posed to a Gentile Christianity, (e) The church at Corinth, soon after its or- ganization, presents a picture of the parties formed especially on these con- flicting views. One party, which assumed the name of Peter, may have re- garded at least some parts of the Mosaic law as still in force, while another, called after the name of Paul, looked upon the doctrines advocated by him as exclusively Christian. A third party could find true Christianity nowhere so well presented, as in the method of instruction adopted by the learned Alexandrian, Apollos. A fourth, if it was not a mere branch of the Petrine party, maintained that Paul had never enjoyed the apostolic privilege of a direct intercourse with Chris^ and appropriated to itself exclusively the name of Christ, because it rejected all apostolic traditions, and relied entirely upon its immediate union with Christ. (/) Paul did indeed defend his apostolical authority against these various parties, by whom the unity of the Corinthian Church was not destroyed, but he did so only on the ground that he had re- ceived it from Christ himself. He did not deny, that every church had a right to use, for its own edification, the various gifts of its religious teachers, but he warned them that every thing which was not built upon Christ was perishable. He insisted that the Christian was a new man, after the image c) C. Buob, de abrog. legis Mos. ex Petri, Jac. et Jo. itemque Ecc. ab iisdem constltutarum sententia. Monte- Albano, 1842 ; C. E. Scharling, de Paulo tjusque adversaries, Haun. 1336. d) Euseb. II. ecc. IV, 5 ; Sulp. Sev. H. sacr. II, 31. e) Emeb. H. ecc. Ill, 32. IV, 22. /) 1 Cor. 1, -llss. comp. 2 Cor. 10, 7 ; Baur, u. d. Chris- tuspartei in d. Cor. Gemeinde (Tub. Zeitschr. 1831. P. 4. comp. 1836. p. 4), n. Paulus, p. 260ss. ; Dan. Schenkel, de Ecc. Corinthia primaeva factionibus tarbata, Bas. 183S; Dr. J. H. OoldKorn, d CHAP. II. APOST. CHUECH. 85. PARTIES. 86. JOHN. 33 of God, and was no longer a Greek, or a Jew, or a Barbarian, but Christ was ah in all. (g} A new tendency, having its origin among Jewish Christians, made its appearance at Colosse, which promised its votaries a mysterious kind of knowledge, and a power over the spiritual world, on condition that certain unnatural austerities were undergone. (A) On the other hand, Paul main- tained, that the highest wisdom was to be found in the simple gospel of Christ, and that a Christian had a rational freedom allowed him with respect to earthly things. 36. John. Lucke, Yers. e. Vollst Einl. in d. Offenb. Job. u. in d. apokal. Lit. Bonn. 1832. u. Com. u. d. Ev. Job. Bonn. ed. 3. 1840. vol. I. Einleitung; Bawmgarten-Crusius,1'h6Q\. Ausl. d. Job. Scbr. Jen. 1843. vol. I. Einleitung; JT. Frommann, d. Jo. Lehrbegr. Lps. 1839; K. E. Kostlin, Lebrbegr. d. Ev. u. d. Briefe Jo. Brl. 1848; . C. J. Lutzelberger, d. Kirchl. Tradition u. d. Ap. Job. in ibrer Grnndlosigkdt. Lps. 1840; JBaur, u. d Composition u. d. Cbarakter d. Job. Ev. (Zeller's Jahrb. 1844. P. 1. 3s.) ; E. Zeller, d. aussern Zeignisse u. Dasein u. Urspr. d. 4 Ev. (Ibicf. 1845. P. 4) ; J. A. H. Ebrard, de Ev. Job. u. die neueste Hypotbese u. s. Entsteb. Zur. 1845; W. Grimm, Job. in Ersch. a. Gruber's Encykl. sect. II. vol. XXII. ; comp. Ifase, Leben Jesu. p. 5ss. 112s. [A. Ifilgenfeld, Ev. u. d. Briefe Jo. nacb ibr. Lehrbegr. dargest Halle. 1849.] As far back as the recollection of the churches in Anterior Asia extended, John appears as the central point of interest to all the congregations of Asia Minor, and moving in the same scene of action which had previously been under the care of Paul at Ephesus. He is represented as indignantly con- tending against erroneous teachers, whether of the Jewish or Gentile parties, or as reclaiming by love those that were lost, and binding all together in uni- ty, (a) He is said, by the legends, to have been miraculously delivered from martyrdom at Rome. (5) A residence in Patmos, which, according to his own narration (Rev. 1, 9), must have occurred in the time of Galba, was changed by popular rumor in the Church, into a banishment under Domitian. All traditions, however, agree in declaring, that he attained an age in which the heart alone remains vigorous, (c) and that he finally fell asleep in the midst of his disciples, in the reign of Trajan. His life and death were vividly re- flected in many legendary accounts, the earliest of which were noticed by himself in his gospel (John 21, 22s.) (d} Even in the middle of the centu- ry, he was the third among the leaders of the Jewish Christians. The book of Revelations, whose authenticity is pretty well confirmed, which is evi- dently conformed to Jewish types and imagery, and must have been com- posed prior to the destruction of Jerusalem, manifestly corresponds to such a position. In that book, the chosen first-fruits around the throne of the Lamb belonged exclusively to the twelve tribes, but beyond these were an innumerable company from among the Gentiles, with palms and white robes, praising also the Lamb that had been slain, (e) The natural progress of a thoughtful man, as it is evident the author of the fourth gospel was, and as Cbristuspart. (Illgen's Zeitschr. 1840. P. 2) ; Ddfine, die Christuspart. Hal. 1841 ; T. F. Kniewel, Ecc. Cor. vetust. dissensiones. Gedan. 1842. 4. g) 1 Cor. 3 ; Col. 3, 10s. K) Col. 2 ;Schneckenbur- ger, u. d. Irrlebrer zu Col. (anhang z. Schr. u. d. Proselytentaufe. Brl. 1828. u. Beitr. z. Einl. N. 14) ; Rheinwald, de pseud odoctorib. Coloss. Veron. Kben. 1834. 4. a) Euseb. H. ecc. V, 24. Ill, 23. 6) Tertul. de praescr. c. 36. c) JEeron. in Ep. ad Gal. 6. d) Au- gustine, de Trin. VI, 39; Pseudo-JTippolyt. de consummat. inundi (Hipp. Opp. ed. Fabr. Append. p. 14) ; comp. Fdbrieii, Cod. Apoc. Tb. II. p. 538. e) Rev. 7, 4-10. comp. Jo. 4, 22. 3 34 ANCIENT CHURCH HISTOEY. PER. I. DIV. 1. TILL A. D. 100. one so specially beloved of the Lord must have been, during a period exten- sive as that of an ordinary generation, and spent among churches which had enjoyed Greek culture and the labors of Paul, will sufficiently account for any apparent discrepancies, or tokens of advancement, which one may notice in passing from the Revelations to the Gospel and the first epistle of John. In these later productions, the same spiritual and comprehensive views of Christianity prevail, which are so manifest in the epistles of Paul, but they seem to indicate that the mental conflicts of the writer had passed away. This gospel, moreover, seems to appeal not so much to a spirit conscious of sin, and specially feeling its need of salvation, as to something exalted in the existing nature of man, and its aspirations after perfection. Christianity, therefore, appears there to consist not so much in mere faith in the mercy of God through Christ, as more immediately in love, and in the union of tho divine and human in the heart, which was complete in Christ, and is de- signed for our race. The incarnate Logos is a borrowed symbol of this uni- ty, partially indicated "before in the epistles of Paul, (/) but presented in the gospel in a dogmatic form. It there appears as a celestial being not belong- ing to our race, but taking the place of beloved man, although, in conse- quence of personal recollections of Jesus, it is pervaded by historical facts of the most perfect human character. The love which John inculcated, is pow- erful enough to conquer death, and penetrate through all obstacles up to God. The most flourishing form of Christianity, in past or future times, is here partially presented. It consists in a life, even on earth, of tranquil, unbro- ken, and everlasting rest in God, in which all apparent schism between tho present and the future, the human and the divine, has been overcome. 37. Parties in the Time of John. The same subjects which were destined to agitate the Church in future ages, began already to be discussed among opposing parties. The various views and sects which had formerly prevailed among the Jews, were certain- ly carried forward in the very commencement, so as to produce similar vari- eties among Jewish Christians. Even the different conceptions which were then entertained of Jesus, had their origin in the national expectations of the Jews respecting their Messiah. But as every account we have of them belongs to a later age, it may be that the first power of Christian love, com- bined with the external influence of Gentile Christians, was then sufficient to hold together even opposing elements. The feelings of bitterness which, ac- cording to the prominent recollections of the Church in the next century, the apostle John entertained toward Cerinthus, were too peculiar to have been awakened by the existence of any thing in the latter of a merely Jewish /) The passage in 1 Cor. 8, 6. 15, 4T. cannot be explained away ; hence the more distinct and prominent references to a Son of God who existed before the world, and created it, which are found in the Epp. to the Colossians, Ephesians and Philippians, form no ground for suspecting the genuineness of those writings. Although all views not merely accidental must have their appropriate time of develop- ment, the Jewish notions of the Messiah and the Alexandrian doctrine of the Logos were so pre- adjusted to one another, that they might easily be supposed to have been all combined together In a single night CHAP. II. A POST. CHURCH. 87. CERINTHUS. 88. TRADITIONS. 35 character, (a) On the supposition that this Cerinthus taught, as he is said, especially in Koman and Alexandrian accounts, to have done, that a millen- nial kingdom of the most sensuous nature was to be expected, that the ob- servance of the law was indispensable to salvation, and that the origin of Jesus was merely human, (5) such views were at that time by no means un- common. If, as Irenaeus declares, he regarded the Creator of the world as an inferior being, so that the Most High God was not revealed until he ap- peared through Christ as a superior being, in connection with the man Jesus, from the time of the baptism till the crucifixion, (c) he must, like John liimself, have meant that the law was only intended for the development of the kingdom, and that the sensuous glory of that kingdom was merely alle- gorical, (d) In conformity with his Alexandrian education, he regarded the Creator of the world as an intermediate divine being, in the service of the supreme celestial Deity, (e) Those who looked upon matter as essentially evil, in accordance with a doctrine springing from an overwrought Platon- ism, or from Hindoo speculations, and certainly prevalent in Alexandria, must have been offended at the idea of a revelation of Deity through sensible ob- jects. Accordingly, the various forms of JDocetism agreed in declaring, that every thing corporeal in Christ was only in appearance, and for the manifes- tation of the Spirit, and that his life was merely a continual Theophany. It was against the subtilizing process which this view rendered necessary with respect to the evangelical history, that testimony was borne probably even in the epistles of John, and certainly in those which bear the name of Igna- tius. (/) The Nicolaitans, whose name was doubtless symbolical, and founded upon traditional recollections, were merely the first representatives of a large class of thinkers in subsequent times, who abused the spiritual superiority of Christianity to all corporeal objects, to give countenance to the Greek frivol- ity with respect to the relations of the sexes, (g) 3S. Traditions respecting the Apostles, The stories which have been related with regard to a division of the world by lot among the apostles, of the composition of a creed in Jerusalem at the time of their separation twelve years after the Ascension, of their celibacy or continence, and of their martyrdom, belong to the legends of the fourth and fifth centuries. According to earlier traditions, which, however, present no individuality of character, Thomas went to Parthia, Andrew to Scythia, () Bartholomew to India, (5) and Philip died at Hierapolis, in Phry- gia. In one of the most copious, a story is told, and highly embellished, of a mission of Thaddeus to Abgarus, prince of Edessa, in consequence of an earlier correspondence between Jesus and that prince, (c) a) Iren. Ill, 3 -^Schmidt, Orinth . judais. Christ In s. Bibl. Kritik. u. Ex. vol. I. p. ISlss.; Pauliis, Hist. Cer. {Introd. in N. T. cap. selectiora. Jea. 1799) ; comp. Jlaur, Chr. Gnosis. Tub. 1835. p. 117. 403SS. Z>) JEuseb. H, ecc. Ill, 28 ; Epiph. faaer. 28. c) Iren. I, 26. d) Iren. V, S3. e) TJie- odoret. Haeret fabb. II, 3; Iren. 1, 26. /) 1 Jo. 1, 1-3; 4, 2s. ; 2 Jb. 7; Ignatius ad Ephes. c. 7. 18. d Smyrn. c. 1-8 ;A. H. Niemeyer, de Docetis. Hal. 1823. 4. g) Rev. 2, 6. 14ss. ; 2 Pet 2, 15 ; Jud. 11, viKa.vv}>v\a.6v, B5 3^2 , comp. Iren. I, 26; Clem. Strom. II. p. 490s.; III. p. 522s.;- Mun- ccher, Yermuth. u. "d. Nik'olaiten (Gabler's Journ. f. TheoL Lit. 1803. vol. V. p. 17ss.); Ewald,. in Apocal. Jo. p. 110 ; Gfrorer, Gesch. d. TJrchr. I, 2. p. 402ss. . 100. 39. Apostolical Fathers of the First Century. Patrum qui temporibus apostolorum floruerant, Opp. ed. Coteleriiw. Par. 1672. rep. Clericus, Amst (1698.) 1724 2 Th. C ; Patrum app. Opp. ed. Rusel, Lond. 1796. 2 Th. ; Patrum app. Opp. ed. ffefele. Tub. (1839. 1843.) 'J847. [4. Sutler, Lives of tho Fathers, Martyrs, &c. Lond. 1883. 2 vols. 8 , E. Blckerstet\ The Chr. Fathers of the First and Second Centuries. Lond. 1845. 12 ; Abp. Wake, Ap. Fathers. Lond. 1817. 8.] Heyns, Juniw et van Gilse, Commentt de Patrum app. doctrlua mo- rali. Lugd. 1833. 4. \UilgerfeU, d. Erforschungen u. d. Schrr. Ap. Vater. BerL 1854. 8.] When the contemporaries and disciples of the apostles left -behind them any writings, they were distinguished by the ancient Church as apostolic fathers. The genuineness of their writings cannot be perfectly maintained, especially against the suspicion of having been revised in later times. They resemble the writings of the apostles not so much in their distinct and intel- lectual peculiarities, as in their general conception of Christianity, without doctrinal precision or references to Grecian learning. The epistle of Barna- las treats of the relation of Christianity to Judaism, in the manner of the epistle to the Hebrews, with an allusion to the temple of Jerusalem as if it were already destroyed. In spite of the powerful historical proofs we pos- sess of the genuineness of the epistle, the insipid spirit and the stupid arbi- trariness of its allegorical explanations, continually suggest doubts whether it could be the production of a man once regarded as the equal of Paul, (a) The epistle of Clemens Romanus (Phil. 4, 3) to the Corinthians, was intend- ed to effect a reconciliation between the parties which had been organized among them. It inculcates the doctrine of justification by faith, but, in the spirit of Paul, it exhorts all to adorn themselves also with good works. The se- cond epistle which bears the name of the same writer, is. generally of a devo- tional character, but it is a mere fragment, and of a very doubtful authenticity. The Shepherd of Ifermas is a strenuous exhortation to morality, enforced by the prospect of the second advent of Christ. It is in the form of direct rev- elations from God, and visions of angels. In the manner of Jewish Chris- tians, it displays great confidence in the holiness of good works, but contains evidence that baptism had already taken the place of circumcision. The in- dividual whose composition it professes to be, is unknown, but the general use made of it in the churches of the second century, for devotional reading, indicates that he must have been an apostolical personage. (5) 40. Political Overthrow of Judaism. Josephi de bello Jud. I. VII. ; TacW, Hist V, 1-18. The obstinacy of the Jewish nation may have required unusual severity on the part of the Eomans, but the extreme violence of the procurator Ges- a) In favor of its genuineness: E. ffenke, de Epistolae quae Barn, tribnitur, authentic Jen. 1827 ; ffirdam, de auth. Ep. B. Ham. 1828; Haverkorn van Rysewyk, de B. Arnhem. 1885. On tho other side: Ullmann, in d. Stud. u. Krit 1828. P. 2 ; Zug. in d. Zeitschr. d. Erzbisth. Freyb. P. 2s. ; Htfele, d. Sendschr. d. Ap. B. untersucht, ubersetzt u. erklart Tub. 1840; D. Schenkel (Stud, n. Krit 1837. H. 8.) contends for the interpolation of c. 7-12. 15. 16. by some Therapeutic Jewish Christians ; Heberle, in d. Btud. d. Geistl. Wurtemb. 1846. P. 1. Chap. 16 seems to refer to tho Temple of Aelia Capitolina. Z>) Rom. 16, 14. 'O iroi^v. Pastor. Lat translation and Greek Frag- ments \ Grate, Disqq. in Pastorem Hermae. P. I. Bonn. 1820. 4; Jachmann, d. Hirte des Hennas Konigsb. 1835. CHAP. II. APOST. CHUECH. 40. JERUSALEM. 41. KMPEEOES. 37 sius Florus (after 64), could find no palliation except in the insurrections to which he had driven the people. They had entered upon the war (66), not so much in the hope of victory, as in despair of all earthly peace. Legions had fallen in the mountains of Judea, when Vespasian (after 67), and after his elevation to the imperial throne, the Caesar Titus (70), arrayed the whole power of the empire against Jerusalem. The Christian churches, remember- ing the prophecy which Jesus had left them, abandoned their native land, and betook themselves to Pella, on the other side of Jordan. Though famine and civil war raged in Jerusalem, every offer of mercy connected with the condition of renewed servitude was scornfully rejected, and the holy city was at last destroyed in a sublime death-struggle against the whole power of the Eoman world. 41. The Eoman Civil Power. [T. Arnold, Later Eoman Commonwealth. New York. 1846. 3 vols. 8.] It was the policy of the Eoman government to permit all nations under its yoke to retain their own gods, but some very ancient laws, forbidding any Koman citizen to worship divinities not recognized by the State, and any conquered nation to propagate their religion in other parts of the Empire, were still in existence, (a) Hence, the more Christianity disconnected itself from Judaism, the more it lost the right of toleration conceded to every national religion, and by its efforts to make spiritual conquests it became ob- noxious to the laws. In the time of the Caesars, however, so strong were the inclinations of the people toward foreign religions, and so numerous the admissions of foreigners to the rights of citizenship, that these laws had be- come nearly obsolete, and could be restored to their authority only by special acts of power. (5) There is no other authority for believing that Tiberius ever adopted Christ as one of his household gods, but the legends of the second century, (c) Under Claudius, Christians were expelled from Kome (53) merely as Jews, (d) Nero (64) transferred to the Christians the guilt of his own incendiary conduct, and caused all who could be found in the city to be put to death, for although they were generally regarded as innocent of the crime imputed to them, they were condemned as enemies of the human race, (e) Under Domitian (81-96) the charge of Christianity was used as a pretext, by which persons might be convicted of a kind of high treason, that so their property might be confiscated, and themselves banished or executed. Flavius Clemens, a man of consular dignity, and belonging to the imperial family, was put to death, and his wife Domitilla was banished to an island, according to Koman accounts for contempt of the gods, and giving themselves up to Jew- ish practices, but according to Christian views as martyrs for the truth. (/) Some persons arraigned before the emperor, on account of their connection, by birth, with Jesus, were dismissed without molestation, as harmless peas- a) Cicero de legib. II, 8. &) Fr. Wdlch, de Eomanorum in tolerandis diversis religionibus dis- ciplina publica. (Nov. Commontt Soc. Eeg. Goett 1733. voL III.) c) Tertul. Apologet c. 5. 21. In favor of it; Braun, de Tiberii Christum in deorum numerum referendi consilio, Bonn. 1S34. d) Sueton. Claud, c. 25 ; Ammon, Pg. in Suet. Claud, c. 25. Erl. 1813. 4. e) Taciti Ann. XV, 44 Sueton. Nero, c. 16. /) Sueton. Dom. c. 15; Dlo Cassiits (Epit Xiphilini), LXVII, 14; 38 ANCIENT CHURCH HISTOET. PEE. I. DIV. I. TILL A. D. 100. ants, (g) Nerva (96-98) forbade that any one should be accused for being a Christian. In the midst of these persecutions, Christians made no resistance further than individually to assert their innocence, and then silently resign themselves to their fate, (K) Near the close of the first century churches were to be found in all the principal cities of the Eastern empire, but in the West there are no distinct traces of them, out of Italy. The first converts were principally slaves, laborers, and women, but so numerous were they, that even then it is said, the temples of Asia Minor were deserted, and flesh which had been offered to idols conld find no sale. 42. Constitution of the Local 'Churches. a M. Pfaff, de originib. juris ecc. Tub. 1719. ed. 4. Him. 1759. 4 (Gr filing) TTrverf. d. apost- Christengem. Halbrst 1819; Bretechncider, die Yerf z. Z. d. App. repraesenlativ-demokr. o. aristo- kratisch? (A. K. Zeitung. 1888. N. lOSss. D. KirchL polit Zeitfragen. Lpz. 1847. p. 53ss.); It. Rotfie, die Anfauge d. cbr. K. B. ihrer Yerf. Witt 1887. 1 voL ; A. Petersen, die Idee. d. chr. K. Lpz. 1839- 46. 8 Th. ; [J. E. Riddle, Manual of Chr. Antt Lend. 1840. 8 ; J. P. Wilson, Prim. Gov. of Chr. Churches. Philad. 1883. 12; A. Neander, Planting & Training, transl. from Germ, by J. E. Eyland. Philad. 1844 8. L. Coleman, The Apostol. & Prim. Cbnreh, &c. Philad, 1845. 12; A. Barnes, In- quiry into the Orig. & Gov. of Ap. Church. Philad. 1848. 12 ; R. Wfiately, The Kingdom of Christ. New York. 1842. 12 ; J. L. Mosheim, Commentt on the Affairs of Christians before Const transl. from Germ, by Yidal. Lond 181& 8 vols. 8 ; J. JBingham, Origines Eccleslastlcae, transl. from Lat. Lond. 1852. 8 vols. 8; P. King, Const of Prim. Church. Lond. 1719. 8 ; W. Sclater, Orig. Draught of Prim. ChurBn. Lond. 1727. 8; N. Sangt, Orig. Church of Chrtet New Yoik. 1887. 2 ed. a] The separate existence of the Christian Church was effected quite as mucli by the daily religious assemblies of the disciples at Jerusalem, as by their partial exclusion from the synagogues. The Twelve Apostles at first regarded themselves as a perfected or exclusive College for the establishment of Chris- tianity in the world. They had been the special companions of the Lord, and were now the principal vouchers for the evangelical traditions. They therefore exercised an undisputed authority over the Church, shared however in a short time with others, who became distinguished for their spiritual gifts as apostles and founders of churches. Next to them in rank were the Evan- gelists, a class of travelling preachers, sometimes also called, in the more ex- tensive sense of the term, apostles. The PropJtetia was the gift granted to many persons at that time, by which they were enabled to speak in an in- spired, enraptured manner of discourse. In the case of Agabus, however, we have a specimen of a class of soothsayers who only faintly resembled an- other, then for ever gone, (a} The actual officers of the local churches were chosen as circumstances called for them, after the model of the synagogue. Elders (irpffffivrepoi, fc' 1 ?**) were appointed to preside, and preserve order in the church, and Deacons (Sta/eown), to take charge of the poor, and to assist in every effort for the common good. (5) The Elders were sometimes called by the unassuming name of Overseers (eV/o-KOTroi), an appellation more con- sonant with Grecian customs, and first adopted in Grecian congregations. Chron. II. ad Olymp. 218 ; Uieron. ep. 86. (al. 27.) cf. Phil. 4, 22. g) Euseb. Hist. ecc. Ill, 15. h) Or tha other hand: Kestner, die Agape o. d. geheime Weltbund der Christen von Klemens in PvOin unter Domitian gestiftet Jena. 1819. a) Acts 11, 28. 21, 10s. Z>) Acts 6, 1-10. CHAP. II. APOST. C1IUKCH. 42. CONSTITUTION. 43. LIFE. 39 Both titles were as yet used indiscriminately, although in consequence of the personal influence of some who presided in the churches, especially of Jeru- salem, the way may have heen prepared even then, for the distinction which became so decided and general in the first ten years of the next century, (c) The officers of each church were chosen by the people, or with the consent of the people were installed over them by those who organized them into a church. Although the office of a public teacher must have seemed most im- portant, and the necessity of well qualified instructors must have been urgent, (d) it does not appear that any persons were at first set apart, exclu- sively for that duty, (e) and every thing like a hierarchy was excluded by the universal acknowledgment that all believers were members of a general priesthood, (f) It was looked upon as a matter of conscience, that all civil suits should be settled by arbitrators selected from the church itself, (g) After the excitement of the first establishment of the church had subsided, women once more returned to a silent submission to the word of God, and to the performance of their proper duties in the domestic circle. But in addition to the Deaconesses, who were employed in charitable offices among the women, there were probably, even then, some female presbyters or widows, for the supervision and instruction of the younger persons of their own sex. (7i) Every one who applied for admission to the Church was immediately re- ceived, but those who were subsequently found guilty of gross offences were excluded by the action of the congregation. In the management of its pub- lic affairs each congregation was an independent society, but by spiritual fel- lowship, and the influence of distinguished travelling teachers, all the con- gregations were so connected together, as collectively to form one great king- dom of God, of which even in the time of Paul, Jerusalem was regarded as the centre. The supreme law was love, and the sovereign power was exer- cised by the Holy Ghost. 43. Ecclesiastical Life. Arnold, erste Liebe d. i. wahre Abbildung d. ersten Christen. Frnkf. 1696. f. & oft. ; SticJcel et Bogenhard, Biga commentt de moral! primaevorum Christianoruin conditione, Neost. ad O. 1826. As the Church at Jerusalem grew up out of the original company of the apostles, the common fund which had existed in the latter, suggested the bold thought of a community of goods. Although such a project was mucli facilitated by the enthusiastic brotherly love then prevalent, and an expecta- tion that all existing relations were soon to be overthrown, it was never com- pletely carried out, and this congregation was soon in need of the charities of Christians in foreign countries, (a) A hypocritical vanity which occurred in a form not very uncommon in religious circles, was visited with a terrible c) do. ad Attic. VII, 11 ; Acts 20, 17. 28 ; Phil. 1, 1 ; 1 Pet. 5, Is. ; Clem. Horn, ad Cor. c. 42. 44; Hermae Past. I. 2. 4;JBlondel, Apologia pro sententia Hier. de Episc. Amst 1616. 4; Oabler, de Episcopts primae ecc. Jen. 1805. 4. d) Acts 6, 2 ; 7. Tim. 3, 2. 5, 17; II. Tim. 2, 24 e) Forliger, Ds. de munerib. ecc. tempore A pp. Lps. 1776. 4; Gabler, examinatur Forbi- geri sent, de Presb. Jen. 1812. 4. 2 Pgg. /) I. Pet. 2, 9. 5, 3, cf. Eom. 12, 1. g) I. Cor. 6, 1-8. cf. Matt. 18, 15ss. A) Acts 2, 17. 21, P. Rom. 16, 1. Tit. 2, 3; 7. Tim. 5, 9; Cone. Laod. can. 11 (J/anst, Th. II. p. 566). ffase, Streitschrr. P. 2, p. 35ss. a) Acts 4, 32ss. cf. 12, 12. MosTieim, de vera natura communionis bonorum in Ecc. Hier. (Dsa. 40 ANCIENT CHUKCH HISTOEY. PEE. I. DIY. I. TILL A. D. 100. divine retribution. (5) The ordinary mode of life in each congregation pre- sented many points of comparison with that which existed among the Essenes. (c) Christians regarded themselves, in contrast with the world, as the consecrated people of God. Every intellectual faculty, according to its peculiar nature, was enlisted in the service of the kingdom of God, and when exalted by the common spirit of the Church, was looked upon as a gracious gift of the Holy Ghost. Hence, while there were many gifts, there was but ode Spirit. The most remarkable of these gifts was the power of miracu- lously healing the sick, at first more especially exercised by Peter, but after- wards supposed to be a permanent possession of the Church. The Holy Ghost was regarded as the common spirit of the whole Church, proceeding directly from Christ, awakening and appropriating to its use the sacred en- thusiasm of each individual. The external manifestations of this spirit were sometimes genuine exhibitions of divine power, but were sometimes con- founded with the fanatical irruptions of a high religious excitement, and hi all cases were regarded as fulfilments of a prophetic metaphor of Messianic prophecy, (d) The sincere piety which generally prevailed, however, did no* always prevent the pride which flatters itself on account of its external sei vices, nor did the extraordinary brotherly love which the great body of Christians exhibited, entirely suppress some manifestations of envy and party spirit. When persecution was expected, it was not uncommon for some among the Jewish Christians to save themselves by apostacy, and among the > Gentile portion of the Church sins were sometimes committed which were regarded as unpardonable, (e) Even when Christian morality had been in- fluenced by Jewish views of personal purity, it had much to contend with in the sensuality of the Greeks. Fastings and abstinences, which had been re- garded from a period of great antiquity, as conducive to a pious disposition, together with some festivals, were very soon introduced into the Christian Church. Paul, it is true, rejected them when any attempted to enforce them as a matter of legal obligation, or of personal merit, but he looked upon vir- ginity as a very desirable condition, and expressed an inferior regard for the married state. (./) No change was required in the social relations of life, but they were exalted by higher motives and principles, (g) "'* All hope of an earthly theocracy was apparently destroyed by the death of Jesus, but Chris- tians generally believed that Christ was to return to the world a second time, and many indulged the hope that they would live to witness his advent. This faith gave birth to the boldest expectations, partaking generally of a sensuous character, and while it seemed a national necessity, and a religious consola- tion to the Jewish, it was a source of anxiety and perplexity to the Grecian congregations. (A) 44. Mode of Worship. The devotional exercises of the Christian assemblies, like those of the Jewish synagogues, consisted principally of prayers, singing of hymns, and ad II. ecc. Alton. 1743. Th. II.) &) Acts 5, 1-11. c) Comp. Gfrorer, Gesch. d. TJrchr. III. p. 355ss. d) Acts 2, 15-18; I. Cor. 12, 4. 14, Iss. e) Heb. 6, 4s8. 10, 25ss. 7. Jo. 5, 16. /) 7. Cor. 7, Is. 32sa. g} Ep. ad Philemon, li) After the Apocalypse, Matth. 16, 28 ; 7. Cor. 15, 52 ; Phil. 4, 6 ; Heb. 10, 87, /. Jo. 2, IS; James 5, 8 ; 7. Pet. 4, 5. 77. Thess. 2. CHAP. II. APOST. CHUECH. 44. WORSHIP. 45. DOCTKINES. 41 sacred discourses, founded upon portions of the Old Testament. Apostolic epistles were read in the congregation, to which they had been .originally di- rected, but after a single reading they were generally laid aside. Every one who had the power and the inclination to speak in public, was allowed to do so with freedom. Baptism as an initiatory rite was performed simply in the name of Jesus, (a) The love-feast, in which were combined the ordinary meal and the religious service of the primitive Christians, was originally cele- brated in Jerusalem every day. At its conclusion the broken bread and the consecrated cup was passed around to -every one at the table. (5) In the Jew- ish Christian congregations the Jewish Sabbath and festivals were observed. Paul denied that any one was bound by positive law to show a preference of one sacred day above another, (c) Only in congregations composed princi- pally of Greeks, could the members be induced to observe Sunday in com- memoration of our Lord's resurrection, (d) and among them no interest could be awakened in those Jewish festivals, which were not connected with some event of the Christian history, to give them additional importance. It is, however, not easy to explain why even Paul and John should have discon- tinued in such congregations the eating of the paschal lamb, according to the usage of their forefathers, (e) 45. Doctrines of the Church. No public sentiment upon definite articles of Christian faith had yet been formed, but in addition to those generally received maxims of piety, which in some instances had been handed down from the lips of Jesus, and in others had been gradually developed in the course of free discussion, the whole sys- tem of Jewish faith passed over into the Christian Church, and was received as divine. The only condition of admission to the Church, was a promise to live a new life, and an acknowledgment of Jesus as the Messiah. In this ac- knowledgment free scope was given to all those views of the nature of the Messiah, which prevailed among the people, from a simple recognition of him as the Son of David, and a man filled with the Spirit of God, to a belief in him as an angel, and an impersonation of some one of the attributes of Jehovah. In the view of the Greeks the Messianic office had no special sig- nificance, and Christ was to them simply the Lord, and the Son of God. As far as the reception of the doctrine of the Holy Ghost may be regarded as an indication of the development of Christianity at this period, the views of the Church may be inferred from the baptismal formula, which was a simple ex- pression of faith in the divine Father, Son, and Spirit (Matth. 28, 19). This whole transaction was a thoroughly practical matter, and admitted of a great variety of views. a) Acts 2, 38. 8, 16. 10, 48 ; Horn. 6, 3. 6) J. T. F. Z>resc7ier, de rett. Christianorum Agapis. Giess. 1824. c) Gal. 4, 9ss. ; Col. 2, 16; Rom. 14, 5; comp. I. Cor. 5, 6ss. ; Oomp. Justin, c. Tryph. c. 10, 12. d) Acts 20, 7; I. Cor. 16, 2; Rev. 1, 10; Barndb. c. 15. C. C. L. FranTce, de diei dominici apud vett Christ, celebratione, Hal. 1S26; (Commit, sel. ed. Volbeding. 1846. Th. I. P. I.) e) Acts 20, 5s. ; Euseb. H. ecc. Y, 24. 42 ANCIENT CHUECH HISTOEY. PEE. J. DIV. II. A. D. 100-812. DIVISION II -FORMATION OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. CHAP. I STRUGGLE OF THE CHURCH FOR ITS OWN EXIST- ENCE. Lactantius, de mortib. pcrsecutornm, ed. Bauldri, Traj. ad. Eh. 1693. and often. [This work is transl. by Sp. JBurnet. Lond. 1713. 8.] C. Kortholt, de persequutionib. ecc. primaevae (Jen. 16GO), Kilon. 1689. 4; TransL into Germ. ; Beschr. d. 10 grossen Verfolgg. Hamb. 1693; Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Eom. Emp. Lond. 1776ss. 6 vols. 4, and often. [With notes by Milman and Guizot. New York. 1848. 4 vols. 8.] Transl. into Germ, by Wenk, and others. Lps. 178Sss. 19 vols. ; the 16th chap, respecting the prop, of Chr. by natural causes, transL by A. F. v. Walterstern, Hamb. 178S ; G. A. Osiander, Ausbreit d. Christenth. (Staudlin's u. Tzschirner's Arch. vol. 4. sect 2) ; //. G. Tsscfiirner, der Fall des Heidenth. Lps. 1S29. 1 voL ; A. Beugnot, Hist de la destruction du pa- ganisme en Occident Par. 1385. 2 vols. [A. Mtechl, d. Entstth. der Altkath. K. Bonn. 1850.] 46. The Jews. Zunz, die Gottesdienstl. Vortr. d. Jud. hist entwickelt Brl. 1832. comp. 40. Uninstructed by the past, and unhumbled by defeats, the Jews contended against their fate (after 115), and from "Western Africa to Asia Minor, insurrec- tions rolled over the land, always to be quelled in Jewish blood. That he might not be compelled to put the whole nation to death, Hadrian resolved to destroy its nationality. The people were forbidden to observe their Sab- baths, and circumcision was punished as a crime probably as emasculation, (a) and on the ruins of Jerusalem a city consecrated to Jupiter was built, and in honor of that divinity and of the emperor was called Aelia Capitolina. "When reduced to extremity, the nation was called to arms (132) by Bar Cocliba, {. e. the Son of a Star, (5) who professed to be the promised Messiah, and was acknowledged to be such by the distinguished Rabbi Akiba. He succeeded in conquering Jerusalem, and in consequence of his heroic but sanguinary exploits, Palestine became once more free. But after all the hor- rors and vicissitudes of a three years' war, Julius Sexerw got possession, by storm, of Beihar, the last fortress of this Messiah's kingdom. The impostor himself fell in the battle. The whole of Palestine had become a desert. Every Jew was forbidden, under penalty of death, to set foot within the holy city. Those Christians who remained in Palestine suffered much during this struggle, not only from the Romans, by whom they were frequently treated as Jews, but still more from the followers of the false Messiah, because they refused to follow him in his efforts to save their common country, (c) These national misfortunes were regarded by the Jews as divine judgments for their indifference to the law of their fathers, and had no influence in diminishing their assurance of future success. Schools of learning were established, to serve as spiritual courts, and centres of influence for the nation in its general' dispersion. Genuine Rdbbinism was formed on the ruins of the older sects a) Spartiani, Hadr. c. 14. comp. Digest. XLVIII. tit. 8. fr. 11 ; Nov. Just 142. c. 1. I) Num. 24,17. After his failure he was called : fcOMiS "13, filius mendacii. c) I. Dio Cass. LXV1II, 32; LXIX, 12ss.; Euseb. H. ecc. IV, 2. 6; 'justini, Ap. L c. 81. IL Dei/ling, Aeliae Cap. Ori- gines et Hist Lps. 1743 ; Hunter, der Jud. Krieg unter Trajan u. Hadr. Altona u. Lps. 1S21 CHAP. I. STEUGGLE OF CHEISTIANITY. 46. JUDAISM. 47. EOMANS. 43 at Tiberias, in the school of Hillel, in which the Mosaic law, in its utmost extent, though partially accommodated to the times, was taught by a class of teachers permanently set apart to this work. The traditions of the scribes here reduced to writing (Mishna, about 220), with explanations (Gemara, in the 4th cent.), constituted, in subsequent times, the principal book for in- struction and religious law (Talmud). A still greater influence was after- wards acquired by the schools on the Euphrates, in which the Babylonian Talmud was composed of the same general materials (430 till 521), and- be- came more generally esteemed, on the ground that it was a more distinct form of modern Judaism. The Jews, who were the sources of all the calum- nies heaped upon Christ and the Church, knew very well how to excite the same hatred against the Christians of which they were themselves the vic- tims, (d) The feelings of Christians with respect to the Jews still remained of a contradictory character. In a dialogue of Justin, in which the author replies to the objections of a candid Jew against the vocation of Jesus, and the transitory nature of the divine law, the position is assumed, that the Mo- saic precepts and institutions were only prefigurations and symbols either of what Christ did, or of what happened to him and his followers, (e) It was even then asserted, that Christianity had been rejected by the people among whom it originated, and that the few who had embraced it were by no means the most faithful and consistent Christians. (/) The proofs adduced by Cyprian are a collection of pertinent and impertinent passages of Scripture, to show that the Jews were to be cast off, and that all the prophecies either had been or would be fulfilled by Christ, (g) 47. The Roman People and Empire. Eortholt, Paganus obtrectator, Kilon. 1698. 4; J. J. ffulderici, Gentilis obtrectator, Tigiir. 1744; Papst, de culpa Christianor. in vexatt. motis a Eom. Erl. 1789. 8 Pgg. 4 ; Hunter, die Christin im heidnischen Hause vor Constantin, Kopenh. 1828. From the time of Trajan, the Roman people had been accustomed in a tumultuous manner to demand that Christians should be put to death. This proceeded originally from persons who either derived their support from some connection with idolatry, or found their principal honor or pleasure in the cultivation of pagan literature. But internally decayed, as heathenism then was, it could never have awakened such a powerful opposition, and, in the course of the struggle, have won for itself once more a high degree of attach- ment, merely by appeals in behalf of the old idolatry. The whole common feeling of the ancient world, and the chief glory of the present life, was as- sailed by Christianity, and the people saw nothing proposed in return but a severe and cheerless system of virtue, in which the world was rendered a desert, that an uncertain heaven might be won. The hatred thus awakened endeavored to justify itself by suspicions. The spiritual worship of an in- visible God was denounced as atheism ; participation in the sacred body of d) Justin, c. Tryph. c. 16s. ; Tertul. ad nation. I, 14. e) Aid\oyos irpbs Tpvcpava, 'lovtiaiov. Ed. /&, Lond. 1719; Opp. rec. J. C. T. Otto, Jen. 1842s. Th. II. ; Munscher, an Dial. c. Tryph. Justino recte adscribatur ? (Commentt. theol. ed. Eosenmueller, Lps. 1S26. Th. I. P. 2, p. 184ss.) /) Justini, Apol. I. c. 53. g) Testimoniorum adv. Judaeos, 1. III. 44 ANCIENT CHUECH HISTORY. PEE. I. DIV. II. A. D. 100-312. Christ was represented as a Thyestean feast ; the privacy of the Christian as- semblies was looked upon as a cloak for conspiracy, and for secret crimes ; and the fraternal fellowship which generally prevailed among Christians, was suspected as the result and the occasion of unnatural lasciviousness. The re- proaches heaped upon each other by the Church and the various Christian sects, (a) and the confessions wrung by torture from heathen slaves, with re- spect to their Christian masters, (5) appeared to confirm the suspicions of those who were anxious to find evidences of guilt. The public misfortunes in which that age abounded, were all regarded as divine judgments for the dishonor done to the offended gods. But to persons of distinction, and to those who had been educated in the spirit of the times, Christianity appeared to be a dark superstition of an infatuated rabble. The magistrates were, in- deed, frequently induced to persecute Christians, by the clamors of the mul- titude, and by their own passions ; but the true reason for it was to be found in motives of state policy. Christians looked upon it as dangerous to take the oath of allegiance which the soldiers were obliged to receive, or to per- form the duties of any public or civil office, (c) although many overcame their religious scruples from a regard to personal advantages or feelings of duty. Although they generally submitted to every outrage inflicted upon them by the magistrates, whom they regarded as appointed by God, their vast number and mutual fellowship rendered them formidable to the civil authorities. Indeed, this consciousness of their own power, and their con- viction that the empire was destined to a speedy overthrow were so openly expressed, (d) that their assurances of fidelity and loyalty appeared quite sus- picious. At all events, the State was torn by dissensions, and as long as any hope remained of overcoming Christians by terror, sanguinary measures were looked upon as likely to result in good. The fate of Christians was, it is true, determined by the imperial edicts in every part of the empire, but it was rendered mild or severe according to the popular sentiment in each pro- vince and the personal feelings of the local magistrate. 48. Conduct of the Individual Emperors during the Second and Third Cen- turies. Franc, Balduini, Commtr. ad cdlcta vetL prince. Rom. de Christianis, Hal. 1727. 4; C. D, A Martini, Persecutiones Christianorum sub Impp. Rom. Rostoch. 1802s. 8 Comm. 4; Schumann v. Mansegg, die Yerfolgungen d. ereten chrlstL Kirche. Vien. 1S21 ; G. S. Eopke, do statu et condlt. Christianorum sub Impp. Rom. alterius post Cbr. Saec. Ber. 1828. 1. A noble race of emperors, in whom the Greek and Roman spirit was once more revived, were, in the old Roman style, either indifferent or severe in their treatment of Christianity. A rescript of Trajan (98-117), in reply to some inquiries of Plinius (about 110) respecting the conduct to be pursued towards Christians, directed that they should not be sought after by the civil authorities, but that all legally arraigned by accusers before the courts, were a) Tertul. de jejun. c. 17 ; Clem. Strom. IIL p. 511 ; Euseb. H. ecc. IV, 7. 5) Euseb. H. ecc. VI, 1. c) Tertul de cor. c. 11 ; Apologet c. 88; de Pallio, c. 5; Jiuinart, Acta Martyr, ed. 2. p. 299a. rf) Tertul. Apologet c. 87. The Apocalypse of John, and many things In the Sibylline books, lia already announced these. CtfAP. L STRUGGLES OF CHKISTIANITY. 48. ROMAN EMPERORS. 45 either to be pardoned if they denied the charge or repented, or given over to death if they continued obstinate. He however allowed, that no uniform rule could be prescribed in this matter. So many of them in Bithynia and Pontus were induced to invoke the gods, to anathematize Christ, and to honor the statue of the emperor with offerings of wine and incense, that Pliny in- dulged the hope that, by a skilful combination of mildness and severity, he would soon be able to put an end to this superstition, (a) The aged Symeon, the son of Cleopas, and the successor of James at Jerusalem, being accused before Atticus, the governor of the city, of being a Christian, and of the family of David, was crucified (107), (V) and Ignatius, Bishop of Antioch, after a personal audience with, the emperor, was torn to pieces by lions in the Coliseum, for the amusement of the Roman people (116). (c) About this time, the people began at their festivals, or in time of public calamity, to demand the blood of Christians. Hadrian (117-138) and Antoninus Pius (138-161) therefore checked these tumultuous proceedings, by directing that the strict forms of law belonging to the usual trials should be observed, (d) The stoical repugnance which Marcus Aurelius (161-180) felt toward the en- thusiasm of the Christians, induced him to allow the popular hatred in south- ern Gaul and Asia Minor to have its full career of blood, (e) Polycarp, Bishop of Smyrna, the last living relic of Apostolic days, died (169) at the stake, because he refused to curse the Lord whom he had faithfully served for 86 years. (/) The miracle of the Legio fulminatrix (174) was either not important enough, or not sufficiently authenticated, to turn the philosophic emperor from his course, (g) 2. Until some time in the middle of the third century, the emperors were either indifferent or favorable to Christianity ; but as the ancient laws still remained unrepealed, its adherents were depend- ent upon the caprice of the municipal governors. The wanton cruelty of Commodus (180192) was softened to mildness with respect to Christians, by the influence of his paramour Marcia, and yet Apollonius was put to death, principally, however, on account of his eloquent apology for Christian- ity before the Senate. His accuser was executed at an earlier period, per- haps as his slave. (7i) Septimius Severus (192211) merely prohibited the further propagation of Christianity, (i) '' The enmity which Caracalla (211-217) bore toward the whole human race, amounted only to indifference with respect to the Church. () The effeminate pleasure which Heliogalalus (218-222) took in oriental systems of religion, operated favorably in behalf of Christianity. (1) TVith a nobler appreciation of its spiritual nature, Alex- a)Pltnii, Epp. X. p. 90s. (al. 97s,); Tertul. Apologet. c. 2; Euseb. H. ecc. Ill, 13; Haver- saat, Vertheidlgung der Plin, Briefe u. d. Christen, Gott 1788. 6) Euseb. H. ecc. Ill, 32, comp. 11. after Hegesippus. c) Euseb. H. ecc. Ill, 26 ; Acta martyrii Ignat in Huinart, p. Sss. d) Justini, Apol. L c. 68; Rujin, H. ecc. IV, 9 ; Euseb. H. ecc. IV, 26; comp. Spartiani, Hadr. c. 22. On the spuriousness of the Edictum ad Commune Asiae in Euseb. IV, 13, and Just. 1. c. consult Haffner, de Edicto Antonini pro Christ Argent 1781. 4. e} Marcus Aur. irpbs fuvrdv XI, 3; Euseb. H. ecc. V, 1-3. /) Ecclesiae Smyrnensis de martyrio Polycarpi Ep. Encycl. in Euseb. H. ecc. IV, 15. A fuller recension in Jiuinart, p. 31ss. g) Tertul. Apologet c. 5 ; Euseb. H. ecc. V, 5. For the views entertained by heathen, see Dio Cass. Epit Xiphilini LXXI, 8; Suidas, verb. 'louAtavbs, Jul. Capitolin. Marc. Aur. c. 24. A) Euseb. H. ecc. V, 21 ; Hieron. catal. c. 42. ) Spartiani, Se- ver, c. IT. comp. Tertul. ad Scapul. c. 4. K) Tertul. ad Scapul. c. 4. 1) Lamprid. Heliog. c. 8, 46 ANCIENT CHtJECH HISTOEY. PEE. I. DIV. II. A. D. 100-812. aider Severus (222-235) placed the statue of Christ among his household gods, and practically recognized the Christian congregation at Rome as a civil corporation. His mother, Julia Mammaea, while at Antioch, took de- light in the learning of Origen. (m) In the view of Maximinus the Thradan (235-238), the murderer of Alexander, such favor was a sufficient reason for persecuting him who had received it. Among those who followed him in rapid succession in the imperial throne, Philip the Arabian (244-249) was so favorable to Christianity, that the report became almost universal, that he was himself a Christian. (TO) 3. The Church finally became so powerful, that it became necessary either to acknowledge its legality, or to persecute it with all the power of the empire. Deems (249251) raised the first general persecution, by requiring the magistrates to institute inquisitorial proceed- ings. Those who sustained office in the Church directly met death, or if they fled, they purchased life with the loss of property and home, (o) To this distressing period, popular tradition has assigned the commencement of the slumber of the seven children of Ephesus, who did not awake until tho time of Theodosius II. (447), and were then astonished to find the persecuted sign of the cross ruling over the imperial city and the world, (p) Oallus (251-253) was prevented only by the political commotions of his reign from completing the sanguinary work of his predecessor. Valerianus (253260), after a brief period of favor toward tho Church, sought systematically to de- stroy it by exterminating its officers. (?) But Gallienus (260-268) gave peace to the whole Church, by an edict in which he recognized it as a civil corpo- ration, (r) Aurelianus (270-275), who at one time had consented to act as an umpire between contending bishops, determined afterwards, from heathenish scruples, to persecute the Christians. His death was effected by a military conspiracy before the execution of his purpose, (*) and during a long period of rest, the government appeared to have abandoned for ever the unequal con- test of mere force in opposition to spiritual principles. 49. Internal History of Paganism After the middle of the first century, in consequence of intercourse with the east, and of the pressure of internal elements, the intellectual world made considerable progress. On the one hand, with a high-wrought religious fer- vor, it overpassed the proper limits of heathenism, and connected itself some- times with a particular phase of Platonism, and sometimes with the pure and self-denying mode of life which tradition assigned to the Pythagorean system. On the other hand, when it was only partially aroused, it carried the spiritual element into the world of sense, that it might obtain a control over the latter by magical arts, and penetrate the mysteries of the world of spirits. We therefore find, in the very midst of great moral corruption, and the dissolution of all social and natural ties, initiations into wonderful TO) Lamprid. Alex. Sever, c. 29. 49. comp. 28. 43. 45; Euseb. H. ecc. VI, 21. 28. n) Euseb. H. ec). From his overflowing fulness proceed- ed the Divine Intelligence, and from this the World-Soul, by which the mate- rial universe is pervaded with divine life. Evil is only that which is imper- fect, and is the most distant reflection of Deity upon matter. The human soul which had been produced by the Divine Intelligence, fell, in consequence of its longing after earthly things, from its original divine life to its present temporal existence. It therefore belongs to the sensual as well as to tho intellectual world. But the souls of the good and wise, even in this world, are in their happiest moments reunited with the Deity, and death is to such a complete restoration to their home. From a pious veneration for an an- cestry far back in antiquity, the Grecian gods especially were regarded as the personal manifestations of the divine life in nature. Some of them were celestial beings, and some ruled here on earth. These earthly powers were the national gods (/zept*oi, e'3j/apKat), subordinate to the Deity, and exalted above all passion. The myths were therefore, of course, to be explained al- legorically. The arts of Divination and Magic were justified on the ground of the necessary connection of all phenomena by virtue of the unity of the world-principle. While, therefore, New-Platonism was a new power, it was * Euseb. H. ecc. VI, 19, and Praep. evang. XI, 19 ; Socrat. H. ccc. Ill, 23. Mosheim, de studic Ethnicor. Christianos imitandi. (Dss. ad Hist ecc. Alton. 1733) ; Ullmann, Einfluss d. Christenth. auf Porphyr. (Stud. u. Krit. 1832. H. 2.) Keil, de causis alien! Platonicor. rec. a rel. chr. animi. Lps. 1T35. 4. (Opp. ed. Goldhorn. Lps. 1821, vol. 1.) CHAP. I. STEUGGLES OF CHRISTIANITY. 61. LITERAEY CONTROVERSIES. 49 nevertheless a reformation of the old faith. Though it extended itself over the whole Koman empire, it embraced within itself contradictory elements, and coald maintain its existence only long enough to witness and embellish the downfall of heathenism. 51. Literary Controversies of Christianity. Dettaua C. G. JBaumffarten-Orusius, de scriptoribus saec. II. qui novam rel. impugnarunt, vel Impugnasse creduntur. Misn. 1S45. 4. It was not until the age of the Antonines that Christianity appeared im- portant enough to be the object of literary discussion, or sought to defend itself by literary weapons. The last discourse in which Fronto made an attack upon Christians, appears to have been merely a legal defence of the proceedings against them under Marcus Aurelius. There can be no doubt that the negative spirit exhibited in the writings of Lucian exerted a favorable influence upon Christianity, since his mockeries, like a death-warning, com- pletely undermined all confidence in the ancient gods ; but he has occasionally derided the Christians also as fanatical simpletons, even while he involuntarily supplies evidence in favor of their brotherly love, and fortitude in death, (a) A genuine discourse of Celsus, written during the persecution under Marcus Aurelius, has been preserved in the extracts of Origen. (Z>) The author was an intelligent man, but full of pride and contempt for Christianity. While endeavoring to throw suspicion upon its origin and opposing the Church of his own times, he frequently confounds it with the vagaries of its different sects, and collects nearly every thing which Judaism with its unfulfilled ideas of the Messiah and its calumnious traditions, together with all that pagan refinement with its philosophy, especially the Platonic, could produce against it. We have also a Dialogue written by Minucius Felix ( 52), in which Caecilius brings forward the arguments generally urged by the heathen of that period against Christianity. In behalf of the Olympic deities, it was al- leged that history showed that the gods had protected and avenged their worshippers ; that miracles had been wrought, and predictions by divination had been announced by their votaries, and that a Supreme Deity had always been worshipped in connection with many gods. Against Christianity was urged ; its foreign and barbarous origin, to which all that was national must be sacrificed, and its recent origin, to which all that was established must give way ; all that was true or good in Christianity belonged still more an- ciently to Philosophy, so that the only novelty which it possessed was a most repulsive outward form ; its sacred Scriptures were of doubtful origin, and frequently had been altered ; Jesus was said to have been the offspring of adultery, instructed by magicians in Egypt, and surrounded only by wretched fishermen and abandoned publicans, to have died in the- expression of unman- a) 'AAe^ai/Spos^euS^uaj/Tzs, c.25. 33; Ilepl TTjsIIepeypiVouTeAeuTTjy, c. 11-16; ' IffTopia, I, 22. 30. II, 4. 11. A. Eichstadii. Pg. Lticianus num scriptis suis adjuvare religionem Christ voluerit? Jen. 1820. 4; K. G. Jacob, Cbaracteristik Lucians. Hamb. 1832; Kuhn, Luc. a crimine librorum sacr. irrisorum liberatur. P. I. Grimae, 1844. 4. V) 'A\rj^s \6yos. fenger, do Celso, Epicnreo. Havn. 1828; C. H. Jachrnann, de Celso disseruit etfragmenta libri c. Christianos colloglt. Regiom. 1836. 4; F. A. Philippi, de Celsi philosophandi genere. Berol. 1836; Eindemann, 4 50 ANCIENT CHUECH HISTOEY. PEE. I. DIV. II. A. D. 100-312. ly sorrow Sj and finally to have given no proof of his resurrection except what was derived from his own followers. Against Christians it was urged : that they had deified a publicly executed malefactor ; that they demanded a blind faith ; that they invited to their society those who were sinners and criminals, while in the heathen mysteries, none were initiated but those who were pure in heart ; that the various Christian sects were intolerant towards each oth- er ; that they were remarkably unfortunate ; and finally, that if they were not secret criminals, they shunned publicity, and were enemies to the eternal city of Eome. The opposition which the New-Platonic school made to Chris- tianity, may be considered as represented by Porphyry (233-305). (c) From all that can be learned by means of a few rather inconsiderable remains, he appears to have applied his censures principally to the difficult portions of the Old Testament, and the deceptive character of the allegorical method of interpreting them, to the composition of the prophecies of Daniel after the events to which they relate had taken place, to the contradiction implied in the abolition of the divine law by one who came from God, to the disagree- ment between Peter and Paul, to the death of Ananias, and to the misfortune of Jesus, in being so misunderstood by a company of pitiable fanatics. Jliero- cles (about 300) contrasted the life of Apollonius with that of Jesus, though in the latter he seems to have mingled incidents in the history of other Mes- siahs of whom he had heard. Ho was an orator concerned in stirring up the persecution under Diocletian, and had permitted Christians to be put to death, and Christian virgins to be violated, (d) All the controversial writ- ings of that period, so far as they were opposed to Christianity, were subse quently destroyed by the pious barbarism of the Christian emperors, (e) 52. The Christian Apologist*. I. Apologg. Christ Opp. (ed. Prudentiu* Maranus.) Par. 1742. f. II. Fabricius, delectus argnmentorum et syllabus scriptorum, qul verltatem rol. chr. asseruernnt Hamb. 1726. 4; Tt8chirner t Ge*cb. d. Apologetik. Lps. 1805; only 1 voL; Clausen, Apologetae EC- clesiae chr. ante Theododani, Platonts ejosque philosopbiae arbitri. Ilafn. 1817; G. IT. van Sen den Gesch. d Apologetik. Uebers. (from the Dutch Praet dated 1831) v. W. Quack u. It. Binder. Stuttg. 134C. 1 Th. When the emperor Hadrian was at Athens (about 130) two defences of Christianity were presented to him, one by the philosopher Aristides, and another by the Bishop Quadratus. The latter boasted that there were some among his acquaintance who had been healed, and indeed some who had been raised from the dead by Jesus, (a) The most flourishing period of apologetic writings was during the sway of the Antonines, when the Church was quite as much under the influence of hope, as of fear with respect to its external condition, and when every opinion was allowed to be publicly ex- pressed. The Apologies of Justin Martyr, (5) written at Flavia Neapolis iL Cels. u. s. Schr. (Illgen's Zeitschr. 1842. P. 2.) c) Kara Xpiffnavuv \6yoi. Fragments may be found in Holstenii Ds. de vita et scriptis Porph. Eom. 1630; (Fabricii Bibl. Gr. Th. IV. p. 207ss.) [Select Works of Porph. transL by Taylor. Lond. 1823. 8.] d) A6yot v TriVrewr. ed. J. C. Wolf. Hamlk. .724; Uebers. mit Anna, v, Thdenemann, Lpz. 1834. ) Aicurvpijibs rwv ew <$>iKoff6q>wv. ed, 52 ANCIENT CHURCH HISTORY. PER. I. DIV. II. A. D. 100-81Z. erally discussed in his day. (I) Tertullian, especially in his Apologeticus, not only demonstrated the perfect right of the Church to civil protection, but in- veighed with bitter eloquence against the vile arnoms of the ancient gods in the shape of fishes, birds, and beasts. Origen, whose philosophical views were fundamentally similar to those of his opponent, with an untiring indus- try met all the objections which Celsus had urged, and while doing so, pre- sented a doctrinal defence of Christianity, with very little care or success in the discussion of the political question. These works of Origen and Tertul- lian indicate that their authors fully believed that Christianity had already reached a point which rendered its future progress inevitable. Arnolius of Sicca endeavored, in a controversial work (about 803), to obtain the confi- dence of the Christians, whom he had before persecuted ; and though it con- tained many needless speculations, it defended also the more profound doc- trines of the Church, and exposed the errors of heathenism with much rhetorical skill, (rri) The object of the apologists was : 1) To answer the ob- jections made against Christians. They met the charge of atheism by point- ing to the well-known piety of Christians and showing the true nature of a spiritual worship. To the imputation of unnatural crimes they opposed the strictness of their morality, and in refutation of the charge of treason, they appealed to the submission shown by Christians in time of persecution, and to the prayers which they offered up in behalf of the emperor. The suffer- ings of Christians were ascribed to demoniac agency ; the death of the mar- tyrs was shown to bo no real evil ; the representation of a Deity enduring sufferings but glorified even in death, they proved was not unknown even in Grecian mythology ; public calamities were attributed to the divine displeasure on account of the persecution of Christians ; and although they did not con- cede that the recent introduction of a religion was a proper argument against its truth, they traced the radical principles of Christianity back to a time be- fore Moses and Abraham a period prior to the existence of any of the Gre- cian systems of philosophy. 2) To contend against the Hellenistic systems. By appeals to facts and to reason, they showed the utter insufficiency and the immorality of polytheism ; they objected to the spiritual explanations given of the myths as uncandid ; and while they acknowledged all that was true and consistent with the gospel in philosophy, they proved that this was quite unsatisfactory as the basis of a national religion. 3) To prove the truth and divine authority of Christianity. Among the arguments used for this pur- pose, were, the moral power and divine wisdom exhibited even by poor and uneducated people, the religious peace conferred by Christianity, its perfect reasonableness and its rapid and irresistible progress, the triumph with which the martyrs met their fate, and the historical proofs of divine assistance. Dommerich. Hal. 1764. Z) Ed. Lindner. LongosaL (1760) 1778; Uebers. m. Anm. v. Rusewurm. Hamb. 1824. 4 ; Neu hrsg. erklart u. ubers. v. Lubkert. Lps. 1836 ; Ad fidem cod. Regii et Brux. rec, Eduard. de Muralto, praefatus est OreUi. Tur. 1836. U. Meier, Comra. de Min. FeL Tor. 1824.--- Doubtful whether it was written in the age of the Antonines, or alter Tertnllian. Probably in tha former, m) Disputationes adv. gentes. L VII. ed. J. C. Orelli, Lps. 1816 ; Additamentum. Lps. 1817; ex nova cod. Paris collat. rec. G. F. Hildebrand, Hal. 1844; TJebers. u. erlSut v. JE A. v Bernard. Landsh. 1842. P. K Mayer, de ratione et argumento apologetic! Arnobiani. Ham 1815. CHAP. L STKUGGLES OF CHRISTIANITY. 53. BARBAROUS NATIONS. 53 Among the last, a superior place was given to fulfilled prophecies, but next to them stood the miracles which had been wrought by Jesus and his fol- lowers in the different periods of the Church. 53. Religion of Barbarous Nations. Eoman power and Greek culture had either broken up, renovated, or adopted into the Roman Pantheon the religions of all conquered nations. In the East, ever since the time of the Grecian conquests, nothing remained in Asia, with the exception of the established local worship of some favorite gods, but a sensuous glow of devotion, or occasionally in Egypt a gloomy, pensive and mysterious form. In Western Europe, the religion of the Celtic nations was evidently declining. In Gaul, the Druids, as priests, judges, sages, and physicians, had monopolized all intellectual pursuits, and estab- lished a powerful hierarchy. In contrast with them existed a nobility, whose solo occupation was war. To these two classes the common people gradual- ly became completely enslaved. But when the common people sunk into this state of insignificance, the priesthood lost their principal support in op- position to the nobility, and it was on account of the discord which prevailed between these states, that the Romans were invited into their country. Caasar came, and saw, and conquered. The national religion was then re- stricted within certain limits by the Koman law. Augustus required that no Roman citizen should take any part in its rites, and Claudius finally prohib- ited all human sacrifices. It was not, however, so much by the direct power of their conquerors that the Druids were overthrown, as by the new social relations then introduced. As early as near the close of the first century, the Order of the Druids was an independent and learned association, and the old popular faith was mingled with the Roman mythology, (a) In Britain, the power of the Druids, which was continually exerted to arouse the people to renewed efforts for freedom, could only be destroyed by violence (62). Un- der the conciliatory administration of Agricola, Roman habits and arts of life acquired ascendency even to the foot of the Highlands. (&) Hence, no province of the empire opposed Christianity with any remarkable or long- continued energy, and the West presented but little more resistance to its progress than had been awakened in its own eastern home. 54. Spread of Christianity. Near the middle pf the second century, the gospel had, in the East, passed beyond the limits of the Roman empire. In Edessa especially it gained possession of the throne, and a few churches were collected in Par- thia, Persia, and India. Proceeding from Rome, it obtained an established position in Carthage and in the western provinces of Africa. In Western a) Caesar,' de bello gall. I, 81. VI, 12-16. J. O. Frick, de Drtiidis, ed. A. Prick, Ulm. 1T44. 4 Duclos, Mem, sur les Druides. (Mem. de 1'acad. des inscript Th. XIX.) ; Mbne, Gesch. d. Heidentb. im nordl. Eur. Lps. u. Dannst 1822s. vol. II. p. 858-426. I) E. Davies, Celtic Researches on the Origin and Traditions of the Ancient Britons. Lond. 1S04. [Idem. Rites of the British Druids. Lond. ; G. ffiffgins, The Celtic Druids. Lond. 182T. 4.] Toland, Hist of the Druids, with additions by Huddleston. Montrose, 1814; Hone, vol. II. p. 426-548. [LitteWs Eel. Mag. vol. II. 1828. pp. 81-4a 119-122. 490-503 ; Incidents of the Apostolic Age in Britain. Lond. 1844 12.") 54 ANCIENT CHUKCH HISTOEY. PEE. I. DIV. II. A. D. 100-812. Europe it pressed onward to Spain and even gained some possessions in Bri tain. Flourishing churches from Asia Minor were planted in Lyons, Vienne, and Paris, from which Christianity was extended to barbarous nations whose language had never been reduced to writing, (a) Near the close of the third century, churches were established in Armenia, and a few bishoprics were formed on the Rhine and in Britain. The manner in which religion was pro- pagated was, commencing generally with the large cities, it was carried for- ward not so much by organized missions as by ordinary social intercourse. It had become powerful as a popular element, prevailing most among the lower classes, bnt by means of slaves and women it had penetrated, as early as near the end of the second century, every order of society. About that time the Apologists speak of the number of Christians with skilful and en- thusiastic declamation ; (I) and though even in the commencement of the fourth century they were far from being a majority of the population, their intimate fellowship and zeal gave them a predominant influence in society. The barbarous Jewish origin and the strict and self-denying morality of their religion, the suspicion of political disaffection under which they rested, and their simple, lowly character at first, were powerful difficulties in the way of its propagation. But to be weighed against these, as secondary causes of its victory, must be noticed the advantage which it enjoyed on account of the unity of the Roman empire and the general prevalence of Greek cul- ture, its miraculous powers, and the benefits which it offered to the poor, the sick, travellers, and those who were in any way destitute. Even the perse- cutions through which it passed were beneficial, since they were severe enough to arouse in its followers an heroic courage, and in those who observed them an admiring wonder, and yet were not protracted or general enough to destroy the Church. Next to the vital decline of heathenism, however, the essential reason of its success was the real truth and power of Christianity presenting itself in the happiest of all forms a religion adapted to the masses of the people. 55. The Last Persecution. Lactant. de mortlb. c. 7-18. Euteb. H. ecc. VIII. IX. In the enjoyment of forty years of peace Christianity had time to per- fect its victories. It was then that Diocletian (284-305) by his protracted course of real success, was induced to hope he might restore the empire to its former glory. He regarded the restoration of the established religion to its former ascendency as a primary condition on which such a result de- pended. His son-in-law the Caesar Galerius, in consequence of his low dis- position and heathenish superstition, became the instrument of a party in the court, which demanded the subversion of Christianity as indispensable to the stability of their power. The heathen government, conscious that it was sinking in its proper character before the spiritua* power of the Church, com- menced another struggle, on the issue of which was staked its life or death. Galerius first removed all Christians from his army (298). Diocletian stil] a) Iren. Ill, 4. &) Tertul. Apologetlcus, c. 87. c. Jod. c. 7. CHAP. I. STRUGGLES OF CHRISTIANITY. 5G. MAETYES. 55 shrunk from the contest, for he well knew it would be terrible. Finally when counsel had been sought from gods and men, the destruction of the Church of Nicomedia (Feb. 23, 303) proclaimed that the persecution of the Christians had commenced. The imperial edict which immediately followed that event, commanded that all Christian temples should be destroyed, and the books belonging to them burned ; that all civil officers professing Chris- tianity should forfeit their dignities ; that Christian citizens should be deprived of their civil privileges, and that even slaves who avowed faith in Christ should lose all prospect of freedom, (a) The indignation such a proceeding provoked against the emperor, and the real or imaginary perils -winch now threatened him, required that the whole power of the empire should be ar- rayed against the Christians. After two other edicts had been put forth, each more rigorous than that which preceded it, a fourth (304) required that all Christians should be compelled to offer sacrifice by every practicable means. (>) The persecution raged in nearly every part of the empire. The spirit of the Church was divided by the most heroic courage and base cowardice. Monu- ments were erected in honor of the emperor, implying that he had utterly abolished the name of Christian. But in Gaul, Spain, and Britain, the suf- ferings of the Christians were much mitigated by the conduct of the Caesar Comtantius Chlorus. His son, Constantine (after 306), inherited his father's spirit in a still higher degree. In the East, Galerius, tired of the useless effu- sion of blood, on his deathbed (311) suspended the progress of the persecu- tion, (c) but it was immediately renewed in Asia by Maximinus. When Con- Btantine, however, had overthrown Maxentius, he, in conjunction with Lici- nius, the Augustus of Eastern Europe, was induced by his regard for Chris- tians to proclaim (312) a universal toleration for all religions, (d) 50. The Martyrs. There are commonly reckoned ten persecutions, as that number is conve- nient for popular recollection, and accordant with certain allegorical rela- tions, (a) but some of them scarcely deserve the name. Those who were disposed to fly from the danger usually found the way of escape unobstructed ; when any actually suffered they were generally those whose lives were re- garded as of no value, those whose death appeared needful, on account of their superior guilt, as a warning to others, and those who occupied promi- nent stations in the Church, or slaves. Accordingly, even in the time of Origen, the number of those who had died as martyrs was very small, and easily reckoned. (5) We read of a blind fury, in the times of Decius and Dio- cletian, which no longer regarded individuals, but vented itself in the sacrifice of whole masses of people at once ; but in general, the first notices we have respecting it are in the exaggerated accounts which have come down to us in a) Lact. c. 13. Euseb. VIII, 2. 5) Euseb. de martyribus Palaest. c. 3. c) Lact. c. 34. Euseb. VIII, IT. d) Its contents may be inferred from the edict of 313 : Lact. c. 43. Euseb. X, 5. a) Apoc. IT, 12ss. Exod. Tss. V) Orig. c. Cels. III. (Th. I. p. 452.) Yet comp. Iren. IV, 83, 9.Dodwell, de paucitate martyrum. In his Dss. Cyprianicis. On the other hand, Kuinarti Praef. ad Acta martyrum. 56 ANCIENT CHUECH HISTOEY. PEE. I. DIV. II. A. D. 100-312. legends. Thus we find that eleven thousand virgins are said to have perished with St. Ursula. The most credible evidence on which this story was built, consists in a false construction of an ancient manuscript, and a revelation from heaven to a company of monks first in the year 1163, which pointed out their bones. The story of the massacre of the Theban legion (268) appears in a fluctuating state even in the sixth century, (c) The executions generally took place in strict conformity with the demands of the penal law, but when the feelings of the populace were especially embittered, or when it seemed desirable to terrify survivors, the most dreadful illegal torments were de- vised, (d) Many saved themselves by denying Christ, and offering sacrifice to the gods (thurificati, sacrificati), some by bribing the magistrates to grant them certificates that they had sacrificed (libellatici), and others by surren- dering the sacred books (traditores). But so great was the joy of the Con- fessors and the Martyrs, that they were sometimes reproved by judicious pastors for pressing too eagerly forward to death. The virtues of Greek and Roman antiquity were revived, as the people surrendered themselves that they might obtain a home beyond the skies, (e) The power of faith was triumphant even over the feelings of our common nature, and over the shud- dering horror which persons of a delicate habit and of refinement are apt to feel on such occasions. Even children took pleasure in death, and noble maidens endured what was far worse. (/) Although many encountered death cheerfully, because they preferred it to the disgrace which must have been the lot of the apostate and the traitor, and because they longed for the honor and glory which the martyrs attained even on earth in the admiration of their friends and expected immediately after in Paradise, there was be- yond all this a genuine delight in following Jesus, which gave to the Church a consciousness that it was invincible. CHAP. II. SOCIAL CONSTITUTION OF THE CHURCH. J. U. ffikmtr, EntwickL d. KStaatsd. ersten 8 Jahrh. Hal (1718) 1738. W. K. L. Zlegler, Vrs. e. pragm. Gesch. d. kirchl. Gesellschaftaformen in A creten 6 Jahrh. Lps. 1793. Mohler, die Einh. in d. K. o. d. Prlncip. d. Kath. im Geiste d. KVerf. d. 8 ersten Jahrh. Tub. 1825. ffase, de jure ecc- Commtr. hist Lps. 1828. P. L J. IL M. Ernezti, KStaat d. 8 ersten Jahrh. Numb. 1S30. W. Soh- mer, die socialen Verb. d. K. alter ZeiL (Alterthnmsw. vol. L) Bresl. 1836. K. Rotlie, die Anfange tings of the contemporaneous fathers, in which individual facts are referred to, and partly from later enactments, which, without hesitation, refer to primi- tive usage. The Apostolical Constitutions which hear the name of Clemens Eomanus, in the first six books contain the oldest usages and laws prevalent among the Jewish Christians of the Oriental Church of the third century. In the fourth century, when the seventh and eighth books were added, this work received some interpolations with respect to ecclesiastical usages, though not in the sense charged by the Arians. As a collection they have never at- tained any legal authority, (a) The Apostolical Canons are a compilation gradually formed of the constitutions and enactments of Synods during the fourth century, and therefore are supposed to embrace the traditions respect- ing law, which had come down from the Apostles. The Roman Church hav- ing once rejected this collection as a whole, decided (after 500) to receive the first fifty canons. (J) John Scholasticus (middle of the 6th century) found all the eighty -five canons already in the books of laws used in the Greek Church, (c) No proof therefore in favor of a regular system of legal relations in the churches of the second and third centuries can be drawn merely from thi? collection, because it bears the apostolic name. 58. The Clergy and the Laity. The offices of the Church at this period presented very little to excite the cupidity of ordinary men, and even the honor attending them was counter- balanced by the dangers. And yet it seemed desirable to increase the venera- tion which necessarily attends the virtues and a faithful performance of offi- cial duty in the Church, by mysterious forms of ordination, by connecting them through various associations with the Old Testament priesthood, and by external tokens of peculiar sanctity. The result was, that even in the second century the priests (xX^oy, ordo) were represented as the official me- diators between Christ and the congregation (\ads-, plebs). To speak in the church, and to administer holy rites, were conceded to be the special prero- gatives of the clergy, although learned laymen were sometimes heard in the public assembly, with the consent of the bishop, (a) In all things relating to the business of the congregation, the principal care and authority devolved upon the clergy, But this power was generally exercised mildly and with a true regard for the public good, since those who possessed it could use no ex- ternal means of coercion, and the clergy, being generally without fixed sala- a) Aiaraya.1 TUV ay. 'ATTOO-TO'AWI', printed in Cotelerius' Edit of the Patres App. Th. I. p. 199. [Ueltzen has publ. a new edit of the Ap. Constt Lps. 1S54. 12.] 0. Krabbe, u. Ursprung u. Inhalt der apost. Constitt Hamb. 1S29. J. & v. Drey, neue TJnters. u. d. Constitt u. Kanones der App. Tub. 1832. b) Gelasii, Decretum a. 494. (Gratian : c. 8. D. XV. 64.) Dionysii Praefatio. (MansL Th. I. p. 3.) c) Kav6ve? et) Tertul. de jejun. c. 13. - c) Cypr. Ep. 54 5. Comp. Cone. Arelat. a. 314. (Mansi, Th, II. p. 469.) d) Cupr. Ep. 14. 2. Ep. 54 5. Ep. 72. 3. CHAP. II. CONSTITUTION. 61. METEOPOLITANS. G2. GREAT BISHOPS. 6 1 ing the proceedings of the Synods, and of confirming and ordaining the pro- vincial bishops. But it was only in the East that this Metropolitan system was completely carried out. The Bishop of Carthage sometimes claimed the right of a Metropolitan over the churches in Mauritania and Numidia, where there was no great city naturally possessing the right of precedence, but the presidency in their synods was always given to the oldest bishop (Senex). 62. The Three Great Bishops. The same causes which produced the elevation of the metropolitans, op- erated in a still higher degree to give the largest metropolitan diocese to the bishops of the three principal cities of the empire, Rome, Alexandria, and Antioch. Eome obtained Middle and Lower Italy with uncertain limits, and by means of a colony of bishops sent into Southern Gaul (about 250) ah. indefinite influence was secured in the affairs of that region, (a) Alexandria obtained possession of Egypt, and Antioch of Syria. The successor of St. Peter received an honorable rank above all other bishops, on account of the majesty of the eternal city, and the vast and skilfully used wealth at his dis- posal even when Laurentius could present to the avaricious magistrate the poor of the city as the treasure of the Roman Church. (5) Eoman bishops of that period have since been canonized, who were great only in their deaths. No extraordinary individuals were concerned in laying the founda- tions of her subsequent empire. The first presage of its future position was afforded in two attempts which it made to impose its usages upon other churches. These were sternly repelled by the Asiatic and African bishops, (c) The thought of a Bishop of bishops was first advanced in favor of James, about the middle of the second century, by a Jewish party in Eome, and was regarded in Africa as equivalent to an ecclesiastical tyranny, (d) The first voluntary recognition of Eoman authority in matters of faith, was occa- sioned by the report that the apostolical traditions had been preserved with especial purity in the West, (c) Cyprian saw in the pre-eminence of Peter a symbol of the unity of the Church. (/) Even when Marcellinus offered in- cense to the gods (302), the very infirmity of a Eoman bishop has been made d) Cypr. Ep. 6T. comp. Gregor. Turon. II. Francor. I, 28. Z>) The proofs are collected by Tillemont. Th. IV. p. 41.. c) 69. 84 d) Ep. dementis ad Jac. in Clem. Homil. (P. app. ed. Coteler. Th. I. p. 605). Cypr. in Cone. Car- thag. (Roufh, Eeliq. sac. III. p. 91) conf. Tertul. de pudic. c. 1. e) Iren. Ill, 3, 2 : " Ad hanc Ecclesiam propter potiorem (potentiorem) principalitatem necesse est omnem convenire Ecclesiam, hoc est eos qui sunt undique fideles, in qua semper ab his, qui sunt undique, conservata est ea quae est ab Apostolis traditio. (TIpbs rai'nrjv cKKX-rjaiav 8ia T^V tKavcarepav apx^ avdjKT] irciffav crv[j.f3aivfiv T)]V (KK\ri(ria.i>, TO?~T' ecrrt TOVS navra.xoSsv mo-Touy, e/ 77 ael forb ruv iravra^^ev ffvvTeT-fiprjrai. -f) U7r2 T&V *ATro(TT6\av irapd8o(ris.) Comp. Tertul. de praescr. c. 86. 2Qs.Griesbach, de potentiore Eccl. Eom. principalitate. Jen. 1778. (Opp. ed. Gabler, Th. II. p. 136ss.). Paulusva. the Sophronizon. 1819. P. 3. On the other side : Jfa- terkamp, u. d. Primat Munst. 1820. p. 30ss. Roskovany, de primatu E. Pontif. Aug. V. 1S34. p. 1Ss&. f IMeracJi. in d. Stud. u. Krit 1842. P. 2. comp. Neander, [Church Hist vol. I. pp. 208-205.] /) De unit Ecc. c. 3. Here, even in the genuine text, and often in the epistles (52. 55), he ac- knowledges Eome as the ecclesia principalis, without, however, conceding to it a supremacy in- consistent with the parity of all bishops (Ep. 71). Antirom. interpretation of Matt. 16, 18. in Orig Jn Mt. torn. 12. l^)s. 14. 62 ANCIENT CHURCH HISTORY. PER. I. DIV. IL A. D. 100-312. to wear such an aspect in popular reports, as to promote the glory of the Ro man see. (g) 63. The Catholic Church and its Various Branches. The internal and essential unity of the Church as the kingdom of God on earth, suggested the idea of an external unity also. The effort to attain this was much favored by the political unity of the whole civilized world. The religious consciousness which prevailed in the Christian Church with more or less distinctness, when assailed by theological or moral elements inconsistent with itself, was accustomed to appeal to the apostolical traditions which re- jnained in the churches founded by the apostles. From this sprung up the Great or Catholic Church, (a) in distinction from the heretics who defended these foreign elements, and who were disunited among themselves. By the former term was meant the great body in which all the congregations found- ed by the apostles, and such as were connected with them, had hitherto felt conscious of a unity through faith and love, and which was the only source of true Christianity, of grace, and of salvation. The first hint of this repre- sentation was given by Ignatius, but it was further developed by Irenaeus, and was completed by Cyprian. (5) This unity was realized in many transac- tions in which the bishops and churches held intercourse with each other. But without detracting from it, a Church of the East and a Church of the West began to be distinguished from each other with respect to lan- guage, customs, and theological tendencies. Peculiar usages, in fact, some- times became permanent even in different parts of the same metropolitan diocese, especially in those ecclesiastical provinces whose boundaries corre- spond with old national limits. Accordingly, in addition to the dioceses of the three great bishops, the first outlines of national churches were formed in correspondence with local attachments and interests. Thus the African Church, connected with Rome by feelings of free mutual sympathy, and ex- hibiting its peculiar spirit in the writings of Tertullian, sprung up, and com- pleted an appropriate code of laws after the middle of the third century, in the provincial synods of Carthage, (c) Thus, also, the Armenian Church was originated, on which Gregory the Enlightener, who by his family connec- tions had been deeply involved in the political disorders of his country, and when Christianity triumphed had been brought out of a long night of im- prisonment to be made a metropolitan (302), so deeply imprinted his own spirit, that for a long time the superior bishop or Catholicus was selected from his family. () The imitative arts had flourished principally in the service of the ancient gods, and hence the same hatred which had prevailed against them among the Jews, was continued in the Christian Church. None but heathen who re- vered Jesus, as either a sage or a Son of God, or heretics, who mingled to- gether pagan and Christian principles, ever possessed images of him. In place of these, however, and with the direct object of excluding heathen images, were introduced various Christian emblems, such as the cross, the good shepherd, the ram and the lambs, the fisherman and the fishes (IX0Y2), the ship, the dove, the palm, the lyre, the phoenix, and the cock and anchor. At first, these were used only in private dwellings, but gradually they were introduced as ornaments of tombs, and as works of art in fresco or mosaic, to decorate their churches. But even as late as the fourth century, they were censured as innovations, (c) 71. Sacred Services. The worship of the Temple described in the Old Testament, was the model to which was conformed as much as possible the public services of the Christian assemblies. In compliance with the spirit of the times, though it was originally a matter of necessity, the Lord's Supper was administered near the close of the second century as a Christian mystery, with the view of in- vesting it with an increased sanctity by its seclusion and secresy. By this means, a mysterious character was imparted to a number of the usages and a) Tertul. de orat c. 24 Z>) Comp. Hieron. in Ezech. c. 40. After the works of Boeio, ArringJii, Boldetti, and Bottari, ^ee Rostell, Eoms Katakomben. (Beschreibung der Stadt Kom, von Plainer, Bunsen, and oth. Stuttg. 183068. vol. I. pp. 354-416.) C. F. Bellermann, u. d. altesten chr. Begrabnissstatten u. bes. d. Katakomben zu Neapel m. ihren Wandegemahlden. Hamb. 1839. 4 [C. Maitland, The Church in the Catacombs, or a Description of the Prim. Church of Rome, new ed. Lond. 1850. 8.] c) Cone. Illiberit. can. 36. Epiphan. Ep. ad Jo. Hieros. (vol. II. p. 817.) 70 ANCIENT CHURCH HISTOEY. PEE. I. DIV. II. A. D. IOO-S12. forms of the Church, (a) The Lord\ Supper was celebrated at the close of every solemn assembly, but the much-abused and more infrequent Love-Feast was generally held apart from the public services, and in the evening. The bread and the wine were in some instances regarded as the symbols of the body and blood of Christ, and in others as pervaded by the Logos. This sacred ordinance was supposed to be a thank-offering, and to have some spe- cial influence upon the resurrection of the body. The consecrated bread was sent to those who were absent, or taken home for subsequent use, and sometimes bottles of the wine, labelled with some pious toasts, were even placed on the coffins of the dead. (5) Origen found Infant Baptism an old ancestral usago ' in the region where he resided, but others advised that, as a matter of poli- cy, the baptism of even adults should be deferred as long as possible (pro- crastinatio). (c) The solemn act by which the worship of the gods was ab- jured, taken in connection with the Jewish notion of the expulsion of demons, gave occasion to the practice of uniting Exorcism with the ordinance of bap- tism. The principle that baptism was to be administered but once to the same person, was universally acknowledged. But the African, and even some of the Asiatic churches, baptized those who came to them from any of the heretical sects, because they denied the Christian character of baptism when administered among those sects. The Roman Church, however, re- cognized the validity of all baptisms in which the subject formed a full pur- pose to enter into fellowship with Christ, (d) Those catechumens who suf- fered martyrdom before baptism, were looked upon as baptized in Hood. The reception or addition of a name in baptism, had reference to apostolic example, and a cycle of Christian names, of Jewish or heathen origin, was in this way formed. Sponsors (dmfioxoi, sponsores) were introduced in the ad- ministration of baptism, that they might be sureties for the good intentions of adult candidates, and for the future education of infants, and as witnesses in all cases. The seasons in which baptism was ordinarily administered, were Easter, Pentecost, and Epiphany. During the performance of the rite, the candidates were clothed in white garments (vestis alba). The imposition of hands for the communication of the Holy Ghost (\ f />o2f) The ancient Syriac version of the epistles of S. Ign. to S. Polyc. the Ephesians and Eomans, collected from the writings of Severus of Antioch, Timoth. of Alexandria, and others, by William Cureton. Lond. 1845. c) Iren. Ill, 3. Euseb. H. ecc. Ill, 36. V, 20. Wocher, Br. d. apost Yater Clem. u. Polyc. ubers. m. Com. Tub. 1830. Reasons in Opposition to its Genuineness: Schwegler, Nachapost Zeita. vol IL p. 154ss. c?) Aoyiwv KvpiaKuv 4j--f)yr)(ru. Lost except an inconsiderable fragment Iren. Y, 33. Eitseb. H. ecc. 111,89. comp. 36. Chron. ad Olymp. 220. Grabe, Spicil. Patr. P. II. p. 34ss. Munter, Fragmm Patr. graec. Hafn. 1788. Fasc. I. p. 15ss. Comp. 7/^,9, Bibl. d. heil. Gesch. vol. I. p. 297ss. 74 ANCIENT CHUECH HISTOBY. PEE. I. DIV. II. A. D. 10(V 812 such a historical embodiment of its nature as would afford no room for the religion of the spirit, and of those who aimed at such a speculative refine- ment as threatened to destroy every historical element in Christianity. The former proceeded from the schools of Judaism, and the latter from those of heathenism. The principles which finally obtained the ascendency, and for that reason only became those of the Catholic Church, moved on with con- scious security between both these extremes, although theological science was at different periods attracted more to the one side than to the other. Chris- tianity was at first regarded as embracing so wide a range, that Justin did not hesitate (Ap. I. c. 46.) to consider Socrates, and all those who had lived up to the light of reason, as Christians. But the more the Church, during its severe conflicts, became conscious of its true nature, the more decidedly was every thing opposed to it separated from it as a Heresy, i. e. as what ought to have been and claimed to be Christian, and yet really was not. In this way it may have happened, that instead of an unchristian party, only a vanquished minority was sometimes excluded. The literature of this period was sophistical, and neither creative in its essential character, nor attractive in its stylo. The energy of faith which theological science then exhibited, was sufficient to supply the place of both these qualities, but could not call them into existence. 75. EUonixm. Cont. from 35. Gtoaeler, Naz. u. Eblon. (Staudlln's u. Tzschlrner's Arch. vol. IV. Part 2.) ffase, 0. io/iop$o?). But Sophia, now delivered from her fallen state in consequence of the birth of the Creator, sought once more to attract to herself and to purify the spirit- ual power in the world. She availed herself of the enmity of the Serpent- Spirit against its parent, to induce man to transgress the commandment which had been given him. According to this, what is related in the Jewish books as a Fall, was in fact a transition to a higher mental state. In great wrath the Creator now threw men down to the lowest material world, and harassed them with all the temptations and pains incident to matter. Indi- vidual persons endowed with high intellectual powers, are raised up by So- phia, but she struggles in vain to break the bonds which confine men, until the Aeon Christ unites himself with the psychical Messiah, and in conse- quence of the Creator's enmity, was crucified. Finally, Sophia, with all her spiritual followers among men, will be received back into the Pleroma, and the God of the Jews, gradually deprived of all his spiritual powers, will be swallowed up in the empty abyss of matter. The Serpent, who had been the means of man's first exaltation and therefore had been cursed by the Creator, was, in accordance with his two natures, both honored and feared. One Ophitic party went so far in their hostility to the Jews, that they paid honor to the most abandoned characters mentioned in sacred history as their highest examples, and were therefore called Cainites. Others, on account of their disapprobation of such extravagance, were called Sethites. The pe- nal code of Justinian shows that the Ophites were not extinct even in the sixth century. (Ik) 4) Carpocrates and his son Epiphanes, Platonists of Alexandria and con- temporaries with Valentine, described the Primal Being as the great Unity (Movcij) toward which all finite things are striving to return. But the r.5ina M^ ) Tren. I, 30. Orig. c. Cels. VI, 24ss. Epiph. haer. W.Mosheim, Gesch. d. Schlangenbruder. (Vers. e. unpartb. Ketzergesch. Hclmst 1746. 1748. 4.) G. II. F. Fuldner, dc Ophitis. Rint. 1834. 4. CHAP. IV. DOCTKINES. 78. VALENTINIANS. 79. MARCIOX. 81 earthly spirits (ayyeXoi KOO-JUOTTOIOI) wlio have fallen away from this unity are continually obstructing this effort by religious enactments, the most per- fect specimen of which is the Jewish law. A few wise men like Plato and Pythagoras, by means of some reminiscences of a lost state of blessedness, have sunk back into the divine unity. The same was true of Jesus, who overthrew the Jewish law. His image was therefore honored by the side of the statues of other great sages, in the temple of the deified youth Epiphanes, in the island of Cephalonia. The justification advocated by Carpocrates is not to be attained by works, but by love and faith, i. e. by a complete sur- render to the attraction of the great Unity, in the presence of which all self-interest, and even all separate existence must disappear. In this state the mind is exalted above all need of precepts or moral rules. (?) . 79. IV. Gnostics, in an especial sense, Christian. 1) Iren. I, 27. Tertul. adv. Marcion. 1. V. &id\oyos irepl TTJS els &ebi> op&rjs TTICTTCWS, (4th cent.) ed. Wetsten. Bas. 1674. 4. & Orig. Opp. Th. I. p. S03ss. Epiph. haer. 42. Esnig. (5th cent.) Darst. d. marc. Syst A. d. Armen. v. Neumann. (Zeitschr. f. hist. Theol. 1834. vol. IV. Sect 1.) A. Ilahn, Antitheses Marcionis, liber deperditus, quoad fieri potuit restitutus. Begiom. 1823. Ilahn, de gnosi Marcionis antinomi. Eegiom. 1820s. 2 P. 4. Rhode, Prolegg. ad. quaest. de Ev. Apostoloque Marc, denuo instituendam. Vrat. 1834. P. I. 2) Iren. I, 28. Clem. Strom. III. p. 547s. 553. Epiph. haer. 46. 3) Euseb. H. ecc. IV, 30. Praep. Ev* VI, 10. Epiph. haer. 56. Augustin. haer. 35. jF 1 . Strum, Hist. Bard, et Bardesanistar. Vit. 1710. 4. Ilahn, Bard, gnosticus Syrorum primus hymnologus. Lps. 1819. C. Kuehn&r, Bard, numina astralia. Hildbnrgh. 1833. 1) Marcion made his appearance at Rome as early as before 139, (a) filled with exalted views of the glory of Christianity, and fresh from a contest with the remnants of Judaism in the churches of Asia Minor. He had been excommunicated (Z>) by his own father, the bishop of Sinope, perhaps in con- sequence of the conflict of his youthful passion with an inexorable ecclesias- tical discipline. He availed himself of a connection with Cerdo, a Syrian Gnostic, to form a theoretical system, in which a strong contrast was pre- sented between the law and the gospel, and between the period before, and that after Christ. He made a distinction between three great powers viz., the holy original Being (3eos dyaSo's), the righteous Creator StVaior), and the material world (uX?;) with its wicked ruler (TTOJ^POS, Sta/3oXos/ The celestial relations of these principles to each other were not carried out in his theory. "With the limited power in his possession, the Demiurge created a world like himself, and from its inhabitants the Jewish nation were selected as the objects of his peculiar favor. To them he gave a law, by which justification was to be obtained by works alone, and in connection with them maintained an impotent struggle with the empire of evil. Prompted by infinite love to man the good God then had compassion, and by the spirit- ual manifestation of Christ revealed his own nature, which had before been entirely concealed.^ All this occurred on a sudden, and with no preparation. 1) Clem. Stror& *'M. p. 511&S. Iren. I, 25. Euseb. II. ecc. IV, l.Gesenius, de inscriptione Phoe- nicio-Graeca in CyrewAica nnper reperta ad Carpocratianoruin haeresin pertinente. Hal. 1825. 4. As to their spuriousness comp. Kopp. Ep. crit (Stud. u. Krit. 1833. P. 2.) Gesenius in d. Hall. L. Z. 1835. p. 462. Fuldner, de Carpocratianis. (Illgens 3 Denk-schr. d. hist, theol. Gesellsch. Lps. 1824. p. ISOss.) ) Just. Apol. I. c. 26. I) Epiph. haer. 42. 2s. 6 82 ANCIENT CHURCH HISTORY. PER. I. DIV. II. A. D. 100-812. Those who believe in Christ, and from a voluntary love to God live a holy life, shall receive perfect blessedness in his celestial kingdom, while all others be- long to the kingdom of the Demiurge, and by his righteous sentence, accord- ing to their works, shall find a limited degree of blessedness or perdition. That the ages before might be placed on an equal footing with those after Christ, our Lord was supposed, during his sojounrin the world of the dead, to have offered salvation to the heathen and to all who had been lost under the Old Testament, on condition that they would believe on him ; while all the truly pious of the ancient dispensation, like the people of that nation on earth, were so habituated to the administration of the Demiurge, that they were kept back from faith in him. (c) Marcion thought he found evidence of the character of the Creator from the condition of the world, from the sensuous nature of the whole representation given of Jehovah in the Old Testament, and from the obvious distinction between the real Christ and the Messiah held forth in prophecy. He professed to form his scheme of Chris- tianity upon a literal interpretation of the sacred Scriptures, and he would acknowledge nothing as Scripture except a collection of the epistles of Paul (6 dn-oo-ToXof) and a gospel of our Lord similar to that of Luke. Ecclesiasti- cal tradition since the time of Irenaeus, accuses Marcion of having expunged from his text of even these sacred writings whatever was supposed to be inconsistent with his theological views, (d) but on the other hand it concedes that he suffered enough to remain to render those Scriptures irreconcilable with his system, without the most violent process of interpretation. The question therefore has necessarily been raised, whether he did not use an older gospel than any which we now have, and one of which Luke's is only a re- vision ? (e) It must however be confessed that the authorities in favor of the superior originality of Marcion's gospel are as yet, when taken in detail, of very doubtful validity, and that those ecclesiastical fathers who assert that he, in like manner, corrupted the epistles of Paul, (/) in forming such an opinion must certainly have had the authentic documents before them. Besides, if Marcion in his extravagant view of the dissension at Antioch (Gal. 2, llss.) could look upon the other apostles as Jewish perverters of the gospel of Christ, he may have felt justified by omissions, or by explanations, in Chris- tianizing, according to his view of the phrase, every gospel Belonging to the Scriptures, inasmuch as no documents in the possession of the Apostolic Church, without some alteration, would correspond with his ultra-Pauline notions. His ethical doctrines constituted a vigorous system of asceticism which he enforced by his own example, and if any one felt unable to comply with its requisitions, the alternative was to remain a catechumen, (g) He c) Iren. I, 27. 3. d) A. Hatm, d. Ev. Marc, in 8. urspr. Gestalt Konigsb. 1823. (Thilo. Cod. apocr. Th. I. p. 401ss.) Ejusd. de canone Marc. Ib. 1824 Ch. E. Becker, Examen crit de Tovang. de Marc. Strasb. 183T. P. I. 4. e) .Pit8C?d, d. Ev. Marc. u. d. kan. Ev. des Luc. Tub. 1546. Baur in Zellers theol. Jahrb. 1846. P. 4. /) On the other band : Loffler, Marcionem Pauli Epp. et Lucae Ev. adulterasse dubitatur. Traj. et Viadr. 1788. (Commtt. theol. ed. VeltJiusen &c. Th. I. p. ISOss.) Schelling, de Marc. Paulinarum Epp. emendatore. Tub. 1795. 4. Against Tertullian's assertion that Marcion omitted the chief doctrines i Col. 1, 15-17. we certainly have no other alternative than to suppose that that father invented them. g) Hier. ad Gal. 6. 6. Epiph. 42, 4. Comp. Tertul. de praescr. 41. CHAP. IV. DOCTKINES. 79. TATIAN, BAKDESANES. SO. CLEMENTINES. 83 rejected all mysteries, and allowed women to administer baptism. His lite was spent in efforts to establish a congregation of those whom he was accus- tomed to call his companions in hatred and in persecution. The Marcionites continued as an ecclesiastically organized party until some time in the sixth century. Many divisions however existed among them, since the speculative tenets which he left in an incomplete form were perfected in various ways by additions from the different Gnostic systems, and many among the Gnos- tics endeavored to get nearer to the Church by joining their communion. 2) Tatian also seems to have found no way to justify his gloomy views of the world, but by a dualistic theory. His Demiurge Jehovah had obscure impressions by which he became conscious of a dependence upon the origi- nal source of light. He gave offence to his brethren of the Church by main- taining that Adam must have been finally lost. He prescribed a system of abstinence as the best means of disengaging ourseiYes from the world, after the example of our Saviour. A party of Encratites, calling itself by the name of Tatian, or by that of his pupil, Severus, existed as late as in the fourth century. 3) Bardesanes (Bar daizon), who resided at Edessa (about 170), would seem from his place of residence, as well as from some of his Gnostic formu- lae, which strongly remind us of Valentine, to have properly belonged to the number of the Syrian Gnostics. But the story of his change of faith at an earlier or later period is not as well authenticated as the general opinion that he was not prevented by his Gnosticism from denouncing in a very practical manner certain extravagances of the Gnostic schools, from asserting man's internal freedom in opposition to all necessary control of fate, (K) ,and from being a strenuous defender of Christianity, and a distinguished instructor of the Syrian Churches, 80. Y. Judaizing Gnostics, Comp. 35, To. Credner, u. Essaer u, Ebioniten. (Winers Zeitschr. f. Aviss. Theol. 1827. P. 2s.) Idem, die Evv, d. Judenchr. (Beitrr. z. Einl. in d. bi'bl. Schrr. Hal. 1832. Vol. I. p. 268ss.) Schneckenlurger, u. e. iiber- sehnen Punkt in d. L. d. Ebion. v. d. Person Jesu. (Tub. Zeitschr. 1830, P. I. p. 114ss.) Baur, d, Ebionitar. orig. et doctr. ad Essenis repotenda. Tub. 1831. 4. Idem, in d. Tub. Zeitschr. 1S31. P. 4, 1836. P. 3. 1838. P. 3. & chr. (Jnosis. p. 300ss. Sehliemann ( 75.) Oomp. Baur in Zeller's tfaeol Jahrb. 1844. P, 3. Schwegler^ nachap. Zeita. vol. I. p. 363ss. [A. Uilgenfeld^ krit. Unters. u. d, Evv, Jost d Clem. Horn. u. Marcions. Halle. 1859. 8.] In the Clementine Homilies an attempt is made to reconcile the Ebionite form of Christianity with that maintained by Paul, by showing that Judaism and Christianity were essentially alike. These Homilies were written in a lively and impressive style, and profess to present us with the doctrinal and polemical discourses of the apostle Peter, addressed principally to Simon Magus, but interwoven with the romantic history of Clement, the ostensible author, (a) The doctrine inculcated in them respecting God, is rigidly mono- theistic, but all created existences are developed in contrasted forms, which 7i) Ilepl ei/j.ap/j.evris. Fragments in Ordli, de fato. Tur. 1824. p. 202ss. a) Ta KAy/jLfVTia, three prologues and nineteen (originally twenty) Homilies-. In Coteler. P. ap^ Tb. I. p, 59788. Comp, Z>. v, Colki, Clementina in Erscb, u. Grubers Encycl. VoL XVIIL p. 86ss. 84 ANCIENT CHUECH HISTORY. PEE. I. DIV. II. A. D. 100-312. however are not absolute, and in their earthly state are related as male and female (o-v^ytat.) The Original Being has made a division of the world, and assigned it to two principles which proceeded from himself. To one of these called Satan, he has committed the present dispensation of things, and to Christ (also called id, rrvev^a aytov, viis 3eo) th*e future beyond it, al- though Satan even now, as an avenging power, advances the cause of good- ness, and the world has never been destitute of some men of the future age. Moreover Christ became incarnate in Adam, and revealed the primitive re- ligion which had been corrupted by Satan through the woman. To restore it, Christ, whose influence pervades all human affairs, appears again in the persons of the patriarchs and Moses, changing merely his form with the name. The revelations thus given, however, were much obsctfred by the Old Testament prophets, who having been born of women (Matth. 11, 11.), pro- claimed partial error. Once more Chrfst appeared in the person of Jesus, to re-establish the primitive religion and make it universal. Of course the genuine religion of Moses which had been perpetuated as an esoteric doc- trine, and genuine Christianity, could not be opposed to each other. To es- cape from the power of Satan's kingdom, men must live an ascetic life, and receive from the earth nothing but the bare necessaries of existence. The use of flesh and wine was prohibited, but marriage was recommended. The Homilies were composed or revised about the middle of the second century, at Rome, with the view of reconciling Jewish Christianity, then declining in that city, with the general Church, by means of an Essenic-Gnostic theory, and of vindicating that form of Christianity, not only from the Gnostic ha- tred of the Jews, but from the prophetic system of Montanism. While Peter is exalted as the true apostle to the Gentiles, the careful silence which they maintain with respect to Paul, renders it probable that in the person of Si- mon Magus, not only Marcion but Paul himself may bo aimed at in some re- proaches which would admit of such a reference. (J) They presuppose the existence of a sacerdotal system, of a chair of St. Peter at Rome, and of a patriarchate of James at Jerusalem. The adaptation of the Homilies to the promotion of ecclesiastical interests probably occasioned a revision of them, to make them conform to the views of the Catholics, and to meet the altera- tions which the heretics were supposed to have previously made in one of the sacred books, (c) It is impossible now to determine whether the Homi- lies were the literary composition of a single individual, or contain an expres- sion of a distinct form of Ebionism then in Rome. But the Ebionites whom Epiphanius describes (d) as existing in his times, with their synagogues in the &) Horn. XVII, 19. II, 17. Even in the Epistle of Peter prefixed as a Prologue: rives TWV OLTTO 2&vuv r~o oY ejuoC v6fj.ijj.ov atrf^oKifJiaa'av K"f]pvy/j.u, TOV e^^poO av&piairov avofj.6v TWO, KOU \vap(4>$Tj TrpofffiKa.fj.fvoi 8i$affKa\iav. But in opposition to this reference first proposed by Baur, comp. Niedner, KGesch. p. 242. c) Preserved in the Trans, of Euflnus: S. Clementis Eecognitiones (avayvdveis of the first quarter of the third cent) ed. Colder. Th. I. p. 485ss. K G. Gersdorf, Lps. 1838. The original Title perhaps also of the Homilies was Tre/x'oSot (irpdeis') Tlerpov or KA/rjjuej'Toy. The latest revision and compilation of the pseudo-Clementine writings: ?repl rwv Trpd^euv 4iri$T)/uLiS>v re rov ed. Coteler. Th. I. p. 749ss. d) Hacr. 80. comp. 19, 1. CHAP. IV. DOCTEINES. 80. CLEMENTINES. EBIONITES. 85 ancient abodes of the Essenes, and in Cyprus, maintained the same principles respecting the division of the world, the various transmigrations of the prin- ciple which they call Christ, with the semi-Gnostic peculiarity, according to which this principle had no connection with the son of Mary and Joseph until his baptism, the corruption of the Old Testament by a series of spurious prophets, and the necessity of a similar asceticism. Although they still re- quired circumcision and the observance of the Jewish Sabbath, while the Homilies demanded only baptism, their national separation does not neces- ^ _ sarily imply that they did not tolerate Gentile Christians, and even the Homi- lies allow a special pre-eminence to circumcised believers, (e) The only thing indicating the ancient grudge felt by Jewish Christians, appears in their idle legend respecting Paul. (/) The gospel commonly received by the Ebionites was used both among them and in the Homilies, and many things indicate that the work of Clement, with regard to the travels of Peter, which they pos- sessed, was of a kindred origin with that of the Homilies. Epiphanius thought that this phase of Ebionism, which he looked upon as best exhibited in the persons of Ebion and Elxai, originated in the time of Trajan, from a combination of the Ebionites with the Elkesaites and Sampsaeans. He says the Elkesaites sprung originally from a branch of the Essenes COcro-Tji/oi), and according to their own explanation, their name was given them because they believed that the divine power was concealed in the bodies of its human sub- jects, (g) The name of Sampsaeans was given because those who were so called turned their faces in prayer, not toward Jerusalem, but toward the rising sun. (Ji) The Elkesaites are mentioned by Origen as a Jewish sect, even in his time, (i) The ascetic system of the Ebionites, taken in connection with the fact that they believed that the mission of Christ was merely to abolish the sacrifices, has very much the appearance of Essenism. But if at an early period they extravagantly extolled celibacy, (&) their subsequent en- couragement of early marriages shows that those views of life which ordina- rily prevailed among the Jews had finally gained the ascendency over rigid Essenism. The independent position however which the latter maintained with respect to the Old Testament, gave it a much better prospect of con- tinuance as a Jewish system, than that which ordinarily was received among the Jews. 81. YI. Influence of Gnosticism upon the Church. It was principally through the influence of the Gnostics, that the arts and sciences were introduced into the Church, that the Church itself became con- scious of its true character, that the Jewish element in Christianity was re- pressed, and that its vast importance in the affairs of the world, and of God's kingdom, became appreciated. It is, however, difficult to estimate their ) In the Oontestatio prefixed. (Coteler. Th. I. p. 603.) /) Epiph. haer. 30, 15. tf) Haer. 19, 2: Sib rb l)]\. (b^rj or ^Jt) Ka\ovcr&ai Zvva.fji.iv, Hal (^&2>) KfKa.XviJ.fjt.4vov. Redepenning, u. d. Urspr. d. Elkesaiten. (Append. 1. to his Origen. Vol. II. [Ritschl, in Niedner'i ieitschrift for Sept. 1853.] 7i) Haer. 53, 2: "2,0,^0.101 p(j.rivevovTai 'HAta/coi (from ttJ521ijY <) In Euseb. H. ece. VI, 38. k) Epiph. haer. 30, 2. 86 ANCIENT CHURCH HISTORY. PER. I. DIV. II. A. D. 100-312. number or their influence. We do not often find evidence that in any par- ticular locality their number was superior to that of the orthodox, and yet some of them were to be found in almost every place, and in animation and spirit their writers excelled those of the Church. The minds of the Greek? were attracted by their striking opposition to Judaism, the intellect of all men was gratified by their promise of a dominion over matter and their inde- pendent development in the direction of a perfect knowledge, the fancy was stimulated by the boldness of \heir heaven-storming systems and by the op- portunity of contributing something without much trouble to the formation of them, and even the Church could not but admire the contempt which they inculcated for the world. But the teachers of the Catholic Church were impressed with the conviction that it was essential to the very nature of Christianity that it should be a religion for the people, that all true religion was something more than a speculation, and that piety itself required that the revelation which God had made in Judaism and in Christianity, and indeed in all human history, should be one in its principles. They therefore placed themselves in direct hostility to the exorbitant pretensions and the allure- ments of the Gnostics. The arbitrary forms which the fancies of the Gnos- tics had constructed, could not long resist this united opposition, especially when the additional power of the New Platonists was brought against them. Even in the third century Gnosticism had lost all creative energy, in the fourth it was completely powerless, and in the sixth only a few vestiges of it remained. 82. Manichaeism. I. 1) All accounts given in the Greek Church refer back to: Arehelai (Bishop of Cascar, about 2TS.) Acta disputationis cum Manete. (Zacagni, ColL monument vet. Eccl. gr. et lat. Bom. 1693. 4. nn'l JUansi Th. I. p. 1129ss.) The Oriental accounts, later indeed, but derived from original ancient documents, are in : fferbelot, BibL oriental Par. 169T. C art. Manl & Sttv. de Sacy, Memolres sur di- verges antiquites de la Perse. Par. 1798. 4 p. 4288. Fragments of Mani's writings, especially Epistola fundament!, in : Fdbricii Bibl. gr. Th. V. p. 284*. 2) TUus Bostrentis (about 860), KCIT& Mavixaiuv. (Canisii Lection, ed. Basnag. Tb. I.) Epiph. haer. 66. Augustimu : Contra Ep. Manichaei. C. Fortu- natuin, C. Adimantum, C. Faustum 1. 88. De actis c. Felice Man. I. 2. De natura bonl (Tb. VIII.) Do gen. c. Man. De morib. Ecc. cath. et morib. Man. (Th. I.) II. Beau&olre, Hist de Manichee et da Manichcisme. Amst 1734ss. 2 vols. 4. A. A. Ge.orgil Al- phabetum Thibetannm. Bom. 1762. 4. RticMin-Meldegg. Theol. d. Manes. Frkl 1825. A. V. de Weg- nern, Manichaeor. indulgentiae c. brevi Manichaeismi adumbrat Lps. 1827. Gieseler, u. Rcicblin- Meldegg, Wegnern & Neander. (Stud. u. Krit 1S28. P. 8.) Saur, d. man. ESyst Tub. 1831. (Comp. Bchneckenbnrger in d. Stud. n. Krlt 1888. P. 8. and Zingerle in d. Tub. Quartalschr. 1841. p. 574s?.) F. C. Trechtel, u. Kanon, Kritik u. Exeg. d. Manicb. Bern. 1832. The religious conflicts which took place on the confines of the Eastern world finally gave birth to Manichaeism. The history of its origin is founded upon traditions and uncertain documents. On the re-establishment of the Persian empire (after 227) under the Sassanides, the Magusaean sect, which had defende.d the doctrine of absolute Dualism, and various foreign systems were driven from the kingdom. Mani, a Magian of this sect, having dis- covered many points of agreement between the doctrines of Mithraism, of Bud- daism, of Gnostic Christianity, and the principles of his own paternal faith, believed himself called to combine these popular religions, especially Parsism and Christianity, into one universal religion. He presented himself before CHAP. IV. DOCTKINES. 82. MANICIIAEISM. 87 the Christians as the Paraclete and an apostle of Christ. Eejected by them and persecuted by the Magians, he is said to have been flayed alive nnder Baharam (272-5). Manichaeism, as it existed in the fourth and fifth centu- ries, accounted for all events which have taken place in the world on dualistic principles. God in his kingdom of light, and the Demon with his kingdom* of darkness, were directly opposed to each other good and evil being in their nature identical with light arid darkness. After long internal conflicts among themselves, the different powers of the demoniac kingdom became united in their opposition to the kingdom of light. The primitive man, who was the first-born of God, and who, in connection with the four pure elements contended for the kingdom of light, was overthrown, and was afterwards de- livered, but a portion of his light was wrested from him and borne down to the abodes of darkness. God then brought into existence through the agency of the Mother of life (fav Tri/cv/xa), the present universe, that it might be a new receptacle of this lost light. The vital power of this universe is the light retained in the bonds of darkness. Two new heavenly powers, Christ and the Holy Ghost, then proceeded from God, that they might redeem it from its imprisonment. The first is the Sun and Moon, and the other is the Air, which attract toward themselves all the powers of light in the earth. To retain these in his possession, the Demon formed man after the image of the primitive man, combining in him as in a microcosm the clearest light with his own darkness. From him descended the race of man, into whose souls the light penetrated. But although they were endowed with an inhe- rent liberty to continue as they were, in spite of the necessity of evil in na- ture, they soon fell under the temptations of matter and the illusions of the Demon (Judaism and Heathenism). Christ himself then appeared on earth, and merely endured the semblance of suffering, and is regarded in this system as the type of all imprisoned light (Jesus passibilis). By his doctrine and his attractive power he commenced the process of liberating the light from its bondage, but even the apostles misinterpreted his instructions by giving them a Jewish sense. The Scriptures possessed by the Church have been partially corrupted by the Demon, and partially composed by unknown writers. Mani came to reveal the secret relations of the universe, and to secure the means of human freedom. Complete truth can therefore be found nowhere except in his writings. In the end there will be a complete separation be- tween the light and the darkness, when the powers of darkness will have be- come conscious of their inability &o contend with the light, and will resume their strife with each other. The Manichaeans assumed the name of a Church, which possessed a hierarchical form of government, and consisted of two great classes. The first was composed of the perfect (electi, perfect!), who alone possessed a knowledge of the mysteries ; and the second was made up of the Catechumens (auditores), who were instructed principally in mythical allegories relating to the philosophy of religion and of nature, and were al- lowed to hope for pardon for their participation in the business and pleasures of life, in consequence of the intercessions of the perfect, for none but the perfect undertook the duties of self-mortification (signaculum sinus, oris et manus), and were sustained by the others principally on olives. Their peep- 88 ANCIENT CHUEOH HISTORY. PEE. I. DIV. II. A. D. 100-312. liar views of nature demanded that baptism should he performed in oil, and in some congregations they gave occasion to an abominable mingling of the elements in the Lord's Supper. The forms of worship practised by the Auditors were simple. Sunday was observed as a day of fasting, and the anniversary of Mani's death was celebrated as the great festival under the name of the Feast of the pulpit (J3^a). The Manichaeans were still in- creasing in number in the fourth century, and were then scattered in every part of the Oriental world, and in Africa, Sicily, and Italy. Many persons of noble minds were attracted by the promise which their system held out, that it could solve all mysteries, and exalt man above the various parties which then distracted the world. Even then, however, they were persecuted with fire and sword by the heathen emperors, on the ground of their being a Persian sect. For this reason, as well as on account of their debasement in a corrupt indifference, by a pretended exaltation above all outward things, they sunk in the sixth century beneath the equal hatred of the Magians and the bishops. Still we find some vestiges of a secret and solitary Manichaeism even in the Middle Ages. 83. IIutorico-Ecdesiastical Theology. . The ecclesiastical literature of the second century was partly of a devo- tional character, and partly consisted of controversial writings against pagans and Gnostics. Especially in the conflicts with the latter, a Christian theolo- gy was formed, in which an attempt was made to hold fast the historical ba- sis of Christianity as the common property of all, and to apprehend its prac- tical relations in a scientific manner. Hence all philosophy was studiously declined, and true Christianity was thought to consist wholly in its historical traditions and documents, and those obvious truths which could be easily comprehended by the people. The representatives of this tendency were Irenaous and Tertullian, who also indulged in the expectation of a millennial kingdom nigh at hand, (a} Irenaeus was a disciple, and perhaps also a com- panion of Polycarp, during the journey of that martyr to Rome, and was a bishop of Lyons (177-202). He was a perspicuous, judicious, and philosoph- ically educated instructor, with youthful recollections reaching back to apos- tolic times, and now came forward as the opponent of the Gnostic specula tions. As his writings were regarded almost in the light of foreign produc- tions in the country where he resided, they soon became little known, and were at an early period lost. (5)<"The only literature which the Latin Church possessed, consisted entirely of translations, until the appearance of Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullianus. He was at first a heathen rhetorician, and an advocate in Rome (about 190), but afterwards a presbyter in Carthage, his native city (d. 220). His character was severe, gloomy and fiery, but by great exertions he achieved for Christianity, in the Punic-Latin dialect, a literature in which an animated rhetoric, a sound and vivid conception of the a) Ir en. V, 33. Tertul. adv. Marc. Ill, 23. ?/) With the exception of a few epistles and fragments, nothing remains but his 5 books against the Gnostice, t. \tyxos teal avarpoir)) TT}S fycvSovvfj-ov yi/uxreus, in an old Latin translation, the 1st Book and a few fragments in the original. Opp. ed. Grabe. Oxon. 1702. Massuet, Par. 1710. Vcn CHAP. IV. DOCTEINES. 83. TEETULLIANUS. 84. CYPBIANUS. 89 ideal, profound feelings, and legal intelligence contended for the supremacy. He placed a high estimate upon that consciousness of God which he contend- ed might he found in the depths of every soul, hut he was fond of contrasting with proud irony the foolishness of the gospel with the worldly wisdom of his contemporaries, and the incredibility of the divine miracles with the or- dinary understanding of the world, (c) His writings are partly controver- sial, and in these he exhibits the utmost confidence in the catholic views, in opposition to those of Pagans, Jews, and Heretics, and partly devotional. They are, however, so written, that the devotional element constantly ap- pears in the former, and the polemic in the latter, in behalf of a strict moral- ity and discipline, (d) The Montanistic views are perceptible in them all, but they become prominent and hostile to the Romish Church in proportion to the degree in which the latter withdrew its countenance from Montanism, for the Roman Church, rather than Tertullian, experienced a change of sen- timent on that subject, (e) And yet the western portion of the Church con- tinued so tolerant toward Montanism, that some female martyrs adhering to that system in the African Church have always continued to be acknowledged as saints, (,/) and Tertullian finally became so prominent, that he is regarded as the actual type of the Latin theology. That theology was then disinclined to any philosophical theories respecting divine things, and was entirely occu- pied with questions relating to the condition of the Church, and matters in- dispensable to salvation. 84. Thascius Caecilianus Cyprianus. I. Opp. Cypriani ed. Eigaltius. Par. 1648. f. Fell. Oxf. 16S2. f. ed. 3. additae sunt Dss. Cypr. Dodwelli. (Oxf. 1684) Amst 1700. f. Baluz. Par. 1T26. f. Goldhorn. Lps. 1838s. 2 P. Vita Cypr. per Pontium, ejus Diaconum (Cypr. Opp.) Among the actis martyrii the two older beginning, Cum Cypr. and Irnper. Valeriano. II. Pearson, Annales Cyprianici before Fell's edit H. F. Schmieder, ii. Cypr. Schr. v. d. Einh. d. Kirche. Lps. 1822. F. W. Rettberg, Cypr. nach s. Leben u. Wirken. Giitt 1831. The Church of his times is well represented in the life of Cyprian. Hav ing enjoyed as a rhetorician, and perhaps also as an advocate in Carthage, all the pleasures of heathenism, he became impressed with a consciousness of the vanity of his life, and sought deliverance in the Church (246). Although, in the excitement of a new birth by baptism, he had sold his possessions, and distributed them among the poor, a sufficient amount of real estate and reve- 1734. 2 P. f. L. III. c. 1-4. in graecum serm. restituta per //. G. J. TMerseh. (Stud. u. Krit. 1842. P. 2.) Iren. fragmm. anecdota ed. C. M. Pfaff, Hag. Com. 1715. (Synt. dss. Stuttg. 1720.) Comp. Euseb. II. ecc. V, 4s. 20. 26. H. Dodwell, Dss. in Ir. Ox. 1689. Massuet, Dss. praeviae in Ir/libros. A. Stieren, de Ir. adv. haereses operis fontibus, indole, doctr. et dignitate. Gott 1836. 4. Idem, Iren. in Ersch. u. Gruber's Encycl. p. II. vol. XXIII. J. M. Prat, Hist, de S. Irenee. Lyon et Par. 1843. c) Apologet c. 17. De poenitent. c. 1. De virgg. vel. c. 1. De resurr. c. 3. C. Marc. 1, 10s. Do carne Ch. c. 5. De praescript c. 7. Adv. Ilermog. c. 8. d) Opp. ed. Rigaltius. Par. (1635. 1641.) 16G4. f. Sender et ScMcta. Hal. 1770ss. 6 Th. Leopold. Lps. lS39ss. 4 P. A. Neander, Antignosticus, Geist des Tert u. Einl. in dess. Schrr. Berl. 1S25. (Hall. L. Z. 1825. N. 271ss.) [Antignosticus, &c. transl. by J. E. Eyland. Lond. 1851. vol. II, 8.] e) Tertul. adv. Praxean. c. 1. De virgg. vel. c. Is. De pudic. c. 1. Comp. Ilieron. catal. c. 53. J. G. Hoffmann, Tertul. omnia in montanismo scripta videri. Vit. 1738. 4. J. A. Nosselt, de vera aetate scriptor. Tert, Hal. (1757.) 1768. (Opp. Fasc. III. Hal. 1817 ) /> Valesiits, Acta SS. Perpetuae et Felicit. Par. 1664. 90 ANCIENT CHUECH HISTOEY. PEE. L DIV. IL A. D. 100-312. nues remained in his possession to enable him to perform splendid acts of be- neficence in the accomplishment of his plans. He enjoyed the instructions, but his heart never became imbued with the profound sentiments of Tertul- lian, and his zeal was wholly expended in the administration of the affairs of the Church. All his writings were drawn forth by passing events, and by their simple and ardent eloquence they exerted a considerable influence on those events. The leading thought in all his writings is, that the Church, being one in Christ, should be governed as a single kingdom by the bishops appointed by Christ. He refused the bishopric of Carthage to which he had been elected, until, in spite of an opposing party of presbyters, ho recognized in the tumultuous expressions of the popular will the mandate of God (248). His plans for the enforcement of ecclesiastical discipline were suddenly inter- rupted by the persecution under Decius. He fled (250), but from his place of refuge he continued arbitrarily to govern his church by means of rescripts and vicars, and apologized for the little attention he paid to the counsel of his co-presbyters and the will of the people, by referring to the necessities of the times. A great multitude of those who had fallen in time of persecu- tion afterwards begged that they might be readmitted to the Church. Cyprian at first refused to do this with extreme Montanistic severity. But the power of pardon in such cases was generally conceded to the confessors, who in the present instance exercised it without regard to his views. A power thus abused he refused to acknowledge. The hostile presbyters, led on by Felicissimus, whom they had ordained a deacon, now stirred up the offended confessors and those who had formerly relapsed, until an insurrec- tion against his authority was effected. They represented that it ill became one who had himself fled like a hireling, to exalt himself above those who, in times of persecution, had exhibited some signs of human infirmity, and least of all those who had then heroically maintained their constancy. They de- posed Cyprian, and chose Fortunatus, one of their own number, in his place. Cyprian apologized for his flight, by pleading that he was led to it by a divine revelation, and declared that every one who resisted .his authority was a rebel against Christ. After Easter, in the year 251, he returned to his charge, and at a synod of the African bishops represented his own cause as the common cause of the episcopacy. With this view, the synod put down the opposition of the presbyters. With respect to those who had relapsed, he obtained a moderate decision, which enjoined that they should not be given over to despair, nor admitted to pardon, except in immediate danger of death, or after a long and thorough repentance. Accordingly, when a pestilence was prevalent, and during the incursions of the barbarians, ho freely administered to them consolation and assistance.'' The intimate con- nection which he had ordinarily maintained with the Roman Church, and which had been strengthened by a common interest in opposition to the Nb- vatians, was interrupted (after 253) by the controversy respecting the bap- tism of heretics. In opposition to the Eoman bishop, Cyprian contended, that truth was to be ascertained, not by an appeal to usage, but to reason ; that each bishop was equal in authority to every other ; that the laws of nc province were a uniform model for those of another, and that a diversity of CHAP. IV. DOCTEINES. 84. CYPEIANUS. 85. CLEMENS ALEX. 91 usages was not inconsistent with the general unity of the Church. Stephen refused to receive the African messengers whom he sent to Rome. Cyprian appealed to the Asiatic bishops, in whose name Mrmilian, bishop of Caesa- rea, wrote an epistle full of bitter derision of the arrogant pretensions of the Eoman bishop. In a synod convened at Carthage, the African bishops unanimously protested against Rome ( 71). "While these things were tran- spiring, Valerian published his edict against the Christians. Cyprian had now become too conspicuous to find safety in another flight. Having ac- knowledged himself a Christian and a bishop, he was banished by the pro- consul to Curbi, but he was afterwards permitted to return to his garden at Carthage. After a year's respite, sentence of death was pronounced against him as an enemy to the Roman gods, ana the chief of a criminal association. He was accordingly beheaded on the fourteenth of Sept. 258. No obstruc- tion, however, was offered to his admiring friends, as they performed the last offices of affection to him in his death, and as they did honor to his life- less remains. 85. I. The School of Alexandria. II. E. F. Guerike, de schola quae Alexandrine floruit, catechetica. Hal. 1824s. 2 P. C. F. G. Ilasselbach, de schola, quae Alex, floruit., cat Stettin. 1826. P. I. comp. Matter, de 1'ecole d' Alexan- dria Par. (1820.) 1840. 2 Th. Riiter, Qesch. de christl. Phil. vol. I. p. 421as. [Epitome of the Hist. of Phil, transl. from the French by C. 8. Henry, vol. I. pp. 207-220. Neander, Hist, of the Chr. Eel. transl. by J. Torrey. vol. I. pp. 526-557.] About the middle of the second century arose in Alexandria an ecclesias- tical school, under the superintendence of the bishop, after the model of the schools of philosophy. Sooner or later, it was unavoidable that the science and literature of Greece should become enlisted in the service of the cause of Christ. (a) This had already been unintentionally commenced by the Apologists, but it was now consummated from a direct purpose and prefer- ence in the Alexandrian school. Among those who presided over this school, was Pantaenus (about 180), previously a Stoic, and since immortalized by nis pupils. (5) Titus Flavius Clemens, probably from Athens, did not embrace Christianity until mature years, and after exhausting all the advantages of Greek and Christian culture, he professed to have found in Pantaenus a cor- rect interpreter of the Scriptures. He first became the assistant and then the successor of his chosen teacher in the management of the school (about 191-202), until just before the persecution under Severus, when he betook himself to the house of one of his pupils. The last trace we have of him was at Jerusalem, in the year 211. In a work which he divided into three parts, according to the successive steps of Conversion, Discipline, and Free Insight, he has collected in a motley form, principally from the trea- sures of Grecian wisdom, whatever is favorable to Christianity, contended against every thing hostile to the gospel in Gnosticism, determined with a) (Sowverain) Le Platonisme devoi!6. Colog. (Amsterd.) 1700. Hoskem. de turbata per rec. Pla- ton. Ecc. Helmst 1725. On the other hand : altus, defense des S. Peres, accuses de Platonisme. Par. 1711. 4. Keil de doctoribus vet Ecc. culpa corrnptae per Plat sententias Theologiae liberandia, Lps. 1793ss. 22 Cmint 4. (Opp. ed. Goldhorn. Lps. 1821. Th. II.) 1) Euseb. II. ecc. V, 10. 92 ANCIENT CHURCH HISTORY. PER. L DIV. II. A. D. 100-312. much liberality and moderation many controversial questions in ecclesiastical ethics, and in an animated and suggestive form has ventured only to hint at his peculiar views, (c) Origen, born at Alexandria (185), was the son of Leonides, whose martyrdom (202) he was prevented from sharing by tho gentle violence of his mother, who controlled his passions, and educated him with pious caro. "With a soaring spirit, a firm character, and an iron dili- gence ('ASa/^diTtor, XaXKeVrtpoy), he soon made himself master of the Alex- andrian learning, and a scribe well instructed unto the kingdom of heaven. The youth of eighteen years was raised to the dignity of President of the School, and continued to live in poverty, refusing all compensation from his pupils, and practising the utmost abstemiousness. Before ho renounced his early views of the literal interpretation of the Scriptures, in a moment of bold enthusiasm, he yielded a literal obedience to one of their supposed re- quirements. (d) His superior development appears to have received as much assistance from the lectures of Ammonius Saccas (c) as from the writings of Clement. The instruction of the children of his school he committed to an assistant, while he conducted the more advanced pupils through the whole range of Grecian studies, to the intellectual comprehension of the Scriptures, and to the philosophy of Christianity. His irregular ordination as a presby- ter at Caesarea (228), afforded a pretext for the manifestation of the aver- sion which his bishop, Demetrius, entertained toward him, and he was ac- cordingly thrust out of the Church (231). This episcopal violence, however, was respected only by those who took no interest in scientific investiga- tions. Origen continued to live sometimes in learned leisure at Caesarea, and sometimes in foreign countries on business connected with the Church. He died at Tyre (254), having previously confessed his faith with unshaken constancy during the Decian persecution. By his employment of the Alex- andrian Philology in the criticism and interpretation of tho Scriptures, he became the acknowledged master of a scientific method of scriptural investi- gation, by the grammatical as well as the allegorical style of explanation. His work on the Principles, is the first attempt to comprise the principles of Christianity in a single scientific work. Only a part of his writings have c) Aifyos irpoTpfTTTiKbf iTpov "EAXTji/oy, TlaiSayuySs, ^Tpu/jLUTfls. Homily: Tis 6 ai)TiKuv ^K\oyai belonged to this work. Hymnus in C. Salvatorem, ed. F. Piper, Gott 1835. Opp. ed. Sylburg, Heidelb. 1592. f. and often. Potter, Ox. 1715. Yen. 1757. 2 Th. f. Pocket edition in the 8d part of the Bibl. sacra, ed. R. Klotz, Lps. 1831-84. 4 Th.ffofetede de Groot, de Clem. s. do vi, quam Phil. gr. inpr. platonica habuit ad Clem, informandum. Gron. 1826. Colin, Clem, in Ersch. u. Gruber's Encycl. voL XVIII. p. 4ss. Daehne, do yvdcrei, Clem, et de vestigiis neoplatonicae phil. in ea ob- viis. Lps. 1831. F. li. Eylert, Clem. als. Phil. u. Dichter. Lps. 1832. Baur, Cbr. Gnosis. p. 502ss. Kling, Bedeutung des Clem. f. d. Entst d. chr. Theol. (Stud. u. Krit. 1841. P. 4.) [Art Clem, in W. Smith's Diet of Biog. and Mythol. New York. 1852. 2 vols.] d) Matt. 19, 12. comp. 5, 29s. Euseb. H. ecc. VI, 8. comp. 23. Orig. in Matth. torn. 15. (Th. III. p. 651ss.) comp. Schnitzer, Orig. u. d. Grnndlehren d. Glaubenswiss. Stuttg. 1835. p. XXXIIIsa. Oc the other hand: Engelhardt, in d. Stud. u. Krit 1838. P. 1. p. 157ss. e) II. A. Heigl, der Bericht d. Porphyr. u. Orig. Kegensb. 1835. Redepenning, App. 2. to vol. I L. Kriiger, u. das Verh. d. Orig. zu Amm. Sacc. (Illgen's Zeitschr. 1843. P. 1.) CHAP. IV. DOCTRINES. 86. ALEXANDEIAN THEOLOGY. ST OEIGEN. 93 come down to modern times, some of them in a Latin translation by Rufinus, and others in extracts by the orthodox writers of his age. (/) Clement reached Christianity through philosophy, Origen reached philosophy through Christianity. The former proceeded in the style of an eclectic philosopher, in whose conception of a complete gnostic the Stoical ideal predominated, with its calm tranquillity derived not from the human but from the divine spirit ; the latter showed a more decided predilection for Plato. Both grasped after a knowledge which should comprehend the universe, but their efforts were characterized more by a literary fondness for philosophy, than by philo- sophical depth, as they developed the religious ideas involved in the facts of Christianity, smoothed away the difficulties which must attend a one-sided and purely historical conception of it, and elevated it above the extremes of Judaism and of Gnosticism, even though its truths were received in a limited form. Taken together, their doctrines constituted one comprehensive whole, whose form was a philosophy of Christianity, whose substance was the free- dom of the mind in its everlasting activity, and whose source was the Deity himself. 86. II. Characteristics of the Alexandrian Theology. 1. Philosophy was to the Greek what the law was to the Jew, an in- structor showing the need of Christ, and proposing a proper pattern of righteousness. God has revealed his true nature in appropriate methods, through the Logos to all nations, (a) The highest revelation he has ever made of himself is in Christianity, by means of which many a retired vil- lage has become an Athens. The position of the faith of the common people is that in which a merely historical Christianity is received on the authority of others (ni&Tii), but the higher position of the perfect Christian is that in which truth is contemplated with a free insight, and a full consent of the mind (yi/cocm). The doctrines of the Gnosis were described as those secret traditions which originally proceeded from Christ, but they were in fact the free scientific speculations respecting well established ecclesiastical tradi- tions. (5} : ' The Scriptures were looked upon as the result of divine inspira- tion, though in different degrees, and it was thought that every part of them should receive a signification worthy of God. Where such a meaning was not supplied by the n?.ere words, the hidden sense was developed from the /) 1) For the restoration of the Septuagint Eevision of the text of the O. T. and its translations: TO. eo7rAa. Hexaplor. quae snpersunt ed. B. de MontfauQon. Par. 1713. 3 Th. f. C. F. ahrdt, Lps. 17C9s. 2 Th. 2) Scholiae o-Tj/xeiwcrery, commentaries rJ/toi, and practical expositions, 6/j.i\tat on most of the sacred books, only a few less important parts of which are preserved in Eufinus and Je- tome. 8) Uepl apxvv, 1- IV. Hah" of the 3d, and the greater part of the 4th vol. are extant in the Greek, the remainder Is in Eufln's Lat. version, ed. E. R. Eedepenning. Lps. 1836. 4) Kara KeAI 87. III. Influence of Origen. The doctrines of the Church were defended by Origen in a variety of ways. It was through his influence that the expectation which then prevailed with respect to a near approach of Christ's second advent, and a millennial Kingdom, began to be regarded as heretical, or at least fanatical. For centu- ries his influence upon the whole Church was powerful, by means of his writ- ings and a circle of followers which gathered around him, and formed a seminary of eminent teachers and bishops for the Church. He was himself, however, well aware that his doctrines were not suitable for the common mind, and his views of Christian science allowed him intentionally so to write that his language was unintelligible, and even conveyed error, to all but the c) J. A. Ernesti, de Orig. interpretationis gramm. auctore. (Opp. crit Lugd. 1764 p. 288ss.) (7. R. Jlageribach, Obss. ctrca Orig. methodum interpret 8. Sc. Bas. 1823. Comp. (Ilirzel) in Winers krit Journ. 1825. vol. III. part 4. ) "Xpovoypatycav TreWe (nrovo'da'fj.aTa. 'Eirurr. Trepi TTJS Kara ~2,ov(ra.vvu.v iffroptas written to Origen, with the reply of the latter, 'ETTKTT. ?rpbs 'A/JKTreiSTjr, a harmony of the ge nealogies of Jesus. Routh, Eeliq. sacr. vol II. c) Euseb. H. ecc. VI, 20, 22, 46. ffieron, catal c. 61. Phot. cod. 121. Ebedjesu in Assemani Eibl or. vol III. P. I. 96 ANCIENT CHUECH HISTORY. PEE. I. DIV. II. A. D. 100-812. his works are thought by many to indicate an oriental character, and a de- gree of education somewhere between that of Origen and that of Irenaeus. (el) But his statue, found in the Ager Veranus, near Rome (1551), with the Eas- ter cycle engraved upon his cathedra and a catalogue of his writings, imply that he must have resided in the vicinity of Rome, and that the Portus Ro- manus mentioned as his bishopric, must have been the port near Ostia. (e) Yet, as Prudentius had sung the martyrdom of a highly esteemed BTovatian presbyter, who, in view of death, returned to the Catholic Church, and after his execution near the mouths of the Tiber, had been conveyed to the Roman catacombs, (/) and in the time of that poet had been honored with a mag- nificent martyrium, and a great annual festival at Rome, the discoverers of this statue came to the conclusion that the martyr was the same person as the ecclesiastical writer, ($} Later martyrologies, however, indicate that the mar- tyr came to Rome from Antioch, where a lively interest existed in favor of Novatianism. (h) Lactantim Finnianus, an Italian preceptor to the prince Crispus, in whose misfortunes he was probably involved (d. about 330), com- menced, during his residence as a rhetorician at Nicomedia, in the midst of the last persecution, his treatise on the nature and achievements of Chris- tianity, in contrast with those of Heathenism. In this 'work he has shed all the rhetorical splendor of his age upon the gospel, and has acquired the ap- pellation of a Christian Cicerjo. His belief in a principle of evil appointed by God, and of equal rank with Christ, and in a millennial kingdom, may be regarded as a lingering shadow of the preceding century, (i) 89. Apocryphal Literature. Among the Jews, the heathen, and the Christians of this period, it was thought that the truth might, without impropriety, be defended by means of what was untrue. The lives of their heroes and saints especially might be embellished as much as they pleased, and the credit of such compositions might be aided by attaching to them some celebrated name. In this way was produced, within the Church as well as beyond its pale an apocryphal litera- ture, composed partially of harmless fictions and popular legends, and partially d) TTippol. Opp. ed. Fabricius. Hamb. 171668. 2 vols. t. e) E. J. Kimmel, do Hip. vita et scriptis. P. I. Jen. 1S39. L. F. W. Seinecke, Leben u. Schrr. d. Hipp. (Illgen's Zc-itschr. 1842. P. 8.) On the other side: C. G. Haenell, de Hipp. Gott 1833. 4. as Bishop of Bostra. /) Peristeph. hym. 11. 0) According to Winkelmann, Werke, ed. by Meyer & Schulze, vol. XVII. p. 884. the statue be- longed to the time of Alex. Severus certainly too early according to Plainer, in d. Bescreib. d. Stadt Eom. by Platner, Bunsen, & oth. vol. 2. p. 829. the latest period was that of th-6th cent [See Bunseri's Hipp. & his Age. Lond. 1853. C. Wordsworth, H. & the Church of Eome, 4. Lend. 1853. and articles in the Jan'y Nos. of the Edlnb. & English Eevlews for 1853.] 7i) The combined evidence thus obtained may be seen in Gieseler, [Eccles. Hist transl. by Da- vidson, Edinb. vol. I. p. 249. note 9.] f) Institutionum div. 1. VII. De mortibns persecutorum. De ira Dei. De opificio Dei, vel de forma- tione hominis. Opp. ed. JBunemann. Lps. 1739. Lebrun et Lenglet Dufresnoy, Par. 1748. 2 Th. 4. O. F. Fritzsche, Lps. 1842. 4. 2 P. F. G. Ph. Amman, Lact opiniones de rel. in systema redactae, dss. IL Erl. 1820. IT. J. Spyker, de prctio Institutionibns Lact tribuendo. Lugd. 1826. L. IlawknecM, Etudes sur Lact. Strassb. 1837. CHAP. IV. DOCTRINES. 89. APOCEYPIIAL WEITINGS. 9? of intentional forgeries, (a) Writings of the former kind have been so tho- roughly revised by the Gnostics and Manichaeans, that their origin and pri- mary design can no longer be determined with any certainty, and even their dogmatic character is for the most part indeterminate and contradictory. In this respect they are a fair exemplification of the age which gave them birth. Even in those rare instances in which the deception was discovered and cen- sured by the Church, as in the case of the Acts of Paul and Theckla, written under the impulse of a warm affection for Paul, and an almost poetical sen- timent in behalf of the duty of self-sacrifice, the work remained for a long time in circulation among the Churches. (5) 1) Among those called Acts of the Apostles may be noticed a cycle 'of histories pretending to give an account of the miracles wrought by the apostles, collected and revised so as to favor the interests of Manichaeism, by some one under the name of Leucius Cha- rinus. (c) 2) Jewish imitations of earlier prophetic visions were sometimes used by Christians with their own interpretation, and sometimes counterfeited by Jewish Christians, to show the completion of the Messianic prophecies by facts taken from the life of Jesus, (d) 3) Some lost prophecies, ascribed to Hystaspes, an ancient Persian seer, gave to the Asiatic Christians a prophet of the Messiah, from their own native region, (e) 4) The Sylilline Oracles were written by many different authors in the course of several centuries. (/) The oldest of them were composed by heathen and Jewish writers to sub- serve their own peculiar views, and in many instances probably as a poetical amusement. But the principal part of them consisting of reproaches against heathenism, and predictions of its approaching overthrow, were written by Christians, probably not so much to oppose and alarm their enemies, as to en- courage their friends. By those apologists, however, who were conversant with pagan literature, they were made use of as divinely inspired writings. a) Iren. I, 26. HosJieim, de causis suppositt libror. inter Christ. (Dss. ad II. ecc. pert Th. I. p. 21788.) Z>) Tertul. de bapt c. 17. Acta S. Pauli et Thecklae, ed. Grabe, Spicileg. Th. I. p. Slss. [Apocr. New Test. Lond. 1821.] c) Toil/ '.ATroorJAcoj' Trepio'Soz. Phot. cod. 114. Acta S. Thomae, ed. J. C. 77iilo, Lps. 1823. Apokr. Evv. s. Leben Jesu. p. 18s. d) Fabricius, Codex pseudepigr. Y. T. ed. 2. Hainb. 1712s. 2 Th. Tho book of Enoch the Pro- phet, trans, from an Ethiopic MS. by R. Laurence, Oxf. (1821.) 1883. A. G. Hoffman, das Buch He- noch in Uebers. mit Commentar. Jena. 1833-8. 2 Abth. [Lond. Christ. Observer, (in Littell's Eel. Mag. 1829.) Book of Enoch. H. Stuart,m Bibl. Eepos, for Jan. 1840. pp. 86-186.] Ezrae 1. IV. (Fabric. Th. 1. 173ss.) Versio Aethioplca, lat angliceque reddita a R. Laurence, Oxf. 1820. At Siadfj/cai TU/V ScSSe/ca TlaTpiapxvv, ed. Grabe, Spicil. Th. I. p. 145ss. Comp. C. I. Nitzsch, de testam. XII. Patr. Vit. 1810. 4. Ascensio (avajScm/c^) Isaiao vatis, opusc. apud. Aethiopas compertum, c. vers. Int. anglicanaque ed. R. Laurence, Oxon. 1819. Gieseler, vetus translatio lat. visionis Jesaiae ed. praef. et notis ill. Gott 1832. 4. comp. Nitzsch in d. Stud. u. KriL 1830. P. 2. Lucke, Einl. z. Apok. p. 125ss. Gfrorer, Gesch. d. Urchr. vol. 1. 1. p. 65ss. e) Fr. Walch, de Hystaspe. (Comm. Soc. Eeg. Gott Th. I. p. 3ss.) /) Sibyllinorum Oraculorum 1. VIII. ed. Servatius Gallaeus, Amst 1689. 4. On this, see also 1. XI. -XIV. iuAngeli Maji Scriptorum vett nova collectio. Eom. 1828. 4. Th. III. p. S.BleeJc, u. Entst. u. Zusammens. d. Sib. Orak. (Theol. Zeitschr. Brl. 1819. P. 1. 2.) [David Blondell, Treatise of the Sibylls. Lond. 166L f.] 98 ANCIENT CHURCH HISTOEY. PEE. I. DIY. II. A. D. 100-312. 90. Subordinationists and Monarchians. I. All accounts of the Monarchians are derived from the party hostile to and finally victuriom over them, as e. g. Tertullian, \vho hated them as opponents of Montanism ; Epiphanius and T/ieo- doret, who regarded them with the prejudices of the Athanasian party; and Eusebius, the most im- partial, but not unaffected by the spirit and views of the age. II. Martini, Pragm. Gesch. d. dogma v. d. Gotth. Ch. in d. ersten 4 Jahrh. Eost 1800. vol. I. ScUeiermacJier, u. d. Gegens. zw. d. Sabell. u. Athan. Vorst v. d. Trinitat (Theol. Zeitschr. Brl. 1822. P. 3. p. 295ss.) Jleinichen, de Alogis, Theodotianis, Artemonitis. Lps. 1S29. L. Lange, Gesch. u. Lehrbegr. d. Unitarier vor d. Nic. Synode. (Beitr. z. KGescb. vol. II.) Lpz. 1881. Idem, Abh. in Illgen's Zeitschr. 1832. vol. II. PL 2. p. ITes.) 1833. vol. III. Pt I. p. 65ss. Pt 2. p. ITSss. Comp. Gieseler in d. Stud. u. Krit 1883. P. 4. p. 1215s. Baur, d. chr. Lehre v. d. Dreieinigkeit u. Mensch- werd. in gesch. Entw. Tub. 1841. Th. L p. 132ss. G. A. Meier, d. Lehre v. d. Trin. in hist Entw. Hamb. u. G. 1844. vol. 1. p. 74ss. The whole effort made by the Church of this period to rise above the religion of mere feeling to the possession of clear ideas, was now concen- trated in the inquiry, "Who was Christ ? The answer of the Jews, declaring that he was the Son of God, reminded the Greets of the sons of deities in their mythology, (a) As, however, the doctrine of the divine unity was considered indispensable, and as Christians could not feel that the essential glory of Christ was adequately expressed, when it was said in Jewish phrase, that he was anointed and filled with the Holy Ghost, the attention of all was turned to the philosophic theory of the Logos, regarded as that by which God contemplated his own nature, and revealed himself in the universe as far as it is an image of the divine life. Two parties sprung up after the middle of the second century, neither of which hesitated to call Christ, in a Hellenistic sense, not only a Son of God, but God himself. One of these be- lieved that the Logos had an existence before our world, and was an exact image of the Deity, but a subordinate person. The popular expression with respect to the generation of this Logos, must have been understood as im- plying either with the Gnostics, that it was an emanation from the divine essence, or with the Alexandrians, that it was an eternal procession from it by an exercise of the divine will. According to this view, the Holy Spirit was regarded as an actual person, but one so subordinate and so little regard- ed, that many who looked upon the Spn as a person, held that the Spirit was merely a power of God, or a mode of his operation. This relation of the divine economy has been denominated, since the time of Tertullian, the Trinity. The other party, either from its regard to the doctrine of the divine unity (iiovapxia), held that Christ was a mere man, but born of the virgin by the power of the divine Spirit, and exalted to be the Lord of the whole Church, or from a regard to Christ's dignity, believed that he was a revela- tion and manifestation of God on earth. (J) Those who held t3 this last view, were, by their opponents, called Patripassiani. Justin informs us, that even in his day it was not regarded as inconsistent with Christianity to hold that Christ was a mere man, and Tertullian reluctantly testifies, that in his vicinity this was the common sentiment, (c) The first kind of Monarch- al) Justin. Apol. I. c. 21. C. Tryph. c. 69. Comp. Plinii Ep. X, 96. I) Athenag. LegaL c, 10. In Justin, c. Tryph. a 12& The distinction between the two kind* of Monarchianism : Orig. in Jo. torn. 2, 2. c) Justin, c. Tryph. c. 48. Tertul. adv. Prax. c. 8. CHAP. IV. DOCTRINES. 90. SUBORDINATION ISTS & MONARCHIANS. 99 janism has always, since that time, been rejected as often as it has made its appearance, inasmuch as no one would then presume to think of Christ in less exalted terms than those in which the Gnostic heretics represented him. But even where no such a rejection took place, it naturally followed that no one had any great timidity in denying a mere man. On the other hand, the Monarchians of the second class were regarded in many parts of the Church as orthodox, and were not generally very seriously opposed, until an assault was made upon them by persons at a distance, which was repelled by an appeal to apostolical traditions, and to the Holy Scriptures. But the Subordinationists, whose views were more conformable to those of the com- mon people, gradually gained upon public sentiment, and by various means at the command of the hierarchy, utterly destroyed even the second kind of Monarchianism, which had been rendered suspicious by the ease with which it was confounded with the first. By ingenious references to reason and revelation, the views of the triumphant party respecting the Logos were made to correspond with the philosophy of that period, 1) Epiphanius speaks of a party in Asia Minor (about 170) whom he wit- tily calls Alogi, because they rejected the doctrine of the Logos and the gos- pel by John, together with the doctrine of the Millennium and the book of Revelations. They were probably the same persons as those mentioned by Irenaeus as having rejected the gospel by John, and the idea of the pro- phetic gifts of the Spirit. It is evident that they were opposed to the Mon- tanists, but we are left in doubt whether they took offence at the word Lo- gos merely as a learned expression, or whether they were really Monarchians., as they were regarded by Epiphanius. (d) 2) Praxeas, distinguished as a confessor in the time of Marcus Aurelius, and sent from Asia Minor to Rome to induce the churches in the latter city to refuse all fellowship with the Montanists, taught without molestation the second kind of Mo- narchianism, respecting the incarnation of one divine Spirit in Christ. In Carthage, however, he was accused of heresy by Tertullian. (e) But The- odotus, the Tanner, who came about the same time from Byzantium to Rome, and began to propagate the first kind of Monarchianism, was driven from the Church by Victor, Bishop of Rome. His party was distinguished for secular learning, made use of the Scriptures as of a merely human produc- tion, and was at one time powerful enough to elevate one of their own num- ber to the See of Rome itself. It was not long, however, before their bishop was attacked by persons sent by God, or by episcopal influence, and com- pelled to abdicate. From this party proceeded another Theodotus, a money- broker, who became the head of the Melchizedecians, who are said to. have honored Melchizedek as a heavenly Redeemer, superior to the earthly. Ar- temon was also excluded from the Church of Rome, for maintaining that the established doctrine of the Church had always been, that the Redeemer was no more than a man, and that this had never been perverted or changed until d) Epiph. haer. 51. 54. 8. Iren. Ill, 11. comp. Euseb. H. ecc. VII, 25, 3f. Merlcel, hist, krlt Auf klar. d. Streitigk. d. Aloger. u. d, Apok. Frkf. u, Lps, 1782. 6) Tertvl adv. Pnixean. 100 ANCIENT CHUECH HISTORY. PERL DIV. II. A. D. 100-312. the time of Zephyrinus, who then occupied the episcopal chair (201-218). (/) 3) Noetus, of Smyrna, and probably a presbyter in Ephesus, was excluded (about 230) from his church as a Patripassian. That he should have repelled this accusation in such decided terms, is only to be explained on the ground thnt he held to the second kind of Monarchianism. (g) To this also, Beryl- lus, of Bostra, professed adherence. He denied that our Saviour had any personal existence prior to the incarnation, or that there was in Christ a di- vine nature distinct from that of the Father. He, however, conceded that the Godhead of the Father dwelt in the person of Jesus. Under the instruc- tion of Origen, he finally renounced these views, and embraced another sys- tem of faith. (A) Sdbelliw, a presbyter of Ptolemais (250-260), expressed the same doctrine in terms still nearer those commonly used in the Church. According to him, the Father, the Son, and the Spirit, were only the differ- ent forms in which the supreme Unity, which unfolds itself in human affair* as a Triad, reveals himself to men. In the Pentapolis, his doctrine was re- garded as orthodox, until Dionysius, of Alexandria, brought against him the prelatical authority, and the stores of learning. But when the latter, in the course of the controversy, carried the doctrine of Origen so far as to assert that the Logos was created by the Father, was unequal to him in nature, and began to exist in time, Dionysius, Bishop of Rome, maintained against him a doctrine which the Alexandrian bishop would not have denied, that the Son had an eternal existence in the Father, (i) 4) Paul of Samosata, after 260 Bishop of Antioch, appears to have effected a union of the two kinds of Monarchianism, although the first was decidedly predominant in his system. Ho maintained that Jesus, as a man, was begotten by the Holy Ghost, and that the divine Logos which then began personally to exist, had a peculiar connection with him. The Syrian bishops were violently opposed to their Metropolitan, conspired against him at three different Synods, and at An- tioch, in the year 269, proclaimed his deposition. Their enmity seems to have been much excited by his political position and worldly honors, () and it was not until the year 272, when the imperial power co-operated with them, that their act of deposition was carried into effect. The fall of this powerful bishop decided the fate of the Monarchians, who are henceforth mentioned only as isolated individuals, and as heretics already condemned (Sabelliani, Samosateniani.) In the public acts of this Synod, the Sabellian form of expression, according to which the Son is of a nature similar to that of the Father (6/zoovo-toy ro> Trarpi), was also condemned. (Z) /) Tertal. de praescr. append, c. 58. Eutcb. H. ecc. V, 28. Epiph. baer. 51 56. Theodoret. Haeret. fabb. II, 4ss. g) IHppolyt. els TT\V a'lpriv NO^TOU rivot. (Ed. Fabric. Tb. II. p. 5ss.) Epiph. baer. 57. Theodoret. Ill, 8. h) Euseb. H. ecc. VI, 83. comp. 20. Jlieron. catal. c. 60. comp. Orig. Opp. Th. IV. p. 695. Ullmann, de Beryllo Bostreno. Hamb. 1835. 4. comp. Stud. u. Krit 1836. P. 4 p. 1073ss. ) Euseb. H. ecc. VII, 6. Athanas. Ep. de sententia Dionysii. (Th. I. p. 548ss.) Gallandii Bib. PP. Th. III. p. 495. vol. XIV. App. p. 118. Basil. Ep. 210. Epiph. haer. 62. Theodoret. II. 9. [Schleiermacher, transl. by M. Stuart, in BibL Eepos. vol. V. p. 265-353. VI. p. 1-80.] K) Euseb. H. ecc. VII, 27-30. Epiph. haer. 65. A. Maji N. Coll. Th. VIL P. 1. p. 68. 299ss. EJirlich, de erroribus Pauli Sam. Lps. 1745. 4. J. B. Schwab, de P. Sam. vita atque doctr Herblp. 1839. I) Athanas. de synod. Arim. et Seleuc. c. 43. (Th. I. p. 917.) ITilar. de synod, c. 86, SECOND PEEIOD. FEOM CONBTANTINE TO CHAELES THE GREAT. 91. General View. Heathenism was now destroyed and Christianity became the religion of the State. The effort to attain a more perfect intellectual apprehension of the doctrines of the Christian system, produced a great agitation both of the Church and of the empire. The Church and the State exerted a reciprocal and mutually pervading influence upon each other, and by blending together the political and dogmatic interest, an unfavorable result was produced in both. The rights of the congregations were still enforced in almost all in- stances by popular insurrections and intrigues at court. The unity of the Church was carried out by sacrificing the independence of its several parts, and the whole became subject to the two great bishops residing at old and new Eome. The power of the monks nearly equalled that of the clergy. Grecian and Christian usages and morals were blended together, and mu- tually corrupted one another. From the midst of these doctrinal conflicts, and from the fanaticism of the Desert, a class of characters was produced, in which the Holy Ghost allowed the spirit of the times to attain, on a grand scale, the end for which it indefinitely longed. At the close of this struggle, the State was distracted by another relating to images. Christianity gave a final glory, an internal life and a consolation in misfortune to the Eoman empire, but could not prevent its overthrow. A new and simple faith ob- tained a victory over Christianity by means of the sword, and closed against it its own native East. Greece alone continued Eoman, and gradually sunk with its Church into along apparent death. The German nations broke into the Western Empire, but soon bowed themselves before the cross, and gave to the Church a new life. The period naturally falls into two divisions of nearly equal length : the Church, of the Eoman empire, to which the ad- jacent oriental countries belong, and the Church among the Germanic na- tions, to which the Eoman bishopric, from the time of Stephen II., was transferred. DIVISION L THE IMPERIAL CHURCH. 92. Original Authorities. 1) Eased. ( 14.) Ek rlv fiiov KuwTavTivov.!. IV. Yita Constant, et Panegyricus, ed. Hein- iclien. Lps. 1830. Historiae ecc. Eusebii. 1. IX Eufino interprete ac II. ipsius Ruflni, ed. Cacci- ari. Eom. 1741s. 2 Th. 4. Historia ecc. Scriptores graeci, c. notts Valesii ed. ff. Reading, Cantabr. 1720. 3 Th. McepTiorus Callistius, (KK\7jff. Iffropia, ed. Fronton U I>uc, Par. 1630. 2 Th. 102 ANCIENT CHURCH HISTOEY. PEE. II. DIV. L A. D. 812-800. 2) Sulpicii Severi, Hist sacra, ed. Hofmeisler, Tig. 1703. (Opp. ed. Hieron. a Prato, Veion. 17419 2 Th. Ilao'^aAio*' s. Clironicon paschale, ed. Car. du Fresne Dom. du Cange. Par. 16S3. f. Lud. Dindorf, Bonn. 1832. 2 Th. Theophanes Confessor, Xpovoypatyia, c. notis Goari et Combeflsii-, Par. J655. Ven. 1729. f. 8) Ammianus Marcellinus, Eerum gest. 1. XXXI. ed. Ernesti. Lps. 1773. 1835. Zosimus, Iffropia vta, ed. Reitemeier. Lps. 1784. Im. Bekker, Bonn. 1837. [The Greek Eccles. Histories by Enseb. Theod. Socrat Sozom. and Evagrins, have ben newly translated and pub- lished, with lives of the authors, in 6 vols. 8vo. Lond. 1842-6.] Most of the public original documents are contained in the acts of coun- cils and the imperial codes. Eusebim was influenced in the history of his own times at least by gratitude, (a) His Ecclesiastical History was freely translated, and continned to the time of the translator by Rufinus (395). (6) Among the Greeks it was continued by the advocate, Socrates Scholastics (306-439), and Hermias Soz&menus (328-423). The former was a candid and plain writer ; the latter was full of monastic notions, and wrote in a florid style. Both were completed by Thcodoretus, bishop of Cyrus, with a great abundance of theological learning (325-427). (c) All of these were com- posed in the spirit of the ascendant party in the Church. The, Ecclesiastical History of Philostorgius (300-425), is a panegyric upon the vanquished par- ty, and is preserved only in the extracts made by Photius. Evagrius, a dis- tinguished advocate of Antioch, continued the history of the Catholic Church (431-594) with special attention to political circumstances, and an extreme passion for orthodoxy. Extracts from Socrates, Sozomen, and Theodoret, are preserved in a manuscript work of Theodorus Lector, and fragments of his continuation of Socrates (until 518) have been preserved by Nicephorus. The history of Nicephorus Callistius (which at first consisted of twenty-throe books, and reached to the year 911, but now consists of only eighteen books, extending to the year 610), was compiled in the fourteenth century from older historical writings and original documents in the church of St. Sophia. It was written in an elegant style, and its sentiments are honestly expressed, but it is characterized by servility and superstition. Sulpicim Severus, at first a lawyer, and afterwards a presbyter in Gaul, wrote a concise summary of universal history (until 400) with a strong ecclesiastical spirit, but it is important only for what relates to his own times, and to events occurring in his own vicinity. The Easter- Chronicle (written until 354, under Constan- tius, but with later additions until 628, under Heraclius) is principally a cal- culation of the passovers from the beginning of the world, but it is enlivened by a chronicle in which many singular documents and accounts are communi- cated in a simple style, and in an ecclesiastical spirit. TJieophanes Confessor wrote a continuation of an older chronicle down to his own time (285-813), and with much learning made use of original documents which would other- wise have been lost. His work is pervaded by the spirit of a monk and of a martyr to his zeal for image worship. Among the last of the heathen his- torians, Ammianus Harcellinus, in those portions of his history of the em- pire which are extant (libb. 14-31. 353-378), has recorded the ecclesiastical events of that period with the impartiality and sound common sense of a sol a) Socrat. H. ecc. 1, 1. &) E. J. Kimmel, de Enf., Eus. interprete I. II. Ger. 1838. c) F. A. Holehausen, de fontibus, quibus Socr. Soz. ct Theod. usi sunL Goett. 1825. 4. CHAP. I. VICTORY OF CHRISTIANITY. 93. CONST ANTINE & HIS SONS. 103 dier, and Zosimus, a court officer under Tkeodosius II., has described (in de- tail 284-410) with minute art the dark shades in the character of the Chris- tian emperors. CHAP. I. VICTORY AND DEFEAT OF CHRISTIANITY. J. G. Hoffmann, ruina superstitSonis paganae. Vit. 1738. 4. & T. Eudiger, de statu.paganoruin sub. Imp. christ. post. Const. Vrat. 1825. Beugnot. (before 46.) 93. Constantino and his Sons. I. "Whatever relates to them in Euseb. and Zosimus. II. Martini, d. Einfui J. d. chr. Eel. a!a Btaatsrel. durch Constant Munch. 1813. 4. Manso, Leben Const. Bresl. 1817. Kist, de commuta- tione, quam Const auctore societas chr. subiit Traj. ad Rh. 1818. 4 (Hug) Denkschr. s. Ehrenrett Const. (Zeitschr. f. d. Geistlichk. d. Erzb. Freyburg. 1829. P. 3.) Arendt, u. Const, u. s. Verh. z. Christenth. (Tub. Quartalschr. 1834. P. 3.) \_Eiiseb. PampMlus, Life of Const in 4 books. New transl. Lond. 1845. 8.] As fast as he could wisely do so, and by all the means which an absolute monarch can bring to bear upon his favorite plans, Constantino gradually be- stowed upon the Church security, wealth, privileges, and every thing which could make it attractive. By the arts of state policy, the contest be- tween the rulers of the Eastern and Western division of the empire had been identified with that between the ancient gods and the crucified Re- deemer. No sooner had this been decided by the complete destruction of Licinius (323), than Constantine openly expressed a desire to see the whole Roman world once more united in one common religion. He, however, free- ly acknowledged the right of all those who desired, to persevere in their ad- herence to the obsolete superstition. Only a few temples in the East were despoiled, that their ornaments might be used to adorn the new Christian Rome ; some others were destroyed on account of the immoralities practised in them, (a) and a law against sacrifices (b) was probably directed merely against such immoralities, or was never executed. The emperor still re- mained Pontifex Maximus, and some of his enactments indicate that he hon- ored, or at least feared the magical arts of the old paganism, (c) Political interests seemed imperatively to require that Christianity should be estab- lished as the religion of the State, that those religious questions which were then producing innumerable divisions might be decided. That Constantine, however, acted in these measures from a sincere attachment to Christianity, is evident from what he did before the chivalrous emperor had degenerated into the tyrant, and from his interest in those ecclesiastical matters with which the mere policy of the ruler could have had no connection. The same sign which had originally given him the victory (Labarum, 312), (d) had also conducted him to universal dominion, and he therefore regarded himself as the favorite of Heaven, called to secure an equal dominion for the o) Euseb. Vita Const II, 55-60. ty According to a reference which Constans made to it (e) and Euseb. Vita Const II, 45. c) Constit de harnspicinae usu. a. 321. L. 1. Cod. Theod. de pagan. (XVI, 10.) Zosim. II, 29. d) Euseb. Vita Const. I, 27-31. Lactant. de mortib. c. 44. Sosom. I, 3. Rufin. I, 9. Comp Nazarii, Panegyr. Const, c. 14.2Teinichen, Excurs. I. ad Vitam Const 104 ANCIENT CHURCH HISTORY. PEE. II. IMPERIAL CHURCH. A. D. 312-800. cross of Christ. And yet he was not restrained from desecrating that verjj cross by hands deeply imbrued in blood, in the blood of his own son (326), That he remained among the catechumens, and never received baptism until the year in which he died (337), is accounted for by a reference to a super- stitious opinion then prevalent among many Christians. Not only has the Church from gratitude conferred upon him the title of the Great, but even heathenism has given him a place among its divinities. "While acquiring and maintaining his authority, he won many battles, formed a system of govern- ment which acted with all the regularity of an artificial machine, built a metropolis for the world in a position the most admirable of any on earth, and lived to experience and to deserve many misfortunes. In one respect ho was certainly great or fortunate, for when seated in the highest position then attainable, he seems to have understood what the necessities of his age re- quired. His sons followed out and even extended the political system and favorite plans he had bequeathed to them. The temples were closed, and those who should venture to sacrifice were threatened with death, (e) In Eome alone an asylum for the ancestral gods was allowed to remain, as a special favor solemnly conceded to the majesty of the Koman people. (/) 9-4. Julianus Apostata. I. Juliani Opp. (Misopogon, Caesares, Orationcs, Epp.) ct Cyrltti Altai, c. Julian. 1. X. ed. Span- hem. Lps. 1696. 2 Th. f. Jul. Epp. Acccdunt fragm. breviora, ed. ffeyler, Mog. 1828. The series ol Christian lampoons begins with Gregorii Naz. in Julian, apost invectivae duae. The pagan pane- gyrics with Libanius, especially with his Oratio parcntnlis. A true and fair account in Aminian. Marc. XXI.-XXV, 8. II. U. P. C. Ilenke, de Theol. Jul. Helmst. 177T. 4 (Opp. 1802. p. 853ss.) A. Neander, Jiil. 11. .-. Zeitalter. Lps. 1812. (Sddosser'a Rcc. in d. Jen. L. Z. Jan. 1818. p. 12188.) Idem. [II. of the Chr. ReL and Church, vol. II. pp. 86-67.] C. II. van Ilerwerden, do Jul. rel. chr. boste eodemquo Yin- dice. Lugd. 182T. G. F. Wiygers, Jul. d. Abtr. (Illgen's Zeltschr. 1887. vol. VII. p. 1.) // Schulze, de phll. et morib. Jul. Strals 1889. 4 F. A Tevfel, de JuL Imp. christianismi contemtore et osore. Tub. 1644. [A short account of the Life of JnL the Ap. Lond. 1632. 12. Life of Jul. Lond. 16S2. 8. Two Orations of J. transl. Lond. 1798. 8.] Julian had been educated for the Christian priesthood, but he had learned to regard Christianity as a tissue of subtle formulas, and as a religion of sla- very. The victory it had acquired over the religion of his ancestors he as- cribed to the violent measures of him who had been the murderer of his father's family. By an acquaintance with the poets of antiquity and the philosophers of heathenism, which he had acquired in secret, he found what seemed to him a higher life. Having attained the throne by a bold use of favorable circumstances (361), he looked upon himself as destined by the gods to bring back the delightful times of antiquity. His religious views were of the New-Platonic school, and in his restoration of paganism, he in- tended to ingraft upon it all the excellencies of Christianity. Christians were removed from civil offices, condemned to rebuild the temples which had been destroyed, and excluded from all professorships in which the national e) Constantis Lex adv. sacrif. a. 841. L. 2. Cod. Theod. de pagan. (XVI, 10.) Constanta Bescr. ad Taurura. a. 853. ibid. L. 4. /) L. 3. Cod. TJieod. de pagan. (XVI, 10.) CHAP. I. VICTOEY OF CHRISTIANITY. 94. JULIAN. 95. PAG ANISM. 105 literature was taught, (a) Even the claims of justice were conceded in such a way as to favor his hostile design ; all sects were tolerated, all banished bishops were recalled, and the Jews were invited to rebuild their sanctuary. Those who had remained heathen now began to lift up their heads, and the ever venal multitude returned to their deserted temples. These very efforts, however, merely showed how well Constantino had understood the age in which he lived. The ridicule and hatred of the Christians Julian met with the weapons of a philosopher rather than with those of a universal ruler. In his controversies with the Galileans, he endeavored especially to show that they were condemned by their own sacred books when they deified a de- ceased Jew, complied with the new custom of honoring other deceased per- sons, and renounced Judaism. (5) The virtues he exhibited in his official duties procured peace and esteem even from those who personally disliked him, and those differences which existed between him and his people did not make him a tyrant. The more beautiful traits of the Greek national spirit could not be developed in him, but he was nevertheless a hero and a philosopher on the throne, and a pious and virtuous man in private life. Even his de- clamatory vanity was connected with his high regard for the free judgment of his people. After a busy reign of twenty months as sole emperor, and after a restless but fruitless life, he fell while yet a youth in a battle with the Persians (363). Though he passed away like a flying cloud, he was, with the exception of Athanasius, the greatest man of his century. 95. Fall of Paganism. After Julian, the empire was governed by Christian emperors, but hea- thenism continued undisturbed in its civil relations until the reign of Theo- dosius I. This monarch having conquered the Goths and suppressed the heretics, felt bound also to persecute the pagans (381). It was at this time also that Gratianus had the altar of Victory removed from the hall of the Eoman senate. It was in vain that Symmachus, in the name of the senators, implored that an altar with which the early and happy recollections of so many venerable fathers were connected, and already so dear even to the ten- derest youth, might be spared. In vain did he plead in the name of the eternal city itself, that in the present uncertain condition of things, the usages of their ancestors might be respected, and a religion under which they had conquered the world might not be exterminated. (a) In the exercise of his power as sole ruler (392), Theodosius proclaimed every form of idolatry a crime, and every attempt to learn the secrets of the future by animal sacri- fices, high treason. (5) Those enthusiastic teachers who relied wholly upon the spiritual power of the gospel to overcome all its opponents, were out- numbered by the zealots who urged the emperor, as a matter of conscience, a) Jul. Ep. 42. Ammian. Marc. XXII, 10. Orosii, Hist. VII, 30. The misunderstanding iu Sotsom. V, 18. Socrat. Ill, 12. 'Iheodoret. Hist ecc. Ill, S. &) Marquis d'Argens, Defense du paganisme par 1'Emp. Julian. Ber. 1764. ed. 3. 1769. a) Symmachi 1. X. Ep. 61. (Ed. Pareus, Neost. Nem. 1628.) &) L. 12. Cod. Theod. de pagan. (XVI, 10.)Stuffken, de Theodosii M. in rem chr. meritii Lugd. 1828. 106 ANCIENT CHUECH HISTORY. PEE. IL IMPEEIAL CHUECH. A. D. 312-800. to destroy paganism by fire and sword. The populace were excited by vio- lent monks to rise against the temples. It was to no purpose that Libanivs eloquently interceded for those edifices which he had just assisted Julian to embellish, (c) A few of the more beautiful ancient temples were saved, to be converted into churches. When the mysterious Serapion at Alexandria was destroyed, and the statue of the god was broken to pieces, the Egyptians expected, according to an ancient prophecy, that the world would sink back into its original chaos, (d) Philosophy sought consolation in magical arts, and hopes were entertained that tho power of Christianity was destined to extinction during the year 399. (e) Tho heathen oracles withheld their re- sponses, and the Sibylline books were consumed in the flames. Before the middle of the fifth century, idolatry was completely exterminated in every part of tho Eastern empire. In the West, where the continual incursions of tho barbarians rendered the emperor's authority less effective, it was found impossible wholly to put down the worship of the gods, to whose vengeance the devastation of the empire was ascribed. Hence, after Rome had been plundered by the barbarians, Augustine (426) and Orosius (417) found it ne- cessary, by labored apologies, to prove that Christianity was not responsible for tho calamities of the times, the former taking tho ground that the whole history of the world was only a development of the kingdom of Christ, con- ditioned by the opposition of men. (/) The great multitude indeed followed where fortune and ^power led the way, but Augustine found by experience, as Libanius had intimated, that it was easier to exclude the gods from tho temples, than from the hearts of the people, and that Jesus was not often sought for from disinterested motives. (?) Heathenism maintained its ground only here and there in some remote districts (paganismus, 368), where it was protected by the rustic simplicity and honesty of its votaries, in particular individuals or families of an exalted character, and in tho schools of philoso- phy. A few philosophers fell a sacrifice to tho frantic zeal of the Christian populace. The learned and amiable Hypatia, who presided over the New- Platonic school of Alexandria, was horribly murdered in a church, not with- out guilt on the part of Cyril the bishop, (h) Heathenism, however, from its very nature, could never attain ascendency by its martyrdoms. Jus- tinian I. destroyed its last intellectual hold, by abolishing the schools of phi- losophy, and he annihilated even those secret vestiges of it in Rome which had become concealed under an indifference to all external forms of wor- ship, (i) Photius alone preferred a voluntary baptism of blood in defence c) Orat ad Theodos. vitfp TUV Ifpwv. Opp. ed. lieiske. Th. II. More complete: Novus S. Pa- trum Grace. Saec. IV. delectus, rec. L. de Sinner. Par. 1S42. d) Eufini, H. ecc. II, 22-80. tiocrat. V, 16. e) Sozom. VI, 85. Avgusiin. de Civ. Dei. XVIII, 53. /) August, de Civitate DeL L XXII. c, comment Jo. L. Vims et Coguael, Ilamb. 16C2. 2 Th. J. van Goens, de Aug. Apologeta sec. II. de Civ. DeL Amst 1838. Pauli Orosii adv. Paganos his- toriar. L. VII. (Honnesda mundi, Moestitia) rec. Sig. ffaverfcamp, Lugd. 1738. 4. Th. de Moerner, de Oros. vita ejusque Hist, libris. Ber. 1844. 0) Uban. Opp. vol. II. p. 17T. Aug. Senn. 62. in Ev. Jo. tr. 25, 10. 7i) Socrat. VII, 15.^ Wern*. dorf, de Hyp. philosopha Dss. IV. Vit 1748. 4. Munch, Hypatia. (Verm. Schriften. Ludwigsb. 1828. vol. L) 1) Procopii, Hist arcana c. 11. Theophan. Chronogr. ad ann. 522. Com p. Agathiae Hist II, 30. CHAP. I. VICTOKY OF CHRISTIANITY. 95. MAINOTTES. 96. MASSALIANS. 107 of freedom, to a constrained baptism in behalf of Christianity ; and the Mainottes, in their mountain homes, defended at the same time their own liberties and the ancient gods of Sparta. So many religious phrases and fes- tivals connected with idolatry were preserved at Eome, that it may more properly be said to have been incorporated into the life of the Church than abolished. The last adherents of the ancient faith were found in the seventh century, inhabiting some remote valleys of the Italian islands. 96. Massaliam and Hypsistarians. I Epiph. haer. 80. Cyrill. Alex, de adoratione in spiritu et verit. 1. III. (Par. Th. I. p. 92.) Gregor. Nae. Orat. XVIII. 5. (Opp. p. 333.) Gregor. Nyss. adv. Eunom. 1. II. (Th. II. p. 440.) II. Ullmann, de Hypsistariis. Heidelb. 1823. 4. On the other side : JBoehmer, de Hyps. PraeSi- tua est Neander. Berol. 1824. together with various replies. Many persons had no confidence in the ancient gods, who nevertheless had no faith in Christ. These were indifferent about what might be the re- sult of the great struggle for religion, or without professing adherence to any particular Deity, they contented themselves with the most general forms of piety. The more sincere portion of this class longed for some religious fel- lowship, and therefore associated themselves together. Accordingly, the Massalians of Syria and Palestine (Euchites, Euphemites, 3eoo-e/3e?r, and in Africa Coelicolae), conceded, indeed, that there might be many gods, but actually worshipped, in their splendidly illuminated oratories, at morning and evening twilight, only One universal Kuler. The Hypsistarians (V-^LO-TCO 3e<3 irpoo-KwovvTcs) of Cappadocia can be reckoned in the same class with them, only on the ground that both were worshippers of but one God, for their peculiar sentiments respecting the eating of meats and the Sabbath in- dicate that they must have been a kind of proselytes of the gate. That they ever had any connection with Parsism, is very doubtful. The indifference of the former class and these latter sects of the fourth century must have disappeared, after a few generations, before the internal and external power of Christianity. 97. Christianity under the Persians. Christianity made no very great progress in Persia, on account of the newly awakened national spirit, the volatile character of the people, and the superficial knowledge then possessed by Christians of the Persian system of religion. In the fourth century, however, Christian congregations existed in every part of that country under the Metropolitan of Seleucia. But in consequence of the hatred felt against them by the priestly caste, who were bound together by the closest bonds, and some suspicions of a political na- ture awakened against them, they became victims of a persecution, after 343, which raged almost without interruption for a whole century, and nearly an- nihilated the Church, (a) No parties bearing the name of Christian could find an asylum there, except those which had been expelled from the Roman empire. Chosroes II. conquered Jerusalem (614) and put to death all Chris- tians whom he found in Palestine. Heraclius restored the holy city to free- a) Emeb. Vita Const. IV, 9-13. Soaom. II, 9-14 Soer. VII, 18-21. Theodoret. V, 38. Acta Martyr. Orient, et Occid. ed S. E. Assemanus. Eom. 1T48. f. P. I. 108 ANCIENT CHUECtI HISTOEY. PEE. II. IMPEEIAL CHURCH. A. D. 812-800. dom, and triumphantly reinstated the cross in its former glory (621-628) Armenia fell at last beneath the power of the Persians (429), but its Chris- tianity was more heroically defended than its freedom. (5) 98. Abyssinia and the Diaspora. The preservation of two young men belonging to the murdered crew of a Grecian vessel, was the occasion of the conversion of the Abyssinians. One of these, named Frumentius, obtained influence at court, received episcopal ordination from the hands of Athanasius (327), and lived to see the whole nation professing the Christian faith, (a) Cosmas, the Indian traveller, found (before 635) Christian congregations at three different points along the coast 01 the East Indies. Thomas was honored by them as their apostle, but they must have been originally composed of mercantile colonies from Persia, (ft) The existence of a church at Chumdan, in China (after 636), with all that is related of it, is proved only by a record discovered by the Jesuits, (c) Ara- bia was furnished with an apostle with many rich gifts by the Emperor Con- stantius. But wherever Christianity became prevalent in that country, it was violently assailed by the Jews. "Whole nomadic tribes received baptism at once from the hermits of the desert, but probably without much inquiry into the nature of Christianity, or further practice of its precepts. 99. Mohammed. L The Koran : arab. et lat cd. Maraccius. Patav. 1C98. f. Petersb. 1787. 4. Flugel, Lps. (1834.) 1841. 4. Abulfeda, (14th cent) Hist anteislamica, arab. ct lat ed, Fleischer, Lps. 1881. Do vita Muhamedls, arab. et lat ed. Gagnier, Oxon. 1723. f. (Tho 1st Part of Abulfeda's Ann. Moslemici, arab. et lat ed. Reiske, Havn. 1789ss. 5 Th. 4.) Comp. J. v. Hammer in the Wiener Jahrb. 1835. vol. 69. January, Ac. [The Koran ; transl. from the Arab. Into Engl. by G. Sale. Lond. 1829. 1844. 2 vols. 8. Selections from the K. with an interwoven comm. transL from the Arab, with notes, etc. by K W. Lane. Lond. 1844. 8.] IL J. Gagnier, la vie de Mah. Amst 1732. 2 Th. G. Bush, Life of Mob. New York. 1832. 12. [ W. Irving, Mob. and his Successors. New York. 1852. 2 vols. 8. & Ockley, Hist of the Saracens, comprising the lives of M. and his successors, &c. 4 ed. Lond. 1847. 8. A. Sprenger, Life of Moii. Allahabad. 12.] Garcin d Tossy, Doctrine et devoirs de la reL mnsulmane. Par. 1826. Cli. For- ster, Mahomotanismo unveiled. Lond. 1829. 2 vols. 8. Dettinger, z. Theol. dcs Korans. (Tub. Zeit- Bchr. 1881. P. 2.) J. V. Hammer- Pur g stall, Moh. d. Prophet Lps. 1887. Comp. Umbreit, in d. Stud. u. Krit 1841. P. 1. G. Weil, Moh. de Proph. Stuttg. 1848. [W. ff. Neale, The Moham. Sys- tem of Theology. Lond. 1823. 8.] Tychsen, quatcnus M. aliarum rell. sectatores toleraverit? (Cmmtt Soc. Goett Class. Hist Th. XV. p. 152ss.) Mbhler, Verb, in welchem nach d. Koran J. C. zu M. steht (Tub. Quartalschr. 1830. P. 1.) A. Geiger, was hat M. aus dem Judenth. aufgenommen ? Bonn. 1838. C. F. Gerock, Chrlstologie d. Koran. Hamb. 1839. [IT. Prideaiue, Nature of Imposture in the Life of M. Lond. 8vo. H. Martyn, Controv. Tracts on Chr. and Mahommedanism. ed. & Lee. Lond. 1824 8. J. B. White, Comparison of Moham. and Chr. Bampton Lectt Lond. 8. W. T. Thompson, Pract PhiL of the Mohammedans, transl. from the Per. of Jany Muh. Asdad. Lond. 1839. 8. Art in Kitto's Journal of BibL Lit voL L] The Arabians were a free, warlike, and imaginative people, subsisting 6) Elisaeus, History of Yartan, transl. by Neumann. Lond. 1S30. 4. p. 12ss. Saint Martin. ( 63. note d.) Th*. I. p. 306ss, Th. II. p. 472ss. a) Ruftn. I, 9. Jobi Ludolfi Hist Aethiopica. Frcf. 1681. f. Ill, 2. and Cmtr. ad H. Aetb. ib. 1691. f. p. 583ss. J) Cosmas, Toiroypafyia xpwriai'iK-f]. (Montfaucon, Collectio nova PP. graec. Par. 1706. Th. II.) L. III. p. 178. L XI. p. 336. comp. Philoatorg. Ill, 14. c) Kircheri China illustrata. Eom. 1667. f. p. 43sa. CHAP. I. YICTOET OF CHEISTIANITY. 99. MOHAMMED. 1 09 npon their flocks, and with only a few commercial towns. "With no literary cultivation, they took great delight in a poetic language. From the most ancient times, the Oaaha at Mecca, originally consecrated to the worship of the one God, had been the national sanctuary, but more recently each tribe had possessed a deity for itself. Judaism, Christianity, and Parsism, had severally found entrance into Arabia, and it was not uncommon for them to be com- bined or exchanged the one for the other. Mohammed (b. 571) belonged to the race of Ishmael, the tribe of the Koreish, and the family of Hashem, whose business it was by inheritance to take charge of the Caaba. He was originally a merchant and a herdsman, of a quiet temperament, with very little indication of his future character, though frequently lost in religious reveries. All at once he began (611) to proclaim : " There is no God but God, and Mohammed is his prophet." On this fundamental principle was constructed a system of faith and morals, which combined together the four forms of religion prevalent among his people. Mohammed was acquainted with these only as he had found them in his intercourse with men Judaism in its Talmudic, and the life of Jesus in its apocryphal form. His professed object was to re-establish the religion of Abraham, the great ancestor of his nation ; and as he regarded Judaism and Christianity as divine revelations, he in the Koran honored their founders with legends of their miracles. His opinion respecting what he called the later corruptions of these systems, be- came gradually more intolerant, and was aggravated with respect to the Jews by motives of personal hatred. It became still more developed, as he advanced beyond the idea of a national toward that of a universal religion an Is lam, without which there was no salvation. His system of religious ethics demanded stated seasons and forms of prayer, fastings and ablutions, almsgiving, a pilgrimage to Mecca, an earnest contention for the faith, and a willingness to die in its behalf. A confidence in the doctrine of an absolute predestination, raised the courage of a brave people by inducing them joy- fully to surrender themselves to the will of the Almighty. He prohibited his followers the use of wine, but indemnified them by an unrestrained allowance of sexual pleasures. The prospect of sensual enjoyments in an- other world gave the finishing stroke to this system, and adapted it solely to man's sensuous and intellectual nature. He then presented it to his fellow- men with all the peremptoriness of a direct revelation from heaven, and in all the fanciful richness of the popular poetry. Few in his native city were disposed to put confidence in his messages, and he was even obliged to escape the swords of his fellow-citizens by flying (July 15th, 622, Hedschra) to Me- dina. By bold predatory expeditions from this place, he conquered a part of Arabia, and the remaining portion was convinced by his success that he was indeed an apostle of God. His personal appearance was remarkably pre- possessing ; he was eloquent, enthusiastic in piety, as well as artful in policy, so bold in his measures that he even resorted to assassination to effect them, yet ordinarily just and magnanimous enough to be esteemed by an adoring people as a messenger from God. In his private life he was faithful, sincere, and temperate, though addicted to women. When first called of God to hia work, he cquld neither read nor write ; his travels could nave given no great J 10 ANCIENT CHUECH HISTOEY. PEE. II. IMPEEIAL CHUECH. A. D. 812-800. information, and most of what he knew he had acquired at Mecca, to which pilgrims resorted from the whole oriental world. He professed to receive his revelations, as occasion called for them, from the lips of the angel Gahriel, in inspired language, though in the day of his prosperity they were not with- out a remarkable adaptation to his desires. They were preserved sometime? in popular tradition, and sometimes in detached manuscript fragments, until two years after his death, when they were collected as holy scriptures (Al- koran) hy Alubelv. This prophet, poet, priest and king of Arahia, died (632) in the midst of his plans of conquest, from the effects of a slow poison given him to test his prophetic powers. 100. Victories of Islam. Oeltner, des effets de la rel. de Moh. pendant les trols prem. Bteclea Par. 1810. MIt Zus. dcs Verf. v. E. D. M. FrkC 1810. J. J. Ddttinger, Mnh. EeL nach Ihrer Entwickj. u. ihrem Einflnsse. Munch. 1888. To his successors the Caliphs, Mohammed left the assurance that God had given them the world to be conquered for Islam. This system had even then, in its various sects, been developed in some splendid forms of life. The Ro- man empire had become debased by effeminacy; and the oriental Church was split up into factions. But a religious enthusiasm which has seized the sword, cannot be overcome, at least by ordinary armies, and Christianity had hitherto been far from cultivating the military virtues. The Arabians suc- cessively conquered Egypt and Syria before 640, Persia before 651, and the African provinces before 707. "With extreme difficulty Constantinople with- stood the storm. The conditions on which the patriarch Sophronius had sur- rendered Jerusalem (637), were generally complied with by the Saracens, so far as they referred to the Christian population. Christians were tolerated in the exercise of their religion on the payment of a poll-tax, but many of them renounced their faith, and followed the fortune of their conquerors. Mohammed defended Jesus from the attempts of Christians to deify him, and, according to a prevalent tradition, Christ is at his second advent to become the last Caliph. The efforts of the Christian apologists were confined princi- pally to a defence of the divinity of Christ, and of the doctrine that God could not be the author of evil. The only reply of the Mussulmen was with their swords. CHAP. II. THEOLOGY AND SCIENCE. 101. Conflicts and Sources of Ecclesiastical Life. As the various parties became developed within the Church, the latter was necessarily urged to a more precise determination of the essential arti- cles of its faith. The unity of the Church, which had been externally estab- lished, operated unfavorably to an unrestrained diversity of opinions. No sooner had the common external enemies of the Church been overcome, than its consciousness of essential unity became so obscured by the rancor of indi- vidual parties, that not only elements foreign to Christianity, but some of CHAP. IT. DOCTRINE. 101. CONFLICTS, SOURCES. 1 1 1 the mere modes in which real Christianity was received, were rejected by the Church. Indeed it was for a long time uncertain which of the parties in this contest would prove to be the Catholic Church. The passions of the people and of the government were enlisted in the conflict. The natural de- velopment of the ecclesiastical spirit was determined by mechanical majori- ties and imperial decisions. The Oriental Church endeavored to fathom the mystery of the divine, while the "Western attempted rather to explore the abyss of the human nature. The whole literature of the Church was in- volved in these theological disputes, which became, especially in the East, central objects in the history not merely of the Church, but of the empire. Tradition and the Scriptures were as usual regarded as the standard of au- thority, but while individuals sought salvation only in the word of God, the living voice and opinion of the Church became in practice more and more in- fluential. Vincentius of Lirinum (d. about 450) proposed that the tradition which could plead in its behalf the established usage of the primitive Church and universal consent as the conditions of its proper organic progress, in op- position to all heretical innovations and ecclesiastical rigidity, should be regarded as the warrant and the standard of the true faith, (a) Those por- tions of the sacred writings which had been subjects of suspicion at an early period, were still opposed by many in the time of Eusebius. (5) But the unity of the Church rendered it indispensable that all portions should be agreed respecting its sacred writings, and accordingly near the close of the fourth century the disputed books were almost universally received. "We have, however, no well authenticated law on the subject of the canon, with the exception of a decree passed by an African synod, which seems to have been adopted in other countries as a part of the common law of the Church. Various translations were in use among the Latin portions of the Church ; one of these, the Itala, used at Eome, was, at the request of the Bishop Da- masus, amended by Jerome, and in connection with a version of the received text of the Old Testament, maintained its position and found acceptance in spite of much opposition. I. THE AEIAN CONTROVERSY. , I. 1) Respecting some fragments of the writings of Arius : Fabricii Bibl. gr. Th. VIII. p. 309s. esp. Ep. ad Euseb. Nicom. (in Epiph. haer. 69, 6. Theodore!, H. ecc. I, 5.) Ep. ad Alexandr. & flragm.. from the aAeia (in Athan. d. Synod. Arim. et Selene. Opp. Th. I. p. 885s.) Philostorgiua ( 92.) Fragmenta Arianor. about 383. (Aug. Maji N. Coll. Rom. 1S28. Th. III.) 2) Partaking the least of a partisan character : Afhctnasius, Eusebius, and Socrates. A partisan treatise : Epiph. haer. 69. 73. 75s. IT. Walch, Hist d. Ketzereien. vol. II. III. Travasa, Storia critica della vita di Ario. Ven. 1746. (Stark) Yers. e. Gesch. d. Arianism. Brl. 1783. Mbhler, Athan. d. Grosse u. d. Kirche seiner Zeit Mainz. 1827. 2 vols. L. Lange, in Illgens Zeitschr. 1834s. vol. IV. pt. 2. vol. V. pt 1. Wetzer, Resti- tutlo verae chronolog. rernm ex controv. Arianis inde ab a. 325 usque ad a. 350 exortarum. Frcf. 1827. F. G. Baur, d. chr. L. v. d. Dreieinigk. u. Menschw. Gottes. Tub. 1841. Th. I. p. 306ss. G. A. Meier, L. v. d. Trin. vol. I. p. 134sa. J. A. Dorner, Entwicklungsgesch. d. L. v. d. Person Chr. in d. a) Commonitorium pro cath. fidei antiquitate et universitate adv. profanas omnium haer. novi- tates. Denuo ed. Herzog. Vrat 1839. I) H. tec. Ill, 8. VI, 25: 6fj.o\oyovfjisva, 1 12 ANCIENT CHUKCH HISTORY. PEE. II. IMPERIAL CHURCH. A. D. 312-800. ersten 4 Jahrh. 1845. Part II. [J. IT. Neioman, The Arians of the 4th cent Lond. 183S. 8. J. Whit- aker, Hist of Arianism disclosed. Lond. 1791. 8. W. Berrimann, An hist. Account of controversies on the Trinity, in 8 sermons. Lnd. 1725.] 102. The Synod of Nicaea. 325. Cont. from 90. I. Euseb. Vita Const III, 6ss. The Creed : Theodoret, 1, 12. Socrat. I, 8. Respecting its com- position : Ernef). Caesar. Ep. ad Caesarienses. AOianas. Ep. de decretis syn. Nic. & Ep. ad Afros. Gelasii Cyziceni (about 476) ^vvraypa TUI> KaraT^v fvNiKaiaayiavo$ot'TrpaxOet'Twi'. (Mansi Th. II. p. 759ss.) [Landon, Manual of councils. Nicaea. pp. 480-38.] II. F. G. Ifawencamp, Hist Ariatiae controv. ab initio usque ad syn. Nicaenam. Marb. 1S45. Jtiig. Hist Cone. Nic. Lps. 1712. 4 Munscher, G. d. Sinn d. nic. Glaubensformel. (Henkes N. Mag. voL VL p. 8348S.) Eitentchmidt, d. Unfehlbark. d. Cone, zu Nicaa. Neust 1830. [J. Kayo, Athana- Bius & the Council of Nice. Lond. 1853. 8. W. A. Hammond, Definitions of faith & canons of Disc. of the 6 oecumenical councils, & code of the univer. Church, and apost canons. Lond. 1S43. New York. 1S44. 12.] The contradiction involved in the idea of a God existing at the same time with another, or of a God subordinate to another, was yet to he declared and overcome. Arius, a presbyter of Alexandria, maintained that the Son was at some period created out of nothing *by the divine will, that he was the first of all creatures, and the Creator of the world, that he was endowed witli the highest natural gifts in the highest state of development, and that he was not truly God, though he might be so called. Arias had been educated at Antioch, was eloquent in prose and verse, a skilful logician, though not biased by any predominant intellectual tendency, and a rigid ascetic in his habits of life. Proceeding from the ground of the ordinary doctrine of the Church, ho attempted to find some clear idea which should at once be consistent with Monotheism, and opposed to Sabellianism. His Bishop Alexander, produced in opposition to his views (after 318) the other side of Origen's doctrine, ac- cording to which the Logos was from eternity begotten from the essence of the Father, and was consequently equal to the Father. At a synod held at Alexandria (321), Arius was deposed and excommunicated. But the people and many of the oriental bishops attached themselves to his party ; many perhaps, like Eusebius of Nicomedia, not so much because they shared in his sentiments, as because they looked upon them as harmless, and others, like Eusebius of Caesarea, because they regarded such subjects as lying beyond the bounds of human knowledge or of divine revelation. The emperor Con- stantine, having made many fruitless efforts to induce the parties to give up what then seemed to him a useless controversy, summoned a general assem- bly of bishops at Nicaea, principally for the settlement of this question. More than 250 bishops, almost exclusively from the East, came together. Both Arius nd Alexander were in a minority, since most of the bishops dreaded in the former an exaggerated system of subordination, and in the latter a covert Sabellianism, or an open Tritheism. But Alexander's friends, through the influence of the court bishop, Hosius of Cordova, induced the emperor to embrace their cause, and dictated the decision on matters of faith. The only embarrassment which they experienced arose from the readiness with which the Arians subscribed all their articles, until the expression as- serting that the Son was of the same essence with the Father (r&> irarpi 6/zoo'v- o-ios) was proposed and rejected, and became henceforth the watchword of the CHAP. II. DOCTRINE. 102. ARIANISM, >NICAEA. 103. ATHANASIUS. lib new orthodoxy. Most of the opposing bishops, out of reverence for the imperial authority, or for the sake of peace, on finding that it could be inter- preted so as to harmonize with their views, gave in their subscription to this creed. Arius was banished to Illyria, and was accompanied by only two Egyptian bishops. Three months afterwards, Eusebim of Nicomedia, who had promptly subscribed not only the creed but the condemnation of Arius, was compelled to share his fate. The Emperor commanded that all the writ- ings of Arius should be burned ; all who would not surrender his works were threatened with death, and his followers were to be regarded as the enemies of Christianity. It was for this reason that the Jatter were sometimes called Porphyrians. 103. AtJianasius and Arius. A controversy thus decided by the mere authority of an incompetent and unstable sovereign was sure speedily to be renewed. Athanasius five months afterwards was made Metropolitan of Alexandria, and became the leader of the Nicaean party, which even when a deacon he had completely governed at Nicaea. By his enemies he has been described as a tyrant ; by the emperors he was sometimes persecuted, sometimes honored, and always feared ; and by the Egyptians he was beloved as a friend of the people, and venerated as a saint. During twenty of the forty-six years which he spent in the episcopal office he was a fugitive for his life, or in banishment. His life was often pre- served through the fidelity of his friends, who were ready to die for him. The great object of his life was to contend for the divine dignity of Christ, and in this for all that was essential to Christianity, in opposition to a new hea- thenism, (a) The Arians regarded themselves as the special advocates of the divine unity, and an intelligible form of thought. Constantino finally recurred to his earlier view of the uselessness of this controversy, and was satisfied with a creed drawn up by Arius in the most general terms (328). At a synod convened at Tyre (335) Athanasius was deposed and banished to Gaul. Arius died on the very day in which he went in solemn procession from the impe- rial palace to the church of the apostles (336), according to his enemies the victim of a divine judgment, but according to his friends poisoned by magical arts. (5) Eusebius of Nicomedia, after 338 Bishop of Constantinople, again became the leader of the party which had been the true majority at Nicaea, and taught that the Logos was from eternity begotten of the substance of the Father, and was similar in nature (ojuoiouo-tos) but subordinate to the Father. This party, then called the Eusebian, and at a later period the Semiarian^ embraced those who had been known as Arians, and had the complete ascend- ency in the East, (c) but the "West had been gained over by the personal energy and presence of Athanasius. An attempt was made to reconcile both portions of the imperial Church at a synod convened at Sardica (347"), but so a) Collections for a biography of Athanasius may be found in the edit of his works by Montfau- con, and in Tillemont, Th. VIII. Mohler (bef. 102.) &) Socrat. I, 38. Sozom. I, 29s. Honorable & true ; Athanas. Ep. ad Serap. (Opp. Th. I. p. 670ss.) Ad Episcc. A eg. et Lib. 19. c) Esp. at the Synods of Antioch, 341, and Ancyra, 35S. Athan. de synodis 22ss. Socrat. II iOss. Epiph. haer. 73. 8 1 1 4 ANCIENT CHUECH HISTOET. PEE. IL IMPEEIAL CHTJBCH. A. D. 812-800. unsuccessful was it that the two parties came to a complete rupture with each other, and the oriental held distinct sessions in the neighboring city of Philip- popolis. Constantly* was compelled to restore Athanasius to the see of Alex- andria by a threat of war from his brother, but as soon as he became the sole ruler of the empire (353) he had the cathedral of Alexandria taken by storm, and endeavored also to eradicate the Nicaean faith from the Western portions of the Church. The occidental churches were compelled to condemn Athanasius and accept of a Semiarian creed at synods held at Arelate (353), at Mediolanum (355), and at Ariminum (359). After these triumphs a schism in the dominant party became developed subsequently to the second symxl of Sirmium (357), in the contentions between the Eusebians and the decided Arians. Among the leaders whoso names they bore, Acaeius, Bishop of Caesarea endeavored at first to conceal this schism, by refusing to ac- knowledge any of the controverted articles, on the ground that they were unscriptural, (d) but Aetius and Eunomius, in accordance with the assertion that the divine nature could be as easily understood as the human, carried out the views of Arius with greater acuteness and' logical consistency, and denied that Christ possessed any divine nature (di/o'/ioior, 'Ai/o'jiotoi). (c) After the death of Constantius (361) the Athanasian party attained once more its natural strength in the West. In the East Valena (364-78) was so furious against it that he spared not even the Semiarians. The result was that the latter adopted views much nearer those of the Athanasian party (after 366.) The struggles of these various parties were maintained quite as much by the weapons of court intrigue and insurrection as by proofs derived from the Scriptures, from tradition, and from logic. Synods were arrayed against synods, and force was opposed to force. Athanasius, whose last years had been spent in peace among his own people, died about 873, while the conflict was yet unabated. 104. Minor Controversies. 1. Marcellus, Bishop of Ancyra, and a leader of the Nicaean party, repre- sented the Logos as the eternal wisdom of God, which became the only begotten Son of God first at the Incarnation, and after the day of judgment will once more become one with the Deity. Photinus, Bishop of Sirmium, regarded the man Jesus as the Son of God, only as far as he was ordained to bring the di- vine kingdom to its complete realization, and as he was filled by the Spirit and was a power of God. The deposition of Marcellus (336) was regarded in the West as a martyrdom for the Athanasian cause. The doctrine of Pho- tinus was condemned by the Eusebians at Antioch (after 345), and he was himself deposed at Sirmium (about 351), but even the Athanasian party hastened to relieve themselves of the reproach of his opinions by a rejection of them at the Synod of Mediolanum (347). (a) ) Basil, Ep. 113. Athan. : ad Pallad. (Th. I. p. 952.) ad Serapion. (Th. I. p. 166ss.) Epiph. haer. 74. Gregor. Naz. (380) Orat 87. Comp. Vllmann, Greg. p. 378ss. c) Fragments of Apollinaris in : Qregor. Nyss. ; Theodoret. haer. fabb. IV, 8. & Leontius Byzant. *dv. fraudes Apollonaristarum L II. (Gallandii Bibl. Th. XII, p. 706ss.) Principal work in opposi- tion: Gregor. 2fyss. \6yos avrippriTiKb? Trpbs TO. ' A.iro\\ivapiov. (Gallandii Bibl. Th. VI. p. 517ss.) ) L. 2. Cod. Tlieod. de fide cath. (XVI, 1.) l~) Mansi Th. III. p. 521ss. Rufin. II, 29. Socrat. V, 6ss. Theodoret. V, 1sa. UUmann, Gregor, v. Naz. p. 154ss. Stuffken, Theod. p. 142ss. 1 16 ANCIENT CHURCH HISTOET. PER. II. IMPERIAL CHURCH. A. D. 812-800. having been diminished by the withdrawal of the Macedonians, consisted of 150 bishops chosen under the arbitrary dictation of the emperor. The Ni- caean creed was revised and clothed in such terms as had become established during the more recent controversies, and in this new form was confirmed by them. The Eunomians, Macedonians and Apollinarians were condemned as heretics, (c) The Arians were tolerated in the West under Valentinian II., until Theodosius obtained their suppression as the price of his assistance against the usurper Maximus (388). "With the fifth century they completely disappeared in all parts of the Roman empire. The synodal edicts of the vic- torious party declared that the Son and Spirit were co-equal with the Father in the divine Unity. In the theological discussions held from the time of Athanasius to that of Augustine, the views of all parties were gradually so accommodated and carried out, that the contents of the apostolic creed were exalted to the speculative idea of the Trinity consisting of three divine per- sons in the unity of the divine nature. In this form the doctrine was pro- claimed as a theological mystery. The article which declared that the Spirit proceeded also from the Son (filioque), was generally adopted in the Western Church, and at a synod of Toledo (589) it was incorporated in the confession of faith. It was not very different from what had been vaguely taught by the Greek ecclesiastical writers of the fourth century, but it did not awaken attention and opposition among the Greek churches as an interpolation in the Nicaean creed, until some time in the eighth century, (d) In the creed bear- ing the name of Athanasius, which has generally been received in the West since the seventh century, and has evident marks of the character of the Latin Church of the fifth century, the doctrine of the Trinity is expressly set forth, and its reception is made a condition of salvation. () 106. Ecclesiastical Literature. With the exception of the cloister and the desert the most celebrated school for the education of the teachers of the Church was at Athens, (a) A few of these might have taken a high rank among sophists and rhetoricians, but in consequence of the serious character of Christianity they became ec- clesiastical fathers. They regarded their classical attainments generally with mingled sentiments. The twilight of ancient poesy even then cast a lingering radiance over the Church. When Julian excluded all Christians from the schools of ancient literature, the two Apollinarii hastened to resolve the con- tents of the Scriptures into a series of epics, tragedies, and Platonic dia- logues. (&) Prudentius (d, about 405) in the evening of his political life, that he might do something for eternity, wrote some songs adapted to his times and to the conflicts and triumphs of the Church, but exhibiting less c) Suiceri Symb. Nicaeno-ConsL expositum. Traj. ad Rh. 1718. 4. d) Augustin. de Trin. IV, 20. Cone. Tolet. symb. & can. 2. (Afansi Th. IX. p. 931.) Euseb. de ecc. Theol. Ill, 4. Epiph. Ancor. fe 9. (Th. IL p. 14.) J. G. Walch, Hist controv. de procesau Sp 8. Jen. 1751. Ziegler, Geschichtsentw. v. dogma v. H. G. (TheoL Abh. GGtt. 1791. vol. L p. 204sa.) e) Waterland, Crit. Hist of the Atban. creed. Camb. (1724) 1723. a) Arcbiv. t Gescb. by Schlosser 4- Bercht, 1833. vol. L p. 217ss. &} Socrat. Ill, 16. Sozom. V, 13. probably thence X/Jt) Ep. ad Flavianum. Leon. Opp. edd. Ball&rinl. Ep. 28. 128 ANCIENT CHUECH HISTORY. PEE. II. IMPERIAL CI1UECII. A. D. 312-800. in which it was constituted. Dioscurus was deposed, Eutyches was con- demned, not only Ibas and Theodoret, but even Cyril were declared or- thodox, and the doctrine of the Church was established on the basis of the Roman epistle : Two natures are without confusion but inseparably united in thd one person of Christ. The Synod of Ephesus has ever since been regard- ed as the Kobber-Synod (o-JvoSoy Xrjo-TpiKtj). (c) 115. The Monophysites. The Contest respecting Clialcedon. Acts in Mansi Th. VII. p. 4S1-IX. p. 700. Leontius Byz. de scctls liber, actio 5-10. and Contra Eutychianos ct Nestorian. 1. III. (Gallandil, BibL Th. XII.) Writings and Fragments of tbe Party Leaders in A. Maji N. ColL 1883. Th. VII. P. I. and Spictt. Rom. Th. III. X. Evagr. II, 5ss. The Alexandrians, who gave special prominence to the divine nature in Christ, and yet were unwilling to connect themselves with the Eutychian party, felt much aggrieved by the action of the Council of Chalcedon. They were called by their opponents Monophysites, and these opponents were called by them Nestorians and Dyophysites. The controversy was at first conducted by insurrections of monks and of people, and in Palestine was attended with bloodshed, but in Alexandria and Antioch each party set up its rival bishops. The emperor Leo I. (457-474) sustained the decisions of Chalcedon, though with a judicious moderation. Peter Fullo (yvafavs) hav- ing assum6d the office of Bishop of Antioch, and introduced into the liturgy a Monophysite formula, which asserted that God had been crucified (thence called Theopaschites), was expelled by the emperor. In the revolutions which then took place so frequently in the imperial palace, ecclesiastical con- troversies were made 'subservient to political intrigues. When the emperor Zcno Isauricus was overthrown by Basiliscus (476), the latter strengthened his party by gaining over the Monophysites, and published a circular in which he condemned the Synod of Chalcedon. (a) The insurrection in Con- stantinople by which Zeno was restored to his throne (477), was under the direction of the Catholic patriarch Acacius. The Monophysites, however, had exhibited so much power under the usurper, that the , emperor, by the advice of the patriarch, endeavored to reconcile them by publishing a creed called the Henoticon (b) (482), in which the disputed articles were entirely avoided. Felix //., the Roman bishop, placed himself at the head of those zealots who were opposed to this fellowship with the Monophysites, and excommunicated Acacius (484). But even the more rigid portion of the Monophysites in Egypt withdrew from their own patriarch, who had been so easily pacified (thence called 'AK') The Armenians availed themselves of the occa- sion when the Henoticon was enacted, to renounce the authority of the Synod of Chalcedon, and thus in the sixth century, when they were subject to the Persian yoke, they entirely renounced all connection with the Church of the empire, (c) The apostolic zeal of Jacob Baradai (541-*578) gave the Mono- physites of Syria and Mesopotamia a permanent ecclesiastical constitution, and the name of Jacobites, (d) These disruptions from the imperial Catholic Church were gradually confirmed by the peculiar customs of the provinces where they took place, until by the conquests of Islam, to which they con- tributed, they became irreparable. In the conquered provinces, the Catho- lics, on account of their connection with the empire (hence called Melchites from f^B)) were even more oppressed than the Monophysites, and their patriarch generally resided at Constantinople. 118. The.MonotTielite Controversy. I. Orig. Documents inMansi Th. X. p. 863-1186. Th. XL p. 190-1023. Anastasii Bibliothecarii (about 870). Collectanea de iis, quae spectant ad Hist. MonotheL ed. Sirmond, Par. 1620. and Gallandii Tb. XIII. Mcephori (Patriarch of Constant, d. 828), Breviarium Hist (602-769.) ed. Petavius, Par. 1616. II. F. Conibefisii, Hist. baer. Monotbelitarum. In his Auctuar. PP. Par. 1648. II, 3. While the emperor Ileraclius (after 622) was re-establishing the power of the empire in Syria and Armenia, he endeavored to reconcile the Mono- physites with the imperial Church, by conceding that although there were two natures in Christ, there was but one manifestation of will (evepyeia %eav- dpiKrj}. Cyrus, who had been appointed by the emperor patriarch of Alex- andria, succeeded by this expedient in gaining over the Severians of his diocese (633). But when SopTironius, a monk of Palestine, and after, 634 Patri- arch of Jerusalem, who happened then to be in Alexandria, excited a violent opposition to it, the emperor published a creed ("EKSecris, 638) (a) composed by Sergius, Patriarch of Constantinople, and approved by Honoring, the Roman bishop, (5) which assumed that there was but one Christ and one will (ej/ 3e'X?7/Lia). In this he had more regard to the final adjustment of the contro- versy, than to the victory of the imperial party. But in such an age, a dis pute thus awakened was not easily set to rest. The Boman bishops aftei 6) Taki-eddini MaJcrizii (d. 1441), Hist Coptorum christ. arab. et lat. ed. ' Wetoer. Solisb. 1828 Mich. Lequien, Oriens in IV Patriarcbatus digestus. (Par. 1740. 8 Th. f.) Th. II. p. 857ss. c) Saint- Martin, Mem. sur TArmen. Th. I. p. 329ss. Eccl. Armeniacae canones selectL (A, Maji N. ColL Th. X. P. II.) d) Assemani, Bibl. orient. Th. II. Lequien 1. c. Th. II. ) Manti Th. X. p. 992s. Z>) Honorii Ep. ad Sergium. (Manai Th. XL p. 537. comp. 579.) 132 ANCIENT CHUECH HISTOEY. PEE. II. IMPEEIAL CHTJECH. A. D. 312-800. John IV. (639), with a stricter reference to the true faith or the injury of their rivals than to the orthodoxy of their predecessors, placed themselves at the head of the opposition to the Monothelites, and excluded the patriarch of Constantinople from the communion of the Church. A law (TVTTOS) (c) enacted hy Constam II. (648) was intended to enforce peace by an arbitrary prohibition of the controversy. But Martin I. of Eome, at the first Synod of Lateran (649), condemned the Monothelites and both the imperial laws. He was consequently first imprisoned, then condemned at Constantinople for treason, and finally he died in great distress. (d) To allay the strife which now threatened the precarious power of the empire in Italy, the emperor Constantine Pogonatus convoked the sixth oecumenical synod at Constanti- nople (680). This assembly, under the influence of Agatho, the Roman bishop, besides condemning Honorius, (e) recognized in Christ consistently with the doctrine of two natures, and certain passages of Scripture inter- preted so as to conform to it, two wills made one by the moral subordination of the human. The Monothelites, however, obtained one more transient victory in the Greek Church under Philip Bardancs (711-713). But after the elevation of Anastasiu* II. to the throne, they were generally rejected, and only a small remnant sustained themselves in the convent of St. Maro on Mount Lebanon, under a patriarch of their own. (/') 119. Ecclesiastical Literature. Chrysostoin and Augustine were still peerless models for the churches in which their languages were respectively spoken. The energies of the Alex- andrian and Antiochian schools were exhausted in party strifes. Cyril (d. 444), whose natural acuteness was under the guidance of his passions, ex- ceeded the characteristic limits of the Alexandrian spirit, (a) and Thcodoret, Bishop of Cyrus (d. 457), the last of the Antiochian school, though a judi- cious expounder and a devout historian, could not escape the malediction of the Church. (5) The qualities of both schools appear to have been once more combined in the collection of the Epistles of Isidore of Pelwium (d. about 440), who, though a resident in Alexandria, was the friend of Chrysos- tom, and found among the monastic virtues liberty to be mild in science and fearless in his opposition to the powerful both in the world and in the Church, (c) The writings which assumed the name of Dionysius Areopagita, indicate that the Athenian New-Platonism had become Christianized near the commencement of the sixth century, and they have ever since been the model of those dispositions which strive to die to themselves, and are wait- c) Mansi Th. X. p. 1029s. d) Manti Th. X. p. 851s. ) Manst Th. XL p. 556. 622. 781. /) Lequien, Oriens Chr. Th. III. p. Iss. Walch, vol. IX. p. 474ss. a) Commentaries, Polem. Treatises, Homilies, and Letters. Opp. ed. J. Avbert, Par. 1633. 7 Th. f On Matth., Hebrews, and 7 dogm. Essays In A. Maji Col. Th. Till. 6) Commentaries, History of the Church, Hist, of Heresies, Lives of Saints, and Polem. Treat- ises. Opp. edd. Sirmond et Gamier, Par. 1742-84 5 Th. f. Schulze et Noesadt, Hal. 1769-74 5 Th.- RicMer, de Theor. Epp. Paulinar. interprets Lps. 1822. c) Epp. 1. IV. ed. Ritterhw, Hdlb. 1605. f. Epp. ineditae, ed. Sehott. Antu. 1623. f. All together Par. 16&3. Ven. 1745. f. H. A. Niemeyer, de Isid. Pelasiotae vita, scriptis et doctr. Hal. 1825. comp Arch. f. KGesch. 1825. P. 2. p. 197ss. CHAP. II. DOCTRINE. 119. PHILOPONUS. BOETHIUS. CASSIODORUS. 133 ing patiently for a complete union with the Deity, (d) The Aristotelian sys- tem of logic was used in all theological controversies. John Philopomt* (middle of the 6th century), the acute expounder of Aristotle, and the inde- pendent Christian philosopher, but an adherent of the Monophysites, declared himself in the Greek Church decidedly partial to this tendency, though not unfriendly to many doctrines of Platonism. He was accused of Tritheism, because the ideas entertained by the Church on the subject of the divine nature and personality were not satisfactory to him, and he took offence at the doctrine of the resurrection, which he described as a new creation, since with the form he maintained that the matter of the body was gone, (e) The Eoman Church became acquainted with Aristotle through the labors of A. M. T. S. Boethius. In the writings which bear his name, Aristotelian formulae are used to defend the doctrines of the Incarnation and the Trinity. But in prison his mind had been raised above the fear of death by the conso- lations of a pious heathen philosophy. He died (524) in defence of the interests of his native land, and the Church has invested him with the glory of martyrdom. By birth, merit, and success he resembled the nobler Ro- mans of the Augustan age, and indeed he may be regarded as the last speci- men of the race. (/) The sciences which had been created by the peculiar character of the Greeks and the Eomans, necessarily shared in the declining fortunes of those nations. The last signs of Hellenic refinement disappeared in the sixth century from every portion of the empire except Borne and Con- stantinople with the ravages of the Barbarians, of the Pestilence, and of the Church itself. A meagre collection of traditions was all that now remained, because it had been appropriated to her own use by the Church. Even Cassiodorus (a consul and a monk, d. about 562) attempted to preserve only those fragments of science which he thought might be serviceable to the Church, (g) Scriptural exegesis consisted entirely of such compilations from the treasures of former times as had been commenced in the East by Proco- pius Gazaeus (about 520), and in the West by Primasius of Adrymetum (about 650). (7i) A system of doctrines had likewise been formed for the d) Tlepl rfjs lepapxias. Hepl rfjs e/c/cAeo'tao'Tifc^s Ifpapx^s. Hepl fretuv ovofJiaruv. llepl /nvffTtKris &eo\o7/ay. Epp. XII. Opp. ed. Corderius, (Antu. 1634.) Par. 1644 2 Th. f. Constantini, Ven. 1755s. 2 Th. Uebers. m. Abhh. v. Engelhardt, Sulzb. 1823. J. Dalleus, de scriptia, quae sub Ign. et Dion. A. nomm. circumfer. Gen. 1666. 4. Engelhardt ; De Dion. Plotinizante. Erl. 1820. De orig. scriptor. Areop. ErL 1822. A. Hel/erich, d. chr. Mystik in ibrer Entwickl. u. ihren Denkmalen. Goth. 1842. 2 vols.Saumgarten-Crusius, de Dion. A. Jen. 1823. Revised in Opp. theol. Jen. 1836. p. 265ss. On the other side : Hitter, Gesch. d. chr. Phil. vol. II. p. 519. e) Kespecting him: Jo. Damasc. de haeres. c. 83. Phot c. 21-23. 55. 75. Nioeph. XVIII, 45-19. Leont-Bye. de sectis, act 5.Scharfenburff, de Jo. Phil. Tritheismi defensore. Lps. 176S. (Comci. theol. ed. Velthusen, etc. Th. I.) Treeteel, Jo. Phil. (Stud. u. Krit 1885. P. 1.) /) Commentaries and translations of Aristotle De duabus nat et una persona. Quod Trinitas sit unus Deus, etc. De consolatione philosophiae, ed. Helfrecht, Curiae. 1797. and often. Uebers. v. Freitag, Eiga. 1794. Opp. ed. Rota, Bas. 1570s. (Gervaise) Hist de Boece. Par. 1715. 2 Th. Ileyne, Censura Boethii. (Opuscc. Th. VI. p. 143ss.) .F. Hand, Boeth. (Ersch. u. Gruber'a Encykl. vol. XI. p. 283ss.) Gust. aur, de Boethio. Darmst. 1841. 0) De artibus ac disciplinis liberalium litt Institutio ad div. lectiones. Hist Ecclcsiae tripartita. Variae Epp. Opp. ed. Garet. Eothomag. 1679. Ven. 1729. 2 Th. tStdudlin, u. Cassiod. (Archiv. f. KGesch. 1825. p. 259ss. 881ss.) /O J. F. & Augustin, de catenis PP. graecis in N. T. Hal 1762. (Noessdti Commentt ad IL ecc. Hal. 1817. 134 ANCIENT CHURCH HISTORY. PER. II. IMPERIAL CHURCH. A. D. 812-800. Latin Church (i) from sentences taken from the more ancient fathers by Isido* rus, Bishop of Hispalis (d. 636), and another more complete, and on account of its application of Aristotelian formulae more scientific, was compiled for the Greek Church by the monk John Damasccnus (d. Y54). The latter also collected together the various decisions which had been given by the Church in its earlier religious controversies, and thus settled these disputes for his Church for a thousand years after him. () A Roman catalogue of apocryphal and rejected works, which had been gradually enlarging from the time of Hormisdas (514523), and had finally become essentially fixed about the middle of the sixth century, exhibits the contracted spirit as well as the state of criticism at that time, for even some of the more ancient fathers are rejected as apocryphal because they were inconsistent with some Roman assertions, or did not correspond with the later orthodoxy. (T) CHAP. III.-SOCIAL CONSTITUTION OF THE CHURCH. Blbliotheca juris can. veteris, op. Guil. et ITenr. JusMli, Par. 1661. 2. Th. f. Spittler, Qcscb. tl. can. Kechta bis a. d. falsch. IMdor. HL 177& (Works, ed. by Wdchter, Stnttg. 182T. vol. I.)-PJanc*-, Gescb. d. kirchl. Gesellscbafts-Verf. vol. L p. 276w.. Haae, de Jure ecc. P. I. p. 82ss. P. IL C Riffel, Gescb. DarsL d. Verb. zw. K. u. Staat Mainz. 1836. vol. I. p. 114ss. 120. Legislation and Books of Law. Ecclesiastical laws were enacted sometimes by synods and sometimes by the emperors. The first idea of general laws for the whole Church seems to have been derived from the General Councils, with whose decisions were soon united those of the inferior synods and the canonical institutes of a few fathers, which individual bishops had collected for their private direction, but which passed into general use. Such collections are first noticed in the Synod of Chalcedon, where, however, they possessed no general authority, (a) But even then it had become customary, at least in the Greek Church, to regard the canons of certain synods as possessing the authority of general laws. This agreement seems to have become complete in the sixth century, but it was not until the second canon of the Trullan Synod (Quinisexta 692) that the constituent parts of the Greek canon law which had long been in use, were recognized as legally binding. (5) The African Church at the Council of Carthage, 419, gave its sanction to a collection of its own domes- tic canons, (c) which was gradually accepted as a part of the general ecclesi- i) Sententiarum s. de summo bono L IIL comp. 167. note a. k)TLriy)) yv(t>areus' a) ra iAo(ro) Acts and 102 canons : Mansi Th. XL p. 927-1006. c) JusteUi Bibl. Th. I. 303ss. Mansi Th. III. p. 698ss. CHAP. III. CONSTITUTION. 120. THEODOSIAN & JUSTINIAN CODES. 13 astical law. Of the Roman Church of the time of the Council of Chalcedon, we only know that in its collection the JSTicaean canons were mingled with those of Sardica. The civil laws, so far as they relate to ecclesiastical affairs, may generally he found under their appropriate titles in the two collections of imperial laws called Codex Theodosianus, 438, and Codex Jmtinianeus } 534, and the Novels attached to each. The efforts of Justinian to give a scientific form to political and civil law, must have had a considerahle influ- ence upon ecclesiastical law. John Scholasticus, successively an advocate, a preshyter at Antioch, and the Patriarch of Constantinople (d. 578), arranged the canons which he found in the ordinary collections, together with the second and third epistles of Basil relating to the canons, under fifty titles according to their suhjects. (d) This digest, on account of its adaptation to general use, as well as the reputation of its author, soon became a standard authority in the Greek Church. A collection of civil laws relating to the Church, prepared by this same John, contains extracts from the ten Novels of Justinian, arranged under eighty-seven chapters, (e) Another collection, embracing the whole ecclesiastical legislation of Justinian, sometimes in full and sometimes abridged, together wi;h an appendix containing the four Novels of Heraclius, has been erroneously attributed to Theodore Balsamon, but really belongs to the seventh century. (/) The practical wants of the Church called forth a work in which the civil laws relating to the Church (w'/ioi) were arranged in harmony with the ecclesiastical laws (Kavoves), and which has since been called the Nomocanon. Under the fifty titles of the collection of canons by Scholasticus, the corresponding civil laws were intro- duced, and even these were principally derived from his book, (g) The peni- tential laws were systematized, and their severity was accommodated to the mildness of his age, and of his own disposition, by John the Faster (vrjo-Tevrrj ?), Patriarch of Constantinople (585-595). (A) The old code of the Roman Church, (i) called by Dionysius Translatio prisca, was gradually increased and strengthened in authority after the Council of Chalcedon, by translations from the Greek books of laws. The incompleteness and want of arrange- ment which characterized this work, induced Diocysius Exiguus, a Scythian and a Roman monk, to revise it, and to form a new code (498-514). (k} The first part contains a faithful translation of the principal articles of the Greek synodal laws, the canons of Sardica, and the African collection. The second part contains all the decretals which could then be found at Rome, by eight popes, from Siricius (d. 398) to Anastasius II. (d. 498). This Codex Dionysii d) Justelli Bibl. Th. II. p. 499-602. e) ^vvaycayrj veaptav ^lard^cau. Unprinted. /) Tajy e/c/cA. Siard^cav av\\oyy. Justelli Bibl. Th. II. p. 1217-147S. F. E. Biener, de collectionibus canonum Ecc. graecae. Bcr. 1827. g) Justelli Bibl. Th. II. p. 603-672. 7i) 'A/coAou&ia Kal rajy eVl e'lojUoAoyou^ueWr. The existing Eecension formed from later revisions is in Morini Comm. hist, de disciplina in administr. sacr. poenitentiae. (Par. 1651. f.) Von. 1702. f. p. 616ss. i) In Leon. Opp. Th. III. p. 473ss. and Mansi Th. VI. p. HOBsa. fc) Ed. Fr. Pithoeus, Par. 16S7. f. Justelli Bibl. Th. I. p. 97ss. comp. Ballerin. Ds. in Leon. Opp. Th. III. p. 17468. 1 36 ANCIENT CHUECH HISTORY. PEE. II. IMPERIAL CDUECII. A. D. 312-800. f was much favored by the popes, and became a standard legal authority not only in the Roman Church, whose domestic laws were found in it, but in almost all the West. Later decretals were therefore gradually appended tc it. The book of laws for the Spanish Church originated in tho first half of the sixth century, and was probably revised by Isidore of Hispalis, whose name it bears, but continual additions have been made to it since his time. (I) It contains in the first part not only the greater part of the Greek synodal laws, but the canons of the Spanish and Gallican councils, and in the second part, besides the decretals of the Dionysian code, a few letters from the popes to the Spanish and Gallican bishops. Other systematic compilations made during this period are of less importance. They are the Breciarium of Fulgentius lerrandtit, a deacon of Carthage (about 547), a work which had no dependence upon the Dionysian code, (m) and the Concordm of Cresconius, an African (about 690), which was an analysis of that code according to its contents, (n) 121. TK* Roman Empire. Tho cultivation of the fine arts had entirely ceased from the time of Con- stantino, and no ornaments could be found for his new city and his trium- phal arch in the very forum of Rome, but by spoiling the ancient monuments. Nearly the whole intellectual energy of the age was enlisted in the service of the Church, so that the only science which seemed to flourish without ecclesiastical influence was jurisprudence. In consequence of the founding of Constantinople, the whole power of the empire was directed to the East, and after the division made by Theodosius (895) the East and the West re- mained permanently separated. But so perfectly had tho various nations conquered by the Romans been made to feel as one people, that both these divisions regarded themselves as only different parts of the one great empire. While the Germanic nations stormed at the portals of the West, and even when they broke through them in the fifth century, the civil constitution and the habits of the people remained Roman under the long dominion of the Goths in Italy. The East was governed by a lifeless and rigid mechanism, the moving spring of which was at Constantinople. The extinction of the reigning families and the ascendency of the army, rendered abortive the fre- quent efforts to establish a popular hereditary monarchy, but the want of this was in some degree supplied by the imperial nomination of colleagues and successors. But the majesty of the Roman people and the confidence that they were destined to universal dominion had been transferred to their rulers. In this form it was now consecrated by the Church, and systematically de- fended by arguments supplied by jurisprudence. Amid all the agitations pro- duced by dynastic changes, this idea of an imperial government appointed by God for supreme dominion on earth became profoundly fixed in the hearts of the people. J) Collcctio canonnm EccL Hlspaniae. MatriL 1808. t Epistolae decretales ac rescr. Bom. Pontiil cum. Matr. 1821. f. (e yrat. I, 9. Isidor. Pelus. L. IV. Ep. 99. a) Evagr. II. ecc. IV, 83. ZO Innocent I. Ep. 6, c. 6. Comp. Cone. M-ileott. a. 416. c. 17. 1 48 ANCIENT CHURCH HISTORY. PER. II. IMPERIAL CHURCH. A, D. 812-8W kind remained in full force. We already find traces of the belief that men could form a compact with the devil, from which no penitence could obtain deliverance but through the goodness of the holy Virgin, (c) But even in this time of general helplessness the world was full of miracles. Christianity was frequently a mere subject of controversy and of entertainments, and yet people took part in ecclesiastical affairs with an earnestness and activity which amounted to absurdity, (d) Brotherly love was no longer the peculiar badge of the Christian community, and an observing pagan remarks, that even wild beasts were not more furious against each other than were the Christians of his day. ()* The Church had no remedy for this general cor- ruption of social life, and for the luxury and extreme refinement which were side by side with popular misery and universal servility. Indeed, it was itself rapidly becoming swallowed up in the general abyss of the Roman empire. Many were raised by it above the feeling of this relaxation of all public relations, and made to participate in the liberty of the kingdom of tho Spirit. The severity of the ancient discipline was gradually made to yield to new circumstances by numerous dispensations, but a multitude of minor penances were introduced and regulated by a well-arranged penal code. In 'the East the confession of secret sins was left to the option of each individ- ual, and public opinion became inflexibly opposed to auricular confession, on account of certain flagrant crimes known to have been connected with it. (/) In the West, confession was more and more regarded as indispensa- ble to forgiveness, but after Leo's time this might be made in the ear of a prkt bound to secresy. (g) 133. Celibacy and Moral Condition of the Clergy. Theiner, ToL 1. (| 9. not* 6.) Carovi, Betracbt d. CoeL pwt 1. SunmL d. Cocllbatogesetze. I *t 2. Frkt 1882. C [7. Taylor, Andent CbrUUanltj. PhlUwL 1840. 8.J A larger number of synodal enactments were published against the mar- riage of priests after their ordination, but in the East, when even bishops had been married before ordination, they were generally unmolested. "When a new law on this subject was proposed at Nicaea, Paphnutius, an aged con- fessor and a rigid ascetic who had never touched a woman, so powerfully de- fended the chastity and sanctity of the marriage state, that the liberty which had always been customary in this matter was confirmed, (a) and the Orien- tal Church even anathematized those who rejected a married priest. (&) The right of a clergyman to live with a wife whom he had married before his ordination, and who had been a free and spotless virgin before her marriage, was also recognized and confirmed by the Trullan Synod, but the bishops were required to separate themselves from their wives, (c) In the West, c) Aem.il. Sommer, de Theophlli cum dlab. foedere. Bcr. 1844. d) Greg. Nyss. Or. de Deitate FiliL (Th. I. p. 466s.) e) Ammian. Marcett. XXII, 5. /) Socrat. H. ecc. V, 19. g) Leon. Ep. 168. c. 2. (Opp. p. 1480s.) Dallaewt, de sacramentall s. auricular! Latlnor. confe Bione. Gen. 1661. 4 Boileau, Hist cont auric. Par. 1CS4, flee, cL Beichte. Frkt 1828. a) Socrat. H. ecc. 1, 11. Sozom. H. ecc. I, 23. V) Socrat. II, 43. Syn. Gangr. a. 862-870. c, 4. (Mantl Th. IL p. 1096.) comp. Can. apott. 6. c) Syn. Trull, can, 8. 6. 18.-12. CHAP. IV. ECCLES. LIFE. m CELIBACY. 184 ORIENTAL MONAS. LIFE. 1 49 after the time of Siricius, Bishop of Rome (385), the provincial synods de- clared that none but subdeacons should be allowed to have wives, (d) and gradually the celibacy of the clergy was universally demanded. Human laws, however, were comparatively ineffectual when opposed to the very nature of man. Although persons of an elevated spirit among the clergy maintained the same contempt of the world which had formerly prevailed, and were rewarded and prompted to do so by the honor of their order, many low-minded men were attracted by the wealth and honors of the Church, and lived in hypocrisy, or in open devotion to worldly pleasure. These looked upon the performance of outward worship as the sole business of the priesthood, and changed their creed according to the imperial mandate. Sal- manus wrote a satire against the covetousness of such priests, in which he exhorted every one to purchase salvation in this easy way by a proper payment for his sins, (e) But dark as was the picture of this corruption, painted by the ecclesiastical teachers themselves, the very indignation which these express against it, the ideal of the true priesthood which they held up, and the acknowledgment which these received among their contemporaries, , prove that even exalted virtues were esteemed and found among the clergy. (/) When the barbarians overran the country, the priests were not only ready to administer consolation and deliverance to their people in the performance of their official duties, but to surrender their lives for their religion, (g) 134. Monastic Life in the East. Oont. from 65. PaUadii (d. about 420), Hist Lausiaca. Theodoreti, i\6beos Iffropta % UO-/CTJTI/C}; iroXireia. Boorat. IV, 23ss. Sosom. 1, 12-14 III, 14 VI, 28-34 Lives of the monastic saints, and many let- ters by Hieronymus. Cassianus. ( 12.) [<& P. Day, Monastic Institutions, their Origin, Progress, &c. 2 ed. Lond. 1846. 112.] From the ethical system which required a renunciation of the world, was produced monasticism. The necessity of having some society induced the hermits to assemble in cloisters (KotvojBiov, /xai/Spa, claustrum), and the bishops were favorable to an institution by means of which order and supervision became practicable. Pachomius, a disciple of Anthony, first established monasteries for each sex on the island of Tabenna in the Nile (about 340), and the same thing was subsequently done by Amun in the desert of Nitra, by Hilarion in the desert of Gaza, and by Basil the Great near New Caesa- rea. Every convent was governed by rules imposed upon it by its founder, but most of these required unconditional submission to the will of the supe- rior (fiyovfjievos, ap^i/idi/Spm^, a/3/3a$), a complete surrender of all private will and possessions, a mortification of the sensual nature, and a life entirely devoted to God and to divine things. Their time was wholly taken up with pious exercises and easy manual employments. The tortures which they inflicted on themselves when battling with the temptations of an excited d) Siricii, Ep. ad Hiinerium c. 7-9. (Constant, p. 630ss.) ) Adv. avaritiam L IV. (about 450.) Opp. ed. Baluz. Ven, 1728. /) Gregor. Nass. ets (avrbv KO.\ Trepi tiriffKoirwv. Comp. JTllmann, Greg. v. Naz. p. 521ss. &) Socrat. VI, 6. Sosom. VIII, 4 Tlieodoret. V, SB. Victor VU. et Vig. Taps. Opp. 1664. 4 p. 9. Niceph. XIII, 6. 1 50 ANCIENT CHURCH HISTORY. PER. II. IMPERIAL CHURCH. A. D. 812-800. fancy, frequently exceeded the requirements of their rule, and sometimes terminated in suicide or insanity. From the suppression of the natural, pro- ceeded unnatural passions. A return to the world was not impossible, but it was threatened with ecclesiastical penances. After the time of Basil, the opinion generally prevailed, that the marriage of a virgin espoused to God was not only adulterous, but void. Some eminent teachers were opposed to this view, (a) and there were even some married monks. (2>) None but the abbots were usually ordained as priests, and in some instances these took rank by the side of the bishops, their monasteries being looked upon as con- gregations of laymen. But after a brief resistance on the part of the rigid class, (c) the convents became the ordinary seminaries of the clergy. This divine philosophy was so generally received, that cities became solitary and deserts full of people. The burden of the declining state was not felt within the cloister's walls, noble minds were attracted by the magnanimity of 8 bold renunciation of the world, and what was then regarded as the most exalted state could not be found in the world. In the hands of the more violent bishops, the monks became an easily -excited host, which in their contests with pagans and heretics often controlled the hearts and clubs of the popu- lace, and feared neither the imperial despotism, nor the laws, nor human nature itself. 135. Hermits. Simeon Stylites. Sotom. VI, 2S-84. Rufini Vitae Patrnm s. Hist, eromitlca. In the 2d voL of the Vitae Patrum, ed. Rosweidiu*, Antu. (1616.) 1628. t In the Protestant selection : Vitae P. repnrgatae p. O. Mojo- rem c. praef. Lutherl, Vlt VAlTheodoretl, Hist rellgios. c. 2. Evagr. H. ecc. 1, 18. Life of Simeon, by his pupil Antoniu* (Acta Sanctor. Jan. vol. I. p. 261ss.) and his contemporary Cotma* (Assemani Acta Mart P. IL p. 268ss.) Not only might the nuns reside in the cloister, but they were sometimes allowed even to remain in their father's house, or in the dwelling of a priest ( 64). The ordinary home of the monks was in the desert. The Anachorets either entered into some fellowship with a neighboring monastery, or re- mained solitary until some of them became half savages. In the lives of those primitive fathers who were the idols of popular tradition, we meet with exalted virtues and heroic self-tortures carried to such an extreme, that human dignity and propriety were annihilated. "We sometimes find a wis- dom which seems almost supernatural, and sometimes the pious simplicity of an ecclesiastical mountebank like Paul the Simple.* Simeon, a Syrian, either invented a new kind of life, or imitated that which prevailed among the Indian penitents. "When a boy, he forsook his flock, and more than once was saved from a fanatical suicide in the convent. For thirty years, on a pillar near Antioch (after 42^ as a mediator between heaven and earth, he preached repentance to the astonished multitudes that gathered around him. He became an umpire and an apostle to the wild Arab tribes, and gave coun- sel, and even dictated laws to an emperor. He had imitators as late as the a) Epiph. haer. 61, 7. August, de bono vldult c. 10. Comp. Cypr. Ep. 62. Z>) Augtist. de haer. c. 40. c) Cassian. de Instit coenobb. XI, IT. * General view of the accounts In Tittemont. Th. VII. p. 144ss. CHAP. IV. EOCLES. LIFE. 135. SIMEON STYLITES. 18G. BENEDICTINES. 151 twelfth century, but while many endured his tortures, few attained the spirit or the reputation of his life. 136. Monasticism in the West. Benedictines. Hieron. and Cassian. ( 134.) Dacherii et Habillonii Acta Sanctor. Ord. S. Bencd. (Hi: 1100.) 1CG3-1T01. 9 Th. f. Mabillonii Annales Ord. S. Bened. (till 1157. Par. 1703-39.) Luc. 1739-45. 6 Th. f. In the Praef. Saec. I. p. 7 : Obss. de monachis In Occid. ante Benedictum. Gesch. d. Benedictinerord. A. Spittler's Vorles. v. Gurlitt. Hamb. 1823. 4. [Article in Edinburgh Eev. for Jan. 1849, in Eclectic Magazine for April, 1849.] Monasticism became known in the West through the followers of Atha- nasius. At first it was looked upon with astonishment, ridiculed or abhorred, but in a short time it was extensively propagated through the influence of Martin of Tours and Cassian in Gaul, of Ambrose and Jerome in Italy, and of Augustine in Africa. Martinus, Bishop of Turonum (373-400), was the saint of his people, was able to recognize Satan even in the form of the Saviour, and according to his disciples, possessed power to suspend or confirm the laws of the universe. Her was carried to his grave by two thousand monks, (a) At first, those rules were adopted which had been devised in the East, but it was soon found that the privations of the desert were not suited to a Gallican stomach and winter. (V) Benedict of Nursia, who had dreamed away his youth in the grotto of Subiaco, and had been looked upon as a saint by the mountain shepherds, established in the wilderness of Monte Cassino (529) a society of monks, whose mild but well- arranged rules and inviolable vows soon united most of the Western monasteries into a per- fectly organized community, and bound them to a useful course of life, (c) Already, in Martin's establishment, the disciples had been employed in the labor of copying books, (d) So when Cassiodorus escaped from the storms of his political life, and found refuge (538) in his convent of Vivarium, he directed the attention of the monks to literary pusuits. (e) The Benedictines preserved the monuments of antiquity for a more cultivated age, made the deserts fertile, and became the instructors of the people. The convents were placed under the supervision of the bishops within whose diocese they were, but these had no power to violate the constitution of the order. A few monasteries attempted to escape the jurisdiction or the oppression of their bishop, by putting themselves under the care of some distinguished bishop at a distance. 137. Veneration for Saints. In an age when people quietly enjoyed all that they possessed, those cen- turies in which painful struggles liad been endured were looked upon as heroic, and those heroes who had purchased victory with their blood were invested with a growing splendor in the grateful recollections of subsequent generations. The pious respect which all felt for their earthly remains, in the course of time, and through the influence of Egyptian customs and hea- ) Sulpicii Set), de vita B. Martini L. et Epp. Greg. Tur. de miracc. S. Mart, fc) Sulpicii Sev. Dial. I, 8. Cassian. de instit coen. 1, 11. r) Legends : Gregorii H. Dialog. 1. II. Eule : Holsten. Th. I. p. lllss. d) Sulp. Vita Mart c. 10. e) Institt ad div. lect. ( 119. note g.) j 52 ANCIENT CHURCH HISTORY. PER. II. IMPERIAL CHURCH. A. D. 812-800. thenish superstitions, became exaggerated into a veneration for their bones, many of which were discovered by special miracles and revelations. Sc lucrative finally became the traffic in these relics, that various laws were formed against it. People took delight in other and strange relics which had been in any way connected with- the daily lives of former saints. Public prayers for the martyrs were gradually changed into prayers to them as inter- cessors with God. ' The same feeling which had induced their heathen ances- tors to deify men, now led them to regard the saints as subordinate deities. Some were honored only in those localities in which they had lived, or in which their relics were preserved, but others in much larger circles. Whole orders and nations attached themselves to particular saints, and others were made to preside over certain kinds of assistance. The heathen had some occasion for ridiculing Christians on the ground that their religion had be- come paganized. Agrippa's cheerful Pantheon, once dedicated to Jupiter and all the gods, was now consecrated to the Mother of God and all the mar- tyrs (COS). As soon as the Nestorian controversy had decided that the Vir- gin had given birth to God, she was placed at the head of the saintly host. Epiphanius, on the one hand, points out those as heretics CAvrtStKo/iaptai/irai) who believed that Mary had been the mother of several children after the birth of our Saviour, and on -the other calls a female sect (KoXXvpiSmyof) which bestowed divine honors upon her by the offering of a cake, the priest- esses of the Mother of God. (a) Though all were not agreed upon the sub- ject, it was generally believed that her virginity was unimpaired even when she brought forth offspring. Prayers were also addressed to angels, espe- cially as it seemed unsuitable that they should be regarded as inferior to the saints. (Z) Some persons who had been objects of devout admiration during their lives, on account of their exalted or at least singular piety, were placed by their contemporaries on an equality with the martyrs. In acknowledging these as saints, the bishops only expressed the popular will. Such a venera- tion, often amounting even to adoration, did indeed put imperfect mediators, with their generally, overwrought virtues, in the place of Christ, but it pre- served in its freshness a poetic recollection of the illustrious examples of bet- ter times. From the very nature of these recollections, they could never attain their complete significance until they had been reproduced in popular legends and stories. Thus St. Agnes with her lamb became the type of pious virginity, (c) just as Christopher had become the type of a dauntless man- hood, when he made diligent search among all the great men of the earth, that he might serve only the greatest, and finally found what he desired in the child Jesus, (d) Even the soil whicla our Lord once trod became an object of devotion on account of recollections of him. Beneath a temple of Yenus was discovered the grave of the risen Saviour, and over the spot Con- stantine erected the Church of the Resurrection. () Siricii Ep. ad diversos Episc. adv. Jovin. (Constant, p. 663ss.) Ambrosii Rescript, ad Siric. (/&. p. 670ss.) Hieron. 1. II. adv. Jovin. (392.) Augustin. : De haer. c. 82. De bono conjugali. Do s. virginit c) Hieron. Ep. 37. ad Eipuarium a, 404. and Liber adv. Vigil, a. 406. (Th. IV.) Gennadii de vir. illustr. c. 85. J. G. Walch, de Vig. haeretico-orthodoxo. Jen. 1756. (Pottii Syll. Cmtt theol. Th, VII.) G. B. Lindner, de Jovin. et Vigil, purioris doctr. antesignanis. Lps. 1840. 160 ANCIENT CHTJECH HISTORY. PEPw IL GERMANIC CHURCH. A. D. 312-900. but they themselves acknowledged no name but that of Christians, and ap plied the title of Romans to the Catholics. They adhered to the Gnostic doo trines which maintained that the history of the world exhibits only the strug gle between the good and the evil principles, that Judaism was the work of an inferior spirit, that the Old Testament was no part of the holy Scriptures (Jo. 10, 8), and that the conflict of the flesh with the spirit was in conse- quence of their creation by two different creators. Their principal attention however, was directed to a revival of apostolic and spiritual Christianity. On every subject they appealed to the New Testament as a sacred book for the people in the text used by the Church, but with the exclusion of the Epistles of Peter. They rejected all the external forms then in use, as the ecclesiastical system, fasts and monasticism, worship of saints and of Mary, crosses and relicts, and regarded baptism and the Lord's supper as only spiritual acts. Constantino was killed (about 684) by a traitor, but at the in- stigation of an imperial officer. The community always had a chief like him, and called after one of the companions of Paul, but neither he nor any of his fellow-pilgrims (oW/tfyfiot) and scribes (vorapioi) exercised any hierarchical powers. As they were joined by some Manichaean congregations and were favored by the iconoclasts, the Panlicians spread over the extreme provinces of Asia, in spite of bloody persecutions from without, and their own internal divisions. Their principal city was Phanaroea in Helenopontus. Some of them considered it right to adopt the doctrines of the Church with an alle- gorical signification, and to submit to the external forms of the Catholic wor- ship, on the ground that these might be beneficial to the body. The death of Constantino was so heroic that the very judge who condemned him, after some years, left the capital of that region to take his place. The reproach of unnatural licentiousness which was cast upon them may have been occa- sioned by their entire disregard of the Mosaic prohibitions with respect to consanguinity. It is, however, possible that their opposition to the law near the end of the eighth century, may have given occasion to a moral degene- racy, of which their overseer,- Baants (6 pwapos), may have been the most prominent specimen. DIVISION II.-THE GERMANIC CHURCH. 147. Original Authorities. I. Semler, Vers. den Gebr. d. Qnellcn In d. Staats-u. KOesch. A mittL Zeiten zu erleichtern. Hal. 1761. Hosier, de annsllam medii sevi condlt & de arte crit in ann. Tub. 1788s. 4. Dahlmann, Quellenkunde d. deutschen Gescb. Gctt (1S80.) 1833. Meibomiircr. Germ. Scriptores. Hlmst 168853. 8 Th. Leibnitz, Scrr. rer. Brnnsvlc. illustrationl inservientes. Han. 1707sa. 8 Th. t. Freheri rer. Germ. Scrr. ed. Strung, Argent 1717ss. 8 Th. f. Uarzhmiii Concilia Germ, (till 1747.) Col. 1759ss. 11 Th. t. Ussermanni Monamenta res Alemannicas lllustr. Typis 8. Blasian. 1790. 2 vols. 4. Pertz, ^Mon. Germ, hlstorica. Han. 1826sa. 8 Th. tDu Chesne, Hist Francor. Scrr. Par. 1636ss. 5 Th. f. Bouquet-Dom Srial, rer. Gallicar. et Franc. Scrr. Par. 173S-1883. 19 Th. lMuratori, rer. Ital. Bcrr. Mediol. 1723ss. 21 Th. t.Eccard, Corpus hist medii aevi. Lps. 1723. 2 Th f. 1) Gregor. TV ronens. Hist eccL Francor. 1. X. till 694, selected from & cent by Fredegar till 641. ed. Ruinart, Par. 1699. f. (Bouquet, Th. II. p. 75.) Beda Venerabilis, Hist eccl. gentls Anglor. 1. V. till 731. Ed. Jo. Smith, Cantabr. 1722. f. Stevenson, Lond. 1833. [Bede's Eccles. Hist with the Sax. Chron. DIV. II. GERMANIC CHUKCH. 147. OKIGINAL AUTHOPvITIES. 161 transl. into Engl. with notes, maps, &c. by J. A. Giles, Lond. 1845.] 2) Jornandes, de reb. Getlck till 540. Ed. Fabric. Hamb. 1706. f. (Muratori Th. I. P. I. p. 187.) Isidor. ffisp. Hist Gothorum. Vandalorum, Suevorum till 625. Ed. Rosier, Tub. 1803. 4. Isidor. Pacens. (about 754.) Chronicon. (Henrique Flores, Espafla sagrada. Madr. 1743ss. Tb. VIII. Du Chesne Th. I.) Paulus Warns- fi-idi, Diaconus, de gestis Longobard, I. VI. till 744. (Muratori Th. I. P. I. p. 395.) 3) Annalcs rer. Francicarnm : Laurissenses 741-829, revised & conk since 783 by Einhard. (Pertz Th. I. p. 124.) II. fifths, Gesch. d. Mittelalt Brl. 1816. Hallam, [State of Europe during the Middle Ages. Lond. 1846. 8 vols, 8. New York, 1847. 8.] Luden, Gesch. d. MA. Jen. 1821s. 2 vols. Rehm, Gesch. d. MA. Marb. 1821-85. 3 vols. Leo, Gesch. d. MA. Hal. 1830. 2 vols. Moeller, Precis de 1'Hist du moycn age. Louv. 1841. Gibbon & Schlosser in their larger works. Wachsmuth, europ. Sitten- gesch. Lps. 1831-33. 2 vols. Charpentier, Hist litteraire du moyen age. Par. 1833. J?. v. Eaumer, die Einwirk. d. Christenth. a. d. Althochdeutsche Sprache. Stuttg. 1845. F. W. Retfberg, KGesch. Deutschlands. Gott 1846. vol. I. [F. Kohlrausch Hist, of Germ, transl. by J. D. Haas. New York. 1847. 8. J. J. Mascon, Hist of the Ancient Germans, transl. by Lediard, Lond. 1833. 2 vols. 4. T. Greenwood, First Book of the Hist, of the Germans : Barbaric Period. Lond. 1836. 4. 8. A. Dun- ham, II. of Eur. during the Mid. Ages. Lond. 4 vols. 12. W. Menzel, II. of Germ, transl. by G. Hor- rocks. Lond. 1848. S vols. 12. Guisot, H. of Civilization. New York. 1840. 4 vols. 12.] A picture of this age is especially to be found in some contemporary bio- graphies (a) and letters (5) of persons prominent in the Church or State of that day. A vivid representation of German affairs, as they would appear to a Roman, is given by Procopius. (c) The German historical writers were ex- clusively clergymen, and confine their attention to their own respective na- tions, with only occasional glances at the affairs of others in the vicinity. Gregory of Tours (d. 595) and the Venerable Bede (d. V35) wrote ecclesiasti- cal histories. The former, with an honest simplicity and an excessive faith, described a rude age as a warning to all who might be tempted to treat the Church with violence, (d) The latter collected together the original documents and traditions relating to the history of the English Church, as they existed among the clergy, and presented them in a learned style and in the spirit of the Anglo-Saxon Church, for the instruction of subsequent ages. Jornandes (Jordanis, about 550), a monk, possibly a bishop, but at an earlier period a private secretary, an Ostrogoth but not an Arian, wrote a history of his na- tion both in the East and in the West. His was the first German voice heard in the midst of the national migrations. His materials were principally de- rived from Roman authorities, and his notices of ecclesiastical affairs are not very abundant. Paul (d. 799), the son of Warnefrid, a monk of Montecassino, belonging to the literary circle around Charles the Great, collected and incor- porated in his history of the Longobards, the lively traditions preserved among the people. Ecclesiastical subjects always seemed interesting to him, but he has introduced them but sparingly into his narrative. In the Annals of the convent of Lorsch, as well as in those of Egirihard, the exploits of the Frank- ish kings, and their relations to the Church, are recorded in a simple and con- cise style, but with respect to the principal facts in the animated language of interested witnesses. a) Generally in Pertz. Th. I. II. Z>) Especially Epp. Bonif. & Codex Carolinus. c) De bello Vandalico. De bello Gothico. Ed. G. Dindorf, Bonn. 1883. 2 vols. d) Lobell, Gregor. v. Tours u. s. Zeit Lpz. 1S35. C. G. fries, de Greg. Tur. Vita et Scriptia. Trat. 1839. 11 1 62 ANCIENT CHUKCH IIISTOBY. PER. II. GERMANIC CHURCH. A. D. 812-900. CHAP. I. ESTABLISHMENT OF CHRISTIANITY. 148. Religion of the Germans. 1. 1) Taciti Germ. c. 2. 9. 11. 27. 89. 40. 4a 45. Annal. XIII, 57. Hist IV, 64. 2) Abrenuntiati-. diaboli ) Tjtphilae partiam inedit spec. ed. A. Mojus et Castilloneus, Med. 1819. 4 Cent, from the Epp. of Paul: 1829. 1834. 1835. 4 Ulfilas. V. et N. Test versionis goth. fragmm. edd. C. de Oabe- lente et J. Loebe, Altenb. et Lps. 1836-47. 2 Th. 4 Skeireina Aivaggeljons Jdhannen, hrsg. v. Massmann, Munich. 1835. 4 comp. Loeb&, Beitr. z. Textbericht u. Erkl. d, Skeireins. Altenb. 1839. [Art. in Kitto's Journal of Bibl. Lit vol. III.] c) Socrat. IV. 23. Soeom. VI, 37. Theodoret. IV, 83. Philostorg. II, 5. Jornand. c, 25s. ) Koch-Sterriberg, Eeicb. d. Longobarden. Munch. 1S39. CHAP. I. ESTAB. OF CUE. 152. BRITISH & ANGLO-SAXON CHURCHES. 167 Kales, Origin of the Prim. Church of the Brit. Isles. Lond. 8. F Thackeray, Researches Into the Eccl. and Polit. State of Anc. Brit. Lond. 1843. 2 vols. 8. S. Turner, II. of the Anglo-Saxons. 5 ed. 8 vols. 8. Lond. 1836. F. Palgrave, H. of the Anglo-Saxons. Lond. 1837. 12. Amer. and For. Clir. Union, vol. II. (1851.) p. 86ss. Tlss. LitteWa Bel. Mag. vol. III. (1829.) p. 315&S, C. An- derson, Hist Sketches of the Ancient Irish. Edinb. 1828. 8.] The Church in Ireland was founded (after 430) by Patrick, a Briton, who labored there with the zeal of a sincere and recent convert, and with the power of one who was believed not only by others but by himself to work- miracles, (a) The convents he established were, until some time in the sev- enth century, the centres of a fervent ecclesiastical activity for the island, and Ireland was called the Isle of Saints. From it proceeded Columba (afte? 565), by whom the Picts in the Highlands of Scotland were brought over to the Christian faith. Adopting some remnants of Druidical customs, he established on the island of Hy (St. Jona) a sacerdotal order, to which, in various records after the ninth century the name of Culdees (Kele-De) was probably exclusively applied. (&) The bishops of the surrounding country acknowledged this presbyter-abbot as their superior, (c) Britain is men- tioned as a Christian country in the fourth century. But when the Anglo- Saxons, who had been invited to enter it as allies (after 449), became its con- querors, the British Church continued only in Wales and in the mountains of Northumberland. The national hatred of the tribes was too intense to allow the Saxons to receive the gospel from the Britons. Gregory the Great, who for a long time took a deep interest in this people, availed himself of the marriage of Ethelbert, king of Kent, with a Frankish princess, to send a solemn embassy of forty Benedictines to proclaim himself and Christ among the Anglo-Saxons. The king was baptized, and Augustine, the principal per- son belonging to the embassy, was appointed Archbishop of Canterbury (597). From Kent, Eoman Catholicism was propagated, in spite of many vicissitudes during the succeeding century, among the other Saxon kingdoms, more by covert concessions and gradual changes than by an open conflict with heathenism. For Gregory had instructed those whom he had sent not to destroy the temples of the gods, but to consecrate them. to the true Deity; to allow the people to bring the oxen which they had been accustomed to sacrifice at their heathen festivals, and on days devoted to the dedication of a church, or to the commemoration of some saint, to slay them in honor of the true God, and to hold joyful feasts for them under green arbors near the churches. By retaining such customary pleasures, he hoped gradually to make these obstinate dispositions form a relish for the spiritual enjoyments of Christianity, (d) It soon became evident, however, from the efforts to unite the Saxon and British churches, that the latter would acknowledge no other subjection to the Eoman bishop than that which was due to any other Christian, (e) But they tolerated each other with greater or less degrees* of o) Patricii Confessio. (Opuscc. ed. Waraeus, Lond. 1658. and in W. Betham, Irish Antiquarian Researches. Dubl. 1826s. P. II. App. p. 49.) Popular accounts: Jocelini (12th cent.) Vita S. Patric. (Acta SS. Mart. vol. II. p. 540.) [Amer. and For. Chr. Union, vol. I. (1850.) p. 489ss. 535ss.] &) John Smith, Life of Bt Col. Edinb. 1798. J. Jamieson, Hist Account of the Anc. Culdees of Jona. Edinb. 1811. 4. J. G. J. Braun, de Culdeia. Bonn. 1840. 4> c) Beda, H. ecc. Ill, 4. d) Gregor. Ep. ad Mellitum. (Opp. voL IL p. l!T6s. and Beda I, 80.) e) Wilkins, Cone. vol. I. p. 26. Beda, Hist ecc. II, 2. 168 ANCIENT CHURCH HISTORY. PER. II. GERMANIC CHURCH. A. D. S12-SOO. I hostility until the final uniqn of the two nations, when the Church of the most numerous people gained the victory. 153. Irruption of Islam in the West. J. AschbacJi, Gesch. d. Ommayaden in Spanien. Frkf. 1829s. [Pascual tie Gayangos, II. of the Mohammedan Dynasties in Spain, from the text of Al Makkari, Lend. 1840-48. 2 vols. 4 J. C. Murphy, H. of the Mob. Empire in Spain, Lond. 1816. 4.] In consequence of a dispute about the succession to the throne, Spain was opened to the Arabians, the conquerors of Africa. The kingdom of the "West- ern Goths was speedily overthrown by Musa, the general of the Caliphate, and Spain was subjected to the Arabian prophet (711). Through this country AbderrTiaman was preparing to pass for the conquest of the entire West, that he might unite it with his Eastern empire. He had already obtained possession of France as far as the Loire, when the power of the Arabians on the north of the Pyrenees was broken for ever, by Charles Martel, at the battle of Poictiers (732). In Spain the Christians received toleration from the Arabians (Mozarabes) as a distinct sectf and from their mountains in the North commenced against the Arabian government a chivalrous contest fo* their national independence and for Christianity. 154. Germany. Bonifacius, 680-755. I. Bonifacii: Epistolae, ed. Wurdtwein, Mog. 17S9. f. Vita, scr. "Willibald about 760. (Pertz Th. II. p. 831.) II. Othlonus (about 1066), Vita S. Bon. (Acta S3. Jun. Th. I. p. 452.) Serarius, Moguntiac. rcrum 1. V. Mog. 604. 4. ed. Johannes, Frcf. 1722. t Tb. I. Sagittarius, Antiquitt gentillsmi et christianismi Thuringici. Jen. 1685. 4. Gudenii, Ds. de Bon. Helmst 1720. 4. Lqffler, Bon. Gotha. 1812. Setters, Bon. Mainz. 1845. Bishoprics had been established during the fourth century in Germany, along the Ehine and the Danube, as far as the Roman dominion extended, but in the fifth, Christianity was partially driven back by the national mi- grations. Under the influence of the Franks in the beginning of the eighth century, it pressed forward as far as the Saale and the Elbe, but it was under no ecclesiastical regulations, and was much corrupted by paganism. The gospel was also carried by British monks as far as the Main and among the Allernanni, but had no connection with Rome. Thus Columban (d. 615), who had been driven from the Yosges as far as the Apennines, established some convents as seminaries of Christianity, and his disciple Gall (d. about 650), who had been left at the lake of Constance, and had become a hermit on the Steinach, made a lasting and beneficial impression on the minds of the people, by destroying their idols, by casting out demons in a remarkable manner, and by refusing to accept the bishopric of Constance, (a) But Win- fred, an Anglo-Saxon monk, originally from Kirton in Devonshire, better known by his Roman name of Boniface, was sent from Rome to undertake the conversion of Germany (718), and finally became the apostle of the Ger- d) I. Vita S. Columbani by his pupil Jonas, Vita 8. Galli by Walafrid Strabo in MaUUon Acta Ord. 8. Bened. Saec. II. p. 1. 228. The older sources of the latter in Pertz, Th. I. p. 1. C. J. ffefele, Gesch. d. Einfuhr. d. Christenth. im sudwestl. Deutschl. Tub. 1837. G. C. KnotteribeU, d Columbano. Lugd. 1889. F. G. Retfberg, Obss. ad vitam S. Galli spectantes. Marb. 1842. 4. CHAP. I. ESTAB. OF CUE. 154. BONIFACE. 155. SAXONS. 1 GS mans. This title, however, belongs to him not so much because he first pro- claimed the gospel to the people, as because he effected the complete over- throw of paganism, announced by the destruction of the sacred oak at Geis- mar, (i$) and because he was the founder of the German Church. He was superstitious in his views, rigid in his habits, narrow-minded with respect to external forms, and arrogant towards inferiors, but submissive to popes, except when he thought they protected abuses, (c) In conformity with his oath, () Cone. Aurel. V. a. 549, can. 10. Cone. Toletan. XII. a 681. can. 6. Although Cone. Paris. V. a. 615. can. 1. yet comp. Walter Th. II. p. 13. c) Cone. Toletan. VIII. a. 653. can. 10. Wilkins Cone. Brit vol. I. p. 148s. Eespecting France: Planck, vol. II. p. 248ss. d) Greg. Tur. II. Franc. V, 19. 28. Cone. Aquisgr. a. 789. c. 37. (Walter Th. II. p. 84.) e) Cone. Paris. V. a. 615. can. 3. [Landon, Paris, p. 461.] with Clotaire's enlarged confirmation- (Walter Th. II. p. 14) Capit. Franco/, a. 794. c. 4. ( Walter Th. II. p. 116.) /) Reaction in Spain : Cone. Tolet. XVII. a. 694. c. 1. (Mansi Th. XII. p. 196.) Courts in France: Hincmar. de ord. palatii c. 29. comp. Mansi Th. XIY. p. 64. 0) Cone. Arvernense a. 535. Praefatio. (Mansi Th. VIII. p. 859.) Cone. Aurel. I. Ep. ad Clo- dov. (Mansi Th. VIII. p. 350.) 1 72 ANCIENT CHUECH HISTORY. PEE. IL GEEMANIC CHUECH. A. D. 812-SOO. tithes of all his possessions, it became the general law for the whole Frankish empire, (a) It was, however, much easier for the Church to acquire immense wealth from the scruples of the-people than to defend it against the universal robbery and violence which then prevailed. CJiilperic complained that the wealth of the kings had fallen into the hands of the Church, (5) but Charles Mattel distributed the ecclesiastical wealth among his soldiers, and left to the Church the consolation of thinking that the deliverer of Christendom had gone down to hell, (c) The clergy preserved their privilege of being judged in civil causes only before the bishop's court ; though in criminal cases, if the offence was proved, they might be arraigned in what was called a mixed court. Between the counts and the bishops of each district (Gau) sprung up mutual jealousies and encroachments, which the kings often found it easy to increase. The rights of the metropolitans were on various occasions con- firmed, but they could not be sustained in opposition to the political power of individual bishops. 160. Ecclesiastical Power of the Pope. The authority of the pope in countries beyond the Alps had its origin in the necessity which the Catholics and Eomans felt of a general centre of union in their conflicts with the Arians and Barbarians. The legates of Gregory the Great were therefore called upon to exercise supreme jurisdic- tion in Spain. But when the Western Goths went over to the Catholic party that necessity was no longer felt, and the bishops, becoming conscious of their political importance, freely opposed the papal claims. Witiza (701-10), who was anxious to recover the royal prerogatives from the no- bility and the Church, went so far as to forbid all appeals to the Roman bishop, (a) But the overthrow of his throne and the subversion of the Gothic kingdom was generally regarded as a divine judgment on the impious attempt. The Anglo-Saxon Church gradually prevailed upon the neighbor- ing churches to place themselves under the guardianship of Rome, for the people seemed to think it rather hazardous to prefer Columba to Peter, when the latter held the keys of heaven. (5) The pope was regarded with the highest veneration among the Franks, but his power was confined to remon- strances and intercessions except when the kings found it for their interest to make it appear greater, (c) But when Pipin grasped after the imperial authority, he knew of no better way to silence the scruples of the Franks respecting the oath which they had sworn to their legitimate king, than to obtain a declaration from Pope Zacharias that whoever possessed the power should have also the name of the king (750). (d) From that time all the a) Capit. Franco/, a. 794. c. 23. ( Walter Th. IL p. 118.) &) Gregor. Tur. H. Franc, VI, 46. c) Sonif. Ep. 72. (Wurdtw. p. 194.) Hincmar. Hem. ad Lndov. German. (Walter, Th. III. p. 85.) a) Sekotti Hisp. illustrate FrcC 1608. f. Th. II p. 62. Th. IV. p. 69. V) JBeda, H. ecc. Ill, 25. c) Greg. Tur. H. Franc. V, 21. cf. VII, 89. d) Fredeg. Chron. appendix. (BouquetTh. II. p. 460. comp. Th. V. p. 9.) Annal. Lauriss. ad a. 749. (Pertz Th. L p. 136.) Q, Loebell, de causls regni Francor. a Merovlngis ad Carolina* translati. Bon. 1844. 4. CHAP. II. ECCLES. LAW. 160. CLERGY- 181. PAPAL FOWEE. 1 73 Carolingians thought it best to exalt the dignity of those on whom the law- fulness and sacredness of their own crown depended. The German Church was from its very origin in a state of dependence upon Rome, and in its first synod (743) all its bishops swore obedience to the pope, (e) Boniface endea- vored to bring the Gallican Church under the same regulation, but as its bishops possessed not much zeal for the general Church and great political power, his success was by no means complete. Great efforts were made to convince the metropolitans that the pallium was indispensable to the com- pleteness of their power. But when Boniface complained that it was con- ferred at Rome for money, Zacharias called it a calumny to say that the Ro- man see would sell what had been bestowed upon it as a gift by the Holy Ghost. (/) 161. Secular Power of the Pope. Codex Carolinus. (Cenni, Monn. dominations Pontificiae. Eom. 1760s. 2 Th. 4.) II. Orsi dell origine del domlnio e della soveranita degli rom. Pont Eom. 1T54. Salibathler, sur Torigine de la puis- sance temporelle des Papes. Haye. 1765. J. It. Becker, u. d. Zeitp. der Veriindr. in der Oberh. u. Eom. Lub. 1769. Comp. J. v. Muller, Werke. 1833. Th. 25. As late as the middle of the eighth century a governor was placed by the emperor over the exarchate and the city of Rome. But in the latter the actual power was in the hands of the pope as the head of an aristocratic mu- nicipal government. The Longobards conquered the exarchate and threat- ened an attack upon Rome. In vain was protection sought from Constanti- nople, and Stephen II. in the name of St. Peter called upon the King of the Franks, whom he had anointed, for aid. In two campaigns (754-5) Pipin repelled the Longobards, and as the Roman Patricius he committed to the pope the provinces which the exarch had governed, (a) alleging that the Franks had shed their blood not for the Greeks but for St. Peter, and for the good of their own souls. Charles the Great having by systematic measures de- stroyed the kingdom of the Longobards (after 773), confirmed and enlarged the donation which his father had made, and on Dec. 25, 800, laid the deed which secured the whole on the tomb of the apostles. By this means the king effected his purpose, which was to gain a powerful ally in Italy, and the pope became a ruler over a considerable territory and its inhabitants. Ho was however obliged to acknowledge a lord paramount with indefinite powers above himself, (&) and was so much harassed by the factious strifes of the more powerful families, that he became continually dependent upon the protection of the King of the Franks. 162. Charles the Great. 768-814. L Annals, Capitularies (before 147) & Letters in the Codex Carolinus. Einhard, Yita KarolL (Perte Th. II. p. 426. & Han. 1830. Opp. ed. A. Teulet, Par. 1840-3. 2 Th.) Leben u. Wandel Karls d. G. v. EinharcL Einl. Urschr. Erlaut Urknndensamml. v. J. L. Ideler. Hamb. 1839. Monachua SangaUensis, (Anecdotes) de gestis Karoli (Peris Th. II. p. 726.) Poetae Saxonis Annal. de gcstis ) Bonif. Ep. 73. ( Wurdho. p. 179.) /) Zach. ad Boni ( Wurdtw. p. 148s.) a) Steph. ad. Pip. a. 754 (Cvnni Th. I. p. T5. ) &) Einhard, Ann. a. 796. I 74 ANCIENT CHUECH HISTOEY. PEE. IL GEEMANIC CHUECU. A. D. S12-SOO. Car. (Leibnitii Scrr. rer. Brnnsv. Th. L p. 120.) Helperici (Angtlberti) Carol M. et Leo Papa, edL Oretti, TUT. 1832. II. K Dippold, Leben K. Karls. Tub. 1810. Bredaw, K. Karl. Altona. 1814. Capeftgue, Charle- magne. Par. 1S42. 2 Th. J. O. Walch, Hist canon isationis Car. M. Jen. 1750. Putter, de instaurat Imp. Rom. Gctt. 1766s. 10 P. 4, [G. P. /". James, Life of C. Lond. 1847. & New York. 1848.] The grand objects to which Charles the Great devoted his life were, the union of all the German nations under his sway, and the establishment of civilization among them. He favored and governed the Church because it was a school for the improvement of his people. He was careful to main- tain the same respect for the popes which his father had shown, and he even increased their power, but kept them in a state of dependence upon himself. For Hadrian I. he entertained a strong personal attachment. Leo III (after 795) sought refuge in his court from the ill treatment inflicted by a Roman faction, cleared himself by an oath from the crimes imputed to him, and was reinstated by the power of the king. In gratitude for this kindness, an4 pro- fessing to act under divine inspiration, the pope, on Christmas day 800, placed the imperial crown of Rome upon the king's head, while the people ex- claimed, " Health and victory to Carolus Augustus, crowned of God ! " By this ceremony, no actual increase of power was directly acquired, but the monarch became invested with an augmented dignity in the eyes of the peo- ple, and his authority in the "West became sacred. It was only a thought, but the world is governed more by thoughts than by swords. By this re- newal of the empire in the West the pope recognized a master, but all men saw that this master was of his own creation. CHAP. III. ECCLESIASTICAL LIFE. 1G3. Religious Spirit of the People. The innocence of a rude and powerful nation was soon corrupted by Ro- man vices, the new pleasures soon became necessities of life, and to obtain them the energies of the people were employed in violence. The lives of the Merovingian princes were filled with murders, adulteries, and incests. But just as these children of nature were suddenly made acquainted with a cor- rupt civilization, Christianity was also introduced among them, and preserved in the minds of the people a love for more exalted objects, but accelerated the period in which the national advancement was interrupted. It pervaded even the German language, not merely by the naturalization of Greek and Latin ecclesiastical terms, but by giving a Christian signification to original German expressions, (a) The relation of the people to Christ was conceived of by them as that of faithful vassals to a mighty leader (Gefolgsherrn). If the mysterious spectacles, miracles, and legends of the Church did not always reform the people, they at least produced some regrets for the past and some anxiety for the future. But superstition soon supplied them with arts by which they could cunningly escape her own guardianship. The perjurer se- ) R. v. Raumer ( 147) especially in the 8 books, p. 278ss. CHAP. III. ECCLES. LIFE. 163. COMMQN LIFE. 164 DISCIPLINE. 175 cured himself by relics against the vengeance of heaven, and the hired assas- sin consoled himself with the reflection that whatever might occur in his bloody course, he would have means to purchase the masses needful for his salvation. The virtues on which the Church most insisted were liberality, hospitality, fidelity in the payment of tithes and offerings, and an accurate knowledge of the creed and the Lord's prayer. The liberty which the Ger- mans had always exercised of divorcing themselves from their wives on the repayment of dower was abolished, and marriage was regarded as indissolu- ble, except by mutual consent for sacred purposes, or on account of adultery, conspiracy against life, banishment, or bodily infirmity on the part of the wife. (5) The Church and the new government contended against those remnants of heathenism which still adhered to the faith or practice of the people, as : the exposure of children, the burning of corpses, the old sanctu- aries by fountains, in the lofty forest and in the stone circle, wooden repre- sentations of bodily organs as votive offerings, images of gods dried in ovens or highly ornamented, the use of horseflesh, haunted places, watch-fires, rain- making, sacred lots, death-charms, love potions, the use of wooden images to effect the death of those they represent, magical predictions, and witchcraft of all kinds, (c) The less objectionable portions of the ancient were gradu- ally incorporated with the Christian faith, legends of the gods were trans- formed into legends of saints, recollections of the former deities were so changed as to become a basis for a belief in magic, in leagues with the devil, and in violent assaults from him. A pleasant recollection was also retained for the silent people of the elves, and the wonderful gifts of the fairies. Or- deals were at first tolerated by the Church, then opposed, and finally used for its own purposes. A presentiment of the approach of the last day which sometimes comes up before us in this period, was suggested merely by those Romans who thought that the overthrow of the empire and the terrible na- tional migrations were signals of that event, (d) 164. Ecclesiastical Discipline. The discipline of the Church was much opposed by the German people on the ground that it was inconsistent with their liberties. It was finally en- forced in the eighth century, at least among the common people, by the Sy- nodal courts, which were accommodated to the popular feelings of private rights. In the course of each year the bishop or his arch-deacon held his court in every important place within his jurisdiction, in which honorable men chosen from the congregation acted as a jury to decide upon the case of those who were accused. This inquisitorial process, which took cognizance not only of ecclesiastical but of many civil offences, was an indispensable addition to the easy proceedings of former times, when every offence was atoned for by a legal fine adapted to the simple manners of the people. Tho penalties now inflicted were scourging, fasting, prohibition of marriage, and fc) Capitul. a. 752. c. 5. 9. (Walter Th. II. p. 33ss.) Greg. II. ad Bonif. c. 2. (Mansi Th. XII p. 245.) c) Especially Indlculus superstitionum ( 14S.) d} Gregorii M. 1. XI. Ep. 66. Greg. Tar. H. Franc. Prologus. 1 76 ANCIENT CHUECH HISTOKY. PEE. II. GERMANIC CHURCH. A. D. 312-800. an imprisonment, which for the heavier offences was severe and sometimes for life, (a) None but private offences voluntarily disclosed in the confes- sional were allowed to be atoned for according to the former custom by a fine. In such cases the money belonged to the poor, and the Church always suffered under the imputation that she allowed the rich to sin freely and yet gave them the hope of heaven. (&) Confession to a priest was looked upon as beneficial but not indispensable to salvation, (c) Excommunication was not common, and was therefore the more dreaded. Although the bishops had obtained a law which connected civil death with excommunication, it was understood that such a result would not take place without the consent of the king. By this means the bishops were obliged to pay great respect to the intercession of the king or of persons of distinction, (d) 165. Morals of the Clergy, and Canonical Life. As the bishops were generally selected from the royal retinue, and the clergy were sometimes even slaves and servilely dependent upon their supe- riors, bishoprics were often obtained by purchase or by flattery, (a) and the clergy were in continual danger of becoming quite secularized or degraded in ignorance. The laws against the marriage of clergymen were frequently re- newed, but marriage was as common among them as adultery and lewdness. What wa's called mere fondling was expressly declared to be innocent. (Z>) For every act and degree of drunkenness a precise form of punishment was carefully prescribed, (c) The laws forbade the servants of God to bear the sword, but neither law nor shame could prevent what custom and feudal duty required. Many a valiant bishop never knew peace till he slept on the battle field. The authority of the Church was sufficient to make a clergyman hon- orable on account of the sacredness of his office, but many a layman was clever enough to take advantage of the solemn dulness of his bishop, (d) In a series of synods (after 742) Boniface endeavored to rectify the unclerical manners and the misgovermnent which prevailed in the Frankish Church, by demanding of the clergy a peculiar ecclesiastical character and monastic habits, and that he might secure these he revived the old institution of pro- vincial synods. Chrodegang of Metz gave to the clergy of his episcopal church the conventual rule which required a life in common (about 760). (e) Augustine was held up as an example, and the founder of this kind of life, a) Capit. a. 769. c. 7. (Walter Th. IL p. 54s.) a. 813. c. 1. (Ibid. p. 261.) This arrangement was of an older date. For Information respecting the proceedings, see Sittenspiegel der Zeit, first in Jie- gino, de disc. ecc. II, 2ss. (ffarzhem. Th. II. p. 551s.) 6) Cone. Cloveshovian. a. 747. c. 26s. (Mansi Th. XII. p. 403s.) Comp. Homiliade haereticispec- cata vendentibus. (Mabillon, Museum Italicum, Th. L P. II. p. 27.) c) Capit. Theodulfl Aurelianens. c. 80. (Mansi Th. XIII. p. 1001.) Comp. Cone. CabUonense*. 813. can. 83. (Mansi Th. XIV. p. 100.) tf) Cone. Paris, a. 615. c. 3. (Walter Th. II. p. 14) a) Gregor. Tur. Vitae patrum. c. 6. 3. Hist Franc. IV, 85. A multitude of histories in the Monachus Sangallensis. I) Gregorii III. can. 6. (Mansi Th. XII. p. 290.) c) Ibid. can. 8. d) E. G. the wag in Sangall. I, 20. (Perts Th. II. p. 739.) e) Chrodeg. Eegula in Mansi Th. XIV. p. 813ss. Paulus Diac. Gest Episc. Metensium. (Perta Th. II. p. 267s.) Comp. Thomassini vet. et nova ecc. disc. P. I. L III. c. 2-9. CHAP. III. ECCLES. LIFE. 165. CANONICI. 166. WOESHIP. 177 which was called canonical, because it was regulated by sacred laws. The canonici lived, eat and slept in common, under the direct supervision of the bishop. Their devotions commenced long before day, and were regulated by a peculiar system of canonical hours. They were not prohibited the posses- sion of private property, but their support was provided for by the bishop, out of the ecclesiastical revenues. Under the favor of the Carolingian kings this system was adopted in most of the German churches. 166. Public Worship. Ordo Eomanus de div. officiis (3th cent.) Amalarii, Chorepisc. Meteusis, de div. officiis 1. IV. (819-27.) Rabani Mauri de clericorum instit. et ceremoniis ecc. 1. III. (819) & de sacris ordinib, sacramentis div. et vestimentis sacerd. Collectively in : De div. cath. Ecc. officiis varii vett. Patruin ac Scrr. libri, ed. ffittorpius. (Col. 1568.) Par. 1610. f. As the Church had been formed under the Eoman empire, it retained many Roman usages. Its services were in Latin, though preaching was al- ways in the language of the people. The British Church protested against the peculiarities introduced by the Eoman clergy. They defended their own practice of shaving only the front part of the head, in opposition to the Eo- man tonsure, by appealing to the example of Paul (tonsura Pauli). Columba, when contending with Gregory the Great, defended a mode of reckoning Easter which was different from that used at Eome. (a) Charles the Great introduced the Gregorian liturgy into the new churches formed in the em- pire, and invited singers from Eome, to whom the sacred music of the Ger- mans seemed like the howlings of wild beasts. The organ, however, was much improved in Germany. (5) The solemn pomp of such a worship was the most impressive way of addressing the robust feelings of an uneducated people. The propensity of the age for magical arts was gratified and strengthened by the numerous miracles performed by dead and living saints, the various ac- counts of which originated more frequently in the fancies of the people than in the cunning policy of the priests. A new festival called the Assumption of the Virgin Mary was introduced, and was celebrated on the fifteenth of August, (c) An appearance of the archangel Michael was, after Gregory's time, celebrated in Eome, but the decided preference shown for this festival by the Germanic churches was owing to the chivalrous character usually as- cribed to this celestial prince, (d) In France St. Martin was honored as a Saviour and an Aesculapius, until the writings ascribed to Dionysius the Areopagite were sent to Pipin, and revived the memory of a Dionysius who had been mentioned as a bishop of Paris among the martyrs in the time of Decius. As this latter Dionysius was confounded with him who was contemporary with Paul, St. Denys became henceforth the war-cry of France, (e) The Spaniards a) Gregor. M. 1. IX. Ep. 127. comp. JBeda, H. ecc. Ill, 4. Z>) Annal. Metens. ad. a. 757. Joan. VIII. Ep. a. 872. ad Annonem. (Mansi Th. XVII. p. 245.) c) Desire, doubt, and final confidence : Epiph. haer. 78. 11. Gelasii Decret. (Gratlan : P. I. D. XV. c. 3. 55.) Gregor. Tur. de gloria Martyr. I, 4. a) Ilaeberlin, Selecta de Mich. Archangelo. Hlmst. 1758. 4. e) Both saints are already confounded in : Acta Dionysii (beginning of the 9th cent Acta SS. m. Jet. Th. IV. p. 79288.) and Hilduini (abbot of St Denys about 824.) Vita et passio Dionys. (Areopa- gitica, ed. M. Galenus, Col. 1563.) 12 178 ANCIENT CHURCH HISTORY. PER. IL GERMANIC CHURCH. A D. 312-SOO. made a knightly saint of the elder James, who, after his body had been found at Compostella (791-842), was extolled as the apostle of Spain, and the patron of its armies against the Saracens. The surest proof of the power and sanc- tity of these patron saints was victory. The Frankish empire became slightly involved in the controversy respecting images. The clear judgment of Charles the Great soon decided against all image-worship, and a treatise, published under his own name, (./*) set forth in opposition to the decrees of the second synod of Nicaea that God could be worshipped only in spirit. The same view was expressed at the Synod of Frankfort (794) and of Paris (825) with an open censure of Adrian's treatise in favor of image-worship. But as this opposition did not extend to the destruction of the images, a hope was enter- tained and expressed in these acts that a reconciliation might yet be effected between the Greek and Roman churches, (g) The popes found it convenient to treat this heresy among the Franks more mildly than the same sentiments among the Greeks. CHAP. IV. ECCLESIASTICAL SCIENCE. 1G7. Preservation of Literature. Every thing in the primitive church had a primary reference to some type in the Old Testament. The Gothic version of the Bible does not seem to have found its way into other German tribes, but fragments of translations of dif- ferent books of the Bible existed in several German languages, and even in the Anglo-Saxon. Remnants of Roman literature were preserved among the clergy as a kind of literary acquisition even to the age of Augustine, but the classic authors were enjoyed only by stealth. In the stormy period of the popular migrations, literary education was continued in Spain and in the British islands. In the former country there was a literary rivalry between the Catholics and the Western Goths, who had now become interested in the study of Grecian learning. Among these Goths, Isidore, Archbishop of Hispalis (Seville, 595636), was particularly influential in behalf of the politi- cal power of the Church, a moderate monastic life, and Christian kindness toward the Jews, and was an eminent example of that ecclesiastical learning which was not only mistress of all secular knowledge, but, by collecting the works of ancient authors, secured the inheritance of antiquity, (a) The pre- dominance of the Roman element renders it difficult to trace the process by which a transition was made to that which was more decidedly Germanic. In the Islands a degree of learning was maintained in consequence of the rivalry between the British and the Anglo-Saxon churches, and the intimate /) Libri Carolini, a. 790. ed. Eli. PhUi. 1549. Heumann, Han. 1731. (Goldast. Imper. Deer. p. 67.) fif) Cone. Franco/, can. 2. (Hanoi Th. XIII. p. 909.) Cone. Paris, ad Ludov. (Ib. Th. XIV. p. 415s.) [Landon, p. 252s. & 461s.] a) Eccles. Literature, Liturgy, Explanations of laws and treatises, General history, history of Ger- manic nations and etymological encyclopedia. Opp. ed. J. du Breul, Par. 1601. f. F. Grial, Matrit 1778. 2 Th. f. F. Arevalus, Eom. 1797ss. 7 Th. 4. Comp. Sravlionis Praenotatio librorum S. Isidori In Oudin, Commtr. de Scrr. eec. Th. I. p. 1584. CHAP. IY. ECCLES. SCIENCE. 16T. BEDE. 168. ALCUIN. 179 connection which the latter kept up with Rome. Theodore, a native of Tar- sus, and Archbishop of Canterbury (668-90), diffused in England a knowledge of the Greek language and literature. From this school proceeded the Vene- rable Bede, a monk of Yarrow, who was honored as the representative of all the knowledge possessed in his time, and was a faithful teacher as well as learner to the last moment of his life (735). (5) 168. Scientific Education under ike Carolingians. C. H. van fferwerden, de iis, quae a Car. M. turn ad propag. rel. chr. turn ad emendandam ejus- dem docendi rationem acta sunt L. B. 1825. 4. F. Lorente, Alcuins Lebon. Hal. 1829. J. 0. F. Baehr, Gesch. d. rom. Literaturim karoling. Zeitalter. Carlsr. 1840. In the Frankish Church some interest was created by Boniface in the lite- rature of his native land, and he appears to have taken pains to improve the jargon in which the Latin baptismal formula was uttered by the ignorant Ba- varian priests. But even he regarded the belief in the antipodes as a heresy, (a) Charles the Great conversed in Latin, understood the Greek, and in the circle of his learned friends laid aside his crown ; but his hand was more accustomed to the sword, and began to form written characters late in life with extreme difficulty. Even the tales and heroic songs then current among the people, but which being neglected by the Church were passing into oblivion, he vainly attempted to preserve. His own education had been derived from Italy, and the few men of learning to whom he could intrust his plan of popular education were either from the same country or from Eng- land. Among these was Alcuin, (5) at an earlier period a canon and a su- perintendent of the convent-school of York and an abbot at Tours (d. 804), a pious, intelligent, and active man, but possessed of only ordinary natural talents. He conducted a school in the palace itself (schola palatina), and by its means established other schools of learning for the seven liberal arts (tri- vium and quadrivium) in the cathedrals and convents throughout the em- pire, (c) Popular schools were also founded in his own diocese by Theodulf, Bishop of Orleans (d. 821). A collection of sermons selected from the writ- ings of the fathers was formed under the direction of the emperor by Paul the Deacon for an example to the clergy rather than for ordinary reading, (d) But all this literary improvement was not a direct growth of the popular life, but a foreign importation. Hence even the writings of the first men of the age seldom exhibit the fresh living spirit of the people. On the other hand their prose and verse are written in an unnatural, clumsy style, indicating that the whole was only a remnant of a decayed civilization, except where it immediately reflected the purely practical life and struggles of society in let- V) Commentary, Homilies, Letters, Histories, Grammar, Astronomy. Opp. Bas. 8 Th. Col 1688. 4 Th. f. ed. Giles, Lond. 1843. 5 Th. [His eccl. Hist & the Sax. Chron. are transL by Giles. Lond. 1843. 12.] Cutberti Vita Bedae Yen. (prefixed to Opp.) H. Gehle, de Bedae V. vita et scriptis. Lugd. B. 1839. a) Bonif. Ep. 62. (Wurdtw. p. 454s.) Ep. 82. (76. p. 288s.) V) Commentary, Homilies, dogm., moral phil., & astronom. treatises, lives of the saints, poems, & eep. 282 epistles. Opp. ed. Frobenius, Katisb. 1776s. 2 Th. f. c) Comp. Val. Schmidt, in notes to Petri Alfonsi DiscipL clerfcalis. Ber. 1S27. 4. p. 109sa. d) Homiliarinm. Spir. 14S2. Bas. 1493. & often. 1 80 ANCIENT CHURCH HISTORY. PER. II. GERMANIC CHURCH. A. D. 312-SW. ters of business and in laws. Such foreign ungraceful forms in which the newly awakened spirit attempted to clothe itself, seemed like the tattereo garments of the European on the stately son of the forest. 169. Adoptionists. I. mipandi Ep. ad Fidelem. a. 785. Seati etEiheril adv. Elip. L II. (GaUand. Th. XIII.) At cuinus : adv. Elip. 1. L Ep. ad Felicem & adv. FeL L VIL (principally in Froben.} II. Fr. Walch, Hist Adoptianor. Goett 1755. Frobenii Da. dehaer. Elip. et Felic. (Opp. Alcuin Th. L p. 923.) Elipandus, Archbishop of Toledo, and Felix, Bishop of Urgel, carried out the Nestorian doctrine to its extreme results, and maintained that Christ was the Son of God in his human nature, only by adoption, and consequently that there could be no proper union of his divine and human attributes. Though this Adoptionism was condemned at the Synod of Frankfort (794) it exalted itself against the authority of the Church ; but at the Synod of Aix- la-Chapelle (799) Felix, whose diocese was in the Spanish March, and there- fore subject to Charles the Great, was persuaded "by Alcuin to recant his opinions. Although this retraction was insincere, or at least not adhered to, and Elipandus, who lived under the protection of the Saracens, was especially violent in his opposition, the controversy was too little consonant with the spirit of the times to survive its original authors. MEDIAEVAL CHURCH HISTORY. THIRD PERIOD. FEOM CHARLES TO INNOCENT III. 170. General View and Authorities. I. 147 & 148. 1) Canisii Lectiones antiquao (Ingolst. 1601.) Ed. Basnage, Ante. 1725. 4 v. t D'Achery, vett. Scrr. Spicilegium. Par. (1653) Ed. de la Barre, 172& 8 v. Baluzii Miscellanea. (Par. 1678.) Ed. Mansi Luc. 1761. 4 Th. f. MaUllon, vett Analecta. Par. 1723. t Martene et Durcmd Thes. novus Anecdotor. Par. 1717. 5 v. f & vett Scrr. et Monum. Col. ampliss. Par. 1724ss. 9 v. f. Pete, Thes. Anecdotor. Aug. Vind. 1721. 6 v. f. Eegesta regum atque Impp. Eom. Orig. Docc. of the Eoman Emperors from 911 to 1813 in extracts, with References, by Boehmer. Frkf. 1831. 4. Boeh- mer, showing the imperial laws from 900 to 1400. Frkf. 1832. 42) Annales Fuldenses by contem- poraries 838-901. (Perte Th. I. p. 361.) Bertiniani 835-882 by Prudentius of Troyes & Hincmar of Rheims. (Perte Th. I, p. 419.) Regino, Abbot of Pruem, d. 915, Chronicon, documentary 870-907. cont till 967. (Pertz Th. L p. 537.) Flodoard, canon at Rheims, d. 966, Annales, 919-66. (Perte Tb. V. p. 363.) Liudprand, Bp. of Cremona, d. 972, Antapodosis 1. VI. & de rebus gestis Otton M. (Pertz Th. V. p. 264.) WiducMnd, monk of Corvey, d. about 1000, Annales de reb. Saxonum gestis. ( Wei- bom. Th. I. p. 628. comp. Leibnit. Th. I. p. 208.) Thietmar, Bp. of Merseburg, d. 1018. Chronicon, hist of the Sax. Empp. (ed. J. A. Wagner, Nor. 1807. 4. Lappenberg in Perte Th. V. p. 723.) Her- mannus Contractws, monk of Reichenau, d. 1054, Chron. from Christ, but esp. 1000-54, cont \>yBer- tholdiis of Reichenau till 1080, extracts & continuation by Bernoldus of S. Blaise till 1100. (Perte Th. VII, 67. 264.) Lanibertus Schafnaburgensis, a monk of Hersfeld, de reb. gestis Germ. 1039-77. Perte Th. VIL p. 134.) Marianus Scotus, a monk of Cologne, Fulda & Mentz, d. 1086, Chronic, till 1082, cont by Abbot Dodechinus till 1200. (Perte Th. VII. p. 481.) Sigebertu* Gemblacensis, d. 1112, cont by ffieronymi Chronicon, 381-1111. (PerteTh. VIII. p. 268.) Otto Frisingens. d. 1158 Chron. rerum ab initio mundi ad ann. 1146 gestar. 1. VIII. cont. by Otto de S. Blasio till 1209. Ussermann Th. II. p. 449.) Chronicon Urspergense, till 1126 by a monk of Bamberg, cont by Bur- chard & Conrad of Lichtenau, Abbots of Ursperg, till 1229. (Argentor. 587. 609. f.) Chronica regia, s. Pantaleonis by monks of the convent of S. Pantaleon at Cologne, 1000, 1106, & 1162. (Eccard Th. I. p. 683.) cont by Godefridtts, a monk of the same place till 1237. (Freher Th. I. p. 335. 3) Adamus Bremensis, after 1067 a canon of Bremen, Gesta Hammenburgensis Ecc. Pontificum, till 1076. (Ed. Lappenberg in Perte Th. IX. p: 267. Uebers. m. Anm. v. Carsten Miesegaes. Brm. 1825.) Odericus Vitalis, a monk of St Evroul, d. after 1142. Hist ecc. L XIII. till 1142.) [The Eccles. Hist of Engl. by Od. Vit has been transl. and publ. by Bohn. Lond. 1854.] 2>u Cheme, Scriptt Norraanu. Par. 1619. f. p. 819. According to the more correct French text by Diibots, Par. 1825ss. 4 vols.) 4) Continuators of Theophanes : Joannes Skylitea 811-1087 & 1081. Jos. Genesiits 818-67, Leo Diaconus till 975, Simeon Logotheta till 967, Leo Orammatious till 1018, Geo. Cedrenua till 1057. [Mich. AttaHota, from 1056 to 1078.] Jo. Zonaras till 1118, Nicetaa Acominatus till 1206, Geo. Acro- polita till 1261. (Hist Byzant Scrr. Par. 1645ss. 42 Th. f. Corpus Scrr. Hist Byzant Bonn. 1828ss.) II. p. 147. The plans which Charles the Great had begun to execute with so much violence and hope were apparently quite abandoned by his successors. But 1 82 MEDIAEVAL CHURCH HISTORY. PEE. III. A. D. 800-1216. the Church, though externally shaken, secretly nourished its higher life and imparted Koman civilization to Germanic energy and profundity. Accord- ingly in the tenth century when both the hierarchy and the feudal monarchy became strong, and when men no longer relied upon mere physical force, but contended with a youthful and romantic enthusiasm for honor, love, and faith, the church naturally became the supreme power of the age, because it was the educator of the people, and held in its hands all the treasures of spi- ritual grace for earth and heaven. Whenever it entered the lists against mere brute force it was of course defeated, but it always held the first place in the hearts of the people. Under these circumstances the power of the pope so much increased that he was looked upon as the head of the Church, and the representative of its spiritual power, in contrast with the imperial govern- ment. Every pope who understood his position must have felt that he was the protector of political freedom and the deliverer of all who were op- pressed. The Germanic people became divided into different nations, and indeed every estate, every city, and every corporation endeavored to become independent. But the common connection of all nations and orders with the papacy united them together as one great Christian family, in whose general enterprises all distinctions were forgotten and national peculiarities were dis- regarded. The prominent thing, therefore, in the history of this period, is the development of the papacy until its influence extends to every thing else, and around it are grouped all the ecclesiastical relations of the "Western world. The north-eastern part of Europe was now generally converted to Christian- ity. In the East, the great conflict with the West between the hosts of Islam and those of the Cross was just enkindled, but the Oriental Church was only passively involved in it, and the only reason we recollect her sluggish exist- ence was her dependence upon more active agents. Almost every generation of this period is represented by its own chroniclers, who wrote a history of the world from a position more or less of an ecclesiastical character. Many of them commence with the creation of man, or at least with the birth of Christ ; but the ages preceding their own were described by writers like them- selves, and every chronicle and every section of it is an original authority only where it contains some earlier documents, or records some contempora- neous event. Few of them were written by a single individual, but most of them were the common property of a whole convent, on which several gene- rations were employed as original authors or revisers. Those most worthy of our notice are : lAudprand, who gives a dark coloring even to dark pas- sages of history, and although his bitterest expressions are no calumnies, he is sometimes not very exact, and with reference to Italian affairs he displays too much passion, (a) The German history of Lambert of Hers/eld is just such a picture of society as might be expected from a pious monk who had made a pilgrimage to the holy sepulchre, and looked out upon the world and his nation from the small stained window of his cell. Siglert of Gemblours, though a monk and enthusiastic for ecclesiastical sanctity, represents the em- peror's cause against the pope, and indicates the approach of a time when a) Martini, Denkschr. d. Akad. z. Munchen. 1809. Hist Classe. p. 3as. R. A. Eoepke, de vita el ecriptis Liudp. Ber. 1842. CHAP. I. PAPACY. 172. DONATION OF CONSTANTINE. 183 finch conflicts of piety and patriotism were common. (&) Otho of Freisingen, the uncle and the historian of the emperor Frederic, in the spirit of an eccle- siastical prince, familiar with the world in its highest stations, and mediating between the sword and the crosier, wrote a history of the world and of his times, as if it were a tragedy ending with the final judgment. Adam of Bremen, living at the centre of the great northern bishopric over which he presided, with considerable historical skill relates the history of the Northern Church at its establishment, according to original records, traditions, and per- sonal recollections, (c) If in these contemporary writers the sentiments and superstition of the age is clearly reflected, we have in the Byzantine histo- rians a more elegant and learned picture of their own court, and some occa- sional notices of the Western Barbarians, like faint vistas of another age. CHAP. I. GENERAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE PAPACY. I. Anastasius ( 130.) MarUnus Polonus (d. 1278), Chronicon. Col. 1616. f. II. G. Hofler, d. deutschen Papste. Eegensb. 1S39. 2d part 171. General View. Until the time of Gregory, the papacy contended for dominion over the Church, not so much because the popes themselves were ambitious to acquire it, as because the necessities of the times and of those who understood them compelled them to do so. The vicegerent of God on earth, in the midst of the distractions which took place in Italy, often had not where he could securely lay his head ; and even when, the party which sustained him was victorious, his office as the successor of St. Peter was little more than a good benefice. But after Gregory's time, the struggle for the freedom and ascend- ency of the Church was in many respects changed. The power of the Church was then established on the broad basis of a territorial possession, and by that very process it had entered the territory and intruded upon the province of the state. Hence the struggle between the imperial and the papal power now became inevitable, and could not be brought to an issue without a sacrifice. From its more perfect power over the higher nature of man, the papacy was triumphant, but the Church gained nothing by the vic- tory, the vital interests of the state were seriously injured, and accordingly the conflict between the two was not terminated. 172. Donation of Constantine in the Ninth Century. Although the pope was*the emperor's vassal, and chosen under the impe- rial dictation, (a) he was nevertheless honored by each emperor as a spiritual 1) S. HirscTi, de Sig. Gernb. vita et scriptis. Ber. 1841. c) Jac. Asmu88en,de fontibus Adami Brem. Kilon. 1884. 4. Lapperiburg in Pertz Archiv. vcl VI. P. 5s. a) E. g. Vita Lud. Pii per Astronomum c. 25s. (Pertz Th. II. p. 619s.) Leo IV. Lothario. (Gra- tian : P. I. Dist X. c. 9.) The epuriousness of the constitution in which Louis the Pious restores the right of suffrage to the Eomans (817) : F. Walch, Censura diplomatis, quod Lud. Pius Paschali concessisse fertur. Lps. 1749. (Pottii Sylloge, Th. VI. p. 278.) Marino Marini, nuovo esame dell'au- .enticita de diplomi di Lud. P., Ottone I. e. Arrigo II. Kom. 1822. 184 MEDIAEVAL CHUECH HISTOEY. PEE. III. A. D. 800-1216. father, from whose hand the crown was received. But during the reign oi the weak-minded Lonis the Pious, and the contentions of his sons for the throne, the popes gradually withdrew from under the authority of the empe- rors, and the bestowal of the crown appeared rather as an act of special favor. Gregory IV., however (827-44), gave such offence by his interfer- ence in these disputes, that the Frankish bishops threatened to depose him. (&) As the recollection that the secular power of the pope was the gift of the German princes became rather inconvenient, the story was started that Constantine the Great had given Rome and Italy to Pope Sylvester, and that this was the reason that the imperial capital had been removed to Con- stantinople. The political power of the pope had unquestionably been occa- sioned by that removal, and by merely substituting a direct intention of the emperor for what was the gradual result of circumstances, the story acquired considerable plausibility, and finally was confirmed by the fortunate discov- ery of what claimed to be the original deed of gift by Constantine. (c) All this, however, did not prevent the emperor who appointed the pope and the bishops, from prescribing laws for the Church, and governing it according to his own views rather than theirs, whenever the empire was free from inter- nal distractions. Even the relaxation of political power which took place while the Carolingian princes contended with each other, was the occasion of licentiousness rather than of liberty among the clergy, and exposed them to the oppression of their secular masters. 173. Pseudo-Isidore. Constant, de antiq. cann. Coll. (Epp. Pontif. Eom. p. LVI. 10.) Ballerini (Opp. Leon. Th. IIL p. CCXVss.) JSlasci Com. de Col. cann. Isid. Merc. Neap. 1760. 4. (Gallandii By 11. Mog. 1790. Th. II. p. I.) J. A. Theiner, de P. Isid. cann. Col. Vrat 1827. F. II. Enust, de fontlb. et consilio pseu- doisidorianae. Col. Goett 1S32. 4. The collection bearing the name of Isidore came to light at intervals, much mutilated, and besides some later portions with nearly one hundred spurious decretals professing to have been put forth by different popes from the time of Clement I. (91) to that of Damasus I. (384). (a) In these enact- ments is presented a legal condition, hi which the clergy were entirely dis- connected with the state, and by the dissolution of the metropolitan and synodal courts, the supreme legislative, supervisory and judicial powers be- came united in the pope. The moral influence and strict discipline of the clergy were represented as dependent upon their complete separation from the state. Many irrelevant and trivial matters aje taken from the literature of former times and mingled with the body of the work. It professes in its preface, and from its singleness of aim it would seem really to be, the work Z>) Paschasius ex vita Walae. (Pertz Th. IL p. 562.) c) Edictum Dom. Constantini in Pseudo-Isidore, and in the extracts of Gratian : Disk XCVI. c. 13. The first appeal to it is in Hincmar, Epp. Ill, 18. In the missives of Hadrian to Charles the Great (Codex Carol. Ep. 49.) is the first germ. Munch, u. d. Schenk. Const (Enlarged Hist Schr. Ludw. 1828. vol. IL) a) An imperfect edition by Merlin : Tomus primus quatuor conciliorum, etc. Ysidoro auctore. Par. 1524. f. (Col. 1530. Par. 1535.) Contributions to a crit edit by Camus and Koch in : Notices et extraits des manuscrits de la bibl. nationale. Th. YI. p. 286. Th. VII. P. II. p. 178ss. CHAP. I. PAPACY. 173. PSEUDO-ISIDOEE. 185 of an individual who is called Isidorus (Peccator, Mercator). Most of the spurious decretals must have "been in existence when Benedict Levita compiled his book of laws (845), and though it may be doubtful whether they were quoted in the Synod of Paris (829), they were certainly referred to in the Synod of Aix-la-Chapelle (836). Nicholas I., in the year 864, first used a certain collection unknown to him only the year before, and it may be that many things were afterwards added. It is difficult to form any definite opinion respecting the author, as many things indicate that he was a Eoman, and still more that he was an eastern Frank. (5) The skill with which it was composed was not greater than was practicable and even necessary for that age. Some opponents of the papacy since the fourteenth century have suspected the deception, and Protestants have clearly proved it by pointing out refer- ences to the Codex Dionysii, a constant use of the barbarous Latinity of the ninth century, citations of laws of a later date, and numerous anachronisms, (c) After a brief contest, the advocates of the papacy merely attempted to show that such a deception was not criminal or of much consequence, (d) And it must be conceded that the spurious decretals contain very little which had not been actually asserted by some pope at one time or another. But that which had been only lately conceded or claimed under peculiarly favorable circum- stances, and with many conditions and protests, was here announced under the sacred authority of Christian antiquity as an undoubted, generally con- ceded, and divine right. A forged document is indeed no very good founda- tion on which to build a claim for universal dominion, but as Isidore only expressed in a decisive manner what was the general object of effort during that age, he gave a definite direction to the fluctuating views of right which then prevailed, and filled even the minds of the popes and clergy with the moral power of a faith in their own right to what was claimed. Men are much more inclined to judge of rights from facts than from theories, and hence this fiction respecting former times certainly anticipated a future real- ity, and gave considerable support to the pretensions of the priesthood. The object of it was to promote the independence of the Church, which the same author, or some contemporary whose sympathies were remarkably similar to his, endeavored to sustain in an earlier plan, by increasing the diffi- culties in the way of sustaining charges against bishops, and by allowing them to be tried only in the provincial synods, (e) It was thought, however, that this could be secured against the threatening and overwhelming power of the emperor in no other way than by uniting the whole Church under one * : &) Leo IV. a. 850. ad Episcc. Britan. (Gratian : P. I. Dist. XX. c. 1.) c) Centur. Magdeburg. Th. II. c. 7. Th. III. c. 7. (Turrianus, adv. Magd. Cent pro cann. app. et jpp. decretalibus Pontt. app. Par. 1573. 4.) Dav. Blcndd, Pseudo-Isid. et Turr. vapulantes. Gen. .628. 4. d) Walter, KRecht 8 ed. Bonn. 1839. p. 155ss. Mohler, aus u. fiber P. Isid. (Tub. Quartalschr. 1829. H. 3. 1832. H. 1. and miscell. writings, vol. I.) Only Harcheltl has undertaken still to question the spuriousness of the Decretals. (Saggio crit sopra la storia di Fleuri. Eom. 1781.) e) Capitula, Angilramni : Mansi Th. XII. p. 904ss. According to some Codd. these were a collection of 785 laws respecting legal proceedings against bishops presented by Angilram, Bp. of Metz and Arch-chaplain to Charles the Great, to Pope Adrian, but, according to others presented by Adrian to Angilram. For its authenticity : Wasserscldeben, Beitrr. z. Gesch. d. falschen Decretal BrsL 1844. Against it: Rettberg, KGesch. DeutschL vol. I. p. 501. 646ss. 186 MEDIAEVAL CHURCH HISTORY. PER. III. A. D. 800-12U earthly head. It is hardly possible that he who thus attempted to deceive the whole Church and the world had in view any direct personal advantage which he expected to derive from it. * 174. The Female Pope Joanna. In the chronicles composed near the commencement of the thirteenth century, it is recorded that between Leo lY. (d. July 17, 855) who hoped to free himself from the influence of France by another connection with the Greek empire, and Benedict ///., a disguised female who had been highly educated at Athens, was elevated to the apostolic chair under the name of John VIII. (Anglicus), and met with a tragical end while paying the penalty of her sex. (a) It was on this account that John XX. (1276) assumed the appellation of John XXI., and this Joanna Papissa retained her place on the list of the successors of St. Peter. But the silence of all antiquity with respect to the matter, awakened doubts in the fifteenth century, and when proofs were brought forward that Benedict apparently succeeded Leo imme- diately in the papal chair, (5) with only a contest with an antipope named Anas- tasius, (e) a Roman presbyter who had before been excommunicated by Leo, and when the unlucky affair was at least boldly denied by the popes of the elev- enth century, (d) even the Protestants abandoned the account, (e) It does not wear the appearance of a calumnious story, or of a satirical allegory, but rather of one of those popular tales in which the highest power of the age was treated with innocent poetic raillery, and after a German style, a deep sor- row was concealed under a playful semblance. It is, however, possible that a Church which has often made realities out of what never existed, may also possess magic power enough to annihilate what has really taken place, when- ever the knowledge of it may have seemed injurious to the still tottering papacy. (/) a) Stephanus de Borbone (1225 in Lyons) L. de VIL donis 8p. 8. (Blascu* de Coll. cann. Isid. c. 16. 11. n. 2.) Martini Pol. Chronic, (comp. Muratori ad Anastas. p. 247.) The passage relating to the subject is interpolated out of Martinus in a few manuscripts of Anastasius. The mention of the papal mother in the editio princeps of Sigebert Gemblac. ad a. 855 is wanting in- the MSS. hitherto known. (Pert* Th. VIII. 840. 470.) 1) 1) Hincmari Ep. 26. ad Nic. I. a. 867. (Opp. ed. Sirmond. Th. II. p. 298.) according to which his messenger received the news of the death of Leo while on his way to Rome, and when he arrived at Rome his petition was granted by Benedict 2) A diploma of the monastery of Corbey (Mdbil- lon, de re diplom. p. 436.) ; and 3) A Roman denarius (Kbhler's Munzbelust vol. XX. p. 805.) have each the name of Benedict in connection with that of Lothaire. The Emperor Lothaire died Sept 28, 855. c) Jaffe, Regesta p. 235s. Uincmari Annal. (Pertz, vol. I. p. 477ss.) d) Leo IX. ad Michael. Constant Patriarch, a. 1054. (Mansi Th. XIX. p. 649.) c. 23. e) Mondel, Joanna Papissa. Amst 1657. G. O. Leibnitii flores sparsi in tumulum Papissae. (Bibl. hist Goett 1758. Th. I. p. 297ss.) Gabler, kirchl. theoL Schriften. vol. I. IT. 29. W. Smete, d. Muhrchen v. d. P. Joh. Colin. 1829. /) Spanhemii Ds. de Jo. P. (Opp. Th. II. p. 577ss.) Luden, Gesch. d. tentschen Volkes. 1831. vol. VI. p. 512. N. C. Ki&t, d. Papstin Joh. from the Dutch. (Nederl. Archicf voor kerk. Geschied- enis III, 1. V, 461.) revised by L. Trots. (Illgen's Zeitschr. 1844. part 2.) CHAP. I. PAPACY. 175. NICHOLAS I. HADRIAN II. JOHN VIII. 187 f 175. Nicholas I. 858-867, Hadrian II. 867-872, and John VIII. 872-882. Ifansi Th. XV. p. 144ss. Kegino ad ann. 858ss. Hincmar de divortio Illotharii et Teutbergae. (Opp. ed. Sirmond. Th. I. p. 557ss.) Kami Th. XV. p. SOGss. Th. XVI. p. 5TOss. Ilinc. Rem t Opnsc. 55 capitulor. adv. Hincm. Laudunens. (Opp. Th. II. p. 377ss.) Nicholas /., a defender of the people, was gentle toward good men, but like an avenging Elijah toward those who were evil. He formed but never quite accom- plished the design of surrounding himself with a council of intelligent bishops out of all nations. But perceiving the favorable disposition of the age, he raised the privileges of the apostolic see so that they became a protection for the whole Church, and under the sanction of public opinion a weapon against all kinds of violence. In opposition to a lascivious king and a large number of servile bishops, he appeared as the avenger of oppressed innocence, and as a defender of episcopal rights against an imperious and powerful archbishop. King Lothaire II. was obliged to humble himself, since the hostile princes of his own family stood ready to execute the papal threats, and the Frankish bish- ops did not object to have the spurious decretals applied for the first time against Hincmar of Rheims, for they thought it better to obey a distant pope than a threatening metropolitan at home. It was, however, still believed even at Eome, that a papal decision might very easily be annulled by a Frankish synod, (a) But when, with no such advantage of political circum- stances, Hadrian II., after the death of Lothaire (869), defended the rights of the lawful heir to the throne against Charles the Bald and Louis the Ger- man, and endeavored to protect Hincmar of Laon, a deposed bishop who had also been persecuted by the king, from the rage of his uncle, Hincmar of Rheims, the latter gave him to understand that in France a wide distinction was made between spiritual and secular power ; that great disturbances of public tranquillity had been created by the pope, and that the bishops of former times had independent privileges. The pope therefore found it need- ful to assuage the wounded feelings of the Frankish nation by some conces- sions, and expressions of a holy love which he declared had always remained constant in spite of some epistles that might have seemed severe because written under the pressure of great infirmity, or forged in his name. (5) John VIII. bestowed (775) the imperial crown upon Charles the Bald in com- pliance with what he declared to be a divine revelation to his predecessor Nicholas, in spite of the superior hereditary claims of the German kingdom, and sustained the cause of that prince by every spiritual menace in his power. It was then solemnly announced that this bestowal of the imperial dignity was in consequence of the intercessions of the apostles Peter and Paul, through their vicegerent on earth. It corresponded with the political viewa of the emperor to compel the French bishops to acknowledge Ansegisus, Archbishop of Sens, as the primate and papal vicar for Gaul and Germany ; but under the counsel of Hincmar they persisted in obeying the holy father only as far as was consistent with the rights of all the metropolitans, and with a) Anastas. ad Adonem Vienn. (Mansi Th. XV. p. 453.) .K JRosateusc7ier, do Kothado Episc. iSuessionensi. Marb. 1845. 2 Pgg. Z>) Hincm. ad Hadr. (Opp. Th. II. p. 689.) ffadr. ad Carol. Calv. (Mansi Th. XV. p. 857.) 188 MEDIAEVAL CHUECH HISTORY. PER. IIL A. D. 800-1216. the laws of the Church, (c) He gave his consent to the decrees of the Sy- lod of Itavenna (877), in which the papal approbation was declared indis- pensable to the investiture of the metropolitans, the bishops were made inde- pendent of all censures and claims on the part of the civil powers, and the guardianship of widows and orphans was committed to their hands ; (d) but the papal letters which interfered with the independence of the empire and the jurisdiction of the bishops over their clergy, he pronounced through Hincmar to be spurious, (e) The pope fell finally by the hand of an assassin. (/) He continued to the last inflexibly convinced of the imprescriptible rights of his see, and of his position as a servant of God, contending against the pow- ers and princes of the world (Eph. vi. 12). Sorely pressed by the Saracens in Lower Italy, and wearied by the municipal and German factions in Kome, he defended himself with extreme difficulty, and sometimes not without treachery. 176. Formosus, 891-896, and Stephen VI. 897. Auxilii 1. II. de ordinationibus Formost (Bibl. PP. Lugd. Tb. XVIL p. Iss.) and Dial super causa et neg. Form. (Mabill. Anal, ed, 2. p. 2Sss.) Jfansi Tfa. XVIII. p. 99ss. 221ss. Liudprand I, S. When Charles the Fat was deposed by the German people on account of his incapacity (887), and when, soon after, the male line of the Emperor Charles had become extinct in France, Germany and France became distinct kingdoms. Both nations were rent into factions by the contentions of the sons-in-law and the illegitimate children of the old royal family. Italy strug- gled for its independence even with itself. The popes, it is true, were free from foreign masters, but they were often obliged to make concessions in the party contests of the Romans and of the Italian nobles. Guido, Duke of Spoleto, and Berengar, Duke of Friuli, contended with each other for the crown of Italy, and placed their favorites in the papal chair according as they were severally successful. Formosus, after a life of great vicissitude, was elevated to the apostolic throne, and though he was compelled to place the imperial crown upon the head of Lambert, the son of Guido, he imme- diately .summoned the German Arnulf to Rome to free Italy from the tyranny of that prince. Arnulf was then crowned, and the Romans were made to take the oath of allegiance to him, with the understanding that their duties to the pope were in no respect to be affected by such an act. His suc- cessor, Stephen VI., went over again to the party of Guido, and having dis- interred the body of Formosus, subjected it to the mockery of a judicial trial. Enraged at these proceedings, the opposite party had him soon after strangled in prison. c) Cone. Pontigoneuse a. 8T6. ffincm. Tr. ad Episcc. de jure Metropol. (Opp. Tb, IL p. 719.) Sincm. Annal. (Pertz Th. I. p. 499ss.) d) Mansi Th. XVIL p. 837. De Presbyteris diffiunatis ad Jo. P. (ffincm. Opp. Th. II. p. 768s.) /) Annal. Fuldens. (PertsTh. I. p. 398.) CHAP. I. PAPACY. ITT. SERGIUS III. JOHN XL 189 177. Pornocracy. 904-962. I. The principal authority is Liudprand, but when he writes of great outrages, ho must be com- pared with other chroniclers, especially Flodoardi Chron. and his Fragm. de Pontiff. Eom. (Ma UUon, Acta SS. O. Ben. 8. IIL P. II.) Jaffe, Kegesta p. 80T-322. II. Loscher, Hist des rom. Hurenregimenta. Lpz. 1TOT. 4. (2. A. Hist der mittlern Zeiten als ein Licht aus der Finsterniss. 1T25. 4.) While Italy bled under the feuds of the nobility, the Tuscan party obtained the victory at Rome, and made their tool, ./Sergius III., pope (904-911). At the head of this faction stood Alberic, Marquis of Tuscany, with his paramour Theodora, a widow of a noble family, and her daughter Maria (Marozia). These last were exceedingly beautiful, crafty and bold Roman women, whose love of power and of voluptuousness were so subservient to each other that it was hard to tell which was the strongest passion. For half a century their favorites, sons and grandsons, occupied the apostolic chair. Maria made no secret of the parentage of her children, acknowledging that her husband Alberic was the father of Alberic, and Pope Sergius of John. On the death of Sergius, the Archbishop of Ravenna, John X. (914-28), by the crimi- nal favor of Theodora, became the successor of St. Peter. By him the strength of Italy was united against the Saracens, who for forty years had maintained a settlement on the borders of the States of the Church. At the head of a Greek and Roman imperial army, he destroyed their citadel (916) on the Carigliano (Liris). After the death of Theodora, the pope, with the aid of his brother Peter, endeavored to make himself independent. Maria had the Pope's brother killed before his eyes, and then caused him to be smothered in the castle of St. Angelo (928). Her son, John XL, ascended the papal throne as though it were an inheritance from his father. She now married Hugh, Count of Provence, who was regarded as the real king of Italy. But her secular son Alberic, in a nocturnal insurrection of the Ro- mans, expelled his stepfather, and as a senator (932-954) exercised supreme power in Rome. Under his administration the popes possessed nothing but a spiritual jurisdiction. His son Octaman, after the death of Agapetus (956), seized not only his father's power, but the episcopal office, and was the first among the popes who assumed an ecclesiastical name on attaining the papal throne. As John XII. (955-63), he hoped to disconnect the excesses of his secular life from his ecclesiastical name and office. 178. The Popes under the Othos. During the reign of Henry I. Germany became conscious of its power. Otho L seized upon the first favorable opportunity for renewing the German dominion in Italy, (a) Since that time Germany and Italy have contrived to exert a disastrous influence upon each other. The German king was invited by John XII. himself to deliver the mother of churches from the violence of Berengar II., the new king of Italy, and when victorious, he was crowned by the pope at Rome (962), on his taking a solemn oath that he would pre- serve inviolate the person of the pope, and all property belonging to the a) W. Donniges, Jahrbucher d. Deutschen Keichs unter Otto f. Berl. 1839. 190 MEDIAEVAL CHUECH IJISTOEY. PEE. III. A. D. 800-1216. Eoman Church, and undertake nothing in Rome without the advice of the pope. The pope and all the notahles of the city, on the other hand, swore on the precious body of St. Peter that they would henceforth abandon the cause of Berengar for ever. (5) But Italy could at that time neither dispense with nor endure the Germans. John soon formed an alliance with Berengar to drive them from the country. Otho hastened back and had the pope cited before a Synod at Rvme (968), which convicted him of murder, blas- phemy, and all kinds of lewdness, deposed him, and elected Leo VIII. in his stead. The Romans then swore to the emperor that no pope should be cho- sen or consecrated without his consent, (c) On the emperor's departure, John returned and took a most cruel vengeance on his enemies, but he was soon after found dead in an adulterous bed, slain as was generally believed by the devil. The succeeding popes were nominated and with great difficulty 'sustained by the emperor, against the hatred of the people and the deceitful policy of the Tuscan party. After Otho's death (978), Orescentius, a grand- son of Theodora, under the character of a Consul, armed the Roman people against the foreign tyranny. "Whenever the emperors had an army in Italy, the popes were entirely subservient to their will, but at other times they were the creatures of the Roman consul and people. Otho ///., intending to transfer the imperial residence to Rome, caused his young nephew Bruno to be proclaimed pope, under the name of Gregory V. (996), (d) subdued the fortress of St. Angelo, and had Crescentius beheaded, and a rival pope muti- lated (998). Arnulf, Archbishop of Rheims, and a natural brother of the Duke of Lorraine, had surrendered Rheims to this relative, and had after- wards fallen into the hands of Hugh Capet, his enraged king. He refused to acknowledge any one but the pope as his judge. But a national synod at Rheims (991) compelled him to resign his office, and placed Gerbert in his chair, (e) The pope issued sentence of excommunication against all who acknowledged the validity of the acts of that syn6d. In vain did Gerbert remind the people that it was not his own interest, but the welfare of the general Church, which was to be sacrificed to the caprice of an individual ; he was shunned as an excommunicated man by all the inhabitants of Rheims, and finally (995) he accepted the invitation of the emperor to become the impe- rial tutor. The new French kingdom sought reconciliation with the pope. Arnulf was reinstated in his former office by another synod held at Rheims (996), and even Robert, the king, submitted to a decision of a Roman synod (998), by which he was separated from his wife Bertha on account of a spiritual relationship and a natural consanguinity in the fourth degree. (/) Soon after, however, on the premature death of Gregory, Otho had his beloved teacher elected to the vacant chair, and from personal regard, while proudly denying I) Gratian: P. I. Dist LXIIL c. 33. Liudp. VI, 6. c) Liudp. VI, 6-11. Perte Th. IV. p. 29ss. The Const. Leonis VIII. as to its essential matter is trustworthy, but the form in which it has been known since the llth cent is not beyond suspicion. It may be found in Perts Th. IV. IL p. 167. as an extract in Gratian : K I. Dist LXIIL c. 23.- C. F. ffertel, de Ottonis M. Ecclesiae prospiciendi conatu. Magd. 1T36. d) Jaffe, p. 339ss. e) Gerbert's account of the transactions in Mansi Th. XIX. p. 103ss. /) Mansi Th. XIX. p. 225. Helgaldus Floriac. Vita Eoberti c. IT. (Bouquet Th. X. p. 107.) The view entertained in the next century may be found in Pet. Damiani 1. II. Ep. 15. CHAP. I. PAPACY. 178. SYLVESTEK II. 1T9. CLEMENT II. 191 the validity of all former grants, he presented to St. Peter eight counties he- longing to the States of the Church as if they were his own. (g) Sylvester II. (999-1003) was of a very humble origin, and in early life had been a strenuous opponent of papal assumptions. His elevation and his knowledge seemed so extraordinary, that the reverence of the Germans and the aversion of the Eomans produced a report that he had sold his soul to the devil as the price of the papacy. But in the midst of the highest youthful aspirations the emperor suddenly died (1002), and the power of his favorite pope was broken. (7i) 179. The Papacy until the Synod of Sutri. I. Jajfe, Eegesta p. 351-364. Glaber Radulfus, a monk of Clugni (about 1046), Hist sul tem- poris. (Du Chesne Th. IV. p. 1.) Bonizo, Bishop of Sutri and Piacenza, d. 1089, L. ad amic. s. do persecutione Ecc. (Oefelii Scrr. rer. Boicar. Th. II. p. 794.) la and after the fifth book there is a history of the Popes from Benedict IX. to Greg. VII. Desiderius ( Victor III.') de miraculis a S. Benedicto aliisque Casinensib. gestis Diall. (Bibl. PP. Lugd. Th. XVIII. p. 853.) Annales Komani from 1046. (Pertz Th. VII. p. 468.) II. Engelhardt, Obss. de syn. Sutriensi. Erlang. 1834. 4. Th. Mittler, de schism, in Ecc. Kom. sub pontif. Ben. IX. Tur. 1835. Stensel, Gesch. Deutschl. unter d. frank. Kaisern. Lpz. 1827. In Rome the contest was still continued between a popular party and the Count of Tusculum, in whose family the papacy had become hereditary after the time of Benedict VIII. (1012.) Benedict IX. reached the sacred chair (1033) when he was yet a boy, disgraced it by crimes which are usually impractica- ble at such a youthful period of life, and finally was driven from it by the people. Sylvester III. was put in his place, but Benedict was soon after brought back between the swords of his party. Convinced, however, that it would be impossible to sustain himself against the popular contempt, the tiara was sold to Gregory VI: The latter regarded the disgrace of acquiring the papal crown in this manner as a necessary sacrifice for the deliverance of the Church. Benedict, however, soon repented of this transaction, and three popes shared the Church between themselves. Henry III. now came to restore the imperial power in Italy, and assembled, in the very midst of his army, the Synod of Sutri (1046), by which the papal chair was pro- nounced vacant. Gregory having deposed himself, Suidger, Bishop of Bam- berg, a serious and pious German belonging to the imperial retinue, was then saluted as Pope in the Church of St. Peter, under the name of Clement II. From the hands of the newly elected pope the German king received the crown of the Roman Emperor, and was made the Patricim of the city, and the Romans swore once more that no pope should be chosen contrary to his will. 180. The Popes under Hildebrand, 1048-1073. I. Bonizo, Desiderius, and Annales Rom. as referred to in the preceding section. Leo Ostien' sis, Cardinal Bishop of Ostia, 1101, Chron. monasterii Casinens. (Muratori Th. IV. p. 151.) These- were thorough admirers of Gregory. Many notices may be found in the epistles of the Cardinal Bishop of Ostia, Damiani, d. 1072, who essentially agreed with Hildebrand, but with all his con- ff) Ottonis III. Diploma. (Baron, ad ann. 1191. No. 57.) comp. Liudpr. Hist Otton. c. 19. h) Mansi Th. XIX. p. 240ss. C. F. Hock, Gerbert o. Sylv. II. u. s. Jahrh. Vienna. 1S37. "Wil- man's Jahrbucher d. Deutschen Keichs unter Otto III. Berl. 1S40. Ja/e, Eegesta p. 345ss. 192 MEDIAEVAL CHUECH HISTORY. PEE. III. A, D. 800-1216. tracted views was independently opposed to what he called the holy Satan and the whole papacy. Annales Altahenses, restored by W. Giesebrecht. Berl. 1841. II. Joh. Voigt, Hildebr. als. Greg. VII. u. s. Zeltalter. "Weim. (1815.) 1846. G. Cassander, d. Zeitalter Hildebr. fur u. gegen ihn. Darinst 1 842. Hofler, deutsche Pupste. 2 Abth. The popes of this period were dependent upon the emperor, but they were generally men selected for that station on abcount of their ecclesiasti- cal character, and from the fact that as general bishops of the empire, hon- orably and securely residing at Rome, they had attained a high degree of ecclesiastical influence. The general voice of the people demanded of them the deliverance of the Church from the simony and the licentiousness of the clergy. The bishoprics were regularly and sometimes at auction set up for sale, and the bishops sought remuneration for the expense of their purchase from the sale of the inferior offices. The whole Church had become venal. What had been ob- tained by worldly policy was administered and enjoyed in a worldly manner. The power of Henry III. was so great in Italy, that Roman messengers were sent to him demanding that he would bestow on them some one for a pope. At the Diet of Worms, Bruno, Bishop of Toul, a cousin of the emperor, was elected to that office, and under the name of Leo IX. (1048-54) proved him- self a pious man, but somewhat dependent upon those who surrounded him. A Roman monk, whom he was desirous of making one of his retinue, re- fused all connection with him because he had obtained his station in the Church not in accordance with ecclesiastical laws, but by worldly power. In compliance with the counsel of this man, the pope went to Rome in the character of a pilgrim, and was there regularly elected by the clergy and people of the city. The monk who had such an influence over him was Hildebrand. He was born probably at Saona, the son of a mechanic, was educated at Clugni, and had shared the exile of Gregory VI. in Germany. Leo sought in the national councils of France and Germany to re-establish discipline, and to remove all those priests who had purchased their offices and would not perform penance for their sin. In a campaign against tho Normans who had conquered Apulia, his whole army was finally destroyed. But when the imprisoned vicegerent of Christ beheld tho conquerors at his feet, he blessed their arms and confirmed their conquests, (a) When Leo died, Hildebrand, then a subdeacon, was commissioned by the Roman people to select a successor, and chose Gebhard, Bishop of Eichstadt, Yictor II. (1055-57). (5) This man, on account of his wisdom and wealth as well as for his consanguinity and friendship with the emperor, was the most power- ful bishop in the empire. The principal object aimed at in his election, was to break up a party of which he had been the centre, but which had been opposed to the papal power over the bishops, and to enlist his great personal influence against those abuses which prevailed beyond the Alps. Against these, Hildebrand, when Legate, had so effectually contended, that the con- trition of a perjured bishop before his piercing glance was regarded as a miraculous influence upon the conscience, (c) The Emperor Henry, when a) Wibertus, Bruno's Archdeacon at Toul, Vita Leon. (Muratori Th. III. P. I. p. 2T8.) Bruno, Bishop of Segni, about 1100, Vita Leon. (7&. P. II. p. 346.) V) Vita and Epp. in Mansi Th. XIX. p. 838. c) According to Damiani Baron, ad ann. 1055. No. 1533. CHAP. I. PAPACY. ISO. NICHOLAS II. ALEXANDER II. 193 dying, commended his son to the protection of the pope, and Victor pro- mised that the empire should be given to the royal child, Henry IV. But a new power had recently been established in Italy, by the marriage of God- frey of Lorraine with Beatrice, the widow of the Marquis of Tuscany. God- frey's brother, Stephen IX., was actuated by the very spirit of the Reforma- tion. His plan of establishing a national empire in Italy, by investing his brother with the royal dignity, was defeated by his want of decision or his early death (Aug. 2, 1058.) (d) The Roman nobles, with a party of the clergy op- posed to the Reformation, placed upon the throne the Bishop of Yeletri, Bene- dict X. Hildebrand, with the concurrence of the imperial court, then procured the election of Gebhard, Archbishop of Florence, Nicholas II. (1058-61.) (e) The duke Godfrey conducted him to Rome, and Benedict submitted. At a Roman synod (1059), Nicholas committed almost exclusively to the college of cardinals the power of choosing the pope, in order that the papal election might not be disturbed by the factious interests of the nobles, or the storms of popular elections. The right of King Henry and of his successors (which, however, he would have obtained personally from the apostolic see) was made the subject of special stipulation. (/) The Roman court perceived the advantage of an alliance with the Normans in opposition to the Germans, and it agreed with the piety and policy of Robert Guiscard to have his conquests in Lower Italy and his designs upon Sicily pronounced lawful and holy by the pope. He now became, accordingly, the vassal and protector of the Ro- man Church, (g) By his assistance the offended nobility, and especially the faction of the Count of Tusculum, was overthrown. On the death of Nicholas, Hildebrand, in connection with the cardinals, made choice of Anselm, Bishop of Lucca, Alexander II. (1061-73). The imperial court regarded the alliance with the Normans with much uneasiness, and therefore induced the Lombardic bishops to proclaim Cadolaus, Bishop of Parma, Honorius II., as pope, whose previous life gave sufficient assurance that the Church would be protected against simony and concubinage. But Godfrey drew his sword, and the Normans were arrayed in defence of the pope chosen by Hildebrand, and when Hanno, Archbishop of Cologne, carried off the person of the German king, then in his minority, that he might take upon himself the regency, Honorius was generally abandoned. The work of reformation, however, produced but little result in the Church in consequence of the opposition of the bishops, supported by the king. Henry IV. was desirous of a divorce from his noble but much-abused wife. The Cardinal Damiani, at a synod held at Mentz, so frightened the bishops when they seemed disposed to favor the royal request, that they dared not comply. When the Saxons sent messengers to Rome as to a divine court, to complain of Henry IV. for his intolerable oppression of his subjects, and for exposing to sale all ecclesiastical offices to raise a reve- nue for the support of soldiers employed against his people, Alexander sum- moned the king to answer the charges at Rome. Henry's wrath at so strange d) Leo Ostiens. II, lOOss. e) Vita and Epp. in Mansi Th. XIX. p. 867. /) Statutum de electione Papae. Perts Th. IV. 2. p. 176. A falsified text in Gratian : P. L Dist. XXIII. c. \.K Cuniiz de Nic. II. decreto. Argent. 837. 4. g) Both feudal oaths are to be seen in Baron, ad ann. 1059. No. 70s. 13 194 MEDIAEVAL CHURCH HISTORY. PER. III. A. D. 800-1216. a proceeding was soon after allayed by the sudden news of Alexander's death. It was then that Hildebrand felt that the time had come in which he might enter upon the execution of the plan for which he had long been preparing, and might assume the dignity of an independent sovereign. Even at the funeral of Alexander, the people exclaimed, " Hildebrand is Pope, St. Peter has elected him ! " 181. Gregory VII. April 22, 1073 May 25, 1085. I. 1) Gregorii Registri s. Epp. L XI. The 10th book la wanting in all the eclitt hitherto, as in Mansi Tfi. XX. p. 60ss. According to the investigations of Giesebrecht on the basis of the Cod. Vaticanus the Eegistrum is not the official record of Gregory's writings, but the first seven books aro a collection which a contemporary formed from them corresponding to tho seven first years of hia public administration. The 8th book, which was not until a later period divided according to tho years of his reign, contains all his other writings afterwards found, compiled without a strict regard to their chronological order. Thus, Jafft, Regesta p. 402-443. Acts of council & orig. docc. : Mansi Th. XX, p. 402ss. and in Vldarici Babenberg. Codex Epist collected about 1126. (Eccard. Th. II. p. 1.) 2) Panegyrists: Bonizo and others referred to at the head of 179s. Paulus Bernriders- sis, canon at Ratisbon, about 1130, de Vita Greg. (Muratori Th. III. P. I. p. 817.) Bruno, a Saxon clergyman, Hist belli Saxon. 1073-81. (Freher. Th. I. p. 171.) The biographies o{ Pandulph of Pitta, and Nicolas of Aragon, for the sake of the original authorities preserved in them. {Muratori Th. III. P. I. p. 304) 8) Opponents : Benno, a Cardinal of the party of Clement III. the Antipope, de vita et gestis Hildebr. 1. II. Otberi, Bishop of Liege, de vita et obitu Henr. IV. (Both are in Gol- dastVs Apologia pro Henr. IV. Han. 1611. 4.) Concerning fragments of another adverse writer: Pertz Archiv. vol. V. p. 85. Among the Panegyrists the praise is unqualified, but although Paul of Bernr. writes as an independent man, and Bruno passionately when in opposition to tho emperor, they express the sentiment of a whole nation. On the same side are also found some impartial chroniclers, as Lambert, Marianus Scotus, Otto of Freysingen, and, respecting the character of Greg- ory, even Sigbert. On the other hand, Benno's work is nothing but a lampoon full of contradictions. II. Gaab, Apol. Greg. Tub. 1792. Voigt and Cassander referred to at the head of 180. A. de Vidaillan, Vie de Gregoire VII. Par. 1837, 2 Th. J. W. Bowden, Life of Gregory VII. Lond. 1840. 2 Th. Soltl, Heinrich IV. Munich. 1S23. Verenet, de commutntione, quam subiit hierarchia Roui. auctore Greg. Traj. ad Rh. 1832. [J. Stephens, Hildebrand, or Greg. VII. (in Ed. Review, Jan. 1845. and Eclectic Mag. June, 1845).] That he might not be embarrassed with an antipope, Gregory VII. asked the consent of the king to his assumption of the tiara. Henry IV., deceived by the humility and frankness exhibited in his letter, readily granted what it would have been difficult to withhold. No doubt Gregory secretly desired the possession of the papal crown, but the same feeling which even at a later period, in the midst of a stormy activity, made him sometimes tired of the hostility of the world, and long for retirement, for he was a sickly man, now made him shrink from the struggle in which he foresaw he must engage in opposition to the clergy, the bishops, and even the king, if he would radically heal the maladies of the Church. The marriages of the clergy, contracted with a consciousness of guilt, and generally of a dissolute character, were the most universal cause of their corruption. It was necessary, therefore, that mar- riage should be freely conceded to them, or be rendered utterly impracti- cable. At a synod held at Kome (1074), Gregory re-established the ancient law of celibacy. The largest portion of the inferior clergy in Lombardy and beyond the Alps were indignant at this. It was, however, only by renounc- ing the delights and cares of domestic life that the clergy could secure tfro independence of the Church, and yet retain possession of her vast estates. By exciting the common people against all married priests, the papal law pre- vailed in spite of their desperate opposition. A second Roman synod (1075 CHAP. I. PAPACY. 181. GEEGORY VII. 195 pronounced the decisive sentence by which all simony was condemned, and the freedom of the Church was declared, since every one was laid under ex- communication who should give or receive an ecclesiastical office from the hands of a layman. The kings, in opposition to this, defended a long estab- lished prerogative which was a powerful support to their thrones. In the mind of Gregory the idea of a universal theocracy had become ascendant, in which a vicar of God in times of brute violence (faustrecht) might stand between princes and their people, enforcing the law of divine right by his spiritual power, and able either to humble the people or to depose princes. As the cause of the papacy was then believed to be identical with that of general reformation, and all felt the necessity of a supreme moral power when such lawless violence prevailed, and of a legitimate dominion of the spiritual over the merely physical nature, of which the state was regarded as the representative, the best portion of society were favorable to this view. Many, however, saw the necessary result of intrusting such unlimited power to the hand of a man. (a) Gregory never lost an opportunity as a feudal lord paramount, and as an umpire or lawgiver, to assert with greater or less success his office of a divine vicar among the nations of Europe, His princi- ples he openly and boldly avowed, (&) however careful and reserved he might be in expressing opinions of particular persons ; but in the accomplish- ment of his purposes he never hesitated, if necessary, to make use of the most terrible measures. He gathered around himself men of vigorous and elevated minds, whom he raised often against their own wills from monastic concealment to the highest dignities. Beatrice and her daughter Matilda, Countess of Tuscany, always participated in his most secret counsels. The suspicions which some attempted to throw upon his relations to the former lady, were too convenient for the purposes of the thousands whose inclina- tions he opposed, to acquire any high degree of probability when opposed to the uniform character of the parties, (c) More credible evidences show that the relation was that of an earnest father to his spiritual daughter, who did homage to his lofty spirit, and was delighted when he intrusted to her his cares, and allowed her to assist him with her wealth and power, Gregory was indeed hated by the clergy and the principal men of Italy, but on Christmas night in the year 10Y4, the people delivered him out of the hands of the youth among the nobility, who had formed a conspiracy and threat- ened his life. His opinion that Spain by an ancient legal title belonged to St. Peter, and that Hungary had formerly been given to St. Peter by one of its kings, just as Saxony was said to have been given by the Emperor Charles, remained only as an idea founded upon a legendary tradition to be taken up by any one who might afterwards have the power to act upon the sug- d) Apologia pro HenT. IV. 1093, written probably by Waltram, Bishop of Naumburg, and a Tract de investitura Episcc. by the same. Besides other Apologists in Goldast Theodorici. Ep. ad Greg. a. 1080. (Martene Thesaur. nov. Anecdot Th. I. p. 214ss.) For Gregor. : Bernold* Constant. Apologet pro decretis Greg. (Mansi Th. XX. p. 404) Letters and Pamphlets : Ussermann Th. IL p. 183. Anselmus, Bp. of Lucca, contra Guibertum Antipapam 1. II. a. 1084. (BibL PP. Lugd. Th, XVIIL p. 602.) Others in Grelser, Apol. pro Greg. (Opp. TL VI.) &) Still as a collection by another hand, comp. Dictatus Gregorti VII. (L. II, Ep. 55. Mansi Th, XX. p, ICSs.) c) Lambert Schajn. Ad ann. 1076. 1% MEDIAEVAL CHURCH HISTORY. TEE. III. A, D. 800-1216. gestion. (d) If he sometimes made concessions when great power and tal ents were arrayed against him, as when Philip of France, and still more, when William the Conqueror of England resisted his measures, it was be- cause his extraordinary knowledge of political affairs enabled him to judge how far he might venture, and made him see the necessity of using worldly means in worldly transactions. But even when yielding to necessity, he openly avowed, that just as God had patience with the wickedness of man, he endured injustice only for the present in the hope of a future meliora- tion, (e) The impetuous instability of the youthful Henry IV., who had been invested with the purple even from his birth, had been educated without disci- pline, and lived ever afterwards without affection, presented a fair mark for his terrible and cool precision. In opposition to this prince, Gregory went forward reforming the Church and exalting the papacy, and finally he beheld the highest of all earthly powers humbled before it. When the trade in eccle- siastical offices was persisted in at court, and those counsellors who had been excommunicated on this account were reinstated ; when Henry's paramours went about adorned with jewels taken from the sacred vessels, and the Sax- ons endured the most horrible oppression, the pope demanded that the king should answer for these things at Eome, and threatened him with excommu- nication on his disobedience. At a synod held at Worms (Jan. 24, 1076), the king had the pope deposed as a tyrant who had laid unhallowed hands upon the Lord's anointed. Gregory replied by hurling against him an anath- ema which absolved all Christians from their oath of allegiance to him. By his violent proceedings Henry had already fallen out with the princes of his court, so that they hated him more than they valued the independence of the empire. They therefore resolved, at an assembly held at Tribur (Oct. 1076), that if the ban of excommunication were not removed from Henry within a year, he should forfeit his throne. "With a broken spirit the monarch ob- tained absolution (Jan. 28, 1077), after he had brought disgrace upon himself and his kingdom at Oanossa. Finally he seized those weapons which had long been offered him by the nobles of Lombardy. Again the sentence of excommunication and deposition was issued against him, a rival pope and a rival king were set up, and Italy and Germany were filled with blood. Gregory had predicted that in that year a false king should die, (/) and ac- cordingly Kudolph of Swabia, whom he had himself made king, died (1080). Henry besieged and took Kome (1084), but the pope in his castle of St. Angelo would even then accept of nothing but the unconditional submis- sion of the king, and was liberated by Robert Guiscard. But the Romanic nations commended the king's cause, (g} and the Romans were tired of the evils which the implacable spirit of the pope brought upon them. Gregory withdrew himself from them with his Normans, and died at Salerno, with the feel- ings of a martyr, though binding and loosing his fellow-men even in death. (7i) d) Registr. IY, 28. II, 13. YIH, 23. Desgl. Corsica Y, 4. e) E. g. the enfeoffment of Guiscard in Mansi Th. XX. p. 314 /) Sigb. Gembl. ad ann. 1080. Bonizo's attempt to justify this proceeding is therefore about as absurd as Benno's accusation of witchcraft, g) Registr. VII, 3. h) The falsehood which from fear of the power of the deceased pope was invented, may be found ii CHAP. I. PAPACY. 182. VICTOR III, UEBAN II. 197 182. Gregory's Successors, 1085-1099. Victor III. 1085-87. Mansi Th. XX. p. 630ss. Leo Ostiens. see at the head of 180. Biogr. by Pandulphus Pisan. and Bernard. Guidon, written during the 13th cent in Muratori Th. III. P. L p. 351. Urban II. 1088-99. Mansi Th. XX. p. 642ss. Jaffe, p. 448ss. Pandulph. and Ber- nard, in Muratori 1. c. After and along with the sources : Ruinart in Mdbillon et Ruin. Opp. posth. Par. 1724. 4. Among the chroniclers, especially Leo Ostiens, & JBernold, monk of S. Bla- Bio. Chron. 1055-1100. (Perta Th. VIL p. 385.) Gregory's principles were deeply impressed upon the age in which ho lived, and the clergy began to understand the advantages they acquired by sacrificing their domestic enjoyments. Those who had been selected by Gregory as worthy to become his successors were one after another raised to the apostolic chair. Desiderius, the Abbot of Montecassino, Victor III., resolutely refused to leave the retirement of his convent, and thereby seri- ously impaired his influence, but he rigidly followed out the course on which his illustrious friend had entered. On his premature death, OtJio, who out of disgust with the world had resigned his canonicate at Rheims and betaken himself to Clugni, where he had been noticed by Gregory and made Bishop of Ostia, and afterwards as Legate had been the prisoner and the mortal enemy of Henry, became pope under the name of Urban II. When Gre- gory was dead, the emperor, who had now attained maturity in the midst of the storms through which he had passed, with his pope Clement III. exer- cised sovereignty over Upper and Central Italy. Renouncing her widowhood that she might promote the interests of the Romish Church, Matilda, by her apparent marriage with Welf, Duke of Bavaria, gave for a brief period a military leader to the papal party. The conduct of the emperor was far more effectual than were all the solicitations of the pope to drive his son Conrad into acts of treason (1093). Urban, at the great Council of Cler- mont (1095), excommunicated Philip of France for his adulterous connec- tion with the Countess Bertrade, and forbade all persons invested with ecclesiastical offices taking an oath of allegiance to a layman. In conse- quence of the crusades, the pope not only obtained an enthusiastic army for the execution of his plans, but his moral influence was so much in- creased that he became the head of all the popular movements of the West- ern world. Philip was compelled to give up his paramour, and Henry and his pope lost all power in Italy. Urban, however, purchased nothing but the precious friendship of the Normans, and preserved nothing but the shadow of his ecclesiastical claims in the appointment of Count Roger and his suc- cessors to be the perpetual legates of the pope in Sicily (Monarchia Siciliae).* Sigb. Gembl. ann. 1085. The truth may be seen in Paul. Sernrid. c. lOSss. Eespecting Gregory's canonization and the opposition made to it by the courts : L'avocat du Diable, ou memoires sur la vie et sur la 16gende du P. Greg. YII. 1743. 3 Th. * Mansi Th. XX. p. 659. Gaufredi Malaterra Hist. Sicula IV, 29. (Muratori Th. Y. p. 601.) Z. E. Du Pwi, Defence de la monarchic de Sicile centre les entreprises de la Cour de Kome. Amst 1716. 4. 198 MEDIAEVAL CHURCH HISTORY. PER. III. A, D. 800-1216. 183. The Crusades. Conquest of Jerusalem. I. Collections: J. Bongars, Gesta Dei per Francos. Hanc-v. 1611. 2 Th. I Schiller, hist Meuioii aoth. 1. voL 1-8. J. Michaud, Bibliotheque des Croisadea Par. 1880. 4 Th. H. F. Wilken, Gesch. d. Kreuzz. Lpz. 1807-S2. 7 vols. Michaud, Hist des Croisades, Par. 1812. cd. 6. 1840S8. 6 vote. [Midland's H. of the Crusades, transl. by Wm. liobnon, Lond. 1852. 3 vols. 12.] n, v. Sybel, Gesch. d. ersten Kieuzz. Duss. 1841. [T. Keighttey, The Crusaders, Lond. 1852. 12. C. Mill, H. of the Crusades. Philad. 1845. G. P. R. James, Chivalry and the Crusades. New York. 1827. Eclectic Mag. April, 1845.] The attraction toward the Holy Land which had formerly prevailed in the Church had never been interrupted, but in consequence of the ardent and sensuous devotion which was' almost universal in the eleventh century, it then became especially powerful. German bishops with their soldiers heroically defended themselves against a sudden attack of the Saracens which took place on Easter, 1065. (a) Even before this (999), Sylvester //., in the name of the desolate Holy City, had called upon the general Church for aid. Gregory (1074) once entertained serious thoughts of becoming leader of a host for the liberation of the Christian portion of the East. (Z>) "When the Selju- Jkian Turks had established their empire in Asia Minor, and had conquered Syria (after 1073), the pilgrims and Christians in Palestine made bitter com- plaints of their intolerable ill-treatment there. The hermit Peter of Amiens made known the prayers of the oriental Christians, and announced an imme- diate commission from Christ for their deliverance. Urban II., at a general assembly of the Church at Clermont (1095), earnestly exhorted all to enter upon this holy war under a leader who never wanted provisions, and on whose side victory was certain, the reward was eternal, and death was mar- tyrdom. All the people shouted, " God wills it ! " (c) A hundred thousand men, chiefly Frenchmen, in the first moments of exhilaration took upon themselves the sign of the Cross, by which Christians were to be known as true disciples. Secular embarrassments and passions, romantic pleasures and superstitious hopes, doubtless had much to do in this, and yet it must be con- ceded that the spirit which animated these masses for two hundred years was something superior to that of this world. But it was not for a holy sepulchre alone that these expeditions were undertaken. They had also in view the honor of the Christian name, the triumph of oppressed Christianity in the East, and the dominion of Europe over Asia. An undisciplined host which followed the hermit's ass, was reduced to half its original number in passing through Bulgaria, and finally was utterly destroyed by the Turks. When the more disciplined army of the crusaders reached the plain of Nicaea, they found a high pyramid formed of the bones of their predecessors. At Edessa, which voluntarily surrendered to Baldwin, and at Nicaea and Antioch, which were soon conquered, the pilgrim princes erected principali- ties for themselves. After indescribable sufferings, Jerusalem was stormed on the fifteenth of July, 1099, and through blood and flames the army marched singing holy songs to the Church of the Resurrection. Godfrey of a) Lambert. Schafn. ad. ann. 1065. 6) Sylvestri Ep. ad. univ. Ecc. (Bouquet Th. X. p. 426s.) Gregor. ad Henr. R. (Manri Th XX. p. 150.) c) Mansi Th. XX. p. 821ss. Bongars Th. I. p. 86. 31. S82ss. CHAP. I. PAPACY. 134. PASCAL II. HENRY V. 199 Bouillon was proclaimed the first king of Jerusalem, although the piety of his heroic spirit refused to wear a royal crown where the Son of God had worn a crown of thorns. 184. Pascal IL, 1099-1118. Letters and public documents in Man-si Th. XX. p. 977. dispersed in Uldarici Cod. epistolaris. Life by Pandulphus and the Cardinal of Aragon, with original documents, may be found in Mu> ratori Th. III. P. I. p. 854 and 360.^. Gervais, polit Hist. Deutschl. unter Hefa. V. and Lothar. II. Lpz. 1841. 2 Th. Pascal, whom Gregory had taken from the monastery of Clugni and made a cardinal, possessed the fiery spirit without the firmness, and the zeal for the hierarchy without the knowledge of its proper limits, which had heen displayed by his patron. Philip of France, who had again been excommu- nicated on account of his illicit connection, received absolution on his taking an oath that he would renounce Bertrade (1104). But when this oath was violated the pope took no notice of the perjury. A violent contest sprung up between Anselm, Archbishop of Canterbury, in behalf of the pope, and Henry I. of England, in which the latter contended for his crown and tho former for his life. It was finally compromised (1106) by the king's renun- ciation of the right of investiture with respect to bishops, though he retained the power of exacting from them the oath of allegiance. () Henry IV. abdicated in favor of his son who had rebelled against Mm, but died (1106) under a sentence of excommunication which reached even his lifeless corpse. But Henry V. had no sooner become settled in his throne, than he laid claim to the ancient royal prerogative of investing bishops with the ring and crosier, and to support his claim he crossed the Alps with a powerful army (1110). In this extremity, the pope thought of purchasing the free- dom of the Church by the sacrifice of its secular power, and accordingly he proposed to restore to the king the imperial fiefs belonging to the bishops, on condition that the episcopal elections might be free from the royal interfer- ence. But the bishops and the princes were terrified at the idea of a con- tract by which the power of the Church would have been temporarily anni- hilated, and that of the king would have been rendered overwhelming. (J) The execution of such a compact would have been practicable only by a complete revolution. On the other hand, Henry had the pope imprisoned, and compelled him by threats to place the imperial crown upon his head, solemnly to acknowledge the king's right of. investiture, and to promise never to issue against him a sentence of excommunication, (c} The pope, how- ever, could not act as a private person in this matter, since he stood as the representative of a particular system of things. Pascal was therefore obliged to listen to the most bitter reproaches for his treasonable conduct toward the Church, and at a synod held at the Lateran (1112), to retract all that he had done. On his refusal to excommunicate the emperor, the sen- a) Letters of Anselm, his Life by his confessor Eadmer, and his Historia novorum 1. VL are IB Anselmi Opp, Par. 1721. 2 Th. f. P. R. ffaese, Ans. v. C. Leipz. 1843. Th. I. 1) Pertz Th. IV. p. 68ss. Card. Aragon. Yita Pasch. (Muratori p. 360.) c) Pert* Th. IV. p. 71ss. 200 MEDIAEVAL CHUKCfl HISTORY. PEE. IlL A. D. 800-1216. tence was pronounced by his legates, (d) "While Gregory was yet alive, Ma tilda, for the good of her soul, had bequeathed to him all her possessions ic trust for the Romish Church, (e) At her death (1115) new materials were added to the controversy, since the emperor claimed her estates as an impe- rial fief, and on the ground that he was properly her heir at law, while tho pope claimed them as the inheritance of St. Peter. The people now began to perceive that the papal ban was launched against the emperor for his de- fence of the rights of the empire. Henry V. took violent possession of the forfeited fief, and drove the pope from Rome. The pontiff, however, was restored to the city by the Normans, and died while making active prepara- tions for war. 185. Calixtus II. 1119-24. Concordat of Worms. The cause of the emperor in Rome was sustained principally by the pow- erful family of the Frangipani. Gelasius II., whom the cardinals elected, was suddenly attacked by persons belonging to that family, cruelly abused, and obliged to fly to the friendly territory of France, where, after a brief victory, he died as early as 1119. (a) By his advice, Guido, Arch- bishop of Vienna, a prince of the house of Burgundy, was chosen to be his successor under the name of Calixtus II. (I) At a synod held at Rheims this pontiff renewed the sentence of excommunication against the emperor, whom he called a second Judas. The imperial party in Rome had made choice of Burdinus, Archbishop of Braga, Gregory VIII., who was over- powered by the Normans, was cruelly mocked by the Roman populace, and finally died in the papal dungeon, (c) Adalbert, Archbishop of Mentz, for- merly the imperial counsellor, and by whose advice all the violent and irregu- lar proceedings against the pope had been conducted, was now seized by the hierarchical spirit, and sought to renew the civil war in Germany. But the people, tired of the evils which had been produced in the empire during a period of fifty years' dissension among its rulers, were importunate in their demands for peace. Finally a Concordat was agreed upon at an imperial Diet at Worms (1122), on conditions similar to those previously acknow- ledged in France and England. This was afterwards confirmed at the first general council in the Lateran (1123). "The emperor surrenders to God, to St. Peter and Paul, and to the Catholic Church, all right of investiture by ring and crosier. He grants that elections and ordinations in all churches shall take place freely in accordance with ecclesiastical laws. The pope agrees that the election of German prelates shall be performed in the presence of the emperor, provided it is without violence or simony. In case any elec- tion is disputed, the emperor shah 1 render assistance to the legal party with d) Baron, ad. ann. 1111. Acts of Synod, Mansi Tb. XXI. p. 49ss. Planck, Acta inter Henr. V. et Pasch. II. Gott. 1785. e) The conveyance of the allodial estate by -will is certain, but the original document (Muraton Th. V. p. 884.) of 1102, by which a legal gift was attempted to be conveyed inter vivos is doubtful TiraboscM, Memorie Modenese. Th. I. p. 140ss. Leo, Italien vol. I. p. 477ss. a) Pandulphi Pisani Vita Gelas. (Murat. Th. IIL P. L p. 86788.) 1) Ja/e, p. 52788. Biographies in Muratori Tb. IIL P. L p. 41Sss. c) Baluzius, Vita Burdini. (Miscell. Par. 1680. L III. p. 471ss.) CHAP. I. PAPACY. 186. AENOLD OP BEESCIA. 20 1 the advice of the archbishop and the bishops. The person elected is invest- ed with the imperial fiefs by the royal sceptre pledged for the execution of every thing required by law. "Whoever is consecrated shall also receive in like manner his investitures from other parts of the empire within sis months." (d) Although in this proceeding the pope had barely saved appear- ances, and not the reality of his cause, and the strict hierarchical party com- plained loudly of the concessions made, so overwhelming was the authority of the papacy, that the influence which the emperor had hitherto exercised in the elections was gradually transferred to the pope, in spite of the laws by which their freedom was guaranteed. 186. Arnold of Brescia and Bernard of Clairvaux. J . D. Koler, de Am. Brixiensi. Goett 1T42. 4. K. Beck, Arnold v. Br. (Basl. Wisa. Zeitsch. 1824 H. 2.) H. Franke, Arnold v. Br. u. s. Zeit Zurich. 1825. Eespecting Bernard, see 207. The Franconian imperial house became extinct on the death of Henry V. (1125), and a king chosen by suffrages had to purchase his new sovereignty from the states of the empire and from the pope. Lotnaire II. having been chosen, received the allodial estates of the Countess Matilda from the hands of Innocent II. (1130-43),'because she had been the pope's vassal, (a) The elec- tion of bishops was no longer restrained by the presence of the emperor, and the decisive question now began to be agitated whether the investiture of bishops should take place before or after their consecration. (5) During the struggles between the imperial and papal governments a new power had sprung up, first in the episcopal cities of Lombardy, from the remnants of the Eoman municipal constitution. In this was presented an omen of a new period, in which independent cities were to enjoy their liberties, and constitute a third estate in opposition to the pretensions of the secular and spiritual nobility, (c) Arnold of Brescia embraced the extreme views connected with this tendency, and regarded the condition of the apostolic Church as a law for all pe- riods of the world. He was a pupil of Abelard, had been a clergyman in his native city, was rigid and abstemious in his rules of conduct, and taught that the clergy ought to possess no worldly property, and that such possessions were the cause of all the abuses in the Church. The second Council of Lat- eran (1139) imposed silence upon this most dangerous heretic, and by papal influence he was driven from Italy, France, and Zurich, until in the city of Rome itself he attained supreme power. For, falling in with his views, the Romans (after 1143) confined the pope to the exercise of ecclesiastical gov- ernment, and to the possession of tithes and voluntary offerings, appointed a Senate, and wrote to the German king to come and re-establish the capital of his dominions according to ancient imperial laws, within the walls of the d) Pertz Th. IV. p. 75s. Mansi Th. XXI. p. 237s. Acts of the Lateran Synod. Ib. p. 281ss. J. G. Hoffmann, Ds. ad Concordat. Henr. et Calixti. Vit 1739. 4 a) Mansi Th. XXI. p. 392. b) OlenscUlager, Erleutr. der guld. Bulle. Frkf. 1766. 4 Cartularies, p. 19. Gesta Archiep. Trevir. in Eccard Th. II. p. 2197. Radevici de gest Frider. 1, 10. c) Leo in his treatises on Italy, summarily in the Gesch. d. MA. vol. I. p. 54Sss. Jlullmann, das Stadtcwesen des MA. Bonn. 1827. 2 vols. Jager, u. d. rel. Bewegg. in d. schwab. Stadten u. derea tusaminenh. m. d. ideen Arnolds. (Klaiber's Stud. d. Geistl. Wurt vol. IV. H. 1.) 202 MEDIAEVAL CHURCH HISTOET. PEE. III. A. D. 800-1216. eternal city, (d) Lucius II. (1144) led an army against the people, and while his troops were storming the capital, he was killed by a paving-stone (1145). Eugenius III. fled to the quiet convent of his preceptor St. Bernard, hy whose counsel he was directed in the government of the Church, (e) Roger, King of the Normans, having brought him back to Italy, Bernard wrote for his illustrious pupil the " Contemplations on the Papacy." (/) In this work the author regards the papacy in its ideal glory, as an office appointed by God for maintaining justice and concord among the people ; ho examines the difficult duties which such an office involves in relation to human infirmity, and predicts that its worldly arrogance will bring it to an unhappy end. No efforts, however, could give peace to Rome, where struggles for ascendency continually alternated with efforts at accommodation with the popular party. An English mendicant boy who had been promoted from one ecclesiastical station to another, until he had become Bishop of Albano, succeeded Euge- nius under the name of Hadrian IV. (1154). (g) He prohibited all public wor- ship in Rome, until the senate from jealousy abandoned Arnold of Brescia. The latter soon after fell into the hands of the emperor Frederic, who sacri- ficed him either from a professed regard to the pope, or from a real hatred to republican liberty. He was finally hung art Rome (1155), his body was burned, and his ashes were thrown into the Tiber. (A) 187. The Crusade of St. Bernard. Palestine had now become a European colony, receiving continual acces- sions of people from the migrations of discontented persons hoping to im- prove their condition by the change. The relations and parties which existed in Europe were therefore repeated there in an exaggerated form. Accord- ingly we find there a feudal sovereignty, in which the king was the chief and simply the first baron of the realm. He was also in perpetual conflict with the hierarchy, whose chief was the Patriarch of Jerusalem, and who attempt- ed to re-enact the part of the pope, so far as his relations to the king were concerned. Between these two personages sprung up independent municipal associations, and companies of spiritual knights. () The Greek emperor was always suspected and secretly hated, and the native Christians were regarded as aliens and proper objects of oppression. The Mohammedans fought under the conviction that it was for religion, honor and dominion. The Norman kingdom of Edessa had been overthrown (1144), and it was evident that deliverance could be expected only by new levies from the West. Bernard, the great saint of that age, assumed the direction of this enterprise, promis- ing, as the messenger of God, a certain victory. Eitgenius went so far as to <0 Martene ampl. Col. Th. II. p. 893s. Otto Fris. de reb. gest Frid. I, 28. e) Jaffe p. 617ss. /) De Consideratione 1. V. (Bemardi Opp. Yen. Th. II.) C. F. Schneider, Ber. 1851. g) R. Rdby, Adrian IV. Lend. 1849. K) Geroh, Provost of Eeichersperg, de invcstigatione Antichrist!. (Gretseri Col. Scrr. adv. Wai dens. Prolegg. c. 4.) a) The laws enacted there are lost, but they may be inferred from the code which Ccnnt Jean iFIbelin established in Cyprus : Assises et bons usages dou royaume de Jerusalem, etc. p. Thaumat tie Thaumasilre. Par. 1690. CHAP. I. PAPACY. 133. FREDERIC I. HADEIAN IV. 203 sacrifice the rights of creditors and feudal lords, that he might promote tho interests of this crusade. (5) Louis VII. of France took up the cross, that he might atone for his crime of hurning a church filled with human heings, and Conrad of Germany was hurried into the same act against his inclinations by the power of Bernard's eloquence. Each of these princes led across the Hellespont an army of 70,000 men (114V). Most of these perished in conse- quence of the deceitful policy of the Greeks, and the opposition of the ele- ments, so that the princes returned with only the fragments of their armies, (c) Bernard defended his veracity by appealing to the inscrutable nature of the divine counsels, and by complaining of the crusaders them- selves,' whose crimes had rendered them unworthy of victory. The more pious portion of his contemporaries were consoled with the reflection, that if the undertaking had been injurious to their temporal interest, it had certainly promoted the welfare of their souls, (d) 188. Frederic /., JBarbarossa, 1152-1190. I. Constttutiones in Perte P. IV. p. 89-185. Otto Frising. de gestis Friderici 1. II. till 1158, con tinned by Radevicus till 1160. (Muratori Th. VI. p. 629.) Godofredi Vtterliensis Pantheon till 1186. (Pistorius Th. II. p. 8.) Guntheri Ligurinus near the end of the 12th cent. ed. Dumge, Heidelb. 1812. The Italian Chroniclers and others in Muratori Th. VI. The contemporary popes, and original documents in Mansi Th. XXIs. Jaffe, p. 658-854 Biographies in Muratori Th. III. p. Is. Jaffe, p. 658-854. II. Kortum, Fr. I. Aar. 1818. J. Voigt, Gesch. d. Lombarden-Bundes u. s. Kampfes. mit Fr. Konigsb. 1818. F. v. Haunter, Gesch. d. Hohenst Lpz. (1828) 1841s. vol. II. King, Fr. I. im. Kampfe gegen Alex. III. Stuttg. 1835. H. lieuter, Gesch. Alex. IIL u. d. Kirche seiner Zeit Berl. 1845. vol. I. W. Zimmerman, die Hohenst o. Kampf. d. Monarchic gegen Papst und republ. Freih. Stuttg. 1S38. 2 vols. The heroic race of the HoJienstaufens almost succeeded in realizing the idea of the empire. Frederic Z, already renowned for his heroic exploits in the East and in the "West, ascended the throne with a determination to re- establish, in spite of all opposition, the ancient power of the emperor Charles on both sides of the Alps. He well knew, however, that the pope could be of immense service to him in the attainment of his universal dominion, (a) He therefore gave Hadrian assurances of his friendship when he entered upon his Eoman expedition (1155), and although some violations of good faith then took place, they were easily overlooked when both parties were inclined to peace. But the Koman people received iron instead of gold. First, Ha- drian's one-sided treaty with the King of the Two Sicilies, and then an occa- sional hint from him that the emperor held the empire as a feudal tenure from the pope, (5) raised the indignation of the German nation. Under their powerful leader this people had been awakened to a recollection of their ancient independence. The emperor indulged the hope of putting an end to the subjection paid to a foreign bishop, and of forming a great national Ger- man Church, under the jurisdiction of the Archbishop of Treves, to whom I) Eugen. Ep. ad Ludov. (Mansi Th. XXI. p. c) Otto Fris. de gest. Frid. I, 85ss. Odo de Deogilo, de profectione Lud. in Or. (Chiflet, Bet* nardi illustre genus. Divione. 1660. 4.) Wil Tyr. XVI, 18ss. d) Bern, de consider. II, 1. Otto Prising. 1. c. I, 60. a) Joan. Sarisber. ep. 59. Z>) Mansi Th. XX. p. 790. 204 MEDIAEVAL CHURCH HISTORY. PER. III. A. D. 800-1216. it was not altogether without significance that our Lord bequeathed his seam- less coat, and Peter his staff. This plan, however, failed of accomplishment on account of the jealousy which prevailed among the German princes, and the contest with Italy, (c) The empero? went once more across the Alps (1158) with a larger army than before, reduced Milan to submission, and at the Diet of the Eoncalian plains had his imperial rights explained out of the Koman Code by the renowned doctors of civil law in Bologna. According to these, his authority was that of an unlimited monarchy, such as was utterly for- eign to the usages of the German people. But the power of science of which the Italians were at that time proud, was by this decision added to that of the imperial arms, (d) The bishops as well as the towns were referred to long forgotten feudal obligations, and when the hierarchy beheld its rights violated, it began to grasp after its spiritual powers, when Hadrian died (1159). The hierarchical party elected in his stead Alexander ///., while a few cardinals in the imperial interest chose Victor III. Alexander, whose cause was triumphant on account of its connection with that of popular free- dom. A few cities of Upper Italy had sworn together (1164) that they would rather suffer destruction than any longer endure the oppressions which the imperial deputies had arbitrarily inflicted upon them. This League of Yerona was soon after gradually extended till it became the great Lorn- lardic League, at the head of which the pope appeared as the supreme dema- gogue. A terrible war was now kindled, in which one party contended for freedom and the other against rebels. Abandoned by the army of the Guelphs, the emperor was defeated at Legnano (May 29, 1176), but even when defeated and excommunicated he was still an object of terror. Ho concluded a treaty of peace and friendship with Alexander at Venice (Aug. 1, 1177), in which he renounced the rival pope, and entered into a truce of fifteen years with the King of the Sicilies, and another of six years with the Lombards. This last, after the death of Alexander (1181), was exchanged for the peace of Constance (1183). (e) The basis of the treaty of peace with the hierarchy was the Concordat of Worms, while that of the peace with the cities was the condition of Italy before the second Koman expedition. The cities were, as republics, to be equal in rank with the great vassals of the crown, and the estates of the Countess Matilda were to remain in the possession of the emperor for fifteen years, when they were to be disposed of by a decision of arbitrators. The emperor then took signal vengeance upon the Guelphic family, and thereby established his supremacy in Germa- ny. By the marriage of his son Henry with Constantia, the heiress of the two Sicilies (1186), he also acquired for his house a prospect of possessing the whole of Italy. c) Comp. J. Ficker, Reinald v. Dassel, Reichskanzler u. Erzh, v. Koln. Koln. 1850. d) Savigny, Gesch. des rom. Rechts im Mittelalter. Heidelb. 1815ss. vol. IV. p. 151 e) Conventus Venetus : Pertz Th. IV. p. 151ss. Pax-Constantiae : Ib. p. 175ss. CHAP. I. PAPACY. 189. BECKET. 205 . 189. Thomas Becket. I. Thorn. Seek. Epp. 1 VI. ed. Ch. Lupus, Brux. 1682. 4. S. Thorn. Cant. Opp. (Patres Ecc- Angl. ed. Giles, Oxon. 1845ss vols. I.-YIII. Biographies by four of his followers : Johannes Saris- ber. Wilh. Stephauides, Alanus and Herbert de Bosham, by the command of Greg. IX. collected in the Quadrilogus de vita S. Thomae, frequently published, especially in Lupus' edition of the Letters. II. Hist de demele de Henri II. avec Becket. Amst. 1756. Bataille, vie politique et civile de Th. Beck. Par. 1842. Herbert de Boseham, Vita S. Thorn. (Patres Ecc. Angl. vol. VIII.) Brischar, Th. Beck. (Tub. Qurt. 1852. H. \.*)TIderry, Hist, de la conquete de 1'Angl. par les Normands. Par. 1825. vol. II. p. 376S3. [transl. into Engl. by Wm. JTaslitt, with an App. Lond. 1847. 2 vols. 8.] Reuter, Alexander III. vol. I. p. 2S8ss. [J".^4. Giles, Life and Letters of Th. a Becket, by contem- porary historians. Lond. 1846. 2 vols. 8. Eclectic Mag. June, 1846.] During the reigns of William the Conqueror and his son, the English clergy had been kept in the most rigorous subjection. But in the midst of the party struggles which took place under the feeble government of Ste- phen (1135-54), they broke loose from the State and established their free- dom by connecting themselves intimately with the Koman court, as the only tribunal of ultimate appeal in all legal matters in which they were concerned. Henry II. demanded that the rights of the crown over the clergy should be restored, and caused an edict to be passed at the Diet of Clarendon (1164), which declared, " The election of prelates shall take place in the royal chapel with the consent of the king. In all civil matters, and in cases of dispute with laymen, the clergy shall be amenable to the royal court. Without the consent of the king, no cause can be carried to any foreign jurisdiction, no clergyman shall leave the kingdom, and no person belonging to the royal council shall be excommunicated."* For the accomplishment of his plan the king had appointed his Chancellor, Thomas Becket, Archbishop of Can- terbury (1162). But Becket was no sooner made the head of the Anglican Church, than he became possessed of the spirit of his station. Ho laid aside all worldly pomp, and put on the simple habit of a monk. He publicly per- formed penance for giving his assent to the Constitutions of Clarendon, and received from Alexander III. absolution from the oath he had taken with respect to them. JEe was now obliged to fly before the king's wrath, which fell upon his innocent kindred, and spared not even the child in the cradle. Sustained by the power of the pope, he maintained his cause, while in France, by spiritual weapons, until he compelled his king to enter into a compromise by which he was allowed to return to his diocese. He had no sooner done this than he issued sentence of excommunication against all who adhered to the Constitutions of Clarendon. A careless expression used by the king was seized upon by his knights, and unfortunately carried into speedy execution, and on the 29th of December, 1170, the archbishop was slain at the very foot of the altar. Alexander canonized this bold martyr for his ecclesiastical independence, and the king was generally looked upon by the people as guilty of the murder. As the opinions of the people were of great impor- tance to Henry in his contests with his rebellious son, he purchased absolution from Eome by conceding to it the freedom of its judicial proceedings. He also became reconciled to his people by performing an humble penance at the * Mansi Th. XXI. p. 1187. 1194ss. [London's Manual of Councils, p. 132ss. Chiirton's Early Engl. Church, chap. 18. Wilkins, Cone. vol. I. p. 435.] 206 MEDIAEVAL CHURCH HISTOEY. PER. III. A. D. 800-1218. grave of his dqadly enemy (1174). After this the papal legates exercised complete control over the Church and the revenues of England. 190. The Crusade against Salaheddin. 1) Tageno, Decanus Ecc. Patav. Descr. expeditionis Asiat Frlderici. (Freher Th. I. p. 403.) Amberti, Cleric! Austriaci, Hist de exped. Frid. ed. J. Dobrowsky, Prag. 162T. 2) Galfridi dt Vino Salvo Itinerarium Richardl (Bongars. Th. I. p. 1150. but better, Gale, Scrr. Hist Angl. vol. II. p. 247.) Rigordi GoVii (royal physician) Ann. de reb. a PhiL Aug. gestis. (Du Cliesne Th, V. p. 1.) [G. P. Ji. James, Hist of Richard Coeur de Lion. Lond. 1842. and Phllad. 1845. 2 vols. 8. T. Keightley, C. Mills, and J. Micfutud, as referred to in isa Chronicles of the Crusaders (in Bobn's Ant Lib.) Lond. 184&] Salaheddin united under his sword Anterior Asia and Egypt. Jerusalem submitted to him after a sanguinary battle (Oct. 3, 1187). Overwhelmed with the news, Europe heard the call of Gregory VIII. for a new crusade, to prepare for which all who remained at home, even the Church, were required to contribute Salaheddin's Tithe. Even Frederic I. did not consider himself too old to resume the heroic life of his youth. He broke his way through the Grecian empire and Asia Minor, and was finally drowned in the Calycadnus, near Seleucia (1190). His son and the strength of his host fell before the plague. The same summer, the kings of France and England, through the mediation of the Church, came to an adjustment- of their differ- ences, and transported their armies by sea to Palestine. Richard the Lion- hearted, on his way thither, recovered Cyprus from the hands of a Grecian rebel, and invested his knights with the fiefs of nearly half the island. Akron also soon fell before them. But in vain were prodigies of valor per- formed, since every advantage was rendered useless by the mutual jealousies of the different sovereigns and nations. After a few months Philip Augus- tus was taken sick, returned to France, and equipped himself against the pos- sessions of the English king. Richard, forsaken by all, and threatened at home, concluded with his noble enemy a three years' truce, which secured the coast as a Christian territory, and operied Jerusalem to the visits of the pilgrims. On his return home the Lion-heart was imprisoned in Austria, and sold to the emperor, from whom he was purchased by his own people. The pope proved at least his good will by asserting the Christian law of na- tions in behalf of a crusader.* 191. Henry VI. Celestine III. (1191-1198.) Perte Th. IV. p. 186ss. Jaffe p. SSGss. Raumtr, Hohenst voL IL p. 523ss. O. Abel, K. Phil ipp d. Hohenst BrL 1882. p. ISss. Henry VI. was on an expedition through Italy to take possession of the Two Sicilies, which had fallen to him by inheritance (1189), when he received from the East the news of his father's death. He immediately purchased an imperial coronation from the Romans, by abandoning the faithful city of Tusculum. The Sicilians, dreading a foreign government, had elevated to the throne Count Tancred, a natural son of their extinct royal family, whom the pope hastened to invest as his vassal. But after Tancred's death (1194). * Huron, ad ann. 1193. No. 2ss. Matth. Paris ad ann. 1195. CHAP. I. PAPACY. 191. CELESTINE IIL 192. INNOCENT III. 207 the Two Sicilies submitted themselves to Henry. This prince possessed the powerful talents for government, hut not the chivalrous spirit of his father, and utterly regardless of the means which he used, he now held Italy and the pope under the most galling slavery. He now made preparations to ren- der the crown of the German empire hereditary in his family, to engage in another crusade, and to conquer the Grecian empire. Pious prophecies hailed him as the servant of the Lord to chastise the Church and to punish the nations, (a) Celestine ///., the aged pope who had placed the crown upon his head, without venturing upon any decisive step, merely admonished him that it would profit no one to gain the whole world to the injury of his own soul. (5) The youthful emperor beheld a vast German empire extended before him, when a superior power suddenly interposed, and he died at Mes- sina (Sept. 28, 1197), leaving Frederic II., a child of but three years of age, in the midst of his enemies. 192. Innocent IIL Jan. 8, 1198. July 16, 1216. I. Epistolar. Innoc. 1. XIX. (1. 2. in parts 5. 10-16. vols. in Epp. Inn. ed. Baluzius, Par. 2 Th. f. 3. 5-9th vol. in Diplomats etc. ad res Francicas spectantia edd. feudrixde Brequigny etla Porte du Tlieil. Par. 1791. 2 Th.) Hegistrum Inn. III. super negotio Eom. Imp. (Baluz. Th. I. p. 687.) J. F. Boehmer, Eegesta Imp. new ed. Stuttg. 1849. 4. p. 289ss. Gesta Inn. III. by a contemporary. (Bre- quigny Th. L) liichardi de & Germano Chronic, ad a. 1189-1243. (Muratori Th. VII. p. 963.) The unfavorable side in Matihaeus Paris, Hist major. [Matt. Paris, Chronicle, &c. transl. by Giles. Lond. 1848. 12.] II. F. Hurter, Gesch. Innoc. III. u. seiner Zeitgenossen. Hamb. 1834-42. 4 vols. (1845s. 3 eel.) [AWe Jorry's Hist, of Innocent III. (in French) is announced in Paris. 1853. Bohringer, Church of Christ and its witnesses, in a new vol. publ. in Lps. 1854. is a life of Innoc. IIL] Cardinal Lo Chair e, of the noble Eoman house of Conti which possessed landed estates in Anagni and Segni, educated in Rome, Paris, and Bologna, and eminent not only as a theologian but as a jurist, was raised to the papal chair in the full vigor of early manhood under the name of Innocent III. The grand objects to which this richly endowed sacerdotal prince devoted his thoughts were the fortification of the States of the Church, the deliverance of Italy from the dominion of foreign princes, the separation of the Two Sicilies from all connection with the German empire, the liberation of the Oriental Church, the exercise of a guardianship over the confederacy of the States, the extermination of heretics from the Church, and the promotion of ecclesiastical discipline. Immediately after his consecration he exacted an oath of allegiance from the imperial prefect of the city, accustomed the no- bility and people of Borne to obedience, although he found them often deficient in this respect, took the Lombardic League under his protection, and established a similar confederacy of cities in Tuscany, by the aid of which he expelled the German governor whom Henry had made ruler of the territories belonging to the Church. Even before his baptism Henry's son was acknowl- edged as his father's successor in the empire. But Innocent was afraid to see so many crowns united upon a single head, and the princes of the empire thought the crown of Charles was too great and heavy for the head of a child. Having renounced all the prerogatives of the Sicilian monarchy, a) Interpretatio praeclara Abbatis Joachim in Hieremiam. Yen. 1525. Comp. Abel, Philipp. p. 812. 1) Jaffe, p. 900. 208 MEDIAEVAL CHUECH HISTORY. PER. III. A. D. 800-1216. Frederic II. was invested by Innocent with the feudal sovereignty of the Sicilies. So highly was the power and uprightness of the pope esteemed that Constantia on her death-bed intrusted to him the guardianship of her orphan child (Nov. 27, 1198). He governed the Two Sicilies with firmness and energy, so far at least as was possible under the difficulties of his situa- tion, and in face of the opposition of the German and Sicilian nobles. Italy was distracted by various factions, all of which, however, attached them- selves to the one or the other of the two great parties, in favor of the Church or of the empire, afterwards called Guelphs and GJiibellines. Innocent pre- pared the way for the reconciliation of these parties, without which the freedom of Italy could never be secured, by taking Frederic II. the natural head of the Ghibellines under his protection. Under his guardianship that prince received a liberal and brilliant education. But the deliverance of Italy was an event as yet far distant and beyond the power of the papacy. In Germany, when Philip of Sudbia perceived that the crown could not be obtained for his nephew he resolved to acquire it for himself. The party of the Guelphs, on the other hand, chose Otho IV., a son of Henry the Lion. Both rival kings appealed to Innocent, who declared that it was the business of the pope to decide in all cases of contested elections. With every appear- ance of the utmost impartiality, and after a long and cautious delay, he decided against the Hohenstaufen (1201), but when victory seemed to decide in favor of that prince he hesitated not to negotiate with him. (a) Philip, however, was soon after assassinated (1208) by Otho of Wittelsbach, one of his offended vassals. This base deed was detested by Innocent, Otho, and all Germany. Otho was then crowned at Rome (1209) ; not, however, till he had given security for the freedom of ecclesiastical elections, the toleration of appeals to Rome, and the legality of all the claims which the Church had instituted for pro- perty against the empire. (5) But when he afterwards adhered to the impe- rial oath, in which he had sworn that he would demand the restoration of all fiefs which had been taken from the empire, the whole political scheme of the pope was endangered. Greatly dissatisfied, Innocent refused to acknowledge him any farther. Still resolved in some way to accomplish his purposes he made Frederic II. swear that when he should attain the imperial crown he would freely confer Sicily upon his son. This oath he regarded as a sufficient pretext for so using Frederic as to allay the threatening danger. Armed with the pope's gold and benediction, the Hohenstaufen now flew across the Alps to take possession of his father's empire (1212). Even with the blessing of the Church Otho seemed forsaken by fortune, and every one hastened to con- nect himself with the party of the youthful conqueror. In the very first year of his reign Innocent proclaimed a crusade. Germany was prevented by the civil war from enlisting in this service, and the kings of France and England had fulfilled their vows by their achievements in the last crusade. But Fulco of Neuilly who went forth preaching repentance, so stirred the hearts of the French-people that the nobility of France placed themselves at o) Wlchert, de Ottonis IV. et Phil. Suevi certaminibus atquo Inn. labore in sedandam Begum coa. tcntionem. Eegiom. 1835. 0. Abel, Philipp. See 135. Z>) Registrum Imp. Ep. 7T. 186. 138. 1S9. CHAP. I. PAPACY. 192. INNOCENT III. PHILIP AUGUSTUS. 209 the head of the undertaking, and the Venetians were hired to transport and sustain the army by a naval force. The doge, Dandolo, took advantage of the embarrassments experienced in the payment of the price agreed upon, and in spite of the remonstrances and anathemas of the pope he employed the army of the cross in establishing the power of St. Mark in Dalmatia. The crusaders were then involved by the arts of a fugitive prince in the wars of the Greek imperial palace. In the course of these contests Constantinople was taken (April 12, 1204), a Latin empire was formed there, and Baldwin, Count of Flanders, was proclaimed its first but powerless emperor. Innocent condemned the whole transaction and the horrors connected with it, but did not scruple to derive advantage from it, and the Patriarch of Constantinople was appointed by him. (c) But the strong point thus gained, by which a land passage was opened to Palestine, ingulfed all the resources of men and treasure which had been prepared for the undertaking. "When men failed, however, a vast host of children took the field. By a dexterous use of the passions, the devotion, the dissensions, the interest, or the despotism of the kings of Europe, Innocent contrived to exercise supreme control over them. Philip Augustus had repudiated his wife Ingeburge, the sister of the Danish king, Canute, and the French bishops had given their consent to his second marriage. Innocent therefore deprived the whole kingdom of France of every ecclesiastical privilege, with the exception of the baptism of children and absolution for the dying. The heart of the king was deeply wounded by this proceeding, those who were utterly repugnant to each other were required to become united, and those who truly loved were to be torn asunder. But terrified at the commotion which prevailed among his people he was com- pelled to acknowledge the inviolability of his former marriage (1201). (d) Peter II. of Aragon regarded a coronation by the pope of so great impor- tance that he came to receive the crown at St. Peter's altar, solemnly prom- ising to be faithful, and to pay tribute to the Roman See (1204). SancJio I. of Portugal, after a stubborn denial of it, finally acknowledged the validity of the document in which his father had made his kingdom tributary to St. Peter. By the pope's mediation in Hungary the royal brothers were recon- ciled, and the king's son was crowned by the states. A disputed election to the archbishopric of Canterbury was submitted to his decision and pro- nounced invalid. This afforded him an opportunity of inducing the canons who were sent to him to choose his learned friend. Cardinal Stephen Lang- ton, whom he immediately consecrated to that office (1207). King John, a despot without power or judgment, refused to acknowledge Langton, and seized upon the revenues of the clergy. Innocent then laid all Eng- land under an interdict, and excommunicated the king (1209). John sought by violence to compel his clergy still to perform the services of religion, c) Geoffroi de Ville-Hardouin, Hist, de la conqueste de Constant. 1198-1207. [transl. into Engl. by T. Smith. Lond. 1829. 8.] (C. du Fresne, Hist, de Tempire de Const, sous les Emp. franjois. Ven- 1729. f.) Hist of the empire by Nicetas Acominatus. 1118-1206. ed. Fabroti. Par. 1647. f. d) I. Rigordi de reb. Phil. Aug. (Du Chesne Th. V. p. 36.) Acta Cone. Divion. et Yienn. (Mansi Tb. XXII. p. 708.) Suessionens. (/&. p. 738.) II. J. Schiito. Phil. A. u. Ingeborg. Kiel. 1304. Cape- figue, Hist, de Phil. A. Brux. 1830. Th. IL p. 144. 191ss. 14 210 MEDIAEVAL CHURCH HISTORY. PER. III. A. D. 800-1216. and to maintain the wavering fidelity of his vassals. But when he had become utterly ruined in his own country, he was deposed by Innocent, and his kingdom was bestowed upon Philip of France. Rejoiced at such an opportunity the latter prepared an army and a fleet for taking possession of his new kingdom. John then humbled himself before the pope and con- sented to receive England as a fief from the Holy See (1213). But the bish- ops and barons, finding themselves subjected to a king whom they abhorred, and a pope who punished a whole people for the sins of their ruler, called to mind their ancient privileges, and extorted from John the celebrated Magna Charta (June 15, 1215), which has ever since been the fundamental law for the legislative power of an aristocracy sustained by the people. "When John afterwards violated this engagement he was restrained by threats. Innocent beheld a dependent kingdom wrested from his grasp by a people who were becoming conscious of their power. In vain did he hurl his anathemas against the estates and their charter ; the papal power, exalted as it then was in its authority, had now found an antagonist before whom it was des- tined to fall. (eriod, o. g. Greg. Deer. III. tit 5. c. 37. comp. Seufert, Gescb. d. deutsch. Adels in d. Domcapiteln. 790. ffurter, Innoc. vol. III. p. 236. /) Agobard, de privileg. et jure sacerdotum. p. 128. 218 MEDIAEVAL CHTTECH HISTORY. PEE. III. A. D. 800-1216. party, or when the offence charged was of a moral nature (denunciatio evan gelica).* The ancient custom of the synodal courts was gradually restrained by the introduction of the Eoman law. 199. Property of the Church The property of the Church was continually augmented by donations, by bequests, by profitable investments and loans for pawns especially to cru- saders, by royal fiefs, by free proprietors giving to the Church feudal lordship over their possessions to secure them against oppression, and by the increased value of property. On the other hand, it was diminished by the prodigality of individual prelates, which could not be checked till, after a dear-bought experience, laws were carefully formed against all pawning or alienation of Church property \ by the claims and oppressions of Church wardens, by transference of fiefs to those who could protect them and become their liege lords, by expenses for the support of legates and princes, and by the claims of feudal lords upon the property of deceased prelates, and upon the reve- nues of vacant Church offices (jus spolii et regaliae). This spoliation of the Church was zealously resisted by the popes. Otho IV. in Germany was in- duced to surrender his claims, but other sovereigns renounced them only in particular instances. Even the patronage (advocatia) of ecclesiastical foundations which had been originally intended for legal and military pro- tection, and which had sometimes originated with the act of endowment, or had been conferred upon a powerful neighbor, was frequently perverted, so as to be an instrument of oppression and robbery, (a) The principal por- tion of the Church property consisted of real estate and tithes. The legal titles by which the former was held were of various kinds, but the latter were claimed by a natural law propounded by God himself, al- though they were resisted in many ways when fully carried out, and were in collision with various local customs. The revenues even of the pope, in accordance with peculiar ancient usages, were paid in articles of natural produce, varying in different places. (5) Surplice fees (jura stolae) belonged chiefly to the lower clergy, but were only voluntary offerings of the people. Salaries from the state were indignantly rejected by the Church as dangerous to its independence and dignity, (c) The clergy claimed exemption from all taxes on persons or property, with the exception of the feudal aids and voluntary contributions in cases of extraordinary state necessity. A regular assessment was generally unknown in the feudal monarchies, but as late as the twelfth century the Church was often com- pelled to contribute for special objects, and in the free cities it had to bear its share in all general taxes. Alexander III. proclaimed the great funda- mental principle of the Church, which was, that the clergy might contribute of their own free will when they perceived the utility and necessity of an * Greg. Deer, II. tit. 1. c. 13. comp. Ravmer vol. VI. p. 198s. a) P. Gallade, de advocatis ecc. Heidlb. 1768. (A. Schmidt, Thes. jur. ecc. vol. V.) Muratori de advv. ecc. (Antiqq. Ital vol. V.) W. T. Kraut, die Vormundsch. Gott 1835. vol. I. V) Cencii Camerarii L. censuum Rom. Ecc. a 1192. Comp. Hurter. Innoc. vol. III. p. 121aa. c) Diomedes Cronica di Cypro, according to Eanmer vol. VI. p. 147. CHAP. IIL ECCLES. LIFE. 200. POPULAE SPIRIT. TEUCE OF GOD. 219 assessment, (d) The protection which the bishops received from the popes against the demands of their respective kings, gave occasion to the legal maxim, that the Church conld never be taxed without the papal sanction, (e) The natural right of the clergy to inherit property was finally legalized in spite of the opposition of the laity. Every Church was regarded as the pro- per heir of all ecclesiastics who died intestate in connection with it. There were different opinions respecting the right of such persons to bequeath their possessions, but it was generally c'onceded that they might freely dispose of all which had not been ^acquired from ecclesiastical revenues. At an early period the attempt was frequently made to bequeath the property of the Church to children, (/) by which it would soon have been either impover- ished, or subjected to a sacerdotal caste. This was afterwards frustrated by the law which required the celibacy of the clergy. In consequence of the munificent donations which it bestowed upon the poor, the people were gene- rally pleased to see the Church in the possession of the greatest wealth. CHAP. III. ECCLESIASTICAL LIFE. 200. The Religious Spirit of the People. This was a period in which violence, power, and artifice were enlisted in the service of a rude sensuality. But a profound religious spirit ardently engaged in the pursuit of everlasting life, was no less prevalent among the people. These tendencies were sometimes in conflict with each other, and sometimes they were reconciled by the most remarkable compromises. The hierarchy, addressing itself to the religious spirit, but in a manner conformed to the age, endeavored to establish the ascendency of the law and of an ele- vated morality. A period in which brute force (Faust-recht) was the only law, was interrupted by one in which the Truce of God was sustained by ecclesiastical threatenings and miracles, (a) "Women and children, defence- less persons, and every thing constructed or planted for purposes of peace, were in times of war under the protection of the Church. (5) It offered an asylum to all who were persecuted, without inquiring whether they were pursued by lawless violence or justice. Violent persons were terrified by. frightful representations of a present God, and by narratives of divine judg- ments ; and when those who possessed great power became penitent, they were compelled to undergo the most severe and effective penances. The tenth century is remarkable for having been the most degraded of all these periods for its reckless struggles and general rapacity. A vague presentiment of death, a remnant of the pagan notion of the Twilight of the gods, (c) passed d) Cone. Later. III. c. 19. (Mansi Th. XXII. p. 228.) e) Cone. Later. IV. c. 46. (Mansi Th. XXII. p. 1030.) /) E. g. Bened. VIII. about 1014 in Cone. Ticinensi. (Mansi Th. XIX. p. 343.) a) Treuga Dei, first proclaimed in 1041 in Aquitania. Gldber Radulph. V. 1. (Bouquet Th. X, p. 59.) Mansi Th, XIX. p. 593. Z>) Jaffie, p. 632. c) Oomp. Muspilli, edit, by Schineller, Munich. 1S32. 220 MEDIAEVAL CHUECH HISTOEY. PEE. III. A. D. 800-1218. through the youthful nations, 'and fixed upon the close of the first millennium of the Christian era as the period for the end of the world, (d) But new life was awakened by the conflict with the Saracens in Spain, as well as by their heroic example. The struggle between the papacy and the mon- archies of that period contributed also to the same result. The pleasures of the world were principally enjoyed by the nobility and clergy. An independent estate of burghers, if it did not always contend for public freedom and justice, certainly strove to obtain special liberties and preroga- tives for themselves. In accordance with both tlfle tendencies above men- tioned, the female sex was regarded with extravagant admiration, or as frail and dangerous. The peculiar spirit of the age was fully developed in the crusades. In them was displayed the absolute ascendency of the imagination and the feelings. Human life became so corrupted that it degenerated into a coarse sensual existence, or an ideal struggle for something beyond human attainment. All the peculiarities of the European nations were amalgamated with each other, or combined with the fanciful speculations of the East. The contracted horizon to which the people had been accustomed became much enlarged, and it was not without serious injury to themselves that many walked beneath the lofty palm-trees, (e) This sensuous piety required and put confidence in all kinds of miracles. The sepulchres of the East were opened, and the sacred antiquity of the Church became realized once more in the present, by means of peculiar relics, whose genuineness the understand- ing would no more think of proving than it would venture to suspect the miracles by which they were certified to the faithful. Many vessels and emblems, gradually or accidentally invested with a sacred character, received at that time a place in the primitive ecclesiastical usage by means of the legends, or became connected with the old German popular traditions. (/) Superstition was especially congenial with the spirit of the age, and the hier- archy made it subservient to their purposes, increasing or diminishing it according as their interests prompted them. As instances of the latter, may be mentioned their opposition to the ordeals or judgments of God, especially by duels, (g) While God was brought down to the level of humanity, men were invested with the attributes of God. Ancient saints were once more discovered, and the present age felt competent even to create new saints. The ardent feelings of the people prompted them to pray even to a dog, as a martyr and a patron saint, because he had lost his life in behalf of his master'* child. (7i) The Mother of God, however, was above all other saints the object of chivalrous gallantry. But notwithstanding the profound veneration d) AUbo Ablas Floriac. Apologet. (Galland. Bibl. PP. Th. XIV. p. 141.) In a variety of ways in deeds of gift then made. Comp. Lucke, Einl. in d. Offenb. Job. Bonn. 1832. p. 514s. e) Comp. Placidus Muth, Disq. in blgamiam Comit de Gleichen. Erf. 1788. TJiiUm, Beschr. d. Grabes u. d. Gebeine d. Gr. v. GL u. seiner beiden Weiber. Goth. u. Erf. 1836. /) Comp. G. Gerb'eron, Hist de la robe sans couture du monast d'Argenteull. Par. 1677. J. Marx, Gesch. d. h. Eocks. Treves. 1844 J. Gildemeister u. H. v. Sybel, d. h. Eock zu Trier u. d. 20 andern h. ungenahten Eocke. Dusseld. (1844.) 3. ed. 1845.-Der ungenahte grauo Eock Christi. Altdeutsches Gedicht, edit by F. H. v. d. Hagen, Berlin. 1844. g) Cone. Valentinum III. a. 855. c. 11. 12. (Mansi Th. XV. p. 9.) Innoc. JIT. 1. XL Ep. 46. 1 XIV. Ep. 138. K) Steph. do Borbone, in Echard, Scrr. Praed. vol. L p. 193. CHAP. ILL ECCLES. LIFE. 201. CLEKGY. DUNSTAN. .221 in which the Church was held, the exuberant spirit of the age sometimes ex- ceeded the limits of its own due reverence. Accordingly the devil, in spite of all his dismal enchantments and temptations, generally appears in popular traditions as a very poor and simple being. The wanton spirit of the trou- badours sometimes ventured to treat with familiarity the sacred person of the holy Virgin and even of God the Father. The priests themselves in an innocent way sometimes made parodies of the holy mysteries and offices of the Church at their festivals of fools and asses, (i) 201. Manners of the Clergy. According to the feudal law of Germany the bishops were bound to ap- pear personally with their quota of men in the army of their liege lord. On the other hand they were carefully reminded by the popes that they should devote themselves to the work of preaching, and to the care x of souls, and that the Church should abstain with horror from the shedding of blood in all its forms. () We are therefore not surprised to find such a character as that of Christian, Bishop of Mentz, the heroic, learned, and rapacious general of the emperor Frederic, who slew his enemies with a club. (Z>) But even those bishops who were more spiritual in their dispositions were sometimes com- pelled to become leaders of armies, and as soon as they had administered the Holy Sacrament to their warriors they were called upon also to prepare them for the battle, (c) What was called simony was in some instances only the cus- tomary tribute given to the princes and to the popes soon after the time of Gregory. Even the better portion of the clergy could not entirely abstain from this, but as it was proscribed by the Church it was ensnaring to the conscience. In England, Dunstan (d. about 990), an abbot and a triple bishop, versed in all the knowledge prevalent in his day, so powerful that he held even the devil in his tongs, and though personally devoted to his own visions in worldly matters, so politic that he entirely controlled three succes- sive kings, and broke the heart of another who presumed to resist him, attempted to reform the voluptuous lives of the priesthood by putting his monks in the place of those clergymen who would not give up their wives, (d) His efforts, however, were attended by no very lasting results. Damiani, who with Hildebrand was a severe censor of the manners of his age and even of the papacy, and who desired nothing from the world but a monastic cell in which he could scourge himself, presents in his writings such a naked and yivid picture of the excesses of the clergy, that Alexander II. prohibited the peru- sal of them on the ground of their injurious influence upon the morals of the i) The hierarchy were at first zealous against these sports, but gradually they relaxed in their opposition, and at a later period attempted to improve them. Du Fresne, Glosa. ad Scrr. med. et inf. Lat. v. Cervula. Calendae. Tiliot, M6moires pour servir a 1'histoire de la fete des foux. Laus. 1751. a) Damiani 1. IV. Ep. 9. Gone. Turon. a. 1060. c. 7. 6) Albert. Stadens. p. 291s. (Schilteri Scrr. Argent. 1702.) c) & Vlrici Yita in MaUllon Acta SS. Saec. IV. p. 440. d) Wilkins, Cone. Angl. vol. I. p. 257ss. G. MalmesUr. Gesta Eeg. Angl. 1. II. Vita S. Dunst p. Britforth ct Osborn : Acta S3. Maj. vol. IV. p. 844. Mabillon, Ann. Ord. S. Bened. vol. III. p. 222 MEDIAEVAL CHUECH HISTORY. PER. III. A. D. 800-1216. readers, (e) Marriage was not declared unlawful to the clergy in England and Spain until the twelfth century, and in the Northern kingdoms till some time in the thirteenth. Some even died because they could not endure this separation from their wives and children. But although Gregory succeeded in abolishing marriage, he could not prevent licentiousness among the clergy. Before his time this had prevailed publicly, but in a less offensive form, whereas after his enactments it was practised in secret, and frequently in the most unnatural manner, so that many regarded the remedy as worse than tho evil. The clergy partook also of the faults peculiar to the times, and were sometimes involved in the most shameless acts of violence. (/) But such in- dividual instances of irregularity among the bishops, or of criminality among the clergy, which were generally put down in the Church after the influence of Hildebrand had been put forth, should not be regarded as specimens of the general character of that period, (g) The declamations which are sometimes found in the writings of that day, respecting clerical depravity, in many cases proceeded from monastic prejudices or secular antipathies. (7i) The clergy must also have participated in the virtues of that period, for without these their increasing influence among the people would appear incomprehen- sible. This consciousness of control over the age in which they lived, and the true conception which they possessed of what a clergyman should be, contributed much to elevate even the inferior multitude of priests above their ordinary position and made them share in the common spirit of their order. 202. Church Discipline. Comp. 66. 182. &M. Amort de origine, progressu ac fructu indulgentiar. Aug. Vlnd. 1T85. t By the great body of the people, the act of binding ancl loosing on the part of the priest was regarded as equivalent to an admission to heaven, or an exclusion from it. Even death, which sunders all other ties, was supposed to bring men more perfectly under this influence. Conscientious clergymen were often distressed in the exercise of a power which extended even beyond the grave, and eminent theologians arrayed themselves in opposition to this error, (a) The synodal courts, when they had become corrupt, imposed fines upon offenders, or consented that the ecclesiastical penance should be dis- charged by the payment of alms, of which the Church was to be the dispen- ser. Penitential books were formed in which a choice of penances was pro- posed, and a kind of price current was kept for all kinds of crime. (5) The popes were generally supposed to possess a peculiar power of absolving from the guilt of the more heinous crimes, and they made use of this public con- fidence very extensively when they sold complete absolution, professing to devote the proceeds to the relief of the crusaders. Particular sanctuaries e) Liber Gomorrhianus. Epp. II, 6. Opp. den. ed. Gaetani, Par. 1743. Life of Dam. by his pupil Jo. Monachus in Opp. and Acta S3. Febr. vol. IIL p. 406. Vita S. Dam. scr. J. Laderchio, Rom. 1702. 3 vols. 4. /) E. g. Lambert. Schqfn. ad a. 1063. g) E. g. ffurter, Innoc. vol. IIL p. 327ss. A) With respect to the former, see Damian, and with regard to the latter, the songs of the Trou- Dadours and Minnesingers. a) Petrus Lomb. Bentt, L. IV. Dist 18. Z>) Regino, de disc. ecc. II, 43Sas. CHAP. III. ECCLES. LIFE. 202. DISCIPLINE. 203. WORSHIP. 223 also were invested with the privilege of bestowing absolution on condition of a certain period of penance, to all who should visit them, either on some festival or at any time, (c) A period of penance which might ordinarily ex- ceed the limits of human life might be accomplished in a brief space of time by means of the two kinds of absolution. Persons who were in a high degree the victims of remorse were required to build a church, to go upon a crusade, or to enter a convent. In all cases when services were performed, or money was paid to obtain such a pardon for sin, a cordial repentance and an amendment of life was made a prerequisite in the applicant. Intelligent teachers, however, perceived that the Church was placing itself in a position of extreme peril, (d) According to an opinion which had now become es- tablished, but was still opposed in some quarters, a mortal sin could be for- given only in the confessional. The Church required that at least once in each year every person should confess all the sins of which he was conscious, (e) By this means the priests became possessed of all the hearts and secrets of the people. The interdict which had been on several occasions attempted in former times, but had been always regarded as an arbitrary exercise of an unchristian power, became, during the eleventh century a legitimate measure in opposition to those who violated solemn treaties. It soon after became a terrible weapon in the hands of the popes by which a nation was compelled to atone for the crimes of its rulers, or was armed against those in authority over it. "When the Church possessed a powerful influence over the life of every one, no people patiently endured a protracted discontinuance of eccle- siastical services, and frequently they did not hesitate to compel their clergy to open their churches for public worship. Innocent also obtained a promise that every one whom he should excommunicate should be subjected in like manner to the ban of the empire, but such an engagement it was found im- possible always to fulfil. 203. Public Worship. Walafrid Strata, died 849, de exordiis et increm. rer. ecc. Ivo, died 1115, Micrologus de ecc. ob- servatt. (Both found in ffittorp. see 166.) J. Beleth, about 1182, div. officior. brevis explic. ed. Corn. Laurimann. Antu. 1553. (f. Duranti, died 1296, Rationale div. officior. 1. YIIL Mog. 149T. f. aud often. The Wessobrunnen prayer, a monument of the ancient language and piety of Germany, contains an exalted poetical representation of the antemundane existence of God, and an humble supplication for spiritual blessings, (a) But the sensuous disposition of the people was necessarily predominant. In consequence of the sensuous tendency then so prevalent, public wor- ship appeared to be little else than a worship of the saints. Preaching was hardly an essential part of the service on public festivals, although several synods and popes endeavored to introduce into churches only those who were able to instruct the people, and the popularity of those preachers who dis- coursed in an affecting style, proved that the multitude were susceptible of c) Comp. Cone. Lateran. IV. c. 62. (Mansi Th. XXIL p. 1050s.) d) Abelardi Ethica c. 18. 35. (Pesii Anecd. Th. III. P. L p. 666*3. e) Cone. Lateran. IV. c. 21. (Mansi Th. XXII. p. lOOTss.) o) According to the extracts by Wackernasel (BrL 1827.) in Rettberg, vol. II. p. 818, 224 MEDIAEVAL CHUECH HISTOEY. TEE. III. A. D. 800-1216. benefit from the Word of God. (&) The use of the Koman Liturgy was re- quired in all the churches as the visible bond of general unity. % The Gothic Liturgy, although it was protected by an affectionate people, and had even passed the ordeal of fire, was gradually suppressed in Spain after the eleventh century, (c) The Sabbath was especially devoted to the service of the Vir- gin Mary, in whose honor a particular service was composed principally by Damian (Officium S. Virginis) to be performed in the convents. When PascJiasius Radbert, a monk and (844-851) an abbot at Corvey (d. about 865), maintained that the virginity of Mary was unimpaired even by the birth of the Son of God, the learned divines of his day shrunk from the position as containing a Docetic sentiment, (d) That every thing might be removed which could throw the slightest suspicion upon the virgin purity of the Queen of heaven, the doctrine was finally set forth according to which she also was conceived in a miraculous manner, and some canons of Lyons (about 1140) solemnized this faith by instituting the festival of the Immacu- late Conception. St. Bernard, however, and all learned theologians of that period were opposed to this innovation, (e) In popular traditions many pleasant things which had been told of the goddess Freyja were transferred to Mary. (/) A festival of All Souls (Nov. 2) for the deliverance of those who were confined in purgatory was also established by the monks of Olugny (1010), who obtained a hint from the popular tradition asserting that the gate of purgatory was in one of the volcanoes of the Lipari islands. () Cone. Mogunt, a. 847. c. 2. (Mansi Th. XIV. p. 903.) Cone. Lateran. IV. c. 10s. (75. Th. XXII. p. 998s.) JacoU a Vitriaco Hist occid. c. 6ss. c) Roderico Tolet. de reb. Hisp. VI, 26. d) Katramni L. de eo, quod Chr. ex Tirgine natus est (ITAcliery, Spicileg. Th. I. p. 52.) Fr. Walch, H. controv. S. IX. de partu Virginia. Goet 1753. 4. e) Ant. Gravois, de ortu et progressu cultus ac festi immaculati conceptus Dei Genetricis. Luc. 1762. 4. f) Grimm, Deutsche Mythol. pp. 192, 417, 694. XX. g) JotsaZdi Vita S. Odilon. c. 14. (MaUllon, Acts SS. S. VI. P. I. p. 615.) Sigeb. Gembl. ad a. 993. 70 A. Weber, Origo festi Gr. Hlmst 1714. 4. Mirus, de Gr. M. et festo Gr. P. II. HlmsL 1768. 4, Mucke, v. Urspr. d. Gr. Festes. Guben, 1793. *) Pet. Lonib. Sent IV. Dist 1-42. *) fetri de Vineis, 1. HL Ep. 21. Mttiger Heinr. d. Lowe. Aum. 63. CHAP. III. ECCLES. LIFE. 203. MAKEIAGE. 204. MONASTIC LIFE. 225 tlie priesthood maintained this custom of withholding the cup against all sub- sequent opposition. (I) The solitary mass of the priest was at first decidedly reprehended, (m) In the tenth century adultery continued to he regarded by the popes as a sufficient ground for divorce, but the ecclesiastical view of the marriage rite was completely carried out when it was soon after declared ab- solutely inviolable, and Innocent III. insisted upon the reunion of husband and wife, even after a double adultery had been proved. Human frailty, however, was supplied with abundant opportunities for sundering this bond by means of the prohibition of all marriages between relatives, even of the seventh degree, since such a consanguinity was very generally proved when it was desirable. Innocent limited the degrees of relationship within which marriage was invalid, to four, and in fact regarded even these limits as pre- scribed only by human and natural laws, (n) 204. Monastic Life. The convents were regarded in the ninth century as the hereditary fiefs of the secular lords, under whose control they were more perfectly wasted and misgoverned, than by the irruptions of the Normans, (a) But the ex- alted contempt of the world displayed in the monastic life corresponded with the spirit of the times. Some who from their youth had never become attached to the enjoyments of the world, felt the need of such a pious seclu- sion and fellowship. Others felt the same necessity after the agitation of a sudden conversion, or that they might make an atonement in this way for the sins of an irregular life. Simultaneously, therefore, with the newly awakened energies of the people, and the general movement of multitudes in favor of corporations, a series of successful efforts were put forth to attain the proper objects of the convent by a renewal and completion of the Benedictine rule. The abbots, sustained by papal privileges and royal fiefs, were favorable to the party of the bishops and princes. The popular element of the Church, however, was especially maintained in the convents, and it was through these that Gregory was enabled to obtain his victory. Monasticism, though fre- quently arrayed in opposition to particular individuals among the clergy, was closely allied to the general body ; and on account of its exemption from epis- copal supervision it was generally in the immediate service of the pope. After the tenth century it was regarded as a peculiarly spiritual order (ordo of the religiosi), which, however, made use of lay brethren (conversi), to attend to their secular affairs. In this way the larger Benedictine convents carried on within themselves all the mechanical arts, at any time needed in them, especially those connected with masonry. The seclusion necessary for the convent was sometimes obtained even in the cities, but the spot best I) J. G. de Lith, de adoratione panis consecr. et interdictiono calicis. Suob. 1773. Spittler, Gesch. des Kelchs im Abendm. Lemgo. 1780. m) Cone. Mogunt. a. 813. c. 43. ) Leo VII. Ep. ad Eberhard. (Aventini Annal. Bojor. IV, 23.) Comp. G. W. Bohmer, u. d. Ehe- gesetze im Zeitalt. Carls, d. Gr. u. seiner nachst Nachfolger. Gott 1826. Tnnoo. III. \. I. Ep. 143. IX. Ep. 75. XI. Ep. 101. Cone. Later an. IV. c. 50-52. a) Episcopor. Ep. ad Ludov. a, 858. c. 8. (Walter Th. III. p. 86.) Cone. Troslejan. a 909. c. 3 Wanai Th. XVIII. p. 270s.) 15 226 MEDIAEVAL CHUECH HISTOBY. PEE. III. A. D. 800-1216. adapted for it was generally found in some beautiful wilderness. It then fre- quently became the central point for all the business of the surrounding region. Sometimes convents were erected upon soil which had been stained with blood, or some sentimental legends were connected with their gloomy walls. (5) The uniform of the cloister which was at first nearly the same with the ordinary dress of the people, was gradually changed, until it became the peculiar habit of the order. The enlargement or diminution of the pro- perty of convents was produced by the same causes as those which affected Church property in general, but inheritance from the monks was the ordi- nary, and the cultivation of the desert soil was the noblest method by which wealth was acquired. In consequence of the rigidity of their rules and the sanctity of their founders, many of these orders rapidly increased in numbers, and became soon involved in the Inconsistency of having devoted themselves to poverty, and yet being in the enjoyment of immense wealth. Monks and nuns sometimes resided under the same roof (monasterium duplex.) The secret sins or the public ofibnces of individuals and of whole convents, aro only occasionally mentioned, and then only because they were brought before the ecclesiastical courts. In the establishment of monasteries the Church allowed the various dispositions of individuals to be gratified, and only pro- vided by their legislation that these diversities should all be confined within the limits required by the general objects of the order. And when the monastic life had assumed a great variety of individual forms, and appeared to have taken every possible shape, Innocent III. prohibited the formation of any new orders, (c) 205. The Congregation of Clugny. Bibllotheca Cluniacensis, in qua SS. Patrum Abbatum Vitae, miracula, scripta rec. Paris. 1611 f. The Ordo dim. -was accurately described in the llth cent by Bernard who belonged to it (Vetua discipL monast ed. Iferrgott, Par. 1726. 4 p. 183.) The Antiquiorea Consuett. Clun. 1. IIL by C7- rich, one of the order 1070, has preserved a good representation of affairs at Hirsau. (D'Achery, Spi- cil. vol I. p. 641.) Bemonia Vita. (Mdbitton, Acta SS. 8. V. p. 66.) Odonia Vita by his pupil Jo- hannes. (/&. p. 150.) OdOonis Vita by his pupil Jotsaldua, (Ib. 8. VI. p. 507.) S. WUhelmi Constt Hiersaugiens. (Herrgott, p. 375.) The rule of Benedict had been re-established by Berno^ one of the family of the Burgundian Counts, in two of the monasteries under his control. Being invited by William, Duke of Aquitania, to form a convent after the same model, he founded that of Clugny (Cluniacum, 910), and placed it under the immediate supervision of the pope. His successor, Odo (927-41), who had been a monk in his habits even before taking the monastic vow, was well acquainted with the true method of governing the minds of men. A rule of discipline was formed under him, which, by severe, uninterrupted, mechanical employments of a religious nature, so completely destroyed all individuality of feeling, that the ecclesiastical and monastic spirit became exclusively active in the hearts of the members. Under Odilo (994-1048). who has been called the Archangel of the monks, and during the administra- V) E. g. the priory of the deux amoureua at Eouen. see Kelyot, vol. II. p. 471. c) Cone. Lateran IV. c. 13. (Mansl Th. XXIL p. 1002s.) CHAP, lit EOCLES. LIFE. 205. CLUGNY. 206. GRAMMONT. 227 tion of a series of abbots, whose inflexible good sense never allowed them to act inconsistently with their monastic sanctity, most of the convents in France, carried away with the universal admiration, or compelled by their princes or protectors, became subject to the rule and government of the con- gregation of Clugny. This gave rise to a Congregation of Benedictines, which in the middle of the twelfth century embraced about 2000 convents, principally in France. At the head of these was placed the Abbot of Clugny, always chosen by the monks of his own convent, from whose ranks also he almost invariably selected the priors of all the convents belonging to the congregation. The legislative and supervisory powers were vested in a General Chapter which assembled annually at Clugny, The very heart of the French nation was in the hands of the monks of Clugny, until about the commencement of the 12th century, when the order withdrew from public affairs and lived upon its own resources. An instance of a reformation in the midst of extreme disorder was exhibited in Germany, when the congregation of Hirsau was established there (1069) by the Abbot William after the model of that of Ciagny, 206, Mlmr Orders of the llth Century, 1. In the wilderness of the Apennine mountains were established two or- ders of monks, originally composed of hermits, but gradually connected with convents. The first of these was called the Order of Camaldoli, and was founded (about 1018) by the pious zeal of Romuald, one of the family of the Duke of Ravenna. The seco'nd was called the Order of Vallombrosa, and originated (about 1038) in the rigid austerity of John Gnalbert, a Florentine. The members of these orders vowed that they would abstain even from or- dinary intellectual enjoyments, and from all conversation with their fellow- men. At a later period, however, they endeavored to reconcile this con- tempt of the world, and self-mortification, with the enjoyment of the vast possessions acquired by the orders, (a) 2. Stephen of Tigerno was unwilling to be regarded either as a monk or a hermit, and acknowledged no rule but that of the gospel. With the sanction of Gregory (1073) he founded an order subsequently called by the name of Gframmont. This determined to relin- quish its own beloved convent rather than to defend a just claim by a legal process, and even sincerely declined the honor of the miracles imputed to its illustrious founder, because it thought such a reputation would be prejudicial to humility. After a rapid growth, however, it was powerfully agitated by disputes between its monks and those lay brethren, who, according to the Rule, had the charge of its secular affairs. The result was that in the 12th century it entirely lost its independence. (5) 8. Bruno of Cologne^ the rector of the cathedral school and a Chancellor at Rheims, disgusted with the dis- a) Romualdi Vita, scr. Damlani. (Mdblll. Acta SS. S. VI. P. L p. 247.) Rate in Holsten. Th. II. p. 192. Archang. ffastivill, Romualdina s. Camaldulensis O. Hist Par. 1631. 12. Gualberti Vita (Mabill, Acta S3. 8. VI. P. II. p. 278.) Bullarium Vallumbrosanum, s. bullae Pontificum, qui etmdem Ord. privileges decoranmt, a Fulgentio Nardio. Flor. 1729. &) Vita & Stephani by Gerhard, the 7th prior of Grammont (Martene, ampliss. Col. Th. VI. p. 1050. MaMllon, Ann. Ord. S. Ben. Th. V. p. 65.) Hist prolixior Prior, Grandimont (Marten* ik p. 125.) 228 MEDIAEVAL CHUKCH HISTOEY. PEE. III. A. D. SOO-12N5. graceful life of his archbishop, renounced the world. There is a melancholy tale which assigns another cause for this act, hut it was not known until the close of the thirteenth century, (c) He erected huts for himself and a few companions (1048) in the wild mountain gorge of Chartreuse near Grenoble. He was induced by his former pupil, Urban II., to visit Rome (1090), but he soon became weary of a secular life in that city, and after refusing the bish- opric of Reggio, he founded a new Carthusian monastery in Calabria, in which he ended his days (1101). The order was not organized into a society until 1141 in the mother convent. For a long time the Carthusians perse- vered in the practice of an abstinence so strict that they rejected all gifts except necessary food and skins for parchments. The wealth they received at a later period was expended in the embellishment of churches, (d) 4. When France was visited by a disorder called St. Anthony's fire, the order of the Hospitallers of St. Anthony was founded for the relief of the sick by Gaston, & wealthy nobleman of Dauphine, from gratitude for the, recovery of his son (1095). At first it consisted entirely of lay brethren, but after- wards it was composed of canons under the Rule of Augustine, (e) 0. Robert of Arlrissel, at an early period a divine, then a superintendent of a diocese, and subsequently a preacher of repentance and of the crusades, was the founder of the Benedictine Congregation of Fontevraud, for penitents, especially of the female sex who had once fallen from virtue. For this class of persons he seems to have felt a peculiar interest, and therefore fell under the re- proaches of his contemporaries. In compliment to the Queen of Heaven the supreme direction of the society was intrusted to female hands. (/) 207. The Cistercians and St. Bernard. 1) Eelatio qualiter incepit Ordo Cisterciensis. (Auberti Mirael Chron. Cist Orel Colon. 1641. p. 8ss.) Henriquez, Eegula, Constitt et Privil. Ord. Cist Ant 1680. t.Manrlque, Ann. Cist Lugd. 1642. 4 Th. f. Pierre le Nain, Hist de 1'Ordre de Citeaux. Par. 1696ss. 9 Th. 2) Bernardi Opp. (Letters, Discourses, Poems, ascetic writings.), ed. NaUtton, Par. 1667. 1690. 6 Th. f. 1719. 2 Th. t. Ven. 172. 2 Th. 1 Par. 1839. 2 Th. Med. 1851s. 8 vols. 4. IHs life by contemporaries : GuUelmus, Abbot of S. Thierry, Gaufredus and Alanus de Insulia, Monks of Clairvaux. (MdbUlon Th. I. and Vl.)-Neander, d. h. Benin, u. s. Zeitalt Berl. (1818.) 1848. [Tr. into Engl. by Wrench, Lond. 1845. 12mo.] J. Ellendorf, Bernh. u. d. Hier. 1888. 2 vols. Balialonne, Hist d. 8. Bern. Par. 1843. 2 Th. Robert, who had been dedicated to the Virgin by his mother before his birth, became dissatisfied while yet an abbot with the comfortable life of the wealthy monks, and founded a convent at Citeaux, under regulations requir- ing the most extreme poverty (1098). In the order which sprung from this, the most rigid abstemiousness was demanded, all splendor in churches was condemned, and its members promised absolutely to submit to the bishop of the diocese, as well as to abstain from all the ordinary employments of life, not excepting even the charge of souls. The internal affairs of the society were directed only by the law of love ; (a) the position of the Abbot of c) Launoii de vera causa secessus S. Brnnonis in eremum. Par. 1646. (Opp. Th. II. P. II. p. 824.) d) Mabill.A.rm. Th. V. p. 202ss. and Acta S3. S. VI. P. II. Praef. p. 37ss. Legends respecting the life of Bruno may be seen in Acta SS. Oct Th. III. p. 491ss. <) Acta SS. Jan. Th. II. p. 160. Kapp, de fratrib. S. Ant Lps. 1787. 4. /) MaUllon, Ann. Th. V. p. 814ss. Acta SS. Febr. Th. IIL p. 593ss. o) Charta Charitatis. (Manrique Th. I. p. 109ss.) CHAP. II*. ECCLES. LIFE. 20T. CISTEECIANS. BERNARD. 229 Citeaux and the government by annual General Chapters, were all modelled after the Constitution of Clugny, although the abbots of the four oldest affiliated convents gradually attained equality with the Abbot of Citeaux (1119). The black dress of the Benedictines was exchanged for a white cowl. By the extreme veneration which the Cistercians acquired among their contemporaries, who regarded them as perfect representatives of apos- tolic simplicity, and by the splendor of St. Bernard's name, this new order was able to vie successfully with the congregation of Clugny. The latter was indeed considerably shaken by the excesses of its abbot, Pontius (1109-25), who carried the staff of the shepherd and of the pilgrim in the same hand which bore the sword of the highway robber. It was, however, enabled to close this controversy honorably to itself under the direction of Peter the- Venerable (1122-56). (5) Bernard was born at Fontaine, of a fami- ly distinguished for monastic piety. Even during the struggles of his early youth he showed that he was by natural temperament inclined to a monastic life. Accordingly in the year 1113 he became a monk at Citeaux, and in 1115 the Abbot of Clairvaux, a convent founded by persons belonging to that community. By his entire disengagement from the world, he seemed utterly independent of the rules, and was actually superior to all those laws by which men are usually governed. He was certainly highly endowed by nature, and in popular estimation as well as in his own opinion he pos- sessed the power of working miracles. Educated beneath the foliage of a mighty forest, his thoughts were continually directed toward heaven. In spite of the general insipidity of the age, he was distinguished by an elo- quence which was irresistible even by those who could not fully comprehend his discourse. He was rather jealous of human learning, and so zealous in behalf of the Church that he engaged in a sanguinary persecution. He was enthusiastic in his efforts to promote the power of the priesthood, and yet candid and severe with respect to their irregularities. In almost every part of Europe he beheld those whose minds he had formed by his instructions seated upon episcopal thrones, he himself acted as an umpire in nearly all the quarrels which took place between different princes and nations, and by the diffusion of his highly theocratic spirit among the priesthood, he became the most influential man of his age. By his influence his order became so powerful, that soon after his death (1153) it endeavored to excel its rivals of Clugny, not so much in humility and contempt of the world as in indepen- dence and wealth. 208. Praemonstrants and Carmelites. Hermanni MonacU de mirac. s. Mariae laudes, III, 2ss. (Guiberti, Opp. ed. tfAchery, p. 544.) Acta SS. June. Th. I. p. S04ss. Chrye. van der Sterre, Vita S. Norb. Antu. 1656. Hugo, Vie de S. Norb. Luxemb. 1704 4, BibL Ord. Praemonst. per Jo. U Paige, Par. 1633. Joan. Phocas, compendiaria descriptio, etc. (Leon. Allatii Symmicta. Ven. 1733. f. p. 17.) Jo- coU de Vitriaco Hist. Hieros. c. 52. (JBongars Th. I. p. 1075.) Rule in Hotiten. Th. III. p. ISss. Daniel a Virg. Maria, Speculum Carmelitanum. Antu. 1680. 4 Th. Norbert was originally a canon at Cologne, and as the chaplain to Henry 5) Bernardi, Apol. ad Guil. (MaUllon Th. IV. p. 83.) Petri Ven. ad Bern. I. Ep. 28. IV. Ep. 17. VI. Ep. 4. (Bibl. PP. Max. Th, XXII.) Dialogus inter Cluniac. mon. et Cist de diversis utriusque Ord. observv. (Martene, Thes. Th. V. p. 1569.) 230 MEDIAEVAL OHUECH HISTORY. PEE. III. A. D. 800-I21* V. lived in the enjoyment of wealth, with the brightest prospects of promo- tion in the priesthood. By an event which was supposed to hear a strong resemblance to the conversion of Paul, he was induced to throw all these aside, and enter upon the humble employment of a preacher of repentance. After some ineffectual attempts to reform other canons, he founded an order of mo- nastic canons in the unhealthy vale of Premontre (1120). When he appeared preaching repentance at the Diet of Speyer, he was elected as if by a divine inspiration to the vacant archbishopric of Magdeburg, and entered that city in the garb of a beggar. A powerful storm of opposition was raised against him on account of his strenuous efforts to induce his wealthy retinue there to practise the same abstemiousness which he showed. The people, how- ever, before whose fury he was once obliged to save his life by flight, main- tained possession of his body us though it were the sacred palladium of their city, in opposition to the demands of the monks of Premontre. Before his death (1134) Norbert witnessed the rapid increase of his order in the estab- lishment of numerous chapters and convents for monk^ and nuns. Berthold, a crusader from Calabria, who with a few companions had resided for a time in a cave of Mount Carmel, was the founder of the order of the Carmelites, though his claims to that honor have been denied by his followers. On ac- count of the hallowed recollections connected with the mountain where they resided, and the similarity of the habits of their order with those of Elias, they have always maintained that it was founded by that ancient prophet, and continued until modern times by a series of successive prophets, (a) When, by the conquests of the Saracens, the Carmelites lost possession of their original seat, they allege that the holy Virgin gave her scapular to Simon Stock, the general of the order, that it might become thenceforth the habit of all its members, with the assurance that whoever should die in this dress would never suffer in everlasting fire. (?>) New possessions were ac- quired by these Brethren of our Lady of Mount Carmel in every country of Europe. 209. The Trinitarians. Bonaventura Jfaro, Annales Ord. S. Trin. Horn. 1CS4 Rnle in Zfofofe*. Th. III. p. 8sa. The vague and visionary efforts of two hermits, John de Matha, pre- viously a Parisian divine, and Felix de Valois, appear to have been finally directed to a definite object by Innocent IIL, and an Order of the Holy Trinity was established for the redemption of Christian slaves (1198). The first-fruits of its efforts were exhibited in the year 1200, when a multitude of Christians purchased from slavery in Morocco returned to their homes. The order of the Trinitarians (de redemptione captivorum, Mathurins, freres aux &nes) spread itself rapidly in all parts of Southern Europe. Female convents were also instituted, and through many vicissitudes the primary object of the order has not been altogether abandoned even to a very recent a) Papebroch (Acts SS. April Th. I. p. 774ss. and in some controversial writings) has given tb toie history in opposition to the prolix volumes of the Carmelites. [Mosheim Hist Cent. XII. Part II. 21. McLain's transl.] 6) Launoii Dss. de Sim. Stochii viso. Par. 1653. (Opp. Th. II. P. II.) CHAP. III. ECCLE3. LIFE. 210. HUMILIATES. 211. EELIG. KNIGHTS. 23 1 period. The residence of its General (minister generalis), and the place where its general chapter, composed of all the superiors of its convents, con- vened, was at Cerfroy, where the two original hermits were once visited by a white deer with the mark of a cross between its horns. 210. The Humiliates. Tiraboschi, vetera Humiliatorum monnmenta. Mediol. 1766ss. 3 Th. 4. Many felt that the religious should be brought into more intimate connec- tions with the secular life than the general Church at that time was able to afford. The community of the Humiliates was therefore instituted in the eleventh century, composed, at first, of an association of pious Milanese who had been exiled from their native city. Gradually it became extended over all parts of Lombardy, and embraced principally mechanics, especially weav- ers of woollen fabrics, connected together by the bond of a common employ- ment, and a love of pious exercises. All their property was held in common. At a later period even monks and priests united with them, and took part in the labors, the business, and the trade of the Society. Their community was tolerated by the hierarchy on the ground of its being a point of connection between the convent and the world. Innocent III. endeavored to give it a definite position by imposing upon it the rule of Benedict, and it was sup- plied with a grand master in 1246. Finally it became secularized, and was abolished by Pius V. (1571). 211. Establishment of the Orders of Knighthood. I. Wil Tyr. 1, 10. XVIII, 4ss. Jac. de VUriaeo c. 64. Ptol. Veltronius, Statuta Ord. hosp. S. Jo. Eom. 1588. f. HoUten. Th. II. p. 444ss. II. ( Vertot.) Hist, des Chevaliers hospitallers de S. Jean. Par. 1726. 4 Th. 4 1T61. 7 Th. (Niethammer) Gesch. d. Maltheserord. nach Yertot Jen. 1792. 2 vols. Paoli, dell'origine ed institute del ord. di S. Giovanni. Eom. 1781. 4. Falkenstein, Gesch. d. Job. Ord. Dresd. 1833. 2 vols. I. Wil. Tyr. XII, 7. Jac. de Vitr. c. 65. Bernardi Tract de nova militia a adhortatio ad milites templi. (Opp. Th. IV. p. 98.) HoUten. Th. II. p. 429ss. Hunter, Statntenbuch. Brl. 1794. 1 vol. II. P. du Puy, Hist des Templiers. Par. 1650. Brux. 1751. 4 Uebers. Frankf. 1665. 4 ITEstival, Hist crit et apol. des Chev. da Temple. Par. 1789. 2 Th. 4. An Epitome : Die Eitter des Temp, zu Jerus. Lpz. 1790. 2 vols. Wileke, Gesch. d. Temp. Ord. Lpz. 1826s. 2 vols. Falkenstein, Gesch. d. Temp. Ord. Dresd. 1833. 2 vols. [<7. G. Addison, Hist of the Knights Templars, &c. Lond. 1843. 2 ed. 8. 3 ed. 1854. 8.] I. Statuten des dent Ord. edited by K Ilennig, Konigsb. 1806. Petri de Dusburg (about 1326), Chronic. Prussiae s. Hist. Ord. Teut ed. HartknocTi, Jen. 1679. 4 Codex diplomatics Ord. Teut Urkundenbuch z. Gesch. d. deut 0. ed. by J. G. Henne, Mentz. 1845. II. Duellii, Hist Ord. Equit Teut Vind. 1727. f. Joh. Voigt, Gesch. Preuss. b. z. Untergange d. Herrsch. d. deutsctu Ordens. Konigsb. 1827ss. 4 vols. The various orders of knighthood which sprung np during the tenth cen- tury, were the legitimate result of the feudal system and the military occupa- tions of the youth. "When regarded as an affair of past times, this system is extolled as the ideal toward which noble minds were induced to aspire, but in its bitter reality it was the ascendency of a great corporation, whose power was restrained by Christian customs, and embellished by the princi- ples of love and honor. Duels and tournaments were always zealously opposed by popes and synods, but the system of knighthood itself was sanc- tioned by the Church because it enlisted men in the service of God, and for 232 MEDIAEVAL CHURCH HISTOEY. PEE. III. A. D. SOO-1216. the defence of all who were oppressed. The two most powerfu* tendencies of the age were united during the holy wars in forming a spiritual knight- hood which combined the three monastic vows -with the solemn promise never to desist from a conflict with unbelievers. 1. Some citizens of Amalfi, while trading with Palestine, had (1048) founded a hospital for the reception of pilgrims to Jerusalem. The fraternity which had the management of this hospital, after the conquest of Jerusalem by the Christians, took the monas- tic vow under the name of the Brethren of the Hospital, dedicated to St. John the Baptist, in Jerusalem. Raymond du Puy, the second principal of the order, to their former duty of hospitality and attendance upon the sick, added that of knighthood in opposition to infidels (about 1118), and this soon became the principal object of the order. 2. Nine knights, with Hugo de Pay ens as their master (magister militiae), took from the hand of the Patri- arch of Jerusalem the knightly monastic vow (1118), and from their location in the royal palace, by the side of the former Temple of Jerusalem, they assumed the name of Templars (pauperes commilitones Christi templique Salomonis). 3. During the siege of Aine (1190), some citizens of Bremen and Lubeck founded a hospital which was favored by the German princes, and under Henry of Walpot became the Order of the German Knights of the Virgin Mary. Each of these orders embraced three estates, viz., Knights, Priests, and Serving Brethren. In this latter class were included not only all who were engaged in manual labor, but squires. The whole was arranged in accordance with an aristocratic constitution, under the government of a Grand Master, Commanders, and Chapters of Knights. They formed the standing army of the Church in the East, but as a general society of noble- men they acquired vast possessions in every part of Europe. The Templars especially soon became independent by their own power, and the privileges granted to them by the pope. So highly was their spirit of devotion to the order cultivated, that they became a military society of noblemen, combining their hereditary powers with the privileges of the clergy. It was not long, therefore, before they found themselves in a hostile position to both bishops and kings. Wherever the Church in any way stood in need of worldly weapons, especially in Spain while contending with the Moors, and in Germa- ny in connection with the Cistercians, similar orders of knights were estab lished of a purely national character. CHAP. IV. STATE OF SCIENCE IN THE CHUKCH. 212. Scientific Education of the Ninth Century. Launoli Ds. de scholis celebr. a Car. M. et post eundem instauratis. Par. 1672. Hamb. 1717. Hist Htteraire de la France par des rel. Benedictins. Par. 1733ss. Th. IV. V. Cramer, Bossuet, Th. V. vol. II. Hefele, -wiss. zust im sudwest Deutschl. 9. 10. und 11. Jahrhh. (Tub. Quartalschr. 1833. P. 2.) Bdhr, Gescb. d. rOrn. Lit im Carol Zeita. Carlsr. 1840. The diffusion of education commenced by Charles the Great was con- tinued under the Carolingians by the schools established in the cathedrals ind convents. The most efficient agent in it, so far as related to Germany, CHAP. IV. ECCLES. SCIENCE. 212. E. MAURUS. CLAUDIUS. EKIGENA. 233 was Edbanus Maurus, the pupil of Alcuin, and tlie friend of the Emperor Louis when that monarch was in distress. He had travelled in Palestine, and in 822 was called to preside over the convent of Fulda, Compelled to fly from that place in 842, he soon after (847) became Archbishop of Mentz, and died in 856. With great humility he devoted himself to the lowly task of collecting the various explanations of the Scriptures found in the writings of the fathers, and gave a minute description of the universe, (a) The labors of scientific men were principally directed to the consideration of the exter- nal forms of the Church. In this kind of literature, as well as in his course of life, Agobard, Archbishop of Lyons (died 841), may be regarded as the representative of the moderate opposition raised in the French Church against praying to images, and all kinds of superstition. (5) Claudius, Bishop of Turin (d. about 840), a great admirer of Augustine, presents us with a specimen of the stormy battle then waged against the worship of images, popes, and saints, (e) Hincmar, Archbishop of Bheims (died 882), shows the position of an ecclesiastical statesman standing between kings y popes, and bishops, sometimes in the character of a friend, and sometimes in that of an opponent, frequently with great earnestness, but always with dex- terity and dignity in times of extreme peril, defending the rights of the national Church and of his archbishopric, (d} Haymo, Bishop of Halber- stadt (died 853), brought to the recollection of his contemporaries the views of the primitive Church by means of a much-used epitome of the Latin translation of Eusebius. (e) Jonas, the successor of Theodolf in the bishopric of Orleans, in opposition to Claudius defended the customs of the Church of that period, so far, at least, as they proceeded from a pious disposition. The advice he gave to laymen was superior to the prejudices of the Church, and frequently attained the enlarged philanthropy required by the gosple. (/) John Scotus (or) Erigena (d. about 880), who resided at the court of Charles the Bald, though he was originally educated in the British school, under the influence of the writings of Origen and the Areopagite, stood so isolated from his contemporaries, and so far superior to his times, that his doctrines were not sufficiently understood to be condemned by the Church until the thirteenth century, (g) To his profound conceptions of the divine immen- a) Opp. ed. Colvenerius, Col. 1627. 6 Th. f. Migne. (Patrolog. Par. 1S62. vols. CVIL-XII.) F. n. C. Schwarz, de Ehab. M. primo Germ, praeceptore. Heidelb. 1811. 4. Tub. Quartalschr. 1838. P. 3s. F. Kunstmann, Hraban. Mentz. 1841. &) Opp. ed. Baluz. Par. 1666. 2 Th. (Galland. Th. XIII. p. 405.) HundesJiagen, de Agob. vita et scriptis. Giess. 1832. P. I. c) Fragments in Flacii Catal. test verit p. 936. Bibl. PP. Max. Th. XIV. p. 197. MaWlov, rett Anal. p. 90. Rudelbaeli, Claud, inedit opp. specimina. Hafn. 1824. ) Carmina Ottonis I. Comediae sacrae VL (Opp. ed. Setiurzfleisch, Vit 1707. 4.) c) Catalogue in R, v. Raumer, p. 38ss. d) De Contemtu canonum. Apologia sui ipsias. De discordia inter ipsum et clericos. Medita- tiones cordis s. praeloq. (Opp. ed. Ballerini, Veron. \!>.)Engelhardt, u. Bather. (KGeschichtL Abhh. Erl. 1832. N. 5.) Neander, Leben d. Eather. (Deutsche Zeitsch. f. chr. W. 1851. N. 86.) e) Comp. 178. note g. Eespecting Gerbert's works, see Hock, GerberL p. 166ss. /) Vita Meinwerci c. 81. (Leibn. Scrr. rer. Brunsv. p. 555.) Comp. Saxo Gramm. 1. XI. ed. $tep?tan. p. 209. a) Jburdain, Eecherches critiq. sur 1'age et Torigine des traductions lat d'Aristote. Par. 1S19. &) Savigny, Gesch. d. rum. Eechts in Mit. Alt 3 & 4 vols. CIIAP. IV. ECCLES. SCIENCE. 216. UNIVERSITIES. 217. BEEENGAR. 237 i popes or princes, but to the necessities of the times, as thousands of students were drawn together by the reputation of some distinguished teacher. Acts of incorporation were not sought for from the pope until a later period, when the younger universities endeavored by such means to rival those which de- pended upon their own reputation. The advantages springing from these seats of science, which controlled the opinions of the succeeding generation, were so apparent that the popes were anxious by special favors to secure their attachment to themselves, and render them institutions in which Chris- tian studies generally (studium generale) might be pursued, (c) By the influence of these universities science became generally diffused, at least among the higher classes, but in spite of the freedom of its development, it still con- tinued subservient to partial corporate interests, enveloped in barbarous Latin, and almost exclusively of an ecclesiastical character. 217. The Second Eucharistic Controversy. I. Mansi Th. XIX. p. 757ss. Adelmani Ep. de verit corp. et sang. Dom. ed. C. A. Schmidt, Brunsv. 1770. Lanfrcmci L. de euchar. Bacr. c. Ber. (1063-70.) Bas. 1523. and often. (Opp. ed. D'Achery, Par. 1648. f. p. 230.) Bereng. L. de s. coena c. Lanfr. before 1073. (The edit, of the Wolfenbiittel MSS. made known by Leasing, and half finished by Siciudlin and Ilemsen in 6 Pg. Goett 1820-29. 4.) Edd. A. F. and F. Th. Viseher, Ber. 1834. Acta Cone. Rom. sub Greg. VII. a Bereng. conscripta. (Mansi Th. XIX. p. 761.) Bernaldus Const, (an opponent of Berengar) do Ber. damnatione multiplici. 108S. (Matth. Rieberer, Raccolta Ferrarese di opp. scientific!. Ven. 1789. Th. XXI.) II. Nabillon de multiplic. Ber. damnatione. (Analect Th. II.) Lessing, Ber. Turon. o. Ankund. e. wichtigen Werks dess. Brunschw. 1770. 4. (Schriften. vol. VIII. p. 314ss. Stdudlin, annuntiatur editio libri -Ber. simul omnino de scriptis ejus. Goett 1814. 4. Ibid. Ber. Tnr. (Stdudl. u. TzscMrn. Archiv. 1814. vol. II. St. 1.) [IT. Sudendorf, Ber. Tur. o. e. Samml. ihn betreff. Briefe. Hainb. 1S50.] Berengar (after 1031), the superintendent of the cathedral school of Tours, and (after 1040) archdeacon at Angers, maintained, in opposition to the new doctrine advanced by Paschasius, that there was a change in the sacramental elements only in a figurative sense. He contended that not the earthly elements themselves, but their influences were changed by their con- nection with Christ in heaven, who was to be received not by the mouth but by the heart, These views he expressed in a letter to his learned friend Lanfranc, at that time Scholasticus (superintendent of a cathedral school) in the convent of Bee, but afterwards (1070) Archbishop of Canterbury. The latter carried out the doctrine of Paschasius, by saying that the actual body of Christ in heaven remained entirely unaffected by the change in the elements on earth. This letter of Berengar being denounced before the eccle- siastical authorities, (a) his doctrine was condemned at synods held at Rome and Vercelli (1050). Learned friends advocated his cause, but public opinion was against him. His doctrine admitted of a variety of interpretations, and left the subject in the vague state in which it had been held in past times ; while that of his opponents presented a clearly defined idea, and threw great c) Bulaei, Hist Univ. Paris. 1665-73. 6 Th. f. Crevier, H. de TUniv. de Paris. Par. 1761. 7 Th. 12. Dularle, H. de TUniv. Par. 1829. Th. l.Savigny, Gesch. d. rom. Rechts im MA. vol. Ill p. 18683. a) Mansi Th. XIX. p. 768. 238 MEDIAEVAL CHUECH HISTORY. PEE. III. A. D. 800-1216. honor upon the forms of worship, by making the sacrifice of the mass a glo- rious Theophany. Hildebrand was at that time legate, and not only person- ally the friend of Berengar, but in sentiment tolerant toward his opinions. But at the Synod of Tours (1054), this prelate was prudent enough to save his reputation for orthodoxy by the simple scriptural confession that the bread and wine in the Lord's Supper were the body and blood of Christ. Berengar, however, was without sufficient influence at Rome (1059) to de- fend his opinions against the rude violence of his enemies, and finally he con- sented to subscribe a confession in which a grossly carnal participation in the flesh and blood of Christ was asserted. But no sooner were his feet beyond the Alps than he recalled this confession, with bitter execrations against what he called Satan's seat at Kome. The controversy was continued with equal literary skill on both sides, in a learned correspondence between him and Lanfranc, the keenest dialectician of the age. The whole spirit of the times, however, was arrayed against Berengar, because he contended for a spiritual and against a sensuous conception of Christianity. At a Synod held at Rome (1078), Gregory made one more effort to secure indulgence for the conscience of his friend by presenting a formula of a general nature, but even he was obliged to give way before the zealots who surrounded him, and (1079) to demand a more decided declaration. Although even this was subsequently recanted by Berengar, he was protected by the influence of Gregory, and lived in retirement on the island of St. Come, where he died (1088) amidst the blessings of the Church. His memory was for a long time hon- ored in Tours, but the doctrine that there was a change in the nature of the sacramental elements, although the outward phenomena, in order to try the faith of believers, remained the same, had now obtained the victory. Tran- substantiation by the hand of the priest was made an article of faith at the great Council of Lateran. (&) 218. Scholasticism. First Period. L. Danaeus, Prolegg. in Sentt Lomb. (Opp. theol. Gen. 1583. t p. 1093.) TribbecTiotius, de doctorib. schol. (1665) ed. neumann, Jen. 1719. Cramer, Bossuet, vol. V.-VII. Eberstein, naturl. Theol. dcr Schol. Lpz. 1803. Jiitier, u. Begr. u. Verlauf. d. chr. PhlL (Stnd. u. KriL 1833. IL 2. p. 286ss.) Histories of Philosophy, especially by Degerando, Hegel, Eittcr, [O. H. Lewes, Dugald Stewart, V. Cousin, and C. 8. Henry.] In the Berengarian controversy Scholasticism had commenced its develop- ment. This was a kind of knighthood in Theology, a natural result of the free power of thought in connection with the absolute ascendency of the doctrines of the Church. Academical studies were pursued without restraint, Aristotle's Logic was universally admired, and the whole movement of the age was vigorous, though partially turned aside from what experience shows to be the sober reality of life. All these circumstances had given occasion for its existence, and its whole power was now to be exerted in proving that the doctrines which had been previously adopted by the Church were abso- lutely true in the view of an intelligent mind, and in defending their neces- sity. After a brief struggle it was completely triumphant over the Theology &) Cone. Later. IV. c, 1. (Mansi Th. XXII. p. 981.) [Landon, p. 29888.] CHAP. IV. ECCLES. SCIENCE. 218. ANSELM. P. LOMBABD. 239 which had no other hasis than that of authority, and during its first period it was wholly employed in giving subtlety to the thoughts of the common mind by Aristotelian formulas. In the very commencement of its course we find Anselm of Aosta, the pupil of Lanfranc, and the successor of that prelate, not only in the monastic school, but also (after 1093) in the archiepiscopal office (died 1109). Though always humble, he exhibited extraordinary powers of mind not only as a theologian, but as a dignitary of the Church. The knowledge he sought was that with which faith supplied him, though he endeavored to complete the ecclesiastical system of truth on the basis of Augustine's Theology, by his doctrine of Satisfaction for sin, and to found a rational system by his proof of the divine existence. According to him, a recognition of the divine existence is necessarily involved in a complete self-consciousness, and immor- tality and salvation were the direct result of the love of God. This religion, which had been wholly lost by sin, could be restored in no other way than by the expiatory death of the incarnate God. (a) At the close of this period appeared Peter Lombard, an academical teacher, and (after 1159) Bishop of Paris (d. 1164). In his Sentences, the whole doctrine of the Church is de- rived from the writings of the fathers, but it is compiled and arranged in such a way as to constitute a scientific whole. This work became the man- ual in universal use during the century in which it was published, and gave its character to that which followed. This distinction was due not so much to its acnteness or its profundity, as to the ecclesiastical position of its author, its happy adjustment of opposite views, and its plainness to the popular mind. (&) In the speculative views which constituted the basis of its system of truth, was apparent a principle which had been much discussed in the old Greek philosophy under the name of Nominalism and Eealism. The former regarded all general ideas (universalia) as nothing but abstractions of the human understanding, and derived from the objects presented to its observa- tion (post rem) ; while the latter viewed them as having their origin entirely in the mind itself (ante rem), or according to a turn of expression at one time prevalent, and introduced for the sake of compromise, as that which is essential in every thing actual (in re), (c) These opposite views had a theo- logical significance in the controversy which sprung up between Anselm and Roscelinus, a canon of Compeigne. The latter was a nominalist, and was consequently accused of Tritheism at the Synod of Soissons (1092), where he was compelled to retract his assertions on this subject, (d) Nominalism, after this, wore a suspicious aspect in the view of the Church generally. a) Monologium, Proslogium, Cur Deus homo? (Erl. 1834.) De conceptu virginal! etorig. pec- cato. Opp. (ed. Gerberon, Par. 1675.) edd. Benedictt. Par. 172L Th. f. Acts SS. Apr. Th. II. p. SGGss. (Mohler) Anselmus. (Tub. Quartalschr. 1827. 8. 4. H.) BiUroth, do Ans. Proslogio. et Monol. Lps. 1832. Bee 184. note a. V) Sententiarum 1. IV. Ven. 1477. rec. J. Aleaume, Lovan. 1546. f. and often. c) J. Saldberti Phil. Nominalium vindicata. Par. 1651. JBaumgarten-Cmsius, de vero Schol. Eealium et Nominal! im discr. decretisque ipsorum theoL (Opuscc. 1836. p. 55ss. Eemodelling of tho Progr. of 1821.) d) Joannis Man. Ep. Ans. (Balm. Miscell. 1. IV. p. 478.) Ansdmi 1. II. Ep. 85. 41. and (1094) L. de fide Trin. et de incarn. verbi c. blasphemias EuzelinL 240 MEDIAEVAL CHURCH HISTORY. PER. III. A. D. 800-1216. 219. Mysticism. First Period. II. Schmid, d. Mystic, d. Mitt Alt in s. Entstfhungsper. Jen. 1S24 Alb. Liebner, Hugo V. 8. Victor, u. d. theol. Richtungen er. Zeit Lpz. 1S32. J. Gorres, die christl. Mystik. Regensb. 1836sa. 3 vols. A. ffelferich, d. chr. Mystik in ihrer Entw. u. ihrer Denkm. vol. L Entwicklungsgcsch. Goth. 1842. [L. Noack, Gescb. d. cbr. Mystik. LIJ. 1858.] The tendency of the age in the direction of the feelings and of the imagi- nation was shown in a mysticism of a lively and vigorous character. This was an effort of the human mind, by means of its affections, to connect itself immediately with the Deity. It was not unfriendly to the Church, but it was earnest against the moral abuses found there. Bernard discovered the highest life which man can attain in a perpetual love of God, which, while it is vigorous in action and in self-denials, poetic in its utterances, and the source of all spiritual knowledge of God, is nevertheless conscious that it is itself inexpressible, (a) Richard of St. Victor (d. 1173), by means of biblical allegories, made known the secrets of the human heart struggling for words, for he describes the process of contemplation as one in whose highest flights the soul in ecstatic rapture is perfectly blessed with intuitions of the divine glory. (J) The fanciful nature of this spirit appears in the revelations of Hildegard, Abbess of the convent of Rupert, near Bingen (d. 1178). Under the sanction of St. Bernard, they were acknowledged to be actual divine revelations, because the figures and allegories in which they were clothed were agreeable to the taste of her contemporaries. But although they revealed nothing supernatural, they contained many profound views of the mysteries of history, (c) In the convent of St. Victor near Paris, ever since its founder (1109), William of Champeaux, had been obliged to give way before the more brilliant reputation of his pupil Abelard, a reconciliation had been sought between Mysticism and Scholasticism, on the ground that the latter was represented by inspired men, and the former professed to be a series of spiritual elevations. (J) The profoundly spiritual mind of Hug o of St. Victor (died 1141), naturally inclined to discover the points of agreement between different systems, regarded Scholasticism as an excellent preparation for Mysticism, since it intelligently established the doctrines of the latter, and in its perfection must lead the soul up to the enjoyment of ecstatic emo- tions. He therefore regarded each of these tendencies of the mind as the complement and correlative of the other, (e) The union of these distinct ele- ct) Especially, De contemtu mnndi, de consideratione, de diligendo Deo, Tr. ad Hngonem de S. Viet comp. 207. b) Especially, De statu inter hominis, de praepar. animi ad contempl. s. Benjamin minor, de gra- tia contempl. s. Benj. major. Opp. Rothom. 1650. i'.Liebner, Rich, a S. Viet de contempl. doctrina. Gott 1S37. P. I. Engelliardt, Rich. v. 8. Victor u. Ruysbroek. Erl. 1888. c) Scivias, (Revelationes S. Virgg. Hildeg. et Elia. Col. 1628. f.) Liber divinornm opp. simplicis hominis. comp. Man&i ad Fabric. Bibl. med. et inC Lat Th. III. ed. Patav. j>. 268ss. Cl Meiners, de 8. Hild. vita. (Comm. Soc. Gott Th. XII. Class, hist et ph.) J. K. Dahl, d. h. Hild. Mainz. 1832. Gorres, vol. I. p. 2S5ss. II. p. 210s. d) SoUosser, Abh. zu Vincent v. Beauvais' Handb. Frkf. 1S19. vol. II. e) Especially, de sacramentis chr. fidei 1. II. Opp. Rothom. 1643. 8 Th. f. According -to the proofe adduced by Liebner. (Stnd. u. Krit 1831. part 2. p. 254ss.) the Tractates theol. ascribed to Hildebert (Hildeb. Opp. ed. Beaugendre, Par. 1708. C) contains nothing except the first four books of Hugo's Summa Sententt CHAP. IV. ECCLES. SCIENCE. 219. JOHN OF SALIS. 220. ABELAED. 241 ments of the age aftep* all never became a prominent result, for even Hugo's successor, Bichard, declared decidedly in favor of Mysticism, and Walter of St. Victor (1180), who had studied under Richard, assailed the most celebra- ted leaders of the French Scholastic party as sophists and heretics. (/) He defended Mysticism without really being a Mystic, but John of Salisbury, a faithful companion of Becket, and who became, after the assassination of that prelate, a bishop of Chartres (d. 1182), stood, like one conversant with Ro- mans and Greeks, in an entirely different position. It is true that he justi- fied philosophy on account of its general utility for moral purposes, but honestly exposing his pride of an empty knowledge to the ridicule of his contemporaries, he predicted, as a warning to others, that Scholasticism, in the course of its scientific investigations, would lose the truth, (g) . 220. Abelard, 1079-1142. I. Letters of Abelard and Heloise, especially Ep. I. in the Euits De historia calamitatum suarum, with notes by Du Chesne. Introductio ad Theol. 1. III. incomplete. (Abael. et Ifel. Opp. ed. Am- loise, Par. 1616. 4.) Theol. chr. 1. V. (Martane Thos. Anecd. Th. V. p. 1156.) Ethica s. L. scito te ipsum. (Pezii, Anecd. v. III. P. II. p. 627.) Dial, inter Philos., Judaeum et Christian, ed. Hhein- wald, Ber. 1831. Sic et non. Dialectics (and dialectical fragments in : Ouvrages inedils $ Abelard pnblies par Victor Cousin, Par. 1836. 4.) Sic et Non. Primum integrum edd. K L. Henke et G. & JAndenkolil, Marb. 1851. From his school : Abael. Epitome Theol. chr. ed. Itheinwald, Ber. 1S35. [Abailardi et Hel. Epp. Oxon. 1728. 8. Lettres d'Ab. et Hel. traduits sur les manuscrits de la bib- lioth. royal p. K Oddoul, pr6cedes d'un Essai hist p. M. et Mme Guizot, Par. 1839. 2 vols.] II. Gervaise, vie de P. Ab. et H61. Par. (1720) 1728. 2 Th. Hist, lit de la Fr. Th. XII. p. 86. 629ss. J. Berington, Hist of the Lives of Ab. and Hel. from 1079-1163, with tho Letters from the Coll. of Amboise. Birming. 1788. 4. Schlosser, Ab. u. Dulcin, Leben e. Schwarmers u. e. Phil. Goth. 1807. J. II. F. Frerichs, de Ab. doct dogm. et mor. Jen. 1727. Cousin, Introduction to his edition. J. D. H. Goldhorn, de summis principiis Theol. Ab. Lps. 1836. E. A. Lewald, de Opp. Ab. quae Cousin ed, Heidelb. 1839. 4. Franck, Beitr. zu Wurdig. Ab. (Tub. Zeitschr. 1840. H. 4.) M. Ca- rUre, Ab. u. Hel. Giess. 1844. J. L. Jacobi, Ab. u. Hel. Brl. 1850. F. Braun, de Ab. Ethica. Marb. 1852. [) Walafridi Glossa ordinaria in Biblia. (Opp. Par. 1852. 2 vols. In the Patrol, cd. Migne, vo^ CXIII.) Anselmi Glossa interlinearis. Bas. 1502. f. and often. c) Euperti Tuitiensie, Opp. Mog. 1631. 2 Th. f. d) Greg. 1. TIL Ep. 11. a) [The Fall of the Niebelungers, &c. transl. by W. N. Lettsom, Load. 1850.] k 244 MEDIAEVAL CHURCH HISTOET. PEE. IIL A. D. 800-1216. which contained an ironical satire upon the gluttony of the monks, and tin avarice of the popes. (J) Independent of the clergy, and yet in the midst of the enthusiasm of the first Crusades, sprung up the joyous art of the Troubadours. With passionate zeal it entered into ail the discussions of the age, and though its inspirations were sometimes employed in singing the ex- ploits of the Church, it was at other times equally fearless in opposing the bad practices of the hierarchy, and was always independent of ecclesiastical control; (c) The Suabian minnesingers, the nightingales of the middle ages, near the close of the first half of the twelfth century began to sing of earthly love, joy, and sorrow. The ordinary feelings with which men regarded the Blessed Virgin were transferred by these minstrels to the whole female sex. (d) Walter of the Vogelweide penetrated far into the mysterious emotions of genu- ine Christianity, and yet confessed with childlike candor that he found in his heart nothing like love toward Ms enemies. On the other hand, with the spirit of a real German, he set himself in opposition to all priestly dissimula- tion and the unrighteous ban which the pope had imposed upon his country. A vivid picture of the Crusades is presented in the legends and songs relat- ing to the expedition of Charles the Great into Spain. In these poems that monarch, who is called pre-eminently the servant of God, with his twelve paladins, are described as exposing their bodies to the most imminent perils for the benefit of their souls. Instead of the treasures of the Niebel- ungenlied with its heathenish spirit, we now have the story of the San Graal. The knightly epic, however, when it became fully developed, was not much pervaded by the ecclesiastical spirit. The meditative Wolfram of Escheribach, in his poem of the Parzival, enters indeed into the proper ideas of the Church, distinguishes between the ideal and the actual, and describes the expiations and the external holiness which are necessary to the enjoyment of a higher life, but what he describes is not an eccle- siastical expiation, and the guardians of his sanctuary are not priests, but holy knights and a divinely consecrated king. The luminous Godfrey pf Strasburg in his Tristan described the sumptuous life of the court, in which, totally regardless of the decisions of the Church, the eternal rights of the heart were treated as inviolable, even when opposed to what was then called the sacrament of marriage, (e) As early as the time of the Othos, laymen generally scorned the cultivation of every kind of science, and towards the close of the twelfth century the clergy entirely renounced the study of all literature in the language of the people. The general result of all the influ- ence of this age was, that the clergy entirely lost the monopoly they had pre- viously possessed in the mental cultivation of the people. (/) Hence, at the same time with the ecclesiastical sciences, a species of poetry was formed, dictated solely by those feelings which exist in every human bosom. It was not, however, a poetry altogether popular in its character, for it was highly Z>) Gervinus, Gesch. d. poet. Nation. Llteratur. vol. I. p. 102ss. o) The particulars in Millot, Eaynouard u. unserm Dietz. <2) O. JBarthel, Oppos. gegen die Hierarchic. Walther v. d. V. (Zeitsch. f. hist Th. 1845. H. 8.) ) The particulars in Gorres, Lachmann, Grimm, Gervinus, and Hagen. /) Comp. H. Leo, v. d. sieben Vrumicheiten. (Hal.) 1S39. CHAP. V. EXTENS. OF THE CHUECH. 223. DENMARK. SWEDEN. 245 artificial, and adapted only to the chivalrous tastes of the knights. The most brilliant exhibitions of its power were presented at the court of the Hohenstaufens. CHAP. V. EXTENSION OF THE KOMAST CATHOLIC CHURCH. Adam. Brem. ( 170.) Ejusd. de situ Daniae et reliquarura, quao trans Daniam sunt, regionum natura, morib. et reL ed. Fabric. Hamb. 1706. 223. The Holy Ansgar. 801-865. I. A letter of Ansgar and the Life of St. Willeliad. (Peris Th. II. p. 878.) Vita Anskarii by his follower Mmbert. (Ed. DaJdmanr* in Peris, Th. II. p. 633.) Life of S. Willehad and S. Ansgar, uebers. m. Anm. v. Carsten Misegaes, Brm. 1826. S. Anskarii Pigmenta. Written with the assist- ance of Lapperiburg, Hamb. 1644. II. E. C. Krust, S. Ansgar. Alton. 1823. F. A. KrummacTier, S. Ansgar. alte u. neue ZeiL Brem. 1828. H. Reuterddhl, Ansg. o. d. Anfangspunkt d. Chr. in Schwed. from the Swedish by Mayerhoff, BrL 1837. F. O. Krafft, Narr. de Ansg. aquilonarium gentium Apost Hamb. 1840. 4. G. IL EMppel, Lebensbeschr. d. Erzb. Ansg. Brem. 1845. [Diplomatarium Norvegicum, ed. by C. Lange and C. R. linger, to bo in 10 vols., but only the 1st part in 1849, and the 2d in 1852, are yet pubL Christiania. 4to.] The Danish prince Harold having obtained the throne of his ancestors by the assistance of Louis the Pious, after a long contest with his competi- tors, became a willing instrument by which the policy of the Frankish monarch might be carried out in his own country. .He was baptized in the city of Mentz (826), and his followers were delighted with the splendid gifts conferred on them by the sponsors. On his return to Jutland, he was accom- panied by Ansgar, a monk of Corvey, who had been induced by his religious feelings and a vision of Christ, to consecrate himself to the work of convert- ing the heathen. The archbishopric of Hamburg was founded for him by Louis the Pious with the papal consent (831), for the propagation of Chris- tianity in the Northern countries. As this city was soon after pillaged by pirates, from whose ravages nothing was saved by Ansgar but some relics, his archbishopric was attached by the German king and the pope to the bishopric of Bremen (849). Having been appointed the papal legate and the imperial ambassador for the northern nations, Ansgar resided in this latter city, and possessed an influence among those people which prepared the way for his subsequent efforts in Jutland and Sleswic. He was not, indeed, very seriously opposed in his labors, except by the indifference of the people. This he endeavored to overcome by obtaining possession of heathen children, and by ransoming those persons who had been carried into captivity, and training them to be future missionaries. On his first mission to Sweden (829), he found some germs of Christianity already existing there, and by the favor of the court he was permitted to plant some further seeds of the gospel among the people. These, however, were soon after entirely de- stroyed in a popular insurrection. His second visit to that country (855) was more successful, since the proclamation of the new faith was then tolerated by the people and their gods, on account of the protection afforded by the God of the Christians to those who went to sea. He was often discovered 246 MEDIAEVAL CHUECH HISTOEY. PEE. III. A. D. 800-1216. by Reimbert in tears, because he was not regarded by his Lord worthy oi the martyrdom which he supposed had been promised him. 224. German Nations of the North. The foundation which had been laid by Ansgar in Denmark was protected and enlarged by the influence of the Saxon emperors, although it was viewed with great dislike by many as the religion of their national enemies. The cause of Christianity, however, gained new strength by the continuance of their connection with the Normans. This people, ever since the commence- ment of the tenth century, had obtained possessions by conquest in England and France, and had adopted the faith as well as the higher civilization of the conquered nations. The triumph of the new religion was finally secured through the conquest of England by the Danish kings. Canute the Great secured the union of Denmark with England, and the reconciliation of the two nations by thfc establishment of the Church among the Danes ; and while he was on his pilgrimage to Rome (1027), in accordance with his pre- vious stipulations, it was connected with the Roman Church, (a) By means of persons sent forth from Bremen, Christianity continued to extend itself in Sweden, and though at first its progress was slow, it was without opposi- tion, and connected with many harmless heathen customs. Alms and fasts were vowed to the Lord Christ by a city in time of distress, though it was still in a state of heathenism. The drinking horns of heathen chiefs were not unfrequently emptied to the health of Christ and of the archangel Michael. The series of Christian kings commenced with Olaf SchoossTconig (1008), but the temple of Odin at Upsala was not destroyed, until, after a sanguinary contest, it was levelled with the ground by King Inge (1075). (I) The gospel was conveyed to Norway in the ninth century by some seafaring youth, but the white Christ was generally regarded by the people as the god of a foreign nation. Harald Harfagar, in a public assembly, took an oath that he would never again present an offering to deities whose sway extended merely to his own country, but only to one who was Lord of the whole earth, and by whose help he hoped to extend his authority over all Norway. And yet when his son Hacon the Good (936-950), who had been educated and baptized in England, thereupon proposed that all the people should be baptized, not only was the proposal rejected, but the prince was compelled to feign that a cross which he had formed upon Odin's cup was intended for the sign of Thor's hammer. At his funeral the Skald proclaimed that he had been admitted to the Valhalla, because he had mildly forborne to destroy the sacred things belonging to the ancient gods. The cause of Christianity, however, had now become identified with that of the supreme monarchs of the coun- a) Saxo GrammaUem, (died about 1204.) Hist Danicae L XVI. ed. SlepTianius, Sor. 1644. 2 Th. f. Klote, Lps. 1771. 4.Panioppidan t Annal. Ecc. Dan. diplomatic!. Hanv. 1741ss. Th. I. Munter, KGesch. v. Danem. u. Norw. Lpz. 1823. vol. I. F. C. DaJUmann, Gesch. v. Dannem. Hamb. 1840. vol. I. p. 28ss. &) Claudii Oernhjalm, Hist. Sueonum Gothorumque ecc. 1. IV. Stockh. 1689. 4. Statuta syno dalia vet. Ecc. Suevogothicae, ed. EeuterdaM, Lend. 1841. ) 1146 on the Lower Ehine : Evervini, Praepos. Steinfeld. Ep. ad Bernard. (Argentre Th. I. p. 88ss.) 1163. Eckbertl Sermm. XIII. adv. Catharorum errores. Col. 530. (Bibl. PP. max. Th. XXIII. p. 600.) c) The documents are in Hist. g6nerale de Languedoc par un B6nedictin de S. Maur. Par. 1737. vol. III. Polemical writers near the end of the 12th cent. : Ebrardi Flandrensis L. antihaeresis. (Bibl. PP. max. Th. XXIV. p. 1525.) Ermengardi Opsc. c. haereticos, qui dicunt omnia visibilia non esse a Deo facta, sed a diabolo. (Ib. p. 1602.) Alani de Insulis 1. IV. c. haereticos sui temp. (The two first vols. in Alani Opp. ed. C. de Visch, Antu. 1654. f. The two last in C. de Viscli Bibl. Scrr. Cist. Col. 1650. 4.) C. Schmidt, Hist et doctrine des Cathares ou Albigeois. Par. 1849. 2 vote. 252 MEDIAEVAL CHUECH HISTOEY. FEB. III. A. D. 800-1216. or absorbed elements hostile to every thing connected with the ecclesiasticai authorities (Paterini). (d) The name of Catharists, by which this sect waa usually designated, shows what were their ordinary pretensions. A similar opposition prepared the way for the influence exercised by the Paulicians who had been transferred into the western countries of Europe (hence called Publicani, Bugri). The accounts we have respecting them are almost exclu- sively from their enemies, or from apostates from them, and are consequently full of errors and calumnies, (e) All agree, however, in describing them as universally and absolutely opposed to the Catholic Church and all its pomp, in consequence of what they professed to be an immediate communication of the Holy Ghost, exalting them above all conscious necessity of ecclesiastical or civil laws. Their opposition to every thing of a sensuous nature mado them practically renounce all carnal pleasures, and led them theoretically to ascribe the whole visible universe to an evil cause and to deny the real hu- manity of our Redeemer. This dualistic tendency, however, may have gone no further than the popular notion of a devil and his subordinate spirits, and in a portion of the Catharistic Church it appears to have been modified in various ways, to have been full of moral seriousness and religious sincerity, and yet to have laid great stress upon fastings, genuflexions, and Latin forms of prayer. (/) Scriptural preaching and the gospels were held in much esteem, but various opinions prevailed among them respecting the prophets. The baptism of the Spirit (consolamentum) was substituted for baptism by water, and was administered by the imposition of the hands of all persons present who had themselves received it. In this ordinance only perfect Christians (bos homes, boni homines) received their consecration, for the duties which it imposed were so rigid that most persons remained catechu- mens (credentes, of two different degrees), and did not receive the consola- mentum, which they regarded as necessary to salvation, until their dying hour. The dualistic view, however, could consistently forbid nothing but marriage and the eating of flesh. In the midst of a people thus professing to be filled with the Spirit, and whose pope was the Holy Ghost himself, none of the existing officers of the Church could exercise any of their hierarchi- cal prerogatives. The prohibitions contained hi the Sermon on the Mount were accepted in their most literal and painful'sense, and those who went to a dualistic extreme resolved the ordinary doctrines of the Church, and even all historical Christianity, into mere allegories illustrative of the Christian's inner life. On the other hand, the Pasagii of Lombardy maintained the absolute authority of the Old Testament in opposition to the Manicheans who rejected &) Sigebert. Gemblac. ad ann. 1074. e) Bonacorsi, one of those teachers who returned to the Cath. Church, about 1190, Vita haereti- cor. s. manifestatio haeresis Catharor. (VAchery, Spicil. Th. I. p. 203. Supplements in Baluzii MiscelL ed. Mansi Th. II. p. 581.) J. Moneta, Dominican, about 1240. adv. Cath. et Waldenses, ed. RiccMni, Eom. 1T43. f. Raineriu* Sacchoni, once a chief of the sect, but afterwards a Dominican and Inquisitor, 1250, Summa de Catharia et Leonistis. (Martene, Thes. nov. Anecd. Th. V. p. 1759. and Argentre Th. I. p. 48. (The edit by Oretser is no further the actual work of Eainerius, but a later collection made by some German. Gieseler, de Eainerii Sacch. Summa. Gott 1884 4.) [C. Schmidt, Hist et doct. de la secte des Cathares, etc. Par. 1849. 2 vols. Stud. u. Krit 1S50. H. 4.] /) Thus according to an orig. doc. : Ein Katharisches Eituale, ed. by E. Kunite, Jen. 1352. CHAP. VI. PEOT. PAKTIE3. 228. PASAGII. 229. PETEK OF BEUTS. 253 it, and the Ebionite and Arian doctrines concerning Christ in opposition to the views of the Docetae. (g) The name of this sect, as well as the time in which it sprung np, suggests that this revival of Jewish Christianity may have been occasioned by the conquest of Jerusalem. (7i) The ecclesiastical rulers were at first very lenient toward these various sects, but they were soon com- pelled to resort to the severest punishments. Even then they could not pre- vent multitudes from embracing these doctrines in secret, and barely suc- ceeded in escaping from a general and public defeat. Some who urged th#t, according to the teaching of Christ and the example of St. Martin, such un- fortunate persons ought to receive instruction rather than hanging, could gain no attention, (i) 229. Peter of Bruys and Henry. Tanchelm and Eon. In the course of the opposition which sprung up against the Church in the twelfth century, a few individuals became prominent either as advocates or leaders of sects. Peter de Bruys, who had been deposed from the priest- hood, but preached (after 1104) in the south of France, was one of these. He declaimed against the baptism of infants, the mass, and celibacy, burned the cross which had been the instrument of our Lord's passion, and called upon his hearers to destroy the churches, since God was as willing to hear prayer offered to him in an inn or a 'stable as from before an altar. Many disturbances of a violent nature were created by him, but he was finally burned by a mob at St. Gilles (1124). (a) Henry, a monk who had with- drawn from his order, and was sometimes thought to be a pupil of Peter de Bruys, labored in the same region of country (1116-48), and was at first highly honored even by the clergy. He was a strenuous preacher of repent- ance, and though not opposed to ecclesiastical authority, held up the corrup- tions of the clergy to the derision of the people. He was finally overcome by his powerful opponent, and ended his days in prison. (5) Tanchelm (about 1115), who resided on the sea-coast of the Netherlands, preached zealously against ecclesiastical organizations, collected around himself an armed train of followers, claimed to be God equal to Christ on account of the Holy Ghost which he professed to have received, held public celebrations in honor of his espou- sal to the Virgin Mary, and was finally slain (about 1124) by a priest, (c) Eon (Eudo de Stella) proclaimed that he had been sent into the world to be the judge of the living and the dead. He made his appearance sometimes in one and sometimes in another place in different parts of France, attended by #) Bonacorsi in PAchery, p. 211ss. G. Sergomensis c. Oath, et Pasagios c. a. 1230. (Muratori Antiqq. Ital. Med. aevi. vol. V. p. 152ss.) [C. U. ITakn, Gesch. d. Ketzer im MA. bes. im 11. 12. u. 18. Jahrh. Stuttg. 1850. 8 vols.] 7i) Comp. Loscher, Eef. Acta. vol. I. p. 857. On the other hand: Baumg. Crusius, Comp. d. DGesch. p. 802. t) Hermanni Contr. Chron. ad. ann. 1052. Gesta Episcc. Leodiens. c. 50. 60s. (M'artene, ampliss. Col. Th. IV.) a) Petri Vener. Ep. adv. Petrobrussianos haer. (Bibl. PP. max. Tb. XXII. p. 1023ss. 1) Acta Episc. Ccnomanensium c. 35s. (Mabillon vett Analecta. Th. III.) Bernardi Vita scr. Qaufrid. Ill, 6. c) Ep. Trajcctensis Ecc. ad Frid. Archiep. Colon. (Argentre Th. I. p. llss.) Abaelardi Intr. ad Theol. (Opp. p. 1066.) Vita Norlerti, 86. (Acta SS. Jun. Th. I. p. 848.) 254 MEDIAEVAL CHUECH EISTOEY. PEE. III. A. D. 800-1216. a bold retinue, and living in so sumptuous a style on the wealth of the churches and monasteries, that the people generally believed him to be a ma- gician. He was at last taken by surprise, arraigned before a Synod at Bheims (1148), and without despairing of the success of his cause, died in the prison of St. Denys. (d) 230. The Waldenscs. . i. Memorials of tho Wald. Manuscripts in Geneva and Dublin, generally affected by later Protes- tant influences (comp. Dieckhoff, modified by Herzog), especially with respect to times before Huse: Cantica, described by Herzog, p. 72ss. and la nobla Leyceon In Raynouard, Choix des poesies orig. des Troubad. Par. 1818. vol. II. p. 7838. According to the Geneva and Dublin text in Heraog, p. 444ss. Kath. Verdicts and Protocols of the Inquisition in Argentre, (Col. Jud. vol. I. p. 71ss.) and PA. a Limborch, Hist Inquisit in the conclusion mentioned as L. sententt Inquis. Tolosanae. Catharistic accounts and polem. writings: Bernards, AbbasFontis calidi (d. before 1200) adv. Val- densium sectam. (Bibl. PP. max. voL XXIV. p. 1586.) Alanus d* Insulis (d. 1202), c. Ilaerctic. L 1 II. (Opp. ed. K. v. Viscfi, Antu. 1654) WaUTw Mapes in Uahn, vol. II. p. 257s. Stephanus de Borbone (about 1250), de scptem donis 8p. S. VII, 81. (Argentre voL L p. S5ss.) Rainerius. Mo- neta ( 228, n. e.) II. Gilles, Hist ccc. des ogl. rcformeca en quelques vallocs do Piemont Gen. 1644. J. Lcger, Hist gen. des cgl. cvang. des valldes de Pi6m. ou Vaudoises. Leid. 1669. 2 vols. f. Uebers. v. Schtcei- nite, Lpz. 1T50. 2 vols. 4. (J. Bree) Hist des Vaud. Laus. 1796. 2 vols. Lpz. 1798. A. Monaetier, Hist d'egl. Vaudoise. Gen. 1847. 2 vols. A. Mutton, Tlsrael des Alpes, prem. Hist complete des Vaud. Par. 1S51. 4 vols. Hahn (see before 228.) voL II. comp. Preface to voL III. p. X. F. Ben- der, Gesch. d. W. Ulm. 1850. .4. W. Dieckhoff, d. W. im MAlter. Gott 1851. Iferzog, d. roman. W. ihre vorref. Zustande u. Lehren, ihro Eef. im-16. Jhh. u. d. Euckwirk. drs. Hal. 1853. [Pey- ran, Hist Defence of the "Wald. Lond. Svo. E. Henderson, Origin, &c. of the Vaudois. W. & GiUy, The Albigenses in Littell's Eel. Mag. vol. L p. 6. A. Monastier, Hist of the Vaudois Church from its Origin. New York. 1849. 12mo. Rolt. Baird, Waldenses, Albig. and Vaud. Philad. 1848. Svo. C. U. Ilahn, Gesch. d. Ketzer im Mittelalter, bes. im 11. 12. und 13. Jahrh. Stuttg. 1847. G. U. Hahn, in Stud. u. Krit 1851. H. 4. p. 8G2. Herzog, d. Waldenser, vor u. nach d. Eef. Lps. 1853. 12.] The dissatisfaction and ferments which prevailed during the twelfth cen- tury, gave occasion during the last half of it to tho appearance of tho Wal- denses. As they were generally conversant with the Scriptures, they main- tained in opposition to unworthy priests, that all who truly imitated Christ in his life of poverty, had a right freely to preach the gospel. As the natu- ral result of their demand that Christians should live in complete poverty and virginity, a distinction was formed soon after the excitement of their origin had subsided, between the Perfect, who forsook all and went forth two by two in their sandals preaching repentance, and the mere Believers, who forsook the pleasures of the world, but who continued in the enjoyments of conjugal and social life. Witnesses whose testimony is beyond suspicion, though they belonged to the Catholic Church, inform us that their name and origin is to be traced to (Peter) Waldus, an opulent citizen of Lyons, who was transported by his own ideal of evangelical perfection, had the gospels and many sentiments of the ecclesiastical fathers which harmonized with them translated into the Eomanic vernacular language, gave all his posses- sions to the poor, and from a desire to attain a state like that found in the apostolic Church, went forth (about 1160) as a preacher of repentance. The tradition more recently entertained among the Waldenses themselves, accord- ing to which their origin is to be traced to primitive and even to apostolic d) Willielm Neulrigens de reb. Angl. 1, 19. (Argentre Th. L p. 36ss.) Otto Fris, de gest Frid. I, 54a. Alberid Chron. ad ann. 1148. 1149. CHAP. VI. PEOT. PARTIES. 230. WALDENSES. 231. ALBIGENSES. 255 times, is true only so far as the same spirit has always been sustained among them by the sacred Scriptures, and has always protested against the corrup- tions of the Church. It is also probable that in some of their Alpine val- leys a spirit has been maintained ever since the time of Claudius of Turin, which harmonized with and was best defined by the preaching of the Wal- denses. These Poor People of Lyons (Leonistae, Humiliati, Sabatati) had no idea of breaking away from the Church, and when then: archbishop com- manded them to be silent, they turned with the utmost confidence to Alex- ander III. (1179), who treated them with scorn. Their doctrine that laymen might teach the people necessarily brought them into collision with the clergy, and they were soon (1184) excommunicated by Lucius III. But obey- ing God rather than men, they established congregations in France, Italy, and Germany, and had their principal residences in Provence and in the lofty valleys of Piedmont. Although they differed from the Catholic Church not so much in their doctrines as in their manner of life, which was strictly conformed to the letter of Christ's sermon on the mount, they were con- strained to deny that the Church of the pope was the Church of Christ, even when they allowed that many had been saved who had never forsaken it. Their moral convictions were strongly against the doctrine of a purgatory, with all its auxiliary additions ; they required a confession of all sins, but expected forgiveness from God alone, and they honored the saints as models of piety, but not as intercessors before God. Wherever their congregations were properly organized, their Masters or Barbs, chosen from among the Per- fect, preached, heard confessions, and in cases of necessity administered the sacraments. Innocent III. at one time indulged the hope that he could bring their evangelical poverty under the control of monastic vows (pauperes catho- lici), but the fortunes of this sect soon became involved with those of the Catharists, and it was said that even if the faces of these heretics were dif- ferent, their tails were all twisted together. They frequently lived concealed in the midst of the Catholic Church, recognizing each other by secret signs, and wherever they were they always formed a light amidst surrounding dark- ness, were active in promoting evangelical virtues and familiarity with the Scriptures, and always stood ready to aid with the power of a Scriptural Christianity every higher development of man's moral nature. 231. The AlUgemian War. I. Petri Honachi (de Yaux Cernay) Hist. Albigensiam. Guil. de Podio Laurentii (Chaplain to Kaymund VII.) super Hist, negotii Francor. adv. Albig. (Both found in Bouquet-Srial Th. XIX.) Hist de la croisade contre les heretiques Albigeois, 6crito en vers provencaux, publ. par M. C. Fau- *iel, Par. 1837. 4. Hist de la guerre des Albig. (Together with other documents in the Hist de Lan- gued. Th. III. Preuves.) J. du Tillet, Hist belli c. Alb. Initi comp. ex Bibl. Vat ed. A. Vres- eel, 1845. , II. Sismonde di Sismondi, les croisades contre les Albig. Par. 1S2S. [transl. into Engl. Lond. 1826. 8vo.] J. J. Earrau et A. B. Darragon, Hist des crois c. les Alb. Par. 18-13. C. ScJimidt, ( 228, note c.) The Catharists and Waldenses having become in some parts of Provence more powerful than the Church itself, their example was exceedingly danger- ous. Complete authority was therefore bestowed by Innocent III. for the suppression of these heretics. His legates travelled about barefoot in the 256 MEDIAEVAL CHUKCH HISTOEY. PEE. III. A. D. 800-1216. manner of the apostles, sometimes preaching and disputing, and sometimes getting up judicial proceedings and popular acts of violence. Peter of Cas- tclnau, one of these legates, in order to accomplish his object, seized upon those powers which belonged exclusively to the civil magistrate, and thus became embroiled in a quarrel with Count Raymond VI. of Toulouse, one of the most powerful princes of the country. The result was that the legate was assassinated, and the guilt of the deed was imputed to the Count him- self. Innocent then proclaimed a crusade against him and all other heretics, under the conduct of Arnold, Abbot of Citeaux, as legate, and of Simon de Montfort. Raymond endeavored to escape the danger by humbling himself and taking the cross against his own people. The arms of the crusaders were now turned against Raymond Roger, Viscount of Beziers and Albi, and hence the heretics, and especially the Catharists, against whom this crusade was principally directed, were generally called Albigenses. (a) Beziers was taken by storm, and the legate boasted, that as a messenger of divine wrath, he had utterly destroyed the city. (J) Montfort now turned the fury of his excited followers against the territories of the Count of Toulouse, and when he had conquered them he was recognized at the Synods of Montpellier and the Lateran (1215) as the lawful lord of all that he had thus acquired, (c) Innocent perceived the impolicy of this proceeding, but lest he should lose the great object at which he was aiming, he did not venture to rend the prey from the possession of the tigers whom he had let loose, (d) CHAP. VII. THE ORIENTAL CHURCH. 232. Extension of the Church. The Bulgarians, originally of Turkish extraction, but after their settle- ment in Moesia very extensively blended with the Slaves, were for a long time the most formidable of all the neighbors with whom the Greek empire was obliged to contend. For a considerable period they scornfully rejected a system of faith proposed to them by their enemies. Christianity, however, was gradually introduced among them at various epochs (845-865) ; once when the daughter of their prince returned from captivity among the Greeks, then when in time of famine they made supplication to the God of Christians and were delivered, and finally, under the influence of Methodius, who is reported to have exerted his talents among them not only as an apostle but as a paint- er, (a) That portion of the Bulgarians who resided on the Volga were con- verted to Mohammedanism, and the kindred tribe of the Chazars, who re- Bided in the Chersonese, was divided between Mohammedanism, Judaism, and Christianity. (&) The Mainots, who inhabited the rocky caverns of the Tay- a) P. Jas, de Valdehsium secta ab Albigens. bene distinguenda. L. B. 1834. 4 I) Caesar Neisterbac. V, 21. Innoc. 1. XII. Ep. 108. c) Mansi Th. XXII. p. 1069. d) Hurter, Innoc. vol. II. p. 657ss. a) Constantini Porphyr. Continuator IV, 13ss. Nicetas David, Ignat (Mansi Th. XVL p. 845.) Comp. 225. &) Frdhn, Ibn-Fosslan's und andrer Araber Berichte u. d. Eussen alt. Zeit Petersb. 1323. 4. Pro- CHAP. VII. OEIENT. CHUKCH. 232. EUSSIANS. 223. EOMAN EMPIEE. 257 getus, continued to resist the efforts of the Church until the latter half of the ninth century, when they also yielded subjection to it. About the same time the Slaves, who at different periods had broken into the territory of ancient Greece, became Christians, and were connected with the Greek Church, (c) The Russians became acquainted with Christianity on . the bat- tle-field. Traditionary accounts tell us of the extraordinary success of some efforts to convert them during the ninth century, but no traces of the results appear in subsequent ages. Photius proclaimed that they were enthusiastic in their desires for the gospel, but the event proved that his announcement was premature. Olga, their excellent dowager princess, procured baptism for herself in Constantinople (955), but even to the close of her life she could enjoy the services of a Christian priest only in secret. Her grandson Vladi- mir, after a, careful investigation of the different forms of religion then preva- lent, received baptism from the Greeks (988). The people beheld with tears the abuse which was heaped upon their ancient gods, and submitted them- selves silently to baptism in the river Dnieper. A metropolitanate under the jurisdiction of the Greek Patriarch was established in Kiew, then the capital of the empire. A convent (Petschera) established in a cave near Kiew, be- came, after the middle of the eleventh century, the semiAary from which the whole country was supplied not only with bishops and saints, whose bodies never decayed, but with a Russian literature, (d) 233. The Roman Empire and the Church. The Roman Empire in the East, continually pressed more and more by the power of the Turks, the Normans, and the Crusaders, maintained its courage by the proud recollections of its former greatness, and its existence merely in consequence of the fortunate position of its capital. The mechan- ism which prevailed in the secular and spiritual administrations then united in the head of the imperial government, generally continued unaffected by the revolutions which BO frequently took place in the palace. The spirit of the Church sympathized with the universal torpidity, and orthodoxy took the place which belonged to morality and religion. The patriarchs of Con- stantinople perpetrated and endured all those acts of violence which the highest civil officers are accustomed to inflict and receive where feeble despot- isms prevail. A party of the clergy was kept under restraint by another party in the army. The enthusiasm of the crusaders met with no response here except ridicule and suspicion. The number and power of these sacred warriors was such that Constantinople finally became a mere colony of the face. J. v. Klaproth, Beschr. d. russ. Prov. z\v. d. kasp. u. Schwarz Mecre. Berl. 1814. p. 119ss. 262ss. c) Le Quien, Oriens chr. Th. II. p. 103ss. FaUmerayer, Qesch. d. Halbins. Morea wahrend des Mittelalt. Stuttg. u. Tub. 1830. vol. I. p. 173ss. 216. 227ss. The statements and spirit of this work should be corrected by a perusal of Zinkeisen, Gesch. Griechenl. Lpz. 1832. vol. I. p. 704ss. 767s, 850ss. ' d) Nestor (died about 1113), Annals (till 1110. Petersb. 1767ss. 5 Th.-4.) m. Uebers. u. Anm. (till Vladimir) by Schlozer, Gott. 1802ss. 5 vols. Karamsin, Gesch. d. russ. Eeicbs. Uebers. by Hauen- schilcl, Eig. 1820S3. vol. I. II. Stralil, Gesch. d. russ. Klrche, HaL 1830. vol. L , 17 258 MEDIAEVAL CHUECH HISTORY. PEE. III. A. D. SOO-121G. Western nations, and what remained of the Grecian Empire, with all on which its hopes could rest, was transferred to Trehizond. 234. Photius. Plwtil Epp. ecL Montacutius, Lond. 1651. t Original documents In Mansi Th. XV. XVI. Vita s. certamon 8. Ignatii, by Nicetas David. (Manni Th. XVI. p. 209.) Anattasii Bibl. Praef. ad Cone. VIII. oec. ( Manai Th. XVI. p. Iss.) Ejusd. Vita Nicholai I. Vita Hadriani II. K B. Swalvc, de dissidio Ecc. chr. in gr. et lat Photii auct maturate. L. B. 1880. [G. Finlay, H. of the Byzan- tine Empire. Lond. 1853. 8.] The real ruler of the emperor and the empire was Bardas, the uncle of Michael III. The Patriarch Ignatius, a eunuch of the dethroned imperial family, zealously protested against the arbitrary conduct of Bardas and the immoralities of the emperor, in whose drinking revels the sacred rites of the- Church were caricatured. To get rid of him, Photius, through the influence of the court, was elevated to the patriarchal office (858). This man had passed through the highest offices of the state, and was possessed of much diversified learning. 'By his promotion to that office a schism was created in the Church, which the court attempted to heal hy means of the Eoman bishop. Legates were sent to Constantinople by Nicholas /., but they were soon won over to the party of Bardas, and gave sentence against Ignatius (861). Nicholas, however, annulled their decisions, and rejected Photius as an intruding layman (863). This disagreement became still more serious when the Bulgarians were drawn into ecclesiastical connection with the Church of Rome, (a) A circular was then sent forth by Photius, severely censuring as heresies all those usages in which the Roman differed from the Greek Church. Among the heresies enumerated were the observation of fasts on Saturday, the curtailment of the great fasts, the contempt of con- firmation when performed by the hand of a presbyter, and the prohibition of the lawful marriage of priests. To these charges was added the bitter reproach that the Roman Church had sinned against the Holy Ghost by cor- rupting the Apostles' Creed. (&) For, the doctrine of the procession of the Holy Ghost ( 105) from the Son as well as from the Father, though it had been maintained as truth by Leo III., had been disapproved as an addition to the Creed, (c) and yet had finally found admission into the Latin version of that symbol. At a synod convened by Photius in Constantinople (867), the pope was excommunicated and deposed. During the same year, however, Basil became sole ruler in the empire by the murder of Michael, with whom he had before been associated in authority, and for this bloody crime the imperial murderer was debarred by Photius from the communion ) Liber S. Joannis. (ThUo Cod. apocr. Th. I. p. 834.) Yisio Isa. ( 89, note d.) c) J. C. Wolf, Hist Bogom. Vit 1712. 4 L. Oeder, Prodr. H. Bog. crit. Goett 1743. 4. Engel- hardt, d. Bog. (KGesch. Abhh. Erl. 1832. N. 2.) FOURTH PERIOD. INNOCENT III. TO LUTHER. 238. General View and Historical Writers. 1) 170. Fontes rerum Germ. Geschichtsquellen Deutschl. (14. & 13. Jhh.) ed. by J. F. Boelimer. Stuttg. 1843-5. 2 vols. Albertus Stadensis, Benedictine Abbot, Franciscan, died after 1260, Chron. till 1256. ed. Reinecc. 1587. Vit 1608. 4. (ScUlteri Scrr. rer. germ. vol. II. p. 123.) Continuation 1264-1324, ed. A. Ilojer, Hafn. 1720. Vincentius Bellovacensis, Dominic, in Eoyemont, died about 1264, Speculum historiale, till 1250. Argent. 1473. 4 vols. f. Aug. 1474. 3 vols. f. (Schlosser, Vine. v. Beauvais u. Erzieh. m. 3 Abh. Frkf. 1819. 2 vols.) Mattheus Paris, Benedict in S. Albans, Hist major till 1259. (1066-1235. from the Chron. of Roger de Wendover, Lond. 1840.) contin. by W. Rishanger, till 1273, ed. Wats, Lond. 1644. 1684. [publ. by the Camden Soc. edited by Halli- well. Lond. 1840.] f. & often. Joannes de Winterthur, Francisc., Chron. 12151348. (Thesaur. Hist. Helv. Tig. 1735. f.) Albertus Argentinensis, Chron. 1273-1378. (Urstis vol. II. p. 95.) The Strasburg Chronicle by Closener (died 1304.) closes at 1362. ed. by a Lit. Assoc. in Stuttgard. 1843. Jac. Twinger of Konigsliofen, a priest of Strasburg, died 1420. Elsafs. Chron. till 1386, ed. by ScMlter. Strasb. 1698. 4. (KuniscJi, Konigsh. & his Cbron. In W. Mutter's Ascania. Ibid. 1820. P. II. Strobel de F. Closneri Chron. germ. Arg. 1S29.) Gobelinus Persona, Dean of Bielefeld, died 1420, Cosmodro- mium, independently 1340-1418. (Meibom. vol. I. p. 53.) Antoninus, Dominic. Archbish. of Flor- ence, Summa historialis till 1459. Nor. 1484. 3 vols. f. & often. (Opp. Flor. 1741ss. vol. I.) Werner RolfinTc, Carthusian in Cologne, d. 1500, Fasc. temporam till 1476. Col. 1474. f. & often. Cont by Jo. Linturius till 1514 (Pistor. Struve voL II. p. 347.) 2) Albertinus Jfussatus, of Padua, d. 1330, Hist Augusta Henr. VII. De gestis Italor. post mortem Henr. till 1317, Ludov. Bavarus, Fragment (Murat. vol. X.) Giov. Villani, of Florence, Storie Florentine till 1848, cont by Matteo & Filippo ViUani till 1364. (Murat. vol. XIIIs.) Mil. 1729. f. & often. Jean Froissart, of Valen- ciennes, d. 1441, Chron. de France, d'Angl. etc. 1326-1400. Par. 1503. 1504. 4 vols. f. revue p. Sau- vage, Lyon. 1559ss. 4 vols. f. In the Coll. des Chroniques par Buchon, Par. 1S24. 10-25 vols. of the 13th cent (Praetorius u. Froiss. In Schlosser's Arch. f. Gesch. 1S33. vol. V.) [Chronicles of Engl. France, Spain, &c., transl. new ed. Lond. 1845. 2 vols. 8.] Phil, de Commines, d. 1509, Chron. et Histoire 1464-98. Par. 1528. f. & often, rev. p. L. du Fresnoy, Lond. 1747. 4 vols. 4. Fr. Guicci- ardini, d. 1540. Storia d'ltalia, 1493-1532. Yen. 1567. 4. & often. [llist of Italy from 1493-1532, iiausl. by A. P. Goddard, 2 ed. 1775, Lond. 9 vols. 8. Froissart, Commines & Guicciardini have been transl. into Eng. & published together. New York & Lond. 1848.] The portions of Guic. sup- pressed by public authority are in Heidegger, Hist Papatus, ed. 2. Amst 1698. Goldasti Monarchia vol. III. p. 17ss. 3) Coccius Sabellicus, Historiogr. of Venice, d. 1506, Enneades s. rhapsodia Histo- riarum till 1504, Yen. 1498ss. 2 vols. f. & often. (Opp. Bas. 1560. 4 vols. f.) 4) Ptolemaeus de Fiado- nibus, Lucensis. Domin. Bish. of Torcello, d. 1327, Hist ecc. till 1312. (Murat. vol. XI. p. 741.) Trithemius, d. 1516. Annales Ilirsaugienses 830-1514. S. Galli'1690. 2 vols. f 5) Astronomical Hist of the Empire by Georg. Acropolita, 1204-61. ed. Leo Allatius, Par. 1651. f. Georg. Pachy- tneres 1258-1308. ed. Possinus, Eom. 1661ss. 2 vols. f. Im. BeJcker, Bonn. 1S35. Niceph. Gregoras, 1204-1359. ed. Boivinus, Par. 1702. 2 vols. f. Joan. Cantacuzenos 1320-54. ed. Pontanus, Par. 1645. 3 vols. f. Joan. Ducas 1341-1462, ed. Bullialdus, Par. 1649. f. Chalcondylas 1298-1462, ed. Fa- Irot, Par. 1650. f. Georg. Phranzes 1401-77, Lat ed. Pontanus, Ingoldst. 1604. 4. For a considerable time the hierarchy apparently preserved its position at the zenith of its power. But in consequence of those abuses to which un- limited authority always leads when intrusted to human hands, public favor, on which it entirely rested, soon became alienated from it. The claims which 2G4 MEDIAEVAL CHUECH HISTORY. PEE. IV. A. D. 1216-1517. it set up were as exorbitant as ever, and even more so, but as tbey were generally repelled, they were productive only of injury to itself. The power of the Papacy and of the empire were so conducted as mutually to destroy one another. The kings always found support against the encroachments of the popes in the sense of justice and in the strong love of independence which existed in the hearts of their people. Under the uniform improvement in the dispositions and habits of the people, which the Church had fostered in every European country, peculiar nationalities now began to be prominently devel- oped. An intellectual education was extended among the people without the aid of the Church, by means of which the popular mind became moro ma- ture, and lost its peculiar ecclesiastical character. In these circumstances the hierarchy attempted to maintain its ascendency by intrigues and direct force, and while it was struggling for its own existence it could no longer afford protection against political despotism. A reformation extending not only to the members but to the very head of the Church was generally re- garded as indispensable, and was in various quarters actually attempted. Catholicism itself appeared to have become for many nations an antiquated system, and not adapted to the existing condition of things. And yet, as it may often be remarked in history, that great spiritual principles sometimes produce their sublimest forms just as they are about to be subverted, eo Catholicism accomplished its noblest achievements during this period. The papacy was still the most prominent of all actors in history, although its sphere was frequently limited to the circle of French and Italian politics. The life of a few princes sometimes becomes the leading object in the picture of events, and new powers are raised up for the deliverance of the Church, General history was still written in the same ecclesiastical style in which it had formerly been composed. Vincent of Beautais, in his Encyclopaedia of all the knowledge and movements of his times, has given us a clear and true pic- ture of his age. Matthew Paris, in his English history, containing also many sagacious observations respecting all the countries of Western Europe, has not hesitated to disclose, with some bitterness, the crimes of the ecclesiasti- cal rulers, for this rigid monk was animated by a supreme love to the Church itself. Albert of Strasburg, a candid and faithful writer, presents lively views of individual characters. The Alsatian Chronicle presents a history of the people whose name it bears in their own language. Antoninus of Florence composed a general history, in which the future saint has displayed the most undoubting faith and much modest criticism. Several statesmen have also given us histories, in which are presented the views of men in secular life. Among these were : Albertinus Nussatus, who wrote a history of his own times and of neighboring countries, in a manner somewhat harsh but accu- rate ; Villani, who, with his brother and nephew, composed a history of Florence, with which also is connected many notices of the Middle Ages generally, in a style of old Roman simplicity ; Froissart, in whose Chronicles the wars and royal courts of Western Europe are described with an extreme relish for the glories of the declining orders of knighthood ; and Commines, in whose work we have the memorials of an age in which he sat at the helm of affairs, and knew all the secrets of its history. The extreme character of CHAP. I. PAPACY. 239. FKEDERIC IL GEEGOEY IX. 265 this class of writers may be best seen in Guicciardini, in whose history of Italy we have a true and lively picture of events, in which he was too inti- mately concerned always to be impartial. Finally, we have the brilliancy of classic learning displayed in the General History written by Sdbellicus. In immediate connection with the subject of Church History, Ptolemaeus^ of Lucca compiled a work which is of considerable critical value, on account of the great number of authorities which he has carefully quoted, with respect to the times immediately preceding his own. In a Chronicle of the old Benedictine Abbey of TrittenJieim, is also interwoven the history of the general Church, especially so far^as relates to Germany, with much learning, but with an extreme bias for orthodoxy. The Byzantine historians, in the lofty style of writing peculiar to their ancient authors, have described the solemnities, the afflictions, and the commotions of the Eastern Eoman Em- pire, in which they generally bore so important a part. But in the opinions which they express respecting western affairs, allowance must be made for the asperity of feeling produced by the dominion of the Latins and the abor- tive attempts frequently made at reconciliation. CHAP. I. RELATION OF THE PAPACY TO GENERAL AFFAIRS. Mart. Polonus. (at the head of 171.) Bernardus Guido, Dominic. Bishop of Lodeve, d. 1381. & Amalricus Augerii, Augustinian, about 1365, both until John XXII. (Murat. vol. IIL P. I, II.) Platina (Barthol. Sacchi), Abbreviator, d. 1481, Yitae Pontificum Eoin. Yen. 1479. f. Later editt. altered; the Dutch editt without the name of the place of pub. are correct according to the ed. prin- ceps. 1460. 1645. & 1664. 12. Theodoricus de Niem, abbreviates d. about 1417, named as the author of Vitae Pontiff. Eom. 1288-1418. additis Imperatt. gestis. (Eccard vol. I. p. 1461.) Leon. Aretinus. papal Secretary, d. 1444, rerum suo temp, in Ital. gestar. Commtr. 1378-1440. ( Mur atari vol. XIX. p. 909.) Yitae Paparum Avenionensium, ed. Steph. Baluzius, Par. 1693. 2 vols. 4 to be corrected by reference to : Hist, des souverains Pontifes dans Avignon, Avign. 1777. 4. Lives of particular Popes in Murat. voL III. P. I, II. Orig. Docc. in Raynald. J. Voigt, Stimmen a. Eom. u. d. papetL Hof im 15. Jahrh. (Raumer's hist Taschenb. 1832. N. 2.)Boehmer, Eegesta Imperii. 1198-1254. Lately revised. Stuttg. 1849. 4 Eegesta Imp. 1246-1313. Lately revised. Stuttg. 1844. 4 239. Frederic II. (UQ4r-Dec. 13, 1250. I. Petri de Vineis, (d. 1249.) Epp. 1. YI. ed. Iselin. Basil. 1740. 2 vols. Boehmer, Eeg. Imp. p. 66ss. Perte vol. IY. p. 228ss. Extracts from the Eegestis Honor. HI. et Greg. IX. in Raynold & Raumer. Mccardi de S. Germano Chron. 1189-1243. (Murat. vol. VII. p. 963.) Contin. by Me. de Jamsilla till 1258. (7&. vol. YIII. p. 489.) II. (Funk) Geschichte Friedr. II. Zflll. 1792. Eaumer, vols. III-IY. p. 211. W. Zimmermann, die Hohenst. o. Kampf d. Monarchic gegen Papstu. republ. Freih. Stuttg. 1838. 2 vols. C. Zft/7) Constitutiones Eegum Siciliae. Neap. 1786. Itawmer, vol. Ill p. 316ss. CHAP. I. PAPACY. 239. INNOCENT IV. 240. CONKAD IV. 267 most common language of ordinary life, and at other times with the poetic imagery of the apocalypse., Frederic interpreted the favor which the pope showed toward the Lombards as an evidence of his partiality for the Cathar- ists living in their midst. Gregory accused the emperor of being the author of the profane remark respecting the three impostors who had deceived the world, and justified the imputation by a reference to the impartial justice with which he had treated the Saracens, the relish with which he had en- tered into oriental pleasures, and several insolent expressions- with regard to the miracles of the Church, (c) Frederic, who certainly had more faith in astrology than in priests, not only proved his orthodoxy but conquered the territories of the Church until he sat down under the very walls of Rome. The pope called a general council of the Church. The emperor gave orders that the fleet which conveyed the bishops to Rome should be captured. Gregory died unavenged (Aug. 21, 1241), and after many tedious dissen- sions among the cardinals, Innocent IV. (Fiesco of Lavagna) was chosen in his stead (June 24, 1243). The new pope had been the friend of the empe- ror, but after various ineffectual efforts to conclude a peace he became a mor- tal enemy. By the aid of his countrymen the Genoese, he escaped from Italy, and at the general council of Lyons (1245), (d) he once more hurled forth all the curses of the Church against the emperor, as a heretic and a sacrilegious robber. The contest was waged not only with spiritual but with carnal weapons, for the pope endeavored to secure assistance by exciting insurrections in Germany and in Sicily. Frederic died without yielding to the papal claims, (e) but among the people many believed that his body would see no corruption, and at the proper time that he would return and over- throw the exorbitant power of the priesthood. 240. Overthrow of the Souse of HoJienstaufen. I. Boelimer, Keg. p. 255ss. Jamsilla, cent by an unknown hand till 1265. (Hurat. vol. VIIL p. 586.) and by the Guelph Saba Jfalaspina, rer. Bicul. 1. VI. 1250-76. (75. p. 781.) II. W. Jdger, Gesch. Conrads II. Nuremb. 1787. Pfister, Gesch. v. Schwaben. Heilb. 1803. vol. II. Raumer, vol. IV. p. 52Sss. Innocent IV. now proclaimed that the sacrilegious house of Hohenstaufen had for ever forfeited all title to sovereignty, and he hastened to take posses- sion of Sicily as a vacant fief of the Church. But Conrad IV. abandoned Germany to its own dissensions and conquered his Italian patrimony. Italy, however, was fatal to him, and at his early death (1254) he left nothing for his son Conradin but the remnant of his paternal inheritance in Suabia. The German crown was purchased by foreigners from the imperial princes, who were controlled by papal influence. The Two Sicilies were seized upon by Manfred, a natural son of Frederic, and in them he established a popular government, against which Innocent preached a crusade in vain. The popes, c) The remark was first made by Simon de Tournay, 1201, & the treatise de tribus impostoribua (cd. pr. 589. 8.) belongs to the 16th cent. Jiosenkrans, d. Zweifel am glauben. Kritik d. Scrr. de trib. impost Hal. u. L. 1830. De impostura rel. breve compend. s. L. de trib. impost edit, with lit Introd- by Genthe. Lps. 1833. d) Vita Inn. by his Confessor, Nic. do Curbio. (Murat. vol. III. p. 592.) Boelimer, Keg. p. 812ss. ) His Will Murat<"i Th. IX. p. 661s. Boehmer, p. 310. 268 MEDIAEVAL CHUECH HISTOKY. PEE. IV. A. D. 1216-1517. perceiving that their power was insufficient to keep possession of the twc Sicilies, sold their title, first to England and then to France. Finally Charles of Anjou, by the aid of Clement IV. (1265-68), became king of the Two Sicilies after the death of Manfred in the battle of Benevento (1266). But Conradin felt called upon by the spirits of his ancestors to leave the circle of his youthful associates in Suabia, and attempt the conquest of his patri- monial possessions beyond the Alps. He no sooner made his appearance there than he was hailed as a deliverer by all disaffected persons. But being de- feated at the battle of Tagliacozzo, he was taken prisoner while flying from his pursuers, and having passed through the miserable farce of a legal trial, the last of the Hohenstaufens closed his life on the scaffold on the 29th Octo- ber, 1268. The popes now had the satisfaction of having utterly destroyed the family of their most powerful enemy, and their triumph was purchased by the complete distraction of Germany, the dismemberment of Italy, and the ascendency of France. 241. St. Louis. (1215.) 122G.Aug. 25, 1270. I. Joinville, (Seneschal to Louis) Hist do S. Louis, p. Ch, du Fresne, Par. 1663. f. 1761. JM- dovici, Vita et Conversatio per Gaufredum de Bettoloco, Confessorem, et Guil. Carnotensem^ Ca- pellanuin cjus. (Du Cfieane vol. V. p. 444.) Ludovici Ep. de captione et liberatione sua. (ft>. p. 395ss.) II. Wilken, 7th vol. : Die Kreuzzfige Lud. des Heil. u. der Verlust dcs h. Landes. Lps. 1882. Louis IX. was, in his pious conscientiousness, a sincere Christian ; in his scrupulous austerities and saintly humility, a rigid monk ; and in the energy and equity of his transactions, even with the hierarchy, a noble prince. On his recovery from a dangerous illness he assumed the vow of the cross, and maintained his resolution against all France with such success that by his policy and enthusiasm the whole nation was induced to co-operate in the sacred struggle. The Holy Land had been- devastated by the incursions of the wild tribe of the Chowaresmians, and had once more fallen into the hands of the Sultan of Egypt (1247). Palestine could be conquered only in Egypt. Damietta was taken by Louis in the spring of the year 1249, but when the crusaders advanced into the interior of the country, between the dykes of the Nile which had been cut through, they were attacked by famine and pestilence. Louis was at last obliged to purchase a return to his own land with the wealth of his kingdom. But in the midst of his misfortunes he was still unsubdued in spirit and unseduced to evil. By the encouragement which he showed to the third estate, and by the record which he made of the established usages of the nation he gave a firm legal basis to the state, and by the pragmatic sanction (1269) gave stability to the national church.* In heart he was not unmindful of his vow, and even when advanced in age, with Christ's crown of thorns in his hand he called upon the nobility of France by their love and honor to prosecute the crusades. When the expedition accordingly set out, it was induced, by the hope either of an easier conquest or of the conversion of their enemies, or by the influence of Charles of An- * Leilnitii Mantissa. P. L p. 157. Comp. Raumer, voL VI. p. llfc. CHAP. I. PAPACT. 241. ST. LOUIS. 243. EUDOLPH OF HAPSBUPwG. 260 jou, to turn aside for the invasion of Tunis. The plan of establishing a French colony there was frustrated hy the carelessness of the' king, and the unfavorable character of the climate. Louis died of the plague before Tunis, and with him as with the Emperor Frederic, perished the work to which he had dedicated his life. Louis belonged rather to a former age, while Fred- eric labored for results which could be attained only in the distant future. Hence both of them seemed to toil in vain, but both were illustrious in their lives. 242. The Termination of the Crusades. The Latin empire in Constantinople continued still, but it was perpetually torn by internal divisions, and regarded by the people as a foreign yoke. Its capital therefore fell an easy prey even to the feeble arms of the Greeks under Michael Palaeologus (1261). Palestine and Syria, though frequently reconquered, were always again lost in consequence of the divisions in the Christian host. God seemed to have forsaken his own cause, (a) The ro- mantic enthusiasm which had exhibited so many interesting forms had now given place to a more sober, but more selfish spirit, and Mount Calvaries were constructed nearer home. Gregory X. (1271-76) exerted all the influence which a pope possessed, to obtain possession of the East by a new crusade, and thus preserve it for Christianity, but his efforts were entirely vain. (5) Ptolemais (Acre), the last fortress of the crusaders, was stormed by the Egyp- tian host on the 18th May, 1291. (c) The only benefit which the crusades could accomplish was for the spiritual and commercial interests of the "West- ern nations, and this office they had now fulfilled, (d) 243. Rudolph of Hapsburg. 1273-91. The Sicilian Vespers. The German throne had been for a long time vacant when the Count of Hapsburg became king by the choice of the more powerful princes of the empire. He now endeavored to obtain the papal acknowledgment, and took the oath which had been customary ever since the time of Otho IV., because Alphonso of Castile, a rival king, whom Gregory X. had persuaded to re- nounce all claims upon the crown, was yet living. "With the moderation of a mind powerful in its proper sphere, Rudolph abandoned all the rights of the empire to its Italian dependencies, and confined his attention to the establishment of a legal government in Germany, and to the attainment of the power which his family needed for its maintenance. He therefore succeeded in living on terms of honorable peace with the pope, who needed a powerful support against the influence of France in Lower Italy, and he had opportunity to pave the way for the future independence of the empire, (a) a) Cornp. Sirventes des Templers In Diets, Leben u. Werke d. Troubad. Zwick. 1829. p. 599. &) Humbertus de Romania (in the service of the pope,) de his, quae tractanda videbantur in Cone. gen. Lugd. (Mansi -vol. XXIV. p. 109ss.) c) Marinus Sanutus, Secretorum fidelium cracis 1. III. P. XII. c. 21ss. (Bongars vol. II.) Abul feda (himself present.) Annal. Moslem, vol. V. p. 95ss. d) Heeren, Entwlckl. d. Folgen d. Kreuzz. Europa. Gott 1S08. (Hist W. vol. II.) Regenlogen, de fructibns quos humanitas, libertas, mercatura etc. perceperint e bcllo sacro. Amst. 1S09, a) Codex epistolaris Eud. I. ed. Gerbert t 8. Blasii. 1722. aus. Eodmann, Lps. 1806. Boehm&r 270 MEDIAEVAL CHUECH HISTOEY. PEE. IV. A. D. 1216-1517. Clement IV. had reason to doubt the wisdom of his policy with respect tc the Sicilies, for instead of deriving any pecuniary aid from Charles of Anjou, that prince was continually exacting money from him. (5) So intolerable were the oppressions of the French in Sicily that even Gregory X. predicted that a day of vengeance would soon arrive against his royal vassal, (c) But when Martin IV. (1281-85) a Frenchman, and subservient to French inter- ests, was seated in the papal chair, (d) at the ringing of the vesper bells on the third day in Easter, 1282, an insurrection broke forth, and every French- man on the island was slain. Peter of Aragon, on account of his marriage with Constantia, the daughter of Manfred, was proclaimed King of Sicily, and was immediately excommunicated by the pope. Charles of Anjou retained possession only of Naples, and the popes lost all influence in Sicily until new relations were formed with France in the beginning of the next century, when a reconciliation was effected, (e) 224. The Hermit in the Papal Chair. July 5. Dec. 13, 1:294. Boehmer, Eegest p. 388. Ptolemaei Luc. (an eye-witness) II. ecc. XXIV, 29ss. Raynald. ad ann. 1294. Jacoli Cardintili* Carmen de vita, and de canonisatione Coel. (Mural vol III. P. I. p. 613ss. 655ss.) Petrui de Alliaeo, Vita Coel. (A eta BS. Maj. voL IV. p. 4S5.)Coele8tini Opp. (asce- tic) ed. Telera, Neap. 1C40. 4. (Bibl. PP. Lugd. voL XXV.) The French influence in Naples had gained over a party among the cardi- nals, which was opposed by another, embracing various shades of distinction, called the papal, the Italian, and the German. But when neither of these parties was found strong enough to elect one of its own number to the papal chair, at the suggestion of the name of Peter de Murrhone, a hermit and a popular saint, residing at Abruzzo, all agreed to bestow their votes on him, each party hoping to find in him an instrument for its own purposes. He assumed the name of Celestine V., and never renounced his saintly poverty and his former simplicity of life. But with the exception of the King of Naples, to whose influence he surrendered himself, and whose favorites he appointed cardinals, all parties soon perceived his utter unfitness for the office of government. Hence, when he had confirmed the rigid regulations of Gregory X. with respect to the limitation and seclusion of the conclave, (a) he was induced by Cardinal Cajetanus, who acted in behalf of the older car- dinals, although with the view of himself becoming pope, voluntarily to resign his office. Instead of the solitude of the mountain for which he had longed, his successor consigned him to the solitude of a prison, in which he died (1296). By his third successor he had assigned to him (1313) a place among the saints, and by Dante a place in hell. (&) Eeg. p. 51ss. Pertz vol. IV. p. 3S2ss. Le Bret, de prucL Eud. in rebus cum Curia peractis. Tub 1783. 4. 1) Martene, Thes. nov. vol. IL p. 174. 179. c) Saba Malaspina VL 4. d) Boehmer, Eeg. 335ss e) Mich. Amari, la guerra del Vespro Siciliano. Palermo. 1842. ed. 4, Fir. 1851. a) Proclaimed at Lyons, 1274. Mansi voL XXIV. p. Slss. 6) Inferno III, 5Sss. CHAP. I. PAPACY. 245. BONIFACE VIIL PHILIP AUGUSTUS. '271 245. Boniface VIII. Dec. 24, 1294. Oct. 11, 1303. Ptol. Luc. H. ecc. XXIV, 86. (Comp. Cod. Patav. in Murat. voL XI. p. 1218ss.) For Hist. & orig. documents, (P. du Puy) Hist du differend entre le Pape Boniface et Phil, lo Bel. Par. 1655. f. BaiUet, Hist des dem61ez du P. Bonif. avec Phil. ed. 2. Par. 1719. 12. Riibeus, Bonif. et familia Ca- jetanorum. Kom. 1651. Tosti, Storia di Bon. VIII. e de' suoi tempi. Eom. 1S46. W. Dnimann, Gesch. Bon. d. VIII. Konigsb. 1852. 2 Th. Cajetanus of Anagni, a jurist and a priest, who had grown old while employed in the affairs of the Koman court, ascended the papal chair under the name of Boniface VIII. This distinction he attained through the recom- mendation of his enemy the King of Naples. Actuated by a frantic hatred to the Ghibelline party he sent into banishment the powerful family of the Colonna who now declared Oelestine's resignation invalid, and drove the plough over Palestrina'the town in which they resided. He reproved Philip of France for having seized upon the property of the Church, and for an adulteration of the coin, and according to a right then conceded to the hier- archy, he proposed to act as a mediator (1295) in the sanguinary war between that prince and Edward I. of England. Philip the Fair forbade his inter- ference, and when Boniface forbade all taxation of Church property, (d) the king prohibited any exportation of the precious metals. That he might not lose all his revenues from France, and as he was already forsaken by a por- tion of the French clergy, the pope sought to become reconciled to Philip by giving the mildest construction to his own prohibition. Both kings now con- sented that he should decide their difficulties, not, however, as the pope, but as one selected by the parties for that special purpose. No sooner, however, was his decision made known in a Bull (June 30, 1298), than Philip refused to comply with its requisitions, because it did not properly respect the right of prior possession against that of recent conquest. Eeproaches of roya; oppression, and papal treachery to the Church, were exchanged between them, and the legate in France, as a French bishop, was thrown into prison for high treason. Angry edicts were proclaimed by Boniface on the 5th of December, 1301, summoning the French prelates to Eome for the purpose of reforming the king and the empire. The king, whose ordinary government was eminently despotic, now appealed to his people, and convened a general Diet of his kingdom. The three estates were* unanimous in maintaining the independence of the French kingdom (1302). An extract from tne papal decrees which had been so falsified as to make it in the highest degree offen- sive to the royal feelings, declared every one a heretic who did not believe that the king in temporal as well as in spiritual matters was subject to the pope. To this the king replied by declaring every one a fool who did not believe that the King of France was in temporal things subject to no one. (5) Boniface now commenced a contest with the whole French nation, and al- though he denied that he had ever claimed France as a papal fief, he never- theless maintained that every creature, under peril of his final perdition, was a) Clericis laicos: S&xt. Decretal, lib. 3. tit 28. c. 8. 1) The genuine : Ausculta fili. The spurious : Deum time. Baillet, p. 103, Ills. voL II. p. 19. 272 MEDIAEVAL CHUECH HISTQKY. PER. IV. A. D.' 1216-1517. bound to obey the Eoman bishop, (c) He then proceeded to excommunicate the king, who appealed once more to a general Diet of his empire (June, 1303). Before that body he had the pope accused of the most monstrous crimes, and demanded that a general council should be summoned to adjudi- cate upon them. The pope pronounced an interdict upon the whole of France, abrogated the privileges of the universities, and bestowed the French crown upon the Emperor of Germany. Philip's chancellor, William of No- garet, and Sciarra Colonna, the expelled cardinal, surprised and imprisoned the pope (Sept. 7) in his own city of Anagni. In the hands of his enemies he now resolved to die like Him, whose earthly vicar he professed to be. After a confinement of three days he was liberated by his own countrymen, but grief for the dishonor he had suffered had broken his heart. It is possi- ble that Boniface thought more of himself and of his treasures than of the general welfare, but he was impelled forward by his idea of the pontificate, his conduct was in the very spirit of Gregory, he only mistook in some cases the proper hour for action, and in general had not observed the great changes which had taken place since the time of his predecessor. Subsequent ages have held him responsible for his misfortunes. But kings had learned the secret of repelling papal assumptions, the universal dominion of the hierarchy had been broken, and public opinion, expressed in powerful tones, had pro- nounced its disapproval of all attempts to blend the spiritual w r ith the secu- lar authority, (d) 246. Commencement of the Babylonian Exile. Although Benedict XL (Oct. 22, 1303 June 7, 1804J, was a steadfast friend of his predecessor, he was compelled to yield to adverse circumstances. Accordingly he availed himself of an honorable embassy from Philip to ob- tain a reconciliation with that monarch, in which all decrees against France were revoked, so far as appeared consistent with the honor of the papacy, (a) When the conclave was assembled for the election of his successor, it was found that the party of Boniface was a complete match for that of France, but the superior policy of the latter prevailed, and Bertrand d'Agoust, Arch- bishop of Bordeaux, a creature of Boniface, but secretly pledged to act with the French party, was unanimously elected. (5) Clement V. (June 5, 1305 April 20, 1314) never crossed the Alps, but in the year 1309 fixed upon Avig- non as his residence. By the appointment of numerous French cardinals he secured the election of a successor of the same political character with him- self. These were generally French court bishops who directed the usurpa- tions of the hierarchy only against other nations. Although Clement sub- jected the French Church to the payment of tithes to the king, repealed some parts of Boniface's bulls, and made others inapplicable to France, avoided with difficulty a formal condemnation of Boniface himself, and ven- c) Unam sanctam : Extra, comm. lib. I. tit 8. c. 1. Drumann, vol. II. p. 67ss. d) Dante, Purgator. XVI, 97ss. XXVII, TOss. Aegidius de Columna, (Arcbbish. of Bourgos, d. 1316) de po test ate regia et pontificia. (Goldasti Monarchia S. E. Imp. Frcf. 1614. yol. II. p. 96.) Joannes de ParrMsiis, (Dominic, d. 1304.) Tr. de pot regia et papali. (75. p. 108.) a) Raynald ad. ann. 1304. 2>u Puy, p. 207ss. I) Villani, VIII, 80. CHAP. I. PAPACY 246. CLEMENT V. 247. JOHN XXII. 273 tured only in /secret to recall a compulsory public recommendation of the French prince for election to the imperial dignity, he hurled the most terri- ble anathemas (1309) against the republic of Venice for its attempt to gain forcible possession of Ferrara, and when Henry VII. of Luxemburg went on a military expedition to Rome he renewed all the exorbitant demands of his predecessors. Henry died, in the midst of his victories (1313), and it was then proclaimed in the papal bulls that the pope was the emperor's lord paramount, and consequently that when the imperial throne was vacant the pope was the imperial regent in Italy, (c) 247. Louis of Bavaria. 131447. Joanna of Naples. I. Orig. Docc. in Qlenscfilager, Staatsgesch, des rom. Kaiserth. 1. Hajfte des 14 Jhh. Frkf. 1755. 4. BoeJwner, Eegesta Imp. 1314-47. Frkf. 1839. 4. & Additam I. Frkf. 1841. 4. Vita Lud. IV. Al- ?>eri. Mussati Lud. Bavarus, Jo. Victoriensis and others inBoehmer, Fontes rer. Germ. vol. I.' Her- wart ab Hoheriburg, Lud. IV. defensus. Mon. 1618s. 3 vols. 4. Geicald, Defensio Lud. IV. Ingolst. 1618. .Mannert, Ludw. IV. Landsh. 1812. ScJilett, Biogr. v. K. Ludw. Sulz. 1822. After a long and violent assembly of the French and Italian cardinals, John XXII. was presented to the people as their pope (1316-34). "While yet in Lyons he gave his oath to the Italians that he would never mount a beast except on his journey to Eome T and accordingly embarked by ship for Avig- non, and never left his palace there. In Germany, Louis of Bavaria and Frederic of Austria were' contending for the imperial crown, and at that time it appeared to be the interest of France to allow the power of the empire to expend itself in these civil dissensions. Hence, when Louis had made his opponent a prisoner (1322), and in opposition to the summons that he should submit to the decision of the pope, pleaded that his title to the crown was already complete by the choice of the princes of the empire, John simply re- plied by a ban of excommunication and an interdict (1324). But even the papal sanction of a breach of faith was ineffectual to make it tolerable to the loyal spirit of the Germans. Louis came to an agreement with his opponent, and after a formal appeal to a general council caused himself to be crowned emperor at Rome, and a pious mendicant monk to be placed in the papal chair (1328). No sooner, however, was his army withdrawn from Italy than his power in that country ceased, the pope whom he had set up was sent to Avignon, and a papal decree announced that Italy was for ever separated from Germany. On the one side of the Alps the emperor's, and on the other side the pope's extreme pretensions to a universal dominion were advocated by influential writers, (a) By his passionate interference in all kinds of theo- logical controversy John XXII. gave occasion for the imputation that he was himself infected with heresy. (5) In his proud theocratic pretensions the Germans could perceive nothing higher than the instigations of France. The interdict, however, though but partially carried into effect, was not without c) F. W. Sarthold, Eomerzug Heinr. v. Liitzelburg. Konigsb. 1830s. 2 vols. a) On the imperial side : Marsilius of Padua and John of Jandun in their principal joint pro- duction, about 1328, Defensor pacis. (Goldasti Monarchia, vol. II. p. 154.) On the papal side: Au- gustinus Triumphus, Summa do potest ecc. ad. Jo. Aug. Vind. 1473. and often. Alvarus Pelagius. le planctu ecclesiae. 1. II. Ulm. 1474. Ven. 1560. f. 1) Guil. Occam, Comp. errorum Joannis P. (Goldasti 1. c. vol. II. p. 957.) 18 274 MEDIAEVAL CHURCH HISTORY. PER. IT. A. D. 1216-1517. its influence in disturbing the popular tranquillity. A reconciliation with the Church was -sought for by Louis, and although it was desired by Benedict XII. (133442) no less than by the emperor, it was prevented by French influence. This dependence of the popes induced the imperial princes to form the First Electoral Alliance at Reuse (July 16, 1338), and Louis announced that the imperial dignity came directly from God alone, (e) But as the emperor had done violence to the feelings of his people, sometimes by arbitrary invasions of the prerogatives of the Church, and sometimes by pusillanimous conces- sions, Clement VI. (1342-^52) succeeded in obtaining five electoral votes in favor of Charles IV. the son of the King of Bohemia (1346). But this par- son-king was obliged immediately to take refuge in France, and did not reach the ignominy of a new election and coronation until after the death of Louis, and at the expense of the most ruinous sacrifices (1349). In Naples the Hun- garian prince, Andreas, the husband of the young royal heiress, Joanna, was murdered (1345). His widow, who was soon after married to her cousin, the Prince of Tarento, was compelled to fly before the vengeance of the Hunga- rians to Avignon. Clement VI., her liege lord and her judge in the place of God, solemnly pronounced the beautiful queen innocent of the murder of her husband, and confirmed her recent marriage. She, on the other hand, that she might obtain funds to carry on a war with the Hungarians, sold Avignon to the papal see (1348), and after various vicissitudes of war, obtained permanent possession of her patrimonial estates through the media tion of the pope. 248. Close of the Babylonian Exile. In consequence of the absence of the pope and the weakness of the em- peror, in Italy, every city there made efforts to attain independence, and whenever this was secured, innumerable factions and tyrants commenced a struggle with each other. The result was that all considerate persons began to long for some powerful head who could rule over the whole. These de- sires, however, were not satisfied by Charles IV., whose expedition to Home (1354) was welcomed with great enthusiasm by the people, for the only object of that monarch was to obtain the pageant of a coronation. Innocent VI. (1352-62), a prince well versed in legal science and of strict integrity, recognized the necessity of a reformation, and he even entered upon it him- self by reducing the splendor of his court, and attempting to appropriate to the actual service of the Church the treasures accumulated from various benefices. The estates of the Church had been divided into many indepen- dent cities and principalities, or had been taken possession of by neighboring governments. In vain the popes resorted to terrible excommunications tc frighten these ecclesiastical robbers ; the papal government was not restored until Albornoz, the cardinal legate (1353-67), succeeded in raising a bold cru- sade on a small scale, and brought into action all the arts of a skilful diplomacy. The Eomans had been for a brief period intoxicated with the idea of free- dom and universal dominion, excited by their tribune Cola di Rienzo* but c) OlenscTdager, N. 63. Boehmer, Reg. p. 120. * F. Papencordt, Cola di Rienzo u. e. Zeit Hamb. 1841. CHAP. I. PAPACY. 248. INNOCENT YL 249. THE SCHISM. 275 when they saw the eternal city becoming almost desolate in consequence of the absence of the pope, all, especially those to whom the higher object of the papacy was dear, became anxious for his return. Urban V. (1362-70), in opposition to the wishes of his cardinals and the king of Trance, at last returned to Kome (1367). He was soon, however, compelled to return to Avignon by the unsettled condition of affairs in Italy. Gregory XL (1370-78) once more yielded to the solicitations of his Italian subjects, and was carried back by the Komans in triumph (1377). * Yet the cities of the Ecclesiastical States were not unmindful of their independence, for they were careful to intimate that all regard for religion must be laid aside when it be- comes hostile to freedom, and that nothing but death could render the resi- dence of the pope in Italy absolutely certain. 249. The Schism. I. Orig. Docc. in Raynald*. Balu&. and in Bulaei Hist. Univ. Paris, vol. IV. Theodoricus de Niem, de schismate inter Papas et Antipapas (till 1410.) 1. III. et nemus unionis. Bas. 1560. f. Arg. 1609. II. Du Pity, Hist du schisme 1378-1428. Par. 1654. and often. Maimbourg, Hist du grand echisme d'occident Par. 1678. Uebers. 1792. The election of an Italian- pope was at last obtained by the persevering obstinacy of the Eoman people. The Archbishop of Bari, Urban VI. (1378-89), a Neapolitan, was favorably inclined toward the people, though toward the cardinals, whose opposition to himself he well knew, he evinced the natural severity of his character. The twelve cardinals from beyond the Alps therefore fled to Anagni, hired a band of condottieri, declared the elec- tion of Urban invalid because under constraint, drew three Italian cardinals by artful promises into their conclave at Fondi, and chose Cardinal Robert of Geneva for then* pope, under the name of Clement VII. (137894). He took up his residence at Avignon, and through the influence of France he was gradually acknowledged in the Spanish peninsula, in Scotland, Savoy and Lorraine, and was regarded as the proper successor of the French popes. In opposition to Joanna of Naples, who had likewise declared in favor of Cle- ment, Urban stirred up Charles of Durazzo, the heir-apparent to her throne, and recalled the memory of her deed of blood. The queen then adopted the French prince Louis of Anjou, whom Clement invested with the kingdom of Naples, and sustained in the expenses of his war. Charles having seized upon the person of Joanna, had her put to death in prison, and maintained possession of Naples. But Urban soon after became displeased with him because he refused to bestow Capua on a nephew of the pope, in considera- tion of the assistance he had received, excommunicated him, was besieged by him in Nocera, and was finally compelled to take refuge in Genoa. In his flight through the midst of his enemies he had five cardinals- bound and con- veyed with him to Genoa, where they were put to death. Both popes were surrounded by a train of cardinals, so that the decease of both would have no effect in diminishing the schism. To sustain the expenses of the war be- tween two popes and of two distinct papal courts, it was necessary to devise new methods of extortion by which every thing on earth and in heaven was put up for sale. Each pope was under the other's ban, the people were 276 MEDIAEVAL CHtJECH HISTORY. PEE. IV. A. D. 1216-1517. necessarily the only arbitrators of this controversy, and the organs of the popular will were those who represented the interests of science. The first actual movement for the attainment of peace was made by the University of Paris. The only practicable method by which this strife could be composed seemed to be the simultaneous abdication of both competitors. Peter de Luna, under the name of Benedict XIII., was then reigning (after 1394) in Avignon, and Angelo Corrario, under that of Gregory XII., in Rome (after 1406). On their election both had promised to make the sacrifice which tho interests of the Church required, but both, on various pretexts, refused to abide by their engagements. Benedict was then abandoned by the French, and fled into Spain. Both popes were finally forsaken by their cardinals, who, appealing to Christ himself, a general council and a future pope, assem- bled at Leghorn (1408). 250. The Council of Pisa. March Vti-Aug. 7, 1409. I. Acts of Council, In Mansi voL XXVIs. Theod. de Niem, de schism. Ill, SSsa. [London, pp. 488-492.] II. Lenfant, Hist du Cone, de Pise. Amst 1724. 1727. 2 vols. 4. J. ff. ) Mansi vol. XXIX. p. 90. comp. 409. [Waddington Ecc. Hist Chap. XXIV.] 280 MEDIAEVAL CHUECH HISTORY. TEE. IV. A. D. 1216-151T. tical states, (c) Every thing which could be censured as an abuse in the Church by the clergy and prelates was brought forward. The papal court was in many respects reduced, significant references were made to the cus- toms of the primitive Church, the revenues of the pope from countries be- yond the Alps, and his power of bestowing benefices there, were consider- ably reduced, the illegal transfer of ecclesiastical trials to Rome was forbidden, the pope was solemnly admonished for his disregard of these decrees, and in a great variety of ways even the administration of ecclesiastical affairs was interfered with. When Eugenius heard of this, he adjourned the council after its twenty-sixth session to Ferrara (Sept. 18, 1487), and subsequently to Florence. At the council which he convened at the latter place he excom- municated the rebellious assembly at Basle. But this latter body instituted legal proceedings against him, the issue of which was that Eugenius was de- posed (June 25, 1439) for simony, heresy, and disturbance of the public peace. But the greater part of the prelates had by this time either with- drawn, or had gone over to the council at Florence. Allemand, Archbishop of Aries, a man of eminent piety but devoted to the principles of liberty, being the only cardinal now left, presided over the assembly, and the places of the bishops were occupied by doctors and the pastors of churches. That they might have a powerful protector near, Amadeus, Duke of Savoy, who after a long and glorious reign had transferred his territories to his son, and was then peaceably living as a pious hermit by the lake of Geneva, was elected pope by a committee appointed for that purpose by the council (Oct. 30, 1439). He assumed the name of Felix V., but his authority was acknowl- edged only by his former sulyects, the Kings of Aragon and Hungary, a few German princes, the Swiss confederacy, and the greater part of the uni- versities. But the voice of the people, which had hitherto been the princi- pal support of the council, disapproved of the rashness of a proceeding which had no means provided for its support, and threatened the Church with a new schism. The council was now placed in the position of a violent fac- tion, compelled to make concessions inconsistent with its principles to increase or confirm its party, (d) The imperial states observed a careful neutrality between the pope and the council, but at a Diet convened at Mentz (March 26, 1439), they accepted the decrees of reformation which had been passed at Basle. Yet when Frederic III. of Austria, a well-disposed man, but pos- sessed of neither inclination nor ability to carry forward the principles of lib- erty, or any thing else of an elevated character, was raised to the imperial throne, and Aeneas Sylvius of Piccolomini, the shrewd and enthusiastic secretary and historian of the council, found it for his interest to enter first into the service of the emperor, and then of the pope, Eugenius was induced, in consideration of his recognition as pope, to withdraw his decree of depo- sition against the Electors of Treves and Cologne, and conditionally to con- cede that the decrees of the Council of Basle might be enforced in Germany (Feb. 5, 7, 1447). (e} But the same Aeneas Sylvius who had obtained these c) Mansi vol. XXIX. p. 377. d) Mansi vol. XXXI. p. 202. e\ Concordata Principum. Decrees at Monta, in Horix, Concordats Nat Germ. Frcf. et Lps. ed CHAP. I. PAPACY. 253. BASLE. 254. NICHOLAS V. 281 concessions, subsequently induced Nicholas V., by a separate agreement with the emperor at Vienna (Feb. 17, 1448), craftily to steal away from the Ger- man Church nearly all the privileges thus secured. This agreement finally became possessed of imperial authority by distinct contracts with individual princes and bishops, under the name of the Concordat of Asehafferiburg. (jQ On the other hand, France had on the whole faithfully adhered to Eugenius, but in the Pragmatic Sanction passed at Bourges (1438), it had received the decrees of Basle as far as they were subservient to the independence of the Gallican Church, (g) This ecclesiastical assembly at Basle having been grad- ually abandoned by the Church, by its own pope, and finally by its own members, closed its sessions after 1443 without a formal adjournment. Felix resigned his precarious dignities (1449), in an honorable compact with Nicholas. 254. The Popes until the End of the Fifteenth Century. Platina, from Sixtus IV. till Pius V., continued generally according to good authorities by the Augustinian Onufrio Panmni (d. 1568.) Yen. 1562. 4. and often, especially Ven. 1708. Steplianus Jnfessura, Chancellor of the city of Home about 1494, Diarium Eomanae Urbis 1294-1494. (Eccard voL II. p. 1863. Muratori, with omissions, vol. III. P. II. p. 1109.) Nicholas V. (1447-55, Thomas of Sarzana), notwithstanding his hasty temper, by the mildness and equity of his government restored once more the glory of the papacy. Himself a man of extensive erudition, he was always liberal to literary men, and to the poor. His last years were embit- tered by his grief respecting Constantinople, (a) Calixtus III. (1455-58, Borgia) armed on his own account a victorious army against the Turks, and spared no pains to secure the throne of Naples to his nepotes. (U) Aeneas Sylvius was in natural talents and in learning among the very first men of his age, and at the expense of his character succeeded in attaining the object of his ambition. Under the name of Pius II. (1458-64) he vainly endeav- ored to cast obloquy on the liberal tendencies and efibrts of his earlier years, to wrest the Pragmatic Sanction from the hands of the French, and to place himself when old and sick at the head of a crusade against the Turks. He was not a general apostate from his principles ; his youthful sins were com- mitted in his youthful dreams, but his whole career as a Koman pontiff has left us no trace of its influence, (c) Paul II. (1464-71, Barbo), though an 2. 1772s. vol. I. The four bulls of Eugenius are in C. W. Koch, Sanctio pragm. Germ. ill. Argent 17S9. 4. SylL docum. p. ISSss. Comp. Raynald. ad ann. 1447. N. 7. /) All the Archives of the Diet of Mentz are in Wurdtwein, Subsid. diplom. vol. IX. N. 9. p. "Sss. All the Archives of the Diet of Vienna are inJEocA, 1. c. p. 201ss. On the question whether the decrees of Basle were abrogated with respect to Germany, see Spittler, Geech. d. Fundamen- talges. d. deutschkath. K. (Gott hist Mag. vol. I. pt 2s. vol. IV. pt 1.) On the other side, see Koch, p. 36ss. Ueber d. Fundamentals, d. deutschkath. K. Frkf. u. Lps. 1790. 0) Hist de la pragm. sanction. (Traitez de droits et libertez de 1'Egl. Gall. Par. 1731. f. As an appendix to the 1st vol. of P. Pithou or Du Puis.) a) L Vita Nic. by his Secretary, Gianeszo Manetti (Muratori vol. III. P. II. p. 905.) II. Dom. Georgii Vita Nic. Eom. 1742. 4. Jagemann, Gesch. d. fr. Kunste u. Wiss. in Ital. vol. IIL P. 3. 1) Muratori vol. III. P. II. p. 961ss. c) I. Opp. (hist, geogr., rhet.) Bas. 155L f. and often. Epp. Nor. 14S1. and often. Oratt ed. Mansi, Luc. 1755. 4 His life by his admirers, Platina, Campani (Murat. vol. III. P. II. p. 967.) and by himself in the name of his Secretary, Gdbellini Commentr. rerum. memor. quae temp. Pii 282 MEDIAEVAL CHUECH EISTOEY. Pii. IV. A. D. 1216-151T. enemy to all the partisans and policy of his predecessor, did not disturb the tranquillity of Italy. He was avaricious, but it was that he might spend what he amassed in pomp and prodigality, a persecutor of science on account of what he regarded as its heathenish tendencies, tender-hearted and easily moved to tears, a fortunate rather than a holy father, and one who regarded his own arbitrary purposes as his supreme law. (d) Sixtus IV. (1471-84, della Kovera), a learned Franciscan general, who had been implicated in the conspiracy of the Pazzi, ventured to issue sentence of banishment against Lorenzo Medici for escaping the daggers of the conspirators. His interdicts were disregarded by the Florentines and Venetians. Rome was much em- bellished by him, but the Church was sold and Italy filled with blood that he might acquire principalities for his nepotes or sons, (e) Innocent VIII. (1484-92, Cybo) commenced his reign with the violation of the stipulations he had made at his election. To obtain the rents which he claimed from Naples, then in league with his seditious barons, he prosecuted -against it a disgraceful war, which both parties were finally willing to conclude with an honorable peace, from a common fear of the French. In the very act of call- ing upon Christendom to embark in a war with its hereditary enemies, he sold himself to the Sultan Bajazet to become a jailer for that monarch. "While Rome was distracted by the factious struggles of the Colonna and the Orsini, he acquired for disgraceful crimes the ambiguous title of father of his country. (/) 255. Alexander VI. Aug. 2, 1492-^. 18, 1503. I. Burchardi Diarium Curiae Horn. 1434-1506. (Specimen Hist Arcanae de Vita Alex. ed. Leib- nit. Han. 1696. 4. more fully In Eccard vol. II. p. 2017. Comp. Paulve, Sophronlzon. voL IV. II. 1. vol. VIII. H. 6.) Infessura. (p. 2S1.) In the higher sense of history, Guicciardini, 1. 1.-VI. IL Mr. D. B. (Dubos?) la vie d'Alex. Append, to the Hist du. droit publ. eccl. franc. Lond. 1737. Tommasi, la vita dl Cesare Borgia. Montechiaro. 1670. 4. published in French as anonymous Memoirs. Amst 1739. 2 vols. 12. Brl. 1782. Gordon, la vie du P. Alex, et Cesar B. trad, de 1'Anglols. Amst 1732. 2 vols. 12. Eplgr. in Flacius, L c. p. 40a Alexander VI. (Roderigo Borgia) made use of the whole power with which the Church supplied him to establish an independent kingdom for his own femily. At one time he appealed to all the powers of Europe to assist him in a struggle against France, when Charles VIII. overran Italy to obtain possession of Naples, as an inheritance from the house of Anjou. At another he formed an alliance with France, that he might overthrow some of the principal families of Rome, and spoil the Italian princes of their lawful pos- sessions. His son, the fratricide Caesar Borgia, renounced the Cardinal's II. contiguerunt Eom. 1584. 4. Frcf. 1614. C II. H. C. Helming, de Pii II. rebus gestls et morib. Ber. 1825. 4. Nic. Seets, de Aen. Bylvii morum mentisque mutationis rationib. Harlem. 1839. K, li. Hagenbach, Erlnnerungen an Aen. Sylv. Bas. 1840. d) Platina, who suffered too much on his account to be impartial toward him, and hence should be comp. with Cannesius, edit by Cardinal Quirini, Pauli Veneti Vita, praemissis vindiciis adv. Platinam aliosque. Eom. 1740.. 4. e) His scholastic Treatises, Eom. 1470. Nor. 1473. Life, 'probably by Platina in Murat. voL III. P. II. p. 1052. Epigrams in Flacius, varia de corrupto Ecc. statu poemata. p. 401s. Walchner polit. Gesch. d. 1478. zu Flor. geh. Synode u. dcs Zwistes der Eepubl. mit Sixt Eotw. 1824. /) Infessura in Eccard. p. 1947ss. Vialardi, Vita d'Innocenzo VIIL Ven. 1618. t Epigram* In Flacius, p. 403. CHAP. L PAPACY. 255. ALEXANDER. 256. JUXITJS II. 283 hat to become a duke over the principality to be formed from the possessions of the Church, and of the princes of Central Italy. The Italians were en- couraged with the precious hope that the great object of his despotism was the ultimate union of the whole peninsula. As a political sovereign, Alex- ander gave great offence to the Church by his intimate alliance with the Sultan against France, (a) Although his sensuality was so disgusting, that he was accused by public rumor of even incest and every disgraceful crime, his talents were yet so great and his activity was so untiring in the pursuit of his objects, and either he or the papacy was so much respected, that when kings contended for the possession of the newly discovered Western world, it was finally divided between Spain and Portugal according to his arbitration. He was unscrupulous with regard to the means by which he accomplished his plans. While yet only a cardinal he paid some deference to public senti- ment, but when he had attained the papacy he thought it necessary to put it down by a censorship of books. This practice, originated by him, (J) was regarded as amply sufficient to control the evil. Though he had moments of painful contrition, he was sometimes false and hypocritical merely for his own amusement. He was never guilty of weakness except with respect to Kosa Yanozza and her children. Though his vices could not escape the general hatred, he was always kind to the people. The rich and the powerful were often the victims of his policy, and he did not shrink even from assassination when he thought it needful for his purposes. In the midst of his career he fell a victim to poison, prepared by his son for a cardinal then his guest. His government was so conducted that every vestige of an independent aris- tocracy was effaced from the papal states. 256. Julius II. Nov. 1, 1503-^&. 21, 1513. I. Guicciardini 1. YI.-XI. Paris de Grassis, Diarium Curiae Eom. 1504-22. never printed but used by Raynald and Itoscoe (p. 285.) ffadrianus Castellensis, Itinerarium Julii. (Ciaconii vita Horn. Pontiff. Lugd. 1663. vol. IL) Spalatin, Leben Julii. (Tenzel, Ber. v. d. Ee Lpz. 1718. vol. II. p. lls.) II. Dubos, Hist, de la ligue faite h Cambray. Haye. 1710. 2 vols. From the time of Julius Sower's Hist, of the Popes has been independently revised by Rambach. On the sudden death of Alexander, the republic of Venice, Caesar Bor- gia, and the various inferior tyrants endeavored to obtain possession of and divide among themselves the papal states, while the Roman emperor, the Catholic sovereign of France, and the Most Christian King had the same de- sign with respect to Italy in general. Under these circumstances, no one but the Cardinal Julian della Kovera appeared capable of meeting the coming storm. His election was decided upon even before the conclave met, by the large promises he was able to hold forth. Julius II. was by necessity as well as by choice a military prince, but all the arts of peace were in the high- est sense fostered and honored during his reign. Considering his Genoese extraction, he was remarkably frank and sincere in his disposition, and though sometimes swayed by an irascible temper and by wine, he could not a) Eccard vol. II. p. 2053ss. Fundgruben d. Orients, vol. V. p. 183ss. &) Raynald. ad ann. 1501. N. 86. 284 MEDIAEVAL CHUECH HISTOET. PEE. IV. A. D. 1216-1517. be influenced by fear, or by a love of gold or of relatives. Private passions were indeed foreign to his nature. His sword and his political efforts were entirely devoted to the liberation of Italy and the enlargement of the papa. states. So effectually, by stratagem and by violence, was Caesar Borgia ex- pelled from Italy, that the very name of 'Caesar became contemptible. Bo- logna and other cities belonging to Borgia's patrimony, which had been kept back by petty tyrants, were now conquered by the mere terror of his mili- tary preparations. In opposition to the republic of Venice, which had refused to surrender several cities belonging to the eastern border of the states of St. Peter, he now entered into a combination with the Emperor Maximilian and Louis XII. to form the League of Camlray (1509). But when the French had brought nearly the whole of Lombardy into subjection, he listened to the entreaty of the Venetians as they besought him not to give up Italy to be plundered again by the barbarians. No sooner had his de- mands upon the Venetians been satisfied, than he directed all his civil and ecclesiastical weapons against Louis XII. Though now an old man and bro- ken down by the gout, he hesitated not to throw himself into all the cares and dangers of a winter campaign, nor was he dismayed when his army was utterly destroyed, and nothing remained to him but the majesty of the papal name. Immediately by his exertions was formed the Holy Alliance, by whicji Venice, Spain, England, and the Swiss confederacy became united with him, and the French were soon driven beyond the Alps (1512). Louis met the sword of St. Peter with spiritual weapons, and by means of some disaffected cardinals he called a general council at Pisa for the reformation of the Church (Nov. 5, 1511). A few French prelates assembled there, who proceeded forthwith to suspend the pope as a modern Goliath ; but they were soon compelled by the displeasure of the Italians to remove their sessions to Milan, and during the next year they entirely disappeared before the tri- umphant army of the pope. The people, however, still continued to hope that a reformation of the Church might be effected by a general council, and Julius had promised at his election that one should be called together for that purpose. Accordingly a general assembly of the Church was summoned to meet in the Lateran, in opposition to that which had convened at Pisa. In the first session (May 3, 1512), a discourse was pronounced by Aegidius of Viterbo, a general of the Augustinian order, in which it was maintained that tKe Church had become great only by the use of the weapons of the Spirit ; that temporal possessions were of comparatively small importance, but that every thing depended upon its wealth in spiritual blessings, (a) On the other hand the peculiar spirit of the pope himself was predominant in the council, and nothing more was done than to summon France to answer for the adoption of the Pragmatic Sanction and to anathematize all kinds of simony in the election of a pope. Just as this was done Julius II. died while meditating the most gigantic schemes. Upper Italy was apparently free, a full treasury had been prepared for his successor, and the papal states were extended to their utmost limits. There was indeed an evident inconsistency between his character and his office, which gave occasion to some bitter ani- a) Harduini vol. IX. p. 1576ss. liicherii L. IV. P. IL p. 4se. CHAR I. PAPACY. 25T. LEO X. PKAG. SANCTION. 285 madversions and pleasant satires (5) in countries beyond the Alps. France had announced its determination to destroy the great modern Babel, (c) bu f in Italy the* primary objects of this heroic man were so popular, that his name has been invested there with a splendid posthumous renown, (d) 257. Leo X. March 11, 1513-1517. (1521.) I. Paris de Grassis ( 256.) Paulus Jovius (Bishop of Nocera, d. 1552), Vitae viror. illustr. (Opp. hist. Bas. 1578. f. vol. I. Vita I.) Guieciardini, 1. XI.-XIV. Spalatin in Tensel. 1. c. p. 13. II. Rcscoe, Life and Pontificate of LeV> X. [Loud. (Bohn.) 1846. 2 vols. 8. Rankc, Hist of the Popes. Lond. 1845. (Bohn) 3 vols. 12. and Philad. 1843. 8.] fianke, die Papste, ihre K. u. ihr Staat im 16. u. 17. Jahrh. Brl. 1834. vol. I. p. 69ss. 79ss. Audin, Gesch. d. P. Leo X. from the French of Erug, Augsb. 1845s. 2 vols. {.Bower's Hist, of the Popes to 1758. and from that time cont. by S. H. Cox. till 1846. New York. 8. v. 1843. J. E. Riddle, Hist, of the Papacy, 2 vols. Lond. 1854.] Giovanni Medici was the successor of Julius, with whose fortunes he had been intimately and faithfully connected both in exile and on the throne. By the influence of his father Lorenzo, he had, even when a boy, attained some of the most exalted stations in the Church, and when he reached the papal chair he was yet in the vigor of his manhood. By his natural powers as well as by his uniform habits he was prepared to relish every pleasure which the world could offer, and he therefore collected in the Vatican every thing which could give splendor to the arts and sciences of his age. "Well educated in the classics and in the liberal arts, he was qualified to do this with discrimination, and from his connections he was disposed to look upon these treasures as the appropriate patrimony of his house. Under the name of Leo X. he always showed himself a skilful and kind master, who could appear with dignity whenever his levity of disposition was not drawn forth. He was not indeed a great man either in action or in comprehensiveness of views. Even the arts were promoted only for his own gratification. Placed at the very summit of all human influence at a time in which God created as it were a new world by the hands of consummate artists, he allowed the most exalted talents in his service to exhaust themselves in trifling employments. Although he seemed regardless of even the outward semblance of apostolic or ecclesiastical propriety, he was far from regarding Christianity as a mere fable. His administration was characterized by earnestness, and when directed against criminals by a due degree of severity. His unbounded liberality, however, as well as his lavish profusion, required supplies of wealth which rendered all kinds of expedients indispensable. In the contest which both Spain and France were waging to obtain possession of Italy, it was his policy to hold each at a distance from the prey, and to betray each in turn to the other. A glorious victory was achieved for the papacy during his administration, in the removal of the Pragmatic Sanction (1516), which was yielded by Francis I., that by the friendship of the pope his conquest of Milan might be secured, and his hopes respecting Naples might be realized. The Council of Lateran continued in session until March 16, 1517, long enough to celebrate this victory and carry into effect a few papal edicts. 4 . 5) (Hutten? Erasmus?) Julius exclusis. (Pasquill. vol. II. Eleutheropoli i. e. Baa. 1544. p. 123ss.) c) WdleTt, Vorbericht, to the 15th vol. of Luther's Werken, p. 42ss. d} Guieciardini 1. XL p. 326. 286 MEDIAEVAL CHUECH HISTOEY. PEE. IV. A. D. 1216-1517. CHAP. II. SOCIAL CONSTITUTION OF THE CHURCH. 258. Corpus juris canonici. First complete edition by Jo. Chappuis, Par. 1449ss. 8 vols. ed. 2. 1503. The edit of the Correo tores Eoinani, and published by Gregory XIII. to be immutable: Kom. 1582. 8 vols. f. and often Critical Editions : e rec. Pithoeorum ed. Claud, le Pelletier, Par. 16S7. 2 vols. f. and often. J. IL Boehmer, Hal. 1747. 2 vols. 4. A. C. RicMer, Lps. ISSSss. 2 vols. 4. While the supreme power in the Church was still in the hands of the popes, by the side of the more ancient Decrees of Gratian, a new papal code was gradually formed in three Collections of Decretals, which were abridged, harmonized, sent to the universities, and thus introduced as the authoritative law of the Church. 1. Decretalium Gregorii IX. compilatio, systematically arranged in five books by Raymund de Pennaforte, in compli- ance with the orders of Gregory IX. from the rescripts of that pope, and a few older collections. It was intended to supply the same position in re- spect to ecclesiastical law which was occupied in civil law by the legislation of the great house of Hohenstaufen, and it was published in the year 1234, both in Paris and Bologna, (a) 2. Sextus Decretalium Liber, compiled in five books by order of Boniface VIIL, from Decretals of a later date, and sent to the universities in 1298. 3. Clementinae, compiled by Clement V. from Constitutions principally issued by the general synod held at Vienne, committed by himself to the Consistory of Cardinals (1313) and to his Uni- versity of Orleans, and sent by his successor (1317) to Paris and Bologna, (b) Since this latter period, the power of the popes has not been sufficient to give the force of law to their enactments throughout Christendom, and hence the general code of the Church has been regarded as complete. But a few later laws have been added by various glossarists and editors as appendices to it (Extra vagantes). In the first complete edition of the code, a cqllection of twenty Extravagantes of John XXII. which had been before compiled, was added, together with all the laws of a later date, so far as they could be ob- tained (Extrav. communes), until the time of Sixtus IV. Both these Appen- dices have been incorporated in the more recent editions, and have therefore obtained in judicial proceedings an indefinite but never a legal authority, (c) These decrees and decretals constituted the elements from which has been formed the Corpus juris canonici, whose constituent parts are characterized by the diversified peculiarities of the times in which they originated, but take cognizance of all relations in ecclesiastical, civil, and domestic life. It was freely accepted by the whole "Western Church, and applied by them to all cases in which its provisions were consistent with ancestral usages and local legislation. On the one hand it often afforded the protection of law against the arbitrary conduct of the priesthood, and on the other it served to sustain the power of the hierarchy by the force of habit among the people, a) Steck, de interpolationibus Eaymundi de Pennaf. Lps. 1754. 4. Aug. Theiner : De Bom. Pontiff, epistolarum deer, antiquis collectt. et de Greg. IX. codice. Lps. 1829. 4. and Eecherches BUI plusieurs collections inedites de decretales. Par. 1832. 6) G. Z. Boehmer, de Clementtnis. (Obss. jur. can. Goett 1766.) c) BicfaHl, u. Entsteh. u. Gebr. d. ExtravagantensammL Marb. 1S25. CHAP. II. ECCLES. LAW. 259. STATE A.ND CHUECII. 287 and by the efforts of learned men, long after the real basis of priestly au thority had been destroyed. Many commentaries (glossae, apparatus) upon individual collections were produced by the learned industry of this period. From the explanations written upon each of these Collections, a summary (glossa ordinaria) has been formed under the authority of the schools, which has obtained currency in the ordinary courts, and has the force of common legal usage, (d) 259. The State and the Church. The political institutions of all the great states of Europe were estab- lished near the close of the 15th century, just as the feudal system was giv- ing place to the monarchial. Although Germany continued divided under various forms of government, some of which were free and others were arbi- trary, the independence of the empire and permanent rules for the imperial elections had been secured by means of the Electoral Union at Ehense and the Golden Bull (1356). A definite legal condition had also been established (since 1495) by the Landfriede, or the Peace of the country, and the Impe- rial Chamber of Justice. France, by the despotism of some of its kings, the persecution of its great vassals, and the favor shown to the Third Es- tate, had finally become a consolidated kingdom, circumscribed by power- ful subordinate corporations. For a while England had fought gloriously but unsuccessfully for a territory by nature assigned to France ; it had then been distracted by civil wars, in which its principal nobility contended for the crown, until the leaders of the great parties were gradually struck down by a terrible judgment of heaven, and finally Henry VII. (1485-1509), by de- pressing the nobility and exalting the inferior classes, had established his throne upon a permanent basis. By the marriage of Ferdinand the Catholic with the hereditary Queen of Castile, Spain also had become united as a sin- gle kingdom, before whose power Grenada, the last Moorish city, after an heroic struggle, was compelled to yield (1492). In Italy the popes were themselves too feeble to obtain the sovereignty of the whole peninsula, and yet too proud to allow any other prince to do so. From the time of the Emperor Charles the Great, the people had invited various foreign rulers to enter it, whom they soon found themselves unable to endure, (a) The power of the priesthood was no longer needed or sufficient for the guardianship of the state. The prelates of the several countries were compelled to share in the various fortunes of the higher nobility. "Whenever any see became va- cant, the kings of France and England claimed its revenues as regalia until the new prelate had taken the oath of allegiance to them, and the crown of France claimed possession of all vacant benefices in any diocese until it was filled. By the Concordat with Francis I. the rights of the Gallican Church were shared between the king and the pope. (5) In Germany the king pos- sessed a prerogative, according to which a prelate was bound to comply with the first request for an appointment to a benefice which the emperor made d) Sarti L c. p. 832ss. Swoigny, Gesch. d. rom. K. vol. VI. p. 87ss. a) Machiavetti, Storie Fior. (Opp. Italia, 1813.) vol. L p. 13. 86. 5) P. de Marca, VIII, 22. 6. Jianke, Papste, vol. I. p. 82. 288 MEDIAEVAL CHURCH HISTORY. PER. IV. A. D. 1216-1517. after his consecration, (c) The long contested right of requiring that ail papal edicts should he suhject to the approval of the civil authority before they were publicly acknowledged, was maintained by a few governments in a rather violent manner, (d) In spite of continual denials of their compe- tency the civil courts asserted with increasing success their jurisdiction over private legal suits, in opposition to the exorbitant claims of the spiritual courts. The powers of the clergy were especially curtailed by governments and rulers of a republican character. In France, when the parliaments had once succeeded in attaining independent judicial and civil authority, their rights were guarded with extreme jealousy, and the bishops were made re- sponsible for every encroachment upon them. The Lombardic cities, es- pecially Venice, the Swiss Confederates (parson's letter, 1370), and the Ger- man imperial diet, demanded that the clergy should be subject to the ordinary penal laws of the country, should contribute their share of public taxes, and be restrained within certain limits in their acquisition of ecclesiastical pro- perty, (e) The Free Court of the Vehme in Westphalia went so far as to withhold their secrets from the confessional. (/) 260. The Ecclesiastical Power of the Papacy. The- papacy now essentially diseased, and yet obliged to put before the world the most exorbitant claims, became henceforth a destructive power in the Church. By the authority conceded to the decretals the pope became the creator of his own prerogatives at pleasure. The bold announcement of the papal decision that nothing could hinder the execution of the pope's com- mands (non obstante quocunque), was in utter contempt of the acknowledged rights of every class. The power which each party in a suit possessed when- ever it pleased to have its cause removed to Rome, was occasionally almost equivalent to a complete denial of justice. The influence of the pastors was also much impaired by the profitable papal usurpation of a general power to confer absolution, and grant dispensations. Then as the pope alone could confirm the elections of all bishops and abbots, no one, however deserving, could reach the office of a prelate without the friendship of influential per- sons at Rome, or some act of royal authority. Nearly all other lucrative offi- ces in the Church were disposed of directly by the Roman see, under various legal forms (reservation, prevention, devolution, commendam, accident of death at the Roman court). Consequently, foreigners and mercenary tools gained admission to the Church, united several offices and the revenues de- rived from them in their single persons, frequently without ever seeing their congregations, and while living in extravagance at the papal court. This power of ecclesiastical patronage was an inexhaustible soure of papal wealth, c) K C. de Senkeriberg, de jure primarum precum, indulto papali baud indigente, Frc 1784 4. d) Stockmans, jus Belgarum circa bullarum receptionem. (Opp. Col. 1700. 4. cap. 2.) e) Kaumer, Hohenstauf. vol. III. p. 193s. Satthasar, hist. Entwickl. d. Freiheiten u. d. Gerichts- bark. d. Eidgen. in geistl. Dingen. Zur. 1763. (FucM) Vers. e. pragm. Gesch. d. staatsrecbtL KVer d. Eidgen. Gennanien. 1816. J. 6. ReinTiard, Meditt. de jure principum Germ, cum primia Sax- oniae circa sacra ante temp, reformationis. Hal. 1717. 4 /) C. G. v. Wdchter, Beitrr. z. deutscben Gescb. insb. d. Strafrecbts. Tub. 1845. p. 38. CHAP. IL ECCLES. LAW. 260. ECCLES. POWEE OF THE PAPACY. 289 partly on account of the money usually given at every confirmation and the annats, and partly on account of the open sale of offices. The protection of ecclesiastical property, which had formerly been confided to the pope, became gradually the occasion for a general assessment of tithes for carrying on the war with the Turks, and finally became recognized as affording a right of tax- ing the Church to sustain the popes in their various wars, (a) Even the bet- ter class of popes could accomplish very little in opposition to these abuses, during the short period of an ordinary papal reign. The reversions had in- deed been prohibited after the time of Alexander III., but they had in some instances been bestowed for the whole period of a single generation, and the officers of the Roman Curia were exceedingly depraved. But other popes of an unworthy character were well acquainted with methods by which even this unhappy state of things might become more disgraceful and treacherous. Offices were sold to the highest bidder, and payment sometimes received from different persons for the same living. (5) It was in vain that individual pro- tective laws and acts of authority were directed against these methods of impoverishing the people. When the evil had attained its utmost limit an effort was made by the great councils to restore security to ecclesiastical prop- erty, and to re-establish the Christian character of the offices of the Church. But France was the only country which succeeded in this attempt. The new pragmatic sanction, which gave to that country this distinction, had been abandoned, it is true, in consequence of the royal policy, but it never lost its authority as an expression of what was regarded by the French people as law, and it was always defended by the parliament and the universities, (c) Other nations were satisfied with a few unimportant concessions. The Ger- man people were contented with the Concordat of Vienna, by which appoint- ments to ecclesiastical offices were withdrawn from the papal chair for one half of each year. But concessions obtained as a mere matter of grace (d) wore soon rendered useless by new encroachments. Two theories had been Dut forth at Constance and at Basle Episcopalism, according to which the pope was merely the first officer of the Church, and was subject to its laws and representatives ; and Curialism, which carried the earlier doctrine of the plenary power of the pope so far as to assert his absolute infallibility, exagge- rated his superiority to all law until it amounted to idolatrous honors, and finally made its flatteries absolutely ridiculous, by asserting that simony was impossible at Rome, (e) Both theories were founded upon positive laws, and both were defended by men of great learning. The first was the spontaneous assertion of the whole French nation, and the latter was maintained by the body of the clergy at Rome. The pious reverence which the people always entertained for the vicegerent of God on earth, had been essentially impaired. And yet they were generally far from denying the necessity of a pope to a) The complaints and concessions in the acts of the Councils of Constance and Basics and the Gravamina of the German nation at the Diets afford proofs in abundance. &) E. G. Theod. de Nietn, do schism. II, Tss. c) Ldbbei et Cossarlii Cone. vol. XIV. p. 202ss. IticJierii Hist. Concill. I. IV, 2. c. 4 MuncTi. Concordat, vol. I. p. 255ss. d) Acn. Sylwii Ep. 885. e) August. Triumphi 1. c. Qu. IX. Art. 1-4 Qu. V. Art. 8. 19 290 MEDIAEVAL CHUECH HISTORY. PEE. IV. A. D. 1216-151T. maintain the unity and government of the Church. A prediction, ascribed to Malachias, Archbishop of Armagh, a friend of St. Bernard, but which probably had its origin in the time of the great councils, describes with more or less accuracy, in concise, obscure, and figurative language, the character of the popes from the time of Celestino II. (1143). The centuries which have since elapsed have developed nothing to bring discredit upon it, for according to it eleven popes yet remain before the last pope shall rule over the Church in great tribulation, and the city of the seven hills shall bo destroyed. (/) On various occasions the Cardinals endeavored, by stipula- tions before a papal election, to secure their persons and revenues from vio- lence, and to bind the successful candidate by their decisions, (g) But no sooner had any one actually reached the papal chair than he utterly disre- garded all such illegal restraints, so that the privileges of the cardinals were founded only upon contradictory precedents, and were respected on personal rather than official grounds. In the season of extremity, when the Church was rent by divisions, they placed themselves at the head of the Church. The decrees of the Councils of Constance and Basle, by which the college of cardinals was declared to be the constitutional authority of the Church, and which required that it should be composed of pious, learned, and useful men, selected from all Christian nations, (K) were never carried into execution. With but few exceptions the cardinals were chosen from among the nepotes of the popes, the scions of a few great Roman families (familie papale), and certain royal favorites, for whom the kings of the different nations, according to their influence, were able to obtain the scarlet hat. 261. The Ecclesiastical Assemblies. In a few bishoprics regular diocesan synods were formed, that they might afford counsel to the bishops and be the depositaries of his will. Provincial synods from an indefinite extent of country were seldom held, and only on special occasions under the presidency of a legate. The national councils had been almost universally absorbed by the assemblies of the estates of the empire. The greater or less general councils which were convoked by the popes until some time in the fourteenth century, either in the Lateran or in the south of France, were composed of representatives of the states, assem- bled partly to ascertain the sentiments and wants of the Church throughout the country, and partly to carry into effect the papal decrees. In these assemblies very little regard was paid to the peculiar privileges of the seve- ral states either with respect to their position or to the order in which they voted, but every one had influence and precedence in proportion to his knowj- edge of the subject in hand, or to his official or personal authority., It was for this reason that we find so much indefiniteness with regard to the right of voting and the order of business which produced such want of precision in the mode of conducting the assemblies of the fifteenth century. As the /) The literature in Fabric. Bibl. med. et inf. Latin. T. V. v. Malacbias. 0) Raynald. ad ann. 1431. N. 5ss. ad ann. 1458. N. 5. /*) Germ, nationis Concordat* c. 1. (Hardt voL I. p. 1055.) Cone. Bas. S. XXIIL deer. 4. (Mintl foL XXIX. p. 116ss.) CHAP. IL ECCLES. LAW. 261. ECCLESIASTICAL ASSEMBLIES. 291 Church could claim the essential prerogative of infallibility only when it spoke through an individual and supreme organ, the confidence of the people, so far &3 relates to this power, was gradually withdrawn from the dependent councils, and bestowed upon the independent pope. The liberal party, how- ever, ever since the Council of Constance, were obliged to maintain that this infallibility belonged only to the councils, for otherwise the supreme author- ity of such assemblies must have been renounced, (a) When the three great assemblies of the Church grasped after the supreme power, they certainly could have appealed to the example of ecclesiastical antiquity, but in the state in which legal matters had stood for centuries before their time, such an assumption had all the effect of a revolution. It had, however, been called for by the force of circumstances without arbitrary violence on the part of any one. These general councils formed the design of becoming regular periodical assemblies for the administration of the legislative, execu- tive, and supremo judicial affairs of the Church. At Basle it was also per- ceived that this representation of the whole Church would require the revi- val of a Synodal Constitution, according to which there must be a regular series of assemblies, beginning with the lowest. But from various local obstacles it was found difficult to secure an actual assembly of the represen- tatives of the whole Church, or perfect freedom to their decisions. Only in times of great extremity, or of universally acknowledged necessity, could these difficulties be overcome, and hence the pope did not ordinarily find it hard to elude the action of these dangerous assemblies, or by convening them in the Lateran to reduce them to their former insignificance. Appeals to a future general council were forbidden under penalty of excommunication by Martin V., Pius, and Julius II., (5) since every papal enactment would thereby have become nugatory on account of the indefinite period in which it would remain in suspense. Still from the sense of justice, which existed in the Church, these appeals were recognized, and were sometimes made with greater or less success as legal forms of opposition to the papal decrees. The legality of the Council of Pisa was questioned by the liberal party, (c) The decrees of the Council of Constance were generally acknowledged by the Koman court. The validity of the Council of Basle was altogether denied by those who favored Kome, but according to the principles of canonical law it was certainly a legal assembly, at least until its twenty-sixth session. The popes were careful to observe a prudent silence respecting the supremacy of the general councils, but in practice they entirely disregarded it. They were thus, unfortunately for themselves, victorious over a revolution which might otherwise have preserved the unity and the peaceful development of the Church. ) (Blau) Krit. Gesch. d. kirchl. Unfeblbark. Frankf. 1790. p. 240ss. &) Gerson, Opp. vol. II. P. 2. p. 390s. Gobellini Cmmtr. 1. III. p. 91.Gerson, quomodo ot an liceat in causis fidei a Summo Pontif. appellare. (voL II. P. 2. p. 303ss.) Goldaati Monarchla, vol. II. p. 15T6ss. 1592ss. Richerii, Hist. ConcilL L II. p. 142. c) ffardt, Cone. Constant vol. IV. P. 2. p. 24. comp. vol. II. p. 194. 292 MEDIAEVAL CHUECH HISTORY. FEB. IV. A. D. 1216-1517. 262. The National Churches. The Churches connected with those nations which had been developed out of the Roman empire through the various Germanic races, had long since become organized into distinct communities, in consequence of their intimate connection with the people and the civil government of each coun- try. And yet the influence of a common origin, and of a central point of intercourse was so great, that they all felt themselves as parts of one*vast empire receiving its laws from Rome. Although the popes were frequently requested to fill all ecclesiastical offices with persons who were natives of the country in which they were to officiate, even such a demand was rejected sometimes to maintain the grand doctrine of the unity of the Church, and sometimes that special favor might be conferred upon the Italians.* But in proportion as the central power became enfeebled, these nationalities became more decidedly prominent first in France, in opposition to the papal as well as to the imperial universal monarchy, and secured the peculiar privileges of their respective national Church by concordats with Rome. Accordingly we have seen that they presented themselves at Constance and acted there as legal corporations. It was more especially by means of the separate com- pacts then concluded, and the ground assumed by the synod at Basle, that the great fundamental principle of law was settled, that no decree either of a pope or a council possessed legal authority in any country until it had been accepted by the national Church there. 263. The Bishops and their Jurisdiction. As the appointment of nearly all ecclesiastical officers had been usurped by Rome, and ecclesiastical acts of all kinds could be purchased by the Ex- emptions, especially during the time of the schism, the result was that the episcopal power had been very much impaired. This induced the lishops at Constance and at Basle to assume a threatening attitude, and to demand the restoration of all that they had lost. But every bishop had something to fear or hope for from Rome, and nearly every one dreaded to fall into the hands of a body which, after it had shaken the papacy, had power also to overthrow the prelatic sees. The prelates were therefore generally satisfied with their secular honors, and abandoned the great struggle to look after inferior advantages. The Chapters became, especially in Germany, desirable places in which the younger sons of the nobility were provided for, and con- sequently their position was entirely secular and without interest to the body of the people. On the other hand, the decrees of Rome and Basle met with very trifling success when they required that half the vacancies in the chap- ters should be filled by men of distinction in science and in the Church. The archdeacons were also circumscribed on the side of the bishops, by a college composed almost exclusively of secular officials, (a) and a kind of penitentials, who were appointed for the purpose of preaching and having * ff&norii regesta, a. V. N. IT. (Raumer, vol. VL p. 15.) Comp. Mat. Paris ad ann. 1240. p. 860. ad ann. 1245. p. 445. 450. a) S&Kt. I, 13. De officio vicarii. Pertsch, v. d. Archidiak., blsch. Offlcialen u. Vicarien. Hildesh. 1743. CHAP. IL ECCLE8. LAW. 264 INQUISITION. 293 the charge of souls. (5) Those bishops who preferred to live as princes asso- ciated with themselves, for the performance of their episcopal and priestly duties, a class of persons who were called Chorepiscopi and Suffragan Bishops. These were bishops who had been expelled from their dioceses in the Oriental Church, and were afterwards appointed by the pope as an ex- pression of a perpetual hope, and a protestation with respect to those ancient episcopal sees (Episcopi in partibus infidelium). (c) In consequence of the contest maintained by the University of Paris against the encroachments of the mendicant friars, and as the result of the position assumed by the Synod of Basle, the assertion was put forth in France, that the pastors had been instituted by Christ to be an essential element of his Church, with a limited but a peculiar sphere of action, (d) 264. The Inquisition. Nic. Eymericus (d. 1399), Directorium Inquisitorum, Barcin. 1503. c. Comm. Fr. Peffnae, Rom. 1578. f. and often. Lud. de Paramo, de orig., officio et progressu S. Inquis. Matr. 1598. f. Antu. 1619. f. Phil a Limborch. Hist. Inq. Amst. 1692. f. Samml. d. Instruct, d. Span. Inquisitionsger. uebers. v. Reuse, with Spittler's Entw. d. Gesch. d. Span. Inq. Han. 1788. Llorente, Hist critique de 1'inq. d'Espagne, Trad, de TEspagn. p. A. Pettier, Par. 1817s. 4 vols. [Limborch's (abridged) and Llorente's Histories have been translated and publ. in London and the latter in Philad. See also: Records of the Inq. from the orig. MSS. taken at Barcelona. Boston. 1828.] When the general massacre which took place in the war against the Albi- genses ( 231) was closed by their public subjugation, the work of extermi- nating those remnants who were known to exist in secret was intrusted by Innocent III. to the synodal dourts. The method in which this was to be accomplished was determined upon at the Synod of Toulouse (1229), and was as follows : (a) " Any prince, lord, bishop, or judge, who shall spare a here- tic, shall forfeit his lands, property, or office ; and every house in which a heretic is found shall be destroyed. Heretics or persons suspected of heresy shall not be allowed the assistance of a physician, or of any of their asso- ciates in crime, even though they may be suffering under a mortal disease. Sincere penitents shall, be removed from the neighborhood in which they reside if it is suspected of heresy, they shall wear a peculiar dress, and for- feit all public privileges until they receive a papal dispensation. Penitents who have recanted through fear shall be placed in confinement." But lest bishops should be tempted to show some favor to those who were dependent on them, Gregory IX. devolved the holy office upon foreign monks (1232). The Dominicans gradually became possessed of this office, and it was looked upon as their peculiar inheritance. Louis IX., from a regard to religion, and Eay- mond VII. of Toulouse and Frederic II., from a regard to their own reputa- tion, enacted certain laws which required that the sentences passed by the inquisition should be carried into execution by the civil authorities. (5) These 5) Cone. Later. IV. c, 10. (Greg. I, 81. c. 15.) c) Durr, de Suffraganeis s. vicariis generalibus m pontificalibus Episcoporum Germ. Mog. 1782. 4 d) Gerson, Opp. vol. II. p. 250. 1067. a) Cone. Later. IV. c. 8. (Mansi vol. XXII. p. 986ss.) Cone. Tolosan. c. 1-28.. (/&. vol. XXIII. p. 194ss.) [Landorfs Manual of Councils, p. 594] 6) Ordonances des Eoys de France, p. M. de Lauriere, Par. 1723. voL L p. 50s. Statute 294 MEDIAEVAL CHUKCH HISTORY. PEE. IV. A. D. 1216-1517. holy fathers were responsible to no one but the pope himself, and it was theii duty to search for heretics in every quarter. They had the right to imprison any one who was suspected, and instead of furnishing him with a list of the charges alleged against him, they required of him a general confession. Tor- ture was used in their examinations, and witnesses whose names were con- cealed were sometimes taken from among convicted criminals, the most worthless of men, and accomplices in guilt, (c) The punishments inflicted were, public penance, confiscation of property, perpetual imprisonment, and death by burning, from which even a recantation was not always sufficient to deliver the victim. The inquisition now became, in the hands of the hier- archy, a desperate means of sustaining by violence and terror that influence whose true foundation had begun to crumble. In vain did the people in the south of France rise in rebellion, and take sanguinary vengeance upon some of their inquisitors. In Italy, where the spiritual power was more limited by peculiar circumstances, the inquisition found it impossible to carry out its murderous spirit. In Germany the people combined with the bishops against this attempt to force upon them this tribunal ^for heretics, and Conrad of Marburg, then acting as its president, fell a victim to their violence (1233). (d) In Spain, where the Jews and Moors had recently been baptized (after 1391), notwithstanding a strong remaining attachment to their ancestral faith, the holy court was introduced to take cognizance of all public or secret relapses which might take place among them ; for, although ecclesiastical ethics would allow of no force in the conversion of men to Christianity, the violation of Christian vows was punished not only by force, but by death itself, (e) It was in this country that the inquisition, under its General Torquemada (after 1483), developed its fearful power. It was there established by the royal authority (1478), but it soon became in his hands a government of terror which dictated terms to the king himself, trampled upon the opposition not only of the imperial diet, but of every other power, and finally crushed all freedom of thought in Church or State. The popes with some reluctance yielded their consent to these proceedings. Even Ximenes, with a character truly heroic, and worthy of Spain in its ancient and best days, who, on ac- count of his rigid monastic sanctity, had been appointed Archbishop of Toledo, Cardinal of Spain, and finally Regent of Castile (d. 1517), and was a munificent patron of science, regarded it as not beneath his dignity to accept of the office of Grand Inquisitor, that he might secure power enough to cor- rect injustice, defend the Christian faith, and rescue the monarchy from the feudalism of the middle ages. (./) Such an inquisition could be introduced and sustained only among a people which for centuries, and during long pro- tracted wars for their country and for their religion, had been accustomed Raimundi super haeresi Albigensi a. 1233. (Mansi voL XXIIL p. 265ss.) Petri de Vineis L L Epp. 25-27. c) Martene, Thes. anecdot vol.V. p. 1786ss.1795ss.-JP. A. Biener, Beitr. z. Gesch. d. Inquisitions- Processes. Lpz. 1827. p. 60ss. d) Albericus ad ann. 1233. p. 544ss. Trithem. Chron. Hire. voL I. p. 523. e) Thomas, Summa, P. II. P. 2. Qn. 10. /) C. J. ffefele, d. Card. Ximenes u. d. kirchl. Zustande Span. Insbes, z. Wurdigung d. Inquis. Tub. 1844. [Michel Baudier, Hist de la vie et de 1'administration du Card. Ximeses. Par. 1853. a] CHAP. III. EOCLES. LIFE. 265. FEANCIS OF ASSISI. DOMINIC. 295 to regard the purity and antiquity of their faith as superior to all other con- siderations. It has, however, reduced this noble nation to the lowest state of morals, and defrauded it of its natural course of development. CHAP. III. ECCLESIASTICAL LIFE. 265. The Two Great Mendicant Orders. I. Vita S. Francisci by Thomas de Celano, 1229. (Acta SS. Oct vol. II. p. 633.) completed in 1246. by Leo, Angelus et Riiffinus (Tres Socii, 7&. p. 723.) as the holy book of the Order by Bona- ventura. (Ib. p. T42.) The First Eule in Holsten. Brockie, vol. III. p. 30ss. Luc. Wadding, An- nales Minorum (till 1540.) Lugd. 1625ss. 8 vols. f. (till 1564.) Eom. 1731ss. 19 vols. f. Vita S. Dominici by his first follower Jordanus, (Acta SS. Aug. vol. I. p. 545.) by Humbertus de Eomanis, the fifth general of the Order. 1254. (II. p. 858.) Others in Holsten. Brockie, vol. IV. p. W.Ripoli et Bremond, Bullarium 0. Praed. Eom. 1739ss. 6 vols. f. Hamachii aliorumq. Annales O. Praedica- torum. Eom. 1746. f. Quetif et Echard, Scrr. 0. Praed. Par. 1719ss. 2 vols. f. II. Legende doree, ou eommaire de mist, des freres mendians. Amst. 1734. 12. (Alemlert) Hist, des Moines mend. Par. 1768. 12. Nuremb. 1769. E. Vogt, d. h. Fr. v. Ass. Tub. 1840. E. Clta- mn de Malan, Hist, de S. Franc. d'Ass. Par. 1841. Munich, 1842. [A life of Francis of A. is given in Bohringer's Church of Christ, &c. See 192.] Lacordaire, Vie de S. Dom. Par. 1840. Landsh. 1841. [S. P. Day, Monastic Institutions. Lond. 1846. 2 ed. 12. Forts Monks and Monasteries. Lond. 1835. Stephens, (in Edinb. Eev. 1847. and Eclectic Mag. Sept. 1847.) Fr. of Ass. &c.] The enthusiasm which properly belongs to the Church, and yet frequently endangered her existence, was finally attained and enlisted in her service, through the exertions of some very peculiar characters. "When Francisco of Assisi (b. 1172) heard (1208), in the church dedicated to Mary at Portiuncula, the words in which our Lord sent forth his disciples to preach the gospel, an idea was revived which he had entertained among his indistinct youthful aspirations. This was the project of an association which should walk strictly in the footsteps of the apostles, preaching repentance in every part of the world, despising all kinds of private property or possessions, and obtain- ing the necessaries of life from the "charities of their fellow-men. At first he was despised by his fellow-citizens, execrated by his wealthy father, and while travelling through Western Europe and Egypt ridiculed as a victim of insanity. It was not long, however, before his unflinching contempt of the world, his honest humility, his burning love to God, and his imitation of Jesus Christ in a remarkable style of living, (a) drew around him thousands of dis- ciples. The law to which they vowed allegiance required love, humility, poverty, and joy in Christ. To a degree which had never before been wit- nessed on earth, it now became a luxury to share in the earthly sorrows and passion of our Lord. The brown capoch or frock, which, according to the fashion of the country, was fastened to the waist with a cord, formed all the clothing which they deemed necessary, and constituted the honorable badge of the order. Innocent III. was induced by the simplicity and humility of a) This view was carried to its ultimate point in the 40 Conformities of Bartholomael AlMcii (de Pisis) Liber Conformitatum, 1385, and acknowledged by the General Chapter at Assisi, 1399. Mediol. 1510. f. and often. Extracts by Erasmus Alberus, with a Preface by Luther : Der Bar- fusser MSnche Eulenspiegel u. Alcoran. 1531. L' Alcoran des Cordeliers. Gen. 1556. in Lat. and French. Amst 1734. 2 vols. ^96 MEDIAEVAL CHURCH HISTORY. PEE. IV. A. D. 1216-1517. this strange saint to allow him to consummate his plans without interruption (1209). (&) Honorius III. solemnly confirmed the right of the Order of tho Fratres Minores (1223) to preach and hear confessions in every place. A female order (Ordo S. Clarae) was also established (since 1212) by Clara of Assist, whose disposition was similar to that of Francis, and for whose followers the latter was induced to prescribe a rule (1224). (c) A broad basis was finally formed (1221) for his order, when he established a fraternity composed of those who wished to be his disciples, and yet were under the necessity of remaining in the midst of worldly employments (tertius ordo de poenitentia, Tertiarii). (d) Whenever Francisco attempted to pronounce a studied dis- course he was always confounded, but when he spoke from a sudden impulse, his spirit broke forth from the depths of his heart like a storm. Like some Minnesinger, ho celebrated the delicious raptures of heavenly love and the devotion of all nature for its Creator, (e) He seems to have possessed a childlike spirit, which loved to commune with all forms of natural life, and made him salute all creatures as brethren and sisters. After many vain long- ings to die in proof of his love, he perceived that he was to become like the crucified Redeemer, not by a bodily martyrdom, but by the intensity of his devotion. He at last died lying naked on the ground in his favorite church (Oct. 4, 1226), with the five wounds of Christ imprinted on his body. (/) The biographies of St. Francis were at an early period highly adorned by the extravagant fancies of his followers. Even then among his immediate attendants many legends were received and sent forth to tho world, and yet we are compelled to believe that this seraphic stranger upon earth really experienced many things out of the ordinary course of nature. Domingo (b. 1170), a Castilian and a canon of Osma, was a man of a thoughtful spirit, which in its cultivation and profound emotions sympathized intensely Avith the welfare and miseries of his fellow-men. Deeply affected when he heard of the growth of heresy, he undertook a journey in the manner of the primitive apostles into different parts of the south of France (after 1206), that he might effect the conversion of the Albigenses. On him and his assist- ants in this enterprise, Innocent imposed (1215) the rule of Augustine, and Honorius (1216) conferred on them the privilege of exercising a general pas- toral care in the character of preaching friars (Fratres praedicatores, in France Jacobins). Even nuns, principally, at first, such as had been con- verted from the Albigensian faith, placed themselves under his rule, and at a later period a class of Tertiarians (Fratres et sorores de militia' Christi) be- came connected with his order. The leading principle of the order was, the sacrifice of the dearest objects for the promotion of the saving faith, and the means which its members used were a learned education, holy eloquence, and the restoration of the priesthood to its original all-subduing poverty. &) Mat. Paris ad ann. 1227. p. 234 c) In Holsten. Srockie vol. III. p. 84ss. d) Holsten. Brockie vol. III. p. 39ss. e) Liebeskampfe des h. Franc. Der h. Fr. als Troubadour. (Der Katholik von Liebermann. 1820. H. 4. N. Is.) In the Appendix in Vogt /) The fact of the sacra stigmata was proved by eye-witnesses ; the Legend is very delicately hinted at by Celano (II, 1. 24.) Comp. Raynald. ad ann. 1237. N. 60. Wadding ed. Rom. vol. II. p. 429. CHAP. III. ECCLES. LIFE. 265. MENDICANT OEDEES. 297 No sooner had Dominicus, in the General Chapter at Bologna (1220), effected the passage of an act by which his order vowed to maintain perpetual and perfect poverty, than he died (Aug. 6, 1221), nttering anathemas upon any who should pollute his order by bestowing upon it earthly possessions. Tho constitution of these two orders was developed, so far as related to essential matters, in a similar manner. A Guardian, who among the Dominicans was called a Prior, presided over a convent, a Provincial was placed over 'all the convents in a country, and a General (minister generalis) residing at Kome was over the whole order. Each of these officers had the counsel and inspection of certain Definatores, who represented the several congregations under their jurisdiction. The principal superintendence and legislation was vested in the provincial convents, and for the whole order in the General Chapter. Although these mendicant orders were freed from the ordinary cares of secular life, they were thrown into frequent contact with the people. They, in contrast with the cathedral chapters, presented to those possessed of eminent talents and merit a path by which the highest dignities of the Church might be attained. As they possessed the right to receive confes- sions wherever they might be, they soon became the spiritual advisers of the whole Church, for they were often intrusted with secrets which persons would not confide to their own pastors at home. In this way they easily found occasion to interfere in all the relations of families, cities, and states, (g) As their table was every where spread, they could admit vast multitudes to their order. Many convents indeed amassed by begging much wealth, the possession of which was reconciled with their vows of poverty by the fact that it was owned not by individuals, but by the general body. With the papal court they were united by the bonds of a reciprocal interest, and hence the mendicant friars were regarded by the pope as his standing army, and by various kinds of charters they were exalted above the episcopal clergy. (A) But this exaltation above the more ancient orders, their encroachments upon the spiritual duties of pastors and the jurisdiction of the universities, and the complete violation of all privileges previously possessed, provoked a per- manent and often stormy opposition. William of St. Amour became the leader of their opponents, and pointed out the dangers to which the Church was exposed on account of this foolish system of sanctified beggary. Al- though such men as Thomas and Bonaventura defended the higher objects contemplated by their orders with consummate ability, even they were obliged to concede that such bodies were very likely to become worldly- minded, and to be perverted from tteir true design, (i) Hence, although the mendicant orders were at first regarded as instruments for restoring the Church to its primitive vigor, and were hailed as a new establishment of the g) Mat. Paris ad ann. 1239. p. 850. ad ann. 1243. p. 414. ad ann. 1246. p. 465ss. h) Emm. Eoderici nova CoL privilegiorum apost Kegularium mendicantium et non mend. Antu. 1623. f. i) Guildm. de periculis novissimorum temp. 1256. (Opp. Constant 1632. 4. Brown, Append, ad fasc. rer. expet et fugiend. p. 18.) Thomas: contra retrahentes a religionis ingressu. Contra im- pugnantes Dei cultum, (Opp. Par. vol. XX.) Sonaventura : L. apoL in eos, qui Ordini Min. adver santur. De paupertate Christ! c. Guilelmum. Expositio in regulam Fratrum minor. (Opp. Lugd, 673. vol. VII.) Sulaei 1. c. vol. III. p. 260ss. 298 MEDIAEVAL CHUECH HISTORY. PEE. IV. A. D. 1216-1517. power of the Lateran, they really produced a great dissension among all the elements of ecclesiastical life. The two orders were themselves often brought into collision with each other in consequence of the identity of their worldly objects. Mutual jealousies were exhibited in attempts to disparage one another, and in doctrinal disputations, so that it was soon evident that their interests were in different directions. The Dominicans, in consequence of their control over the inquisition, and their possession of the confidence of the higher classes, obtained ascendency by inspiring a dread of their power and their political influence ; but the Minorites possessed the affections of the people, and in consequence of their Portiuncula-indulgences and their legen- dary glory, their order was supposed to possess more than common power in conferring absolution for sins, (i) At on early period of their existence the Dominicans perceived that they could never attain their objects without a scientific character, and hence, in 1230, they secured for themselves a theo- logical chair in the University of Paris. The Minorites soon followed their example. St. Francis himself lived to see the origin and progress of a party under the guidance of Elias of Cortona, combining eminent scientific acquire- ments and wealth in the service of the holy, cause. On the other hand, An- thony of Padua (d. 1231), in the true spirit of his master, thought salvation possible only to those who were simple-hearted and separated from the world, and when he could obtain no audience for such doctrines among his fellow-men, he sought consolation by preaching to the fishes. For many years the two parties contended for supremacy in the order. Elias was twice elected General, was twice deposed from that office, and finally, having fallen out with the pope (1244), he connected himself with the party of Frederic II. (1) Victory at last decided in favor of this milder party (Fratres de com- munitate), since its principles afforded opportunity to combine the reputation of a mendicant order with the power and wealth of the world. On the other hand, those in whom the bold spirit of their founder continued (Zela- tores, Spirituales), refused even to possess property in common. The pope's decision was given in favor of the victorious party from regard to a distinc- tion between a possession in fee simple and a possession of usufruct, and also to the fact that the ownership of the entire property of the Minorites was ostensibly conferred upen the Roman Church, (ra) With the courage of men who had nothing to lose, the Spirituales then turned their reproaches upon the Roman Church itself, and as their demand that the order should be sub- jected to the rule of absolute poverty was in glaring contrast with the wealth of the clergy, and as tHeir voluntary rejection of all earthly posses- sions was seen in the midst of a Church filled with quarrels for this very kind of spoil, a hope was indulged that St. Francis was about to effect through them a great reformation of the Church. This hope was in some degree sustained by a prophecy of the Abbot Joachim of Floris in Calabria (d. 1202), who, being full of grief for the corruptions of the Church, pre- ) Acta S3. Oct. vol. II. p. S9Tas. Cyprian the Younger (of Dantzic), krit Gesch. d. Port Ab lasses. 1794. 1) Wadding vol. I. p. 360. vol. II. p. 160. vol. III. p. 84 101. 312. m) Greg. IX. a. 1231. (Roderici 1. c. p. 7ss.) Innoc. IV. a. 1245. (7&. p. 18.) OHAP. IIL ECCLES. LIFE. 265. DIVISIONS AMONG THE FRANCISCANS. 299 dieted that it would be subverted and then be gloriously renewed, according to the figures of the Apocalypse, at the commencement of the third age of ihe world, which he placed in the year 1260. (ri) An Introduction to that Everlasting Gospel, (p) which was to come in the place of the gospel of Christ which then prevailed and which was originally intended only as a preparation and symbol of the truth, was published, and announced that the period then passing was the age of the Holy Spirit, which had commenced with the labors of St. Francis and his genuine disciples. Those who put confidence in such predictions were in no wise perplexed when the period assigned for these wonderful revelations had passed. The Spirituales were united by Celestine V. into a congregation of poor Celestine-Eremites. Boniface VIII. dissolved this association (1302). John XXII. surrendered the Spirituales, and especially the lay brethren among them (Fratricelli), into the hands of the Inquisition (after 1318). Many of them joyfully gave up their lives in the flames, because they were determined to possess no pro- perty on earth, (p) But even the other Minorites, having satisfied their con- sciences by an apparent surrender of their possessions into the hands of the Eomish Church, were zealous in maintaining against the Dominicans, that Christ and the apostles owned no property in common. John XXII. rejected this assertion as heretical, and formally renounced the property of the Fran- ciscans, which as a mere pretence his predecessors had held (1322). (q) By this means the order lost a portion of its members, who, with Michael of Cesena, their general, took refuge with the Emperor Louis, and defended his cause against the popes. On the death of Louis the Spirituales wandered about as fugitives, and founded a few settlements. They were often over- thrown, but were invincible by mere force, and at last most of them became reconciled to the Church in consequence of some concessions made to them. At Constance especially, they, together with the Conventuals, who regarded their possessions as still belonging to the donors, were recognized under the name of the Brethren of the Eigid Observance, with superiors of their own. (r) The most celebrated doctors of the thirteenth and fourteenth cen- turies were mendicant friars. But when, in the fifteenth century, the hier- archy were surpassed in attainments by the classes in the interests of science, the mendicant friars became the principal opponents of the latter, and the champions of every Eomish abuse, and made use of every artifice to keep the people in the immaturity of a superstitious dependence. But the master ri) De concordia utriusque Test Expositio Apocal. Ven. 1519. Psalterium decem chordar. Yen. 152T, 4. Comp. Acta S3. Maj. vol. VII. p. 9Sss. Engelhardt, Joach. u. d. ew. Ev. (KGesch. Ab- handll. Erl. 1832. N. I.) O. U. HaJin, die apokal. Lehren d. Joach. v. Flor. (Stud. u. krit 1849. II 2.) AleL Phil. d. Hohenst p. 312ss. o) Introductorius in Ev. aeternum, by Gerhard, the confidant of John of Parma, a General sub- sequently deposed, about 1254. Since destroyed, with the exception of some Extracts In Argentre, Col. judiciorum do novis err. Par. 172Sss. vol. I. p. 163ss. Eccard vol. II. p. 849ss. In a similar spirit Olivae (d. 1297.) Postilla super Apoc. Extracts in Balusii Miscell. 1. I. p. 213ss. [O. Ifahn, Gesch. d. Ketzer im MA. Stuttg. 1852. 3 vols.] p) Moshemii Institt. H. ecc. Cent. XIV. Chap. II. 26. note ID. q) Baluzii Vitae Pap. Aven. vol. I. p. 598. Extrav. Joan. XXII. Tit 14 c. 2ss. Wadding Tol VI. p. 894e. r) Sees. XIX. (Hardt vol. IV. p. 515.) 300 MEDIAEVAL CHUECH HISTOEY. PEE. IV. A. D. 1216-1517. minds of this period combined with their old adversaries to expose to gene* ral scorn their intellectual shallowness, their stupidity, their covetousness, and their affected clamor about heresy. 266. Public Worship. Holiness, during this period, was generally looked upon as a mere external thing. Even in the fourth century the hermits of the Thebais, and some others, had been in the habit of reckoning the number of their pater-nosters by some external token, (a) This formality in prayer received a definite form and predominant reference to the divine Mother, when the Dominicans intro- duced the rosary (Rosarium) into general use. Public worship consisted almost entirely in the offering of the Mass, which professed to be the celebra- tion of a present incarnate Deity, but in fact it often degenerated into a work of superstition, perverted by unbelief to purposes of gain. The business of instruction, however, was not altogether neglected by the Church, especially on the part of the itinerant mendicant friars, whose hearers were frequently so numerous that no temple but that of God under the open heavens was sufficient to contain them. The discourses of many preachers abounded in scholastic learning or fantastic conceits, but there were also some who pro- claimed the word of God in a popular style. Thus the Dominican John of Vicenza (about 1230) became distinguished for his eloquence, and before he allowed himself to become an object of ridicule by meddling with miracles and political affairs, he was an eminent peacemaker between the numerous factions which then distracted Italy. (&) Thus also Berthold of Ratisbon (d. 1272) powerfully aroused the rude and hardened consciences of his hearers, and urged upon them the duty of worshipping God in spirit, (c) Gailer, also, of Kaiser sberg (d. 1510), whose own heart was pervaded by a sincere love of perfection, assailed the follies of the world and of the Church with the weapons of the keenest wit. (d) Gabriel of Marietta (about 1470), a Neapolitan preaching friar, presented a specimen of this humorous style of popular preaching, in which the speaker sometimes gave to his discourses even the ordinary comic flavor, (e) This kind of address was thought to bo especially allowable during the Easter festival, when, according to a preva- lent custom, the roughest jests were tolerated even in the pulpit to excite what was called the Easter laugh. (/) As none but the clergy took part in the public services, the hymns used in the Church remained without alteration in the Latin language. In addition to those which had been used, some of a tender character composed among the Franciscans were generally adopted a) Palladii Hist Laua. c. 23. Sozom. H. ecc. VI, 29. MaliUon, Ann. O. Bene'd. vol. IV. p. 462s. Acta SS. O. Bened. Prae ad Saec. V. N. 25ss. &) Original authorities in Raumer, Geech. d. Hohenst voL III. p. 508ss. c) Berthold dea Franc. Predigten, th. vollstiindig, th. in Auszugen, edit by Sling, Berl. 1824. Comp. Wiener Jahrb. 1825. voL 32. p. 194ss. d) Weltspiegel d. i. Predigten u. Sebast Brands Narrenschiff. Bas. 1574, and often. F. W. Ph. v. Ammon, G. v. K. Leben, Lehren u. Pred. Erl. 1826. A. Stroeber, Essai hist sur la vie et lea dcrita de G. de K. Strasb. 1834. 4. e) Serrnm. quadrigesimales. Bresc. 1497. and numerous collections of his discourses, especially that of Yen. 1577. 2 \ols.J3aumffarten, Naciir. v. Merkw. Buchern. voL VIL p. 124ss. f) FussU, Beitr. z. K. u. Kef. Gesch. voL V. p. 447ss. Hist polit Blatter. 1889. voL IV. H. 6. CHAP. III. ECCLE3. LIFE. 266. FESTIVALS. JUBILEE. 301 by the Church. Congregational singing, in which the people took part, had its origin in the extraordinary festivals and among the Fraternities, where the congregations participated more than usual in the services. In Germany it especially grew out of the Kyrie Eleison, which was anciently sung by the people in full chorus as a Eefrain. (g) During the fourteenth century the festival of the Immaculate' Conception ( 225) was more and more observed, and the doctrine which it commemorated became, through the influence of St. Thomas, a party question between the Dominicans and the Franciscans. Great agitations were produced by the discussion of this question in the Uni- versity of Paris, but finally that body (1387) and Clement VII. (1389), who was carried away by its influence, declared themselves in favor of the doc- trine because they regarded it as most favorable to the interests of the Church and of true piety. (7i) In Berne the Dominicans supported their side of the controversy by causing an image of the Virgin to shed tears of blood, by producing letters from glorified saints, and by branding a deluded man with certain marks in imitation of the wounds of Christ. The tissue of deceit, stupidity and crime, by which these things were rendered plausible, was finally exposed to public scorn, a legate presided over the spiritual court ap- pointed for an investigation of the affair, and four of the principal agents in it were burned (1509). () The doctrine of a change of the sacramental bread into the body of the incarnate Lord was celebrated on the festival of Corpus Christi (F. corporis Domini). This festival, which originated in con- nection with numerous dreams and visions in the diocesan church of Liege, over which he had formerly presided, Urban IV. proclaimed (1264) as a gen- eral festival of the Church. It was, however, generally neglected by his successors, and was merely re-established by Clement V. as the festival of the grand miracle in which was displayed the highest glory of the Church. (&) Near the close of the thirteenth century a report, the origin of which was unknown, generally prevailed in the city of Borne, that according to a cus- tom remembered by some very aged people, a centennial indulgence might be obtained in the church of St. Peter on the occurrence of the Jubilee Year, 1300. Boniface VIII. was induced by the vast concourse of devout persons who on this account thronged the city, to bestow upon all who, in a peniten- tial spirit, should on this year of Jubilee visit the churches of the apostles, a complete pardon for the sins of the whole previous life. Hundreds of thou- sands flocked to Rome, so that people were compelled to acknowledge that the whole human race was Romish, and like one great family assembled around its common father. Hence, in consideration of the brevity of human life, and the benefit of the Roman people, Clement VI. (1342) decreed that g) n. Hoffmann, Gesch d. dent KLiedes b. Luther. Bresl. 1332. F. Wolff, u. die Lais, Se- quenzen u. Leiche. Heidelb. 1S41. C. Fronts, Gesch. d. geistl. Liedertexte vor. d. Ee Halbrst 1853. 7i) Thomas, Summa. P. III. Qu. 27. Art. Iss. Duns Scotus in Sentt. L. III. Dist 3. Qu. 1. 9. Dist 18. Qu. 1. 13. Bulaei 1. c. vol. IV. p. 61Sss. Argentrt, 1. c. voL L P. II. p. 61ss. *) AnsUelm's Berner Chronik, edit by Stierlein, vol. III. p. 869ss. vol. IV. p. Iss. Hottinger, H, ecc. P. V. p. 834ss. k) Jo. Hocsemiua (about 1348), gesta Pontiff Leodiens. c. 6. (ChapeavUli gestor. Pontiff. Leo) This great work of modern genius, which he composed in the language of the people, but with a perfection worthy of the best of the ancient writers, awakened a spirit which could appreciate and confide in those writers also. The age was in fact now fully prepared for a revival of the great works of antiquity. Although tho classics, especially the Roman, had never been entirely forgotten, the true spirit which pervaded them had not been perceived, and the language in a) Opus majus (1266.) ed. Sam. Jebb, Lond. 1783. f. comp. BammL merkw. Lebensbeschrr. Hal. 1757. vol. IV. p. 616ss. b) Comp. Dantis Epp. c. notis ed. C. Witte, Patav. 1S27. Baumgarten-Crusius de Dantis doc- irina theol. (Opp. p. 827ss.) Ozanam, Dante et la phil. cath. au 18 siecle. Par. 1839. Munst 1844. L. R. Arndt, de Dante scritpore Ghibellino. Bon. 1846. Schrr. of ScJdosser, 1824 u. 1880. Witte, 1831. Blanc in d. Encykl. voL XXIII. Phitalethes (John, Duke of Saxony), 1839ss. GoscJiel, Artaud, 1842. F. X. Wegelt, Dante's Leben n. Werke, kulturgesch. Jena. 1852. [Scfilegel, Hist, of Lit New York. 1844. H. Stebbings, Lives of the Ital. Poets. Lond. 1882. 3 vols. 8. C. Balbo, Lifo and Times of Dante, from the Ital. by Bunbury, Lond. 1851. 2 vols. 8.] CHAP. IV. ECCLES. LIT. 281. HUMANISTS. 327 which they were written had become quite destroyed. Petrarch (d. 1374) was the first who turned with a congenial spirit to the ancient authors, and even if his imitations be regarded as unsuccessful, he was certainly trained by them until he became a general spokesman in the affairs of Italy, and of the human heart, (c) Boccaccio (d. 1375) labored in the same field, and brought back to Western Europe the gods of ancient Greece. He was pub- licly appointed to expound the writings of Dante, wrote the first polished prose in the language of the people, and was allowed to exercise his wit at the expense of the monks, of good morals, and probably also of Christianity itself, (d} A knowledge of Grecian antiquity had beerf introduced, especially after the Synod of Florence (1439), by large numbers of Greeks, who as deputies or fugitives became scattered in all parts of Italy. These were gen- erally persons of only moderate talents, but they brought with them the inheritance which a refined antiquity had bequeathed to them in living tra- ditions, and they were therefore received in the halls of the Medici and of the Vatican as if they had been apostles. The wealth which had been pre- served at home was now also brought to light, the convents opened their graves, and the resurrection of classical antiquity was now regarded as a national affair by the whole of Italy, and as a solemn festival in honor of the great ancestral world, whose fragments were recognized not only under the rubbish of centuries and the ashes of Vesuvius, but even in the customs and dispositions of the people. To study these sacred relics of heathenism, the youth of the Western world, with the Germans and Hungarians in the van, now went on pilgrimages across the Alps (after 1450). The influence of this upon theological studies may be observed in the life of the Eoman Laurentius Valla (d. 1457), who first developed the laws of a true Latinity, and was induced by the artistic refinement which it produced, decidedly to pronounce the scholastic style absurd, by the philological knowledge it afforded to ex- plain and illustrate the original text of the New Testament, and by the his- torical criticism it fostered to give judgment against the fables of the hier- archy, (e) The monks whom he derided invoked against him the power of the inquisition, but his fame was too great and he was too highly esteemed by the nobility of Italy to be reached by that court, and he was silenced only by papal confidence and favors. In fact the papal court was by no means displeased with these efforts, the serious consequences of which it did not anticipate. The bishops beyond the Alps knew but little about them, and Scholasticism could no longer present to them any considerable resistance. The mendicant friars, who were attacked with the greatest severity, and whose ignorance rendered them the most suspicious, were the only class which, especially in Germany, were bold enough to accuse the new literary c) Africa Epistolae (Opp. Bas. 1554. 1581. Lngd. 1601. 2 vols. f.) Sonnetti, Canzoni, Trionfi. fl) Mansi vol. XXIII. p. 823. Raynald. ad ann. 123& N. 42ssi 340 MEDIAEVAL CHUECH HISTORY. PEE. IV. A. D. 1216-1517. gory IX. caused a crusade to be proclaimed against the Stedingers as here- tics of the most deadly and absurd character. Their great and glorious struggle was finally terminated by a dreadful battle (1234), which only a small remnant survived to submit to the yoke of the Church. (5) During the contest between the popes and the house of Hohenstaufen, some sectaries residing in the Suabian city of HaH (about 1248) declared the pope a heretic, and that the clergy had forfeited their power on account of their corruptions. They therefore offered prayer for the members of the house of Hohenstaufen as the only just and perfect rulers. When the power of these princes Was broken they also disappeared, (c) But for a long time after a story was cur- rent in various forms among the people, according to which Frederic II. would at some future period return, or from his blood should arise a mighty eagle which would destroy the Roman Church, (d) 298. Fraternity of ihe Free Spirit. The bold aspiration of the spirit toward God, which was not seriously opposed when it appeared in all its indistinctness and benignity in the sys- tem of Mysticism, necessarily fell under the judgment of the ecclesiastical courts when it came out with scholastic definitions, exalted itself above the Church itself, and was even perverted to the gratification of wicked pas- sions. A synod at Paris (1209) pronounced judgment upon the school of Amalric, which combined the Pantheistic doctrines of Erigena with their own principles of reform, which they announced in the style of the abbot Joachim. They maintained not so much that every thing was one and God, as that God is the essence, the end, and the object of every thing created. Every pious person is a Christ in whom God becomes man, the resurrection is regeneration, heaven and hell are internal and moral states, the body of Christ is in the bread even before its consecration, just as God is in all na- ture, and the Trinity is merely the incarnation of the Deity in three different periods of the world. After them and among them the age of the Holy Spirit was to commence, when there would be no more need of an external Church. They also maintained that the pope was Antichrist, that every thing done from love was pure, since the Spirit who reigns in the hearts of, all who know themselves to be one with him cannot sin. Amalrieh of Bena was himself compelled only to recant his assertion, that no one can be saved who does not consider himself a member of Christ's body (1204). The con- demnation of persons then in their graves, by the Synod of Paris, and the connection of the proceedings with the name of Erigena, indicate what must have been the pantheistic object of that assertion. A treatise of David of Dinanto was at the same time destroyed, which would seem from arguments urged against it at a later period, to have founded upon certain Aristotelian Z>) Jo. Otton, Catal. Episcc. Brem. (Menken voL IIL p. 793.) Oregor. IX. ad Archiep. Brem. (Linderibrog. p. 172.) J. D. Hitter, de pago Steding et de Stedingis. Vit 1751. 4. (Berg, Mnseum Duisb. vol. I. P. II. p. 529.) Scharling, de Stedingis. Hafn. 1828. SctOcaser, Weltgesch. vol. III. Th. 2. Abth. 2. p. 127SS. c) Albertus Stadens, ad ann. 1248. d) MoaTieim, Vers. e. nnparth. Ketzergesch. HlmsL 1743. p. 342ss. Miclidsen, d. Eiffhauser Kai- wrsagc. (Zeitech. f. thuring. Gesch. 1853. H. 2.) CHAP. VL OPPOS. & REFORM. 293. FRATERNITY OF THE FREE SPIRIT. 341 conclusions the idea that the Deity could have no distinctions in his nature, and that from him proceeded spirit and matter, (a) Soon after this holocaust at Paris, a popular party with similar principles made its appearance on the Upper Rhine, and, until some considerable time in the fourteenth century, in some parts of France, Germany, and Italy. They were known under vari- ous local appellations, frequently as Beghards and Waldenses, but among themselves they were generally called Brethren and Sisters of the Free Spirit. The nature of their principles leads to the conclusion that they had their origin in the scattered fragments of Amalric's school, in which their doctrines had been advocated in a systematic form. Their principal doc- trine, however, does not seem to have been the Pantheism which contains no popular elements, but an opinion which they made prominent in all their teachings, according to which it is the Spirit alone that makes us free and happy. (&) From this they inferred that all outward things were unprofita- ble, and thus adopted a sentiment which in every age has been very ambigu- ous in its application. Some found access to God by breaking loose from all earthly objects, but others gave themselves up to worldly lusts, on the ground that these could have no influence upon the mind, but might, on the other hand, serve to extricate the feeling of original unity from the artificial distinctions of society, by abolishing marriage and the possession of private property, (c) The Picards or Adamites, who in the fifteenth century en- deavored to introduce among the Hussites a paradisiac state of nature, were children of the same spirit, and perhaps were externally in connection with them. Some of these escaped the swords of the Hussites, and preserved a secret remnant of then* sect in Bohemia, (d) 294. Order of the Apostles. I. Hist Dulcini & Additamentum ad Hist Dale. (Muratori vol. IX. p. 423.) II. Mosheim, Gesch. d. Ap. O. (Ketzergeseh. p. 193.) & de Beghard. p. 221ss. Scldosser, Abal. u. Dulcin. Gotha. 1SOT. \L. Mariotti, Fra Dolcino, An Hist Memoir of, transl. from the Ital. by A. Galenga, Lond. 1852. 8.] Gherardo Segarelli, of Parma, a youth of a fanatical disposition who had been rejected by the Franciscans, felt called upon to invite men back to the true poverty of the apostolic life. The Order of the Apostles, which he collected (after 1260) around his person, went about with their spiritual sis- ters begging, and proclaiming that the kingdom of God was near. The popes prohibited (after 1286) this new mendicant order, but they continued to assemble with the Catharists and Fratricelli, and awaited the approaching downfall of the papacy according to the imagery of the Apocalypse. Ghe- rardo was buried in Parma (1300). The apostolical brethren were then a) Cone. Par. Acta in Martene, Thes, Anecd. vol. IV. p. 163ss. Accounts by Rigordus ad ann. 1209. and Caesarius H&isterbac. V. 22. in Mansi vol. XXII. p. SOlss. Gerson. de concordia meta- phys. c. logica, (vol. IV. p. 826.)Engelhardt, A. v. Bena. (KHist Abb. N. 8.) C. 17. ffahn, Am. v. B. (Stnd. u. Krit 1846. H. 1.) J. IL Kronlein, Am. v. B. u. David v. D. (Stud. u. Krit 1847. H. 2.) &) John 4, 23s. Rom. 8. c) Mosheim : de Beghardis et Beguin. p. 210. 255. H. ecc. vol. IL p. 552s. d) Contemporary accounts in Lenfant, Hist de la guerre des Hues. voL I. p. 79ss. (Comp. Beau- sobre, Diss. sur les Adamites de Boh^me. 16. voL IL p. 304ss.) Mosheim, IL ecc. p. 637s. Brl. K Z. N. 12. 342 MEDIAEVAL CHUECH HISTOEY. PEE. IV. A. .D. 121G-1517. induced to follow Dolcino, a native of Milan, and his spiritual friend Harga retta. His prophetic circular Letters recognize indeed the historical neces< sity that the Church should pass into the hands of the wealthy and power- ful, but maintain that since the hierarchy had left their first love, and surrendered themselves to earthly things, it was now needful to return to the poverty of the apostles. His assertions, which probably attained this distinct form only by degrees,* were merely a compilation of the heresies which had prevailed at an older period : " The Roman Church is the great harlot of the Apocalypse ; all the popes since the time of Sylvester, with the exception of Peter de Murrhone, have been false leaders ; it is better to live without vows than with them ; men and women may cohabit without distinction; perjury is lawful in opposition to the inquisition; and the power of the Church is transferred to the Order of the Apostles, in which alone salvation can be found." Believing that the revolution he expected was at hand, and that the Staufian imperial dynasty was about to be re- stored, Dolcino took up arms against the inquisition, with something like a thousand men went forth on a bold predatory expedition, and finally in- trenched himself on Mount Zebello. Here he was surrounded by the host of the crusaders which had been sent against him by the Bishop of Vercelli, and at last sank under the power of hunger and the swords of his ene- mies (1307). 295. Termination of the Earlier Sects. In the south of France, after many fluctuations of fortune, victory be- came decided in favor of Catholicism, amid fields strewed with the slain and the ashes of dwellings (1228). In Italy itself the Holy Father was sur- rounded by all kinds of heretics. The Catharists had been allowed opportu- nity to complete a regular system of Church polity, and in Brescia they even ventured to destroy some Catholic churches, and solemnly to excommunicate the Roman Church, (a) But when the chief of the Ghibelline party had fallen (until 1269), they sunk under the power of the inquisition, and in consequence of their own unfaithfulness. In Bosnia alone they succeeded in maintaining their ascendency, until the measures of the government against them (after 1442) led to the subversion of the empire by the Turks. (5) In Milan, some who advanced the idea that a female hierarchy ought to be formed on the ruins of that which then existed, because the Holy Spirit had become incarnate in a woman, were obliged to atone for their rashness at the stake, (c) The Waldenses were reduced in numbers because they had been burned by their persecutors, but some congregations still remained in the south of France and in the secluded valleys of Piedmont. The reasons for the increase of heresy were declared by a zealous Catholic to be : the vanity and the zeal of heretics of every condition in life to teach and con- * This is sustained by the milder view in the accounts discovered by Bdggidini Dole, e i Pa- tareni. Novara. 1838. After him: J. Krone, Fra Dole. u. d. Patarener. Lpz. 1844. Comp. Hahn in d. Stud. d. ev. Geistl. Wurtemb. 1846. vol. XVIII. H. 1. a) Raynald. ad ann. 1225. N. 47. 6) Raynald. ad ann. 1445. N. 23, 1449. N. 9. 1450. N. 13. c) After PalacTcy : Pescheck, d. Bohm. Wilhelmine. (Zeitschr. f. hist. Th. 1S39. H. 8.) CHAP. VI. OPPOS. & EEFOEM. 296. D'AILLY. GEESON. 343 vert those with whom they were conversant by means of the Holy Scrip- tures, and on the other hand, the neglect of popular instruction, the contempt for the Church shown by its own servants, and the unapostolic lives of the prelates, (d) After the thirteenth century, no one who considered merely the worldliness of the Church and the multitude and zeal of the heretics, could have any doubt whether the latter or the Catholics would obtain the vic- tory. In the commencement of the fifteenth century heretical congregations of almost every kind were scattered and broken up. But it was only in secret that those forms of opposition were maintained or organized which in the sixteenth century came forward under the name of Anabaptism, when assailing the constitution of the Church, and of Unitarianism when arrayed against the doctrines of the Church. (it3f, N. v. C. u. d. K, sr. Zeit Eatisb. 1847. 2 vols. R, Zimmermann, Cus. als Vorhvufer Leibnitzens. Weiin. 1S52. m) Rlclieril Hist. Concc. gen. Col. 1681. I. III. p. 32. n) Wolfii Lectt. memor. vol. I. p. S53. 346 MEDIAEVAL CHURCH HISTORY. PEE. IV. A. D. 121G-1517. A literary man in Germany thought the Reformation equally impracticable and necessary at that time. (0) 297. John de Wycliffe. 1324. Ztec. 31, 1384. I. Writings of J. WicL Lond. 1838. IT. Enyghton, de eventtb. Angliao usque 1395. (Ticisden Scrr. Hist Aug. Lond. 1652. I) Argentre voL I. P. 2. p. las. II. /. Lewis, Hist of the Life & Sufferings of J. W. (Lond. 1720.) Oxf. 1320. Rob. Vaughan Life & Opinions of J. de W. Lond. (1829.) 1881. 2 vols. [new ed. Lond. 1853. 4. C. W. Le Bus, Life of W. New York. 1838. 2 vols. Littell's ReL Mag. voL IIL p. 81 ss. 142ss.] D Ruever Groneman, Diatr. in J. W. vitam, ingenium, script*. Traj. 1837. G. Weber, Geach. d. akath. K. n. Secten in Groessbrit. Lps. 1845. vol. I. Th. 1. E. A. Leward, d. Uieol. Doctrin. W. (Zeitsch. f. hist Th. 1S46. II- 2. 4 1847. U. 2.) G. V. Lechler, W. u. d. Lollarden. L (7Z>. 1853. IL 8.) The papal power in England had been renovated by means of the mendi- cant friars. In the time of Edward III. parliament enacted that every one who should be the bearer of any papal orders with respect to ecclesiastical offices should be imprisoned (1350), forbade all appeals to the court of Rome (1353), and declared that all rents paid to the pope as a liege lord were un- lawful (1366). "Wycliffe also wrote in the style of the Abbot Joachim respecting the last times of the Church, (a) Under the instruction of Brad- wardine he had become skilled in scholastic learning, and in both branches of the law, and as a subordinate member of the University of Oxford he sup- ported that institution by his learned tracts in opposition to the mendicant friars (after 1360), and defended the government in its endeavors to render itself independent of the French papacy. As & professor of theology after 1372, and much respected as a realistic philosopher, he was sent as one of the deputies to Bruges (1374-76), to confer with the papal commissioners respect- ing a free appointment of ecclesiastical offices by the Church, lie afterwards spoke and wrote against the oppression of the Church by the papacy, against the arbitrary mode of excommunications then prevalent, against monasticism, purgatory, and against the necessity of auricular confession, indulgences, and the worship of saints and of images. Gregory XI. condemned (1377) nine- teen articles selected from his writings, which however Wycliffe, under the protection of the court and the high nobility, merely explained in a milder and more definite sense. But when he longed to extricate himself from the antichristianity of his own day, and enjoy the privileges of a Church like that which Paul had constructed, and therefore taught that the Scriptures alone were worthy of complete confidence (Dr. Evangelicus), that the tem- poral power of the pope was derived solely from the emperor, that it was treason to obstruct appeals from the spiritual courts to the king, that priests lost all spiritual power by the commission of mortal sin, that tithes and other alms should be withheld from priests living in sin, that the saving grace of God was not connected exclusively with the priesthood and the sacraments, and, finally, that Christ was present in the Lord's Supper only in a spiritual manner ; his doctrines were condemned at the Earthquake-Council at London (1382), and Wycliffe himself was excluded from the University. He was, o) Life of the celebrated D. Crantzii. Hamb. (1722.) 1729. p. 51. Monckelerg, d. theol. Charak tor d. A. Krantz, Hamb. 1851. a) The last age of the Church, 1356. Dublin. 1S40. 4. CHAP. VI. OPPOS. & EEFOEM. 297. WYCLIFFE. 293. IITJS9. 347 however, assured of his personal freedom hy the House of Commons, and betook himself to his own rectory of Lutterworth, where he had leisure to complete his principal work containing his Augustinian system of scriptural scholasticism, and his propositions for the reformation of the Church. (5) His influence was exerted by means of his translation of the Scriptures from the Vulgate, his sermons, (c) his pamphlets, and some poor priests whom he sent among the people, and many were known to be his adherents to whom the name of Lollards was transferred, but he produced no permanent religious impression upon the masses of society, and the insurrection which occurred in his day among some peasants, in favor of liberty and equality, was only aided by a misunderstanding of his doctrines. His views were principally received and promulgated by the higher classes and men of learning, and hence, no sooner was the government hurried into a sanguinary persecution (after 1400) than all his adherents were easily thrust back into obscurity. It was with especial reference to Bohemia that the anathema of the Church against the views of "Wycliffe was made so severe at the Council of Constance. 298. John Huss and tJie Hussites. I. The Literature of the Sources may be found in H. v. Aufsess, Anz. f. Kunde d. deut. MA. 1533. p. 73s. 227ss. Hist, et Monumm. J. Huss et Hier. Prag. Nor. (1558.) 1715. 2 vols. t Gerichtl. Ank- lage u. vertheid. d. J. II. ehe er nach Constanz ging, mitgeth. v. Lehmann. (Stud. u. Krit. 1S37. P. 1.) Many things arc in Hardt & in Aen. Sylvii Hist Bohemor. Eom. 1475. f. & often. Xrseeyna, Calix- tiner, Canzler d. Neust Prag, Diarium belli Huss. (J. P. de Ludewig< Eeliquiae Manuscc. vol. VI. Gomp. DobrowsTcy in d. Abhh. d. bohm. Gesellsch. d. Wiss. 1788. p. 303ss.) II. J. CocUaeus, Hist. Hussitar. Mog. 1549. f. Z. TlwobaU, Hussitenkrieg. Numb. 1621. 3 ed. Brsl. 1750. 3 vols. 4. Zitte, Lebensb. d. J. H. Prag. 1789. f. 2 vols. A. Zurn, II. zu Costn. Lps. 1836. D. G. v. d. fforst, de Hussi vita praesertirnq. illius condemnati causis. Amst 1837. K de Sonne- ofwse, J. Hus e le Cone, de Constance. (Les reformateurs avant la ret voL I. II.) Par. 1845. Pa- lacky, Gesch. v. Bohm. 1845. vol. III. Abth. 1. (J. A. Helfert, Hus u. Hier. Studie. Prag. 1853.) Neander, Gesch. d. chr. Eel. u. K. Th. XI. p. 830ss. Lenfant, Hist de la guerre des Huss. Amst 1731. 2 vols. 4. Prsb. 1783. 4 vols. Supplement p. Beausobre, Laus. 1745. 4. [Bonnechose's work abovo referred to was republ. in Paris in 1S53.] Ever since the middle of the 14th century a few eminent priests of Prague who had been persecuted but not silenced, as preachers of repentance (a) and in their writings (&) had contended against a corrupt clergy as the Antichrist, and had endeavored to draw off the minds of men from the human institu- tions of the Church to the apostolic laws, to the universal priesthood, and to a crucified Kedeemer. John Huss, of Hussinecz (after 1398), a Professor of Philosophy, a scholastic realist, and (after 1402) a Bohemian preacher in the chapel of Bethlehem at Prague, followed in their footsteps. Toward himself he was rigidly severe, but toward others he exhibited a friendly disposition, his reading was not extensive and was principally directed to the histories of &) Trialogus (Dialogor. 1. IV.) 1382. (Bas.) 1525. 4 Fret et Lps. 1753. 4. c) Engelhardt, Wycl. als Prediger. Erl. 1834, a) Conr. of Waldhausen i 1369. Jan of Stekno, about 1360. Milicz d. 1374. J. P. Jordan, d. Vorliiufer d. Hussitenth. in Bohmen. Lps. 1846. V) Matth. v. Janow, d. 1394, de regulis Vet et N. Testament! 1392, de abominatione & de anti- christo are only sections of this work, the last has been regarded as a writing of Huss (Hist, et Mo- num. vol. I. p. 876ss.) Neander, M. v. J. als Vorlaufer d. deut. Eef'u. Eeprasent. d. neuen Princips. (Wissensch. Abhh. ed. by Jacobi. Brl. 1851. p. 92.) Extracts in Jordan & Neander (KGesch.) 348 MEDIAEVAL CHURCH HISTORF. PER. IV. A. D. 1216-151T. the martyrs, and his eloquence, though considerable, was owing more to his lofty enthusiasm than to his natural talents. He was devotedly attached to the Komish Church until, in consequence of the intercourse between Oxford and Prague he became acquainted (about 1408) with the reformatory wri- tings of Wycliffe, in which he recognized particular truths of the greatest importance, and soon publicly avowed his admiration of tho name of "Wye liffe. His preaching and his publications were then directed against the worldliness of the clergy and the abuses of the papacy, but it was not long before his direct reference to the gospel led him to announce that all clergy- men possessed equal authority, that a visible head was not needful to the gen- eral Church, that the congregations possessed some special rights, that tithes were nothing but alms, and that civil authorities had a right to confiscate any property of the Church which had been perverted to improper uses. As long as the votes of Germans were most numerous in the councils of the Univer- sity the writings of Wycliffe were condemned there. But by appealing es- pecially to a feeling of old national jealousy he succeeded in obtaining the passage of a law (1409) by which the German corporations were deprived of their privileges in tho academic republic. In consequence of this proceeding the University lost most of its students and became strictly Bohemian, and Huss, himself, became an object of hatred in all parts of Germany, (c) "With him, at the head of an evangelical clergy, advanced the impetuous but learned knight, Jerome of Prague, who had just returned from an academic crusade in behalf of Wycliffe's scholastic principles. On the complaint of the Arch- bishop of Prague, Huss was cited to appear at Rome, deposed and excommu- nicated as a Wycliffite (1410), but he appealed to a pope better informed, and in consequence of his favor with the people and King "Wenceslaus, the arch- bishop found it necessary to become reconciled to him (1411). When John XXIII. (1412) had indulgences offered for sale to raise funds for his crusade against Naples, Huss boldly preached against them, and against the erection of the standard of the cross in opposition to professed Christians. The bull of indulgences was burned at tho public pillory in the same manner in which the archbishop had burned the writings of Wycliffe, public tranquillity was disturbed, and the disturbance was avenged with blood. The views of Huss were now elevated above all regard for the Roman Church, and he formed a conception of the true Church as a communion of all who have been eternally elected to life, the head of which could not be the pope but Christ alone, since no earthly dignity, no human choice, and no visible sign could confer a membership in it. (d) When the place of his residence was placed by a bull under an interdict (1413), he retired to the castles of his friends, and preached to the people with great power. As he had appealed to a general council, to God, and to Christ, the Emperor Sigismund summoned him to Constance. He freely obeyed this citation, trusting to his own orthodoxy, and prepared, if necessary, to lay down his life with joy. He was soon thrown into con- finement (Nov. 28, 1414) ; the Bohemian and the Polish nobility contended c) J. T. Held, Tentamen hist illustrandis rebus a. 1409 la Univ. Pragena gestia. Prg. 182T. IF. Tomet, Gesch. d. Prag. Untv. Prag. 1S49. p. 47ss. d) Tr. d. Eccl. (Hist et Monum. vol. L p. 243.) CHAP. VI. OPPOS. & EEFORM. 298. HTJSS & THE HUSSITES. 349 for his rights in vain, and the emperor had nothing but a blush to give as an apology for the violation of his safe conduct, (e) Some of the charges alleged against him he was able to deny, and others he could modify he had never rejected the doctrine of transubstantiation, the pope had been created by Con- stantine only with respect to his temporal honor and earthly possessions, a king, a pope, or a bishop in mortal sin was in the sight of God unworthy of the name, and such a priest could not properly administer the sacraments. The council required him unconditionally to recant his opinions, and con- demned him for his obstinacy, since he would make no concessions except to the authority of the Scriptures or of reason. (/") A person of a different character might perhaps have extricated himself without betraying the cause of truth, and indeed have become a leader in the synod. Tlje farewell let- ters which Huss wrote to his friends were full of heroism and tenderness, (g) and he died (July 6, 1415) praising Christ and fully believing that his cause would become victorious at some future period, in the hands of more power- ful men. (h) Jerome at first recanted, but soon recovered his courage, sum- moned his judges before the Supreme Judge of all, and, according to an account left us by a philosopher, died with the fortitude of a Stoic. (i) Theo- logical heresies were charged against these men, only in an indefinite man- ner, and by a misunderstanding of their views. "When we find that a liberal assembly like that of Constance rewarded these liberal efforts by martyrdom at the stake, we must also recollect that the hostility of the scholastic school, the hatred of the Germans, and the bitterness of the clergy on account of the general contempt to which they had been exposed, all co-operated in pro- ducing the result. But the decisive object which the hierarchical party had in view was simply to terrify its opponents by bringing to the stake men whose sentiments were so similar to theirs ; while, on the other hand, they were sacrificed by the liberal party lest it should expose itself to the suspicion of sharing in their heretical sentiments. But a large part of the Bohemian nation were seized with horror at the cruel deed perpetrated at Constance, under the guise of sanctity, and in a body they rose in rebellion. Huss and Jerome were honored as martyrs, and the priests and monks became victims to a most terrible and sanguinary vengeance. A custom introduced by Jacob of Misa and approved by Huss, according to which the cup in the Sacrament was administered to the laity, was now made the badge of the Hussite cove- nant. (K) When Wenceslaus, who had retained possession of his crown, in consequence of the weakness of his government, died (1419), and Bohemia became the inheritance of his brother, the emperor, the greater part of the estates refused to swear allegiance to a prince who had broken his promise, and they therefore raised the standard of civil war (1420). The Hussites e) On the other hand : J. Huss u. s. Geleitsbr. (Hist pol. BL 1839. voL IV. H. 7.) /) A. Capperiberg, utrum H. doctr. fuerit heretics et merito anath. prescripts? MonasL 1834 g) Briefe d. J. H. zu Konstanz. Nach. d. bohm. TJrtexte ed. by F. Mikowec. Lps..l849. A) Hist et Monn. vol. I. p. 33ss. vol. II. p. 515ss. Mansi an vere de Luthero vaticinatus sit Ilusa (Verm. Abhh. BrsL 1821. p. 157ss.) i) Poggii Ep. ad Aretin. (el. Orelli. Tur. 1835. Hardt Th. III. p. 64ss.) Hist et Monn. Th. 1L p 522S8. L. Heller, H. v. Prag. Lub. 1835. Jo) Martini Da. de Jac. de Misa. Altd. 1753. 4. conf. Sohreiber, de Petro Dresdcnsi. Lps. 1673. 4. 350 MEDIAEVAL CHUECH HISTORY. PEE. IV. A. D. 1216-1517. were divided into two parties, of which the milder, called Calixtines (Utra- quists), reduced their demands to four articles : the privilege of freely preach- ing the word of God, the^ administration of the Lord's Supper in hoth forms, the return of the clergy to the apostolic life of poverty, and the right of the congregation to punish all mortal sin. The other more rigid party, called the Titborites, claimed to be the true elect of God, rejected unconditionally all the principles of the Church which could not be proved from the Scriptures, expected in a short time the second advent of Christ, and under their infatu- ated leader, Ziska, carried on a war of extermination against the neighboring nations. After the death of Ziska (1424), his place was filled by a monk whose name was Procopius, but as many of the troops looked upon the loss of their general as irreparable, they called themselves Orphans. Although these parties were opposed to each other they became united when a common danger threatened them. Every army sent against them by the emperor or the papal legates was beaten, being composed only of mercenaries under the name of crusaders, and opposed to a people whose wrath had been power- fully awakened. The conquerors were now in the most cautious manner summoned to appear before the Council at Basle. After much debate the Calixtines came to an agreement (1433) respecting their articles, and it was agreed that the word of God should be regularly preached under the direc- tion of spiritual superiors, that the Lord's Supper should be administered under both forms by the special authority of the council, that the property of the Church should be managed by the clergy according to the usages of the fathers, and that mortal sins should, as far as possible, bo punished by the civil magistrates according to law. The Taborites and Orphans, who re- garded this compromise with contempt, were overcome (May 80, 1434) at the battle of Prague, and Bohemia became subject to the emperor by a treaty formed at Iglan (1436), by which religious and political liberty were secured to the people on the basis of the compromise with the council. But this treaty was in many ways violated in favor of the Catholics, who, after the dispersion of the Taborites were a sufficient match for the Calixtines alone. On the death of Sigismund (1437), when the nation were called upon to choose a successor, controversies respecting the succession sprung up, and civil wars were prosecuted with no decisive results, until at the Diet of Kut- teriberg (1485) a religious peace was established by King "Wladislaus, which secured the Catholic and Calixtine parties in the possessions which they then held. So long, however, were the Hussites agitated by political storms that ultimately none of their advantages remained, except the outward form of the cup in the sacrament, and recollections of former glory. 299. The Bohemian and Moravian Brethren. KocJier, die 3 vorn. Glanbensbekennt d. B. Brud. FrkC u. Lpz. 1742. J. Camerarii hist narra- tio de fratrum orthod. ecclesiis in Boh. Moravia et Pol. (about 1570.) Heidlb. 1605. FrcC 1625. J. Comenii Hist, frat Bohemor. (Amst 1660.) c. praef. Buddei. HaL 1702. 4. Lochner, Entstch. u. erste Schicksale der Brudergem. in B. u. M. Numb. 1S32. A.'Joppen, d. KOrdnung u. Disciplin. d. alten huss. Bruderkirche. Lps. 1845. A small band, composed principally of remnants of the Taborites, but mollified by necessitous circumstances, became dissatisfied with the conces CHAP. VI. OPPOS. & KEFOEM. 299. BOHEMIANS. 300. WESSEL. 35 1 sions made to the Catholics, and the low state to which the evangelical spirit had declined, and therefore separated themselves from the Calixtines (after 1450). Their congregations were prescribed on the eastern horders, but soon became numerous in Bohemia, Moravia, and Poland, in spite of severe perse- cutions. Their first bishops received ordination from the Waldensian bishops, and several remnants of the Waldenses, with other pious and peaceable per- sons, were received into their community. They were generally poor, quiet, well versed in the Scriptures, and divided into three classes in regular grada- tions, called Novices, Proficients, and Perfect. They rejected the saints and prelates of the Catholic Church, taught that there was a mystical connection between the body of Christ and the elements of the Lord's Supper, did not pretend to be the only saving Church, but only members of it, and by an ecclesiastical discipline like that of the first centuries, maintained a habit of life rigidly moral, spiritual, and pious, though in many respects contracted in its objects. 300. Learned Precursors of the Reformation in Germany. Nearly all the subjects which so powerfully agitated the world during the conflicts of the next century, were more or less discussed by learned men in the midst of the general opposition to the Church raised by science and piety in the fifteenth century. The great points common to them all were the purification of the Church by means of the Scriptures, and the reception of Christianity as the only saving faith. John (Pupper) of Goch, rector of a convent of nuns in Mechlin (d. 1475), endeavored to find Christianity in those errors which have in all ages been its snare, viz. the perpetual observ- ance of the Mosaic law in some form, faith without works, satisfaction with works without divine grace, and finally vows as indispensable conditions of evangelical perfection, (a) John Wessel (Gansfort), originally from Gron- ingen, but afterwards a resident successively in Cologne, Louvain, Paris, and Heidelberg, whose mental activity at last found congenial employment in the stirring excitement of a counsellor's and a teacher's life (Lux Muudi, Mag. contradictionum, d. 1489), has, in the style of the Scholastics and Humanists, conceived of Christianity on a basis of mysticism, and regarded it as some- thing entirely spiritual, wholly confined to a man's own heart and God. His expressions, therefore, with regard to ecclesiastical institutions are generally very limited, and formed with a careful exclusion of all reference to doc- trines. " The Holy Scriptures, God's own abbreviated word, is the living source of all true faith ; the Church is based upon a compact ; there is a general priesthood of the rational universe ; faith i$ to be reposed only in an orthodox pope, and not in every council ; sins can be forgiven by none but God ; excommunication has only an external influence ; indulgences refer only to ecclesiastical penalties ; repentance is internally complete through the righteousness of Christ and God's free grace, when we are sincerely grieved for our sins ; the true satisfaction for sin is a life in God ; and purgatory is noth- ing but the purifying influence of a longing after God." (b) His friend John a) De libertate chr. ed. C. Grapheus, Antu. 1521. 4. De quatuor *rrorib. Dial, in Walch, Mon. medii aevi. vol. L Fasc. 4. Comp. WalcKa Vorr. p. XIIIss. V) A collection of his thool. treatises : Farrago Wesseli (1521.) Witt 1522. and often. Later praef 352 MEDIAEVAL CHUECH HISTOEY. PEE. IV. A. D. 1216-151 T. (KucnraUi) of Wesel, a professor in Erfurt, and a preacher in Worms, stand- ing on the ground of the rigid Augustinian theology, made an assault upon the received system and usages of the Church. If the names of all the elect are inscribed from eternity in the book of life, he inferred that no excommu- nication could ever blot them out, no absolution could insert any in addition to them, and no observation of merely human statutes with which the Church is burdened, could raise them to a higher rank. As long as propo- sitions like these were not addressed to the. people, they could be tolerated under favorable circumstances as learned doctrines in the schools. But John of Wesel, who glorified Christ although he despised the pope, was accused by the Dominicans of Mentz, was compelled to recant when old and sick, and was finally imprisoned in a convent (1479) until he was set at liberty by death (1481). (c) 301. Jerome Savonarola. I. Trattato circa il regiinento dl Fircnze. Fir. 1491 ed. 6. 1847. Compcndlo di rivclazloni. Fir. 1495. 4. (Comp. re veil. Flor. 1495. 4.) De simplicitate vitoo chr. Flor. 1496. 4. Trlumplms crucis. Flor. 1497. 4. Expos, in Psalmum: Mlserero mcL Flor. 1498. 4. and often, especially sermons and letters. Catalogue in Meier, p. 893ss. Eoman view : Burchardi Diarinm. (Eccard vol. II. p. 2087ss. Paulus, Beitrr. z. D. K. n. Eel. Gcsch. Brem. 1887. p. 281ss.) Apologetical : J. F. Pioui de Mirandula, Vita Patris II. 8av. 1580. (with other orig. Docc.) ed. J. Quetif, Par. 1674 8 vols. 12. Pad/. Burlamacchi, Vita del. P. Sav. ed. Mansi in Baluzii Misccll. Luc. 1761. f. vol. L (Burlamac- chi, d. 1519. Mansi has edited only the hyperorthodox revision by Bottoni, which was not made till 1527. I have sought in vain at Florence for the original text not longer ago than 1852, numerous Codd. in the Bibl. Magliabecchiana, contain the simple text of Mansi with only unimportant varia- tions.) In connection with Gen. Hist : Guicciardinl 1. III. p. 99ss. Macchiavelli: Discorei I, 11. 45. Principe c. 6. Comminea VIII, 2. 19. II. Buddeua de artib. tyran. Sav. Jen. 1690. 4 with his later Eetractatio. (Parerga hist Jen. 1719.) /'. W. P. v. Ammon, Grundz. d. TheoL d. Sav. (Winer's krit J. 1828. vol. VIIL II. 8.) Jiudelbach, Ilier. Sav. u. s. Zeit Hamb. 1885. K. Meier, Gir. Sav. BrL 1886. K. ffase t Sav. (Neue Propheten. p. 97.) [R. li. Madden, Life and Mart of J. Suv. Lond. 1853. 2 vols. 8.] After a perjod of literary Activity in a convent, the Dominican Savona- rola became known as an impressive preacher of repentance in Florence (after 1489). He reproved the sins of great men as freely and as faithfully as those of ordinary men, and predicted that divine judgments were about to break forth upon Italy, but that a great purification of the Church, proceeding from Florence, should follow from these severe troubles. He also predicted the approaching ruin of the house of the Medici, and the march of a foreign king across the Alps, to chastise the tyrants of Italy and to reform the Church with the sword. Accordingly, Lorenzo Medici died, Charles VIII. advanced (1494) across the Alps, and the sons of Lorenzo were banished from Florence. After this partial fulfilment of his prophecies, and when the people by his advice had seized upon the government of the republic, the state was entirely dependent upon his counsel, although, he never interfered with the details of the administration. He looked upon a government by by Luther in his W. by Walcli, vol. XIV. p. 219. Opp. Groning. 1614. 4. G. Z7. Goese, de Jo. Wess Lub. 1719. 4. G. Muurling, de Wesseli Gansfortii cum vita, turn meritis in praepar. sacrornm emen- datione in Belgio sept. P. I. (Vita.) Traj. ad Eh. 1831. C. Ullmann, J. "Wessel, ein Vorgfinger Luth. Hamb. 1834. Die 2 umg. A. in d. Eeformatoren vor d. Eef. vol. II. c) His treatise adv. indnlgentias in Walch, 1. c. Fasc. I. p. 111. Legal documents relating to his trial in Argentre vol. I. P. II. p. 891ss. Uttmann, vol. I. p. 367*. CHAP. VI. OPP03. & EEFOEM. 301. SAVONAEOLA. 353 tho people as most appropriate to such a place as Florence, and he advised that it should be a spiritual community, established upon the principles of the fear of God, true patriotism, and peace among all its citizens. From his pulpit he commenced a great moral reformation. His system of faith was founded upoft that of St. Thomas, though it deviated somewhat in the direc- tion of the Mystics, and was animated by the spirit of the Scriptures. Of course he had no hope of salvation from the saints, nor from his own works, but his whole trust was in the grace of God. Although he declined the dangerous appellation of a prophet, he derived his predictions from a pro- phetic spirit nourished by the Scriptures, and he believed that in his conclu- sions he could no more be mistaken than that God himself could err. Alex- ander VI., wounded in various ways, and threatened with a council, endeavored to silence the terrible prophet at first by brilliant promises, and afterwards by sending him a crafty summons to Eome (July 21, 1495). Sa- vonarola excused himself on the ground that he could not at that time be absent from Florence. Many Florentines were offended at the rigid morality which in its enthusiasm held a carnival with the works of luxury and art, and consigned them to an auto-da-fe. The noble families were chagrined at the ridiculous manner in which the government was conducted by a monk and the people. An attempt to restore the Medici was expiated with the heads of its authors, in the midst of legal forms before unknown. The sturdy confidence which Savonarola reposed in the King of France, brought the city of Florence into a dangerous political condition, and the retreat of the king gave a ridiculous aspect to his prophecies. Already was his influ- ence over the minds of the people abated, when he was forbidden by the Eoman authorities to enter the pulpit (Oct. 1496). As he would not allow the word of God which burned within him to be smothered, he was excom- municated (May 12, 1497). He regarded such a prohibition as utterly void when opposed to the spirit of love, and concluded to appeal from the earthly to the heavenly Pope. He therefore continued to preach to the people, assuring them that his cause would be triumphant though he himself should suffer martyrdom. The Franciscans placed themselves at the head of the opposition to the Dominicans of his convent of St. Mark, the people became excited at the disappointment which their curiosity had received when assembled to witness a divine trial of his claims by the ordeal of fire, for which neither of the champions had any inclination or confidence, and finally the city was threatened with a papal interdict. The convent of St. Mark was attacked by a mob, a few of Savonarola's adherents were struck down, and he himself was thrown into prison. An extraordinary court of justice compelled him to confess on the rack that he had played the part of a prophet from motives of ambition. Condemned by the judgment of the pope as a heretic, and by the voice of the Signoria for crimes not specified, he piously submitted himself to death, and between two brothers of his order was burned at the gibbet (May 23, 1498). Even the politic Secretary of State in Florence considered it becoming to speak of such a man with reverence. His portrait, with the halo of sanctity, painted by Fra Bartolo* meo, is suspended in the gallery of St. Mark even to the present day. 23 354 MEDIAEVAL CHURCH HISTORY. PER. IV. A. D. 1216-1517. CHAP. VIL THE GREEK CHURCH. 302. Arsenius. G. Fachymeres III, 10. 14. 19ss. IV, IBS. VII, 22. Niceph. Gregoras III, 1. IV, Iss. VII, 9.- Engelliardt, die Areenlaner u. Hesychasten. (Zeitscbr. f. blst Tb. 1888. vol. VIIL II. 1.) A complete re-establishment of the monarchy had been prevented by the introduction of an arrangement resembling the feudal system, and by the formation of an independent nobility, composed of those families which were contending against the occupation of the country by the Latins. The Church regarded itself as the moral power by which the unity of the nation was to be preserved and the empire was finally to be restored. But when Michael Palaeologus actually set up the imperial authority in Constantinople (1261), he had the lawful heir to the throne, John Lascaris, deprived of his sight. For this act the patriarch Arsenins pronounced sentence of excommunication against the emperor (1262), who was compelled by the murmurs of the peo- ple to promise compliance with every penance required of him. But when the patriarch demanded that he should lay aside the purple which he had unlawfully seized, the emperor retaliated the ecclesiastical Bann with a civil banishment. He also succeeded in gaining over a synod to his purposes, by which Arsenius was deposed (12GG), on the ground that his election and his administration had been irregular. Only three gold pieces which had been earned by transcribing the Psalms were found in the episcopal treasury. Even when banished to a desert island, and with his last breath, the deposed patriarch rejected the prayer of the emperor to be reconciled to the Church. The next patriarch was obliged to yield to the popular displeasure. Michael then succeeded in having a popular saint consecrated as patriarch, by whom the restoration of the emperor to the communion of the Church was finally effected (1268). But an influential party of monks called Arsenitcs persisted in rejecting the emperor and his patriarch. This dangerous schism was not healed until Andronicus caused the dead body of Arsenius to be deposited in the holy place, and the wrong which had been committed against him was atoned for by a penance imposed upon the whole nation (1312). 303. Tht Light of God and Philosophy. I. Among contemporaries, for Barl. Niceph. Gregoras XI, 10. Against him, Jo. Gantacuzen. II, 80ss. (Both in the Corp. Scrr. Byz. Bonn. 1828sa. P. XIXs.) Documents in Mansi vol. XXVs. II. Petavius, de theoL dogmatib. voL 1. 1. L c. 123. EngeVuirdl, de Hesych. Erl. 1829. 4. Mount Athos, with its dark forests, in which tradition says no creature of the female sex can exist, and looking far out upon the sea, had become, after the ninth century, covered with monasteries. These constituted a republic made up exclusively of monks, from which the Eastern Church was supplied with bishops, (a) In this place Barlaam, a classically educated monk from Calabria, found monastic saints who thought they could attain while yet in the body, by a perfect cessation of corporeal life, an intuition of the divine a) J. P. Fallmerayer, Fragments a, d. Orient Stuttg. 1845. vol. II. Comp. Eustathius v. Thos- ealonich, u. d. Moncbsstaud. from the Greek, by G. L. F. Ta/el, Tub. 184T. CHAP. VII. GREEK CHURCH. 297. LIGHT OF GOD. 298. UNION. 355 Light and Essence. The method they adopted appears to have produced a kind of magnetic clairvoyance. "When Barlaam ridiculed these Quietists ('Ho-v- xaa-Tai) as navel- gazers COfK^uXo^u^oi), Gregory Palamas maintained that the divine light might be intuitively contemplated, and referred to the newly created light which surrounded our Lord on Mount Tabor. Barlaam rejoined that nothing but God could be uncreated, and consequently that his opponent had made out that there were two Gods. A synod convened in Constantino- ple (1341) decided in favor of the monks of the sacred mount, and Barlaam passed over into Italy and to the Koman Church. At Constantinople the controversy was carried on with reference to various pointed questions, and with many interferences from the court, until it reached the conclusion (1350) ; that God's essence and energy were distinguishable; that there is an uncreated energy, like the light on Tabor, which is inseparable from God, and that this was denominated Deity by the fathers, although it is subordi- nate to the divine essence. Platonism, whose gospel was proclaimed by Ge- mistus Pletao at the time of the Synod of Florence, generally maintained its pious trust in opposition to the worldliness of Aristotle, but its rascal prin- ciples were deeply fixed in an affectionate attachment to Greek antiquity. It was therefore accused of being a new form of heathenism by those who de- fended Aristotle, whose system, on the other hand, had now become adapted to the requirements of the Church. (5) 304. Attempts at Union. Cont. from 235. Leo Allatius, Graccia orthod. Rom. 1662. 1669. 2 vols. 4, While the Latins possessed the imperial authority, a reconciliation be- tween the two Churches was impossible, on account of the political abuses of which the Greeks complained, and the exorbitant demands of the domi- nant Church. But when Constantinople again became the capital of the Greek empire and of the Greek Church, the emperors ware anxious to effect a reconciliation, or at least the semblance of one, because during the thir- teenth century they were apprehensive of another crusade from the West, and after the fourteenth century they were desirous of aid against the Turks. At the Council of Lyons (1274), therefore, Michael Palaeologm allowed his representatives to subscribe the Roman confession of faith, reserv- ing only the old established usages of his Church, (a) and at the Synod of Florence (1439) the union of the two Churches was consummated by the Greek emperor and the Patriarch himself. (5) But the people were entire strangers to any such union, and when the throne of the Palaeologi was threatened, the popular party betook themselves to the Comneni at Trebi- zond. The learned men on the Greek side defended their Church by proving its agreement with ecclesiastical antiquity, and those of the Latin party de- ft) Plet7u>, de Plat, atque Arist. phil. differentia. Par. 1541. Georg. Trapezunt. Compar. Ar. et Plat Ven. 1528. W. Gass, Gennadius u. Pletho. Bresl. 1844. 'The 2d part contains both treatises. a) Raynald. ad ann. 126T. N. 72ss. Mansi voL XXIV. p. 60. 67ss. &) Labbei et Cossartii Concc. voL XIII. p. SlOss. Sylv. Sguropuli vera Hist unionis non verae inter Gr. et Lat s. Cone. Flor. narratio. Gr. et Lit ed. R. Creygltton, Hag. Com. 1660. 4 On the other side Leo Allat. Rom. 1665. 4. 356 MEDIAEVAL CHURCH HISTORY. PER. IV. A. D. 121&-15I7. fended theirs after the example of St. Thomas, (c) by forged original docu- ments and false constructions of the Greek fathers. Once more, when the Turkish bastions had been already erected against the walls of Constantino- ple, a reconciliation was celebrated in December, 1452, and a Koman cardinal legate held mass in the Church of St. Sophia. But the only effect of this was that the consciences of the people were fretted, and their love was alienated from the emperor himself. The only true union of the Churches took place in the social circle of the Platonist Cardinal Bessarion (d. 1472), Archbishop of Nicaea, who, after the Synod of Florence, abandoned a cause which he regarded as desperate. By his interest in the cause of his na- tive land and her exiled children, he subsequently proved that he was not a deserter, but a mediator between two nations and two mental king- doms, (d) 805. End of the Greek Empire. After Phranta, Ducoa, and others, Orwiu* TarcoX3raecla, BBS. 1584. t J. v. Hammer, Gescb. d. oemtn. Reicha. Pesth. 1827M. voL L i\ 60fas. voL IL . Abandoned by "Western Europe, after one more glorious struggle on May 29, 1453, New Rome was stormed by the Turks, and the church of St. So- phia was desecrated and converted into a mosque. The family of the Palae- ologi retired to the Peloponnesus, and there wasted away until it became extinct (1460). The Comneni indulged the vain hope that they could obtain deliverance by the surrender of Trebizond (1462). (a) One Christian hero, Scanderleg, who had formerly attained the highest dignities among the Mo- hammedans, but, late in life, had forsaken them all to become a Christian, now effected the deliverance of Epirus, for more than twenty years withstood the whole power of the Ottomans, and finally may be said to have been overwhelmed rather than overcome (1466). (b) His Albanian* became more properly the allies than the subjects of the Porte, and generally adopted a false kind of religion intermediate between that of Christ and that of Mo- hammed. The Mainots and the Thieves remained independent tribes of Chris- tians in the mountains. The rmnant of the Grecian nation was allowed by Mohammed //., the conqueror of Constantinople, to continue under a mild form of servitude and in the free enjojment of their religion. Gennadius, who had been chosen patriarch by order of this sultan, presented to him the confession of faith of the Oriental Church, in -which were embraced all those important particulars in which Christianity is distinguished from Islam, (c) One half of the churches remained in possession of the Christians until the beginning of the sixteenth century, when the Sultan Selim appropriated as many of them as he thought needful to the use of the Mohammedans. The patriarch, being regarded as a high political officer, receives his confirmation c) Opusc. contra errores Graecorom ad Urban IV. d) A. Bandini, de yita et reb. gestis Bess. Rom. 1774. 4. IT, Hose, Bessarion. (HalL EncycL voL IX.) a) FaUmerayer, Gescb. d. Kaiserth. TrapezuuL Munich. 1827. ft) Marinus Barletiw de vita Georgii Castrioti L XIIL Argent 1587. t to be modified bj Gib- Ion & Hammer. c) Oaea. Abth. II. p. Sss. CHAP. VII. GEEEK CHUECH. 805. TUEKISH EULE. 357 or deposition according to the will of the sultan. He has a permanent synod of bishops and notables to act as his council and judicial court, in connection with which he is the arbitrator and judge of his people. The administration of justice in civil matters, and generally with respect to minor ofiences, is performed in the episcopal courts. These have, it is true, no power but that of arbitrators, yet the fear of being excommunicated by them is so great that this is sufficient, (d) The Greek Church was compelled to share the depressed fortunes of its people. It now undertook the vocation of consoling a people overwhelmed by misfortunes, and of preserving its own peculiar institutions until a brighter day should dawn upon it. d\ G. Oeib. Barst d. Bechtszust iii Griechenland wahrend d. turk. Herrshaft, Heldelb. 1S85. MODERN CHURCH HISTORY. FIFTH PERIOD. FEOM LUTHER TO THE PEACE OF WESTPHALIA, For Gen. History: Correspondenz K. Earls Y. ed. by K Lanz, Lps. 1344ss. 8 vols. Guicciardim (p. 288). P. Gloria, Hist eul temp. (1493-1518. 1521-27.) Flor. 1550s. & often. D Thou, Hist su! temp. (1548-1607.) Frc 4 vols. t & often. KhetenhiUer, Ann. Ferdlnandel, 2 ed. (1578-1687.) Lps. 171688. M vols. Goldcut, Imp. Bom. Fret 1607. t Constt Imp. E. FrcC 1615. 8 vols. Koch, SammL d. Relchsabschiede. FrcC 1747. 4 vols. tSastrow, (1505.) Herkommen, Geburt u. Lauf s. Le- bens, ed. by Mohnlke, Greifew. 1828s. 8 vols. Robertson, Hist of the Emp. Charles Y. Lond. 1769. 8 vols. 4 ed. by Frost, 1 vol. 8. New York. 1840. Uebers. v. Reiner, Brnscb. 1792. 8 vols. F. v. 2?- cholU, Ferd. L Vienna. 1882-a 9 vols. [S. A. Dunham, H. of the Germanic Empire, Lond. 1884-5. 3 vols. a W. a Taylor, Anc. & Mod. Hist New York. 1846. 2 vols. a W. Smith, Lectt on Mod. Hist Ac. 2 vols. a Lond. 1841. W. Jiuwell, Hist of Mod. Europe to 1768. 8 vols. 8. New Nork. F. Kohlrawtch, Hist of Germany, transL by Haas. New York. 1847.] D 808. General View. The necessity of a reformation, now universally recognized, was the prin- cipal legacy bequeathed by the preceding age. This work now commenced among the people simultaneously in Saxony and in Switzerland. It was the result, not of literary improvement, though in connection with it, nor of con- tests with the papacy, although much of its success was owing to the arro- gance and the corruptions of that system, but principally of the fear which pious persons felt lest true repentance and salvation should bo utterly lost sight of in the eager chase after indulgences and human merit. It was not until the Reformation was decidedly opposed by the hierarchy, that the Church was compelled by the inevitable force of circumstances to divide. It was then that the principle of Protestantism which had previously been sub- ordinate, led its friends to establish an independent Church, that Christianity might there find an appropriate development. This was accomplished in Switzerland in the midst of isolated struggles among republican parties, and in the interior of Germany, in the midst of learned controversies, solemn imperial transactions, popular commotions, and mercenary wars. Both re- forming parties justified their views by appealing to the Scriptures, and 306. GENEKAL VIEW. 307. LITEEATUEE. 359 expected salvation wholly from the grace of God through Christ; both seriously misunderstood each other, not indeed at first, but at a very early period, and both were German in their national characteristics, although, as was to be expected in a border country, the Helvetic Church partook at an early date of a French admixture. The Reformation now began its course around the world. Political interests, foreign to its true objects, in some instances interrupting and in others promoting its progress, became involved in the conflict, but the ecclesiastical interest never ceased to be prominent. In consequence of the very opposition it had received, Catholicism renewed its energies, and "Western Europe became divided into two great hosts, which, in the very country where the Reformation originated, contended with earthly weapons for the existence of Protestantism/ Its rights, however, were finally purchased at the expense of the devastation and disunion of Germany. Both Churches, while agitated by the highest excitement of opposition, were finally ?bliged to leave each other in peaceable possession of what each actually occupied. The development of this contest, and its results in the contend- ing Churches, constitute the central object of our history during this period, and supply the peculiar conditions according to which the topical arrange- ment will be formed. CHAP. I. THE GERMAN REFORMATION. 307. Original Authorities and Literary History. A. I. Writings of the Eeformers 308. 313. Spalatini Ann. Eef. (till 1543.) ed. by Cyprian. Lps. 1718. F. Myconii Hist. Eef. 1518-42. ed. by the same. Gotha (1715.) 1718. J. Cochlaeus, Cmtr. do actis et, scrr. Lutheri 1517-47. Mog. 1549. & often. L. Surius, Chronicon 1500-66. Col. 1567. J. Slot- danus, de statu reL et reip. Carolo V Caes. Cmtrr. Arg. 1555. f. complete 1557. & often, ill. am Ende, Frcf. 1785s. 3 vols. Uebers. v. Stroth, Hal. 1770ss. 4 vols. Contin. usq. ad 1564. Londorp. Frcf. 1619. 3 vols. 4. [Hist of the Eef. of the Church. 1517-62. from the Latin of J. Sleidanus, by E. Bohun, Lond. 1689. f.] Collections : F. Hortleder, Handlungen u. Ausschreiben v. d. Ursachen d. dt Krieus wider d. Schmalk. Bundts-Verw. (till 1555.) Frkf. 1617s. 2 vols. f. Gotba. 1645. f. IT. v. d. Ifardt, Hist litter. Eef. Frcf. et L. 1717. f. B. Loscher, vollst. Eef. Acta. (1517-19.) Lpz. 1720ss. 3 vols. 4. J. Kapp, Nachlese z. Eef. Gesch. nutzl. Urk. Lps. 1727ss. 4 vols. Strobel: Miscell. Numb. 177Sss. 6 Th. Beitrr. z/Lit 1784ss. 2 & 5 vols. Jbhannsen, die Entw. d. Prot. Geistes, e. Samml. d. -wich- tigsten Dokumente v. Worms. Edict b. z. Sp. Prot Kopenh. 1830. G. G. Neudecker : Urkunden a. d. Eef. Zeit Cass. 1836. Actenstucke. Numb. 183S. Neue Beitrr. Lps. 1841. 2 vols. G. E. Forstemann, Neues Urkundenb. z. Gesch. d. KEef. Hamb. 1842. 1 vol. 4 J. K. Seidemann : Erlautt z. Eef. Gesch. Drsd. 1844 Beitrr. z. Eef. ftesch. Drsd. 1840. 2 Th. Vitae quatuor Eeformator. Luth. a Mel Mel. a Camerario, Zwingl. a Myconio, Calv. a JBeza. Praef. est Neander. Ber. 1841. 4. M. Adami Vitae Germanor. Theologor. Heidelb. 1620. II. P. Sarpi, (P. Soave Pol.) 1st del. Cone, di Trento. Londr. 1619. f. & often. Hist. Cone. Tridentini, Lond. 1620. Lps. 1690. 2 vols. 4. & often. Uebers. v. Rambach, Hal. 1761ss. 6 vols. v. Winterer, Hergenth. 1839. 4 vols. Pallavicini, 1st del Cone, di Tr. Eom. 1646. 2 vols. f Mendrisio. 1836ss. 10 vols. lat redd. Giattino, Antu. 1670. 3 vols. f. & often. Uebers. v. Slitsche, Augsb. 1836. 8 vols. Bossuet, Hist des variations des Egl. prot Par. 1688. 2 vols. 4 & often. 1734. 4 vols. L. Maimbmtrg, Hist du Lutheranisme. Par. 1680. 4 & often. K. Eiffel, KGesch. d. neuesten Zeit Mainz. (1841ss.) 1844-7. 3 vols. V. L. de Seckendorf, Cmtr. hist et apol. de Lutheranismo. Frcf. et L. (1688. 4) 1692. f. Uebers. n. vrm. v. Friok, Lps. 1714. 4. Ausz. u. Forts, v. Junius, Frkf. u. L. 1755. 4 vols. vrb. v. lioos. Tub. 1788. 2 vols. Tented, hist. Ver. v. d. Eef. z. Erl. Seckend. ed. by Cyprian, Lps. 1718. 2 vols. C. A. Salig, Gesch. d. A. Conf (1517-62.) Hal. 1730S& 3 vols. 4 C. J. Planck, Gesch. d. Enst Verand. u. Bild. uns. prot Lehrbgr. b. z. Con- cord. Lps. (1781ss. 3 vols.) 1791-1800. 7 vols. Woltmann, Gesch. d. Eef. in Deutschl. Alt (ISOlss.) 1817. 3 vols. Marheineke, Gesch. d. teutsch. Eef. b. 1555. (1817. 2 vols.) 1831ss. 4 vols. C. A. Men* zd, Eef. Gesch. (Neuere Gesch. d. Deutschl. 12 vols.) Brsl. 1826. 8 vols. L. Kanke, deutsche Gesch. im 360 MODERN CHURCH BISTORT. PER. V. A. D. 1517-1643. Zeita. d. Eef. Berl. 1839-43. 8 ed. 1852. 5 vols. & 1 cd. 6 vols. Source* : [Hist of the Ecf. in Germ transl. by Mrs. Austin, 2 vols. 8. Lond. 1845.] K. ffagen, Deutschl. lit u. rel. Verb, iin Eef. Zeits. Erl. 1841-44 8 vote. (2 & 8 vola. : Geist d. Ref. u. s. Gegensatze.) J. G. Muller, Denkw. a. d. Gosch, d. Ecf. (Reliq. alter ZeiL voL 8.) Lps. 1806. Eef. Almanacb, ed. by Keyaer, Erf. 1S1T. 1818. 1820. 1821. Rotermund, ern. Andenken d. Manner die fur u. gegen d. Ect Lutb. gcarbcitet habcn. Broin. 181S. 1 vol. C. O. Neudecker, Gesch. d. ev. Prot In DeutacbL d. a. unsre Tage. Lpz. 1844s. 2 vota. B. I. Writings of the Beforuiers $ 832. 846. V. Anaheim, Berner Chronlk till 1526. ed. by Slier- Iin & Wysa, Bern. lS25ss. voL Vs. // BuUinger't Ecf. Gosch. (till 1582.) ed. by ffottingerb Vdgell, Frauent ISSSss. 8 vols. Eef. Cbronik d. Kartbaus. Georg. ueber*. durcb K. Buxtorf, Bas. 1348. J. G. Fussli: Beytrr. z. ErL d. K. B, Hist d. Schwelzerl. ZQr. 174189. 5 vols. Epp. ab Ecc. Hclv. He- fonnator. vel ad eos scr. Tig. 1742. J. J. Simler, SraL alt. u. neu. Urk. ZQr. 175788. 6 vols. II. Jfaim- bourg, Hist da Calvinlsme. Par. 1632. Jfeiyfe, Critique gn. de I'll, da Calv. Eott 1CS4. 2 vols. 12. A Lettrcs de 1'autcur de la Critique K. 1685. J. Damage, Hist do la ReL des egl. ruformecs. (Eot 1690. 2 vols. 12.) Haye 1725. 2 vols. 4, J. J. Uottlngtr, holv. KOesch. Zttr. IWSss. 4 vols. 4. A. Ruchat, II. de la R&t de la Sulsse. (Gen. 1727*. 6 Tola. 12.) Nyon. 1S85-8. 7 vols. J. de teausolr*, Hist de la reC (till 1580.) Ber. 1785. 8 vola, L, Win A, Jf. Kirchhofer, neuero bclv. KGescb. ZQr. 1818-19. 2 vola. A. Sculteti Ann. Ev. rcnovaiL Hdlb. 161S. Gerdet: Introd. in Hist Ev. renovati. (1516-86.) Gron. 1744ss. 4 Th. 4. Scrinium & Miaoell. d Ref. speot Gron. 174Saa. 8 Th. 4. K. R. Ilagenback, Vorless. Q. Wesen u. Gesch. d. RC Lpa. (1884 3 rols.) 1851. J. //. Merle cTAubignt, Hist de la r6f. (L 16 siccle. Par. 1885s. 4 vols. [Hilt of the Ret of the IClh cent by J. II. Merle D'Aublgne, transl. by H. White. Edinb. & New York. 1847-1858. 4 vols. 12. //. Stubbing, Hist of the Ref. 2 vols. 12. Lond 1S36. G. Waddlngton, Hist of Ref. on the Continent 8 vols. a Lond. 1841.] C. de ViUers, Essal sur I'esprit et Hnflucnce de la r6f. de Lath. Par. 1802. ed. 5. 1S51. [Essay on the Ref. of Luther by Villers, tnnsL by & Miller, 1 vol. 12. Phil. 1888.] N. ) Jurgens voL III. p. 463ss. c) Dispute Dr. M. Lather! pro declarat. virtutis indulgentiar. Printed in Loscher vol. I. p. 4SSsa. Walch vol. XVIII. p. 254ss. Comp. Walch voL XVII. p. 170& a) Loscher voL I. p. 484. Wimpina in favor of Tetzel. b) bial. in presumptuosas Luth. conclusiones de potestate Papae. (Loscher vol. II. p. llss.) c) Eesp. ad Prier. (Loscher vol. II. p. 8S9ss.) 364 MODERN CHURCH HISTORY. PER. V. A. D. 1517-1643. But in spite of all their endeavors, his well-tempered discourses and writings convinced the people that what he had taught them respecting repentance and the abuses of indulgences was true, (d) His theses flew with astonishing celerity into every part of Germany, and were commended by many honest and learned persons, but the silence or the displeasure of the prelates lay heavily upon him, and he became alarmed at the consequences of what he feared might be his own rashness. But in the midst of all his internal and external conflicts, the conviction became more and more settle.d in his mind that he was contending not for his own cause, but for that of Christ, and that while he was at peace with his beloved Redeemer, he had nothing to hope for or to fear from the world. () He himself had sent a copy and a defence of his theses to pope Leo X., (/) accompanied with a letter in which he expresses a firm consciousness of possessing the truth, but unconditionally submits his per- son to his superiors, (g) He was summoned (Aug. 7,1518) to appear at Home, but the Elector of Saxony obtained a concession that he should be examined in a paternal manner at Augsburg by Thomas de Vio, of Gaeta, the cardinal legate. Luther appeared (Oct. 1518), under the safe conduct of the emperor and the city of Augsburg. Cajetanus, a learned scholastic of severe man- ners, expected to refute Luther's propositions respecting indulgences by sen- tences from St. Thomas and the Decretals, but frightened at this Ger- man beast with piercing eyes and strange speculations in its head, he soon bade him go away and never return until sent for. Luther privately de- parted on the 20th Oct., having entered an appeal to the pope when better informed. As, however, he soon after became more and more satisfied that he could expect no justice from a court of Borne, and when a Bull had been issued which solemnly confirmed the controverted doctrine of indulgences, he changed this appeal and directed it to a General Council, (h) 811. Amicable Negotiations. In the letter which Cajetan sent to the elector, he demanded that Luther should be sent to Rome, or at least into banishment. Luther justified his con- duct before his sovereign (at Augsburg) by pleading that it was his duty to yield only to the truth, entreated that his master would not act towards him the part of a Pilate, and declared that he was ready to wander forth into exile, (a) But Frederic the Wise was personally a friend of the people, and as a prince, was distinguished for his caution and his piety toward the Church. (J) Though he had once gone on a pilgrimage to the holy sepulchre, and expended much money in the purchase of sacred reliques, he now prohibited the preaching of indulgences within his dominions. He became conscious of an increasing attachment to the evangelical principles maintained in the writings of Lu- d) Sermon v. Ablass. u. Gnade. Nov. 1517. (Ldachtr voL L p. 468ss.) e) Walch voL XIV. p. 470. De Wetto vol. L p. 118. /) Resolutions disput de virt indulgg. (Loscher voL IL p. 183sa.) 0) De Wette vol. L p. 119. h) Augsb. Acta in Ltecher vol. II. p. 436. Walch. voL XV. p. 544ss. De W) Raynald. ad a. 1521. N. Iss. Walch vol. XV. p. 2030. c) Spal. hist Nachlass. u. Briefe, ed. begun by Neudecktr and L. Preller, 1. vol. Jena. 1351. ( 311. n. &.) Wagner, G. Spal. Altenb. 1830. Perthel, G, Sp, in .emend, sacrr. merita, Jena. 1S40. a) Eanke vol. I. p. 876s. 372 MODERN CHUECH HISTOEY. PEE. V. A. D. 1517-1648. avowal that he could yield to nothing but the Holy Scriptures or to reason- able argument, and since the cause in which he was engaged was not his own, but the cause of God, he could not commit it to the hands even of his dearest friends. (&) The promise of the emperor to afford him a safe conduct was sacredly fulfilled. On the 26th of May, when many of the states had left the diet, sentence was pronounced against Luther and all his adherents, and permission was given to any one to assault their persons and seize upon their property, (e) But Luther's heroic confession had won the hearts of the people more than ever to himself, and the very members of the diet who condemned him in compliance with the requirements of law, presented to the same assembly 101 articles of complaint against the Roman See. () On Christmas day the Lord's Supper was administered by Carhtadt in both kinds and in the German language. These proceedings were approved by Luther and tolerated by the elector, who only required that no innovations should be introduced until all had become united and satisfied with respect to them by means of written and oral discussions and sermons, (c) But when Carlstadt proceeded so far as to disturb public worship, demolish the images of the saints, and commit other wild acts of violence, and when prophets came from Zwickau with menaces according to their caprice against Church, and State, and Science, Luther could no longer be restrained by his friends. In the beginning of March, 1522, he left the Wartburg, amused himself in the course of his journey with his knightly incognito, (d) and in the sublime Z>) nier. Vehut, u. a. Verhandl. m. Luther, ed. bj Seidemann. (Zeitsch. t hist Th. lS5i. n. 1.) c) Goldatt, Constt Imp. voL IL p. 148ss. Walch vol. XV. p. 2264s. Dated back to May S. d) Walch voL XV. p. 2068. a) De Wette voL II. p. 112ss. Walch vol. XIX. p. 65Css. 1) J. O. Walter, prirna gloria Clerogamlae rcatitutae Lutbero vindicate Neost ad. O. 1767. 4 Veesenmeyer in Stud. u. Krit 1S31. II. \ c) Corp. Rtf. vol. L p. WO. d) Helv. Alman. 1808. p. 119ss. Bernet, Jo. Kessler, gcnannt Ahenarlus. S. OalL 1326. p. 27s* CHAP. L EEFOEMATION. 820. MEL. LOCI. LUTH. BIBLE. 373 calmness of one who felt that he was acting by divine direction, () 321. The Diet at Nuremberg, 1522, 1523. WalcJi vol. XV. p. 2504ss. Jiaynald. ad ann. 1522. The emperor was busy in Spain with his war against France, his brother, the Archduke Ferdinand, was threatened by the Turks, and at the head of the empire stood a regency chosen by the states. The execution of the edict, of "Worms was therefore left to the will of each state. Leo was succeeded by Hadrian VL, an honest native of the Netherlands, who had been edu- cated in the scholastic manner, and was as thoroughly convinced of the ne- e) De Wette vol. IL p. ISTss. /) Walch vol. XX. p. 6ss. a) Loci communes rerum theoL Wit. 1521. and often. Strobel, Vrs. e. Llteraturgesch. von Mel. Loci. Altd. u. Nurnb. (1776.) 1782. 6) Last edit, with Luther's corrections, 1546. Luth. Sendbr. v. Dollmetschen der n. 8. ( Walch vol. XXI. p. 816ss.) Matlmius, 13th Fred. Panzer, Gesch. d. Bibelubers. L. Nurnb. (1788.) 1791. Marheineke, d. rel. Worth d. Bibelubers. L. Brl. 1815. JT. Schott, Gesch. d. Bibelubers. L. Lps. 1835. G. W. Ilopf, Wurdlg. d. Luth. Bibelverdeutsch. Nurnb. 1817. 374 MODERN cnuEcn HISTORY. PER. v. A. D. 1517-1649. cessity of a reformation as of the heretical nature of Luther's doctrines, (a) Hence his legate Chieregati, at the Diet of Nuremberg, on the one hand do manded that the edict against Luther should he executed as though it were against a second Mohammed, and suggested that the insurrection now directed against the spiritual, would soon be turned against the civil rulers ; and on the other, acknowledged the necessity of a reformation, and promised that it shopld be effected in a lawful manner in the head and members of the Church. The estates fastened upon the second part of this communica- tion, and hastened to bring forward a hundred articles of complaint against the papal see. (&) It was owing to these abuses they declared that Luther possessed such power, and a general rebellion would therefore be the probable consequence of any violent measures for his destruction . They therefore urged that a free Christian council for the removal of these grievances should be held within a year in some German city, and argued that until it might be assembled nothing should be taught but the pure gospel, with mildness and according to the explanation generally received by the Church. Hadrian had nothing to offer at this turn of affairs except lamentations, yet he was really zealous for a reformation, and actually commenced it in his own court. But a pope who was obliged to regard the rights and wrongs on which his own power was based, was necessarily more inefficient in this matter than a professor who had nothing to think of but eternal truth and public opinion. 322. Introduction of the Reformation. The divine power which attended Luther received the co-operation of the Humanists with all their worldly wisdom, and the Reformation was looked upon as a struggle for the liberty of Germany. Its opponents were ridiculed as blockheads or threatened as traitors. Even the imitative arts came to the assistance of the struggling Church, (a) The Wittenberg Nightingale also now announced the opening of spring, (&) and all the liberal-minded youth gave in their adherence to the new party, which, however, professed to be merely returning to the God of ancient times, (c) From the success of the movement the princes expected the forfeited property of the Church, the priests expected wives, and the people freedom, (d) It was, however, the pure enthusiasm of Luther and the introduction of a new form of the Chris- tian spirit, which drew these favorable influences into his triumphal march, o) J. F. Euddeits, do Pontiff R. qui ret frustra tentarunt Jen. 1718. 4. p. 29s?. C. Burmann, Hadr. VI. Traj. ad Rh. 1727. 4. J. T. L. Danz, Analects criL de Adr. VI. Jen. 1818s. 2 P. 4. 6) Die 100 Beschwerden d. Deutachen Nation, m. Anm, v. G. M. Weber, Frkf. 1829. cornp. JKanke vol. II. p. 40ss. a) Walch vol. XIV. p. 21098. voL XV. p. 930ss. German Litany : Watch vol. XV. p. 2175ss. Caricatures: Sleid.l. XVL p. 261. PaUavic. I, 25. Spieker, p. 657. Carnival plays: De Wetl vol. I. p. 561. Mute comedy : Majus, Vita ReuchL Durl. 1687. p. 546s. Papal ass and Munich calf: Walch voL XIX. p. 2403. J. Voifft, Pasquille, Spottlieder, u. SchmSbsehr. a. d. 1. Ilalfte d. 16. Jahrh. (Raumer's hist. Taschenbucb, 1838. p. 820ss.) Piper, MythoL d. chr. Kunst vol. L p. 816s. 6) Hans SacJis : Wittenb. Nachtigall. 1523. Dispntacion zw. e. Chorherrn u. e. Schuhacher *524. 4.K J. Kimmel, de J. Sachsio, quantum ad rempubl. chriat valuerit restaurandam. Gel 1837. c) Vom alten n. nuen Gott, Glauben u. Ler. 1521. 4. d) J. Marx, Ursachen d. schnellen Yerbreit. d. Rcf. Mainz. 1834, CHAP. I. EEFOEMATION. 322. SAXONY. HESSE. 375 and which was alone able to shake the yet colossal power of Catholicism, withont exhausting in the struggle the strength to form a new ecclesiastical establishment. The introduction of the Eeformation in particular localities generally took place in the following manner : some individuals in the con- gregation, by means of Luther's writings, were led to perceive the inconsis- tency of the existing state of the Church with genuine Christianity ; then some preacher, probably an Augustinian, possibly a Franciscan monk of the same views, would draw the multitude after him ; then the sacrifice of the mass would be discontinued in spite of much opposition from the spiritual or the secular authorities, and finally, divine worship in the language of the people would be commenced, with a strange confusion, at first, of various usages. The people were seized with a horror of the papacy, and in almost every place where the popular will prevailed, as in the imperial cities, the Reformation was triumphant. Instead of guiding these great popular move- ments, the princes were rather borne along by them. Frederic the Wise died (May 5, 1525) trusting to the grace of God through the righteousness of Christ. His brother and successor, John the Constant, a mild and sincere ruler, was devoted with all his heart both to the cause and to the person of Luther. Philip, the youthful Landgrave of Hesse, after the Diet of Worms, joined the party of the Eeformation, became a personal friend of Melanc- thon, and declared (1525) that he would rather part with his lands and sub- jects than to abandon the word of God. As a leader of his party he was Crafty but at the same time upright, fond of novelties, a pious Christian, and a firm friend of the Bible, but either independent of the theologians, or with a singular scrupulosity bringing them to his terms, full of confidence not only in divine aid, but in the worldly means by which a spiritual revolution was to be effected, intelligent, and in his best days powerful, (e) In Prussia, where the German order was already despised, the gospel entered under the most favorable circumstances. George of Polentz, Bishop of Samland, hav- ing conducted himself at an earlier period of life as became a pious priest of noble blood, now placed himself at the head of the reforming party, and on Christmas day, 1523, in the cathedral at Konigsberg, proclaimed with great joy that the Saviour had been once more born for his. people. The Grand Master, Albert of Brandenburg, gave to all princes and bishops the example of a successful secession from the Church and the empire, by receiving the hereditary dukedom of Prussia as a fief from the Polish crown (1525). (/) In the South, the Dukes of Bavaria, in consequence of the spirit which prevailed in their university at Ingolstadt, and the favor of the pope, enjoyed nearly all the political advantages of the Eeformation, and formed a wall of defence for the old faith, (g) In the North, George, Duke of Saxony, was personally <0 Gli. 0. Rommel, Philipp. d. Grossm. Giesscn. 1S30. 8 vols. Neue Beitrr. i. Gesch. Phil. ed. by Duller, Darmst 1842. W. Mimscher, Gesch. d. hess. ref. K. Cass. 1850. F. W. ITassenkamp, hess. KGesch. im Zeita. d. Eef. Marb. 1852. vol. I. Comp. Theol. Brio.fwechsel zw. Phil. v. H. u. Georg v. Sachsen. (Zeitseh. f. hist. Th. 1849. II. 2.) /) Condones sncrae G. Polentis, ed. A. R. Gebser, Eegiom. 1843. 4. J. Voigt, Briefw. d. be ruhmt. Gelehrten m. Albrecht v. Pr. KSnigsb. 1841. Rhesa, de prirais sacror. reformatoribus in Prussia. Eegiom. 2 P. 1825 et 182T. A. Lambeck, Gesch. d. Eef. in Westpr. Thorn. 1850. 17) V. A. Winter, Gesch. d. ev. Lehre in u. durch Baiern. Munch. 1809s. 2 vols. 376 MODERN CHURCH HISTORY. PER. V. A. D. 1517-1648. anxious for a reformation, but one which should be founded upon old catho- lic grounds, and conducted by the legitimate authorities, and not by a clois- tered monk, (h) The complete accomplishment of the Reformation some- times occasioned much inconvenience to those who adhered to the ancient Church, and such as resided in convents especially were driven forth upon the wide world ; but in general the Reformation necessarily triumphed by the power of an unbiassed conviction. The Catholic Church, on the other hand, protected all its established possessions not only by calumnies upon Luther's doctrines, but by a rigorous censorship, by restraints upon literary investigations, imprisonment, banishment, and other violent measures. Some were even deprived of life. Luther praised the Lord that even this glory of the apostolic Church was now restored to the world. (/) 323. Commencement of the Division in Germany, 1524-1526. Clement VII. perceived the impending danger and made every exertion to avert it. At the Diet of Nuremberg (1524) his legate, Campeggio, de- clared that the list of grievances which had been presented was regarded at Rome as the work of a few evil-minded persons, but the utmost that he could obtain was the promise that the edict of Worms should be executed as far as was practicable for each state of the empire. It was at the same time decided that the empire itself would soon after at a diet appointed at Speyor (Spire) undertake the regulation of ecclesiastical affairs, (a) The legate also succeeded in forming at Ratisbon an alliance between Ferdinand of Austria, the Dukes of Bavaria and most of the bishops in the south of Germany, by the terms of which an apparent reformation was accepted of under his sanction, and they agreed not only to abolish some of the grossest ecclesias- tical abuses, but, by a decree of July 6th, 1524, to exclude the Wittenberg innovations from their respective countries, and sustain each other in every danger which might result from such a course. (&) The emperor wrote letters threatening all who would not execute the edict of Worms, and forbade the assembly at Speyer. At a diet held at Dessau (June 26, 1525), the opponents of the Reformation among the princes of Northern Germany also consulted about the attitude which they could most properly assume in opposition to the Lutheran heresy, but the extent of the danger from this meeting was much exaggerated, (c) In consequence of these proceedings the Landgrave of Hesse and the Elector of Saxony met together at Gotha and pledged them- selves to assist each other with all their power against every assault on ac- count of the word of God. The original document was ratified at Torgau, h) A. M. Schultze, Georg u. Luth. Lps. 1834. L. Fischer, H. Georg, Luth. u. d. verjagten Lelp- siger. Lpe. 1839. Seidemann, ) Contra Henr. Eegem Martinus Luth. 1522. Walch, vol. XIX. p. 295. c) De Wette, vol. III. p. 23ss, Walch, vol. XIX. p. 468ss. ) Rommel, vol. III. Abth. I. p. 282ss. RanJce, vol. II. p. Slss. Hist pol. El. 1S39. vol. IV H. 9-12. V) Wachsmutk, Aufstande u. Kriege d. B. im MA. (Kaumers hist Taschenb. 1S34.) 378 MODERN CHURCH HISTORY. PER. Y. A. D. 1517-1648. standing of some sermons on Christian liberty and the powerful popular movements connected with the Reformation, to rise in open rebellion against the secular and spiritual nobility, that they might secure their rights as Chris- tians and as men. This took place, too, at a time in which an evangelical preacher condemned not only all loans upon interest, and the possession of wealth, but the owning of any permanent property as inconsistent with Chris- tianity and the word of God. (c) Its first appearance was in Suabia (1524), but soon extended to Franconia, and along the Ehino to Thuringen (1525). These peasants in justification of their course appealed to their 12 Articles, (e Wette vol. I. p. 89ss. p. 52. vol. II. p. 49s. Vol. I. p. 247ss. V) Spalatin, Ann. p. 28s. Seckend. Additt. 1. 1. p. lllss. c) Erasmi Epp. (ed. Cleric.) XIII, 80. Burigny voL I. p. 386ss. d) Corp. Ref. vol. I. p. 688. 692. e) Erasmi Epp. XVIII, 23. Corp. Ref. vol. I. p. 674 Ulrici ab ffutten Expostulatio cum Eras- mo. Argent 1522. De Wette vol. II. p. 489. Unschuld. Nachr. 1725. p. 545. /) Eraom. de libero arbitrio Diatr. 1524. Walch vol. XVIII. p. 1962. p) Luth. de servo arbitrio ad Erasm. 1525. Walch vol. XVIII. p. 2050. 7i) Hyperaspistes Diatr. adv. servum arb. Luth. P. II. 1526s. (Opp. vol. X. p. 1249. 1835.) Epp. XXI, 28. i) De Wette vol. III. p. 427. vol. IV. p. 497. Walch vol. XXII. p. 1612ss. 380 MODERN CHURCH HISTORY. PEE. Y. A. IX 1517-1648. 327. Cither's Domestic Life and his Colleagues. Luther remained longer than any of hia companions with the prior of the deserted monastery, and did not lay aside his monk's habit until some time in Dec. 1524. His marriage with Catharine von Bora (June 13, 1535), a nun belonging to the disbanded Cistercian convent of Nimptsch, was neither the result of an ardent passion, nor a part of his policy as a reformer, but it be- longed rather to his private life, and in view of the disturbed state of the times was entered upon with some hesitation, but with little consultation. It proceeded from a general inclination, encouraged by the wishes of the parents, for the happiness of domestic life, the joys and the sorrows of which he after- wards experienced, (a) Indeed about this time he was frequently oppressed by sickness, and prepared for a sudden death by reports of conspiracies against his life, but as a general thing he sat very pleasantly in the circle of his friends, enjoying with a keen relish not only the holier and higher pleasures of religion, bat the innocent amusements of music, song, and many a bold jest. (5) His extreme kindness and honesty of heart fitted him to be the comforter and assistant of all who were distressed. His moderate circum- stances were precisely such as his disposition and position rendered suitable, (e) Staupitz, who was in 1519 in the service of the Cardinal of Salzburg, and in 1522 Abbot of the Benedictines (d. 1524), about 1521 withdrew himself from Luther, being alarmed at the storm raised around the reformer. Luther looked upon Staupitz as cold and pusillanimous, but the man who first kin- dled in his bosom a love for the gospel was never forgotten, (d) His colleagues faithfully assisted him in his labors : Nicolas of Amsdorf (d. at Eisenach, 1565), who adhered to Luther's words with Luther's own vehemence ; (e) Justus Jonas (d. at Eissfeld, 1555), who had been a jurist, and was therefore appointed provost of the Castle Church at Wittenberg, an eloquent and skilful man, (f) and the gentle Bugenhagen (d. at Wittenberg, 1558), who, in spite of his Pomeranian dialect and prolixity, was in the highest degree dig- nified, adapted to govern a church, disinterested, and a comforter to Luther in evil times, but entirely under his influence, (g) These were all frequently engaged in various ways in ecclesiastical affairs beyond the limits of Saxony, and were scattered in the time of the German war. Carlstadt for a long time persevered in advocating a destructive process as the only proper method of reform, and was anxious to introduce into ecclesiastical and civil affairs an a) De Wctte vol IL p. 646. voL IIL p. Iss. lOss. yet p. 21. Corp. Itef. voL I. p. 754s. Walcb voL XXIV. p. 132ss. 82688. Vewenmayer, iL gleichzelt Schrr. gegen L. Yerheir. (KHist Arch. 1825. voL IIL P. 2.) F. Walch, Catfa. v. B. HaL 175161 2 vols. W. BesU, Gescb. C. v. B. HaL 1843. F. G. Hofmann, K. v. B. 1845. &) iMth. Tischreden, (Memoirs of his friends,) collected by Aurifaber. Eisl. 1566. f. & frequently in zwei Redaction s. Walch voL XXIL cd. by Forstemann & BindsciL Lps. 1844-8. [Luther's Ta- ble-Talk, Lond. 12mo. & with Life by Surkhardt, Lond. 8vo.] Mictielet, MSmoires de L. 6crits pai lui-meme. Par. 1835. 4 vote. c) PaUavic. IY, 14. 12. De Wetto vol. IIL p. 495s. voL V. p. 76T. Walch vol XXL p. 270. vol XXIY. p. 57s. 198SS. Goto do paupertato L. Lub. 1719. 4 Ukert vol. L p. 847ss. d) 308. nt &. e) O. Bergner, de Nic. d. Amsd. Magd. 171Sss. 2 Pgg. 4. /) Knapp, Narr. de Jnsto Jona. HaL 1817. g} Ziete, J. Bugenh. Lps. 1829. Kraft, de J. Bug. in res ec-3. meritis. Ilmo. 183t 4 CHAP. I. KEFOEMATIOK 328. PROTESTATION. 381 unconditional adherence to the obvious and literal construction of the Scrip- tures. By such a course he necessarily came into collision with the Reforma- tion, and approached very near the brink of spiritual apostasy, but at last he found peace and moderation for his agitated spirit in Switzerland (d. at Basle, 1541). (7i) "With the jurists also Luther had some misunderstanding for a while, on account of his burning of the canon law. But as he could not pre- vent others from studying it, and finally commenced the study of it himself, (i) we find that even at "Worms Dr. Scfairf came forward as his faithful advo- cate. 328. Religious Liberty and the Protestation. The emperor finally succeeded in destroying the French army near Pavia, and in taking their king a prisoner. The latter at the peace of Madrid (Jan. 14, 1526) purchased his liberty, though on difficult terms, which he never intended to fulfil. Clement VII. soon after absolved him from his oath, and became the prime mover of a confederacy against the exorbitant power of the emperor. This, made the emperor willing to suspend the execution of the edict of "Worms, but his brother in Germany was reluctant at such a time to embitter the feelings of the members of the Catholic league by such a step, and ac- cordingly the diet at Speyer (Aug., 1526) was unanimous in the decree, that until the meeting qf a general council, every state should act with respect to the edict of "Worms as it might venture to answer to God and his imperial majesty, (a) The vile notification by Otho von Pack, that the Catholic princes had combined together for the overthrow of the Protestant powers (1528), was the occasion not only of bringing out the warlike spirit of Hesse and of Electoral Saxony, but of showing how far the peace of Germany itself was endangered by the controversies with respect to religion. (5) The army of the emperor, urged on by the zeal of the Lutheran foot soldiers, stormed and plundered the city of Rome (May 6, 1527). After many vicissitudes in the fortune of the war, the sovereignty of Italy was secured to Charles in the spring of 1529, and the pope himself acquiesced in the arrangement. Charles V., however, was obliged to pay some deference to the feelings of his Catho- lic subjects in his hereditary dominions. A Catholic majority was therefore obtained at the Diet of Speyer, which enacted that the edict of Worms should continue to be enforced in those states which had hitherto acknowl- edged its authority, but that no innovations should be required in the remain- ing provinces, that none should be obstructed in celebrating the mass, and that the privileges of every spiritual estate should be respected. Against this Recess of the imperial diet, by which the Reformation would have been condemned by its own friends to a fatal stagnation, Electoral Saxony, Hesse. Luneburg, Anhalt, the Margrave of Brandenburg, and fourteen imperiaj cities, presented a Protestation (April 19, 1529) and an appeal (April 25) 7t) Fussli, Lebensgesch. A. Bodenst. v. Karlst Frkf. u. L. 1776. M. Gobel, A. B. v. Karlst (Stud. u. Krit 1841. P. 1.) i) De Wette vol. III. p. 433. a) The orig. documents in Bucholte, Ferd. I. -vol. III. p. STlss. Walch vol. XVL p. 243sa Rarike vol. II. p. 278ss. I) HorUeder vol. I. Book II. Ranke vol. III. p. 29ss. 382 MODERN CHUECH HISTORY. PER. V. A. D. 1517-1648. to the emperor, to a general or German council, and to all impartial Chris- tian judges, not only on the ground of the prior and clear decision at Speyer, but on the principle that in matters which relate to the honor of God and the salvation of souls, the authority of a majority was not to be regarded. This was done not only in behalf of themselves, but also of their people, and of all who then or afterwards might believe in the word of God. (c) 329. Synod of Uombery, 1526. Saxon Church Visitation, 1527-1529. The Reformation had been introduced in various forms according to the circumstances of the different places where it prevailed. The jurisdiction of the bishops had been in fact abolished, and yet no other government had been substituted for it. A synod was therefore convened by the Landgrave at Homberg, composed of all who could be considered according to the old or the new views the proper representatives of the Church in Hesse. Monks and prelates were silent under the glowing eloquence of the exiled Minorite, Lamlert of Avignon (d. 1530), and a synodal constitution based upon demo- cratic principles was adopted, according to which every congregation was competent to the whole duty of ecclesiastical discipline, (a) The Elector of Saxony, on the urgent solicitation of the pastors in his dominions that ho would take up the same subject for their churches, appointed ecclesiastical and lay commissioners, who formed a directory for divine worship and popu- lar instruction on the basis of Melancthon's Book of Visitation, (&) the first Confession of the evangelical faith. This had the effect of harmonizing tho practice of all the churches, evangelical preachers were appointed by these commissioners in all places, and arrangements were made with those who possessed the titles to spiritual endowments by which these were abolished. Superintendents wore appointed to exercise ecclesiastical supervision, and decide cases relating to marriage, (c) The ignorance of the people and of their teachers which Luther discovered during this visitation affected him very deeply, and reflecting that intellectual freedom can be endured only by ail intelligent people, and that children are the true sovereigns of the future, he composed (1529) two Catechisms, in which divine mysteries are presented in simple popular language, and in a form suitable for children, (d) The eccle- siastical Constitution which was the result of this Saxon visitation, became the common model to which the other German churches in the country were conformed. c) J. J. MuUer, Hist v. d. ev. Stande ProL u. App. Jena. 1705. 4. J.A.IT. Tittmann, d. Prot. d. ev. Stande m. hist. Erlaut Lps. 1S29. A. Jung, Gesch. d. Eeichst. zu Sp. 1529. (Bettor, z. Gesch. d. Ref. 1830. vol. I. Abth. 1.) For the orig. documents there quoted: Corp. Ref. vol. I. p. 1067s. a) Eef. EccL Hassiae. (Sehminke, Monn. Hass. Th. IL p. 598.) Lamb. Ep. ad Colon, ed. Draud, Siess. 1730. 4. Martin, Nachr. v. d. Syn. zn Homb. Cass. 1804. Rommel vol. III. Abth. I. p. 329ss. Bach, Gesch. d. Kurhess. KVerC Marb. 1832. J. W. Baum, Fr. Lamb. Strasb. 1840. P/iilipp's Hess. KRe Ordnung, ed. by K. A. Credner, Giess. 1S52. 6) Unterricht d. Visitatoren an die Pfarh. (LaL 1527.) M. Luth. Yorr. Yuitt 1528, 4. edit, in Latin & German by Strobel, Altd. 177T. c) Kapp, Nachlese. roL L p. 173ss. Rosenberg, /. d. ersten Kirchenvis. BrsL 1754. 4. d) Walch vol. X. p. 2ss. Augusti, hist krit EinL in beide Hnpt-Kt Elbrt 1824. moria utr. Cat Luth, Lps. 182888. 4 P. 4 CHAP. I. EEFOEMATION. 830. DIET OF AUGSBUEG. 383 330. The Diet of Augsburg, 1530. I. Pro rel. chr. res gestao in coraitiis Aug. a. 1530. (Cyprian, Hist p. 87ss.) On the other side: Bruck, Gesch. d. religionshandl. za Augsb. (Forstemann, Archiv. Hal. 1831. vol. I. P. 1.) A report which was presented at Augsb. 1530, contributed by Moeller. (Stud. a. Krit 1850. H. 3. before in Luth. Werke by Walch vol. XVI. p. 873. 912ss. as if from Spalatin, comp. Gieseler, Stud. u. Krit. 1851. II. 2. Walch vol. XVI. p. 734es. Forstemann, Urkundenbuch z. Gesch. d. Eeichst. zu A. Hal. 1833-5. 2 vols. Corp. Bef. vol. II. p. 50ss. Chytraeus, II. d. A. C. Eost. 1576. 4. Lat. Frcf. 157S. 4. and often. Coelestini Hist. Comitior. Aug. celebr. Frcf. ad V. (1577.) 1597. Veesenmayer, kl. Eeitrr. z. Gesch. d. K. zu A. Numb. 1830. 16. II. Cyprian, Hist d. A. C. Goth. (1730.) 1736. Itotermund, Gesch. d. zu A. iiberg. Bekenntn. Hann. 1829. M. Facius, Gesch. d. Eeichst zn A. Lpz. 1830. Fikenscher, Gesch. d. Eeichst zu A. Nurnb. 1830. C. Pfaff, Gesch. d. Eeichst zu A. Stuttg. 1830. G. G. Weber, Gesch. d. A. C. Frkf. 1783s. 2 vols. A peace had been concluded by the victorious Charles V. with France and Rome. In the spring of the year 1530 he crossed the Alps, resolved either to lead back to the Church those who had wandered from it, or to avenge the ignominy heaped upon Christ. At his request the protesting states drew up a statement of their faith and of the abuses discarded by them. This Confession, composed by Melancthon, approved by Luther, and signed by the States, presented the ultimate points to which they could go in the way of concession for the sake of peace. On the 25th of June, it was read in German by the Chancellor of Saxony before the Diet at Augsburg, and afterwards committed to the hands of the emperor in Latin and German. As the object of this paper was religious, practical and political, the peculiar development of Protestantism is not made so prominent in it as the points in which that system agreed with the ancient Catholic faith, and the opposi- tion to abuses which were generally acknowledged by all intelligent persons of that period. A few of the prelates avowed themselves ready to dip their pens in their own blood to answer it, but some of the princes and lords were brought by it to perceive that they had hitherto been incorrectly informed respecting the new doctrine, and the Protestants themselves attained by it an established centre for their own unity. By the command of the emperor, a Confutation was composed by Eck, Faber, Cochlaeus, and "Wimpina, and read (Aug. 3) in the diet, but it was so pitiful an affair that it only raised the courage of the Protestants. On the 22d of Sept., however, when the States presented their Apology, the emperor refused to receive it, and had a decree passed which asserted that the Confession was opposed to the unquestionable principles of the Sacred Scriptures. Melancthon, offended at such abuse, .once more revised his Apology, and published it even during the session of the diet as an appeal to the age in which he lived, as well as to subsequent times. The recess of the diet, passed Nov. 19th, threatened after a brief pe- riod of indulgence utterly to exterminate the new sect. The protesting princes, esteeming the favor of Christ far more than the displeasure of the emperor, after presenting their Protest, took their leave of the city. 331. League of Smallcald and Peace of Nuremberg. The danger of the Protestants became evident at Augsburg. The impe- rial council, to which was committed the task of executing the recess of the diet, next commenced a legal process against the Protestant States for Lav- 384 MODEEN CHURCH HISTOKY. PER. V. A. D. 1517-1643. ing confiscated the property of the Church. "When, therefore, the divines of Wittenberg had acknowledged that the imperial states were justified as magistrates in protecting their subjects from unjust aggressions, (a) these Protestant powers assembled together at Smalkald on Christmas, 1680, and formed a well-organized league in 1531, for mutual defence by force of arras, embracing the princes and the most powerful cities of Upper and Lower Ger- many, with the Elector of Saxony and the Landgrave as the leaders of the confederacy, (i) All those who were dissatisfied with the imperial govern- ment, among whom was Bavaria itself on account of its displeasure at' the appointment of Ferdinand to be king of the Romans, placed themselves under the protection of this formidable power. As the Sultan Solyman was threatening to invade Germany, and especially Austria, the emperor was obliged to purchase internal peace and efficient aid against the Turks at any price. Even his confessor advised him to give up the vain fancy of saving men's souls, and content himself with winning back his obedient subjects. (<) A religious peace was therefore concluded at Nuremberg (July 23, 1532) (d) through the mediation of the Elector of Mentz and the Elector Palatine, by the terms of which both parties agreed to abstain from mutual hostilities until the meeting of a general council. This could be regarded only as an acknowledgment on the part of the Catholics that they were yet unprepared to become assailants, and on the part of the Protestants that they were re- strained by conscientious scruples. This peace embraced only those who had already professed adherence to the Confession of Augsburg. The emperor pledged himself that the suits in religious matters should in the mean time be suspended. II. ESTABLISHMENT OF THE REFOBMED CnuBon UNTIL 1531. J. v. Mailer's u. B. Glutz-Blotzhelm's Gcschcb. Bcbwelzer. Eidgen. (5 vols.) cont by J. J. Ilot- tinger, 6. 7. voL till 1581. ZOr. 1825-9. 332. Youth and Doctrine of Zwingle. L Opp. od. Gualther, (Tig. 645s.) 581. 4 vols. t M. Schvler et J. SchulUuats, Tig. 1828-42. 8 vols. (1st and 2<1 vols. the German, vols. 8-3. the Lat original, and the former In a Lat transl.) Ausz. v. L. Usterl & Vdgelin. Zur. 1319s. 2 vols. Selections from the pract Works (and translations in tbo Germ.) v. R. Chritto/el, Zur. 1848s. 8 vols. Oecolampadii et Zwlnglii Epp. 1. IV. Bas. (1536. f.) 1592. 4. Before this edition : Osic. Myconii Ep. de Vita et obitu Z. Respecting the Letters of Z. : Arch, t KGesch. 1815. vol. IIL 8t 8. II. (Nvuchder) Z. Lebensgescb. Zur. 1776. J. C. 11(9*, vie d'U. Z. Par. et Gen. Trans), into Germ, with obs. by L. Usteri, Zur. 1811. SnppL in Archiv. f. KG. 1818. vol. L St 2. II, 8. U. W. Kotermund, Lcbcn Z. nx Abriss d. schw. Kef. Brm. 1318. J. M. Schuler, Z. Gesch. sr. Bildung z. Reformator. Zur. 1819. Sal. Jlets, Ursprnng, Gang. u. Folgen d. durch Z. in Zur. bewirkten Rcf. Zur. 1S20. 4. J. J. ffotiinger, II. Z. n. s. Zeit. Zur. 1843. [Life of Zwingle, transl. from Germ, of J. H. Hess, by Lucy Aiken, 8vo. Lond. 1812. In Blackwood's Mag. for 1528. and Littell's Rcl. Mag. voL II. for 1S23. MlscelL of Tract Soc. voL 8. p. 289-820. Life of U. Z. and Sketch of Oecol. pnbl. by Pres. B. of PubL Philad. 18. E. Zetter has announced a work on the theoL system of Zwinglo.] Huldrich Zwingli, the son of the amman of Wildhaus (b. Jan. 1, 1484), a) Walch vol. X. p. 660ss. comp. 656. 1) Walch vol. XVL p. 2142SS. ffortleder vol. I. L VIII, Tss. c) Briefe an K. Karl V. v. & Bcichtr. Mltgeth. (from the Span. Imp. Archives, by O. ffeine, Brl. 1848. d) Watch vol. XVI. p. 2182s* Hortteder vol. 1. 1, 10. CHAP. I. EEFOEMATION. 832. ZWINGLE. 385 became versed in classical learning, and received a liberal theological edu- cation in the city of Basle. He was for some time no stranger to the pleasures 'of the world, and was especially skilful in playing upon the lute, but he gradually became (after 1513) deeply interested in the study of the original text of the New Testament, that he might learn the will of God from the divine word itself. After spending ten years as the pastor of a church in Glarus, he was appointed preacher in the convent of Einsiedlin (1516), where he took occasion, from the crowds which thronged as pilgrims to the miraculous image of Mary, to preach that prayer should be offered not to Mary, the pure handmaid of the Lord, but to Christ the only mediator. In consequence of his evangelical preaching he was invited to become a chaplain at Zurich, where on New Year's morning, 1519, his powers of popular eloquence were exerted in the cathedral itself in defence of the reformation both in Church and in common life. The Swiss Confederacy was in legal form still a mem- ber of the German empire, and at that time the recollection of those glori- ous deeds by which liberty had been restored to their mountains was by no means lost in the hearts of the people, but the honesty and unanimity of the olden times had already become much impaired by numerous enlistments of the people as mercenaries in the wars of foreign nations. As an earnest re- publican, Zwingle was zealously opposed to the oligarchy, to their annuities from foreign princes, and to their trade in Christian blood, (a) Conscious of their own independence, the people had set bounds to the exorbitant claims of the spiritual courts (p. 288). But the idle and warlike youth fought the battles of the pope for his money, and when this could not be obtained, Julius II. paid them with ecclesiastical gifts and preferments. In the fidelity of his Swiss guards the vicar of Christ found a security for his body against the fickle spirit of the Eoman people. From a papal nuncio residing at Zurich, Zwingle annually received fifty florins, with which he purchased books. Bernardin Samson, a Franciscan from Milan, opened a traffic in indulgences among the inhabitants of the Alps (1518). Zwingle preached against him, but the Bishop of Constance himself persuaded the city of Zurich to close its gates against him, and when complaint was made to the pope respecting the mischief caused by the traffic, Leo X. promised to call the trader to an account. Zwingle was acquainted with some of Luther's writings, but although very unlike that great reformer in religious profund- ity and genius, in consequence of his demand that every thing should be set aside which could not be proved from the Scriptures, he was induced by the independent study of those Scriptures much more suddenly and uncondition- ally to break loose from the ancient Church. (5) It was for this reason also, that although nothing was dearer to him than truth, many errors which had long been perceived, were not distinctly condemned, (c) His faith mounted upward in bold speculations, though it always returned to the path which an intelligent judgment approved, and which was favorable to spiritual im- provement. In opposition to a righteousness by mere external works, he a) Bullinger, Keformationsgesch. vol. I. p. 41 s. 4Ss. 51. b) Proofs in Nuscheler p. ISTss. Schuler, p. 119. 833. c) E. g. HoWnger, H. ecc. p. XVI. P. II. p. 207. < ' 25 386 MODERN CHUBCH HISTORY. PER. V. A. D. 1517-1 MS. also saw that justification was to be obtained entirely through the merits of Christ. But original sin was in his estimation a mere disease, the moral will was subject only to Providence, and he looked upon Hercules, Socrates, and the Catos, as belonging to the communion of the blessed, though they could be saved only through Christ, (d) 888. Introduction of the Reformation. Through jZwinglc's influence the great Council of Zurich gave orders that all preachers should confine themselves to what was contained in the divine Scriptures, but maintain silence with respect to non-essential innovations and institutions (1520). (a) For the sake of those who were opposed, and that the truth might be more publicly known, he determined to defend in the muni- cipal hall at Zurich sixty-seven propositions which he had formed against the whole external polity of the Catholic Church. When, however, he pub- licly announced them (Jan. 29, 1528), only a few objections wore presented by Fabcr of Constance. (6) In a second disputation (Oct. 26-28), a decision was given against the use of images and the sacrifice of the mass, (c) An easy victory was obtained for the Reformation when the principle was once adopted, that every thing must be proved by the Scriptures, interpreted only by the Scriptures themselves. Leo Juda, Zwingle's colleague in office, in the spirit of the Reformed Church translated Luther's New Testament into the Swiss-German dialect (1525), and the Old Testament from the original text (till 1529). Zwingle looked upon every local church, in proportion as its opinions were based upon the lloly Scriptures, as completely justified in con- tending against the whole hierarchy. The Great Council, regardless of the protests of the Bishop of Constance, but sustained by public opinion, intro- duced the new constitution into the Church (1524s). The established church of Appeneell, beyond the Rhone, resolved that preachers who taught what could not be proved from the Sacred Scriptures should be denied support and protection, (d) Berthold Holler (d. 1586) preached, though with cau- tion, in behalf of the Reformation in Berne, (e) and Manuel, in a Carnival play, exposed to public derision the avarice of the clergy and their fear of the gospel. (/) Oecolampadius (d. Nov. 23, 1531), the learned friend of Erasmus, and in ordinary matters a timid and peaceable man, but kept in perpetual agitation in such stormy times for his advocacy of the cause of his Lord, was the principal instrument in directing the minds of the people of Basle into the path of the Reformation, although a knowledge of its elements had been previously acquired from the general perusal of Luther's writ- d) Com. de vera et falsa reL Tig. 1525. Fidel ratio ad Car. Imp. Tig. 1530. 4. Chr. fidci brevli et clara exp. ad Eegem chr. (ed. BuUinger.) Tig. 1536. De providentia. (voL I.) ZeUer, de theoL Bystem Zw. (Th. Jahrb. 1853. H. Is.) a) FwMli, Beitrr. vol. II. p. 287. JButtinger vol. L p. 82. I) Conclusiones. (Opp. vol. I. p. Is.) Explanatio. (/&. p. 8ss.) Acta disput. (vol. II. p. Buttinger vol. L p. 84ss. 97ss. c) Acts in Zwingle's Works, vol. L p. 539ss. Buttinger vol. L p. 126ss. d) Klaarer's account in Simler, vol. L Part IIL p. SOSss. ) Kirchhofer, B. Haller u. d. Ret v. Bern. Zur. 182a /) C. GrUneisen, Niclaus Manuel, Leben u. Werke. Stuttg. 1837. CHAP. L EEFOEMATTON. 383. BADEN. BEENE. BASLE. 387 ings, (g) The inhabitants of those places which were favorable to the Catho- lic Church, hoping to overcome their opponents by their favorite weapons, and relying upon the talents and skill of Dr. Eck, appointed a day for a pub- lic disputation at Baden (May, 1526). As Zwingle had reason to fear for his safety should he venture to be present in that city, Oecolampadius was the principal opponent of Eck in this disputation. The subjects which engaged their attention were the presence of Christ's sacred body in the sacrament, the sacrifice of the mass, the worship of saints, the use of images, and the doctrine of purgatory. On the part of Eck there was great blustering, while Oecolampadius contended only by arguments, but both claimed the credit of a victory. (Ji) Berne endeavored to keep aloof from the agitations of the controversy, and its council gave orders that some of the more obvi- ous and serious abuses should be removed, and that preaching should be con- formed "both to the Scriptures and to the ancient faith, (i) But such partial measures were by no means adequate to the exigencies of the times. No sooner had the great council once more assumed the supreme power, than both parties were invited to a public discussion, which was attended by all the leaders of the Eeformation in the country (Jan., 1528). The result was so decisive, that soon after a public decree was issued by the council, in which the jurisdiction of the bishops was entirely renounced, and the idolatrous worship of Eome was abolished, (la) In Basle, the Eeformation became vic- torious in consequence of the triumph of the municipal guilds (1529). (I) The city of St. Gall embraced the evangelical doctrine (1528), the abbot fled, and the friends of religion became organized into a community under the protection of Zurich and Glarus. (m) For in Glarus, where it was de- cided after a severe contest that every congregation should choose for itself, the majority were in favor of the Eeformation. Schafffiausen, after consid- erable hesitation, gave in its adhesion to it (1529), and in Soleure neither party obtained the ascendency. In every place where the new doctrines pre- vailed, every thing opposed to them was rigorously put down. The altars were destroyed and the idols were burned. In the Gray League alone (the Grisons), after the disputation at Ilantz (1526), the Jaw allowed every one to take his choice between the old and the new faith. And yet when Schlegel, the abbot of St. Luke, contrived a treasonable conspiracy with the Castellan of Musso for the overthrow of the heretics of Crire, he was beheaded (1529). (ri) The popes, who stood in need of Swiss soldiers, and could do nothing against the will of a republican people, preserved for a long time little more than the semblance of peace, (o) g) Grynaeus et Capita, de vita et obitu Oec. before his and Zwingle's Epp. S. Hess, Lebens- gesch. J. Oek. Zur. 1793. J. J. Herzog, d. Leben J. Oek. u. d. Eef. zu Basel. Bas. 1843. 2 vols, li) Sullinger vol. I. p. 331ss. Edit of the Acts of the Eeformers, by Murner, (Lucerne. 1527. 4.) incorrectly regarded by the Eeformers as inaccurate. i) Bullinger voL I. p. llOss. k) Ib. vol. I. p. 805S8. 426ss. Walch vol. XVII. p. 2008. G. Fischer, Gesch. d. Disp. u. Eef. la Bern. Bern. 1823. Kulm, d. Eeformaloren Berns. Bern. 1828. Eespecting the other Jubilee publi- cations: Stud. u. Krit. 1828. P. 4. p. 901ss. (O. L. V. Hatter, Gesch. d. kircbl Eev. o. prot Eef. d. Kantons B. u. d. umlieg. Gegend. Luc. 1836. 1) Bullinger vol. II. p. 85ss. Slss. m) Il>. vol. H. p. 250ss. SimZer vol. I. p. 115ss. Vernet, Kessler, ( 819. nt. ) Comp. Rommel, Philipp. Urkundenb. p. 225. c) For evidence of deception : L. G. Mogen, H. Captivitatis Ph. Frcf. 1766. Rommel vol. IV. p. 83088. In fevor of a misunderstanding: Raumer vol. I. p. 547ss. Gesch. Eur. Lps. 1832. vol. L p, B47ss. For an intentional deception : Ranke voL IV. p. 40Ss& Comp. Rommel in d. Monatbl. Allg. Zeitung, April, 1846. a) Comp. Bugenhagen, Wie es vns zu Wittenberg gegangon ist in d. vergangnen Krieg. 1547. 4 V) Bielc, p. 266ss. Form sacror. emend, a J. Pflugio proposita, ed. C, G. ffiiUer, Ljw. 1803. CHAP. I. KEFOEMATION. 341. INTEEIM. 342. MAUEICE. 397 This Interim, which had been composed by Julius von Pfiug, with the assistance of Agricola, the court preacher of Brandenburg, and was originally intended by the emperor for the Catholic as well as for the Protestant states, conceded the marriage of the clergy, the use of the cup in the sacrament, and some indefinite constructions of particular doctrines of the Catholic Church. Such concessions were regarded by the emperor as of vital importance, and yet their value was much impaired by the condition that the property of the Church was not to be restored until the terms were agreed upon in an amica- ble settlement. Only two of the inferior princes ventured openly to oppose this proceeding in the diet itself, and John, Margrave of Brandenburg, with a lofty earnestness and a bitter raillery, avowed his disgust at the noxious com- pound thus prepared for them, (c) In many of the cities of Upper Germany the Interim was carried into effect by violence and threats, but its general execution would have required another war, and one too in direct opposition to the people. Those who had formerly preached the reformed doctrines were now compelled to wander abroad, and in some instances they were perse- cuted, (d) John Frederic, who now displayed a heroic constancy and devo- tion in his confinement, rejected not only the authority of the Interim, but that of the council also. The answer of Maurice, so far as it related to his subjects was evasive, but he exhorted his states and the divines to concede all that could be given up with a good conscience. It was principally in conse- quence of this advice that the Leipsic Interim was drawn up under the di- rection of Melancthon, in which every thing decidedly contrary to evangelical doctrine was declined, but the greater part of the Catholic ritual was con- ceded, on the ground of its being indifferent (Adiaphoron). The power of the pope and of the bishops was to be acknowledged so long as they used it for the edification, and not for the destruction of the Church, (e) This form was accepted by many of the states, and was generally executed in the midst of strenuous opposition on the part of many congregations and pastors, and at the expense of the expulsion or imprisonment of the latter. Both Inter- ims, however, were despised by both Catholics and Protestants, 342. Maurice. 1552. Ilortleder vol. II. book V. Camerarii Or. in memor. Maur. (Merik&n, Scrr. rer. Germ. vol. II.) Bartenstein, de bello Imperatori a Maur. illato. Arg. IT 10. 4. Langenn. (p. 394.) The German cities still remained in the possession of the foreign merce- naries, the consciences of the people were disturbed by the operation of the Interim, or were threatened by the action of the general council, to which the Elector of Brandenburg had already professed his submission, (a) Ger- many appeared about to become a mere province of Spain by the accession of the imperial prince Philip, which the emperor now demanded, and the word which the young elector had pledged for the liberation of the land- c) Wegener, Lebensgesch. d. Markg. Johannes v. Br. Brl. 1827. His " Kleiner (Satechismus " is given by Spieker, p. 886ss. ff) E. g. Hartmann, J. Brentz, vol. II. p. 137ss. JKanke vol. V. p. 51sa. e) Biek, p. 105ss. 861ss. a) Raynald. ad a. 1551. N. 41s. 398 MODEKN CHUKCH HISTORY. PEE. Y. A. D. 1517-1648. grave was entirely disregarded. Maurice perceived that nothing conld ro' store his honor in the estimation of the German people but some bold and decisive step. He therefore resolved that he would achieve the freedom of the empire and of the Church by one bold stroke. A secret treaty was formed by him with Mecklenburg, the Margrave Albert of Brandenburg, and the sons of the landgrave, and an alliance was formed, in opposition to the advice of Melancthon, with France, by which he lost the possession of Mentz, Toul, and Yerdun. ( I) An occasion was afforded for the collection of an army by the pretence of executing the decree of outlawry which had been issued against Magdeburg, then the home of Protestant opposition. The suspicions of the emperor were allayed with consummate skill. On the 20th of March, 1552, he left Thuringia, overthrew one after another the gar- risons of the emperor in the several cities, and on the 22d of May presented himself before Innspruck. The emperor, though at that time enfeebled by sickness, was obliged to escape by night, and the council fled with precipita- tion before him. By the courage exhibited in this martial expedition, it was shown that the existing religious innovations could never be put down by force. In July (16. 29), the treaty of Passau was formed under the guaran- ty of the empire, (c) by the terms of which the landgrave was set at lib- erty, the imperial council was to be open to those who professed the new creed, and a diet was promised in a short time for the removal of the griev- ances with respect to violations of the laws of the empire, and for the settle- ment of religious differences. Only one clause in these articles, providing for a permanent peace at least for all those who sympathized with the Augsburg Confession, or at all events for all who were not connected with sects con- demned by the recess of the imperial diet, was seriously resisted by the em- peror. The two illustrious martyrs were received by their people with great joy and many tears. Maurice now turned his attention to an expedition against the Turks. 343. Religious Peace. Sept. 25, 1555. I. Lehmann, Acta publ. de pace rel. by which they hoped to effect a union of the Swiss and the Wittenberg divines. They went personally to Wittenberg, and there suffered their orthodoxy to be severely tested. They finally subscribed a Concordium composed by MelanctJion (May 25, 1536), the phraseology of which was so strictly Lutheran that it could be reconciled with their own faith only by some peculiar and private explanation, (a) which sometimes con- founded together and sometimes distinguished between the unworthy and the unbelieving. But as Luther did not object to these explanations, the Con- cordium was accepted by most of the Swiss, and the different parties were a) Rudolphi, de emigr. subditorum et expuls. Erl. 1756. 4. l>) FricTc (pr. UaeberUno), de rcservato ecc. ex mente Pads rel. ejusque effectibus ac fstis, fllmst 1755. 4. a) Corp. Ref. vol. III. p. 75ss. Elrard vol. II. p. 882ss. Nitesch, Urkundenb. d. Ev. Union. Bonn. 1853. p. (iOs. 400 MODERN CHUECH HISTORY. PEE. V. A. D. 1517-164S. regarded as united. (5) But Luther was convinced that there was no real union, and as he felt utterly averse to the whole Zwinglian school, and sus- pected Melancthon himself, (c) he 6nce more renewed the controversy in the most violent manner. He was now fast tending to the grave, and he wag therefore anxious that his testimony against these fanatics and soul-destroyers might he left unimpaired, (d) In this manner the schism between these two great parties of the Reformation was restored, (e) There is no apparent foun- dation for the common report, that in his last days he felt any apprehensions that he had been too violent in his opposition to the people of Zurich. (/) 345. Italian Switzerland. J. Sennebier, II. lit de Geneve. Gen. 1786. Stuudlin im KHlat Arch. 1824 vol. II. P. II. EircJihofer, Leben Wilb. Farels. Zur. 1831s. 2 vols. Ch. Schmidt, Etudes sur Farel. Strasb. 1&34 4 Ch. Chenemere, Farel, Froment, Viret Eefonnatcure religieux. Gen. 1885. Jaquemot, Viret E6- formateur de Lausanne, Strasb. 1S36. 4. ItucJiat and Merle ffAubignl. [Hist of the Eef. In Switz. and France. New York. 1S47. 12. (p. 860.) / Spon, Hist of the City and State of Geneva, &c. coll. from MSS. &c. Lond. 1687. f.] The reformed faith had been preached after 1527 on the borders of Savoy and France. The people of Geneva regarded the bishops appointed over them by the Dukes of Savoy as the uniform and stanch enemies of their municipal rights. After many severe disturbances, however, the influence of Savoy was finally overthrown by means of an alliance with Berne, the Reformation was triumphantly successful, and Geneva became a member of the Swiss Confederation (1535). After the victory of the people of Berne in the Canton de Vaud, the Reformation triumphed there also, and subse- quently to a' religious conference at Lausanne (Oct. 1536) was formally intro- duced. At the head of this religious movement stood Farel (d. 1565), a native of Dauphine. He had been educated in liberal studies, but to only a limited extent, under the instruction of Faber, and had taken part in all the controversies respecting the Reformation in the surrounding country. In word and in deed he may be said to have been an Elias, who, though often in danger of death, overthrew an ecclesiastical system which he regarded as idolatry. In comparison with his style of speaking, the vigorous eloquence of Viret had the appearance of only a mild persuasion. The constitution of Geneva, however, still continued unsettled, the morals of the people disso- lute, the people themselves uncultivated, and even the higher degrees of edu- cation corrupt. 346. John Calvin. July 10, 1509-May 27, 1564. I. Epp. et responsa. Gen. 1576. f. Opera. (Gen. 1617. 12 vols. f.) Amst 1671. (1667.) 9 vols. t Calvini, JSesae, Henr. IV. aliorumque literae quaedam. ed. BretschneicLer, Lps. 1835. L'hist de la vie et mort d. J. Calv. par Theod. de Size, Gen. 1564. 4 1565. Lat in the Epp. and often. Epi- grams: Solsec, Hist de la vie de Calv. Par. 1577. and often. Gon. 1835. [Beza's Life of C. transL by F. Gibson, and notes by an Am. Ed. Philad. 1S86. 12.] 6) De Wette vol. V. p. 83ss. c) Walch vol. XVII. p. 2529ss. p. 2627ss. d) Kurzes Bek. v. h. Sacr. Witt 1544. 4 (Walch vol. XX. p. lOOlss.) e) Corp. Rff. vol. V. p. 475. /) At first in the Eesponsio ad narrat Wurtemburgensinm de colloq. Maulbrun. Hdlb. 1565. On the other side : K. Strobel, die Legende v. Luth. Uebertrltt z. Calvinism. (Zeitsch. f. Luth. Theol u. K. 1840. H. 2.) CHAP. I. REFORMATION. 346. CALVIN. BEZA. 40 J IT. Bretschneider, Bildung u. Gcist C. u. d. Gonfer K. (Kef. Aim. 1821.) P. Henry, Leben G Ilamb. 1835-44 8 vols. [Life of Calvin, transl. from the Germ, of P. Henry by H, StebMng, Lond. 1852. 2 vols. 8.] J. A. Mignet, d. Einf. d. Kef. u. d. Vcrf. d. Calvinism in Genf. A. d. Fr. v. Stole, Lpz. 1843. [J. Mackenzie, Life of C. Lond. 1831. 12. T. Smyth, Obss. on the Life and Char, of 0. Philad. 1835. 18. Art in Kitto's Journal of Bibl. Lit vol. III. and VII.] Calvin (Cauvin) was a native of Noyon in Picardy, and was always ardently attached to France. He was originally educated for the Church, and even when a boy had the charge of a congregation. At a later period he acquired some distinction as a jurist, and finally, under the influence of the Eeformation, became a theologian. In consequence of a bold declaration in behalf of the Reformation, which he made through the Eector of Paris, he was obliged to become a fugitive (1533), and published at Basle his Insti- tutes of the Christian Eeligion, in which his object was to vindicate the Reformation from the aspersions cast upon it in France. This work was even then complete with respect to Christian doctrine, but by subsequent revisions it became the noblest scientific'vindication of evangelical Augustin- ism which has ever been given to the world, and is full of profound religious sentiments in connection with a bold, relentless carrying out of his principles to their utmost logical consequences. () De s. Coena. 1545. at first in Fr. 1540. Comp. Henry vol. I. p. 270s. c) Henry vol. H. p. 425ss. 485ss. 439ss. d) Calv. Instructio adv. fanaticam sectam Libcrtinorum 5i4. e) Henry vol. L p. 431ss. 26 402 MODEBN CHUKCH HISTOET. PEE, V. A. D. 1517-1648. which Calvin established over the state, but which sometimes wavered ; by the public interest which he awakened in ecclesiastical affairs, and by the establishment of a representative constitution intimately connected with the civil power, he gave to his ecclesiastical system a strictly regulated freedom. By his published writings, by his personal counsels, by his public services, and by the theologians whom he educated, his influence triumphed over the Zwinglian school, extended itself far beyond the limits of Switzerland, and subjected even the people of Zurich to its power. (/) Through his influence Geneva became a republic, firmly established, governed by an oligarchy, per- vaded by an ecclesiastical spirit, and renowned in the history of the world. Thither resorted all who during that age were persecuted for their faith, and it became the acknowledged centre of a Reformed Church, (g) His work was faithfully carried out by Theodore Beza (1519-1605), who had risen to maturity in the most brilliant circumstances in France, and as a promising Humanist had like Abelard enjoyed at one period the highest pleasures of science and of social life, but had at last found safety in the Reformed Church. He there became the faithful colleague of Calvin, but he was more beloved. With his reformatory views he combined his former humanistic culture, (A) and finally attained an extensive literary and ecclesiastical influ- ence, which made him the patriarch of the Reformation to the succeeding generation, (i) CHAP. H. ESTABLISHMENT OF A PROTESTANT ORTHODOXY. I. LUTHERAXISM. ScJduaselburg, Catalog! Haereticor. Frcf. 1597-9. 13 L (7 vols.) J. Musaei PraclL in Epit F. Cone. Jen. 1701. 4 Losc/ier, ( 835.) fortges. v. Killing, (till 1601.) Schwab. 1770. 4 J. G. Walch, hist n. theol Einl. in ) when in an independent position before even the unjust reproaches of Luther, who con- tended that such an onset upon the divine law was dangerous to all moral seriousness, (c) In this controversy, however, was involved the deeper prin- ciple, that man still possessed sufficient moral goodness to apprehend what is best for him out of love to Christ, without the fear of the law or of hell. In this we may discover its affinity with various disputes respecting human works and divine co-operation, which have been several times renewed since 1556, but always with the same obscurity of views. To guard against the danger- ous error that Christ's merits merely cover our sinful nature, and are im- puted to the believer in an external way, Andreas Osiander, the reformer of Nureraburg, and a man remarkable for his Scriptural knowledge, maintained that Christ becomes our righteousness in his divine nature and by dwelling essentially in the believer, and in general, that if man had never fallen, the incarnation would still have taken place to complete the divine image in human nature, (d) He even succeeded in producing some kindred expres- sions of Luther, whicli had been written in the spirit of the old mysticism, (c) and Luther, who was aware of his morbid sensibility, declined any contro- versy with him. (,/) But when he was by the operation of the Interim driven from Nuremburg, and was placed by his friend Albert, Duke of Bran- denburg, at the head of ecclesiastical affairs in Prussia ; above all when he proclaimed his doctrine in its boldest contrast with the theological sentiments of Luther and the other reformers, in which justification was always repre- sented as a judicial sentence of God with respect to the believer, (g) nearly every Lutheran divine denounced his position as a relapse to the Catholic amalgamation of divine grace with human merit. In Prussia, Osiander tri- umphed by driving his opponents into banishment. After his death (1552), a) 18 Pcsitiones. (Forstemann vol. 1. p. 313ss.) Z>) Forstemawn vol. I. p. 849. c) 6 Disputationes. 1538. 40. (Luth. Opp. Jen. voL I. p. SITss.) d) Heberle, Os. Lehre in ihrer fruhesten Gestalt. (Stud. u. Krit 1844. H. 2.) 0) Etliche schone Spruche v. d. KechtC d. Gl. d. Ehrw. Luther, verdolinctscht v. Osiand. Koa. 551. 4. /) De Wette vol. IV. p. 486. g) Disputt IL una de lege et evang., altera de justi Eeg. 1550. 4. Von d. elnigea Mittlet u. Bechtf, Beknntnuss. Kon, 1551. 4, 404 MODEBN CHURCH HISTORY. PER. V. A. D. 1517-1648 his son-in-law Funck, at the head of a party, sought and obtained reconcilia- tion with those who belonged to Melancthon's school. But as all invasions of the civil as well as the ecclesiastical constitution were imputed to him who controlled the duke's conscience, a political party favored by the Polish feudal sovereign, combined with his theological enemies against him. The controversy was terminated by thi execution of Funck (1566), and the con- demnation of Osiander's doctrines as an essential heresy. (7i) 348. Lutherans and Philippics. General Affairs. The controversy respecting the Lord's Supper had given to the Reforina- tion a tendency toward the letter of the creeds. Luther had foreseen that this would become a pernicious source of theological quarrels, and yet he was among the first to commence them. Melancthon was the personal friend of Calvin, on whose breast he had often reclined his weary head, (a) A con- ciliatory impression had also been made upon Luther's mind by Calvin's doc- trine of the Lord's Supper, and both of these reformers had a high esteem for one another. (5) But in the exasperation which Luther felt in his last days toward the divines of Zurich, all who would not recognize the natural body of Christ in the sacred Supper were looked upon as belonging to the same gene- ral batch. In the later editions of the Confession of Augsburg, Melancthon unconsciously made some alterations in accordance with his own gradual de- velopment. These were confined principally to the tenth article, in which every thing inconsistent with the views prevalent in Upper Germany was obliterated. This " explanatory, and in some respects enlarged Confession '' of 1540, (e) which even Calvin subscribed as the deputy from Strasbourg, became henceforth the general banner of the Reformation. "Without noticing any essential change, men generally regarded it in the same light as the Ori- ginal confession, until an express ratification of it was called for at an assem- bly of princes at Naumburg in 1561. Here a declaration in favor of the unchanged Confession of Augsburg met with opposition from the Duke of Saxony, and gave occasion to the reproach that internal divisions prevailed among the Protestants. A new generation of princes therefore united to- gether and put their seals to the old confession, (d) Although the path into which Melancthon was led by Luther was more elevated than what he would have followed if he had been left to himself, it was in some respects also uncongenial with his peculiar temperament. But even during Luther's last years, when he frequently expected to be sent from the University, and some- times felt himself subjected by Luther's stubborn and imperious spirit to a rather dishonorable servitude, (e) he was actually exerting a supreme author h) Historic v. Funk ex actis pubL (Acta Borussica. Kiin. 1T32. vol. IIL p. 217. 811. 471ss.) Corpus doctr. Prutenicum. 1567. a) Henry, Calv. vol. L p. 244ss. 868. 875. I) C. H. Pezel, Erzahl. v. Sacramentstr. Brem. 1600. p. 137ss. What has been cited in Henry, Calv. vol. I. p. 265ss. and in Ebrard, Abendm. vol. II. p. 474ss. is more to be relied upon. c) Libri Symb. s. Concordia. ed. JIase, ed. 8. p. IX. XIIss. d) G. P. ffoenn, d. v. d. ev. Standen zu Naumb. geb. Convents. Frkf. 1704, J. H. Gelbke, d Furstentag. zu N. Lps. 1793. Heppe vol. I. p. 864ss. e) Corp. Bef. vol. Y. p. 474. 476s. 498. voL VI. p. 880. CHAP. II. LUTHEEANISM. 848. PHILIPPISM. 349. SYNEEGISM. 405 ity at "Wittenberg. The hearts of these excellent men, however, always affectionately returned to each other. (/) When the storm of war had passed away, the University was re-established under the auspices of Melanc- thon, and the system of doctrines which he had formed, referring every thing to man's moral and religious wants, was generally adopted. But so deep was the impression which Luther had left upon the spirit of the age, that many could find salvation only in the words and forms which he had sanctioned. Hence, when Melancthon was induced by his attachment to the new elector, and sometimes by his forgetfulness of his relations to the world at large in his extreme love of literary tranquillity, to seek for an easy method of establishing peace with the ancient Church by means of the Inter- im, Flacius resigned his professorship at Wittenberg (1548), and in Magde- burg invoked the spirit of Luther against Melancthon's perfidy to the Church. This proscribed city was then an asylum for those divines who felt oppressed by the weight of Melancthon's authority, and who entertained apprehensions for the purity of the Lutheran faith. Even when the adiaphoristic contro- versy had lost all practical importance, its agitation still lingered in the dis- cussion of the question whether any but indifferent points were surrendered in the Interim, and whether even indifferent things may be surrendered to the enemies of the gospel, (g) To maintain an intellectual contest with the new electoral house and with Wittenberg, then suspected of being possessed by a Calvinistic devil, and to constitute a fortress for genuine Lutheranism in general, the University of Jena, with a charter from the emperor and the bless- ing of heaven, was founded (1548-58) by the sons of John Frederic, who in troublous times confided in the future. Qi) Filled with anxieties for the harmony of the Church, Melancthon was finally delivered from this sophistic saeculum, and from the wrath of the theologians (April 19, 1560). 349. Synergistic Controversy. Luther opposed to the requirement of merely external works made by the Koman Church, and to the Pelagian notion of the merit of human acts, the doctrine that good works were not indispensable to salvation. To pre- vent the abuse which might be made of this assertion, Melancthon asserted in his revised Confession of 1535, that good works were truly necessary, but in no respect meritorious. Such an expression had been disapproved of by Luther, and when it was afterwards incorporated in the Interim, it was capa- ble of an interpretation favorable to the necessity of good works in the Catholic sense. Hence, in opposition at first? to Major, who used it to sup- /) Luther in the Praef. to the -1st vol. of the "Witt Opp. and in his last Letters, Mel. in his Testa- ment of 1540. (Corp. Ref. vol. III. p. 825.) and in his Funeral Disc. g) Wieder d. schnoden Teufel, d. i. wider des Interim durch Carolnm Azariam. 1549. 4. Flacii Scrr. c. Interim et adiaphora edita. Magdb. 1550. Comp. Biek and Schmid. ( 841.) On Luther's side : Rateeberger, Hist arcana, given by Arnold in his KGesch., and last by Strobel, Altd. 1774, a falsification of the genuine work of the Physician to the Elector of Saxony. On the Philippist side : J. Major, Synodus avium. (Scripta publ. Acad. Witt. voL III. Epit by a E. Schwars, in Zeltsch.) f. unirte K. 1835. N. 18. 7i) Melancth. Briefw. u. d. Grundung d. Univ. Jena, zusammengest v. H. Weissentofn, Jena. 1848. 406 MODEEN CHUKOT HISTORY. PEE. V. A. D. 151M648. port the Interim, Amsdorf maintained that justification by mere grace was in this way denied, and as long as the nature of good works, and the kind oi connection which they must necessarily have to salvation, was not defined, he succeeded in proving with Paul that good works were pernicious to salva- tion, (a) just as he afterwards asserts the same thing of human learning. (5) This obscurity of thought and bitterness of feeling was only increased at a religious conference at Alteriburg (1568). (c) Luther had at one time boasted much of the absolute omnipotence of God, and did not shrink from absolute predestination as the necessary inference from the Augustinian doctrine of original sin. But Melancthon, that he might avoid at the same time the ter- rors of this doctrine and those of Pelagianism, began to maintain in 1535, in more and more decided terms, that in conversion the will of man consented and conspired with the grace of God. Luther had been silent upon this 'subject, for his own heart was a witness to him against his system, and in behalf of the universality of divine mercy. In the Interim, this Synergism was incorporated as a concession to the Catholic Semi-Pelagianism. A work having been published at Leipsic by Pfeffinger in favor of this synergistic doctrine, Amsdorf publicly opposed it. (d) The professors at "Wittenberg were obliged to defend Pfeffinger's party. On the other hand, those at Jena, led on by Flacius, took up the controversy and endeavored to prove that the natural man could never co-operate with the divine influence in the heart, but was always in opposition to it. In accordance with the sentiments of this party, a confutation of all the heresies which then survived, and espe- cially of Synergism, was sent forth for the acceptance of the evangelical states, with the authority of the ducal court, (e) But even at Jena there was a party favorable to this Synergism, and Victorine Strigeliw, its leader, was violently thrown into prison. (/) By various solicitations, however, the court was induced to allow a disputation to be held at Weimar between * Strigelius and Flacius (1560). (?) In opposition to the inquisitorial tribunal of Flacius at Jena, a ducal consistory was established at Weimar, to which was committed the censorship of the press and the exclusive right of excom- munication. When the party of Flacius in the name of Christ complained of this subjugation of the Church, demanded that the liberty of the press as a divine right should be restored, and in their appeals to the people opposed with increasing violence this papacy of the princes, (li) they were banished from o) Dass die Propositio: gate Werke sind z. Beligk. schfidlicb, eine rechte chr. Prop, sei, durch d. h. Paullum u. Lutherum gepredigt Without place. 1569. 4 6) Wie christlich u. treulich Hesshus. m. d. H. Schrift u. mir handelt Magdeb. 1564. 4 c) Acta colloquii Altenb. Lps. 1570. tLober, ad H. coll. Altenb. animadvv. Alt 1776. 4. Ma- joris Opp. 1569. 8 vols. f. with antobiog. in the 1st vol. d) P/efflnger, Propos. de lib. arbitrio. Lps. 1556. Amsdorf, offentl. Bek. d. reinen L. d. Ev. u. Confutatio d. jetzigen Schwarmer. Jen. 1553. e) Solida ex verbo Dei sumta confutatio et condemnatio praecip. corruptelarum, sectarum et erro- rum. Jen. 1559. 4. (Corpus doct Thuring.) /) H. Erdmann (Pr. J. Gerhardo) de Strig^lianismo. Jen. 1658. Han. 1675. 4 Merz, (Pr. Weis- manno) H. vitae et controv. Strig. Tub. 1732. 4 J. C. T, Otto, de Strig. liberioris mentis in Ecc. luth. vindice. Jen. 1843. 0) (Sim. Musaeus) Disp. inter Flac. et Viet Vinariae habita. Brem. 1563. 4 (Unsch. Nach. 1740. p. 583.) (Flacius) Erzahl. \vie d. Streit Victorini endlich geschlichtet worden. Without place. 1568. 4 7t) Eesp. pro prelorum libertate. Jen. 1561. and others. Salig vol. IIL p. 630ss. Planck vol. IV p. 61283. CHAP. II. LUTHERANISM. 850. CEYPTO- CALVINISM. 407 the country (Dec. 1561), and the theological faculty was filled by the advica of the party at Wittenberg. But when the unfortunate Duke John Frederic was overthrown (1567), the opponents of the school of Melancthon were once more triumphant. The friends of Flacius were recalled, though he himself remained in exile. In the disputation which he had held in Weimar, lie had been urged to the assertion that original sin was the very essence of man. But when he attempted to establish this extravagant assertion, which was at the time fyut slightly considered, and as an indefinite expression of feeling was by no means unprecedented, it was supposed to imply that either God was the author of sin, or that man was created by the devil. Hence even the former friends of Flacius became his bitter opponents. (*) Avoided as this man seems to have been by the society of his day, he was the inti- mate friend of Luther, and possessed the very spirit of a Gregory. He opened the path to every kind of knowledge then regarded as indispensable to Protestant science, but expended his talents upon the smallest trifles and the most useless controversies, and died at last in extreme poverty. (Jc) 350. Crypto- Calvinism. Gont. from 344. Losclier and others, before 335. Peuceri Hist carcerum et liberations div. ed. Pezel, Tig. IWS.Frimel, Witteberga a Calv. divexata et divinitus liberata d. i. Ver. wie der sacram. Teufel in Bachsenland eingedrungen. Witt. 1646. 4 Waleh, Bibl. Theol. vol. II. p. 58Sss. Eichstadii Nar. de Peuc. Jen. 1841. 4. E, A. H. Heimburg, de C. Peuc. Jen. 1841. Although by continual conflicts with himself, Melancthon finally suc- ceeded in believing that the actual body of Christ was present in the Lord's Supper, (a) he decidedly refused all fellowship with Zwingle's imaginary Christ. (5) By the suggestion at first of Bucer (1534), he regarded it as suf- ficient to believe that the whole Christ was present, and was imparted in the sacred ordinance, and yet he did not hesitate to call this, in the language ordinarily used in the Eoman Church, a communication of the flesh and blood of Christ, (c) He accordingly maintained fellowship with the divines of Zurich, (d} even when Luther had once more renounced it ; and as he was convinced that neither Lnther's nor Calvin's doctrine of the sacrament was an insuperable bar to a saving communion with Christ, he thought he might comply with the suggestions of his own timidity and inclination, and allow both of them to continue in the Church. Hence, when Westphal of Ham- burg furiously assailed Calvin with the assertion that the real incarnate body of Christ was present in the bread, when he saw the noble John of Laski, who believed not only in the symbol but in the mystery of the sacrament, with his foreign congregation, driven from England, and refused an asylum in all parts of Protestant Germany as robbers, poisoners, and martyrs of the devil, and when Calvin himself solemnly agreed with the Confession of Augs- i) Literary history in Walch, Bibl. Theol. vol. II. p. 597ss. k) C. Heldelin, chr. Predigt u. d. Leiche Hn. Fl. Martyrers J. Ch. Frkf. 1575. 4. (7. If. Lober, (Pr. J. Gerhardo) de Flacianismo. Jen. 1653. 4. J. JB. Hitter, Fl. Leben u. Tod. Frkf. u. Lps. (1723.) 1725. E. A. IT. Heimburg, de Fl. Illyr. Jen. 1842. Twesten, FL Illyr. mit. Beil. v. H. Hos- tel, Brl. 1844. E. Schmid, Fl. Erbs. Streit hist. lit. (Zeitsch. f. hist Th. 1849. H. Is.) a) Corp. lief. vol. I. p. 1106. Z>) Hid. p. 1066. 1063. 1070. 1077. 1084 c) Ibid. vol. III. p. 514.-vol. IX. p. 499. d) Hid. vol. V. p. 842s. 408 MODERN CHUECH HISTORY. PER. V. A. D. 1517-lfriS. burg as it was explained by its own author, (e) Melancthon avoided a distinct declaration of his sentiments on this subject ; (/) and it was not until the doc- trine of the omnipresence of Christ's body (ubiquity), which had been hastily mentioned by Luther, was proposed as the only saving basis of the Holy Sup- per, and made by Brentz the law of the Church in Wurtemberg, (for which he zealously contended was finally turned against himself. "Wigand, who had been his companion in controversy and excommunication for Christ's sake, and was now like him, and by his assistance a Prussian bishop, denounced him as a heretic, and overthrew him on account of a subtle scholastic formula. He, however, still maintained a calm and dignified consciousness that he was struggling in the service of his Lord, and in his last will expressed no regret, except that he had not punished sinners with greater severity, and had not contended against factious persons with an intenser zeal (d. 1588). (a) Kep- ler (d. 1631), who, while listening to the harmonies of the universe, investi- gated the laws of the planetary motions that he might with devout joy make known to others the miracles of divine wisdom, and would rather starve than apostatize from the Confession of Augsburg, was driven from the Lord's fold as an unsound sheep, because he would not subscribe the articles in which the Calvinists were condemned, and doubted whether the body of Christ was truly omnipresent. His mother also died in fetters under the accusation of a) Libri Symb. 8 ed. by JTase, p. CXXVIIss. 85Tss. &) JSlume, Leichenpr. u. d. castodirten u. enthaupteten Dr. N. Cr. Lps. 1601. 4. His controv. writings in Walch vol. II. p. 594 Engelcken, d. N. Cr. Eost 1T24. 4. ff. G. Hasse, d. Bedeut, d. Crell'schen Processes, a archiv. Beitrr. (Zeitsch. f. hist. Th. 1848. H. 2.) Chr. Gundermans zu Leipzig Klage Pein u. Bekentdnis. (satyr. Gedicht.) 1592. 4. a) J. G. Leuckfeld, Hist Heshusiana. Quedlinb. 1716. 4. 412 MODERN CHUECH HISTORY. PEE. V. A. D. 1517-1648. being a witch, (J) The opposition to the Form of Concord gradually disap- peared when its most decided opponents went over to the Reformed Church, but the schism between the two churches became permanent, in consequence of the food which was then so plentifully supplied to the religious passions of the people. The writings of Chemnitz and Hutter, composed in the spirit of the strictest Lutheranism, were then generally esteemed, and supplied tho place formerly occupied by the theological works of Melancthon. (c) Their ascendency was also sustained by the independent authority of the literature of that period. John Gerhard (d. at Jena, 1687) attained the dignity of a Protestant ecclesiastical Father, in consequence of a happy combination of polemic learning and quiet devotion. Tho sphere of his literary and official activity was very extensive, and when almost every tiling seemed to be in ruins around him, his talents wore devoted to the work of preserving and au- thenticating what ho esteemed useful and true, (d) But the youthful energies of Protestantism were much impaired even in the midst of its victories by these controversies, and Melancthon's condemnation as a heretic was felt to be a dark shadow upon the original principles and type of the Reformation. II. CALVINISM. Loscter, ( 885.) J. G. Walch, hist u. theoL Einl. in d. Strcltig. somlerlich ausser <1. lutb. K. 8 ed. Jen. 178888. 5 vols. Ueppe, (before 847.) [Merle d'Aullynt, Spirit of the Ecf. Church, Mis cell. Writings. New York. 1840. p. 245ss.] 354. German Reformed Church. After the violent rejection of Philippism, a German Reformed Church sprung up in the midst of the established churches where it had prevailed, by the side of the Reformed Church of Switzerland. Although it originally did not expressly adopt the doctrine of predestination, and never received the peculiar stamp of Calvin's character, it wore a Calvinistic aspect, in conse- quence of its special fellowship with Calvinistio churches, and its reception of a large number of Calvinistic refugees, through whom its institutions becauio based upon the exclusive authority of the Scriptures, (a) In the Palatinate, where the Reformation received its original character also from the influence of Melancthon, the sovereignty was exercised by Frederic III, who desired in the Eucharist to partake of nothing but an entire Christ, with all his bene- fits. After the disorders excited by Heshusius' efforts to establish Lutheran- ism, he deposed every clergyman (Aug. 1560) who would not accommodate his views to those of Melancthon ( 350. nt. A.), and after the diet of princes at Naumburg he still adhered to the amended Confession of Augsburg, and 5) J. v. EreitscJiwert, Job. Keppler's Leben u. Wirken. Stuttg. 1831. Comp. Tholuck, verm. Schrr. vol. II. p. 3S4ss. [Life of Keppler, in Lib. of Us. Know. Lond. 1833.] c) Hutterus redivivus, by K. ffase, 1 ed. Lps. 1848. p. 88s. d) Meditationes sacrae, 1606. 12. and often. Uebers. v. JT. A. Schmidt, Brl. (1827.) 1S37. Loci th. Jen. 1610-22. 9 vols. 4. den. ed. Cotta, Tub. 1762ss. 20 vols. 4. Methodus studii th. Jen. 1617. ed. 1 1654. Schola pietatis d. L chr. Unterrichtung, was vor Ursachen z. GottseeL bewcgen sollen. Jena. 1623. 6 ed. Nurnb. 1663. Confessio cath. Jen. 1683-7. 4 vols. 4. Frcf. 1679. f. Dispp. quibus dogmm. Calvinianor. expenduntur. Jen. 1638. 4 K J. Fischer, Vita J. G. Lps. 1723. Hist ecc. p. XVIL in vita J. G. illustr. Lps. 1727. a) Heppe, d. Charakter d. deutsch.-Eef. K. u. d. -Verb. drs. z. Lutherth. u. Calv. (Stul. u. Krtt 1S50. H. 3.) CHAP. II. CALVINISM. 854. PALATINATE. HESSE. 413 introduced into the churches the simplicity and chilliness of Switzerland (1562). By his authority, Ursinus and Olevianus composed the Heidelberg Catechism, which was soon after not only received as the Creed of the Ger- man Eeformed Church, but has been highly esteemed in> many foreign coun- tries. The devotional spirit of this Confession gives prominence to the doc- trine of divine Predestination only so far as it seemed needful to console the Christian with the certainty of redemption, and to that of the Eucharist only to impart an assurance of communion with Christ, (b) At the religious con- ference held for the reconciliation or for the conversion of parties at Naul- brunn (1564), the theology of Wiirtemberg was found to be in striking con- trast with that of the Palatinate, and the doctrine of the Eucharist based upon that of the ubiquity of Christ's body exhibited sufficient power to divide the Church, (c) Under Louis VI. (1576) Lutheranism was established, but after his death (1583), the Calvinistic tendency became predominant. The latter also triumphed in the midst of violent popular commotions in Bremen (1561-81), although the cathedral was finally opened (1638) to the Lutherans, who could not be entirely exterminated there, (d) In Anhalt, the ecclesias- tical establishment of the Palatinate was adopted from attachment to Melanc- thon (1596). (e) Under a similar influence, Nassau, protesting against the monster ubiquity in the Eorm of Concord, was induced to adopt the Heidel- berg Catechism (1582), and in consequence of its relation to the house of Orange, it was brought to accept of the ecclesiastical system which prevailed in the Netherlands (1586). (/) Maurice, the learned Landgrave of Hesse- Cassel, after many fruitless efforts to reconcile the two Churches, compelled the Lutheran Church to adopt such improvements (1605) as ultimately brought them into the Calvinistic communion; but in Upper Hesse Lutheranism still prevailed, (g) Notwithstanding many disturbances, the established churches generally followed the form of reformation adopted by their respective princes, for no alternative was allowed their ministers but either to preach the doc- trines embraced by the civil authorities, or to leave the country. John Sigis- mund, the Elector of Brandenburg, once gave his oath to his father that he would never forsake the doctrines of Luther, but oa Christmas 1613, he re- ceived the sacrament of the Lord's Supper in the court church in Berlin, ac- cording to the Calvinistic ritual. In the confession of faith which he made (1614), he declares that in professing himself of the Eeformed Evangelical Church, he acted without regard to the authority of human names, under the direction of the Holy Spirit through the Scriptures, that his object was to sast away all remnants of papal superstition, (K) and that in God's cause he Z>) First impression in German and Latin, Heidelb. 1563. Niemeyer, Col. Confess, p. LVII, 890ss. & v. Alpen, Gesch. u. Lit d. Heid. Cat Erl. 1800. Augusti (411.) p. 96ss. c) (Ursinus) Protocoll d. i. Acta d. Gespr. zu Maulb. Hdlb. 1565. 4. Heppe, Gesch. d. dt Prot vol. II. p. lisa. d) Gerdes, Hist motuum ecc. in civ. Bremensi temp. Hardenbergii. Gron. 1T56. J. H. JDuntse, Gesch. d. fr. Stadt. Br. Brern. 1843. vol. III. p. 859ss. e) Eepetitlo Anhaltina. 15T9. Niemeyer, Col. p. 612ss. Beckmann, Hist d. Furst Anhalt Zerbst ITlOss. vol. VL p. 12188. /) J. H. Steubing, K. u. Ee Gesch. d. Oranien-Nass. Lande, Hadam. 1S04. g) Heppe, d. Einfuhr. d. Verbesserungspunkte in Hessen. 1604-10. Cass. 1S49. h) Niemeyer p. LXXVII, 642ss. 414 MODERN CHURCH HISTOBY. PEE. V. A. D. 1517-1C4S, wai xiot bound by his previous covenant. Although he sought to indued otho/s to follow him, divested the University of Frankfort of its Lutheran character, and abolished the legal authority of the Form of Concord, he only demanded Christian toleration from his own country ; and yet so great wan the dissatisfaction of the Lutheran people of the Marquisate and of Prussia, that however beneficial such a change of faith may have been to his foreign relations, it could not on the whole have been recommended on the score of mere expediency, (i) The feelings of those connected with the Reformed party were much more decided, and those Lutherans who went over to it never looked upon themselves as apostates, inasmuch as they still firmly ad- hered to the Confession of Augsburg (of 1540). In the Religious Peace no mention had been made of the Reformed Church, but its members claimed the privileges of those professing a faith kindred with that of the Augsburg Confession. Accordingly, in the negotiations on this subject at the Diet of Augsburg (1576), and under the influence of the evangelical spirit of Fred- eric III., the Lutherans did not venture in the presence of the Catholic impe- rial party to repel these powerful allies, (fc) 355. The Netherlands. G. Brandt, Hist dcr. Reformatie de Nederlanden. Amst (166338.) 16T7. 4 vols. 4 EngL Loml. 1720. 4 vols. French, Abstract Amst 1780. 8 vols. 12. D. Gerdes, H. Ret voL IIL Tpey en Der- mout. Geschledenisscn der Nederlandsche hervormde Kerk. Breda. 1819-27. 4 vols. Correspondance do Philippe II. snr les affaires des Paysbas, publi6e par Gachard, Par. 1843-61. 2 vols. [Schiller, Revolt of the Netherlands. Now York. 1847. 12. T. C. Ch-nttan, Hist of the Netherl. Phila. de Bray, Essai sur 1'Hist de 1'eglise Anninienne. Strasb. 1S35. 4. /) Nlemeyer, Col. p. 690ss. 0) Ed. 0. P. Fritzsche, Tur. 1839. in Niemeyer p. 462ss. CHAP. 1IL EUROPEAN REFORM. 357. AUSTRIA. HUNGARY. 417 the higher classes in Austria. Ferdinand /., during the last years of his reign, stood aloof from the strife of parties. Maximilian II. (1564-76), whom the Protestants regarded as a secret believer in their principles, and the Eomans as an apostate, endeavored to reconcile both sides, and to pro- mote a general reform consistently with the laws, by giving to the knights and to the princely cities the privilege of forming an ecclesiastical system according to the Confession of Augsburg. Hungarian students who studied at "Wittenberg and returned to their native country imbued with Lutheran sentiments, "Waldenses, Hussites, and Humanists, were all instrumental in carrying the principles of the Reformation in every direction. The most sanguinary laws were insufficient to impede the progress of these agencies. All laws were silent during the storm which followed the battle of Mohacs (1526). No greater severity against the Protestants was exercised by the house of Hapsburg when its hold upon Hungary was so precarious, than was indispensable to its own security ; and wherever the Turks held sway, a form of worship in which no images were used might be extended without ob- struction. Ferdinand I. conceded to a few magnates and towns in his domin- ions the enjoyment of a free religious toleration, which was still further increased under Maximilian. The Reformed churches became equally numer- ous, and soon began to be disturbed by controversies. The writings of Luther were also carried into Transylvania by some merchants of Hermanstadt. on their return from the fair at Leipsic (1521). After enduring many persecu- tions, all the Saxon churches declared themselves adherents of the Augsburg Confession (1544), the Magyars connected themselves with the Reformed Church, and the "Wallachians continued to worship according to the Greek ritual. During the civil wars which took place in Hungary for the posses- sion of the throne, complete religious freedom was granted to Transylvania at the Diet of Clauseriburg (1556). In an election of a king of Bohemia (1526), Ferdinand was chosen instead of the Duke of Bavaria, principally on account of the favor which he showed to the Utraquists. In the commence- ment of the Smalkaldic war the Electors of Saxony were invested with the power to command the army furnished by the Bohemian states in any way which might promote the common cause. These, in consequence of Luther's success, had regained their former spirit and power, had become reconciled with the Bohemian brethren, and now combined their Hussite sentiments partly with Lutheran and partly with Reformed doctrines, (a) Rudolph II. (after 1576) permitted evangelical persons in all parts of his dominions to be oppressed, freedom of opinion was confined to the nobility, and divine wor- ship (after 1604) was entirely suppressed by public violence. Stephen Bot- skai, Prince of Transylvania, whose power was considerable on account of his alliance with the* Turks, now took up arms for the establishment of po- litical and religious liberty. He succeeded in obtaining the Peace of Vienna (1606), by which Hungary and Transylvania were allowed freely to receive either the Augsburg or the Helvetic Confession. (J) In the latter province a) Confession of 1535 & 1575 in Lat in Niemeyer, Col. p. 771. 819ss. With many original documents : Die andero Apologia der Stande d. 3L Boheimb, a. d. bohni. Spr. in die teutsche ver- setzt a. 1619. 4. 1) Pacificatio Viennensis in Eniber-Lampe. p. 325ss. 4 1 8 MODEEN CHTTECH HISTORY. PEE. V. A. D. 1517-1643. popery had been entirely renounced, and in Hungary a majority of the people and nearly all the nobles had done the same. While the members of the house of Hapsburg were contending with one another, the evangelical states of Austria, with arms in their hands, obtained from the Archduke Matthias the restoration of all the privileges they had acquired under Maxi- milian. The Bohemians at the same time received from the Emperor Ru- dolph an imperial charter, (c) by which they were placed on the same ground with the Catholics, and the supreme power was conceded to the states (1609) 358. Sweden. J. JSaaz, Inventarium Ecc. Suco-Gotbor. LIncop. 1042. 4. P. E. Thyselius, Handlingar. til Sverges Keformations-och Kyrkohlstoria under Gustaf. I. Stockb. 1841-5. 2 vols. (Comp. Zcitscb. f. List Th. 1846. II. 2. 1S4T. II. 2.) R. C. 7?5ir, de Gust. I. rcrum sacr. instauratore. Traj. ad Eh. 1840. Geijer, Gescb. Schw. (p. 246. nt 6.) 1834. vol. II. Schinmeier, Leb. d. drel scbwed. Eeffi Lor. Anderson, Oluf u. Lor. Peterson. Lab. 1788. 4. A. Theiner, Scbw. u. s. Stellung z. h. Stuhl. unter Job., Big. and Karl IX. Augsb. 1888. f. 2 vola. [Vertot, Eev. In 8w. on account of tho change in Eeligion, from the French by J. Mitctel, Lond. 1723. 8.] , Sweden had been delivered from the sanguinary hands of the Danes by Gustavus Vasa (after 1521). The Reformation was preached there by the brothers Olaf and Laicrcnce Peterson, who had studied at "Wittenberg, and were so constituted by nature that the one possessed those intellectual quali- ties in which the other was deficient. The bishops, who held in their hands the principal wealth of the country, were connected with the Danish inter- est, and the new government, anxious to relieve the people of their taxes and to pay off their Ilanseatic mercenaries, longed to obtain possession of the property of the Church. A public discussion was held under the royal pro- tection at Upsala (1526), and a translation of tho New Testament was made by tho Chancellor Anderson. The king, sustained by the nobility and peas- antry, humbled the bishops at the Diet of Westeras (1527), and took posses- sion of the property of the Church. The Reformation was introduced in accordance with the advice of Luther, although the greater portion of the people for a long time received only its external form, and scarcely noticed the change, and even the king had cause to deny that any change had taken place in the national religion. Those bishops who acknowledged the new order of things remained members of the diet and superintendents of the Church, but they were made dependent upon the royal favor, and their pow- ers were circumscribed by the authority of consistories. A reconciliation with Catholicism was sought for under John III. (after 1568), whose wife was a Polish princess, and belonged to the Catholic Church ; but in conse- quence of the refusal of the Romish court to concede tho demands of the king, and the opposition of the people to the Catholic ritual, the effort proved unsuccessful, (a) Sigismund, King of Poland and (after 1592) of Sweden, atoned for his attempt to oppress the evangelical Church by the loss of the Swedish crown, which was won (1599, 1604) by his uncle, Charles IX., the champion of Protestantism. At first nothing but the word of God contained c) A. e. bohm. Urk. ubers. m. Anin. v. Borott, Gorl. 1S03. a) Die Jesuiten als Vermittler e. prot. Kirchenagende. Brl. Monatschr. 1794. lately ed. by .ohr, Neust 1325. CHAP. IIL EUROPEAN EEFOKM. 859. DENMARK. 419 in the Holy Scriptures was acknowledged as the creed of the Church. But finally the clergy, that they might meet the calumnies of their Catholic op- ponents, and that the whole Swedish nation might have hut one God, and might worship him as one man, proclaimed their adherence to the Augsburg Confession in 1593, and to the Form of Concord in 1663, (5) and a law was enacted which provided that all who should apostatize to popery should he banished from the country. 359. Denmark with Norway and Iceland. Pontoppidan, (p. 246. nt a.) vol. II. p. 754ss. vol. III. Munter, Danske Eef. Historie. Kjobenb. 2 vols. u. KGesch. v. Dim. u. Nor. Lpz. 3834. vol. IIL Stemmer fra den Danske Kirkes Ecf. Tid. Odense. 1836. 4.Mulerte, de causis propagatae celeriter in Dan. ref. Haf. 1817. 4. The whole power of the Danish state was shared between the bishops and the barons. Christiern II. was elected king in 1513, and proved to be a tyrant under the tyranny of the mother of his paramour. Under him the nobility were degraded, the people were exalted, and the Eeformation was favored that he might obtain the mastery of the bishops, (a) On his expul- sion by the united power of the barons and prelates, his uncle Frederic I. of Holstein (1523-33), who was connected by marriage with the house of Sax- ony, and a firm friend of the gospel, was raised to the throne. But in the stipulations made before his election, he pledged himself to maintain the privileges and rights of the bishops, and to punish those who preached against the God of heaven and the holy Father by fines and bodily chastise- ments. The Eeformation continued still to spread among the people until the king obtained a law at the Diet of Odense (1527), by which Protestants and Catholics were put in possession of equal civil privileges, the marriage of priests was tolerated, and the election of bishops was rendered indepen- dent of Eome. The bishops protested against the succession of his oldest son, with whom Luther was known to be on terms of intimacy. Christiern IILj however, succeeded in gaining over to his party the lay members of the diet, when all the bishops were suddenly attacked on the 20th Aug., 1536, and their freedom was obtained only by the renunciation of their dignities. Roennow, Bishop of Eoeskild, alone would yield nothing to the injury of his Church, and died the death of a martyr in prison (1544). At a diet held at Copenhagen (Oct., 1536), from which the clergy were entirely excluded, the political privileges of the Church were completely destroyed, and its posses- sions were shared by the king and the nobles. The king was crowned by JRugenhagen, and an ecclesiastical constitution was adopted by which a few titular bishops were appointed, and the Church was made entirely dependent upon the court. (5) The Form of Concord was cast into the flames by Frederic II. (1581), (e) but during the ITth century it possessed great au- thority among the people. The new Church was established without oppo- 6) Ev. K. Zeitung. 1835. N. 56. a) JDaMmann, Gesch. v. Dannemark. vol. III. p. 850ss. 6) Mohnike, Kronung Ghr. u. s. Gemahlin durch Bug. Strals. 1835. M&nter, Symbb. ad ill. Pa- genbagii in Dania commorationem. Hafn. 1886. c) J. ff. ab Elswich, de F. C. num in Dania sit combusta? Wit 1716. 4. Gegen s. Zweifel die Urkunde: Gcrde^ H. Ee voL III. prae 420 MODEEN CHURCH HISTORY. PER. V. A. D. 1517-164a sition in Norway, not, however, until the Archbishop of Drontheim had fled with all the ecclesiastical treasures (1537). In Iceland the Episcopal party were destroyed while struggling with arms in their hands (1550). 360. Poland, Livonia, and Eoorland. Adr. Regenvolsoii (Wengierskf), Syst hist ebron. Eccl. Slavonicarnm. Ultraj. 1652. 4. Jura et libertt. Dissidentium in regno Pol. Ber. 1707. t. Schicksale d. pol. Dissid. Hmb. 176Sss. 8 volst C. 6. v. Friese, Ref. Gescb. v. Pohlen u. Utth. BreL 17S6. 8 vols. G. W. C. Lochner, Fata et rationes familiarum cbr. in Pol. quae ab Ecc. cath. allcnao fueront, usque ad consensus Sendom. temp. (Acta Soc. Jablonovianae. Lps. 1832. Th. IV. Fsc. 2.) C. V. frartnski, Ilistor. Sketch of the Rise, Pro- gress, and Decline of the Ref. in Poland. Lond. ISSSes. 2 vola. 8vo. bcarb. v. Lindau. Lpz. 1841. K. L. Tetsch, knrl. KHist Riga u. L. 1767s*. 8 vols. J. Lukassewice, Gesch. d. Ref. Kirchen in LUb, Lpz. 1848-50. 2 vola. 8. [An Account of Livonia and the Marian Teu. Ord. Lond. 1701. 8.] . Many persons expelled from various countries on account of their religion, found an asylum in Poland under the protection of particular nobles. Churches had therefore been formed which were composed of Bohemian brethren, of the Reformed, and of Lutherans. After some warm controver- sies these became united at the Synod of Sendomir (1570), under one gene- ral confession, whose indefinite articles afforded room for minor differences of opinion, (a) As the power of the waiwodes was almost unlimited in their respective domains, the kings and bishops had very little power to inflict persecution. By these inferior governors a religious peace was concluded during the interregnum (Pax Dissidentium, 1573), which had the force of a law of the empire to secure equal privileges to Catholics and Protestants. But as early as the time of Sigismund III. (after 1587), the Catholic party had acquired much strength by means of the inducements which the king and the Church could present to the higher nobility, while many of the Dis- sidents had become dissatisfied with the general confession of faith, and had renewed the former controversies in the body to which they belonged. Vladislaus IV. sought in vain to effect a general reconciliation, or at least a mutual understanding of the contending parties, by means of a religious dis- cussion held at Thorn (1644). (5) The Grand Master of Livonia could not refrain from following the example of Prussia, although the archbishop arrayed himself in defence of prescriptive rights and the ancient faith. Riga decided in favor of the Reformation (1523), and conscious of its inde- pendence as an imperial city, it became a member of the League of Smal- kald (1538). Nearly all the population had embraced the cause of the Reformation when the Grand Master, Conrad Rettler, assumed the title of Duke of Koorland and Semigallia (1561). That portion of Livonia, how- ever, which was situated on the other side of the Dwina, and which he could not defend against the power of Russia, was ceded to Poland on con- dition that it should be permitted to profess the Augsburg Confession. a) Consensus Sendomiriensis Fief, ad V. 1704. Jdblonski, Hist Cons. Sendom. Ber. 1731. 4, 6) Scripta facientia ad Colloq. Thorun. Helmst 1G45. 4. Acta Conv. Thor. Yarsav. 1646. 4. CHAP. IIL EUROPEAN EEFOKM. 361. ENGLAND. 421 GEEAT BEITAIN AND IEELAND. Wllkins, Cone. Brit. vol. III. Kef. Ecc. Anglic. Lond. 1603. t.G. Burnet, H. of tho Eef. of the Church of Engl. Lond. (1679ss. 2 vols. f.) [New York. 3 and 4 vols. 8.] E. Cardwell, Documentary Annals of the Ee Church of Engl. 1546-1716. Oxf. 1839. 2 vols. J. Strype, Ecc. Memorials under Henry VIII., Edw. and Mary. Lond. 1721. 3 vols. f. and Annals of the Eef. during the reign of Q. Eliz. Lond. (1709S6.) 1725ss. 4 vols. f. H. Soames, H. of the Eef. of the Church of EngL Lond. 1826ss. 4 vols. J. v. Gumpach, Gesch^, d. Trennung d. engl. K. v. Born. Darmst 1845. Weber, ( 297.) vol. II. : Der construct Theil. d. Eef. u. d. purit. Sectenbildung. 1853. [J. 1C. Worgan, Speculum Eccl. Anglicanae, or Eef. in Engl. Lond. 1830. Zurich Letters, ed. by H. Robinson, Lond. 1846. 8. T. Fuller, Church Hist, of G. B. Lond. 1837. 3 vols. 8. C. Maittand, The Eef. in Engl. Lond. 1849. 8. Doffs Church Hist, of Engl. from 1500-1688. Lond. 1839. 5 vols. 8. T. V. Short, Hist of the Church of Engl. till 1688. Lond. 1840. 8.] Primordia Eef. Hibernicae. (Gcrdes, Miscell. Groning. vol. VII. P. I.) R. Mant, H. of the Church of Irel. from the Kef. to the Eevol. Lond. 1839. As a curiosity : Cobbett, H. of the Prot Eef. in Engl. and Irel. Lond. 1828. 2 vols. D. Hume: Hist of Great Brit (Stuart) Edinb. Lond. 1754ss. 2 vols. 4. Hist of Engl. (Tudor.) Lond. 1759. 2 vols. 4 and often. Lingard, Hist of Engl. till 1688. Lond. 1849. 13 vols. 12. 361. Establishment of the Anglican Church. A party favorable to the Reformation had been prepared in England by the influence of "Wycliffe, and it was now revived by the circulation of the writings of Luther. An English translation of the New Testament by Fryth and Tindal was printed at Antwerp (1526), and went like a Phoenix from its ashes across the channel. But Henry VIII. defended the religion of St. Tho- mas with his pen and his sword. Subsequently, however, his deadly love was fixed upon Anna Boleyn, and he entertained doubts of the lawfulness of his marriage with Catharine of Aragon, his 'brother's widow. Clement VII. could not consent to annul this marriage with the aunt of the emperor. By the advice of Cranmer the king obtained a decision of a body of learned men, who declared that the marriage of a brother's widow was null and void. He then married Anna and fell under the papal ban. A Parliament, in which servility rather than a love of reform prevailed, sundered all connection be- tween England and the pope, and the king, who ruled in God's stead both in Church and state, probably according to his lusts, was recognized as the sole head of the Church (after 1532). An immense property belonging to the monasteries now fell into the hands of the king, and a still greater treasure of art and antiquity was squandered. Cranmer, who had been exalted to the archiepiscopal see of Canterbury and secretly married to a German lady, now endeavored to involve the king in the Reformation, even contrary to the royal wishes. The superstition of the times was exposed in the most unsparing manner. Becket's sepulchre was dishonored, and the Holy Scriptures were distributed among the people. The venerable bishop, John Fisher, died in defence of the liberties of the Church, and the Chancellor Thomas More was beheaded pleading for such a reformation as no royal or popular violence could efiect, and clinging fondly to his ideal of a future commonwealth, in which all might have room to labor equally for the common weal in a life of happiness conformed to natural laws, (a) But the Catholics sometimes re- minded the king of his celebrated defence of the faith, and of the law of 1539, in a) De optima reipubL statu deque nova insula Utopia 1516. G. Th. Rudhart, Thomas Morua, Numb. 1829. W. J. Walter, Sir Thos. More. Lond. 1830. \J. Macintosh, Life of Sir Thomas Moie. Lond. 12.] 422 MODERN CHUKCH HISTOEY. PEE. V. A. D. 1517-1643. which transubstantiation, celibacy, masses for the dead, and auricular confes- sion had been placed under the protection of the common hangman. (&) The followers of Luther and of the pope were frequently executed on the same gibbet. It was not till the time of the regency during the minority of Ed- ward VI. (after 1547), that Cranmer was able, by means of the Parliament, to enter thoroughly upon the work of reform, and by calling Bucer to Cam- bridge, to form an alliance with the German divines. Edward, however, died in early youth (1553), and Mary, the daughter of Catharine, inherited the crown. She had been educated in the Catholic Church, had endured in her youth many sacrifices in its behalf, and now became animated with extreme enthusiasm to see it victorious. With hands full of blood and violence she now gave back England to the pope, and Cranmer died at the stake far more heroically than he had lived (1556). (c) In early life Mary sunk under the weight of her own melancholy and the hatred of her people (1558). Eliza- beth, the daughter of Anna, then ascended the throne. Her birth was, according to the decision of the Romish Church, illegitimate, and she had been educated in the evangelical faith of her mother, as well as in the school of misfortune. During the long, rigid, and prosperous reign (till 1603) of this virgin queen, the Reformation was established in spite of internal and external enemies, with a good degree of circumspection and moderation. But even she sometimes found occasion for the axe of the executioner against Anglo-Ro- man missionaries and assassins. Many Catholic ceremonies were still retained in the book of Common Prayer. A confession of faith was formed under Edward, and afterwards reduced to 39 Articles, which was accepted by a convocation of the clergy at London (1562), and was made by Parliament the rule of faith for all the clergy (1571). In this it is declared that the Scrip- tures contain every thing necessary to salvation, that justification is through faith alone, but that works acceptable to God are the necessary fruit of this faith, that in the Lord's Supper there is a communion of the body of Christ, which is spiritually received by faith, and predestination is apprehended only as it is a source of consolation, (d) Supreme power over the Church is vested in the English crown, but it is limited by statutes. Bishops continued to be the highest ecclesiastical officers, and the first barons of the realm. Whatever was done by the kings of England against the papacy and in behalf of the Reformation, was enforced also as the law for Ireland. But the Irish obsti- nately resisted every effort of their tyrannical oppressors to compel them to embrace the new faith.* The English, however, proved from the Old Testa- ment that as a conquered territory Ireland belonged to them as Canaan onco belonged to the Israelites. The free and common territory of the confeder- ated and kindred tribes was converted into royal fiefs, and when the principal chiefs were goaded on by continual oppressions to rise in rebellion, their lands were given to Englishmen, until the native inhabitants were almost com- &) Wttkins, vol. III. p. 848s. c) Strype, Th. Cr. Lond. (1694.) 1711. f. Gilpin, Th. Cr. Lend. 1784. Samml. merkw. Lebens- beschrr. a. d. brit Biogr. Hal. 1754ss. voL II. ff. J. Todd, Life of Cr. Lond. 1831. [Livee of Cr. by C. W. Lebas, & Mrs. Lee & Vind. of Cr. by Todd.} d) Niemeyer, Col. p. 601 ss. CHAP. III. EUROPEAN REFORMATION. 362. PURITANS. 423 pletely destitute of property. The entire revenues and property of the Church were gradually taken possession of by a foreign Protestant hierarchy, by the side of which the Irish were obliged to sustain their own bishops and pastors from their own scanty resources. 362. Origin of the Puritans and Independents. (Sraddiaw.) The English Puritane. Lond. 1605. Lat : Puritanismus angl. Frcf. 1610. Z>. Neal, H. of the Puritans. Lonrl. (1731ss. 4 vols.) 1793-7. 1822. 5 vols. [With notes by J. 0. Choules. New York. 1844. 2 vols. 8.] J. B. Marsden, Hist of the early Puritans (till 1642.) Lond. 1S50. [ IV. IT. Stowell & D. Wilson, H. of the Puritans in Engl. & of the Pilg. Fathers. Lond. 1826. 12. B. Brpoks, Lives of the Puritans. Lond. 1813. 3 vols. 8.] Robinson, Apol. pro exulibus Anglis, qui Brownistae appellantur. Lugd. 1619. 4. C. Walker, H. of Independency. Lond. (1648ss.) 1661. 3 vols. 4. B. Ilanbury, Hist. Memorials, relating to the Independents or Congregationalists. Lond. 1839. 3 vols. \Bogu6 & Bennett, Hist, of the Dissenters. Lond. 1808-12. 4 vols. 8.] W. Chlebus, die Dissenters. (Ze.tsch. f. hist Th. 1848. H. 1.) A party consisting principally of those strict Oalvinists who had suffered persecution under the reign of Mary, and now had returned as confessors, took offence at the dependence of the Church upon the state, at the high preroga- tives of the bishops, and at the splendid ritual of worship, whose indifferent forms not being expressly authorized by Scripture, were looked upon as rem- nants of Antichrist. These Puritans demanded a Presbyterian form of Church government, a simple spiritual form of worship, and a strict disci- pline. Elizabeth endeavored to overcome their opposition, but this was found rather to increase with their Sabbatical festivals on Sunday, and their Calvin- istic doctrine of predestination. By the Act of Uniformity (1559) all Non- conformists were threatened with fines and imprisonment, and their ministers with deposition and banishment. But those ministers who had resigned theii congregations, or been deposed, established new congregations in connection with Presbyteries (after 1572), and the most vigorous portion of the estab- lished Church itself exhibited an inclination toward Puritanism. A separa- tion from a church which was regarded as a persecutor of Christians was now effected on conscientious principles by Robert Brown (after 1580), and after his return by John Eolinson (after 1610), who preached that according to apostolic example every congregation should be an independent church, that every man was justified in worshipping God according to his own conscience, and that ministers were dependent only on their congregations. These Inde- pendents, when they were compelled to leave their own country formed con- gregations in the Netherlands and in America, but they were still firmly rooted in England, where the Puritans under continual persecutions became daily more violent and gloomy, and gradually a dangerous and powerful party. In their morals and manners they were eminently pious, they looked upon al earthly pleasures as sinful, their own fancies were regarded as divine inspira- tions, and they thought that the state itself should be subject to their demo- cratic hierarchy. 424 MODERN CHURCH HISTORY? PER. V. A. D. 1517-1648, 363. Scotland. J. Knox, H. of the Ref. of ScotL (till 156T.) Lond. 1864. & often. D. Caldtrwood, II. of tin Kirk of Sc. Lond. 16T8. t Edinb. 1845. 7 Tola. Gil. Stuart, H. of the Ref. In Sc. Lond. 1780. G. Cook, II. of the Church of Sc. from the Ref. Edinb. 1815. 8 vols. K. ff. Sack, d. K. v. Sch. Heidlb. 1844 2 Abth. K. G. v. Rudloff, Gesch. d. Ref. in Sch. Brl. 1S47-9. 2 vols, [J. Skinner, EccL Hist of Sc. Lond. 1818. 2 vote. 8. Analecta Scotia, illnstr. the civil, eccL & lit H. of Sc. Ed. 1884-T. 2 vols. 8. W. 3f. HeUierington, II. of the Church of Sc. till 1848. 4 ed. Edinb. 1858. a 8 ed. New York. 1844. 8.] Robertson, H. of Sc. Edinb. 1759. 8 vols. 4 & often. [New York. 1886. a P. F. Tytler, H. of Sc. Lond. 1842-44 9 vols. a A 1845. 7 vols. a Sir IF. Scott, H. of So, new ed. Lond. 1837. 2 vols. 12.] The first martyr for the Reformation in Scotland (1528) was Patrick Hamilton, a youth belonging to the royal family, hut favorable to the Refor- mation in consequence of his studies in Germany. Cardinal Beatoun continued to burn persons at the stake until a martyr predicted from the midst of the flames his own violent death (1546). Such martyrdoms were the most im- pressive kind of preaching for a rude and sensuous, but true-hearted people. Under the unsettled regency which bore sway during the minority of Queen Mary Stuart the reform party had opportunity to gain strength. The leader and the impetuous but eloquent preacher of this party was John JKnox (d. 1572), whose vigor had been acquired amid the flames of persecution and the toils of the galleys, and who had learned to despise the terrors as well as the pleasures of the world, (a) After the marriage of Mary with the Dau- phin of France the regency attempted, with the aid of French troops to over- throw the Reformation, and to enforce the hereditary claims of the quecu upon the English crown. The Reformed party then collected together and formed themselves into a Congregation of Christ at Edinburgh (1557), and with Elizabeth's assistance obtained an act of Parliament (1560) by which the people received a Calvinistic Reformation, (5) and the nobles the greater part of the property of the Church. But in the season of its triumph Protestant- ism sought to persecute its enemies ; it sometimes cost a person his property, and even his life, to attend a mass, and a pious vandalism wreaked its fury upon the monuments of the Church. After the death of her husband Mary returned to her own hereditary dominions (1561). The frivolous manners of this beautiful queen's court were an abomination to the stern Calvinists, and Knox went to meet her as the ancient prophet did the idolatrous queen, and remained unmoved by her tears. Finally she awoke the flames of civil war, not so much by her secret machinations against the Reformation as by her criminal passions. Failing to accomplish her purposes by such means she now cast herself into the fatal arms of Elizabeth, (c) The crown was placed upon the head of her son, James VI. (1567), the leaders of the Reformation were made regents during his minority, and a Presbyterian form of ecclesias- tical government was every where adopted (1592). a) Smetoniun, Vita Kn. Edinb. 1579. 4 Th. JfcCrie. Life of J. Kn. Edinb. 1811. 2 vols. & often. [Cincinnati, (in Calv. Lib. vol. IIL) 1838. 8.] Im Ansz. v. Planck, Gott 1817. G. Weber, J. Kn. u. d. schott K. (Stud. u. Krit 1842. H. 4) &) Cont Scoticana I. in Niemeyer p. LIs. 840ss. ) Corp. Eef. vol. II. p. 741. 855. 879. 904ss. Strobel Mel. Ruf nach Frankr. Numb. 1794. C. Sclimidt, d. Unions- Versache Franz I. (Zeitsch. f. hist. Th. 1850. H. I.) c) H. de la persecution et saccagement du peuplo de Merindol et de Cabrierea et autres circon- toisins appeles Vaudois. 1566. Beza, I, 35ss. d) Niemeyer, Col. p. Sllss. e) JBaum, Beza vol. II. p. 145ss. /) B&noist vol. I. : Recueil d'Edits p. Iss. g) F. W. Barflwld, Deutschl. u. d. Hugen. 1843. voL L 428 HODEE& CHURCH HISTORY. PER. V. A. D. 1517-1648. Coligny were murdered, presenting a horrid earnest of the future revolution, A Te Deum was sung at Kome by the order of Gregory XIII. in honor of this extermination of Christ's enemies, (h) 366. Edict of Nantes. Those who had escaped the massacre now armed themselves for vengeance with the courage of despair, and once more conquered from their enemies a recognition of their rights (1676). Henry of Navarre, who had been spared, and compelled to deny his faith, assumed the position which naturally be- longed to him, and became the leader of the Huguenots. But the Guises, in alliance with Philip IT., now formed a Holy League, in which a majority of the nobles and people swore that they would exterminate the heretics. ' Charles IX. died under the torture of terrible dreams (1574). Henry III. was compelled to violate the treaty of peace, but finally, disgusted with the tyranny of the Holy League, he had Henry, Duke of Guise, the Gideon of Catholic France, assassinated, and the Cardinal of Guise executed, fled before the fury of the Catholic populace to the camp of the King of Navarre, was excom- municated by the pope, and was at last assassinated by the Dominican, Clem- ent (1589). By this death of the last of the house of Valois the throne de- scended by inheritance to Henry of Navarre, whose title had been declared invalid by the pope and the league. After many severe struggles to gain pos- session of his royal rights, and finding that he could never hope to give peace to his subjects so long as the greater portion of them regarded him as a here- tic, Henry IV. concluded that France was worth the offering of a mass (1593). As soon, however, as his kingdom became settled, he secured to his real com- panions in faith by the irrevocable Edict of Nantes (1598) freedom of reli- gious faith, the public worship of God with only a few trifling restrictions, all then* rights as citizens, and great privileges as an organized political corpora- tion, (a) They were indeed to pay tithes to the established Church, but were to be free from all kinds of episcopal jurisdiction. Although these conces- sions did not completely satisfy even the Huguenots, it required the whole royal power to enforce compliance with the edict among the magistrates, and in the provinces opposed to it. But just as France had begun to enjoy the highest prosperity under his administration, just as he was about to execute the- most enlightened schemes for the permanent pacification of Europe, Henry fell beneath the dagger of Eavaillac (May 14, 1610). The peaceful sons of the old Huguenot heroes were finally driven to insurrection by a series of violations of their rights, and Cardinal Richelieu by the power of his intellect overthrew all opposition, and disarmed them as a political party. At the same time, by an act of amnesty at Nismes (1629), he secured to them all those ecclesiastical rights which had been guaranteed in the Edict of Nantes; but by various persecutions and frequent apostasies the reformed Ti) Audin, H. de la 8. Barth61emy. Par. 1826. Wackier, d. Bluthochzeit Lps. (1826.) 1828, Against Capefigue: Rarike: hist polit Zeitsch. 1835. vol. II. St 3. & Franz. Gesch. vol. I. p. 26989, W. G. Soldan, Frankr. u. d. Bartholomaosnacht. (Raumer's hist Tascheub. 1854.) a) Benoist, Monn. p. 62ss. CHAP. III. EUROPEAN EEFOEM. 367. SPANIAEDS. ITALIANS. 429 Church was reduced to not more than half the strength which it possessed before the night of St. Bartholomew. (5) 367. Spain and Italy. M. Geddes, Martyrologium eor. qni in Hisp. etc. (3fos7iem. Dss. ad II. ecc. Alt. 1 733. p. 663.) R. Consalvi, Eelat de martt Prot. in Hisp. (Gerdes, Serin, vol. IV. P. II.) APCrie, H. of the pro- gress & suppression of the Eeform. in Spain. Edinb. 1829. Adolfo de Castro, H. de los Protes- tantes Espanoles. Cadiz. 1851. [The Spanish Protestants and their persecution under Philip II., from the Spanish of De Castro, by T. Parker. Lond. 1852. 8. It. Watson, Philip II. of Spain. New York. 1S18. 8.]Gerdesii, Spec. Ital. reformatae. L. B. 1765. 4. JlPCrie, II. of the progress & suppr. of the Eef. in Italy. Edinb. tS27. C. F. Leopold, u. d. Ursachen d. Eef. u. deren Verfall in Ital. (Zeitsch. hist Th. 1843. H. 2.) In the train of the emperor the seeds of the Reformation were conveyed to Spain, where they were cherished perhaps even by some who surrounded his dying bed, (a} and certainly were received with the highest enthusiasm, in some instances from a patriotic resistance to the inquisition, but in others from a profound religious feeling, which found satisfaction in the reformed doctrine of justification. But Catholicism, especially the worship of the saints, is deeply rooted in the obstinate spirit of the Spanish people. Purity of faith is as highly valued by a Spaniard as purity of blood, and he would not scruple to imbrue his hands in the blood of a Brother who had apostatized from the faith. (5) Martyrdom therefore had no terrors, and when Philip had exhausted the immense resources of his empire in endeavoring to put down the religious revolution among other nations, the inquisition effectually silenced the arguments of Protestantism by throwing into prison and there putting to death all persons suspected of heresy, or by the popular pageantry of an auto da fe. In Italy, the contempt into which the clergy had fallen, and the ex- clusive engagement of worldly men in the studies of polite literature, had produced a spirit which hailed the movement in Germany with great joy. By means of literary societies of Protestants connected with the foreign armies in their midst, and of translations of the writings of the Eeformers generally under assumed names, individual friends or congregations were gained in nearly all the principal towns, and especially in Ferrara, under the protection of the heroic Duchess of Este, a daughter of the King of France, (c) Oppor- tunities, however, were found for the indulgence of evangelical feelings in the Old Church, (d) or they were divided among themselves by controversies re- specting the Lord's Supper, and by the conduct of those who were hostile to all ecclesiastical systems, and therefore wished to destroy or at least encroach upon that portion of the Catholic faith which was retained by the reformers. Moreover none but the middle classes in Italy were ever sincerely devoted to the cause of liberty, and the spirituality of the German and French Protes- tants could never be very popular among a people so fond of those arts which V) Tzschirner, de causis impeditae in Francogal. sacrorum publ. emendationis. (Opp. Lps. 1329. p. 818.) [a) Wm. Stirling, Cloister life of Charles V. Lond. 1852. 8.] 6) Claude Senarcle, Hist, vera de morte Jo. Diazii. 1546. (Gerd esii Serin, antiquar. vol. VIII. P. 1.) Corp. Eef. vol. VI. p. 113s. c) KHistor. Archiv. 1824. P. 4. p. Is. K Munch, K. v. Este. Aach. 1831ss. 2 vols. cf) Del beneficio di Cristo about 1540. & often. liiederer, Nachrr. vol. IV. p. 121. 235ss. 430 MODERN CHTTECH HISTORY. PER. V. A. D. 1517-164S. are addressed exclusively to the outward sense. When therefore the dangei was perceived at Rome, and an inquisitorial tribunal with formidable powers was appointed there (1542), many fled beyond the Alps, and others recanted and relapsed into thoughtlessness, indifference, or even insanity, (c) Dreading the eloquence of martyrdom, the inquisition struck terror into the hearts of the people rather by imprisonment, by consignment to the galleys, and by secret executions. It was only in Calabria that the members of a few churches of the "Waldenses were hunted to death like wild beasts (1560). Near the end of the sixteenth century all vestiges of Protestant communities in Italy were completely obliterated. Among those who fled to foreign countries were some highly honored divines and prelates, who, with few exceptions, spent their lives in great unhappiness. (/) CHAP. IV. FANATICS AND ULTRAISTS OF THE REFORMATION. Sc7ilu8selburg (p. 402.) IT. W. Ei'lkam, Gcsch. d. prot. Sekten im Zclta. d. Ref. Hamb. 1848. ffagen (p. 360.) voL III. 3G8. General Relations of the Reformation. While some who anticipated and co-operated in effecting the Reformation finally shrunk from its results, in the midst of the general commotions which then took place, and the liberty which all enjoyed, many individuals of differ- ent dispositions wished to share in the privileges of the new Church who exceeded either the true limits of Protestantism, or at least those which the popular mind could then tolerate. These extreme characters the reformed churches with one common spirit violently rejected. What Calvin sanctioned by a dark deed, Melancthon praised, (a) Luther remarked that the most deadly acts of the inquisition might thus be justified, and that after all, the hangmen were the most learned doctors. (5) In this way the maxim was gradually formed, that errorists should be silenced, and that obstinate here- tics should not indeed be put to death, but confined, and sent out of the coun- try. Philip alone, among the princes, was disposed to recognize the right of all men to liberty of conscience, and that persons of another faith may pos- sess the essentials of true piety, (c) e) a L. Roth, Fr. Spieras Lebensende, Numb. 1829. /) E. g. Schlosser (p. 402. nt f.) C. Schmidt, Vie de Pierre Martyr VermiglL Strasb. 1835. 4. F Meyer, die ev. Gemeinde in Locarno, ihre Auswand. nacb Zurich u. weiterc Schicks. Zur. 1836s. 2 vola. ) Calvini Defensio ortb. fidei c. errores Serueti, ubi ostenditur, haereticos jure gladii coercendos esse. s. 1. 1554. Corp. Ref. vol. VIII. p. 362. [Stebbing, Hist, of the Church, vol. IL p. 128. Spirit of the Pilgrims, vol. III. p. 615. Bib. Repertory, vol. VIII. p. 87. Beza, Life of Calv. ed. by Sibson, note c. Henry, Life of C. vol. II. p. 219.] V) De Wette vol. II. p. 622. Walch vol. IV. p. 759. X. 374. XV. 1686. XVI. 64 Yet see De Wette vol. III. p. 498. V. 95. Walch vol. XIII. p. 442s. c) Brief an Joh. Friedrich d. Mittlern v. 7. Marz. 1559. (Saliff. voL III. p. 4S6ss. Wetzlarsche. Beltrr. vol. XI. p. 304ss. CHAP. IV. TJLTRAISTS. 869. ANABAPTISTS. 43 1 369. Anabaptists as Fanatics. I Justus M&n,iw: d. Wiederteuffer Lere vnd geheimn. a. H. S. widerlegt M. Yorr. Luth. Witt. 1530. and Von d. Geist d. WT. "Witt. 1544. 4. II. Bidlinger, d. WT. vrsprung, fiirgang, Secten. Zur. 15GO. 4 Newe Zeitung v. d. WT. zu Munsster. (MitLuth. Vorr. u. Melanchth. Propositiones.) Niirnb. 1535. 4 Ordn. d. WT. zu M. 1535. 4. If. Dorpius, warhafftige hist, wie das Ev. zu M. angefangen vnd durch d. WT. verstoret wider auffgehort bat. (Witt.) 1536. 4 Magdeb. 1847. II. a Kerssen- Iroick, anabapt furoris hist narratio. 1564-73. (defective : Mencken, Scrr. Germ. vol. III. a poor trans. : Gesch d. WT. zu M. 1771. 4) II. H. J. H. Otte, Ann. anabaptistici. Bas. 1672. 4. N. Krolin, WT. vorn. in Niederdeutsch. (Hof- mannianer.) Lps. 1758. V, A. Winter, Gesch. d. bal WT. Munch. 1809. H. Jochmus, Gesch. d. KReform zu M. u. ihres Unterganges durch d. WT. Munst 1825. J. Hast, Gesch. d. WT. Munst. 1836. C. A. Cornelius, de fontib. quibus in Hist, seditionis Mon. viri docti usi sunt. Mon 1850. K. Ease, d. Reich d. WT. (Neue Prophete'n.) "While the Reformers justified their opposition to the papacy by appealing to the Scriptures, or to clear and manifest reasons, it was not surprising that others, on the contrary, decidedly arrogated to themselves as individuals what the Church claimed for herself in general, and that fanatical persons mistook their own passionate impulses for divine inspirations. Their rejec- tion of infant baptism, in consistency with the Protestant doctrine of faith, and on account of its want of Scriptural authority, together with their con- sequent- repetition of the baptism of adult believers, became the distinctive badge of their party. These Anabaptists, who made their first appearance at Zwichau and Wittenberg (1521), were nearly all put to death in the Peasants' war, but in almost every part of the country, a class of enthusiasts resem- bling them, but very unlike each other in moral and religious character, be- came the pioneers and freebooters of the Reformation. Some of them were persons who had renounced the world, and others were the slaves of their own lusts ; to some of them marriage was only an ideal religious communion of spirit, to others it was resolved into a general community of w r ives ; some did not differ from the reformers with respect to doctrine, but others rejected original sin and the natural bondage of the will, denied that we are to be justified by the merits of Christ alone, or that we can partake of his flesh, and maintained that our Lord's body was from heaven, and not begotten by the virgin. As they acknowledged no call but that which came directly from God within them, they despised the ministerial office in the Church, and though they denounced all historical records, they justified themselves by isolated passages of the* Bible for overthrowing all existing relations in social life. In their assumed character of men moved by the Holy Ghost, they were of course exalted above all law, and frequently exhibited a spirit of rebellion against every kind of government. Hencje, among both Catholics and Protestants it was thought right to punish them even with death. In Miinster, where the Reformation and civic liberty had obtained the ascend- ency by rather violent measures (1532), some Anabaptists from the Nether- lands having driven out all who opposed them, formed a theocratic Democra- cy (Feb., 1534), which was to be the commencement of Christ's promised kingdom on earth. Matthiesen was regarded by them as the prophet Enoch, and after his heroic death, Bockelson was received by them as the king of the world. Prophets were sent abroad in every direction, a kind of community of goods and polygamy were introduced among them, and the most san 432 MODEEN CHUKCH HISTORY. PEE. V. A. D. 1517-164S. guinary proceedings were enacted under a pretended divine inspiration, until, after a courageous defence, Munster was conquered by the neighboring princes (June 24th, 1525). Their disorderly conduct was then arrested by the sword, and the authority of the hierarchy and of the nobility was re- established. 370. The Anabaptists as an Orderly Community. Collcgiants. Menno Sim. Fundamentnm, together with some other unimportant small works. 1575. Opp. Amst 1646. Comp. Archiv. KGeech. 1814. voL II. B. 1C. Xoosen, Menno 8. Lps. 1843. J. C. Jehring, grundL II. v. den Taufges. b. 1615.) from the Dutch by E. van Gent) Jena. 1720. // Schyn, H. Christianorum, qui Mennonitae appellantnr. Amst 1723. and H. Menn. plonior dednctio. Ib. 1729. . Eitzen, Ethik. Witt 1571. Comp. Pelt in Stud. u. Krit 1848. H. 2. Schwarz, Ibid. I860. H. 1. A. Schweizer, Ibid. H. Iss. a) Conf. Aug. II, 7. Walch. voL X. p. 294ss. Sc/ienkel, u. d. urspr. Yerh. d. K. z. Staale a. d Gcbiete der. ev. Prot (Stud. u. Krit 1850. H. Is.) &) Art. Smalc. p. 352s. De Wette vol IV. p. 106. Walch vol. X. p. 452. 469. c) Hid. p. 460. d) Schr. an d. Landgrafen in Eichter, KVerf. (nt /.) p. 40s. ) Walch vol. X. p. 271s. CHAP. V. PROTESTANTISM. 3T&. LAW. STATE. 441 case the limits, and in another the power itself, showed that in actual practice both views were impracticable in their full extent. In arranging the powers of the Church, however, Luther always had his eye exclusively upon the spiritual interest. In the empire, the Church could be represented only by the imperial states ; and in the hope that the legal bishops would at some time become reconciled to the Church, the superior ecclesiastical offices in Germany remained vacant. For the time being, therefore, the princes and magistrates from love to the Church performed the functions of the highest ec- clesiastical offices as provisional bishops, though with the counsel of distin- guished doctors and the aid of the provincial states. Consistories, composed of civil officers and clergy, were instituted (after 1539) principally for jurisdic- tion over causes connected with marriage, excommunication, and processes in which clergymen were concerned. The government of each provincial Church gradually fell of itself into their hands, responsible only to the civil authorities, so that the actual legal system became directly the reverse of the legal principle originally proposed. (/) Even then Luther had cause to sigh over the bishopric of the court, without any spiritual character, and some- times particular divines, when oppressed, reminded the princes that Christ had not delivered his people from papal bondage merely to make them slaves to the Politici. (g~) But the actual condition of things was soon justified on legal principles by various learned men, on the ground that it was a transfer of the episcopal power to the hands of orthodox princes by virtue of the Eeligious Peace (Episcopal system). (7^) The congregations included in the district of each imperial state constituted a distinct provincial Church. And yet from their opposition to the Catholic imperial Church, and from their possession of a common creed, the Protestant states even after the dissolution of the League of Smalkald, regarded themselves especially in the general diet as a single political ecclesiastical corporation, and the provincial churches, although some of them might be beyond the limits of the empire, were looked upon as constituting a single evangelical Church, joined together by mutual sympathy in love and conflicts. The Reformed Church received a republican constitution in consequence of the peculiar mode of its origin, and the country in which it was formed. Its basis consisted of a system of synods composed of clergymen and elders, in a regular ascending series up to the highest assembly. This system, however, was never fully carried out except in the French and Scottish churches, and even in them the co-optation of the elders and the choice of the ministers were necessary through the higher synods, the congregations having only the right of a rejection. In the German Eeformed churches the Presbyteries gave way before the Con- sistories of the governments, (i) and in the Lutheran churches of the Lower /) Walch p. 1906. L. RicJiter, d. ev. KOrdnungen des 16. Jahrh. Brl. 1846. 2 vols. 4. Hid. Gesch. d. ev. KVerf. in DeutschL Lps. 1851. 0) De Wette vol. III. p. 596. Faculty at Jena, 1561 : Salig vol. III. p. 635. Fac. at Wittenb. 1633 : Consil. Theol. Yit Frcf. 1664. f. P. II. p. 129. 7i) M. Stepliani, Tract, de jurisd. Eost. (1609.) 1623. 4. Esp. Carpzov. 1) Tous los synodes nationanx des cgl. re de France, par Aymon, Haye. 1710. 2vols. 4. Ebrard, Entst. u. erste Entwickl. d. Presb. Verf. d. ref. K. Frankr. (Zeitsch. f. hist Th. 1849. H. 2.) A. Gem- >jerg, d. schott Nationalk. nach gegenw. Verf. Hamb. 1844s. 2 vols. Sack, (p. 424.) II. v. Mulder. 442 MODEKN CHURCH HISTORY. PEE. V. A. D. 1517-1048. Rhine a synodal constitution was preserved. (I ) The plan of preserving the external unity of the Church by a representation from all portions of it through the Synod of Dort, failed in consequence of the method taken for the composition of that body, and the dissensions which prevailed among its members. The Churches of the several nations were therefore only spiritually connected with one another. The royal supremacy in the Angli- can Chur'ch was limited by the popular branch of the states. The legal synods of the superior and inferior clergy (Convocations) were indeed inten- tionally kept without much influence, and finally were entirely neglected, but the ecclesiastical legislation was consequently transferred to the Parliament. The actual administration of ecclesiastical affairs remained in the hands of the bishops, who were made dependent upon the crown by its power to nominate and transfer them, and by the inadequate revenues of their dioceses. (I) In Sweden also the king remained the head of the Church, and the legisla- tive passed from the national council (after 1693) to the general diet, among whose spiritual states sat not only bishops, but representative pastors. The administration of the episcopal dioceses was performed by consistories under the presidency of the bishops. The affairs of each congregation were admin- istered by biennial assemblies (Sockenstamen) of all the taxable members of the congregation under the direction of these consistories, (m) The canon law, in spite of Luther's wrath against the jurists, continued to be in fact the basis of the ecclesiastical jurisprudence, and the most important proceed- ings were gradually, and often in a confused manner, conformed to it. A popular feeling was developed during the Eeformation which at one time threatened to subvert every form of political institutions. When the hier- archy had been stripped of its sacred privileges, every immunity appeared to hang in suspense, and nothing was left as the ground of right but every indi- vidual's independent character. Luther never hesitated to abuse those princes who opposed him, and not unfrequently reminded even the evangelical princes that the country and the people belonged not to them, but that they belonged to the country and the people, (n) Hence, in many of the imperial cities the municipal corporations obtained the ascendency as soon as the Reformation was introduced, and the republic was confirmed in the Swiss Confederacy and commenced in the Netherlands. The nobility, the peas- ants, and the burgesses, endeavored successively in the name of the gospel to overthrow the existing forms of government, (o) In France the Huguenots contemplated the establishment of a free state, ( p) and in England the legiti- Gesch. d. ev. KVeit in d. Mark Brandcnb. Weim. 1846. IT. F. Jacobean, Grande d. Verschiedenh. d. luth. n. ref. KVert (Deutsche Zeltsch. chr. Wiss. 1852. N. 49ss.) *) K. v. Oven, d. Presbyt u. Synodalvert In Berg, Julicb, Cleve. Essen. 1S29. Jacobson, Gesch. d. Quellen d. ev. KRechts d. prov. KheinL u. Westpb. Konigsb. 1844. 1) J. L. Funk, Organisir. d. engl Staatsk. gcschichtL Altona. 1829. C. Sc.hoell, d. Convocation 1 engl. K. (Zeitsch. hist Th. 1853. H. 1.) rri) F. W. v, Schubert, Schw. KVerf. Greifsw. 1821. 2 vote. A. G. Knoes, Eigenthumlichkeiten d. schw. KVert Stnttg. 1852. n) Waleh vol. X. p. 468. XXII, 214Cs. o) 325. JSarthold, Jiirgen Wollenwebcr v. Lubeck. (Raumer, hist. Taschenb. 1835.) C, F. Wurm, d. polit Beziebungen Heinrichs VIII. zu M. Meyer u. J. Wullenwever. Hamb. 1852. 4. p) Capefigue, H. de la E6f. vol. II. p. 105. G. Weber, gesch. Darst d. Calvinism, im Verb, z Staat in Genf. n. Frankr. Hcidclb. 1836. CHAP. V. PEOTESTANTISM. 376. STATE. 377. CLERGY. 443 mate king was condemned by the Parliament in the midst of psalm-singing and prayer to mount the scaffold. On the other hand, the theological scru- ples of the reformers led them to respect as a providential blessing the per- sonal character of their rulers, the people were exhorted to the duty of Christian obedience in every thing consistent with faith, and the practical energies which had been developed among the people were restrained. (#) The powers of the clergy and the rights attending the possession of the Church property, were exercised by the political magistrates, and dependent officers now filled places which had been occupied by an independent corpo- ration. Hence, where the princes allowed the Reformation to have its course, their power was almost universally increased by it. Accordingly in Denmark the monarchy became absolute, white in Sweden, after the king had broken the independent power of the bishops, the crown was endan- gered by the aggressions of a haughty aristocracy. 377. The Clergy and Church Property. During the Eeformation the principle was generally adopted that all Christians belonged to the priestly order. Accordingly, while it was conceded that the ministerial office was instituted by Christ, it was maintained that each minister was individually to receive his commission from the congregation as its servant, and that ordination was only a solemn call to this duty, (a) Lu- ther's remark, however, that the spiritual order was nothing, and that God was about to root out the stupid clergy, (&) belongs to the period when he was engaged in the work of demolition. The principle generally received was that every congregation had the right to choose its own pastor, although in the Lutheran Church, especially, the right of patronage was respected, and as far as it was exercised by the bishops, it passed into the hands of the con- sistories, leaving to the congregations a right seldom of much avail, of de- clining the person appointed. On the principle that among the ministers of the word of God there could be no hierarchical organization by divine right, the priestly functions and privileges of the bishops became common to all pas- tors, (c) except the right of excommunication, which was at first questioned, and then gradually was assumed by the consistories. The Episcopal office, as a supreme ecclesiastical authority, was rejected by the Eeformed Church, but in England after 1588 it was again defended as a divine' institution, (d) and among the Lutherans the opinion became general that this primitive regula- tion should not be abolished without urgent necessity, and Melancthon thought that a tyranny more intolerable than the former domination would result from the overthrow of the episcopal rule, (e) It has, however, been looked upon as an evangelical sentiment that as a spiritual officer a bishop should renounce all civil jurisdiction. By the operation of various political circumstances q) Comp. p. 377. Wrong Explan. in Hagen vol. IIL p. 146. 154 a) Lut/ier : Walch vol. X. p. 801s. 1S33. 1857ss. XIX. 1544. V. 1609. ft Earless, K. u. Amt nach luth. Lehre. Stuttg. 1858. V) Do Wette vol. II. p. 674. c) Art. Smalc. p. 352ss. d) Niel, Gesch. d. PuriL vol. I. p. 605ss. [Neale, H. of the Pur. (Orig. Engl. ed.) vol. I. p. 807ss.] e) Corp. Eef. vol. II. pp. 334. 341. 444 MODERN CHURCH HISTORY. PER, V. A. D. 1517-164S. Episcopacy has in fact become entirely extinct among the German churches. In a few instances the prelatic office remains with the states, for the Protes- tant bishops of Lower Germany who possess sovereign powers, rest their claims wholly upon the fact that certain princely houses have acquired episcopal ter- ritories under the title of bishops. (/) Superintendents in Lutheran countries (p. 382) were regarded, after the formation of the consistories, merely as sub- ordinate officers for the supervision, and in general for the ordination of the pas- tors. Although the clergy are generally without political privileges, and have suffered much during some of the religious dissensions from arbitrary power, they exercise great personal influence, and they have frequently, to their own peril, asserted their right publicly to inflict ecclesiastical punishments upon their supreme rulers, (g) A general desire was exhibited among all classes during this period to obtain a share of the property of the Church. Immense wealth fell into the hands of the princes and nobility, while the people ob- tained their portion by withholding the tithes and rents which formerly belonged to the clergy. Even in Switzerland the sacred vessels were sent to the mint or to the market, and Calvin himself was unable to save the property of the Church. (A) In some countries, especially in Germany, a portion of this wealth was used in the endowment of benevolent or literary institutions ; but so little were the pastors and teachers of schools provided for from this great inheritance, that Luther could not sufficiently lament their miserable condition, (i) But even then he had occasion to remark that destitute as they were of real estate, they were despised and cheated by the rude rabble, and especially by every young squire and petty tax collector in the land. () Whatever remnant of ecclesiastical property had been saved from this general pillage was generally administered by the agents of the government, by whom it was used for civil purposes whenever a pressing necessity or cupidity dic- tated, and the real estate was frequently squandered in the payment of rents. The convents doubtless well deserved their fate, but with the exception of a few foundations for the nobility, which were of no advantage to the Church, their general dissolution was rather a destruction than a reform, and robbed innocence or penitence of an asylum provided for them by the piety of for- mer times. 378. Public Worship and Art. Bibl Agendor. edit by Konig, Zolle 1726. 4. Die ev. KOrdn. v. Richter (p. 44L lit/) Elsen- ichmid, Gesch. d. KGebraucho d. Prot Lps. 1795. J. L. Funk, Geist n. Form d v. Luth. angeordn. Kultua. BrL 1819. T. Eliefoth, d. urspr. Gottesdienstordn. in d, deut K. lath. Bekenntn. ihre De- struct u. Ref. Rostock. 1847. J. Geffcken, u. d. verechledne Einth. d. Decal. u. d. Einfloss drs. a. d. Cultus. Hamb. 1838. C. Grueneisem, de Protestantlsmo artibus baud Infesto. Stnttg. 1889. 4. [Lind- say, Sketches of the Hist of Chr. Art Lond 1846. 8 vols. 8. C. Burney, Gen. Hist of Music. Lond 1789. 4 vols. 4. J. Hawkins, Gen. Hist of the Science & Practice of Music, Lond. 1776. 5 vols. 4 Burney & Hawkins, abridged by T. usby, Lond. 1819. 2 vols. 8. E. North, Memoirs of Music. Lond. 1846. 4.] The Eeformed Churches conformed strictly to the simple style of devotion /) Walch voL XVL p. 1664. Apol. Conf. p. 204. Henke on Villers, p. 505ss. tie bisch. Wurde in Preussens ev. K Konigsb. 1884. 0) Walch vol. X. p. lS96ss. XIII. 1288. Comp. Hutterus red. 7 ed. p. 818s. h) JSuttinaer, vol. I. p. 122. 884. Henry, Calvin, voL II. p. 28ss. f) De Wette voL III. P . 135ss. 160. k) Walch vol. II. p. 925. XL 2532. XIII. 81s. CHAP. V. PEOTESTANTISM. 878. PUB. WOESHIP. AET. 445 f tvhich prevailed in the days of the apostles. The Lutheran mode of worship was gradually developed from the old Koman ritual used in the mass, but modified by the principles and practice of the reformers. According to these, the services of the house of God were not for God alone ; the evangelical ser- mon ought to be the principal part of them, the native language of a people was for them the most sacred, and the congregation should take an active part in the exercises, (a) When Luther published an order for divine wor- ship (1526) he took particular care that no one should regard any part of it as indispensable or universally binding, so that Christian liberty should be thereby abridged. (5) In the Lutheran Church the practice of private con- fession even of individual sins was retained, but only as a voluntary matter when any one needed it, and for ignorant people, (c) Instead of daily masses and the singing of the hours, many Protestants had bible -lessons appointed, and in Geneva meetings for free religious conference (congregations) were held. The sacred festivals were so reduced as to commemorate none but the most important events in sacred history, and only a few of the national churches continued to celebrate days in honor of Mary and the apostles. Days of fasting were occasionally appointed, and an annual festival for com- memorating the Reformation was observed first in Saxony, in 1688. The Re- formed Church, with a decidedly iconoclastic spirit, removed from their places of public worship all statues, pictures, and works of art, regarding them as inconsistent with the requirements of the word of God. Having destroyed nearly all its organs, it received a scriptural psalmody, and the tender melodies used to accompany it from the French, (d) Luther had no idea that the proper influence of the gospel was to destroy all the refinements of art. On the other hand, he was anxious that all the arts, and particularly music, should be enlisted in the service of Him who had- created them, (e) Albert Durer was still moved by Luther's spirit, and the faithful Lucas Cranach was the painter of the Reformation. (/) All the monuments of art which had been collected by the Catholics of earlier times in the Church of St. Lawrence in Nuremberg, were preserved without injury by the Protestants. As long as Protestantism felt placed in an attitude of special hostility to Catholicism, its influence was unquestionably adverse to the imitative arts, since it deprived them of their legendary stores, allowed of no statues or pictures in the churches, except such as were strictly illustrative of scriptural history, and even when contending agaimst the Iconoclasts Luther was willing to give up the pictures, (g) The more magnificent the Gothic structure, the less was it adapted to the purpose of preaching. It is, however, to Luther that we are principally indebted for the popular character of sacred music. The hymns of the ancient Church were reproduced, and together with the songs which gushed from his own heart, he sent them forth among the German churches a) Walch vol. X. p. 262ss. Z) TUd. p. 266ss. Apol Conf. p. 151. x c) Conf. Aug. art 11. Walch vol. XX. p. 60. XVII, 2448. d) Bullinger, vol. I. p. 131s. 175. 265. 418. Henry, Calvin, vol. I. p. 160s. u. Beil. p. 67ss. IT. A. Daniel, Codex liturg. ecc. univ. in epit. redactus Vol. III. Lps. 1851. e) Walch vol. X. p. 1723. De Wette vol. IV. p. 181. /) Stark, Durer (p. 306.) p. 671s. Ch. Schuchardt, L. Cranachd. Aelteru Leben u. Werke. Lps. 1851. 2 vols. g) Walch vol. XX. p. SOss. 446 MODERN CHUECH HISTORY. PEE. V. A. D. 1517-1648. in a stream of sacred poetry, expressive of all the profound feelings of the Christian heart, and comhining all the deep tones of the Christian spirit. When these songs were collected by a pious literary man in Rome they seemed to him like the pages of a great lyrical epic poem which the spirit of Chris- tian poetry had composed in the course of many centuries. Hans Walter assisted Luther in giving a popular character to church music as a choral for the congregation. This was a kind of music derived from the old ecclesias- tical harmonies combined with some popular melodies, in which a scientific choir were only leaders to the assembly, and in which pieces similar to mo- tets were interwoven. (A) Even the master-song, as it flourished at that time, especially in Protestant cities, was directed to biblical subjects, to which in- deed the principal singing was expressly confined, (*) 879. Humanistic Education and Holy Scriptures. Gout, from 284. G. W. Meyer, Oesch. d. SchrtfterkL & Wlederberrt. d. Wlss. Gutt 1803* 6 vola. K Ileus*, Qesch. d. II. Schrr. N. T. 2 od. Bnronschw. 1868, p. Ml In every instance in which the profound feelings of an educated people came under the power of the Reformation, an original religious literature and a series of successful polemic writings were produced. A considerable amount of scriptural commentary and historical investigation were indispensable for laying a foundation for the Reformation, and to vindicate its necessity. Yet though it was commenced when the human mind was in a process of the liveliest development, it was not merely no assistance, but rather a restraint npon that development, on account of the exclusively religious, and among the Epigonoi of the Reformation, the contracted dogmatic interest which prevailed. Luther's quarrel with Erasmus was only a prelude of the rupturo between modern orthodoxy and humanistic learning, which was for a while postponed by Melancthon and his school, but which was ultimately unavoid- able, (a) Luther, it is true, placed a high estimate upon the languages, but it was only for the sake of their utility in the interpretation of the Scriptures. These Scriptures being the only source of all Christian truth, it was neces- sary first to understand them by means derived from themselves, and then to secure them against the arbitrary methods of the allegorical interpreters. (J) Luther lived on terms of fomiliar equality with the sacred writers, and on this account their most delicate shades of meaning seem never to have es- caped him, so that frequently we have their discourse with nothing but his 7t) Luth, geistl. Lieder nebst Singwcisen. ed. by C. 9. WinUrfeld, Lps. 1840. 4 Luffi. geistl. Lie- der m. d. zu s. Lebzeiten gebraucbL Singwelaen. ed. by Ph. Wackernagd, Stuttg. 1848. 4 (Bunaeri) Yersuch e. allg. ev. Gesang-u. Gebetbuchs. Hamb. 1883. G. v. Tucher, Scbutz d. ev. KGes. im 1. Jahrh. d. EeC. Lps. 1848. 2 vols. G. Stipp, unverfalschter Liedersegen. Brl. (1851.) 1852. Ram- fcac/t, L. Verdienste urn d. KGes. Hamb. 1813. Wackernagd, d. deutsche KLied. v. Luth. b. Blau- rcr. Stuttg. 1840. 4 C. v. Winter/eld, d. ev. KGesang. u. B. Verb. z. Kunst d. Tonsatzes. Lps. 1843ss. 8 vols. 4 Gervinus, Gesch. d. poet Nation. Lit voL IL p. 265. o) Only one side: De non contemnendis studlis humanioribus future tbeologo max. necessarlia clwor. viror. ad Eob. Hessnm Epp. Lutheri, MeL, P. Mosellani etc. Erpb, 1523. Ranke vol. V. Cap. S. Proofs for the other view In Hagen vol. III. p. 26ss. &) Carlstadii Concl. c. Ecc. 23 ct 47. Walch voL XVIII. p. 1602. XXII. p. 19826S. CHAP. V. PEOTESTANTISM. 879. SCEIPTUEES. 380. THEOSOPHY. 447 manner, (c) In Calvin's concise expositions, especially of the epistles of Paul, we have expressions of the most profound religious feeling, and those things which must be presupposed for the understanding of the inspired writers, to- gether with a wonderful skill in the natural development of thoughts, (d) Melancthorfs commentaries exhibit in a still higher degree the predominance of the rhetorical and dogmatic over the grammatical character. Beza was more rigid in his views, and more conversant with theological learning, but he devoted his attention principally to a defence of the oriental and inspired character of the sacred volume, in opposition to the classical but superficial objections of the blunt Zwinglian, Oastellio. (e) Flacius endeavored to lay down precise rules for the interpretation of the Scriptures. He maintained that the divine word is to be explained by every means derived from human science, but in subserviency to the fear of God ; that nothing must be so in- terpreted as to become inconsistent with the analogy of faith, i. e., the sum of Christianity founded upon clear passages of Scripture, by which he proba- bly means Lutheranism, and that the allegorical method is admissible only when the literal sense would be immoral, unreasonable, or useless. (/) After the bold doubts suggested by Luther and Carolstadt, respecting some parts of the canon, there were no disputes on that subject except with the Catholics, on the manner of its composition. The controversies carried on with regard to the origin of the Masoretic points, and the purity of the Greek language in the New Testament, show that philological studies were obliged to contend with powerful prejudices. But after the establishment of the Church but lit- tle attention was bestowed upon the original basis on which it was constructed, in consequence of a decided preference for dogmatic disputes. Grotius was the only one who, as a pious humanist, seems to have made any attempts to render the Scriptures intelligible to his contemporaries, (g) 380. Philosophy and Tlieosopliy. Mysticism and Practical Christianity. Kromayer, de "Weigelianismo, Kosae-Crucianismo et Paracels. Lps. 1669. Colberg, platon. her- iiiet. Christcnth. Frkf. u. Lps. 1690. 2 vols. F. Delitzsch, d. naturphil. Mystic, innerh. d. luth. K. (Zeitsch. luth. Th. 1841. H. 3.) JW. Carrttre, die phil. "Weltanschauung d. Eeformationszeit Stuttg. 1S4T. \H. Ifallam, H. of Lit New York. 184T. Enfieltfs Abridgment of Bracket's H. of Phil. Lond. 1791. 2 vols. 4.] K. F. A. Schelling, Prot. u. Phil. Hamb. 184S. , The reformers would have nothing to do with philosophy, and felt embit- tered toward it on account of its connection with Scholasticism, (a) It was only by means of Melancthon's Class-Book and the academic corporation which existed at that time, that a formal philosophic science, derived from former times and founded principally upon Aristotle, was propagated in the Protestant schools as the handmaid of Theology. The speculations of Giordano c) Especially upon Genesis, the Psalms, and the Ep. to the Galatians. d) Lately published by Tholuck since 1S31 in 2d edit Comp. an edit, of Miscell. writings, by the same author, vol. II. p. 330ss. e) Fuesslin, Seb. Castellio. Frkf. 1T55. /) Clavis Sc. S. Bas. 1567. Jen. 1674 2 vols. & often. g) Annott in V. T. Par. 1644. ed. Doederlein, HaL 1775s. 3 vols. 4 Annott in N. T. Amst 164183. 2 vols. f. ed. Windheim, Hal. 1769. 2 Th. 4 a) J. ab Elswich, de varia Arist in scholis Protest, fortuna (p. 320. before his edit of Launoi) fleeren, Folgen d. Eef. f. Phil. (Eef. Ulm. 1S19. p. 114.) comp. Galle, Melancth. p. 112. 448 MODERN CHURCH HISTORY. PER. V. A. D. 1517-1644 Bruno with respect to the all-uniting and all-embracing divinity were mis- understood at Wittenberg, and he himself was burnt at Rome (1600). (fy Many endeavored to solve the mystery of the divine nature and of tlio world's organization by subtle glances into the depths of their own natures. Paracelsus, a Swiss physician (d. 1541), gave to these efforts a wild and tor- tuous form of expression in images drawn from nature, and terms derived from alchemy. Without regard to the personal objects which he prosecuted in an empirical manner, we find that he opposed the learned traditions of that period by lively exhibitions of real nature, and that his philosophy aimed to contemplate God as he exists in the depths of nature, as he is in himself, and in his return to himself, (e) Valentine Weigel (d. 1588), much esteemed as a devout pastor in Tschopan, in his posthumous theosophic writings, maintained that all outward ecclesiastical systems are of no value when compared with the internal Spirit which God gives to men, and represented the doctrines of the Church merely as allegories by which the hidden relations of God and the universe are made known. () This style of speculation became com- pletely developed in the works of Jacob Boehme (d. 1024), the shoemaker of Goerlitz, as the tranquil, pious heart and penetrating mind of the German philosopher endeavored to express through his uncouth language and limited education, in a natural imagery which is sometimes quite insipid and some- times highly poetic, or in ecclesiastical forms, his conception of the early dawn and the most hidden qualities of things, of the process by which man is exalted from the terrible power of nature to the bright kingdom of love, and of the infinitely calm First Cause, by whoso blessedness he was at par- ticular moments delightfully filled. All existence, even the divine, appeared to him an everlasting progress through various opposite forces. Being per- secuted by the pastor of his own city, he obtained toleration from the con- sistory in Dresden. His followers love frequently to contrast the exuberance of his pious spirituality with the formal dependence of the Church upon the outward letter of the Scriptures. The literary position which should bo assigned to him is one which belongs to the most modern school of poetry and philosophy, of which he may properly be regarded as the prophet, (e) Arndt (d. at Celle, 1621), on* the other hand, did much to promote internal Christianity in the spirit of the popular mysticism of former times. (/) That 6) Jordani Bruni Scripts ID unum corpus red. Gfrdrer, Stuttg. 1884 \C. BarVulmte, J. Bru- no. Par. 1843. 2 vols. a See Brit Q. Rev. (Eel. Mag.) July, 1849.] c) Schrr. Bas. 15S9ss. 11 vols. 4. litener u. Siber, Leben u. Lehrcn boruhmter Physiker. 1829. P. 1. II. A. Prau, d. TheoL d. Par. in Auszug. BrL 1849. M. B. Leasing, Par. s. Leben u. Denkon. Brl. 1839. d) K. u. HauspostilL Ncust (Magd.) 1611. 1618. Captura aurea, d. guldne Griff d. L Anl. alle Dinge ohnc Irrth. zu erkenuen. 1618. 4. corap. Walch, Einl. in d. K. Streit d. luth. K. vol. IV. p. 1028SS. e) Werke durch Gechtel,rAmst (1682. 2 vols. 4.) 1780. 6 vola. durch Schiebler, Lps. ISSlas. 6 vola. Btuttg. 1S35SS. 4 vols. Leben by A. v. Franckenberg, prefixed to the Werken. A. E. Umbreit, J. B. Hdlb. 1SS6. J. Hamberger, d. Lehre des deatschen Phil, in syst Ausz. Munich. 1844. W. L. Wullen, J. B. Leben n. Lehre. Stuttg. 1836. Tholuck, J. B. vor d. Dresd. OConsist (Deutsche Zeitsch. f. chr. Wiss. 1852. N. 25.) /) Tier Bucher v. wahren Christenth. p. 1605. 1. compl. ed. Magd. 1609. [Pbilad. 1842. 8.] Paradies- Gurtl. voller chr. Tugenden. 1612. and often. F. Arndt, J. Arndt Brl. 1S38. A. Wildenhahn, J. Arndt, Lps. 1847. 2 vola. ff. L. Pertz, de J. Ar. ejusquo libris de vero Christ Hann. 1S52. 4 CHAP. V. PROTESTANTISM. ARNDT^ MUELLER. ANDRE AE. 449 he might satisfy those who were starving around him, he turned his atten- tion to the discovery of the philosopher's stone. He was at one time de- posed for the martyr zeal which he showed in behalf of exorcism, and from a fear of the action of a living spirit he was accused by the orthodox divines of some of the current heresies. (#) But during the dreary period of the Thirty Years' War, and even down to our own times, he did much to promote a mild, consoling and practical form of Christianity among the people. "With much more spirit, Henry Mueller (d. 1675), in opposition to the dumb eccle- siastical idols of his time, proclaimed in Rostock the riches of divine love which are found in Christianity. (7t) In opposition to an age which in its zeal for Lutheranism had begun to lose sight of Christianity, JoJi. Val. An- dreae (d. 1654), with an affectionate spirit but with satirical humor, after consecrating himself to Christ, took a stand against the perverse follies of the day. (i) The first of the treatises professing to be by Christian Rosenkreuz, an allegorical and mythical personage, respecting a secret society for the sub- jugation of nature and the spiritual world by magical arts, was unquestion- ably by him, and the two others must have proceeded at least from a circle in intimate connection with him. They were doubtless designed to be a fan- ciful satire upon a peculiar tendency of that period, to which, however, they have contributed assistance when read as a serious history by persons inclined to such folly. (&) The real object of Andreae, however, was to overthrow the idols of literature and religion, and to set up the primitive Christ in their stead, (I) and in the distant future he beheld the ideal of a Christian state, a colony of Arndt's Jerusalem, in which a community of goods and universal felicity based upon morality would combine an education for an earthly state with another for heaven, (m) The mystic theological tendency which pre- vailed especially in Rostock and Strasbourg, originated in an attempt to adhere to the Christianity of the heart and life, in opposition to one which had be- come torpid in the spell of the Form of Concord, and other magical creeds. (7) Luc. Osiander, theol. Bedenken u. chr. treuherz. Erin. Tub. 1624. 7i) Geistl. Erquickstunden, the last by fiusswurm, Ratzeb. (1823.) 1831. Himml. Liebeskuss, last ed. by Fiedler, Lps. 1831. and others. Comp. Arnold, vol. I. p.. 934 i) Andr. Vita ab ipso conscr. ed. Rheinwald, Ber. 1849. (Uebers. in Seybold's Selbstbiogr. Win- terth. 1799. vol. II.) W. Hossbach, Andr. u. s. Zeita. Brl. 1819. Andr. Dictgn. with Praef. by Her- der, Lps. 1786. M. P. urk, Verz. aller Schrr. Andr. Tub. 1793. Andr. entlarvter Apap, nebst Beitr. z. KGesch. d. 16. u. 17. Jahrh. by C. T. Papst, Lps. 1S27. Die Christenburg v. Andr. ed. by C. Gruneisen, Lps. 1836. /fc) Chymische Hochzeit Christian! Rosenkr. a. 1459. (after 1602.) Strasb. 1616. Fama fraternita- tis d. lobl. O. d. Rosenkreuzer. (1610.) Cass. 1614. To the 2 ed. of Cass. 1615. is added Die Confession der Brudersch. R. C. Both with the lat. orig. of the Conf. (ed. by J. F. v. Meyer.} Frkf. 1827. G. E. Guhrauer, u. d. Verf. u. urspr. Sinn d. Fama Fraternit (Zeitsch. f. hist. Th. 1852. H. 2.) I) Invitatio ad. fraternit I. II. Arg. 1616s. Christ, societatis idea. Tub. 1620. Vita ed. Rheinu\ p. 100. Ep. ad Comenium. (Comen. Opp. Amst. 1657. p. 284.) ni) Reipubl. Christiano politanae descriptio. Arg. 1619. 12. Guhrauer, der erste dcutsche Staats- romnn. (Prutz, deutsches Museum. 1852, N. 22.) comp, Arnold, vol. I. p. 1114ss. 29 450 MODERN CHUECH HISTORY. PER. V. A. D. 1517-1648. CHAP. VI. THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHUKCH. Sarpi, PaUavicini, (p. 859.) Vitae et res gestae Pontlflcum Rom. et Cardd. auctoribus daconio Cabrera, VictoreUo. Rom. 1680. f. L. Xante, d. rf.m. Pflpste, Ibre Kirohe n. ihr. Staat im 16. a 17. Jahrh. Brl. (1S34&S.) 1837sa. 8 vols. Htfde, fl. d. Schicksale d. K. a. d. Tridontinum. (Tab. Quartalsch. 1846. n. 1.) 381. The Popes in the Age of the Reformation, till 1585. Onufrio Panvini, Platlna restitutes c. additions Pontt a Sixto IV. nsqne ad Plum IV. Von. 1562. 4. and often. A. du Chetne, H. des Papes, Par. 1646. f. cont (till Paul V.) p. Fr. du Chttnc, Par. 1658. 2 vols. t Itambach, Hist d. PSpste. (cont by Bower, 10th vol.) Magd. 1779s. 2 Abschn. 4. [B. Platina, Lives of the Popes from the time of Christ to Slxtns IV. transl. and cont (till 1685.) by P. Rycaut, Lond. 1885. f. Koicer't Lives of the Popes till 1758, cont by & //. Coao till now. 2 ed. New York. 1885. 8 yols. 8.] During the contests between Franco and Spain for the possession of Italy, Leo X. formed an alliance with the emperor, and died exulting over their common victory (Dec. 1st, 1521), and with the reputation of having ex- hausted the revenues of three pontificates. Hadrian VI. (1522-23), of Utrecht, an ardent literary man, but with no taste for art and poetry, a pre- ceptor of the emperor, and twice regent of Spain, though regarding his pos- session of sovereign authority as the most unfortunate circumstance of his life, came to the papal chair entirely unacquainted with Roman affairs, or the various intrigues of that period with respect to Italy, and became most pain- fully conscious of the dependence of even the best of men upon the times in which they live. The efforts ho put forth for the deliverance of Rhodes from the hands of the Turks were utterly unsuccessful, and he finally died under the burden of his official duties, (a) Clement VII. (1523-84), a natu- ral son of Julian de Medici, made an earnest but ineffectual effort for the independence of Italy (p. 381). Rome was once more plundered by the bar- barians, and the vicar of Christ was obliged to pay dearly for the procession which the emperor contrived for his liberation. He was, however, success- ful in his policy of employing the imperial forces to secure the possession of Florence as an inheritance of his family, and in elevating his niece to the throne of France. (I) Paul III. (Farneso, 1534-49) was himself acquainted with polite literature, and honored it in others ; he adorned the city of Rome with many works of art, exhausted his resources in unfortunate schemes to acquire principalities for his sons and grandsons, and by subsidies against the Protestants laid the foundation for the load of debt under which the States of the Church have since groaned. " He soon, however, became alarmed at the sudden success of the emperor, and subsequently, as far as was possible for a pope, he acted in political concert with the Protestants. He appointed to the office of cardinal men of profound piety, and committed to their hands the duty of forming a plan for the reformation of the Church. They repre- sented the papacy as the true source of all abuses, and proposed measures against the secularization of ecclesiastical offices and endowments, and against the incompetency and immorality of the clergy. Such a plan the cardinals concluded should be introduced, only very gradually, and with great secrecy. a) Biographies by Giovio and others in Burmann. (p. 874) I) Ziegler, H. Clem. (Schdhorn, Amoenn. H. ecc. voL I. p. 210.) CHAP. VI. CATH. CHUECH. 381. JULIUS III. PAUL IV. PIUS IV. 45 1 The knowledge of it, however, was betrayed to the Protestants, was pub- Jished by them to show how much even their adversaries had conceded, and was commented upon by Luther with unreasonable raillery, and the pope found it better to introduce the inquisition instead of the Reformation, (c) Julius III. (Del Monte, 1550-55), with an impudent affectation of modesty, attempted to justify his elevation of the keeper of his monkeys to the dig- nity of a cardinal, and although abundantly competent to the duties of his station, spent the whole period of his pontificate in enjoying himself in his beau- tiful villa. There was, however, a party continually becoming more power- ful, which was convinced that the Church could never be delivered but by piety and a rigid morality. Their first choice fell upon Marcellus II. (1555), but he was destined by Providence barely to make his appearance in the papal chair, (d} Paul IV. (Caraffa, 1555-59) brought to the throne the gloomy severity of an octogenarian monk, and was inflexibly strict toward himself, toward others, and even toward his guilty nephews, but proved him- self a terrible enemy to heretics, and gathered around himself a shadow of the ancient hierarchy. For a while his patriotic feelings obtained the mastery, and induced him to form an alliance with France to effect the liberation of Italy from the power of Spain. A heretic infantry defended Rome against a Catholic army, and nothing but Philip's piety toward his Church prompted him to grant the pope an honorable peace. Oil the day he died, his statue was mutilated by the people, and the house of the inquisition was reduced to ashes, (e) Pius IV. (Medici of Milan, 1559-65), condescending and pleasant as he was by nature, allowed all the measures adopted by his predecessor to remairj in force, established the papal authority by his moderation and conciliatory con- duct toward the princes, conceded the use of the cup in Austria as far as the German princes and bishops thought it needful for their country, and sus- tained the heroic efforts of the Knights of St. John for the deliverance of Malta. (/) The Dominican Pius V. (Ghislieri, 1566-72), a pious judge in all matters connected with morality and heresy, realized as much as possible in the court and the Church generally, the ideal of the rigidly devout party, encouraged the violent and sanguinary measures then adopted against the Protestants, and assisted in gaining the naval victory of Lepanto against the Turks, {g} Gregory XIIL (Buoncompagno, 1572-85) established learned eccle- siastical schools especially for missions, corrected the book of canon law by ap- peals to the original authorities (p. 286), and the ecclesiastical and civil was made to harmonize with the solar year. (Ti) In consequence of his attempt to c) (A M. Quirini) imago opt. Pontificis expressa in gestis P. III. Brix. 1745. 4 On the other side : Kie&ing, Ep. de gestis P. Lps. 1747. 4. Schelhorn, Ep. II. de emendanda Ecc. Tur. 1748. Walch vol. XVI. p. 2394ss. cf. Bulla Reformat Pauli III. ad Hist. Cone. Trid. pertinens, concepta, non vulgata, ed. Clausen, Havn. 1830, 4, [Necessity of Eef. presented to the Diet of Speyer, Letter of Paul III. to Charles V., and Calvin's Remarks, transl. by JS&ceridge, Philad. 1835. 18.] d) P. Polidori de vita Marc. II. commentar. Rom. 1744, 4 e) A, Caraccioli, Col. hist, de vita P, IV. Col. 1612, 4. F. Magii Disqq. hist de P. IV. inculpata vita. Neap. 1672. f. Bromato, Storia di Paolo IV. Rom, 1748. 2 vols. 4. /) Leonardi Or. de laudib. Pii IV. Pad. 1565. (7) E. Catena, Vita del P. Pio V. Rom. 1586. 4. J. A. Galutii de vita Pii V. Rom. 1605. f. (Acta SS. Maj. Th. I. p. 616.) A. Szovii P. V. Rom. 1672. P. A. Maffei, Vita di 8. Pio. Veu, 1712. 4 Mendkam, Life of S. Pius V. Lond. 1835. A) Comp. F, Piper, Gesch, d. Osterfestes s. d. Kalenderreform. Brl. 1345. 452 MODEKN CHUKCH HISTORY. PEE. V. A. D. 1517-164S. relieve the finances of the state by restoring long-forgotten feudal tenures which he had no power to enforce, he revived old party dissensions, and increased the number of the banditti until they openly took the field as ai organized army, (t) 382. Ignatius de Loyola, 1491-1566. L Itibadentira, (according to the account of Consalvus) Tita Ignat JTeap. 1572. and often. Ma/ei, (according to the account of Polancua) de vita et morib. IgnaL L. Rom. 15S5. 4 and often. Cf. Acta 88. Jul. voL VII. p. 409. IL Souhours, Vie de 8. Ignace. Par. (1679. 4.) 1680. trans, by Haza-Radlitz. Vien. 1S85. Oenetti, Leben d. h. Ign. v. L. Innspr. 1847. ZTarw, Leben I. L. Rost 1721. F. fort&m, Entstehnngs- gesch. d. J. O. Mannh. 1848. [I. Taylor, Loyola and Jesuitism in its Rudiments. Lend. 1849. 8. /' W. Grinfldd, Hist of the Jesuits. Lond. 1858. 8. T. J. BUM, Gescb. d. Ordons. d. J. only Port I. is published. Lps. 1858.] Don Inigo de Loyola, a native of the mountains in the Basque provinces of Spain, was thrown upon a sick-bed in consequence of severe wounds re- ceived during the heroic defence of Pampeluna (1521), and while reading the history of the saints, became filled with a longing to acquire, like St. Trancis, a glorious crown in heaven by earthly sufferings. Having been betrothed as a spiritual Amadis to the Holy Virgin, he endeavored by ex- treme self-denials and temptations to acquire an education and sphere of activity worthy of such a knighthood. With six companions in the Church of the Virgin Mary at Montmartre (1534), besides taking the ordinary monas- tic vows, ho solemnly pledged himself to take care of himself, to minister to pilgrims, to seek the conversion of the Saracens, and to receive with the most confiding obedience every command which the Holy Father might impose with respect to any sphere of duty. After much reflection, Paul III. (1540) granted this Society of Jesus, which at first consisted of but sixty members, his permission to devote themselves as a community to the ad- vancement of the soul in the Christian life and faith, and as a military com- pany to the extension of Christian truth, (a) Ignatius was elected the first general of the order, and he obtained for it (1545) all the privileges of tho mendicant friars. He soon saw it extending into all parts of Europe, and under the conduct of Xavier, developing its operations for the conversion of the heathen beyond the ocean. The mind of Ignatius was somewhat con- tracted, but he possessed an indomitable will, and his whole life was spent in the relief of the sick, the instruction of children, and the care of souls. He endeavored always to keep his mind so occupied with spiritual exercises, that his religious feelings and his imagination were in continual excitement, and yet were firmly held in a given direction. (5) M. A, Ciappi, Comp. delle attioni e s. vita di Gr. Rom. (1591.) 1596. 4. J. Bomplani H. pon- tif. Gr. Dill. 1635. Mafei, Ann. Gr. Rom. 1742. 2 vols. 4 a) Litt spost, qnibus institutio, confirm, et varia privill. continentur 8. J. Antv. 1685. 1) Exercitia epiritualia 8. P. Ign. Loyolae. Antv. 1688. and often. Lond. 1838. Directorium it exerc. spir. Antv. 1688. CHAP. VI. OATH. CHURCH. 883. JESUITISM. 453 383. Jesuitism. I. Constltutiones Soc. Jesu. (Horn. 1583.) Antu. 1635. (Corpus institutorum S. J. Antu. 1702. 2 rols. 4.) Institutum S. J. Prag. 1757. 2 vols. 4. Hist S. J. auctore Orlandino. (Rom. 1615.) Sac- chino, Possino, Juvencio, Cordova. Antu. 1620. 1750. 6 vols. f. II. Hist de la comp. de Jesus. Par. 1740. 4 vols. and often. Hist Ehrentempel d. Gcsell. J. Vien. 1841. R. O. Dallas, H. of the Jesuits. Lond. 1816. 2 vols. Mit Erl. (v. F. v. Kern.) Dusseld. 1820. 2 vols. u. Nachtr. Mijnch. 1821. 8. Sugenheim, Gesch. d. Jes. in Deutschl. Frkf. 1848. 2 vols. 12. Hospiniani H. Jo&itica. (Tig. 1619.) Gen. 1670. f. Ilareriberg, pragm. Gesch. d. O. d. J. Hal. 1760. 2 vols. (Adelung) Yrs. e. Gesch. d. J. Brl. u. Hal. 1769s. 2 vols. P. P. Wolf, allg. Gesch. d. J. (Zur. 1789ss.) Lps. 1803. 4 vols. Spittler, u. Gesch. u. Verf. d. J. O. Lps. 1817. [Cretineau Joly, Hist, rel. pol. et lit de la Comp. d. J. Par. 1846. 2 ed. 6 vols. 12. A. Steinmetz, Hist of J. from the Germ. Philad. 1840. 2 vols, Ravaignan, Life and Inst of J. New York. 12. E. Dvller, J. as they were and are, from the Germ. Lond. 1845. 12. W. H. Rule, Celebrated Jesuits, Xavier, Laynez, Garnett Bellarmine, Schall, and Gruber. Lond. 1853. 8. Michelet & Quinet, The J. from the Fr. New York. 1842. 12. J. Poynder, H. of the J. Lond. 1816. 2 vols. 8vo.] A few sagacious and enthusiastic spirits connected with the order, well understood the peculiar wants of the age, and by a dexterous adaptation of it to these, even under the administration of its second General Lainez (d. 1564), it became conscious of its general power to maintain the cause of the hierarchy against Protestantism, whether within or beyond the limits of the Eoman Church. Before any could become members, they were required to pass through a novitiate, in which they were severely and appropriately tested. Of the actual members, some were called scholastics, others coadju- tors, secular or spiritual, and only a few choice spirits reached the perfect dignity of the Professed. From the latter were chosen the principal officers, the Superiors, and the Provincials, constituting a well organized train of authorities up to the General of the Order in Eome with his assistant Coun- cil. Every individual was powerful in his appropriate sphere, but in every act he was closely watched and guarded lest he should transcend his proper limits. So perfect was the obedience inculcated by a long course of disci- pline ; and strengthened by every spiritual means, that with the exception of some internal storms, a single arbitrary but "inflexible will controlled every movement of the order in all parts of the world. And yet, although each individual possessed no more will of his own than the particular members of the human body, he expected to be placed in precisely that position in which his talents would be best developed for the common benefit, in exercises of monastic devotion, in literary and scientific pursuits, in the secular life of courts, or in strange adventures and eminent offices among savage nations. All became accustomed to regard the order as their only home, and their superiors as their only providence. The movements of this order were not impeded by the clumsy machinery of ancient monasticism, for it had at its command all kinds of ecclesiastical dispensations, and as a third kind of monasticism, completely restored to the various occupations of the world, it entered into every relation of social and secular life, (a) At the close of the century in which it was established, by the multitude of its members engaged in the instruction of youth, and appointed to be the guardians of princes, it had become the most important power in the Catholic Church. The Jesuits also endeavored to become proficient in every kind of intellectual cultivation, a) If. v. Orelh, d. "Wesen d. Jes. Ordens. p. 186s. 454 MODEEN CHUECH HISTORY. PER. V. A. D. 1517-1643. as the only way to obtain ascendency in the world of mind. But although they had among them a multitude of learned men in every department of lit- erature, the curse of their straggle against human freedom rested upon them, and not a single great work was given by them to the world. Full of pomp as their churches generally were, very little genuine taste, and scarcely any true works of art, were to be seen, and they seemed like post- humous sons of their parent Catholicism. They gave their countenance to every fantastic and gloomy superstition, though it must be conceded that it was a Jesuit whose tender spirit moved him to be the first to arouse the people by his awakening appeals against the abominations of the trials of the witches. (5) In spite of the ill-will of the other orders, and the suspicions of some governments, public sentiment in Catholic countries was in their favor. But in their efforts to become all things to all men, and to make the way of salvation easy, some of them indulged in an inconsiderate boldness of assertion, which was not properly rebuked by their leaders, and thus their enemies found occasion for accusing them of maintaining the hierarchical views of former times (p. 884) respecting the inferior importance of ordinary duties in comparison with the attainment of a supreme object, of putting forth general maxims dangerous to the security of all laws, and of composing a science of casuistry, in which pedantry and frivolity were equally conspicu- ous, but which seriously impaired the inviolability of the moral law. (c) 384. The Council of Trent, Dec. 13, 154&-&ec. 4, 1563. I. Canones et deer. C. Trld. Rom. 15G4 4 and oft. ed. Jod. U Plat, Lov. 1770 4 Lps. 1852. Ace. 3. Congr. Card. Cone. Trid. interpretum Resolutions et Conatitt Pontif recentiores ad jus commune spect cd. Aem, L. Jiichter, Lps. 1853. [Canons and Decrees of the (Ecumen. Council of Trent transl. by J. Wateruorth, with Essays on the Hist of the Council. Lond. 1843. 8.] (P. et J. du Pay) Instructions et missives des Rofs de France et de leurs Ambass. et autres actes concern, le Cone, de Tr. Par. (1607.) ed. 4 1654 4 Lett et Memoires de Fr. de Vargat, etc. trad. p. M. de Vassor, Auist 1699. lat fee. Schramm, Brunsv. 1704 4 Monn. ad Hist C. Tr. spect ampliss. Col. op. Jod. le Plat, Lov. 1781-7. 7 vols. 4 G. J. Planck, Anecdota ad IL C. Tr. Gott 1791-1818. 25. Fascc. J. Mendham, Memoirs of the Council of Trent Lond. 1884 4 Acta C. Tr. ab a. 1562. a Gdbr. Car- dinal* Paleotto descr. ed. Mendham, Lond. 1842. [The Council of Tr. and its proceedings. (Pres. Board of Publ.) Philad. 1835. 18.] II. Sarpi, Pallavicini (p. 859.) [P. P. Sarpi, II. of the C. of Tr. transl. by A. Brent, Lond. 1676. f. P. 8. PaUavicini, H. du Cone, dn Trente. Montronge. 1844. 8 vols. 8.] Comp. J. N. Brischar, Beurtb. d. Controvereen Sarpi's u. Pall. TQb. 1848. 2 vols. L. Ell. du Pin, II. du C. de Trente. Brnx. 1721. 2 vols. 4 Salig, vollat Hist des Tr. Cone. Hal. 1741ss. 8 vols. 4 J. M. Goschl, Gescb. d. C. z. Tr. Ratisb. 1840. 2 vols. Wessenberg (p. 277.) voL III. IV. J. T. L. Dam, Gescb. d. Tr. C. Jen. 1846. [Bungener, Hist of C. of Trent from the Germ, Lond. 1S52. 8. A. L. Kichter, Canons and Decrees of the C. of Trent Berl. 1353. .] The general council long called for by the nations of Europe to restore peace to the Church, and to reform its abuses by a process accordant with legal forms, was finally convened by Paul III. The objects expressed in the Z>) (Fr. Spee) Cautio criminalis s. de process, c. sagas. Rint 1631. Frcf. 1682. and often. e) Especially after Th. Sanchez, de Sacramento matrim. Gen. 1592. 8 vols. and oft A. de Esco- bar, L. TheoL moralis, 24 S. J. Doctoribus reseratus. Lugd. 1646. and oft Satire: Monita privata 8. J. Notobirgae (Krakau). 1612. and oft M. Chemnitius, TheoL Jesuvitar. praec. capp. Lps. 1500. Doctrinae Jesuitar. praec. capp. confutata. Rupellae ed. 2. 1564 (G. Scioppius) Anatomia S. J. 1633. 4 (M Perraulf) La Morale des Jes, extraite de leurs livres. Mons. 1669. 3 vols. 12. J. Ellendorfi d. Moral u, Politik d. J. Darmst 1840. Defence : J. B. Leu, Beitrr. z.Wurdig. d. J. O. (after M6hler ) Luc. 1840. F. J. Buss, Die Gesellsch. J. Mainz. 1858. Abth. I. CHAP. VI. CATH. CHUECH. 384. COUNCIL OF TEENT. 455 terms of the call were to exterminate heretics, and to secure definitively the internal unity of the Church, in the Romish sense of these terms. It was opened at Trent just as war had been declared against the Protestants, but after the emperor's victories, the pope saw that the imperial influence wa= greater in a council assembled in a German territory than that of the Holy Spirit. The place of meeting was therefore changed to Bologna (1547), un- der the pretence of danger from a pestilence, and when the imperial bishops still remained at Trent, it was adjourned to 1548. Julius III. so far yielded to the threats and promises of the emperor, that he ordered the synod to continue its sessions at Trent on May 1, 1551. Some Protestant delegates had already arrived, and others were on their way, when for fear of Maurice of Saxony, the assembly adjourned April 28th, 1552, for two years. It was not, however, reassembled until by order of Pius IV., Jan. 8, 1562. The order of business for the assembly, after every thing that could produce any recollection of Basle was set aside, was entirely under the control of the pre- siding legates. The twenty-five sessions were merely public solemnities, at which the decrees debated and prepared in the committees were openly pro- claimed. The decrees were passed by a majority of the bishops and generals of orders present at the time, of which the Italians were more numerous than all the other nations together. The opposition, especially of the French and Spanish bishops, became sometimes very formidable, and by these the de- mands of the Protestant deputies were welcomed with much favor, (a) Even the fundamental doctrines of the Protestants respecting the Scriptures and justification, or views consistent with them, found some to advocate them, (5) and the emperor, with the French king, made important demands for a reformation ; but when this liberal party was seen to have become Protestant, or were frightened by finding themselves tending toward that result, the papal party by treaties with the courts and with individual pre- lates obtained a complete victory, (c) Decrees respecting doctrines, and de- crees for the reformation of the Church, were after the fourth session published alternately. The former contained a revision of the previous sys- tems of doctrine, and as far as the dogmas of the middle ages advocated by the different theological schools could be made to harmonize, they were stamped with the seal of infallibility, and most of the Protestant deviations from them were condemned. In the decrees for reformation, many salutary rules were adopted for the government and discipline of the Church, and. many canons of the ancient Church were revived. These decrees were all confirmed by Pius IV., who reserved to himself the papal prerogative of ex- plaining them as he pleased. The Synod of Trent was accepted uncondition- ally by most of the Italian States, by Portugal, Poland, and the emperor ; and with a reservation of the royal prerogatives by Spain, Naples, and Belgium ; with some exceptions by Switzerland and Hungary ; and only so far as re- spects doctrines by France, (d) a) Vargas, Lett et M6m. p. 468s. Weaseriberg, vol. III. p. Sllss. &) Sarpi 1. II. p. 249ss. 322ss. Pallavicini VIII, 11. 4. Hormayr, Taschenb. vaterl. Gescb, t832. p. 130ss. c) Kanke, Papste. vol. L p. 833ss. d) Courayer, H. de la reception du C. de Trente. Amst 1756. 456 MODERN CHURCH HISTORY. PER. V. A. D. 1517-1648. 385. Sixtw V. April 27, 158&-Aug. 27, 1590. Itobardi, Sixti V. gesta quinquennalia. Rom. 1590. 4. Lett, Vita di Sisto V. Losanna. 1C69. 2 Th. later in 3 vols. and often, esp. in Fr. Tar. 1702. 2 vols. Defended with a partisan spirit by C. Tempesti, Storia della vita e geste di Sisto V. Rom. 1755. 2 vols. 4. Comp. RanJce, Ptipsto. vol. III. p. 817S8. Felix Peretti made bis way from the herd to the throne by his pious zeal as a Franciscan, a preacher, and an inquisitor, and when a cardinal under the name of Montalto (after 1576), by an humble deportment and a complete renunciation of his natural and impetuous love of command. The style in which this contrast between his earlier and his later life is mentioned in popular accounts, only shows by what qualities and conduct the people of that period generally believed that the triple crown could best be won. Having attained this highest point of his ambition, Sixtits V. thought that nothing 'was impossible for him, and while grasping with/ his utmost power every thing actual and possible, he busied himself with the most fantastic and stu- pendous plans. The utmost that human power and sagacity could do was accomplished by him in maintaining the papal authority, in opposition to princes who were either contending for the Reformation, or had already made peace with its friends. Instead of vainly attempting to put down here- tics, he concluded that he might profitably make use of them in firmly bind- ing the Catholic kings to the interests of the papal see. But in the contest between France and Spain, he saw only a contention between the milder and the more rigid parties in the great Catholic body itself, and hence his atten tion was distracted and his practical energy was enfeebled. Under his direc tion the banditti were completely destroyed ; by the exercise of an inexorable and almost barbarous severity the authority of law was re-established in his territories ; a wise system was put in practice for the support of the poor ; industry was awakened ; the Vatican library attained a magnificent size ; vari- ous works in biblical literature were printed ; the printing-press in the Vati- can for the publication of all that has reached us from the ancient Church, beginning with the Scriptures, was established ; the vast works of antiquity were rescued from their rubbish, as far at least as they could become useful in illustrating the triumphs of the cross ; and, although he placed by the side of these many new edifices not unworthy of the association, and even en- riched his relatives, he left behind him a vast treasure in the castle of St. Angelo, from loans and an increased sale of offices, to be used by his success- ors only in circumstances strictly defined. His government was not accord- ing to the taste of the Roman people, and the Jesuits, whom he hated, did much to curtail his reputation, if not his life. But so profound and so poetic was the impression which he produced upon his contemporaries, that even in his own age his hopes, his achievements, and his fortunes became i^corpo- rated in various forms among the legends of the people. 386. Popes of the Seventeenth Century. Clement VIII. (Aldobrandini, 1592-1605) was in the sight of God and man a priest of extraordinary piety in the ecclesiastical sense of that word. In spite of the opposition of the rigidly Catholic party, with a wise ostenta- TCHAP. VI. CATH. CHURCH. 386. CLEMENT VIII. PAUL V. GKEGOEY XV. 457 tion he absolved Henry IV. from papal excommunication, and thereby formed a needful counterbalance to the oppressive friendship of Spain. He was obliged to act with zeal against the Edict of Nantes, and yet toward indi- vidual Protestants he exhibited many tokens of personal friendship. His influence upon France, Spain, and Savoy was that of a prince of peace ; but when the true house of Este had become extinct, he took possession of Fer- rara as an escheated fief, by military force, preceded by the terrors of an ex- communication. By such means a termination was given to the exercise of arbitrary power in Ferrara, but with it also ceased the cheerful splendor of a court adorned by knights, art, and literature, (a) Paul V. (Borghese, 1605-21) regarded himself as the appointed instrument of the Holy Ghost to render the decretals of his predecessors equal in authority to divine laws, in an age which he misunderstood. This produced many disagreements between him and the different Italian states, respecting the limits of jurisdiction possessed by the spiritual courts. With Venice, where the power of the state was held in the highest esteem, this controversy proceeded to an open rupture when the pope demanded that certain clergymen who had been condemned for some capital offences, should be delivered up to him, and that a law should be re- pealed by which an increase of the property of the Church in real estate was forbidden. The Venetian senate was excommunicated by the pope, and the territories under their control were placed under an interdict (April 17", 1606). The papal ban was declared by Venice to be unjust, and therefore void. The Servite, Paolo Sarpi, an intelligent and highly educated man, and of rigid Catholic piety with respect to his mode of life, justified the republic in the eyes of foreign nations, and quieted the minds of the Venetian people by strengthening a consciousness of their rights. When the pope therefore saw that his interdict was despised, and that Ferrara was in peril, he was obliged to avail himself of the mediation of France to effect a peace, leaving the rights of the republic unimpaired (1607). (5) He was more successful in laying a permanent basis for the wealth of his own family, by the destruction of the unfortunate house of Genci. Sarpi was included in the stipulations of the peace, and although well acquainted with the ordinary practice of the Roman curia, he continued with all the lawful means which history affords, to protest, like another Paul withstanding Peter, against the arbitrary aggres- sions of the pope upon the liberties of the Church and state (d. 1623). (c) On the other hand the pope had himself saluted as the Vicar of God, and the valiant preserver of the papal omnipotence, (d) Gregory XV. (Ludovisi, 1621-23), who always lived on the brink of the grave, gave a permanent form to the rules by which the election and consecration of the pope should a) Lettres du Card. tiTOssat. Par. 162T. f. Amst. 1T32. 5 vols. Les ambassades du Card, ctu Per- ron. Par. 1623. f. Z. Wadding, Vita Clem. VIII. Eom. 1723. 4. 1) Interdict! Veneti H. auct Paulo Sarpi ex ital. Cantabr. 1726. 4. Controv. inter P. M. et Vene- tos acta et scrr. ex ital. Ill villa San Vincentiana 1607. c) Opere (with hia Vita by Falgenzio). Ven. 1677. 5 vols. 12. Grisellini (Mernorie aneddoto. transL into Germ, by Le ret, Viva. 1761.) del genio di Fra Paolo. Ven. 1785. (Fontanini, Storis arcana di Fra Paolo. Ven. 1803.) MancM-Giovini, Biogr. di Fra P. Zurigo. 1836. 2 vols. E. Muncli, Fra P. Sarpi. Carlsr. 1838. d) Esovii Paulas V Burghesius. Koin. 1624. 458 MODEEN CHURCH HISTORY. PER. V. A. D. 1517-1643. henceforth be conducted, (e) canonized the founders of the order of the Jesuits, whose pupil he had been, made a powerful effort to maintain the Ger- man war, and received the Palatine library as his share of the booty. (/) Urban VIII. (Barbermi, 1623-44), although fully conscious of his eminent dignity and talents, was contented with the prosecution of such designs ns belonged to him in the character of an Italian -prince, the construction of a few forts, and the conduct of an inglorious war against the house of the Far- nese. For a while his policy was favorable to the cause of the Protestant powers, and the rigid Catholics complained that the pope stood as cold as ice in the midst of the conflagration of churches and monasteries. But he pro- tested against the compulsory concessions made at the treaty of Prague, main- tained the most rigid system of Catholicism, and gave the final form to the bull In coena Domini (p. 811), in which nearly all the claims of the mediaeval hierarchy are advanced, and not only Saracens, pirates, and princes who im- pose arbitrary taxes, but Lutherans, Zwinglians, and Calvinista, were anathe- matized. (g) 887. Law and Political Relation*. It was principally through the labors of some learned Jesuits that the ideas of the middle ages were now reduced to a regular theocratic system of policy, the fundamental principle of which was that the state is to the church what the body is to the soul. It was contended that although this body lives in accordance with its own laws, it should nevertheless be subservient to the great objects of the soul, and in extreme cases should bo sacrificed for the sal- vation of the soul. It was also conceded that the royal power is not derived from the pope, and is not subject to him, and yet where the salvation of the soul demands such a sacrifice, the pope has a right to depose even kings, and the inquisition is authorized to take away their lives, since every earthly power loses its rights when they are abused for the injury of religion. Ac- cording to this system the sacerdotal power was committed to a distinct order of men by God, and the royal power was derived from the people, so that the advocates of this system carried out the doctrine of the sovereignty of the people to its extreme results, (a) Not only individual Jesuits taught that it was lawful and even pleasing to God to slay a tyrannical king, but even the Sorbonne decided (1589) that the French people ought to have no scruples of conscience in taking up arms against their king, (ft) This was, it is true, intended to express a decision on a particular case, and was directed only against those kings who threatened the interests of Catholicism. But the majesty of even Catholic kings was made to depend upon religious considera- e) Ingoli. Caeremoniale ritns electionls Rom. Pont Rom. 1C21. Lunadoro, Relazione dell* corte di Roma. Rom. ed. 5. 1S24. 2 vols. 12. f) Aug. T/ieiner, Schenkung der Heldelb. Bibl. u. ihre Vereend. nach Rom. Munch. 1844. 0) Bullar. Rom. vol. IV. p. 118&. Lt Bret (p. 811.) 1. 2. vol. 2 ed. 1772. S. Simonin, Sylvae Ur- banianao s. gesta Urb. Antu. 1C3T. a) J. Mariana, de Rege et Regis fnstitutione 1. III. Tolet. 1593. & often. Bellarmin, de pote tate Summi Pontif. in temporal. Rom. 1610. & often. Suo.rez, Def. fldei cath. adv. anglic. secUe er Tores. Conimb. 1613. & often. &) Responsum facultatis tbeoL Parisiensis. (Additions au Journal de Henry III. vol. I. p. 817.) CHAP. VI. CATH. CHURCH. 387. LAW. POLITICAL EELATIONS. 459 tions, and under the sway of a king whom the pope had approved, this same Sorbonne condemned the very doctrine (1594) which had produced the vio- lent death of two kings of France, (c) Wherever Protestantism maintained its existence under the government of Catholic princes, the power of the sove- reign was limited by the states, but no sooner did Catholicism obtain the victory than he was freed from all such restraints. In Venice a system of political science was composed without reference to religious creeds, (d) When Paul IV. pronounced the election of the emperor invalid, because it had been held without his mediation, and by heretical princes, he perceived that the Eoman authority in such matters was despised by every one in Ger- many, whether belonging to the new or to the old religion, (e) and the imperial coronation has ever since been a high festival, which in the view of the na- tion had no relation to Eome. The popes were well aware that their cause could not then dispense with the favor of the princes ; and although they still derived regular revenues from the appointment of ecclesiastical offices, in- stead of drawing money from the princes, these princes received large sums from the hand of the popes. By such subsidies for maintaining the contest against the Protestants, and by numerous gifts for the establishment of rela- tives, the debts of the Eoman court finally became so enormous, that under Urban VIII. they amounted to thirty millions of scudi, and half the papal revenues were consumed in the payment of the interest. (/) This burden, however, by an artificial system of finance was rendered not unacceptable to many wealthy persons, and a vast influence was acquired, since it now be- came the interest of independent men of wealth to sustain the papacy. The pope looked upon himself as far superior to any council, to whose decisions he paid deference merely from his own free grace. He maintained that even in doubtful matters the Church was bound to regard him as infallible, that it might not act against conscience when going against his decision, (g) The appointment of nearly all prelates depended upon the will of the princes, and the consent of the pope. It was in the German bishoprics that the influence of the emperor was the least, but the popes generally found it expedient to consult the wishes of the German princes in the appointment of their younger sons. In the new form of their oath the bishops were obliged to swear obe- dience to the papacy rather than to the Church, and that they would perse- cute heretics to the utmost of their power. (Ji) In most of the principal cities permanent nunciatures were formed, with high plenipotentiary powers 7 that through them the influence of the papacy might become as it were uni- versal. The Gallican Church alone kept itself aloof from these agencies, (i) c) Argentre (p. 251.) vol. II. p. 434. d) Comp. J. C. de Jonge, Nederland en Yenetie. Gravenbag. 1852. e) Dr. Seld in Goldast. pol. Eeicbsbandl. vol. V. p. 167. /) Jianke, Piipste, vol. III. p. lOss. 0) Pallavicini, XIII, 16. Le Plat, Monn. ad H. C. Trid. vol. VI. p. 806ss. Bellarm, de Eoin. Pont. IV, 5. 7i) From the PontifioaU Jiomanum, Eomae 1595. In EicJihom, KEecbt vol. I, p. 592s. (Rau- tenstraucli) Abb. u. d. Eid, welchen die dt. Bischofe abzulegen haben. Vien. 1781. 1) (F. v. Moser) Gescb. d. Nuntien in Deutschl. Frkf. 1788. 2 vols. (Weidenfeld) Entwickl. d. Dis- ;.ens-u. Nuntiaturstreitigk. (Bonn.) 178S. 4. L. Snell, Gescb. d. Einfubr. d. Nunt. in d. Scbweiz. Bad. 1847. 460 MODEEN CHURCH HISTORY. PER. V. A. D. 1517-164S. The Roman court also began now to bestow as a matter of grace, and for a definite period (facilitates quinquennales), especially upon the German bish- ops, the right to grant, as the missionary interests of their present and pro- spective dioceses seemed to require them, dispensations of marriage, and ex- emptions from Catholic appointments, (fc) 388. Great Change in the Character of Catholicism. In the struggle then going forward new attachments for the Church began to be developed, and the hierarchy discovered that their salvation depended principally upon religious considerations. Hence some of the worst abuses in the administration of the Church were removed, indulgences were no longer exposed for sale, (a) it was found to be useless to threaten any one with the papal ban, and it was only in Rome that excommunication was sometimes resorted to as an assistance to the police. By a very gradual enforcement of the Tridentine decrees, the clergy were compelled to live respectable lives. In the principal sees of the Church, their worldliness was now exchanged for a solemn and imposing splendor, piety generally took the form of a sentimen- tal devotion, and as those who were known to possess it had reason to expect the blessings of fortune and ecclesiastical honors, we may suppose that selfish views and artifice were sometimes mingled with it. That which had for- merly been done in the Church with no thought of opposition, now fre- quently brought upon the actors a high degree of suspicion and persecution. The same clergy to whom Gerson had once been a leader, now refused to tolerate Richer, who sought to find in the liberties of the Gallican Church protection for not only the rights of the state, but also for those of the gene- ral Church, which he claimed to be subject to the Son of God as its only supreme monarch. He was compelled to recant his opinion by Richelieu's assassins, and in the midst of his persecutions died (1631). (J) Galilei (d. 1638) was obliged solemnly to retract his assertion that the earth moves around the sun. (c) The Humanists were compelled to give way before the inquisition, and the enthusiasm which had sprung up in favor of antiquity was unable to maintain its ground against the rising spirit in behalf of the Church. The instruction of youth in the higher departments of learning was now in the hands of the Jesuits, who regulated it by the strictest rules, gave it almost exclusively a spiritual direction, and confined the intellect within certain definite limits. From a dislike to the universities, the hier- archy began to prefer that the clergy should be educated in episcopal semi- naries. The control which the inquisition possessed over books made them K) 0. Mejer, d. rom. Curie. (Richter u. Jacobs. Zeitsch. f. Recht u. Polit d. K. 1847. p. 212s.) lUd. Propaganda, vol. IL p. 210ss. a) Comp. PescTieck, kirchengesch. MIscell. (Zeitsch. f. List Th. 1839. P. 3.) 5) De ecc. et pol. potestate. Par. 161L and oft. Apologia pro Gersonio, denuo L. B. 1676. 4. Baittet, la vie d'Edmond Richer, Doct de Sorbonne Liege. 1714. c) Paulus, GaL Kampf. f. d. Rationalism. (Beitrr. z. Dogmen-, K. u. Eef. Gesch. 1837. p. 824ss.) Mohnlke, z. Gesch. GaL (Stud. u. Krit 1882. P. 1. p. 245.) Der h. Stuhl gegen Gal. (Hist. pol. BL 1841. vol. VII. P. 7-10.) [Life of GaL in Lib. of Useful KnowL pp. 58-61. Lond. 1838. 12. Life of Gal. Galilei, &c. Boston. 1832. 12. D. Brewster, Martyrs of Science. Lond. 1841. 8. Edinb. Rev. (ic Eclectic Mag. Oct 1844) April, 1844. Art Martyrs of Science.] CHAP. VI. CATH. CHURCH. 383. FEANCI3 OF SALES. BOKEOMEO. 461 more powerful in Southern Europe than they could be by any punishments they could inflict. The censorship was rendered complete by the index of prohibited books, the number of which was swelled by the well-contested rivalry between the Roman and the Spanish inquisitions (after 1558). The works of Catholic and classical writers were 'given to the world in mutilated editions. Personal solicitude for the faith and ignorance far exceeded the limits which the necessities of Catholicism required, (d) This dread of intel- lectual activity produced a passionate, servile, and malignant spirit on the part of the hierarchy. The religion of the common people, however, still remained sincere ; and although persons were often canonized for political rea- sons, and for their large fees, many genuine saints were found in the humble walks of life. Francis of Sales, Bishop of Geneva (d. 1622), by the popular cordiality of his mysticism, which called on men to renounce their own wills even when directed to beneficence, and by an earnestness which concerned itself with nothing bnt religion, was more efficient in the edification of be- lievers than in the conversion of heretics, (e) The Castilian Theresa (d. 1582), after passing through many temptations to worldly pleasure, and many sufferings, had her heart pierced as it were with the arrows of divine love, possessed ineffable enjoyments during her seasons of ecstasy, and spent her life in bringing the female department of the Carmelite order to the severe discipline of ancient times. (/) Carlo Borromeo (d. 1587), a relative and favorite of the pope, was elevated even when a youth to the see of St. Ambrose, possessed great influence in the papal ccmrt, and at the Council of Trent, was full of zeal against the heretics on the southern declivities of the Alps, although he relied entirely npon the power of the divine word. By his gentleness and strictness he bestowed great blessings upon his native province, and his lofty form appears to look down upon it even now in the act of bless- ing and guarding it. (g) But even that older form of Catholicism which had prevailed in the time of the Councils of Constance and Basle, could not be entirely extinguished, for it bore a prominent part in the religious changes which then took place, and in the reformations conducted by the partisans of Catholicism. The former tendency was represented by Henry IV., and the latter by Philip II., not on account of the accidental qualities which be- longed to the character of those individuals, but because each of them was like the summit of a mountain, the most prominent among his people. d) Index expurgatorius. Antu. 1571. Arg. 1609. Indices librr. prohibitorum et expurgandor. 1667. and others. [The Vatican Index Expurg. ed. by E. Gibbings, Dubl. 1837. 12.] Dan. Francus, Dsq. de Papist indicc. libb. proh. Lps. 1684. 4. Mendham, The literary policy of the Church of Eome exhibited, in an account of her damnatory catalogues or indexes. Ed. 2. Lond. 1880. [This work is also embraced in Mendhartis Index of Proh. Books, by order of Greg. XVI. Lond. 1840.] ) Oeuvres de S. Fr. de Sales, Par. 1834. 16 vols. Baudry, Suppl. aux oeuvres. Lyon. 1836. Leben v. C. A. Sales, 1634. Marsollier, 1747. Reusing, 1818. F. H. (Tub. tbeol. Quartalschr. 1S42. P.I.) /) Schrr. d. h. Ther. v. Jesu, ed. by Gallus Schwab, Sulzb. 1831s. 5 vols. Acta S. Ther. ill. a. J. Vandermoere, 1846. f. g) Opp. Milan. 1758. 5 vols. Godeau, la vie de Ch. B. Par. 1747. Sailer, d. h. Karl. Augsb. 1824. Giussano, Leben d. h. K B. from the Ital. v. Klitsche, Augsb. 18363. 3 vols. Dierenger, d. }L Borom. u. d. KVerbess. sr. Zeit Koln. 1846. 462 MODEEN CHURCH HISTORY. PEE. V. A. D. 1517-1648. 389. Fraternities far Instruction and Charity. Auberti Miraei Regulae et Constltt. Clericorum In congregat viventiura. Antv. 1639. 4 The practice of organizing public orders had been found to be of great importance in promoting objects of general utility in the Church. A few Roman prelates associated themselves together to effect a reform among the clergy (1524). They resolved to spend their time in the performance of pious services, not for reward, nor for the collection of alms, but depending on such voluntary offerings as might be sent them by Providence. When one of their number, the Bishop of Theate, had become Pope Paul IV., these Theatincs, in the capacity of preachers, missionaries, and attendants on the sick, became almost exclusively a seminary in which the superior clergy were trained, (a) Philip of Ncri, whose peculiar inclinations led him to spend his days in churches and hospitals, and among children, and his nights in the catacombs, formed in Rome (1648) a fraternity for religious duties, and rely- ing upon the assistance of God and of pious people, he erected a largo hospi- tal, in the oratory of which (Oratorium) books of a devotional character were read and explained. From this establishment proceeded the Fathers of the Oratory, an association of clergymen for mutual edification, but not bound by formal vows. The French Oratory of Jesu* was a similar institu- tion established for the reformation of the clergy (1611) by Peter de Berulle, a man who in on elevated earthly position sought to attain the extreme per- fection which belongs not to this world. (&) After the publication of the decree of the Council of Trent, requiring all independent monasteries to unite themselves into congregations for mutual supervision, a few French monasteries formed an association (after 1618) for the restoration of the rule of St. Benedict, and with this congregation most of the French Benedictines became connected, in compliance with the expressed wishes of Cardinal Richelieu. This society, which received the name of St. Maurus, a disciple of Benedict, devoted its efforts to the instruction of youth and the advance- ment of solid learning. The Fathers of the Oratory soon after directed their exertions in the same channel. Both orders, in consequence of the leisure and freedom from care which they afforded to their learned men, and the combination of various powers which they could effect, have accomplished immense benefits for the cause of historical learning. Among their members were found some whose names have been renowned in the literary world, and who for their literary success and zeal have been models for all succeed- ing ages, (c) Among Jthe Minorites, the popular character of a mendicant order was revised (1528) by Matteo de Bassi, apparently for no other purpose than to restore the genuine costume of St. Francis. Even the old spirit of a) Caj. Thienaei Vita CoL 1612. (Acta S3. Aug. vol. II. p. 249.) 1) Baron. Ann. ad a. 57. N. 162. Instituta Congreg. Eom. 1612. A. Gattonius, Vita P. Nerii. Mog. 1602. Ifabert ) After its model colleges have been established at Rome for other nations, so that on the festival of the Three Kings the praise of God is there sung by the Church as it was on the primitive Pentecost, in the languages of many nations. 395. East Indies. The communication and Investigation of original authorities was commenced by Jones, Cole. brooke, A. W. Schlegel, Bopp, Eammohnn-Eoy, Eoscn, Lassen, and Brockhaus. For general views : P. V. Bohlen, d. alte Indien m. Bucks, auf Aegypten. Konigsb. 1830. 2 vols. Th. Jienfey, Indien in d. HalL Encykl. II. voL XVII. Roth in Zeller's Jahrb. 1846. P. 8.J. P. Maffei, Historiae Indie. 1. XII. (Flor. 1588. f.) Antu. 1605. La Croze, H. du Christ des Indes. Haye. 1724. 2 vols. with Anm. v. Sohnstedt, Hal. u. L. 1737ss. 2 vols. Norlert, Mem. hist sur les miss, des Jesuites atix Indea orient ed. 8. Besanp. 1747. 2 vols. Paulini a S. Barthol. India or. chr. Eom. 1794. 4. [A Voyage to the E. I. with an account, &c. with add. by Forster, and transl. by Johnston, Lond. 1800.] Jf. Mullbauer, Gesch. d. knth. Miss, in Ostind. b. Mitte d. 18. Jhh. Munich. 1852. Th. Yeates, Indian Church's History. Lond. 1818. J. Hough, Hist of Christ in India. Lond. 1839. 2 vols. [W. Ward, View of the Hist. Lit. and Eel. of the Hindoos. Hartf. 1824. 12. H. H. Wilson, Vishnu Purana, or Hindu Myth, and Trad. Lond. 1840. 4. C. Coleman, Myth, of the Hindoos. Lond. 1832. 4. Bjorn- sterna, Theogony of the Hindoos, &c. Lond. 1845. 8. H. R. Hoisington, Hindu Philosophy, from the Tamil, with notes, &c. New Haven. 1S54. 8.] In India the gospel met with a mild, imaginative, and visionary people, with minds conversant with the infinite, though actually existing among the k) E. g. Ranke, H. of the Popes. voL II. p. 105s. comp. 452. a) Meyer vol. I. p. lOss. ft) J. Cordara, Coll. Germanici et Hung. Hist. Eom. 1770. f. Das deutsche Collegium in Eom. Lps. 1843. CHAP. VI. CATH. CHUECH. 395. EAST INDIES. BEAHMANISM. 47 1 ruins of primitive civilization. For nearly a thousand years they had been the victims of servitude, first under Mohammedan despots, and afterwards under a company of Christian merchants, during which they had become cowardly, fawning, and indolent in their natures. They however remained remarkable for their powers of endurance, fearless and stubborn in matters connected with their religion, and filled with recollections of their former glory. The Brahmins were probably a foreign race, who at some former period had descended from the Himalayan mountains, and being superior to the natives, had introduced among them the refinements of religion. Ac- commodating themselves to an organization which they found among the people, they secured enormous privileges for themselves by an unequal appor- tionment of the intellectual advantages they brought among the graduated castes. In then* own and in the people's estimation, they were equal to the gods, while the Farias were regarded as beneath the brutes. The limits of caste, by which the fate of every individual was almost unalterably fixed according to his merits, were supposed to have been assigned by the Creator, so that what was lawful in one caste was a capital offence in another. All the laws, the literature, and the arts, which existed among the people, were traced back originally to the sacred writings (Vedas), which were said to have been reduced to writing long before the time of Christ, as they flowed from the lips of Brahma. Brahmanism was originally a benignant deifica- tion of nature. In a philosophical sense, Brahma is, the essence of all exist- ence, his only attribute is infinity, and every thing possessing individuality and a finite nature springs from Maya, Appearance, or Illusion. The incon- sistency between this original sense and its philosophical meaning may be seen in the delicate recoil which is felt by the people from all contact with nature. The higher castes therefore eat no flesh, but the intercourse of the sexes is looked upon as pure, and the services of the temples are connected with the indulgence of the vilest lust, and yet the perfection of human wis- dom is supposed to be an escape from the illusion of the finite, and an utter loss of all personal consciousness. By contemplation and self-denials, carried sometimes to the extreme of suicidal self-tortures, man is elevated until he becomes a god. Their system of religion, perhaps a combination of several different national religions, when fully developed, teaches that the original Brahm manifests himself as Brahma, Yishnu, and Siva in other words, as the Creation, the Development, and the Eeabsorption of all things. Hence sometimes one and sometimes another of this Trimurti is regarded as su- preme. According to their epic legend, VisJimCs Deity, regarded as the divine life of nature, has frequently become incarnate, at one time as a beast, at another as a man born of a virgin, in the form of Rama contending with giants, in that of Krishna, as a prince of peace crowned as a victor, and finally he will yet appear in that of Kalki, on a white steed, for the removal of all sin. But at the close of the world, JTala, the great destroyer, will ar>- pear and swallow up every thing, and last of all even the three supreme gods themselves, so that the essence of Brahma will exist once more alone. The space between the chief gods and men is filled, as it were symbolically, with a kingdom of inferior and fanciful divinities. The popular faith has regarded 472 MODEKN CHyECH HISTOEY. PEE. V. A. D. 1517-1648. all these as actual persons, and the dispute between different parties with respect to the claims of Vishnu or Siva to the supreme power has been aggravated by the explanations of the sages and the embellishments of the poets, until the spiritual world has become peopled with a wonderfully vari- ous and confused race of beings, which have been divided into numerous sects. The greatest contrasts were here exhibited. A monkey was some- times deified by the side of a god who was so spiritualized and so great, that thought itself was too insignificant to conceive of him, and yet some many- limbed monster was supposed to contain and to represent him. This faith, which at one time converted the rocky mountains into temples, had so thoroughly pervaded every relation of the popular life, and was so firmly incorporated with the prejudices even of the Farias, that although the Chris- tian preachers presented many points of doctrine which corresponded with it, no great results could for a long time be expected from their labors. Bishops were appointed by the Portuguese to take the charge of their possessions in the East, but no congregations were collected there until Francis Xamer (after 1542), with all the enthusiasm which his great success inspired, per- formed extraordinary acts of piety among them, and baptized probably a hundred thousand Farias and outcasts. (a) To preserve these in the faith, however, it was found necessary to use the labors of the inquisition (15GO). The first labor of this court was directed to the extirpation of a few congre- gations of the Christians of St. Thomas, which had maintained an existence there in the same condition in which they had been formed as a part of the Syrian Church of the fifth century. These Christians, however, in the popu- lar organization of the Hindoo people, had been embraced in the warrior caste. The name of Nestorius was also once more solemnly anathematized in India. The Jesuit Nolili (after 1606), in the character of a Christian Brahmin, was not altogether without success in his appeals to the higher castes, (ft) The Islam of the early conquerors was too simple and powerful to be overcome without a desperate struggle. Still the efforts of the Great Mogul AHar to establish a religion of reason (after 1578), produced a much greater approximation to the religion of the Jesuits. In 1610, three imperial princes mounted on white elephants rode to the place where they were bap- tized. Victory, however, still remained on the side of Mohammed. 396. Japan. After the researches of Joinville, Buchanan, Klaproth, Mackenzie, Colebrooke, and Bitter : Oru- ler, Art Japan in d. Hall. EncykL II. vol. XIII. p. 330ss. comp. Benfey, Ibid. vol. XVII. p. 194ss P. de Bohlen, de Buddhaismi orig. et aetate. Eegiom. 1827. J. J. Schmidt, (Memoires de TAcad. imperiale de Petersb. 1830. vol. II. Liv. 2. 8. 1832. vol. IL Ltv. 1.) Neumann, Pilgerfahrten Buddb. Priester. (Zeitsch. f. hist Th. 1833. St 2.) A. WutUce, de Buddhaistar. disciplinar. Vrat. 1848. Kaempfer, Beschr. v. Japan, hrsq. v. Dohm. Lemg. 1777. 2 vols. 4. [H. of Japan, Anc. and Pr. State of the Gov. Ac. transl. by Schenchser, from the Germ, of Kaempfer, Lond. 1727. 2 vols. f.] P. de Charlevote, H. du Christ dans I'Emp. da Japon. Eom. 1712ss. 3 vols. par M. D. L. G. Par. 1836. 2 0) Fr. Xaverii Epp. I. IV. Par. 1631. 12. Bricfe d. h. F. v. X. ubers. u. erkL v. J. Burg, Neu- wied 1836. JTor. Turselini, de vita Xav. Eom. 1594.- and often. [Dubois, Letters on Chr. in Ind, Lond. 8. with Townley'a (Lond. 1824. 8.) and HougWs (Lond. 1825. 12.) Eepliea to Dubois.] 1) Platel (Norbert), M6m. hist, sur les affair, des Jes. Lisb. 1766. 7 vols. 4. CHAP. VL OATH. CHURCH. 396. JAPAN. BUDDHISM. 473 vols. Crasset, H. de 1'egl. de Japan. Par. 1T15. 4. Augsb. 1733. tStditdlin, u. d. Verwandtscb. d. Lamalschen Kel. m. d. chr. (Archiv. f. KGesch. 1814 vol. I. St 3.) [<7. McFarlane, Geog. and Hist. Ace. of Japan. New York. 1852. 8. T. Wells, J. and the Japanese. New York. 1852. P. F. v. Sie- lold, Manners.and Customs of the Japanese. New York. 1840. 12. Golownin, Mem. of Captivity in J. Lond. 1852. 2 vols. 8. 2 ed.] "When Xamer reached Japan, he found that the Christian Church had been imitated by the devil, for already bells, rosaries, celibacy, monasticism, a hierarchy, and apparently a spiritual monarch were there. The primitive religion of the country was a mythical worship of nature, prompted by a lively glow of sensuous pleasure. But for a long time the predominant reli- gion had been a Buddhism which had been introduced from abroad. About six hundred years before Christ, in Magadha, a province of India, arose Gau- tama surnamed Buddha, i. e., the Wise, who enlisted with much zeal in the work of reforming his countrymen. By his wisdom and self-denials he be- came an incarnation of the Deity, according to the sacred legends, the eighth incarnation of Vishnu by Maya in the form of a pure virgin. In this incar- nation, the system of the world attained a self-consciousness. As he pro- claimed the universal brotherhood of man, the system of caste was discarded by him, but in its stead was gradually introduced a hierarchy, the existing head of which was always honored as an incarnate divinity. The spirit inculcated by Buddhism is mild and humane, since it requires that its fol- lowers should sympathize with the sufferings of every living thing, and instead of demanding bloody sacrifices, it calls upon them to sacrifice them- selves for the good of others. Still the fundamental principle of this religion, that the higher life can be attained only by a liberation of ourselves from all the illusion of a personal existence, imposes the necessity of severe and cruel struggles. The natural development, therefore, of this principle, is a lifeless and haughty system of religion, in which the highest merit is attached to human efforts. () About a hundred 'years after Christ, Buddhism was per- secuted by the Brahmans, and after a protracted struggle was expelled from its native country. It soon, however, became the religion of nearly all the neighboring nations, from whose peculiar characters it received many modi- fications. In Japan, Xavier adopted, though in a higher and modified sense, every thing in Buddhism which was considered holy, as a part of the faith which he preached, and consequently soon succeeded in establishing a church. But in his eagerness to penetrate still farther into heathen countries, this Apostle of the Indies died Oon after" on his way to China (1552). Under the direction of the Jesuits, a most splendid ecclesiastical establishment was formed in Japan, and hopes were entertained that the whole nation would soon become subject to its sway. But in consequence of some immoralities on the part of the European residents, and the suspicion that Christianity was only the precursor of foreign dominion, a series of sanguinary persecutions (after 1587) was commenced. Thousands even of the native inhabitants died as martyrs for the new faith. About the middle of the seventeenth century \a) K Burnouf, Introd. a 1'Hist du Buddhisme Indien. Par. 1845. vol. I. 4. R. & Hardy, Man- ual of Buddhism, &c. Lond. 1852. 8. E. Upham, Hist and Doct. of Buddhism. Lond. 1829. f. C. F. Neumann, Catechism of the Shamans, or Laws of the Bud. Priests. (Orient. Transl. Fund.) Lond. 1882. 8.] 474 MODERN CHURCH HISTORY. PER. V. A, D. 1517-1648. every vestige of Christianity was obliterated from the country, and all i course with foreigners in Japan was strictly prohibited. 397. China. N. THgaut, do cbr. exped. apud. Sinas ex coinm. Eiccii. Aug. 1015. 4 and often. J. A. Scfiall,, Relatio de initio et prog, missionis Soc. J. apud Chinenses. Vien. 1663. Rat. 1672. Mit Anm. v. Mm tegff, Vlen. 1884. Du ffalde, Desc. de 1'Emp. de la Chine. Par. 1786. 8 vols. 4. Uebers. m. Mosbeiin's Vorr. Rost 1748. 4 vols. 4 For the recent investigations, see Journal Asiatique. Abd-Remusat, Melanges asiat Par. 1825s. 2 vols. Nouv. Mdlanges. Par. 1829s. 2 vols. Stuhr, chin. Reichsrel. Brl. 1835. u. rel. Bysteme d. Or. p. 9ss. Neumann, d. Natur- u. Rel. Phil. d. Chin. Nach d. W. d. TscbuhL (Zeitsch. f. hist Th. 1887. P. 1.) [Histories and Accounts of China by T. Thornton, (Lond. 1844 2 v. 8.) C. Gutzlaff, (New York. 1888. 1 v. 8.) If. Murray, (Edinb. 8 v. 12. 1886.) J. P. Davis, (New York. 1884 2 v. 12.) J. Kidd, (Lond. 1841. 8.) and E. William*, (New York. 1848. 8.)] In the extreme East, the Europeans found an innumerable people, whose historical accounts went as far back as those of the Jews, and who regarded themselves as the centre of the world. Nearly all the mechanical arts which had recently been discovered in Europe, were found to have been in exist- ence among them from a remote antiquity, in connection with a rigid system of civilization which had for thousands of years successively overcome all their conquerors. The state was organized strictly as a single great family, and all power was in the hands of the emperor, though limited by an inviola- ble usage and an aristocracy of learning. The consciousness of individual freedom with respect to moral conduct had never yet been awakened among the people. Three forms of religion existed there side by side in peace. The first was the primitive religion of the empire, of which Confucius (Kong-fu- Dstt) was honored as the founder. This was a simple adoration and worship of the heavens regarded as a power of nature, and of certain genii supposed to be subject to the emperor, together with a devout and well-arranged sys- tem of moral conduct, (a) The second was the doctrine of Too, a system which directed 'men to adore the original source of reason, revealed and incarnate on earth, (J) but degenerated into a system of idolatry and magic. The third was the worship of Buddha (Fo-tho), a religion which had been more recently introduced among the people, but unsustained especially in the interior provinces by a powerful hierarchy. The account of divine things which these religions gave was intelligent and candid, but without religious enthusiasm, and bore no traces of fanaticism except with reference to the customary rules of civility towards the gods and the dead, and with respect to the etiquette of social life. As the natives regarded every thing foreign with extreme contempt, the Christian missionaries who followed in the train of commerce were at first totally unsuccessful in every attempt to convert them. The respect of the people was however finally secured when they discovered the superiority of the missionaries in mathematical science, the principles of which were immediately appreciated. The Jesuit Eicci (1582-1610) obtained high distinction among the people as an astronomer, and the favor of the im- o) Schott, Werke d. chin. Weisen Kong-fu-Dsu. Hal. 1S26. 6 vols. Confucii Chi King, ed. Mold, Stuttg. 1880. V) Le Tao-te-King, ou le livre de la raison supreme, par Laoteeu, traduit avec une version latina et le texte chinois, par G. Gauthier, Par. 1838. [A. Ijungstedt, Port Settl. and Missions in China. Boston, 1836. 8.] CHAP. VI. CATH. CHURCH. 398. WEST INDIES. PARAGUAY. 475 perial court, (c) After this the Jesuits established numerous congregations, milt churches, and translated the Scriptures, and even the Surama of St. Fhomas, but with a careful accommodation to the religious customs and nanners of the people. "When reproached for this by the Dominicans at fome, they defended themselves on the ground that it was indispensable to heir success, and was as innocent as the apostles' conformity to the Jewish aw. (d) 398. West Indies. Cont. from 290. Gonzalez d'Avila, Theatro ecc. de las iglesias de las Indias. Madr. 1649ss. 2 vols. Bourgoing, r ertus des missionairs ou II. des miss. d'Am6r. Par. 1654. 2 vols. G. Baluffi, 1'America un tempo pagnuola sotto 1'aspetto religioso (till 1843). Ancon. 1S45. 8 vols. Comp. Pdppig, Indien in d. Hall. tocykl. II. vol. XVII. esp. p. SSlss. L. A. Muratori, Christianesimo felice nelle missione nel Para- uai. Ven. 1743. 2 vols. 4. (Abstract: Relat des miss, du P. Par. 1754.) Charlevoix, H. da P. Par. 756. 3 vols. 4. Nurem. 1768. Pauke'a Reise in d. Miss, nach P. edit by Frost, Vien. 1829. In an nfriendly spirit: Ibagnez, Regno Giesuitico del P. Lissab. 1770. Uebers. v. Le Bret, Koln. (Lps.) 774, [R. Southey, Tale of Paraguay. Lond. 12mo. Ibid. H. of Brazil. Lond. 1S10.-19. 3 vols. 4. (bbe Raynal, Phil, and Pol. Hist of the Settl. and Trade of Europeans in the W. L from the French y J. Justamond, Lond. 1787. 12. Views of the Planting of Colonies and Missions in Mexico and 'eru may be found in the works of Prescott, Bernal Diaz, (transl. by. M. Keatinge, Lond. 1800. 4.) ~)e Soils, (transl. by Townsend, Lond. 1724.) Robertson's America, and other works.] In Brazil, baptism was administered to prisoners while dying, and wherever it could be performed under the protection of the Portuguese rms. A splendid ecclesiastical establishment was immediately formed in ivery country conquered by the Spaniards. But although the natives were generally protected by the laws and defended' against the colonists by the nonks, they were hastening rapidly to extinction. Even where they were ubjugated to the Spanish yoke and Christianized (Indies aldeidados), they [id not renounce, but continued at the same time the worship of their an- ient gods. The inquisition, however, took care that the outward semblance f Christianity was maintained. With an heroic courage, the Jesuits and Ca- >uchins pressed forward into the open primitive forests of the country, and long with the gospel, carried in their most simple and cheerful form the lessings of civilization. But when the Jesuits urged at Madrid, that the Teat obstacle to the progress of Christianity among the nations, was the ruelties and evil examples of the Spaniards, they obtained permission to stablish Christian colonies among the Indians who were as yet independent, ,nd which no Spaniard was to enter without their permission. Such was he origin of the republic of Paraguay (after 1610), governed by the Jesuits a a patriarchal style. The converted savages were treated as children, but ,s pious and happy children, and although much wealth was derived by tho rder from the country under its subjection, the prosperity and happiness of he people was entirely the fruit of its exertions. c) Wertheim, Ricci. (Pletz, neue theoL Zeitsch. 1833. P. 8.) d) Platel, (p. 472.) La moral pratique des Jes. 1669ss. vols. II. VI. VII. 476 MODERN CHUECH HISTOEY. PEE. V. A. D. 1517-1648. CHAP. VII. THE THIKTY TEAKS' WAR. The orig. authorities for the Hist of the 80 yrs. War. (Monatsbl. d. Allg. Zeitg. 1845s. Dec. Jan Jane.) Londorp, d. K. Maj. u. d. h. Beichs Acta publ. (Frk 162188.) Tub. 1789ss. 17 vols. t (Pappus) EplL fer. Germ. 1617-43. c. animadw. J. G. Eoehm, Lps. 1760. Theatrum Europ. Frkt 1785S&. voL I.-IV. KhetenhiUer, (p. 858.) Schiller, Gesch. d. dretss. Kr. Lps. 1791. 2 vols. and oft. Fortges. v. Woltmann, Lps. 1809. 2 vols. [Thirty Years' War, from the Germ, of Schiller by A. J. W. Morrtomn, New York. 1847. 12.] K. A. Menzd, Gesch. d. drelss. Kr. (Gesch. d. Deutsch. vol. Visa.) BreL 1885-9. 8 vols. SolU, d. BeL Kr. in Deutschl. Haml). 1840s. 2 vols. F. W. Barihold, Gesch. d. dentschen Kr. v. Tode G. Ad. an. Btuttg. 1842sa. 2 vols, [MenzeFs Hist of Germany has been transl. by Mrs. G. Ilorrockt, Lond. 1848. 8 vols. 12. See also KoMrau&clCa Hist of Germ, and Col. MUchettt Life of Wallensteln.] 899. Occasion*. The Catholic and Protestant parties in Germany continued to stand in an antagonistic and threatening attitude with respect to each other. The house of Hapshurg, the head of the Catholic party, by the vast extent of territory which it had acquired, became, in fact, dangerous to the liberties of Europe, but its power was thus far restrained by its divisions at home and its intel- lectual inferiority. In Bavaria, and in most of the prelatical countries, Pro- testantism, which had been in the ascendant about the middle, was nearly suppressed at the close of the sixteenth century. That which had been found impossible to be accomplished among the people, the Jesuits attempted among the princes. Jacob, Margrave of Baden (1590), and Wolfgang "Wil- liam, Count Palatine of Neuburg (1614), proclaimed themselves converts to the Catholic Church, (a) In consequence of the early death of the Mar- gravine, the conversion of the former was attended by no important results among his subjects, and the Count Palatine's own confessor was still a de- fender of Protestantism. Political reasons were doubtless the reason for the conversion of the count himself, but by means of it a country previously sup- posed to be lost became open to the efforts of the papacy. The ecclesiastical reservation was respected according to the will of those who for the time had possession of the government. Ilence nearly all the property of the Church in Northern Germany and Suabia fell gradually into the hands of the Protestant princes, or was administered by Protestant bishops as electoral princes. But when the Elector Gebhard, High Steward of Cologne (after 1577), who had always been unfriendly to the Catholic party, gave himself up to his passion for Agnes of Mansfeld, and sought to legalize his forced marriage with her in the Reformed Church, he was deposed by the pope, the Bishop of Liege, a Bavarian prince, was elected by the chapter in his place, and he was abandoned even by the Lutherans (1583). (J) Sentence of pro- scription was pronounced by the imperial aulic council upon Donauw'vrth, for improper treatment of a Catholic procession, and not only was the decree enforced by Bavaria, but Protestantism itself was violently oppressed, and the liberty of the imperial cities was impaired (1607).. In view of the dan- a) Unsere Jacobs, M. v. B. christl. erhebl. u. wohlfundlrte Motiven, warum wir a. Trieb uns. Gewiss. d. luth. Lehre verlassen, durch Jo. Pistorium, Coin. 1591. 4 Beihing, Murl argillati clvit. sanctae h. e. rel. cath. fundamenta, quibus insistens Wolfg. C. PaL in clvIL sanctam faustum pedem intulit Col. 1615. 4. Uebers, v. Vetter, Col. 1615. 4. 6) J. D. Koeler, de actis et fatis Gebh. Tr. Altorf. 1723. 4. F. W. JBartfiold, G. Tr. v. Waldbur*. (Eaumer's hist. Taschcnb. 1840.) ( CHAP. VII. THIRTY TEAKS' WAR. 399. CAUSES. 400. BOHEM. WAR. 477 ger, the Elector Frederic V. of the Palatinate induced a few Protestant states to form a Union (1608). In opposition to this, Maximilian of Bavaria, a man of a powerful and practical intellect, whose interest was identified with the success of the Catholic cause, placed himself at the head of a league com- posed of the ecclesiastical princes, (c) Saxony, as the representative of Lutheranism, took sides with the emperor. As long as the Jesuits kept the question of the religious peace in a state of suspense, the Union refused at the Diet of Eatisbon (1613) to submit to the decision of the majority in all matters connected with religion, and when their complaints were not attend- ed to, the members of it withdrew entirely from the diet. 400. The Bohemian War. Cont. from 357. Muller, fiinf Bucher v. Bohm. Kr. Drsd. 1840. Richter, v. Bohmen-Aufruhrs o. d. dreiss. Kr. Ursachen u. Beginn. Erf. 1844. O. A. Pescheck, Gesch. d. Gegenref. in Bohmen. Drsd. 1844. 2 vola. Under the influence of the heir-apparent to his throne, the Emperor Matthias ventured to oppress individuals among the Bohemians, or allowed the Catholic land proprietors to do so. A petition was therefore presented to the emperor on this subject, by the Utraquists. His answer, however, was of a threatening character. Two imperial counsellors, supposed to be the authors of this, were thrown from a window of the castle in Prague, and the members of the diet favorable to the Utraquists seized the reins of gov- ernment. Ferdinand //., a pupil of the Jesuits, and resolved to venture every thing to bring about the triumph of Catholicism, had already sup- pressed by a quiet exercise of power the Protestantism which had been pre- dominant in his patrimonial inheritance of Carinthia and Styria, when on the death of Matthias he was crowned emperor at Frankfort, (a) The Bohe- mians pronounced him an enemy to the liberties and religion of their country, and declared that he had forfeited the throne (Aug. 17, 1619). They then chose Frederic V. of the Palatinate for their king. The League took up arms in behalf of Ferdinand, while the Union and Saxony, from motives of prudence and from a rigid adherence to the strict principles of Lutheranism, remained inactive. Frederic knew nothing of royalty except how to enjoy its pleasures ; whatever power he possessed in Bohemia was destroyed at the battle of the "White Mountain near Prague (Nov. 8, 1620), and the conversion of Bohemia was effected by the Jesuits and the soldiers from Lichtenstein. The Bohemian literature was committed to the flames by the commission for the reformation of the people. John of Nepomulc, who had once been the archbishop's vicar and confidant in a hierarchical controversy with King "Wenceslaus, and had been thrown during a fit of passion by that king into the river from the bridge of the Muldau (1393), now became the national eaint of the new Catholic kingdom of Bohemia. The legend of his death was intentionally enlarged, and he was looked upon as the martyr for the seal of confession. The qualities and incidents which history has attributed to John Huss were now transferred to this saint of the bridge, that c) K. M. v. Aretin, Gesch. Maxim. I. Passau 1842. f. 2 vols. a) F. Hurter, Gesch. K. Perd. II. u. sr. Eltern b. z. Kronung in Frankf. Schaffh. 1850. 4 vols. 478 MODERN CHURCH HISTORY. PER. V. A. D. 1517-1648. the memory of the reformer (Master Jan) might be effaced from the minds of the people. (5) 401. The German War. The emperor was resolved to destroy Frederic V. even as a prince of the empire, and it was principally for this reason that he now kept up and strengthened his army. The office of. elector in the Palatinate was given to Bavaria (1623). In all his patrimonial Austrian possessions the Protestant religion was entirely suppressed. The Duke of Savoy had long since (1602) consumed the revenues from the sale of the Jubilee indulgences, in maintain- ing free companies for surprising the army of the Reformed Church, and tho people of Geneva merely instituted an annual thanksgiving in commemora- tion o( his failure (1'escalade). But in the Valteline, on the Italian border, the Catholics murdered their reformed fellow-countrymen (July, 1620), and Spanish and Austrian troops took possession of tho country, as well as of some parts of the Gray League, (a) When all opposition in Germany had been put down by "Wallenstein, the emperor proclaimed the Edict of Restitution, (&) that it might be an authentic explanation of the Religious Peace. According to this, all those foundations belonging to the Catholic Church which had been confiscated since tho Treaty of Passau were to be restored, the Calvin- ists were excluded from the privileges granted in the Religious Peace, and Catholic states were not to be impeded in their efforts to convert their sub- jects. The violent proceedings which ensued during the execution of this edict were followed by others of still greater violence, until Protestantism appeared once more on the point of utter extinction, (c) But just at this critical moment the Catholic powers began to contend among themselves. France and Rome became alarmed at the formidable power of the house of Uapsburg. "Wallenstein reminded the pope that Rome had not been plun- dered for more than a hundred years, and a passage into Germany was opened by Franco for Guttavus Adolphus (June 24, 1630), who both from policy and religion espoused the cause of Protestantism, and re-established it by his bold military exploits, (d) After his heroic death (Nov. 6, 1632) the war was maintained by the Swedish generals, who were secretly supported by Riche- lieu. They, however, held out with great difficulty, since by the treaty of Prague (1635) the Elector of Saxony once more forsook not only the com- mon cause, but even the foreign policy of Protestantism, until France openly came to their support. Neither party can be said to have been successful, and Germany was desolated by a civil and religious war, by no means na- b) The first Altar in 1621. Canonization in 1629. Life in Jo. Nep. by the Jesuit Balbi about 1670. (Acta S3. Maj. voL III. p. 667.) The history: Pdzd, Gesch. Wenzels. voL I. p. 266. Urkiin- denb. p. 109. 154ss. The expedient of two persons called Jo. of Nep. was resorted to even in Acta S3. p. 670. 673. o) (Cp. Waser.) Veltlinisch Blutbad. Ziir. 1621. 4. De Porta, Hist. ref. Ecc. Rhaet II. p. 2SO?s. &) Londorp, Th. IIL p. 1047. c) Caraffa, de Gerin. sacra restaurata. Col. 1639. d) Erinnerungen an G. A. Eigenhandige EinL z. Gesch. e. Leb. ed. by Rulis, Hal. 1806. Pufen- dorf, Cinmtr. de reb. Snec. ab expedit G. A. Ultraj. 1636. Frcf. 1707. f. A. F. Gfrorer, Gesch. G. A. n. sr. Zeit Stuttg. (1837-18.) 1863. Geijer, Gesch. v. Scbw. vol. III. Ueising. G. A. in Deutschl. Brl 1S46. [ W. Harte, Life of G. A. Lond. 1759. 2 vols. 4. J. F. Ilolllngs, Life of G. A. Lond. 1838. 12.] CHAP. TIL THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 402. PEACE OF WESTPHALIA. 47S tional in its objects, but equivocal in its nature and prosecuted by the leaders for various subordinate ends. 402. The Peace of Westphalia. I. Instrumentum P. W. ed. Berninger, Monast, 1648. Meiern., Gott. 1747. A. Adami Arcana P. W. Frcf. 1698. 4. ed. Meiern, Gott 1737. 4. M6moires de M. D. (Gl. du Mesme tfAvaux.') Col. Gren. 1674. J. O. t>. Meiern, Acta P. W. publics. Hann. 1734ss. 6 vola. f. m. Register. Gott 1740. f. II. Putter, Geist d. W. F. Gott 1795. Senkenberg, Darst d. W. F. Frkf. 1804. Woltmann, Gesch. d. W. F. Lpz. 1808s. 2 vols. Those who had commenced the war did not live to witness its conclusion. Austria was compelled to acknowledge that Protestantism and Germany were not to be overcome by violence. With a formidable desperation the people of the different nations demanded peace. After many tedious and in- tricate negotiations at Munster and Osnabruck, a peace was concluded in October, 1648, to be henceforth a fundamental law of the German nation. Under the guarantee of France and Sweden, Bavaria retained, besides the electoral dignity, the Upper Palatinate, and an eighth electorate was formed for the Lower Palatinate, which was now restored. France and Sweden were recompensed for their trouble by certain territories of the empire. All dam- ages were compensated by means of the secularized property of the Church. The right of each state of the empire to form alliances with foreign powers, provided it was not in opposition to the emperor and the empire, was formally acknowledged. "With respect to the controversy between the two churches, the five articles of the Deed of Osnaburg were adopted, in which the princi- ple of a complete legal equality of both parties with respect to each other, was assumed, and all ecclesiastical and political protests were rejected : "The Religious Peace of Augsburg shall be inviolably kept by each. In all impe- rial courts and deputations the number of members from each religious party shall be equal. In the Imperial Diet, if the two religious parties differ from each other, nothing shall be decided by a majority of votes but by com- promise. With respect to ecclesiastical property the possessions of all par- ties shall be decided by the state of affairs, on the 1st of January, 1624. Wherever a free exercise of religion was publicly tolerated in that normal year it shall be continued, but where this was not the case liberty of domes- tic worship shall be permitted. The relations of the Eeformed Church to- ward the Catholics are established on grounds similar to those of the churches professing the Augsburg Confession. But the legal relations of the two Pro- testant parties toward each other to continue precisely as they were at that time, whether settled by treaty or by usage. A prince who may go over from one Protestant party to the other, may grant religious toleration to those who belong to the same creed with himself, but he shall allow the established Church to remain unmolested." The evangelical Hungarians had received support from Rakoczy of Transylvania, and in the treaty of Linz (1643) had secured the restoration of their ecclesiastical rights. The Silesian princif ali- ties, but none of the other Austrian patrimonial states, were included in the provisions of the Peace of Westphalia. Through the mediation of Venice t and France, at the treaty of Milan (1639) the Gray League recovered its Italian possessions, but with the stipulation that the Protestants should be 480 MODEEN CHUECH HISTORY. PER. V. A. D. 1517-1648. excluded. A peace without a genuine reconciliation was thus concluded for every part of Europe, and the balance of power between the Catholic and Protestant Churches was secured by the imperial constitution, but the em- pire was divided and sacrificed to foreign influences. CHAP. VIII. THE ORIENTAL CHURCH. Cnuiuf. (p. 856.) Leo All. (p. 855.) R. Simon, H. crit des dograes et controv. des chretleus or. Trevoux. 1T1L H^MCciu^ Abblld d. tUtern u. neuern gr. K Lpu. 1T11. 4. M. le Quien, Oriens chr. Par. 1740. 8 vols. t Librl symb. Ecc. or. ed. J. Kimmd, Jen. 1848. Appendix LL. symb. ed. Weiss- enborn, Jen. 1850. [J. M. Neale, H. of the Holy Eastern Church. Lond. 1850. 2 vols. 8. T. Smith, Greek Church, its Docc. A Rites. Lond. 1630. 8. John Covlll, Some Account of the Greek Church. Lond. 1722. f ] 403. Connections with Protestants. A Greek translation of the Augsburg Confession (a) and a letter of salu- tation to Joasaph II. (b) the Patriarch of Constantinople, was sent by Me- lancthon, by the hands of a Greek, but no reply was ever received. By means of a preacher connected with an embassy at Constantinople, the theo- logian of Tubingen was induced to send another translation to the Patriarch Jeremias II. (1574). The answer of that prelate was written in accordanco with the very strictest forms of Greek orthodoxy, and as it expressed a desire that the correspondence, if agreeable to them, should have no further dis- cussion of doctrines, but be confined to an exchange of friendly civilities, the intercourse was broken off (1581). (c) Cyrillus Lucaris, a native of Candia, who had been educated at Padua, formed connections when in Lithuania with reformed clergymen, which were continued by means of Dutch and English ambassadors after he became Patriarch of Alexandria (1602) and sub- sequently of Constantinople (1621). To prevent the further progress of the Roman Church, and to infuse new life into the formal worship of his own Church, he formed an alliance with the young Church of the "West, and even transmitted to Geneva the form of a Calvinistic Confession of Faith, (d) This was enough, without the subsequent efforts of the Jesuits, to excite the Greek bishops against him. On the ordinary accusation of high treason he was strangled (1638), (e) and the Oriental patriarchs execrated his memory. (/) a) 'E|ojioXo'7T?<>. Gen. (iat 1629. Kimmel p. 24.) 1633. ) Aymon, Monumens anthent de la rel. des Grecs. Haye. 1708. 4. Th. Smith, Collect de Cyr. Luc. Loud. 1707. JSohnsted.t, de Cyr. Luc. HaL 1729. 4. Mohnike, Cyr. Luc. "(Stud. u. Krit. 1882. P. 8.) Twest&n Cyr. Luc. (Deutsche Zeitsch. f. chr. W. 1850. N. 39ss.) /) Kimmel, p. 398. 408. 825. CHAP. VIII. ORIENTAL CHUECH. 404. EUSSIA. 48 1 404. The Russian Church. For Lit see 282. StraM, Beitrr. z. russ. KGesch. Hal. 182T. vol. I. Ullmann a. fetrahl. (Stud. n. Krit. 1831. P. 2.) H, J. Schmitt, krlt. Gesch. d. neugr. u. d. russ. K Mayence 1840. A. N. Mu> raurieff, H. of the Church of Russia, transl. (in Russian. Petersb. 1838.) by Blackmore, Oxf. 1842. [P. Hycaut, The present State of the Arm. & Greek Churches. LoncL 1679. 8.] In the course of political development the Eussian Chnrch necessarily became independent of the see of Constantinople. As the Patriarch Jere- inias was much embarrassed for want of funds, it was not difficult to obtain his consent that a patriarch should be appointed for Moscow, as the third Eome (1589). (a) The Eussian patriarchs were however obliged, until the middle of the seventeenth century, to obtain confirmation at Constantinople. The Eoman Church, ever since the time of Gregory, has had its eye upon a union with the Eussian Church. A hope of such a union was encouraged by the Tzar Iwan Wasiljewitsch, as he was anxious to obtain the assistance of the emperor and the mediation of the pope in an unsuccessful war which he was carrying on against the Poles (1581). But in spite of the artful policy of the Jesuit Possevino, (5) the hope became extinguished in proportion as the necessities of the Tzar diminished. The efforts of that emissary were, how- ever, more successful in some Eussian provinces, which fell with Lithuania into the hands of the Poles. Michael Rahosa, the Metropolitan of Kiew, to- gether with a portion of the clergy, at the Synod of Brzesc (1596), su omitted to the pope, hoping they might share the advantages of the Catholic clergy, and save the orthodox Church from the apostasy which had commenced among the nobility. The Union was effected in conformity with the agree- ment which had been formed at Florence, with a great respect at first for old ancestral usages, (c) But gradually the forms of worship became latinized through the influence of the Eoman monks, who entered the convents be- longing to the Union, while all those churches which did not enter that con- nection sunk under the temptations and persecutions to which they were sub- jected. To confirm the views and feelings of the Oriental Church in opposition to the encroachments of Eoman and Protestant elements, a Eus- sian catechism was composed (1642) by Petrus Mogilas the orthodox Metro- politan of Kiew, and was confirmed by all the associated patriarchs of the Greek Church, as the confession of the Oriental Catholic Church. In this, the doctrines of the Church are simply presented in the manner and style of the ancient Church ; but in accordance also with the latest developments they had gradually attained, and as the reception of it was ranked among the three cardinal theological virtues, it has become prominent in the practical system of the Church, (d) The accession of the false Demetrius to the throne of the Tzars was favored by the Poles on the ground of its being a Catholic enter- prise, and failed at Moscow (1606) principally for the same reason, (e) Ger- a) Karamsin vol. IX. p. 181. I) Ant, Possevini Moscovia. (Viln. 1586.) Antu. 1587. c) Jura et privilegia genti Ruthenae cath. a M. Pontiflcibus Poloniaeque Regibus concessa. Lemb. 1787. d) 'Op&o8oos OjJioXoyia rr)s iritfTGus rris KO&. Kal airotrr. CKK\. TTJS O.VO.TO} Krjs. (Kimmel p. 56.) ) Cilli, H. di Moscovia. p. llss. G. F. Mueller, Samml. russ. Geschichten. Petersb. 1732ss. vol. V, Karamsin vol. X. p. 109ss. [M. Merimee, The Russ. Impostors, or The False Demetrius. Lond. 1S52. 8.] 31 482 MODERN CHUECH HISTORY PER, V. A. D. 1517-1648. man colonists, Protestant as well as Catholic, sometimes entered Eussia, and enjoyed full liberty with respect to private religion, but seldom possessed tho privilege of holding public worship. (/) 405. Abyssinians and Maronitcs. Job. Luddfi II. aethiopica. Frcf. 1681. f. ) rivalling even that of the Catholic countries of that period, in its zeal for burning witches. Paul Gerhardt (d. 1676), who committed his way to God, and betook himself to foreign countries, because his tender conscience would not allow him to remain in Berlin, where his Lutheranism was in dan- ger, was the first of a vast chorus of harmonious voices to express the emo- a) Gelbke, Herzog Ernst d. Fr. Qotha 1810. 3 vols. comp. Hunnius, Consultatio, ob und wie man die in d. luth. K. schwebenden R. Streitigk. beilegen moge. Lub. (1632.) 1683. V) . Rose, Job. Friedrich VI. Neust 1827. CHAP. L EVANG. CHUECH. 407. P. GEEHAEDT. 485 tions of the Christian heart in all its relations to God, by popular hymns, (c) But the German Protestantism of that period gave forth its sublimest utter- ance in the severe, but harmonious and seraphic music of John Sebastian Eacli (d. 1750), the chorister of Leipsic. Though contented in the contracted sphere of domestic life, lie longed correctly to convey to others the unuttera- ble feelings which were struggling in his own heart. The Passion-Oratorios which he composed were the direct offspring of the Protestant mode of wor- ship. Contemporary with him was Handel (d. 1759), whose ambition was displayed both in private life, and in the style of his art, whose works are of the richest and most brilliant character, and in whose celebration of the Mes- siah was employed an array of musical instruments which had never before been collected. Both composers lived in seclusion, but were highly honored during their lives, (d) In consequence of the war, however, and the exclu- sive prevalence of an orthodoxy confined to the strict letter of the standards, there was nothing whatever of literature, or of its popular elements during this period. The theology 6f the Form of Concord was developed entirely in a controversial style with reference to opposing systems, and might be called a new scholasticism, without the philosophical acuteness of the old. This orthodoxy may have been the language of sincere piety, but it was vio- lently maintained by means of a contracted education, by an unscientific course of instruction, by oaths, and by censorships. As every deviation from it was closely watched and threatened, all intellectual movements became constrained, and were animated only when engaged in controversy, and in accusations for heresy. Even Calovius, Koenig, and Quenstedt, who were leaders, only transcribed the productions of their predecessors, and of each other. But with all their subtilties one can scarcely refrain from thinking that they have described God very much like some mighty Lutheran pastor who is obliged to save his honor by blows, (e) The authority of the Scrip- tures was actually felt only through certain passages much used in contro- versy, the explanation of which was firmly settled by each party for itself. The pure and powerful prose which Luther had used was forgotten, men of learning wrote in a tolerable Latin, and the sermons, though sometimes pow- erful, unrestrained, and alarming, were generally disputatious, allegorical, insipid, pedantic, or ordinary. (/) Orthodoxy, and the most unwearied eccle- siasticism, were compatible with a worldly spirit and the rudest manners. The zealots for orthodoxy assailed each other with reference to some atten- 1 uated definitions of subjects which lay beyond the bounds of human knowl- edge, (g) and the exhortation to unity in essentials, freedom in non-essentials, and charity in both, was only as a voice in the desert. (7i) e) K G. Roth, P. G. Lps. 1829. E. C. Langbecker, Leben u. Leiden. P. G. Brl. 1841. O. SchuU, P. G. geistl. Andachten. Brl. 1842. d) Forkel, Leben J. S. Bachs. Lps. 1804. 4. [ Burney, Memoirs of Handel, and also by the same, Gen. Hist of Music, Lond. 1776-89. 4 vols. 8., condensed by T. Busby, Lond. 1819. 2 vols. 8.] e) ffartmann., v. Seegensprechen. Numb. 1680. p. 158. 180. /) Schuler, Gesch. d. Geschmacks im Pred. Hal. 1792. voL I. p. 165ss. g) A. Tholuck : D. Gelst d. luth. Theologen Witt im 17. Jhh. Hmb. 1S52. D. akad. Leben d. 17. Jhh. Hal. 1853. K) F. Lucke, u. Alter, Yerf. urspr. Form u. Sinn des kirchl Friedensspruches, Gott 1850. 486 MODERN CHURCH HISTORY. PEE. VI. A. D. 164S-1S5&. 408. George Calixtus. 1586-1656. Do causa hodicrnt odil pbilos. et solidae erudit Helmst 1619. Epit Theol. Him, 1619. & often. Coinmercli liter. Calixt Fasc. 1-3. ed. K Henke, Hal. Jen. Marb. 1883-40. Calovii H. syncretistica d. i. chr. Bedenken u, d. lieben KFrieden. 1682 conflscirt (Giess.) 16S5. 4, Matter, Cimbria liter. Hafn. 1744. t Tb. IIL p. 12188. E. ITenke, d. TTniv. Holmst 1m 16 Jhh. Hal. 1888. Walch, K. Str. vol. I. p. 21688. IV, 666ss. Planck, Gesch. d. prot Th. v. d. Konkordienf. p. 90ss. Jl Schmid, Gescli. I synkret streitigk. In d. Zelt d. CaL ErL 1846. W. a, Cal a. d. Synkret Brl. 1846. The University of Helmstadt had been accidentally exempted from the operation of the Form of Concord, ( 351,) and by the protection which ita princes had afforded it, it became for a long time an asylum for the Humanists. Here contemptuous language with respect to human reason and philosophy, ' such as was ventured upon by Daniel Hoffmann, was punished as an offence against the philosophical faculty, (a) From this school sprung Calixtm, an upright and extensively educated man, who, for nearly half a century was a professor in Helmstadt, where, in the spirit of Melancthon, he sought in the historical method for a more unfettered form of theology. By his doctrine of the necessity of good works, by his separation of ethics from theology, and by his assertion that the doctrine of the Trinity was not plainly revealed in the Old Testament, suspicions 'of his orthodoxy were awakened, first among his pupils at Koonigsberg, and finally led to a denial of an honorable burial to his lifeless remains. He endeavored to strengthen the power of tho Protestants in Thorn by a fraternal connection with the members of the Be- formed Church (p. 420.) He was regarded by the Catholics as their most sagacious opponent, and the whole Catholic Church of Germany was invited by him to escape from the power of the pope. But he had become ac- quainted with a Christianity unfettered by the subtleties of the Form of Con- cord, and made known in the Scriptures, in the primitive Church, and in Christian experience. Conscious that he had thus attained a universal Chris- tianity, he demanded that the various churches should recognize it, and thought that they might once more be united, or at least might mutually tole- rate each other, if they could all be induced to return to the oecumenical symbols and laws of the first five centuries. This plan was called by the zeal- ous Lutherans Syncretism. Calovius, an exasperated but honest watchman of Zion, with his colleagues in Luther's chair, furiously and indefatigably as- Bailed this heresy of one whom they regarded as a papist and Mameluke, who should be cut off from the body of the Church by a new creed. (5) But Helinstadt adhered to its beloved instructor, he was also protected by his prince, and Jena protested against the unreasonable reproaches of his adver- saries, (c) These reproaches were supposed to be justified by his assertion that the Eeformation was merely a particular mode of return to the ancient Church, and by the references made to him by many then going over to the a) De Deo et Chr. Hlmst 1593. On the other hand : J. Martini Vernunftspiegel, d. i. Bericht, was d. Vft sammt drs. Perfection, Phil. sey. Witt 1618. f. Thomasius, de controv. Hofmanniana. ErL 1844 I) Consensus repetitus fldei vere Lutheranae. 1655. (Consilia theol. Wittenb. Frkf. 1664. f. voL L) Penuo ed. E. L. T. Henke, Marb. 1846. 4. c) Musaeus, ausf. Erkl. u. 93 vermeinte RcL Fragen. Jen. 1677. CHAP. L EVANG. CHURCH. 408. CALIXTUS. 409. SPENEE. 487 Catholic Church. He was much respected by the higher classes, and his reputation at home was much increased by the honors which he gained in foreign countries. His influence upon the theology of his own times was al- most imperceptible, but ho seemed rather a type of what was about to pre- vail in the succeeding age. 409. Pietism. Spener. 1635-1705. I. Spener : Das geistl. Priestertb. Frkf. 167T. 12. and oth. Brl. 1830. Allg. Gottesgel. aller glaub. Chr. n. rechtsch. Thcol. Frkf. 1680. 12. and often. Die Freih. d. Glaubigen v. Ansehn d. Menschen in Glaubenssach. Frkf. 1691. TheoL Bedenken. Hal. ITOOss. 4 vols. Consilia et jud. th. Frcf. 1T09. 3 vols. 4. Lat u. deutsche th. Bed. in zeitgem. Ausw. v. JTennicfce, Hal. 1838. Wahrh. Erzabl. des- sen, was wcgen d. sogen. Pict vorgegangen. Frkf. (1697.) 1698. Amst 1700. 12.Loscher, Timotb. Verinus. Witt. 1718ss. 2 vols. u. vieles in d.Unscbuld. Nachrr. 1701-20. Work written to compose the strife of parties : (Suddens) Wahrh. u. griindl. Erzahl was zw. d. sog. Piet. geschehen. Without place. 1T10. II. C. IT. v. Canstein, Muster e. rechtsch. Lehrers in d. Leben Sp. Hal. 1740. Suabedissen, Sp. (Eochlitz, jahrL Mitth. 1823. vol. III.) W. Hossbach, Sp. u. s. Zeit Brl. (1828.) ed. by G. Sehweder, 1853. 2 vols. Knapp, Leben u. Char, einigcr frommen u. gel. Manner d. vor. Jhb. Hal. 1829. W. Tfulo, Sp. als Katechet. Brl. 1840. WalcTi, E. Str. vol. I. p. 540ss. II, Iss. IV, 1030ss. V, Iss. Planck, Gesch. d. prot. Th. p. 180ss. [A new Life of Spener has been announced as in preparation by K. Horsbach, in 2 vols. Lps. 1854.] Deutsche Zeitsch. f. chr. W. 1853. N. 23s. Philip Jacob Spener received a pious and liberal education in the city of Strasbourg, and while yet a youth became the first among the clergy in Frankfort (1666). He subsequently became the superior court preacher in Dresden (1686), but fell into disgrace on account of his zeal as a confessor, and was appointed (1691) Provost in Berlin. He was deeply impressed with the conviction that practical piety was in danger of being lost in a conform- ity to the outward letter of Christianity. By devotional explanations of the Scriptures, and Christian conversation in private religious meetings (collegia pietatis, after 16TO), a high degree of religious earnestness was awakened. His "Pious Desires" (a) encouraged the hope of reforming the corrupt Church. In that work he showed that the Church should be once more built up under the influence of the Scriptures, that the spiritual priesthood of the congregation should be restored, and that the clergy should be edu- cated to live a life of personal godliness. Then Christianity would be preached in apostolical simplicity, and become a religion of the heart and of daily conduct. In Leipsic, where the exposition of the Scriptures had long been discontinued, a society of educated young men was formed under the influence of Spener, for the scientific explanation and practical application of the Scriptures (July 18, 168V). () The German devotional lectures upon the ]STew Testament opened (1689) by three men who had obtained the degree of Magister, among whom was Aug. Herm. Fmncke, were attended with great diligence by large numbers of students and citizens. On account of their excessive displays of piety in their outward conduct, these persons were called Pietists, and were accused of aiming to bring public worship and sci- ence into contempt. They were therefore compelled by the theologians to leave Leipsio (1690), and in connection with Thomasius they founded a new ) Pia desideria o. hertzl. Verlangen nach gottgefall. Besserung d. wahren ev. K. (First pubL as u praef. to Arndt's Postilla ev. 1675.) Frkf. 1675. lat Frkf. 1678. 12. V) C. F. Illgen, Hist. Collegii philobiblic! Lips. Lps. 1836s. 3 P. 4. 488 MODEBN CHUECH HISTOET. PER. VL A. D. 1G4S-1858. salt-spring at Halle (1691). After the first exhibitions of popular favor had passed away, the rigid demands which Spener made in behalf of morality, and his liberal but logical system of doctrines, raised up against him many opponents not only among the worldly classes, but among .the orthodox. Once more "Wittenberg, now enfeebled by age, defended its Lutheranism, (c) and the theology of the schools with almost one voice exclaimed against Pietism as against a new sect. The controversy, however, was carried on not by seizing and attacking the thing itself, but according to the polemical fash- ion of the times, by accusing it of many erroneous sentiments, and enlisting in petty quarrels against it the passions of the people, the civil courts, and even the divine decisions. Those tendencies which had been originated by Spener, but which had been kept within due limits by the mildness of his disposition, were soon carried to an extreme by his followers. They con- tended that all true regeneration must be preceded by a high-wrought peni- tential conflict, that none but a regenerated divine should be allowed to min- ister in holy things, a proud sectarian spirit was awakened, injury was done to the. serious pursuit of literature by the pure devotional form which theol- ogy then assumed, some were led to indulge in enthusiastic hopes of a mil- lennial kingdom, and of the final extinction of hell, (d) and many high- sounding pious expressions were introduced which really had no meaning. It must, however, not be forgotten that the Orphan House was the result of Francke's pietism, and will ever commemorate the triumph of his faith in God and his benevolence toward men. (e) As soon, however, as the opposi- tion began gradually to abate (after 1720), the energy as well as the free reforming spirit of Pietism was gone, and it appeared to bo merely a languid religion of feeling, which, while it shrunk from every semblance of worldly pleasure and splendor, regarded Christianity under the single aspect of a sys- tem which proclaimed the naturally miserable state of man in consequence of sin, and the necessity of justification through the expiatory death of Christ. Protestantism, by its influence, penetrated the hearts of men more profoundly, and the pious morality of domestic life was strengthened by it, but especially in the courts of some of the inferior princes it degenerated into a miserable system of legality and ceremony before God. Registers were kept for souls, and many idle persons supported themselves comfort- ably by using the new language respecting breaking into the kingdom, and the sealing of believers, while serious-minded persons were utterly unfitted for their ordinary social duties, until in despair they committed suicide. (/") The orthodox, on the other hand, in their opposition to such fanaticism, gave their countenance to an. extraordinary degree of cheerfulness, and thought the condition of their Church was remarkably flourishing, (g) c) Cbristluth. Vorst in anfrlcht. Lehrsatzsen n. Gottos Wort n. d. symb. KBuchern u. unricb tigen Gcgensatzen aus H. Dr. Spener's Scbrr. Witt 1695. d) J. W. Petersen^ Mvo-rrjpiov aTro/carao'Tao'ews irdvTuv, d. L Geheimn. d. Wiederbr. allei Dinge. Offenb. ITOlsa. 3 vols. ) A. H. Francke, by A. H, Niemeyer, Hal. 1794. by Guerike, Hal. 1827. /) Semler, Lebensbeschr. voL I. p. 47es. 0) ffossbach, vx)l. II. p. 126. Tholwk, Geist d. luth. Th. p. 272ss. 27& CHAP. L EVANG. CHUBCH. 410. PHILOSOPHY. LEIBNITZ. 489 410. Philosophical Influences. Cartesius to Wolf. Although science received from the hand of Bacon of Verulam (d. 1626) a tendency toward physics and the useful arts, (a) many divines long thought it absurd to concede an authority to Copernicus which was superior to that of the word of God. (5) The more modern philosophy had its origin with Des Cartes (d. 1650), in an inquiry proceeding from doubt, after something abso- lutely true and certain, and which the reflecting mind might find in itself alone, without reference to theology. It was, however, employed in the Netherlands for the representation of the doctrines of revelation, and took the place of the formulae of Aristotle. The consciousness of a knowledge of God which from its own nature was satisfactory, was awakened there by this philosophy, but as it soon became suspected of political liberalism, it was prohibited by the Orange party (after 1650). (c) The tragical philosophy of Spinoza was founded on a profound religious basis independent of all dog- mas, but Christianity was utterly foreign to* his speculations, and during the century in which he lived he was regarded as an atheist, (d) In England, the doctrines of a sound common sense were reduced by Locke (d. 1704) to a philosophical system, which asserted for the experience of the senses at least a paramount influence in the intellectual world, and demanded a complete toleration for every kind of religious opinions. He himself, however, never intended to advocate any sentiment inconsistent with the creed of his Church, (e) In Germany, Leibnitz, fully confiding in the primogeniture of the human mind, rescued philosophy from the abyss of Spinoza by defending a free individuality originally determined only by the prime monad, and a necessary agreement of revejation with the everlasting truths of reason. He however conceded that the historical mysteries of Christianity were beyond the reach of reason, and with a character in its special peculiarities quite dif- ferent from the ordinary German spirit, he kept aloof from all ecclesiastical controversies. (/) His philosophy became intelligible to ordinary minds by the labors of Wolf (d. 1V54), who, though he lived in perfect harmony with the Church, sometimes demonstrated its doctrines in a mathematical style, and sometimes allowed them to pass as mysteries adapted only to the world of sense. But on account of the dread which Pietism displayed toward the a) Novmn Organon Scientiarum. 1620. ed. Bruck, Lps. 1830. Gfrorer, Stuttg. 1831. [Bacon's Nov. Org., or True Suggestions for the Interpret, of Nature. Lond. 1850. 8. Also in Works, 3 vols. 8. Philad. 1S40. Account of Bacon's Nov. Org. in Lib. of Us. Knowledge. Lond. 1S27. 8.] 6) Calo'o. Syst. vol. III. p. 103S. Hollas. Exam. ed. Teller, p. 369. c) Cartesii Opp. Frcf. 1692ss. 2 vols. kHuetii Censura. Par. 1689. 12. ed. 4. 1694. J. E. Erd- mann, Darst u. Kritik d. Cart Ph. Eiga. 183-1. C. F. Hook, Cart u. seine Gegner. Vienna. 1835. Bordas Demoulin, le Cartesiiinisme. Par. 1843. [ W. Whewell, Hist of the Inductive Sciences. Lond. 2 ed. 1847. 3 vols. 8. Tennemanri's Manual, p. 305-8. Henry's Transl. of the Hist, of Phil, vol. IL p. 48-60.] d) Opp. ed. Paulus, Jen. 1802. 2 vols. Gfrorer, Stuttg. 1830. IT. C. W. Sigwart, d. Spinozi- mus. Tub. 1839. Amand Saintes, H. de la vie et des ouvr. de Sp. fondateur de 1'exegese et de la phil. moderue. Par. 1842. e) Works of J. L. Lond. 1T14. 3 vols. 1824. 9 vols. [Philos. works, with prel. disc, by St. John, Lond. 1843. 8.] /) Opp. lat gall. germ. ed. Erdmann, Ber. 1839s. 2 vols. 4. L. Feuerlach, Darst u. Krit. d. Leibn. Ph. Ansp. 1837. G. E. Gu/irauer, G. W. v. Leibn. Brsl. (1842.) 1S46. 2 vols. A. Hdffricli, Spin. u. Leibn. Hamb. 1846. [/. M. Mackie, Life of G. W. von L. Boston. 1848. ISmo.] 492 MODERN CHTJECH HISTOEY. PEE. VI. A. 1>. 164S-1SM. 412. Law and Legal Views in the German Church. The deputies of the Protestant states at the permanent Diet of Ratisboc (after 1663) formed a tribunal (Corpus Evangelicorum), which possessed no real power, but was designed to secure the rights guarantied by the Peace, (a) The jurisdiction over the individual national Churches remained with the secular authorities, and was exercised by the consistories' and ministerial coun- cil, with the co-operation of the states of the respective countries, and, in some provinces of the Reformed Church, with the aid of the minor synods. Every ecclesiastical usurpation was therefore easily repelled, the Church was sometimes used as a police for the execution of the laws, and the property of the Church was sometimes used for secular objects. The press was the only organ by which ecclesiastical privileges and wants were made known, and even this was placed under the restraints of a censorship. In the literary works of that period, the fact that princes exercised so much ecclesiastical power is variously explained. When the internal inconsistencies of the epis- copal system (p. 441) had become evident, the formation of a Territorial sys- tem naturally followed from the 'right of reforming the Church which had been assumed by the imperial diet, from the advancement of political rights, and from the ascendency of a worldly spirit. According to this system, the ecclesiastical was merely an element of the civil power. This legal view of the subject was generally adopted about the commencement of the eighteenth century, in consequence of the liberal use which Thomasius made of it, and the judicious limitations assigned to it by Boehmer. Still the consciousness of her own rights which the Church possessed, confirmed by the records of a thousand years, soon occasioned a theological opposition to this view. Chan- cellor Pfaff of Tubingen was the author of the Collegial System (1719), ac- cording to which the Church is an independent corporation, whose power can be lawfully assumed by princes only by treaty with it. Both views have contended with each other side by side, and have alternately exerted an important influence upon the administration of the Church. (&) 413. Legal delations to the Catholic Church. Although the modern state was inclined to compromise the religious dif- ferences among its subjects, both Churches tolerated each other only so far as they could not invalidate a right actually acquired during the recent con- flicts. In Germany, this hostility was fostered especially by the oppressions which members of the evangelical Church sustained from their Catholic rulers, and by the enticement of some princes to the Catholic Church, (a) Catholic dynasties were established in the Electoral Palatinate when the Catholic line of the Palatine house of Neuberg came to the throne (1685), and in Electoral Saxony when Frederic Augustus became convinced of the truth of the Catholic faith on his becoming a candidate for the Polish crown a) Schauroth u. fferrich, Samml. aller Conclusorum u. VerhandL d. Corpus Evv. Eegensb. 1751-86. 4 vols. f. H, W. c. Zulow, Gescb, u. Vert d. Corpus Ew. Eegensb. 1T95. &) Nettelbladt, de tribns systematibns doctr. de juresacr. dirigendorum. (Obss. jnr. ecc. Hal. 1783.) a) Struve, Eel. Beschwcrden zwiscbcn den Kath. u. Evangelischen. Lps. 1722. 2 vols. Oertel, vollst. Corpus gravamm. ev. Eegensb. 1771ss. 5 vols. CHAP. I. EVANG. CHURCH TILL 1750. 413. CONVERTS. 493 (1697). The oppression of the Protestants became legalized in the Palatinate, when a clause in the Peace of Eyswick (1697) required that public worship should henceforth be conducted in the same manner in which it had been performed while the French occupied that territory. It was only by the reprisals which Prussia made, that the Reformed Church recovered any por- tion of its immunities. (5) In Saxony, all the privileges of the Protestant Church were maintained by the zeal of the people and the states, so that not even a verse in any of their highly animated hymns would they suffer to be stricken out. The reigning family in its subsequent generations was sincerely and piously attached to its Church, but its precarious and foreign throne was purchased by a renunciation of its important position in Protestant Germany, and its success in drawing over some individuals was gained at the expense of the alienation of a loyal people. In J5rz/,7ismc-Wolfenbuttel, the Princess Elizabeth was induced to forswear her vow at confirmation (1707), that she might become the mother of an imperial family, and her grandfather Anthony Ulrich, whose counsel she had followed in this matter, embraced the same faith with a policy which could then have referred to no consequences except in another world, (c) In Wurteniburg, when Charles Alexander went over to the Catholic Church, the courage of a single officer was sufficient to give a check, though in a somewhat tumultuous manner, to the progress of the defection (1735). (d) In Salzburg, certain peaceable congregations which had been inclined to the evangelical Church, and had been tolerated as industri- ous subjects ever since the sixteenth century, fell under the notice of the Archbishop Count Firmian, who undertook their conversion by violent means (1729). One hundred elders then assembled, at early dawn on Sabbath morning, in a lonely cave of the Schwarzach, and swore on the sacred host and the consecrated salt that they would be faithful to the evangelical faith and the triune God, and that in every misfortune they would maintain a fra- ternal affection for each other. An arehiepiscopal patent of emigration (Oct. 31st, 1731) drove them under the severest circumstances from their houses and their estates. Public sympathy was enlisted to console the sad train of these confessors for the loss of their beautiful mountain homes, and twenty thousand of them found a hospitable reception in Prussia, (e) In Hungary, few magnates long resisted the temptations to apostasy presented to them, in the form of bishops' sees and offices in Church and State. The Protestants of that country, although protected by the laws, were robbed by those who professed to administer those laws, not only of their churches, but even of V) J.J. Moser, Bericht v. d. clausula A. IV. Pacis Kysu. Frkf. 1T32. 4 Putter, syst Darst ) Defensio pro populo Anglicano. Lond. 1651. Paradise Lost 1667. De Doctr. chr. 1. II. ed. C. R. Sumner, Lps. 1827. W. Hayley, Life of Milton. Lond. 1796. 4. G. Weber, in Raumer's hist Taschenb. 1852. \_TodcCa Life of Milton. Lond. 8. J. Jvimey, Life and Times of J. Milton. New "York. 1833. 12.] CHAP. L EVANG. CHUECH TILL 1750. 416. FEEETHINKEES. 499. out some danger, (a) to express opinions adverse to the established faith. A series of authors with no official connection with the ecclesiastical establish- ment, but within the pale of the Church itself, defended by arguments from common sense, and in some instances with considerable learning, the position that the natural consciousness of the divine existence and man's own con- science was all that was necessary for a perfect religion. Christianity was therefore regarded by some of these writers as of no value except as it con- tained the germ of this natural religion ; by others it was resisted as priest- craft; and by all its historical importance and origin was denied. Lord Herbert of Cherlury (d. 1648), a statesman of considerable seriousness and enthusiasm with respect to religion, was the first to develope this idea of a natural religion, which he of course pointed out as an element in pagan- ism. (5) Holies (d. 1679), one of those vigorous thinkers who deny their intellects and sell them to arbitrary power, endeavored to prove that Chris- tianity was an oriental phantom, which had been raised by the influence of Grecian philosophy to be an instrument of absolute monarchy, (c) The Earl of Shaftesbury (1713), advocating a religion of mere morality, mingled in his writings an apparent reverence for Christianity with the most delicate irony, (d) Toland (d. 1722) made an assault upon the Jewish character of Christianity and the genuineness- of its original records, and endeavored to establish a pantheistic religion of a purely earthly nature, (e) The peculiar way in which Mand&ville (d. 1783) represented the passions and vices of men as necessary to the prosperity of the state, made his work a satire upon the morality and the perfect standard advocated by the Church. (/) Collins (d. 1729) attacked the views of miracles, and the whole system of sensuous metaphysics in vogue among the divines of that period, (g) Woolston resolved the miracles of Jesus into a series of allegories, and died in defence of his opinions in prison (1733). (A) Tindal (d. 1733) contended that the Scriptures were nothing but original documents of natural religion, that Christianity was as old as creation, and that the Church was an institution of the o) Blanco White, Law of anti-religious libel. Dubl. 1834. &) De veritate prout distinguitur a Eevel. (Par. 1624. 4.) Lond. 1633. 4. and often. De Rel. Gen- tilium. 1645. ed. J. Voss, Amst. 1700. [transl. into Engl. Lond. 1705. 8. Life of Lord II. of C. writ- ten by himself. Lond. 1824. 8.] c) Leviathan. Lond. 1651. f. (in Lat do materia, forma et potestate civitatis ecc. et civil.) Amst. 1670. 4. and often. Hist ecc. carmine eleg. concinnata. Aug. Trinobant. 1688. [Eng. Works, ed. by Win. Molexworth, Lond. 1889-43. 9 vols. 8. Latin works, ed. by R. Slackbourne, Lond. 1839. 8.] Thomae Ilotib. Yita Carolop. 1681. 12. (?) Characteristics of Men, Manners, and Times. Lond. 1733. 3 vols. 12. [Cooke, Life of Shaftes- bury. Lond. 1836. 2 vols. 8.] e) Christianity not mysterious. Lond. 1696. Adeisidaemon s. T. Livius a superst vindicates. Hag. Com. 1709. Nazarenus, Jewish, Gentile, and Mahometan Christianity. Lond. 1718. Pantheis- ticon. Cosmop. 1720. [TolancTs Miscell. Works, with Account of Life and Writings by Des Mai- eeaux, Lond. 1747. 2 vols. 8.] Mosheim, Vindiciae antiq. chr. discipL adv. Tol. ed. 2. limb. 1722. 4. [Theol. and Philolog. Works of Toland. 1732. 8.] /) Fable of the Bees. Lond. 1706. 2 vols. 12. with comm. Lond. 1714. [Free Thoughts on Eel. the Church, &c. Lond. 1729. 12.] g) A discourse of Freethinking. Lond. 1713. The scheme of literal prophecy considered. Lond. 1726. 2 vols. [Hist, and Crit. Essay on the 89 Artt &c. Lond. 1724 8. Grounds and reasons of the Chr. Eel. Lond. 1724 8.] Thorsehmid, Lebensgesch. C. Drsd. 1754. 7t) Disc, on the Miracles. Lond. 1727. with 5 continuations till 1729. CurU, Lifo of W. Lond 1733. Lemker, Nachr. v. W. Schicks. Lps. 1740. 498 MODERN CHURCH HISTORY. PER. VI. A. D. 1648-1853. Catholics. The Test Act was therefore passed in Parliament (1673) by which every one was prohibited from holding any public office unless he had acknowledged the king's ecclesiastical supremacy, and had received the sacrament of the Lord's Supper in an Episcopal church. Leighton (d. 1684), who had always kept the gospel free from any connection with politics, re- signed the archbishopric of Glasgow as soon as the violent measures of the Episcopal Church had cut off all hope of its reconciliation with the Presby terians. (a) Milton, having published a treatise in which he endeavored to justify the sentence of death which had been passed upon the king, gave in his darkness and solitude a bright picture of his severe puritanic Christian- ity in his poem of Paradise Lost. (I) James II. (after 1685) publicly pro- fessed his adherence to the Catholic Church, received a Roman nuncio at his court, proclaimed free toleration *of all religions, imprisoned those bishops who protested against it, called around him a retinue of Catholic officers, and formed the design of governing a disaffected people without the aid of Par- liament. That people, however, soon forsook him. His son-in-law William III. of Orange, the great champion of the Republic and of Protestantism, became king by an agreement in which the constitution of the empire and of the Church was distinctly settled (1689). England retained the Episcopal form of government for its established Church, Ireland was placed under the jurisdiction of the Church of England, and most of the dissenters obtained the privilege of public worship. Socinians and Catholics, however, were excepted, and were never placed on a level with other dissenters until 1V7D. The Test Act also remained in full force. In Scotland, where the inclina- tions of the people were in favor of it, a Presbyterian form of government was maintained. The supreme ecclesiastical authority is vested in a General Assembly, composed of commissioners from the fifteen provincial Presby- teries, assembled annually at Edinburgh. 416. Freethinkers or Deists. J. Leland, View of the Principal Delstical Writers. 1751 2 vola. Triniua Froydenker-Lcxlcon. L. u. Brnb. 1759. Zugabe, 1765. U. ThorscJimid, Vers. e. vollst engL Freyd. Bibl. HaL 1765ss. 4 vols. G. Less, neuste Gcsch. d. Ungl. ( Walch, nst Rel. Gesch. vol. IL p. 8ss. Ill, 375ss.) ScMosser, Gesch. d. 18. Jahrh. vol. L p. 8S2ss. G. V. Lechler, Gesch. d. engl. Deismus. Stuttg. 1841. [Noack, Die Freidenker in Engl. Lps. 1854 12. ffagenlach, KGesch. des 18. u. 19. Jhh. Vorles. 10. voL I. Lps. 1848.] It was in England that we discover the first efforts of the mind to break away from all traditionary theology. The struggle between the two Churches there was severe, and the established clergy did not hesitate to defend their Catholic position directly in the face of their Protestant faith. But the civil freedom there enjoyed gave to every one full opportunity, not indeed with- er) Rob. Leighton e. apost Mann in sturm Zeit Brl. 1835. [Jerment, Life and Remains of L. Lond. J. Pearson, Life prefixed to Works. Lond. 1846. Works with a Memoir, by Aikman, Edinb. 1840. 8vo.] 5) Defensio pro populo Anglicano. Lond. 1651. Paradise Lost 1667. De Doctr. chr. 1. IL ed. C. R. Sumner, Lps. 1827. W. Hayley. Life of Milton. Loni 1796. 4. G. Weber, in Raumer's List Taschenb. 1852. [TodcTs Life of Milton. Lond. 8. J. Jmmey, Life and Times of J. Milton. New York. 1833. 12.] CHAP. i. EVANG. CHURCH TILL 1750. 416. FEEETHINKEES. 499. ont some danger, (a) to express opinions adverse to the established faith. A series of authors with no official connection with the ecclesiastical establish- ment, but within the pale of the Church itself, defended by arguments from common sense, and in some instances with considerable learning, the position that the natural consciousness of the divine existence and man's own con- science was all that was necessary for a perfect religion. Christianity was therefore regarded by some of these writers as of no value except as it con- tained the germ of this natural religion ; by others it was resisted as priest- craft; and by all its historical importance and origin was denied. Lord Herbert of Cherlury (d. 1648), a statesman of considerable seriousness and enthusiasm with respect to religion, was the first to develope this idea of a natural religion, which he of course pointed out as an element in pagan- ism, (fr) Eobles (d. 1679), one of those vigorous thinkers who deny their intellects and sell them to arbitrary power, endeavored to prove that Chris- tianity was an oriental phantom, which had been raised by the influence of Grecian philosophy to be an instrument of absolute monarchy, (c) The Earl of SJiaftesbury (1713), advocating a religion of mere morality, mingled in his writings an apparent reverence for Christianity with the most delicate irony, (d) Toland (d. 1722) made an assault upon the Jewish character of Christianity and the genuineness- of its original records, and endeavored to establish a pantheistic religion of a purely earthly nature, (e) The peculiar way in which Mandemlle (d. 1783) represented the passions and vices of men as necessary to the prosperity of the state, made his work a satire upon the morality and the perfect standard advocated by the Church. (/) Collins (d. 1729) attacked the views of miracles, and the whole system of sensuous metaphysics in vogue among the divines of that period. (V/) Woolston resolved the miracles of Jesus into a series of allegories, and died in defence of his opinions in prison (1733). (h) Tindal (d. 1733) contended that the Scriptures were nothing but original documents of natural religion, that Christianity was as old as creation, and that the Church was an institution of the o) Blanco White, Law of anti-religious libel. Dubl. 1834. 6) De veritate prout distinguitur a Eevel. (Par. 1624. 4.) Lond. 1633. 4. and often. De Eel. Gen- tilium. 1645. ed. J. Voss, Amst. 1700. [transl. into Engl. Lond. 1705. 8. Life of Lord II. of C. writ- ten by himself. Lond. 1824. 8.] c) Leviathan. Lond. 1651. f. (in Lat do materia, forma et potestate civitatis ecc. et civil.) Amst. 1670. 4. and often. Hist ecc. carmine eleg. concinnata. Aug. Trinobant. 1688. [Eng. Works, ed. by Wm. Molesworth, Lond. 1889-43. 9 vols. 8. Latin works, ed. by R. Blackbourne, Lond. 1839. 8.] Thomae IIolJ). Yita Carolop. 1681. 12. d) Characteristics of Men, Manners, and Times. Lond. 1733. 3 vols. 12. [Cooke, Life of Shaftes- bury. Lond. 1836. 2 vols. 8.] e) Christianity not mysterious. Lond. 1696. Adeisidaemon s. T. Livius a superst. vindicates. Hag. Com. 1709. Nazarenus, Jewish, Gentile, and Mahometan Christianity. Lond. 1718. Pantheis- ticon. Cosmop. 1720. [Toland's Miscell. Works, with Account of Life and Writings by Des Mai- eeaux, Lond. 1747. 2 vols. 8.] Hosheim, Vindiciae antiq. chr. discipL adv. Tol. ed. 2. Hmb. 1722. 4. [Theol. and Philolog. Works of Toland. 1732. 8.] /) Fable of the Bees. Lond. 1706. 2 vols. 12. with comm. Lond. 1714. [Free Thoughts on Eel. the Church, &c. Lond. 1729. 12.] g) A discourse of Freethinking. Lond. 1713. The scheme of literal prophecy considered. Lond. 1726. 2 vols. [Hist, and Crit. Essay on the 89 Artt &c. Lond. 1724. 8. Grounds and reasons of the Chr. Eel. Lond. 1724 8.]~T?ior8chmid, Lebensgesch. C. Drsd. 1754. 7t) Disc, on the Miracles. Lond. 1727. with 5 continuations till 1729. Curtt, Life of W. Lond 1733. Lemk&r, Nachr. v. W. Schicks. Lps. 1740. 500 MODERN CHURCH HISTOET. PER. VI. A. D. 1648-1853. state, (z) Morgan (d. 1743), who under the influence of motives partaking very little of a spiritual character, had wandered through every variety of the most heterogeneous parties in the Church, attempted finally to tear off the mask from every thing historical in Christianity, and show that it was ar invention of priests. (&) Chubb (1747) maintained that Christianity was originally intended to be a revelation of the moral latv of nature, the viola- tion of which was to be atoned for by repentance or punished at the final judgment, but that it had been misunderstood and misrepresented by the apostles. (?) Lord Bolingbrcike (d. 1761), a man possessed of the most emi- nent social qualities, pointed out to those who made a gain of religion, that .the same worldly policy which then directed the events of history had done the same in all past ages, (m) The partial views which this author took from his peculiar position, were expressed in a ridiculous representation of the his- tory of the English kings, written in what he conceived to be the peculiar views and manner of the Jewish chronicles, (n) Henry Dodwell, without attempting any compromise with science, endeavored to prove that by its very nature, religious faith excluded the exercise of all thought, (o) The nu- merous treatises written by the clergy in opposition to the Deists, called also Rationalists, exhibited a much higher degree of learning, (p) but as literary productions, they were no match for the better class of the works of their opponents. Concessions were made in them which rendered others abso- lutely necessary, and suggested doubts in circles to which professed oppo- nents could gain no access. Many apostasies from the Church under the guise of indifference took place among the higher ranks. The noblest repre- sentative of this class was David Hume (d. 1776), a pleasant philosopher, who in the uncertainty at which he had arrived respecting all human affairs, con- cluded it best to be independent in all things, (q) Even after the most flourishing period of Deism had passed, the absurd scheme of an association of deists and atheists, or the mockery of a hell-fire club, was commenced in London (about 1780). (r) The great body of the people held firmly to the ancient Christianity, in behalf of which a new enthusiasm was awakened among the sects. In Germany, some isolated persons still went forth in pur suit of adventures against the Church. Matthias Knutzen, an itinerant can- i) Rights of the Church against Romish and all other priests. Lend. 1707. and often. Christianity as old as the Creation. Lond. 1780. 4. and often. [Mem. of the Life, Writings, and Controversies of Tindal. Lond. 1783. 8. and often.] k) The moral philosopher. Lond. 1787. 8 vols. Resurrection of Jesus. Lond. 1743. /) The true Gospel of J. Chr. asserted. Lond. 1733. and others. i) Letter* on the Study and Use of Hist Lond. 1752. 2 vols. 8vo. Philosophical works. Lond. 1754. 5 vols. 4 [Works with Life. Pbilad. 1S41. 4 vols. 8. Warlurton'a (Bp.) View of the Philos. of B. Lond. 1756. 8.] n) Acta hist ecc. vol. IX. p. 293. XL p. 259ss. o) Christianity not founded on Argument Lond. (1742. 1743.) 1746. p) Especially Nath. Zardner, Credibility of the Gospel History. Lond. (1727.) 1738-55. 2 vols. [Works with Life by Eippis, Lond. 1888. 10 vols. 8.] q) Inquiry concerning the Human Understanding. Lond. 1748. Dialogues concerning Nat Reli- gion. Lond. 1778. Life of David Hume, by himself. Lond. 1777. [Philos. Works. Edinb. 1826. 4 vols. 8. Essays. Edinb. 2 vols. 8.] Walch, nst Eel. Gesch. vol. VIII. p. 208ss. Jacobi, D. H. 17S7 (Werke, vol. II.) ZschiescTie, de Humio sceptico. HaL 1835. r) Acta hist ecc. nostri temp. vol. XII. p. 843ss. CHAP. I. EVANG. CHUKCH TILL 1750. 416. DIPPEL. EDELMANN. 501 didate for the ministry from Holstein, asserted (1764) that a congregation of persons calling themselves Conscientiarians (conscientiarii) were exten- sively spread in various parts, who maintained that the Christian Koran was quite as inconsistent with itself, and as unworthy of confidence, as the Turk- ish Koran, and that we should, like Enoch and Noah, without the fable of Christ, depend entirely upon our reason. This they contended was the con- science which mother nature has implanted in the hreast of every man, and which, as it is found not merely in one but in many and all intelligent per- sons, teaches us to injure no one, and to leave all to the possession of what belongs to them. Hence they taught that if any one despised this Bible, he must necessarily despise himself. They denied the existence of a God and a devil, a heaven and a hell, except such as is created by conscience, and they regarded married women and prostitutes as equally respectable, and all priests and magistrates as useless. These sentiments were boldly and plainly pro- mulgated by popular tracts extensively distributed among the people, (s) The bitter railings which Dippel (d. 1734), under the name of the Christian Democritus, published against what he called the Protestant papacy and its vicarious atonement, were the offspring of a Pietism which he carried to such a degree of refinement that every thing historical and external in Chris- tianity vanished from his system, (t) Excited by his writings, and following the path marked out by Knutzen, Edelmann (d. 1767) believed that he was called to be a second Luther, and looked upon the Scriptures as a collection of fragments, which were awkwardly put together after passing through hun- dreds and thousands of credulous lips. In rude but vigorous language he denied the claims of every religion founded upon revelation, that he might like a genu- ine freethinker, emancipated from the shackles of Christianity, prepare the way for a religion corresponding with reason and experience. Such a reli- gion he contended would make a Christ of every man, whom he regarded as an individual though imperfect organ of the universal Spirit and the divine Logos. His writings were burnt by order of the emperor (1750), but he was protected by Frederic II. (u) s) J. Mueaeus, Ableinung d. Verleumbdung, ob ware in Jena e. neuo Secte d. Gew. entstanden. Jen. (1674.) 1675. 4. In the Append, to Kuntzen's " Charteqven." Berl. Monatschr. Apr. u. Aug. 1801. IT. Rossel, in the Stud. u. Krit. 1844. P. 4. f) Collections of his writings: Eroffn. Weg z. Frieden m. Gott u. alien Creaturen durch Chr. Democ. (1709.) Berleb. 1747. 8 vols. 4. Walch, E. Str. voL II. p. 71Sss. H. J. W. (Hoffmann) Leben u. Mein. Dip. Darmst 1782. W. Klose, J. Dipp. (Zeitsch. hist Th. 1851. H. 3.) ) Unschuld. Wahrheiten. 1735ss. 15 St Moses mit aufgedeckten Anges. Freyb. (Berleb.) 1740. 3 Anblicke. Die Gottlichk. d. Vernunft. 1741. Sendschr. den Vorzug. e. Freygeists vor e. armen Sunder zeigend. Freyst 1749. Selbstbiogr. (1752.) ed. by Klose, Brl. 1849. H. Pratfe, hist Nachr. v. Ed. Hamb. 1755. W. JSlster, Erin, an Ed. in Bezug a. Strauss. Clausth. 1839. 502 MODERN CHURCH HISTORY. PER. VI. A. D. 164S-1S53. 417. The Quakers. Catecb. et fidei Conf. Roter. 1676. Lps. 1752. Rob. Barclay, Theol. vere chr. Apol. Amst ltfT6. 1. and oft Penn, Summary of the List, doctr. and discipL of Friends. 1692. ed. 6. 1707. m. Anm. v. Seebohm, Pyrm. (1792.) 179a Rules of discipl. of the Soc. of Friends. Lond. 1783. ed. 3. 1834. O. Croesii H. Qnakeriana. Amst (1695.) 1704 Alberti, Nachr. v. d. ReL d. Q. Hann. 1750. Govghan, H. of the people called Quakers. Dubl. 1789. 4 vols. F. Clarkson, Portraiture of Quakerisme. Lond. 1806. 8- voli JT. Take, [Principles of Religion as held by Christians commonly called Quakers, iu Germ. & Engl. Lond. and Lpz. 1828. 8.] J. J. Gurney, Obss. on the society of Friends. Lond. 1824. ed. 7 1834. [ W. Seicett, H. of the Quakers. Lond. and New York. 1840. 2 vols. 8. W. Ji. Wagstaff, II. o' the Soc. of Friends. New York. 1886. &] George Fox (d. 1C91), a shoemaker from the county of Leicester, who felt called by inward visions to become a reformer of the ungodliness which prevailed around him, founded (after 1649) in the stormy times of the revo- lution the society of Friends, commonly called Quakers, (d) The essential principle of their faith was that every thing of a religious character in man is the result of an immediate operation of the Spirit of God, who would come to all who quietly waited for him. They therefore look upon all exter- nal rites as useless. This internal revelation proceeding from Christ ever since the fall, and given to impart everlasting life to man, they regard as of equal authority with the Holy Scriptures. They look upon the sacraments as merely symbols of an internal state of mind, and therefore not necessary to be received in an external form ; they reject the office of the regular clergy, together with all systems of theology, on the ground of their being human inventions, and they wish to have no church but that of the Spirit. On religious grounds they decidedly refuse to render any military service, to swear, to pay tithes, and to conform to the fashions of the world. In conse- quence of the violent disturbances of public worship which Fox allowed him- self and his followers to make, and their refusal to perform the duties ordi- narily required of citizens, many of the Quakers were thrown into prisons and lunatic asylums, until William Penn (d. 1718), a man worthy of the crown as well as of the cross, determined to establish a home for his com- panions in the faith, as well as for religious freedom generally. He purchased the lands situated on the Delaware, and formed, under the sovereignty of the English crown, and by means of colonies nearly half of whose citizens were Quakers, the state of Pennsylvania, for a long time the cradle of lib- erty for the African and for the world. (J) The same privileges as were enjoyed by the Dissenters generally in England were acquired (1686) by the Friends, and their conscientious scruples were treated with the utmost indul- gence. Only a few congregations still exist in Holland, in England they are decreasing, in Northern Germany they have become extinct, and but a sin- a) Collect of Chr. Epistles written by G. Fox, Lond. 1698. 2 vols. Journal of the Life, Travels, and Sufferings of G. Fox. Lond. 1691. and often. [Philad. 1836. 8. Complete Works of G. F. Philad. 1831. 8 vols. 8. H. Tuke, Memoirs of the Life of G. F. Lond. 12.] b) Works. Lond. 1726. 2 vols. f. (W. A. Teller) Lebensbeschr. W. P. Brl. 1779. Clarkson, Me- moirs of the private and pnbl. life of W. P. 1813. 2 vols. Memoirs of the Hist. Society of Pennsyl- vania. Philad. 1840. vol. IV, 1. [A JT. Draper, Life of W. P. Lond. 1826. 24.] Correspondence 01 J. Logan with W. P. collected by Hannah Penn, Philad. 1821. [J. M. Janney, Life of W. P. and Bel. from Cor. and Autobiogr. 2 ed. Philad. 1882. 8. Weenuf Life of W. P. Philad. 12. W. JI. Dixon, Hist Biogr. of W. P. from new sources, new ed. Philad. 1851. 12.] CHAP. I. EVANG. CIIUECH TILL 1750. 413. ZINZENDOKF. 50S gle congregation has become established in Pyrmont (1791). (c) Govern- ment among them is administered on democratic principles, by a series of assemblies gradually ascending to the highest, in each of which difficulties between members are settled by arbitration. Those who, in the contest for American freedom, in an admirable enthusiasm temporarily laid aside their peculiar principles and took up arms for their country, and those who par- tially renounced the rude exterior required by the society, while moderately enjoying their well-earned wealth, although tolerated by the society as fight- ing, free, lukewarm, or wet Friends, are never elected as deputies to their superior assemblies. The enthusiasm of an entire reliance upon temporary inspirations is somewhat moderated by an education inculcating stillness as one of its primary principles ; but the secret inclination which has always characterized this system to break loose from all historical Christianity, has been developed during the nineteenth century in many American congrega- tions by Elias Hicks. This has, however, given occasion for an expression of a more decided adherence to the Holy Scriptures on the part of the other, and the most numerous portion of the members, (d) In the com- munion of this people, Elizabeth Fry found the strength and courage which enabled her to penetrate the thousand prisons to which she conveyed the contrition and consolation of the gospel, (e) 418. The United Brethren. Zinzendorf. 1700-1760. Zinzendorf: Gegeuw. Gestalt des Kreuzreichs Jesu in sr. Unschuld. Lps. (1745.) 4. Tlepl eocvToO o. naturelle Keflexiones. (1746.) 4. Jeremias e. Prediger d. Gerecbtigk. new ed. Brl. 1830. Spangen- berg, Leben d. G. v. Z. (Barby.) 1772ss. 8 vols. Z. C. v. ScJirauteribach, d. Gr. v. Z. u. d. Briider- gem. sr. Zeit. (1782.) ed. by F. W. Kdlbing, Gnad. 1851. J. W. Verteelf., d. G. v. Z. Lebeh u. Char. Gnad. 1845. Varnhagen von Ense, Leben d. G. v. Z. (Biogr. Denkm. vol. V.) Brl. 1830. Bu- dingische Samml. einiger in d. KHist einschlag. Schrr. Bud. 1742ss. 3 vols. Spangenberg : Nachr. v. d. gegenw. Yerf. d. ev. Br. U. ( Walch, nst. Eel. Gesch. vol. III.) 5. umg. A. Gnadau. 1823. Idea fidei fratr. o. kurtzer Bgr. d. chr. Lehre. Barb. 1779. Lebenslauf v. ihm selbst. (HenMs Arch. f. nst. KG. vol. II. St. 3.) Statuten d. ev. Br. U. Gnad. 1819. D. Cranz, alto u. n'eue Bruderhist. Barb. 1772. (Hegner) Forts. B. 1791-1804. Gnad. 1816. 3 vols. Or. v. Lynar, Nachr. v. Urspr. u. gegenw. Verf. d. B. II. 1778. 2 ed. Hal. 1781. Ch. C. F. Schulze, v. Entst. u. Einr. d. ev. Brudergem. Goth. 1822. L. Schaaf, d. ev. Brudergem. Lps. 1825. F. Lititz, Blicke in d. Vergangenh. u. Gegenw. der Briiderk. Lps. 1846. [A. G. Spanderiberg, Expos, of the Chr. Dock as taught in the Prot. Church of the U. B. with Pref. by La Trobe, Lond. 1796. 8. D. Crantz, II. of the U. B. Lond. 1780. 8. K. IlagenlacJi, KGesch. des 18. u. 19. Jahrh. 2 ed. Th. L Tories. 18. Lps. 1849. 2 Th. 12.] Louis, Count of Zinzendorf, even when a boy at the orphan house, was filled with the idea which Spener had inculcated, of reforming the Church and establishing it among the heathen by planting it in their midst as a grain of mustard-seed. His aspirations received a permanent direction under the influence of the Moravian brethren, who had formed a settlement on his estates at Berthelsdorf, to which other newly-awakened persons were added, until he succeeded in laying (1722) the foundation of the congregation of Herrnhut, on the Hutberg. Under his influence the hostile spirits -among his people were conciliated, the ecclesiastical constitution which he proposed to c) J. E. Sclimid, Quiikergerneinde in Pyrm. Brnschw. 1805. d) Ev. K. Z. 1828. p. 805ss. 1829. p. 782ss. 1840. p. 141ss. ) Leben u. Denkwurdigk. der Frau Elis. Fry. Harnb. 2 ed. 1850. 2 vols. [J. Timpson, Memoirs of E. Fry. Lond. 1846. New York. 1847. 2 vols.] 504 MODERN CHTJECH HISTORY. PEE. VI. . A. D. 1648-1858. them was accepted (1727), and in a short time their missionaries wandered forth among the heathen. The religion which he taught was founded upon the Bible, but inculcated very free opinions respecting it, and consisted prin- cipally in exercises of the most confiding love to the Saviour. This love exalted it above all distinctions in' ecclesiastical creeds, but produced no anxiety to abolish them. Hence the congregation gradually became organ- ized into three different tropes, called the Moravian, the Lutheran, and the Reformed. Their ordinary devotions were principally taken up with refer- ences to the corporeal part of the expiatory sufferings of Jesus, and their natural relations of conjugal life were strangely connected with those of a religious character. With a mind remarkably inclined to extravagance, and with inexhaustible powers for communicating with others on religious sub- jects by oral discourses, and singing directly from the heart, (a) in the half French court dialect of his time, and yet with a singular facility for suggest- ing the most exalted themes by the use of the most common comparisons, Zinzendorf was fond of playing with allusions to the wounds of the Lamb, and with the boldest images of sexual love. The offence which this gave to the theologians of his day, was hardly capable of augmentation by the fan- tastic notions which he advanced respecting the persons of the sacred Trinity, and various suspicious circumstances which became known in his commu- nity. (If) It was with the utmost difficulty that the count broke through the prejudices of his order so as to reach the clerical office, but he was finally recognized at Tubingen as a candidate, and ordained to the episcopal office by a Moravian bishop at Berlin. But having attained this official position, his rank and education were of important service to him in his spiritual du- ties. After a ten years' banishment from Saxony, he succeeded, as a Chris- tian statesman, in inducing the ecclesiastical council of Electoral Saxony to recognize the connection of his congregations with the churches professing the Augsburg Confession (1748), and in obtaining from Parliament a regular enactment which recognized them as constituent members of the Episcopal Church (1749). Although the humblest of the humble, he demanded implicit submission to his official power of binding and loosing, (c) and infused into his works so much of the principle of life, that it could very soon exist without him. After a brief season of enjoyment, he generally withdrew from those who were in various ways excited and inspired, (d) But although the Breth- ren established settlements in all parts of the world, Zinzendorf was still pre- pared with the most restless and extreme activity to labor to win persons of every class in society to the love of his Lord. Each congregation is divided into choirs according to age, sex, and matrimonial connection. Within the general bond of the congregation is embraced at once all civil, and many a) Geistl. Gedichte d. Gr. Z. gesammclt u. gesichtet v. A. Knapp, Stuttg. 1845. Stud. u. Krit 1848. H. 8. &) (After Fresenius, 1747ss. and Bengel, 1751.) Das entdeckte Geheimniss d. Bosh. d. Herrnh. Sectc. Frkf. 1749. J, Stinstra, Warnung vor d. Fanaticism, from the Dutch. Brl. 1752. [Stinstra'* Pastoral Letter against Fanaticism has been transl. into EngL -with a Narr. of the Else and Prog, ol the Moravians by Rimim, Lond. 1753. 8. Mosheim, Eco. H. Cent XVIII. 17. nt 1. KGescb. des 18. u. 19. Jhh. Erster Th. Vorless. 18. & 19. c) Acta hist ecc. vol. VI. p. 569ss. d) Hid. vol. IV. p. 241ss. CHAP. I. EVANG. CHUKCH TILL 1T50. 419. METHODISTS. 505 professional and external relations, but some who are called Friends may also reside beyond the limits of the settlement (tv diait 1849. H. 4.) [Life ofJ. Eliot, (Sparks' Am. Biogr.) Boston. 8. D. Neal, H. of New Engl. Lond. 1747. 2 vols. 8.] c) Hall. Missionsberlchte s. 1708 in verschiedener Gestalt bis jetzt Walch, nst Rel. Gesch. voL V. p. 119ss. [Memoirs of Chr. F. Swartz & H. of Rel. in India. Lond. 1826. 12.] d) Acta hist ecc. vol. XL p. I. XV. 230ss. [J. Shefferus, H. of Lapland .with Sketches, &j Francke, 1687, and in Germ. by Arnold, 1699. Eecueil des div. pieces concernant le Quictisme. Amst 1688. Other things in Weiasmann, II. ecc. P. II. p. 641. C. E. Scharling, Mystikeren M. Molinos's Laero og Skjaebne. Kjobenh. 1852. 4 c) La Bible de Me. Guyon. Col. (Amst.) 1715ss. 20 vols. La vie de M, de la Mothe Guyon, ecrite par elle-meme. Col. 1720. 3 vols. 12. and often. Brl. 1826. 3 vols. C. Hermes, Zuge a. d. Leben d. Fr. 7. G. Magdeb. 1845. \T. C. Upham, Life, Opinions, and Experience of Me. G. New York. 1851. 2 vols. 12. Eclect. Mag. Aug. 1853. p. 431ss. Life and Eel. Opinions of Mad. G. and of Fenelon. Lond. 1851. 2 vols. 12. L. M. Child, Lives of Lady Eussell and Mad. G: Boston. 1880. 12.] d) Explication des inaximes de Saints sur la vie interieure. Par. 1697. 12. and often. f) (Jurieu) Jugement sur la Theol. mysL et sur les demelez de 1'eveque de Meaux avee Tarche- veque de Cambray. (Amst. 1699.) JBeausset and Tdbaraud. (p. 515-16.) /) Cherubinischer Wandersmann. Brsl. 1657. and often. Munich. 1815. 1827. Brl. 1820. 1S33. Heilige Seolenlust o. geistl. Hirtenlieder der verliebten Psyche. Brsl. 1657. Munich. 1826. Witt- mann< A. S. als Convertit, myst Dichtei u. Polemiker. Augsb. 1S42. (W. Schroder, A. S. Hal. 1858 t.) A. Kahlert, A. S. Brsl. 1853. CHAP. II. CATHOLIC CHURCH TILL 1750. 428. NEW OKDEES. 521 bia and Vienna with respect to the perversities of the world, and in favor of the pious morality of his native land, (g) 428. Newly Established Orders. BoutJiillier de la Ranee (d. 1700), after a dissipated youth, became, in consequence of a painful accident, dissatisfied with the world, distributed his wealth among the poor, resigned all his livings except that of La Trappe, of which he had been an abbot even in his boyhood, and betook himself to a residence in that convent (1662). That he might revive the original rule of Cisteaux, he imposed upon the monks there a terrible system of self-denial, which deprived them even of the pleasures of conversation and reading. A few colonies of the Trappists were founded in Italy, Great Britain, Germany, and America, and some were formed for nuns, (a) In France, where popular instruction was not regularly attended to by either the Church or the State, the Society of the Brothers of the Christian Schools (Ignorantins) was found- ed for that purpose by Baptist de la Salle (1724), but more especially for the education of future teachers. A Neapolitan named Liguori (d. 1787), with whom the will of the pope was equivalent to the will of God, formed the Congregation of the Most Sacred Redeemer (Redemptorists, Liguorists), a friendly variety of the Jesuits, and in subsequent times affording to them a refuge and a hope. (5) In addition to the associations without regular vows, were established sisterhoods for the Adoration of the Heart of Jesus and Mary, for the cultivation of a sensuous kind of worship which had been recommended ever since the middle of the seventeenth century by the Jesu- its, at the suggestion of love-intoxicated nuns. The establishment of this order had been frequently declined, but it was finally (1765) authorized at Rome, and was introduced in some places. It was a subject of debate among divines whether the actually bleeding heart, or a mere symbol of divine love, was the object of adoration. By the people, however, these votaries were often ridiculed as Cordicolatras or Marionettes, (e) 429. Spread of Christianity. Cont. from 394&?. . 1. The Church in China continued to make some gradual advances, prin- cipally through the assistance of the missionary seminary at 'Paris (after 1663). Instances of oppression were not numerous, and were generally of short duration. But the mendicant friars were more and more urgent in their complaints at Rome against the mingling of Christianity with idolatry. g) Judas der Erzschelm. Bonn. Salzb. IGSTss. 4vols. and often. Huy! u. Pfuy! der Welt. Wurtz. 1707. 4. and often. Eeim dich o. ich liss dich, d. i. allerly Materien, Discurs u. Predigtcn. Salzb. 17S7. 4. and often. Das Gediegenste a. s. W. Blaubeuren. 1840ss. Werke, Lindau 1846ss. a) Ranee : Lettres, publ. par B. Gonod, Par. 1846. Tr. de la saintete et des devoirs do la viemonas- tique. 1683. 2 vols. 4. On the other side : MaMllon, Tr. des etudes monast. 1691. and often. Marsol* Her, Vie de I 1 Abbe de la Trappe. Par. 1703. 2 vols. 12. Chateaubriand, Vie de Ranee. Par. 1844. Ulm. 1845. L. D. B. Hist, civile, rel. et litter, de 1'abbaye de la Tr. Par. 1824. Jtitsert, Orden d. Trappisten. Drmst. 1833. Gaillardin, les Trappistes. Par. 1844. vol. I. &) Oeuvres completes. Par. 1835. 14 vols. 8. and 12. A. Giatini, vita del b. Alfonso Lig. Bom. 1815. 4. Vienna. 1835. Jeancard, Vie du b. Alf. Lig. Louvain. 1829. c) Benedicti XIV. de server. Dei beatif. IV, 30. Archiv. f. KG. vol. I. St. 2. p. 177es. WactUfr In 2-eitscb. f. hist. Th. 1834. St. 1. 522 MODERN CHUECH HISTORY. PEE. VI. A. D. 1643-1853. For a long time the Jesuits, however, succeeded by craft and power to de- fend themselves against the orders sent to them from Rome on this suhject The legate Tournon died while enduring a confinement at Macao, brought upon him by their means (1710). At last their adversaries were successful (1740). No sooner, however, were the sacred usages of the nation rejected, than a persecution seldom suspended was commenced, from which only a few unimportant fragments of the Church were ever saved. 2. In the East Indies likewise, the hope of success depended upon the compliance of the missionaries with the customs of the Brahmans, and their incorporation of the religious and social usages of the people into the system of Christianity. When the Jesuits at Pondichery represented in one of their sacred dramas the destruction of the Indian gods by the Knight St. George (1V01), a perse- cution was immediately commenced in that country; and when the bull against the admixture of heathenish customs with the Christian religion was enforced (1742), the progress of the mission was at an end. (a) 3. In Thibet, the gospel was preached (after 1707) by the Capuchins, and they were allowed to erect a hospitium there. But the worship of the Dalai Lama was itself too much like an ascendant papacy, to present much hope of success in the proclamation of a Roman Christianity. (5) 4. In South America, a splendid church organization according to the European style was developed. In a portion of North America, where the dominion of Franco, was extended, were also established component parts of the Gallican Church. CHAP. III. ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH UNTIL 1814. I. MATTEES PBELIMINABY TO THE REVOLUTION. 430. French Philosophy. Cont.from 416. Correspondance liter, phil. et crit par Grimm et Diderot, Par. 1818ss. 16 vote Extracts : Bran dcnb. 1820. Walch, nst Eel. Gesch. vol. I. p. 473ss. (J. A. v. Stark) Triumph d. phil. im 18. Jahrh. Frkf. 1808. 2 vote recently edit by Buchfdner, Landsh. 1834. (c. Schulz) Gesch. v. Staatsveriindr. unter Ludwig XVL o. Entet Fortsch. u. Wirks d. sogen. neuen Phil. Lps. 1826-33. 6 vols. L. Ler- minier, de 1'inflnence de la phil. da 18. 8. Par. 1833. Lps. 1835. Schlosser, vol. L p. 477. II. 443ss. Liter, of the French Classics in Ebert. [J. D. MoreU, Hist and Crit View of the Spec. Phil, of Ear. in the 19th cent Lond. 1847. 2 ecL 8. New York. 1848. 8. P. Damiron, Essai sur 1'H. de la phil. en Fr. au XVIIe. S. 3 ed. Par. 1846. 2 vols. 8. G. If. Lewes, Biog. H. of Phil. Ser. II. vol. IV. Lond. 1845. 4 vote 18. Tennemann's H. of PhiL Lond. 1850. 8.] The government of royal mistresses (Pornocracy) in the court, the perse- cution of the Protestants, the maltreatment of piety in the Jansenist contro- versy, the natural development of the national mind, and the influence of English Deism, conspired to form in France an opposition similar to that Deism, but such as naturally sprung up against an infallible Church in a des- potic and corrupt state. Bodins Septiloquia recognized the claims of all religions, that the religion of godliness and rectitude in them all might be o) 397. nt d. 6) Eelazione del prlncipio et stato presente della miss, del Tibet Bom. 1742. 4 StautUin in? Archiv. f. KGesch. vol. L St. 8. CHAP. IIL CATHOLIC CHUECH TILL 1814. 480. FEENCH PHILOSOPHY. 523 acknowledged, (a) In a fictitious book of travels, Vairasse distinguished between true Christianity and the hierarchy, against which his book was directed. (J) Even in the canting court of Louis XIV., who finally gave his consent that even Tartufe should be performed in his presence, it was not looked upon as inconsistent with the rules of good society to ridicule religion as well as hypocrisy. Voltaire (d. 1778) was not quite insensible to the pos- sibility of the existence of a God, in whose honor he erected a plain church, nor to the beauty of Christianity, but in a series of sprightly essays (after 1715), with the most naive simplicity and ignorance of facts, he gave up all its historical relations, and sacrificed the life of religion itself to a spirit of universal scoffing. Montesquieu, before laying the foundation of his future government, presented the mirror of an unbiased common sense before the received doctrines and the compulsory measures of the Church (1721). Phi- losophy so entirely withdrew to the territory presided over by the five senses, that the mind of man was finally regarded as a dream of the flesh, and love as the hypocrisy of selfishness. This worldly philosophy was carried to its complete results by Condillac (d. 1780), in Holbach's circle it was fearlessly applied to practical life, (c) while Helvetius (d. 1771) tempered it with an elevated humanity. In this spirit, Diderot (d. 1784), whose religion it was to destroy all religion, edited the Encyclopedic (after 1751), intended to be a general survey of all human knowledge, clear and grand with respect to the worldly tendencies of the mind and in its efforts against all kinds of slavery, but hostile to all eternal realities and aspirations above the world. Besides these were a host of inferior works, in which the oriental simplicity of the Scriptures was made the subject of amusement either by bold derision or by sentimental wantonness, and all systems of faith were ridiculed as priestcraft. Raynal deprived history of its true glory as a picture of a divine household ; even in Bufforis sublime researches, the Creator is placed far behind a self- producing nature ; Lalande proclaimed the laws of a heaven without a God ; and in fact the gospel was generally regarded as a mere astronomical myth, (d) The enthusiastic spirit of Rousseau (1712-78) found many things in the gospel for which his nature had a strong affinity, but in consequence of his rejection of all history, he was compelled to oppose every thing in it of a historical character. By holding up a state of nature in contrast witli the artificial condition of human society, the Jesuitic education then in vogue, and the supernatural revelation of the Scriptures, he contributed more than all the scoffers to endanger the Church, since he thus showed how one could speak with earnestness and even transport of divine things, without being a Christian, (e) This opposition was powerful at that time, because those who were the favorites of the nation, who gave laws to the fashion- a) Colloquium heptaplomeres do abditis rerum sublim. arcanis. 1593. Guhrauer, das Heptapl. dcs Jean Bodin. Brl. 1841. Z>) Hist des Severances. Par. 1677ss. 3 vols. 12. Sulzb. 1689. 3 vols. c) Systeme de la nature. Lond. (Atnst) 17TO. 2 vols. and often. Liegn. 1783. 2 vols. <0 Dupuis, Origine de tous les cultes. Par. 1795. 3 vols. and often. 1837. In the Extracts by Bhe, Slnttg. 1839. e) Me. de Stall, Lettres sur les ouvr. et le caractere d. E, Gen. 1789. (Musset-Pathay) H. do la vie et des ouvr. de E. Par. 1821. 2 vols. Wackier, biogr. Aufs. 1835. p. Slss. 524 MODERN CnUBCH HISTOEY. PEE. VI. A. D. 164S-lS5a able world, and were honored with the friendship of the northern monarchy were its principal representatives, and spoke of Christianity as a superannu- ated stage of civilization. The measures adopted by the government against them were but partial, and generally operated in their favor. As the hier- archy, who had little else at command but learned lore, were no longer allowed to burn the authors, they defended themselves by burning the books. These works, however, expressed the general sentiment of the French nation. On the side of the hierarchy were the civil power, immense wealth, and a nobility with which it was in numerous ways connected. On the other side was nearly a whole nation, including a majority even of the hierarchy and the nobility, with the conviction that their power was founded upon a de- ception, and that their wealth had been unjustly drawn from a heavily taxed people. 431. Clement XIII. (1758-69) and the Jesuits. Bower, Ramlach, vol. X. 2. p. SSlss. (Le Itref) Sauiml. d. Schrr. d. Auf beb. d. Jcsultenord. betr. Frkf. u. L. (Ulm.) 1778-84. 4 vols. [J. Poynder, IT. of tho Jesuits. Lond. 1816. 2 vols. 8. A. Arnould, Les Jesuites, Hlstoire, Types, Moeure, Mysteries Par. 1846. 2 vols. 8.] Clement XIII. (Rezzonico) was chosen pope through the influence of the Jesuits, and with pious conscientiousness exposed the papal authority to tho most imminent hazard, that he might avert their fate. They had indeed gained a victory over the Jansenists, but it was at the expense of the popular favor. On account of their influence at courts they were hated by states- men, their engagements in trade involved them often in difficulties with the merchants, and their power over the conscience made them obnoxious to all classes. The very dislike which so many of that age felt toward Christian- ity, and the whole spirit of the coming generation now making itself percep- tibly felt, seemed to demand them as the first sacrifice. The result was by no means certain, since all the nations of Southern Europe had been educated in their school. On the request of the Portuguese government, Benedict XIV. had forbidden them to engage in commerce, and when dying, he committed to the Patriarch of Lisbon the work of reforming them. The order to this effect was, however, revoked by Clement. By an exchange with Spain, Por- tugal had obtained a portion of Paraguay (1753). The Portuguese were however driven back by an Indian army, and although the Jesuits denied any participation in an insurrection which then occurred, it was certain that the insurrection was impossible without their connivance. Carvalho, Mar- quis of Pomlal, was anxious to withdraw the monarchy and the nation from all connection with the hierarchy and the nobility. But although the minis- ter possessed unlimited power, he knew he could not effect such a revolution while surrounded by the Jesuits. An attempt to assassinate the king supplied an occasion for impeaching them of high treason. The result was that they were for ever excluded (Sept. 3, 1759) from Portugal, and their property was confiscated. The pope interceded for them in vain ; his nuncio was sent out of the country (1760), and all connection with Rome was broken off. (a) It ) L'administration de M. de Pombal. Amst 1789. 4. J. Smith, Memoirs of the M. de Pombal. Lend. 1843. 2 vols. 8. (Klausing) Saminl. d. nst Schrr. d. Jes. in P. betr. A. d. Ital. Frkf. u. L CHAP. III. CATHOLIC CHUECH TILL 1814. 431. THE JESUITS. 525 was thus proved that the overthrow of the Jesuits was not impossible. The bankruptcy of the Jesuit la Vedette in France, was seized upon as an occasion for making the whole order responsible for the unfortunate speculation in trade by one of its members, and for examining its constitution. The Parlia- ment of Paris summoned the Jesuits before its bar (1762), an apostolical brief, in which the holy Father unburdened his heart of its troubles, and Jesuitism was identified with Catholicism, was laid aside as if it were the letter of a private individual, and when public opinion had been gained over by the publication of the dangerous doctrines of which the Jesuits were ac- cused, they were banished from France as dangerous to the state (1764). (5) The other Bourbon courts ordered them to be hastily and violently seized and transported beyond the boundaries of their respective territories (1767). It was in vain that the pope issued a bull (1765), in which he showed that the order was sacred, and indispensable to the interests of the Church. He only ventured to annul the edicts of the Duke of Parma, and to threaten others with an excommunication (1768). France, however, took possession of Avig- non ; Naples, of Benevento ; and all the Bourbon princes declared such fanati- cal decrees of excommunication utterly unreasonable, (c) 432. Clement XIV. (1769-74) and the Jesuits. Lettres interessantes da P. Clem. XIV. trad, du latin et do Tital. p. le Marq. de Caraccioli, (not altogether authentic.) Par. 1776s. 3 vols. and often, ital. u. deutsch. Lettere ed. altre opero di Ganganelli. Firenze. 1829. Clem. XIV. Epp. et Brevia selectiora, ex. secret, tabb. Vatic, ed.yl. Theiner, Par. 1852. Walch, nst. Eel. Gesch. vol. I. p. 8. 201ss. Caraccioli, Vie du P. Clem. Pan 1775. Leben Clem. XIV. Frcf. u. L. 1775. (by Reumonf) Gang., Clem. XIV. u. s. Zeit Brl. 1847. A. Theiner, H. du Pontif. de Clem. XIV. Par. 1852. 2 vols. [M. PAlembert, An Account of the Destruction of the Jesuits in France, from the Fr. Lond. 1766. 12.] In the Conclave there was a severe struggle between the parties of the king and of the Jesuits. The Bourbons were however victorious, and se- cured the election of Ganganelli, a Minorite, who had always disapproved of the measures of his predecessor, on the ground that they sacrificed th*e interests of the papacy itself to those of the Jesuits. Clement XIV. was of low origin, his character was not very commanding, but he possessed consid- erable talents, a noble manliness, and at the same time a general mildness of disposition, and for a pope he was eminently liberal. He governed without the aid of cardinals or nepotes, and instead of aiming to build magnificent edifices, he endeavored to alleviate distress in cottages. He abolished the reading of the sacramental bull (in coena Domini), and it was never after- wards resumed, (a) By some concessions made to Portugal and the Bourbon 1759-62. 4 vols. Deductio chronol. et analytica, ubi horrendae manifestantur clades a Jes. Soc. Lusi- taniae ejusque coloniis illatae, ed. J. de Seabra /Silvivs, Olisip. 1771. 2 vols. Walch, nst Eel. Gesch. vol. II. p. 57ss. G. v. Murr, Gesch. d. Jes. in P. unter Pomb. Nurnb. 1787. 2 vols. J. F. H. v. Olfers, ii. d. Mordvers. gegen d. Konig Joseph v. P. Berl. 1839. 4. Z) Extraits des assertions dangereuses et pernicieuses, que les Jes. ont enseign6es avec 1'approba- tion de leurs Superieurs. Verifies par les commissaires du Parlement: Par. 1672. Choiseitl, Staats Denkwiird. v. ihm selbst. from the Fr. Bern. 1790. Nova Acta hist, ecc. vol. XIII. p. 433se. Taba, raud, Essai sur l'6tat des Jes. en France. 6d. 2. Par. 1S28. c) Walch, nst. Eel. Gesch. vol. III. p. 109ss. a) At least not until Easter, 1830, according to the author's personal observation. 526 MODERN CHUECH HISTORY. PEE. VI. A. D. 1648-1853. courts, harmony was once more established with them. When they urged him to abolish the order of the Jesuits, he hesitated for a while, debating whether it were better to destroy than to reform it, but at last, on the 16th Aug., 1773, the brief called Dominus acEedemtor noster (fy announced its abo- lition, on the ground that the peace of the Church required such a step. In Home, the execution of this bull was secured by the employment of a mili- tary force. The number of members connected with the order at that time in twenty-four provinces was 22,589. Their treasures and papers had been placed where they could not be found. The suppression was enforced in all the Catholic courts, and even Maria Theresa acquiesced in it when copies of her own confessional secrets had been transmitted to her from Borne, (c) . Frederic II., however, had so much pride that he would not put down the order for a while in Silesia, and it was favored in the Polish provinces of Russia, under a vicar general, (d) In other countries also the order main- tained a secret existence, waiting for a revival which it was taught by some old legends to expect, and individuals have every where been found protest- ing against the lawfulness of its abolition. The fate of the Jesuits, like that of the Templars, was not altogether undeserved ; but like the latter, they were condemned without a legal sentence or a process of law, and many merito- rious persons connected with them were rewarded with a helpless old age. The missionary and educational operations of all Catholic countries were much embarrassed by their suppression. Avignon and Benevento were re- stored to the pope, but he could not prevent the governments of Spain, Naples, and Venice from doing as they pleased with the Church and its pro- perty in those countries. He was well aware, that by the decree for the abo- lition of the order of the Jesuits, he had signed his own death-warrant, and he died (Sept. 22) abandoned by all, with some evidence of having been poisoned, (e) 433. Pius VI. (1774-99) and his Age, until 1789. Conclave. ( Walch, nst Eel. Qcsch. vol. V. p. 259ss.) (C. C. Ade) Lebens- u. Eegierungsgescli. P. VI. Cesena. (Ulm.) 1781-96. 6 vols. P. P. Wolf, Gescb. d. rotn. K unter P. VI. Zur. 1793ss. Lps. 1802. 7 vols. (J. F. Bourgoing) Mem. sur Pie VI. Par. 1799. 2 vols. Ueber die gegenw. Lago d. rorn. Kath. (Plancke, nst. EeL Gescb, voL I.) The Bourbons consented to the election of Angela Braschi, because they felt assured from his moderation that his partiality for the Jesuits would not be sufficient to induce him to attempt their restoration. The treasures Pius VI. acquired from the states of the Church during the first tranquil years of his reign, were spent in building and in draining the Pontine marshes. His liberality is extolled by numberless inscriptions. The convents were at that time assailed by innumerable caricatures, and were regarded as no longer tol- erable except as hospitals for diseased minds, (a) Many princes saw that they I) Dated from July 21. Acta hist ecc. voL I. p. 145ss. c) After Fessler and Hormayr : A. K. Z. 1832. N. 160. d) Lutteroth, EussL u. d. Jes. 1770-1800. Uebers. v. Birch, Lps. 1845. ) Walch, nst Eel. Gesch. voL V. p. 282ss. Le Bret, Mag. vol. VI. p. 144ss. On the other hand. v. : Wie lebte u. starb Gang., by J. Reicheribach. (?) Neust 1831. a) E. g. Trop. est trop. Capitulation de la France avec ses Moines. Haye. 1767. 12. (by Born) Naturgesch. d. Monchth. 1783. CHAP. III. CATHOLIC CHUECH TILL 1814. 433. PIUS VI. 527 might, without the least infringement of their faith, and very much to their credit as. friends of general improvement, take possession of the immense wealth in the hands of the monks. The pope himself appeared to he a civil prince, and the head of the Church merely from the favor of other princes. The bishops, however, clearly saw that if they became independent of the pope, they must become dependent upon the kings. The clergy foresaw that the property of the Church would be quite as acceptable to the secular lords as the wealth of the convents. Even those who cared nothing about the matter, were of the opinion that barracks were not much more desirable than convents. The faith or the superstition of a large portion of the people was such as to make them entirely dependent upon the clergy for their religion. Accordingly, the great masses were gradually formed into parties favorable or opposed to a reform. In Portugal, the system of things established by the violence of Pombal was immediately terminated when he was himself over- thrown, on the death of the king (1777). In Spain, Count Aranda, who, in accordance with his French education, had made (after 1762) the inquisition and the system of education dependent upon the government, was removed from his station (1772), and Don Olamdes repented in the dungeons of the inquisition (after 1776) that he ever attempted to cultivate by Protestant colonies the Sierra Morena, which was now restored to the robbers. But germs of hostility to the hierarchy still remained in all parts of the penin- sula, combined with a disposition to strive after a political constitution. In Germany, conflicting powers were measuring their strength. Isenbiehl, who had brought from Gottingen to Mayence his doubts respecting the Messianic prophecies, was deposed and abused (1774). (6) SteinbuJiler, a young lawyer, was imprisoned at Salzburg for some jest at the Catholic ceremonies, was condemned to death as a blasphemer (1781), had his sentence commuted to banishment from the country and ecclesiastical penance, and finally died under his ill-treatment, (c) "When the preacher Gassner cast out devils (after 1 773) in the name of Jesus, thousands of persons were found at Ellwanger and Eatisbon possessed and insane. Some of the patients appeared to be cured, but few received permanent benefit. Those who believed in the mira- cles, appealed to them as proofs againsj; the Protestants and in favor of the Jesuits. Most of the neighboring bishops, then the emperor, and finally even the Roman court condemned the whole proceeding, (d) In Bavaria, the Order of the Illuminati was founded by Weisliaupt (1777), on a Masonic basis and with Jesuitic forms, by which an intelligence superior to, and irre- spective of all ecclesiastical divisions might be diffused among the people. This powerful association was destroyed by the government (1785). (e) In .Nov. 1780, the Emperor Joseph II. obtained the long-desired sovereignty over the hereditary provinces of Austria. His administration was equivalent &) Acta hist ccc. nost. temp. vol. III. p. 902ss. Walch, nst. Eel. Gesch. vol. VIIL p. 7ss. c) After Muchler : Menzd, Eeise n. Oestr. 1832. p. 103. d) General view and Literature : Walch, vol. VI. p. 871. 541ss. ) (Weishaupt) Gesch. d. Verfolgung d. 111. Frkf. u. L. 1786. vol. I and oth. Einige Originalsch, d. 111. O. auf bochst Befehl. Munich, 1787. Anhang z. d. Originalsch. Frkf. 1787. System u. Folgen d. 111. 0. Munich, 1787. 528 MODERN CHURCH HISTORY. PER. VI. A. D. 1643-1853, to a revolution, in consequence of his dictatorial measures. With respect to the Churcb, his plan required : that it should be separated from all foreign influence, and made subject to the government ; that it should be made a school for the instruction of the people ; and that all institutions which could not be made subservient to the public welfare should be destroyed. Law upon law was enacted for the attainment of these objects, and the represen- tations of the bishops and the protests of the nuncio were alike ineffectual. It was then that the pope, a fine-looking and eloquent man, vain of both these qualities, and confiding much in the power of his personal address, resolved to conquer the heart of the emperor, and awaken the respect whicn prevailed in former times among the people beyond the Alps, by the presence of the vicar of Christ. He entered Vienna on the 22d March, 1782, with a splendid procession. He could not indeed deliver by his intercessions even one of the convents devoted to destruction as useless. But as the prelates thought it better for them to obey the pope than the emperor, and as under their influence the people valued their ancient ancestral usages more than the liberty and equality which had been forced upon them, the dying empe- ror (1790) found that all he had created was annihilated, and that only what he had destroyed remained unchanged. (/) The feeling of constitutional independence in Rome had gained a solid basis by the labors of Nic. v. Hontheim, and a recantation extorted from the frightened old man (1778) could not invalidate the influence of his proofs with respect to the origin of the papal power, (g) The four archbishops, offended at the establishment of a new nunciature at Munich (1785), took ground against every extraordinary jurisdiction of the pope on German territory, and associated themselves at Ems on the principle of an independent national church (1786). They were immediately sustained by the emperor himself. The University of Bonn was founded by the Elector of Cologne as a school for enlightened Catholicism. The bishops, however, thought themselves safer in obeying the distant pope than the archbishops ; the Bavarian Palatinate followed its ancient policy of receiving advantages over the national Church directly from the hand of the pope, and when the archbishops became frightened at the storms which took place beyond the Rhine in behalf of freedom, they also hastened to become reconciled with Rome (1789). (A) Leopold of Tuscany, in the same spirit as his brother had exhibited in Austria, attempted by the agency of Scipio Ricci, Bishop of Pistoia and Prato, to reform the polity of the Church. At a synod of his clergy at Pistoia (1786), the principles of the Gallican Church /) Acta a Pio VL causa itineris Viudob. Rom. 1732. (Acta hist. ecc. nost temp. vol. IX. p. 283. 449ss.) A. F. Bauer, Gesch. d. Reise P. VI. Viet). 1782s. 3 vols. Walch, nst Rel. Gesch. vol. IX. p. 118ss. Codex J. ecc. Josephini. Frkf. u. L. (Prsb.) 178S. Jos. II. Briefe. Lps. 1822. (Caraccioli) La vie de Jos. Par. 1790. Gross- Hoffinger, Gesch. Jos. Stuttg. 1885. 8 vols. g) Justini Febronii de statu Ecc. et legitima potestate Rom. Pontiflcis L. ad reuniendos dissi- dentes. Bullioni. (Frcf.) 1763-74. 4 vols. 4. and often, in different forms. Commentarius in suam re- tractat Frcf. 17S1. 4. Walch, nst Rel. Gesch. vol. L p. 147. VI, 171. VII, 192. 455. VIII, 529ss. Briefw. zw. d. Kurf. v. Trier u. N. v. Honth. u. Febr. Frkf. 1813. 7i) Resultate d. Eraser Congr. in Actenst. Frkf. u. L. 1787. 4. Pragin. u. actenm. Gesch. d. Nun- tiatur in Munch. 17S7. 8. Dom. Pii VI. respbnsio ad Metropolitanos. Rom. 1789. Pacca, (Memorio vol. IV.) hist Denkw. u. s. Aufenth. in Deutsch. 17SG-94. from the Ital. Augsb. 1S32. K v. MuncJi, Gesch. d. Emscr Congr. Carlsr. 1840. CHAP. III. CATHOLIC CHUECH TILL 1814. 434. FEENCH EEVOLUTION. 529 and of the most liberal Jansenism were adopted, all superstitions ceremonies were abolished, and it was determined that public worship should be con- ducted in the language of the people, and that the Scriptures should be circu- lated among them. But these enactments were opposed by most of the bish- ops in Tuscany, the populace in Pistoia stormed the episcopal palace, and when Leopold ascended his brother's throne, the hierarchy obtained a com- plete victory, (i) In Naples, the convents were abolished, the prerogatives of the monarchy were enlarged, and the feudal tenure of the pope was de-' nied. The controversy on these subjects was finally brought to a compro- mise (1790), in which it was agreed that the feudal relation should be given up, but that whenever a new king ascended the throne, he should present an offering to St. Peter of 500,000 ducats. () II. THE FEENCH REVOLUTION. Vollst. Samml. d. Schrr. seit. Eroffn. d. Eeichst. Fr. in Eiicks. a. cl. Cler. (according to Barruel, Col. Eccl.) Kempt. 1795ss. 4 vols. Barruel, II. du Clerge en France pend. la rev. Lond. 1794. 1804. 2 vols. J. T, Dutac, Pie VI. et VII. considered dans leurs rapports avec la r6v. franc. S. Omer. 1839. Jager, H. d. 1'egl. de France pendant la rev. Par. 1852. 3 vols. Comp. the pol. histt of Hignet, TJiiers, and Wachsmuth, liaumer, Dahlmann. [all of which, except the last, have been transl. into Engl. See also : T. Carlyle, Mlchelet, Lamartine (Girondins), Alison, and Scott (Life of Nap. Prelim. Chap.)] 434. The National Assembly (Constituent}. 1789-1791. Planch, neueste Eel. Gesch. 1793. vol. III. The Revolution was not actually occasioned by the disorders which pre- vailed in the Church, but without these it would hardly have been possible. The superior clergy were the natural allies of the higher nobility, but since even the court was obliged to demand great sacrifices on the part of the Church, the electoral law was so contrived, that among the representatives of the ecclesiastical estate the pastors had the numerical majority. These, with Talleyrand, the Bishop of Autun, who never failed to discover on which side victory was about to turn, at their head, at an early day and with hon- est intentions became connected with the third estate. There was a philo- sophical party which had entered into a conspiracy against Christianity, but it had no idea of contending against the faith of the people. Its object was to destroy the hierarchy only as a political power, and to effect the deliver- ance of the state by the wealth of the Church. The very central point of interest at the national festival on the field of Mars (July 14, 1790) was a high altar, and there were pious Jansenists, who hoped in the decrees of the national assembly to realize their ideal of a Church. Such were the honest Camus, who wished to bring every thing back to the simplicity of apostolic times, the enthusiastic Carthusian Dom Gerle, who vainly demanded that Catholicism should be acknowledged as the religion of the state, and Gre- goire, who, confiding in the democratic humane spirit of Christianity even in i) Acta Syn. Pistoiens. Ticin. 1790. 2 vols. Planck, vol. I. p. 263. II, 229ss. De Potter, Tie et Mem. de Eicci. Par. 1826. 4 vols. Stuttg. 1826. 4 vols. [Memoirs of Scipio de Eicci, Bp. of P. and Rcf. of Cath. in Tuscany. Lond. 1852. 2 vols. 12.] k) fValch, nst. Eel. Gesch. vol. V. p. 5ss. Planck, vol. I. p. Sss. 34 530 MODEEN CHURCH HISTORY. PER. VI. A. D. 1648-1S53. the time of the most sanguinary outrages, did not shrink from exposing him- eelf to derision and deadly peril in behalf of the Church, (a) In the declara- tion of human rights, which constituted the new gospel, freedom of religious faith was proclaimed. The hierarchy, determining to submit with dignity to what was now inevitable, proposed that their property should be proportion- ally taxed, and that all superfluous vessels belonging to the Church should be melted down. On the celebrated night of the 4th Aug., they also consented that the tithes should be discontinued, and the pastors agreed that the sur- plice fees should bo renounced. In the discussion upon the law relating to these subjects, it was decided that the tithes should be abolished as soon as the state's treasury should be in a condition to sustain the expenses of public worship. All ecclesiastical property was declared to be the property of the nation (Nov. 2d, 1789). It was in vain that Montesquieu, with insinuating moderation, and Maury, with severe argument, urged the utter futility of this proceeding as a financial speculation, the dilemmas to which a pecuniary salary would reduce the clergy, the inviolability of this kind of property, and the saeredness of such pious institutions, and that even Sieyes himself warned the deputies that if men would be free they must be just. It was determined (Dec. 19th) that two hundred millions of the Church property should be sold, and that the administration of every thing belonging to the Church should be committed to the secular authorities (April 14th, 1790). The state under- took, on the other hand, the support of the Church and of the poor. A house and garden, and at least 1200 livres, were secured to every pastor. The salaries of the bishops were ample, but moderate only when compared with the affluence which they formerly possessed. All sinecures were abol- ished. Monastic vows, being looked upon as inconsistent with human rights, and not needful to the public worship, were no longer protected by the laws (Feb. 13th), but adequate annuities were provided for those who belonged to the monasteries, and they were at liberty to reside in the convents. The kingdom was divided into eighty-three departments of equal extent, to which the Church was to be so conformed that each department was to constitute a bishopric. It appeared equally consonant with primitive Christianity and the newly-established principles of freedom, that all bishops and pastors should be elected by the people. All fears of evils attending a popular elec- tion which was not even then directly with the people, were answered by appeals to the disgraceful concomitants of former elections. Every bishop was required to be the pastor of the cathedral church, and in all legal mat- ters to listen to the counsel of his vicars, the old system of the provincial synods was revived, and ah 1 interference from neighboring bishops was pro- hibited ; still the unity of the Church and its connection with a visible uni- versal head was not impaired. The party of the bishops solemnly protested against this spoliation of the Church, and this derangement of the episcopal jurisdictions by the hands of the civil power. To destroy their opposition, it was decreed (Nov. 27th) that all ecclesiastical officers, under penalty of losing their offices, should take an oath to observe these laws as a civil con "on- '' a) Memoires de Gr. precedes d'une notice hist sur 1'auteur par M. ff. Carnot, Par. 1837. 2 ) (ffulet) Col Brevium et Instrr. Pii VI. ad praes. Gall ecc. calamitates. Aug. 1796 2 voto. 532 MODEEN CHUECH HISTORY. PEE. VI. A. D. 1643-1853. of the soul. In honor of this Supreme Being an absurd national festival waa celebrated (July 8th, 1794). After the subversion of the reign of terror, liberty for the exercise of all kinds of religion was restored (Feb. 21st, 1795), with a view to favor Christianity, which had never been wholly suppressed among the people, especially in the southern provinces of France. 436. The Theophilanthropists. 1796-1802. Manuel des Theopb. Par. 1797. Ann6e rellgleuse des Th6oph. (Eecuell des disconrs.) Par. 1797. Gregoire, Gescb. d Theoph. fibers, v. Staudlin in s. Mag. vol. IV. p. 257ss. and Hann. 1806. [Hist, des Sectes reL Par. 1828. vols. 8. J. Evans, Sketch of Chr. Denoin. with an Outline of Atheism, Tbeophll. Ac. 15th ed. Lond. Amherst 1882. 12.] As the state was indifferent to all forms of religion, and the Republican Directory was afraid of the Christianity which prevailed in the Church, the increasing consciousness of the necessity of some religion led many to adopt a form of worship adapted to a natural religion. This was gradually intro- duced into ten churches of Paris, and became extended into most of the provinces. God, immortality, morality, and the ever-changing life of nature, were the objects of this system, which, as it was never sustained by any vigor- ous religious character, was soon found unable to cope with either the Chris- tianity or the spirit of indifference which existed in society. Hence, after a brief period of success, when the First Consul declared that this mode of worship could no longer be tolerated in the churches belonging to the nation, it was ridiculed by -the public and entirely discontinued. 437. The Roman Republic. Cont. from 433. Every kind of influence had been brought into requisition by Pius VI., to foster by religious fanaticism the flame of civil war in France. Buonaparte, who had become master of Italy by the complete destruction of the Austrian army, demanded that the pope should annul all his decrees against France. "When the latter refused, and ventured to make preparations for resistance, the French republican general threw himself upon the States of the Church. At Tolentino (Feb. 19, 1797), a treaty of peace was obtained at the expense of all the possessions of the Roman court in France, of its legations in Fer- rara, Bologna, and Romagna, of thirty millions of francs, and of an immense selection from the Roman treasures of art. A republican form of govern- ment was bestowed upon Lombardy. Even in Rome a party was formed in favor of a republic. When a popular insurrection with this object in view took place in the city, and a French general had been killed in the fray, Ber- thier was sent into the states of the Church to obtain satisfaction from the government. Under the protection of his arms a Roman republic was formed, and the pope was informed that his civil authority was at an end (Feb., 1798). The sympathy generally expressed for the misfortunes of the citizen pope made him an object of suspicion, and led to his removal from Rome. Finally this mild and devout pontiff died a French prisoner at Valence (Aug. 29th, 1799)* * Saldassari, Hist, de 1'enlevement et de la captivito dc Pie VL, trad, de Tltalien p. de Lacou- mrf, Par. 1840. A. d. Fr. v. X. Steck, Tub. 1S44 CHAP. III. CATHOLIC CHURCH TILL 1814. 488. PIUS VII. NAPOLEON I. 533 III. THE EEA OF NAPOLEON. 438. Pius VII. and the Re-establishment of the Galilean Church. Storia di Pio VII. (with orig. docc.) Ven. 1815. 2 vols. Simon, Vie polit. et privde de Pie VII Par. 1823* Gwadet, Esquisses hist et polit. sur Pie VII. Par. 1824. Jdger, Leb. P. VII. m. Urk. Frkf. 1824 Artaud de Montor, H. du Pape P. VII. Par. 1836s. 2 vols. ed. 8. Par. 1839. 3 vols.- (Caprara) Concordat entre le Gouvernement franc, et le Pape. Par. 1802. Cologne, 1802. Reinliard, neue Organis. d. Eel. Wes. in Fr. CoL J02. JBarruel, du Pape et de ses droits rel. a Toccas. du Con- cord. Par. 1803. 2 vols. Pius VII. (Chiaramonti) was elected pope at Venice (March 14, 1800), under the protection of Austria. By Ms apparent concession to the revolu- tion (d) while he was Bishop of Imola, he had shown himself a man of a crafty and obstinate spirit. Under the armed escort of the allied powers he was brought to Borne (July 3d), where he was by the treaty of Luneville put in possession of the States of the Church, but without the legations (1801). He now turned his attention to the work of healing the wounds inflicted by the revolution. Napoleon was at that time convinced that the true end of all his victories was to secure the liberties of the country by the establish- ment of order, and to frustrate the conspiracies formed against them in Europe by extending them throughout the continent by wars of conquest. Though personally perhaps indifferent toward all churches, he saw that it was indispensable to the tranquillity of the country that Catholicism should be re-established as the religion of the state. For the revolution had dis- tinctly shown, that even after a nation has broken all bonds, it cannot exist without a God ; and from the sea of blood into which the innocent and the guilty had alike been plunged, the recollection of the Church of their fa- thers emerged like the dawn of a brighter day. Hence, when the aims of the future emperor were not satisfied at a national synod at Paris, of those bish- ops who had taken the oath, a Concordat was agreed upon (July 15, 1801), after mutual concessions, with the papal minister Consalm. Its stipulations were : Catholicism is the religion of the majority of the French nation ; the property of the Church shall not be restored, but the state undertakes to sustain the Church by a suitable and ample provision ; all priests who have taken the constitutional oath, as well as those who have emigrated, shall resign their offices, but be eligible for a re-election ; a division of dioceses, conformed indeed to the political departments, but having reference to the old bishop's sees, shall be made ; the first consul shall appoint the archbish- ops and fifty bishops in France, but the pope alone shall have the power of bestowing upon them a canonical confirmation; the pastors shall be ap- pointed by the bishops ; the first consul shall possess the same prerogatives as were possessed by the former government ; and the pope shall be the tem- poral sovereign of the Ecclesiastical States, and the head of the Church. In addition to these stipulations, Napoleon enacted by organic laws : the pro- clamation of papal decrees depends upon the discretion of the government ; there shall always be an opportunity for an appeal to the council of state against the abuses of ecclesiastical power; the teachers in the seminaries a) Homelie du citoyen Card. Chiaranwnti, 1797, trad, de 1'Ital. par Gregoire. Par. (1814.) 1818. 634 MODERN CHURCH HISTORY. PER. VI. A. D. 164S-1853. shall be bound by the four propositions of the Gallican clergy ; and marriage ceremonies shall be performed by the priests only after a previous act of the civil authorities. The introduction of the Concordat was solemnized on tho Easter festival of 1802. The Democrats and the old companions in arms of the first consul ridiculed the new capucinade. But even while the work of destruction had been going on, St. Martin (d. 1804) had borne witness to the mysteries of the human heart, and its aspirations after a God, who could alleviate the disorders of the head, even after Christ had healed the distress of the heart of our race. lie however labored only for certain initiated per- sons, leaving tho Church to an inferior kind of prescriptions. (&) Chateau- briand (d. 1848), in the midst of the sorrows of the revolution, had found the Christianity which he had previously lost, and with many tears he now believed. In the primitive American forests, under tho Grecian sky, and at the holy sepulchre, he extolled the beauties of Christianity, and what it had accomplished for humanity. His inner life continued subject to the alterna- tions of doubt and faith, and the faith which he possessed was always artifi- cially excited, and tricked out with the tinsel of a worldly vanity ; but even amid the ruins of the temples, his Genius of Christianity appears as a long- forgotten spiritual reality, and a new glorification of an awakening as well as a witnessing Catholicism, (c) Even Napoleon perceived that the imperial crown he was placing upon a head already crowned by fame, would be more firmly fixed were it consecrated by the pope, and accordingly he became one of the Lord's anointed (Dec. 2d, 1804). The Catechism designed for the youth of France, (d) enumerated devotion to the emperor among the divine commandments, and it was in fact the religion of young France. 439. Dispute between the Emperor and the Pope. & Sdioell, Recucil des pieces officielles. Par. 1815. Pieces hist relatives a Pie VII. Par. 1814. (Archiv. f. KGesch. vol. IL p. 172. 403ss.) Correspondance de la cour de Rome avec la France. Par. 1314 Beauchamp, II. des malheurs de Pie VII. Par. 1814. R61ation auth. de ren!6vement da P. Pie VII. de 1'Ital. p. Lemierre cCArgy, Par. 1814. Memorle del Card. Pacca, Orvieto. 1828. ed. 8. 1833. 1-3 vols. [Notes on the Ministry of Card. B. Pacca, Sec. of State to P. VII. DubL 1848. 8.] It was in vain that the pope demanded, as the price of his obedience, that the Church in France should be entirely under his control, and complained of the violation of the Concordat by the organic laws, and of the infringement of the canonical laws by the Code Napoleon. That he might cope with the superior power of France, he formed a league with the enemies of the emperor, and pre- vented the union of all Italy for common measures against Austria and Eng- land. This induced the emperor to send troops to take possession of the b) Des erreurs et de la v6rite. 17T5. Edinb. 1782. 2 vols. L'homme de desir. Lyon. 1790. Ecce homo. Par. 1792. Lps. 1819. De Tesprit des choses. Par. 1800. 2 vols. Oeuvres posthumes. Tours. 1807. 2 vols. comp. Varnhagen, Denkw. Lps. 1840. vol. V. p. 125. 191ss. c) Atala ou les amours de deox sauvages. Par. X. (1801.) Le Genie da Christianisme ou bcautea de la rel. chr. Par. 1802. 5 vols. Les martyrs. Par. 1809. 3 vols. Itineraire de Paris a J6rusal. Par. 1811. 3 vols. Oeuvres. Par. 1830. 22 vols. Memoires d'outre-tombe. Par. 1848. (Berl. 1848ss.) 12 vols. [Tho Gen. of Chr., The Martyrs, The Itinerary to Jerus., Congress of Verona, his Memoirs by him- self, Sketches of Eng. Lit and various other works of C. have been transl. into Engl. and pubL in Lond. 1846-50. His Recollections of Italy, Engl. and Amer. -were transl. and publ. Philad. 1816. 8.1 d) Catech. a 1'usage de toutcs les 6gL de IVmpire. Par. 1806. CHAP. III. CATHOLIC CIITDKCH TILL 1814. 439. PIUS VII. NAPOLEON I. 535 states of the Church (Feb., 1808), and after many acts of violence to declare that the donations of his predecessor, the Emperor Charles, were then re- voked on account of the abuse which had been made of them (May 17th, 1809). He however allowed the pope, as the supreme head of the Catholic Church, to have possession of all domains belonging to the Roman Curia, of a palace in Paris, and of two millions of yearly revenues. Pius VII. rejected every offer of a salary as an insult, depended for his support entirely upon the alms of the faithful, and declared every one who laid his hand upon the patrimony of St. Peter, excommunicated from the Church. He was then arrested (July 6th), taken to Savona, where he opposed to the prayers as well as the threats of the emperor an inflexible resignation, which could do noth- ing while he was not at liberty, and while deprived of the counsel of his car- dinals. He also refused to confirm those who had been appointed bishops. In connection with the Cardinal Maury, then Archbishop of Paris, who thought an honest reconciliation of the Church with him into whose hand God seemed to have given the world was absolutely indispensable, (a) Napo- leon now attempted, by means of a synod at Paris (1811), to render the im- perial Church independent of the pope. The bishops, however, perceived that their own protection against the arbitrary power of the emperor was to be found in the obstinacy which the pope then maintained, and the synod was therefore dissolved. (5) As far as the sovereignty of France extended in the Spanish and Italian peninsulas, most of the convents, together with the inquisition, were abolished, the property of the Church was confiscated, and the liberal form of the Gallican Church was introduced. It was for this rea- son that the Spanish clergy placed themselves at the head of the national movement in which the first resistance was made against the emperor, and that they might gain their point, they took part with the advocates of a lib- eral Constitution, and with England. The same reason induced Cardinal Euffo (d. 1827"), among the southern peaks of the Apennines, to bestow his blessing upon the arms of the robbers. After his misfortunes in Russia,, Napoleon was obliged once more to pay some deference to public opinion. He then gained the heart of the pope, and concluded (Jan. 25th, 1813) a Con- cordat a,tFontainebleau, by which the investiture of bishops was made no longer dependent on the arbitrary papal will, and in which nothing was said of the temporal government of the pope. It was not long, however, before the heart of the holy Father was seized by a paroxysm of deep despondency on account of this surrender of his last weapon, and following the counsel of the liberated cardinals, he revoked all that he had done. On the very next day (March 25th), the emperor published the Concordat as a law of the empire. But the nationalities which had been destroyed by him now rose up against him, and this military prince began to totter from his eminence. Then it was that he concluded to liberate the pope, and restore to him the possessior of the states of the Church. a) From the Life of Maur. by bis Nephew. (Stud. u. Krit. 1831. P. 3. p. 663ss.) I) Melchers, Nationalconc. zu Paris m. Actenst Munich. 1814. 536 MODERN CHUECH HISTORY. PEE. VL A. D. 164S-185S. 440. OvertJirow of the German Ecclesiastical Constitution. Martens, Eecueil des princ. traitds. voL VII. p. 688ss. Suppl. voL III. p. 248ss. Eeichsdeputations. HanptschL ed. by Cdmmerer, Eatisb. 1804 4. Gaspari, d. K. D. Eecess m. Erlautr. limb. 1803. 2 vols. Karl, Deutschl. nst Stflats- u. K. Verfinder. Brl. 1804. Planck, Betr. Q. d. nst Veriindr. d. kath. K. Ilann. 1S08. (Paulus) Beitrr. z. Gesch. d. katb. K. im 19. Jabrh. Heidelb. (1818.) 1823. Kopp, d. kath. K. im 19. Jbb. Mayence, 1830. The ecclesiastical Electorates, which had been places of rendezvous for the emigrants, and for all who wished to devise intrigues against France, were swallowed up in the republic, and by the Peace of Luneville (1801) the left bank of the Rhine was ceded to France. The secular princes, who were losers by this arrangement, or who for other reasons had found favor at Paris, were indemnified by the gift of territories belonging to the Church. To accomplish this, the ecclesiastical principalities and charitable foundations were secularized by a recess of the imperial deputies (1803). Dalberg, the electoral arch-chancellor, who enjoyed the esteem of the conqueror for his pliancy, of the German people for his goodness of heart, and of artists and learned men for his sympathy with them in their studies, and his freedom from all petty considerations, was the only one who maintained his elevated ecclesiastical and political position ; and in his episcopal see at Ratisbon, to which ho metropolitan rights of Mentz had been transferred (1805), he en- deavored to reconcile the Church with the spirit of the new age. After the papacy had been secularized, Napoleon declared (1810) (a) that the princi- pality belonging to it possessed only a secular and personal character. Although the nobility were more affected by the loss than Catholicism, yet the Church was in these various ways obliged to expiate the offences of the empire. It was however obvious that the ecclesiastical constitution was dis- solved. The dioceses had been dismembered, the chapters and convents had been abolished, the ecclesiastical princes of the empire had even thrown away the crosier, Protestant princes claiming to be the heirs of the bishops had usurped the right of patronage, bishops were not appointed to vacant offices, nor were the dioceses re-organized, and finally, with the quiet subversion of the holy Roman empire, there were no more securities for the laws of the empire. In this way the ecclesiastical constitution was completely terminated. Even in Bavaria (since 1799), the spirit of Illuminism destroyed the monasteries, and induced the government to issue enactments against every thing it regarded as superstition. (&) In consequence of the extravagant claims set up by each party, all negotiations between the princes of Southern Germany and the Roman court, which always insisted that heretical princes, instead of gaining ecclesiastical property, should lose their own, (c) were utterly fruitless, and provisional ecclesiastical governments were formed according to the spirit of the civil authorities. , : a) (Dalberg) De la paix de Peglise dans les etats de la confederation rhenane. Fret 1810. Eatisb. IS10. A. Kramer, Karl Theod. Dalb. Lps. 1821. Dalberg. Die letzten Lebenstage e. deutscben Bischofs, by II. M. E. Carlsr. 1846. Liter Nacblass d. Frau v. Wolzogen. vol. IL p. 66s. 6) IIenke'8 Eel. Ann. vol. I. p. 127. II, 201ss. A. Z. 1803. N. 253, 1804. N. 151. c) Instructions to the Nuntius, in Vienna, in Paulus, Beitrr. 1823. p. 87. CHAP. IV. EVANG. CHUECH TILL 1814. 441. EEIMAEUS. BAHEDT. 537 CHAP. IV. THE PROTESTANT EVANGELICAL CHURCH UNTIL 1814. 441. The Age of Enlightenment. Cont. from 416, 430. () The Church, indeed, still possessed the confidence and love of the great body of the people ; and some were yet firmly attached to ecclesiastical principles, and scattered blessings all around them. The best among many of a similar character were : Eeinhard (1753-1812), who presided over the Saxon Church, preaching the gospel with a scholastic and precise rhetoric, with many concessions to the new spirit of the day, but with an earnestness worthy of the former times of the Church, doing justice to every order of c) Institutions Th. Dogm. Hal. 1815. edL 8. 1844. d) Briefe u. d. Eationalism. Aach. (Zeitz) 1813. Krit. Predlger-Bibl. s. 1820. e) Tub. Zeitscb. unter versch. Titel 1796-40, ed. by Flatt, Suskind, Bengel, SteodeL Comp, Rheinw. Rep. 1833. p. 174. 190. 203. 216ss. a) (Meyer) Bas. Leben u. Charakter. Hamb. 1791. 1) Lienhard u. Gertrud. Zur. (1781.) 1790ss. 3 vols. Bucb d. Mutter. Ifert. 1803. [Autobiogr. Scenes of iny Life at Bergdorf and Yferdun. Lond. 1830. E. Biber, Memoirs of P. and bis Plan ol Ed. Lond. 1831.] 35 5 46 MODERN CHURCH HISTORY. PER. TL A. D. 1648-1358. talent, and moderating every injurious influence from without ; (c) and Ober- lin (1740-1826), the pastor of the Steinthal, and a Protestant saint, who showed how much an active, fervent, and simple-hearted man can do, with the divine assistance, for the spiritual and temporal welfare of a congrega- tion, (d) But the educated and the half-educated classes turned silently away from God, or at least from Christ ; and even those who, like all truly exalted minds, had at least some longings after eternal things, congratulated themselves with the author of the Titan, that they could penetrate much fur- ther into the Infinite than could either Peter or Paul, (e) Rectitude of ex- ternal conduct, in connection often with great self-complacency and easy conformity to usage, was now substituted for justification by faith. Many sermons were nothing but moral lectures, or sought for the practical in some region far beyond the province of religion. The lifeless condition of the Church may be seen in the vandalism with which the old hymns were muti- lated. (/) Many pious persons, as well as freethinkers, were apprehensive that Christianity was about to be subverted. 447. Small Fanatical Parties. A strange mode of divine worship practised by the Jumpers, a class of persons who sprung up among the Methodists of "Wales (about 1760), now made its appearance, and consisted in a wild leaping upward in honor of the Lamb. This enthusiasm received a regular form from Anna Lee, who, in consequence of the oppression she endured in England, emigrated with her adherents to New York. Although her prediction that she should, as the Lamb's wife, give birth to a new Messiah, remained unfulfilled at the time of her death (1782), her followers continued to praise God by chastity, commu- nity of goods, and by dances like those of David before the ark of the cove- nant. These Slialcers have their principal settlement in a few busy and neat villages .near the Hudson, where men and women lodge in the same dwell- ings, but most strictly separated from each other, with countenances immova- ble, eyes dull, trusting to immediate inspirations, and as the only true Church waiting for a wonderful development throughout the world, (a) Joanna c) Gestandnisse s. Predigten u. a. Bildung z. Prediger betr. Sulzb. (1810.) 1811. K. IT. L. Polite, F. V. Reinhard nach s. Leben n. Wirken. Lps. 1813ss. 2 vols. d) Notice sur Ob. Par. 1826. Strassb. 1826. H. Schubert, Zuge a. d. Leben Ob. Nurnb. 1826. 6 ed. 1838. Ibid, aus d. Nachlnsse eines Vifionars. Lps. 1837. Ob. Lebensgesch. u. Gesamm. Schrr. zu- eammengestellt v. W. Burckhardt, Stuttg. 1843. 4 vols. [Memoirs of J. F. Oberlin. Lond. 1830. Mark Wilkes, The Ban de la Roche and its Benefactor, J. F. Ob. Lond. 1820. 8. L. HaUey, Memoirs of J. F. Ob. Pittsburgh. 1832. 18. II. Ware, Mem. of J. F. Ob. Boston. 1838. 12. Artt in Quart. Rev. 1S31. and Eclectic Rev. 1824 in Rel. Mag. 1828. and Littell's Mus. Philad. 1S81.] e) Briefw. zwischen. H. Voss u. Jean Paul Heidelb. 1833. p. 133. 68. [Autobiogr. of Jean Paul Richter, from the Germ. Lond. and Boston. 2 vols. 12. E. Lee, Life of J. P. R. Boston, 1842. 2 vols. 12. Most of his works are translated.] /) BUlroth, Beitr. z. wissensch. Crlttk d. herrsch. Theol. Lps. 1831. 12. Stier, die Gcsangbuchs- noth. Lps. 1838. a) Henke, Rel. Ann. P. 1. p. 105ss. Archiv. f. KGesch. vol. I. St. 1. Stdudlin, Beitr. vol. V. p. 899. Duke Bernhard, Reise nach Nord-Am. p. ITSss. Blatter, f. lit Unterh. 1833. N. 61. Pred. BibL 1844. V. 25. P. 5. [Calvin Green & Seth Y. Wetts, Millennial Church, or View of the Society called Bhakers. Albany. 1823. 12. T. Brown, Account of the people called Shakers. Troy. 1812. 12. IF: J. Hackett, Shakerism unmasked, &c. Pittsfield. 1828-12.] CHAP. IV. EVANG. CHURCH TILL 1814 447. SECTS. HAUGE. 547 Soutlicote also promised the people of England that she would give birth to one who was to he the Shiloh of the world, and made it the duty of believ- ers to observe the Jewish law, that they might receive the Messiah in a wor- thy manner. Although after waiting for a long time she died (1814) in her delusion, and the splendid cradle which had been prepared for the Messiah still remained empty, the New Israelites continued till 1831 to observe the Jewish Sabbath, in hope of the future Messiah. (&) Among the peasantry of Norway a powerful religious movement was produced by Nielsen Hauge (1771-1824), who felt called to be a prophet like the herdman of Tekoa (after 1795). The law of God was the principal theme of his discourses, and he judged of others as well as wished himself to\be judged, exclusively by the Scriptures, and the catechism. Community of goods was required only on the principles which he believed to have prevailed in the Apostolic Church, and whatever property was intrusted to his hands he employed in objects of general utility. He became odious to the clergy on account of the suspicions which his conduct threw upon their order, and under a law of 1741 he was severely abused by heavy fines and a long imprisonment for preaching with- out a license. This law was finally abolished by the Storthing (1842), and the law of 1845 gave full toleration to all Christian sects. A powerful party has sprung up under Hauge's influence, which contends earnestly against the ecclesiastical authorities on account of the laxness they exhibit with respect to the terms of salvation, (c) In Sweden the special need of family worship on account of the great extent of the parishes led to the formation, after 1803, , of a party, which from its perusal of the Scriptures and Luther's Postills, were called Laesare, Their pious zeal was proved by their Lutheran ortho- doxy, their rigid morals, and their devotional meetings. A few zealots among them who claimed, to be infallible, on account of their possession of the Holy Spirit, and therefore dealt out their curses upon all, and especially upon the clergy who thought differently from themselves, who burned the books of devotion they had previously used because such works were useless to those who had the Bible, and who paid no regard to the edicts of the eccle- siastical authorities were fined according to law, and many of them endea- vored (after 1846) to find their Zion in America, (d) 448, Civil Relations of Protestants under CatJwlic Governments, Cont. from 413, The indifference which generally prevailed on religious subjects had the effect to bring about what the reason of the age demanded. From inclina- tion as well as from policy, Frederic IL placed himself at the head of Pro testant Germany, As an individual event it was of no great importance that I) Niemeyer, Beob. a. Kelsen. Ed. 2. vol. II. p. 93ss. A. K. Z. 1831. N. 67. \P. Mathias, J. South cote's Prophecies and case stated. Lond. 1S30. 12.] c) Jens Moeller : Archiv, f. KGesch, vol. II. p. 354ss. Schubert : Ibid. vol. V. p. 237ss. Ev. K. 2. 1831. N. 64. 1834. N. 57. 61. (K Surwey) Godanken e. Suddeutschen A. d. K. Norw. (Stud. u. Krit. 1849. H. 2s.) d) Schubert: Archiv. f. KGesch. vol. IV. p. 624ss. V, 227ss. A. K. Z. 1822. N. 5. 1830. N. 38. Brl K. Z. 1846. N, 9s. 1849, N. 4. D. A. Z. 1852. N, 167, 548 MODERN CHURCH HISTORY. PER. VI. A. D. 1643-lS5a the oppression of their Protestant subjects by the princes of Hohenlohe was prevented by the imperial troops (1750), (a) but German Protestantism gained once more by the proud position maintained by Prussia a consciousness of its political power and security. Joseph II., full of philosophical zeal for the general rights of man, gave to the Evangelicals in all his dominions the com- plete privileges of citizenship, and the freedom of a quiet worship (1781). (&) This edict of toleration was not accepted in Tyrol and Hungary. But the Hungarian Diet of 1791 recognized the religious freedom of the Protestants by the restoration of all their former privileges, although the Catholic ma- jority would never allow complete justice to be actually administered in this matter, (c) As late as 1762 religious intolerance was still so strong in Tou- louse that sentence of death was passed upon the honest John Galas. Then it was that Voltaire came forward in defence of murdered innocence, and convinced the French nation that Christianity was not a barbarous religion, but one that enjoined toleration upon all its votaries, (d) The Parliament of Toulouse in 1769 recognized the legality of a Protestant marriage, and the civil rights of Protestants were acknowledged in 1787 ; but the complete equality of the rights of the Protestant with those of the Catholic Church was not fully proclaimed until the revolution. Napoleon granted the Pro- testants a Synodal Constitution (1802), though he subjected it to great limita- tions and a rigid supervision. "When the German empire was broken up, the permanency of the peace of "Westphalia became doubtful. But the right of possession, which had been acknowledged for years under it in the individual states, was maintained until the higher privilege of a complete legal equality was received and enforced by Napoleon, especially in favor of the Catholics, as far as the terror of his cannons prevailed, (e) CHAP. V. THE PROTESTANT EVANGELICAL CHURCH UNTIL 1853. 449. Development of Protestantism. Gieseler. (p. 637.) A. Neander, d. verflossene halbe Jahrh. in s. Verb. d. Gegenw. (Deutsche Zeitsch. C cbr. Wiss. 1850. N. l^.)(ITunde8Jtagen) Der deutscbe Protestantismus. Frkf. 1847. 8 ed. 1850. "In times of extreme trouble and great commotion, when the insufficiency of all human aid was evident, the people sought consolation and safety in that which was everlasting. From the retirement of quiet families and sects a love for the Church of former days was openly proclaimed. "When the Ju- bilee of the Reformation was celebrated (1817) the hearts of the people were turned to the faith of their fathers, and Luther was looked upon as something more than a mere hero of freedom. German theology had gone forward to a) Barnmlnng der hohenlohischen Rel. gravaminnm. Heilbr. 1751. Z>) Helfert, Recbte u. Verf. d. Akatholikeu in Oestr. Vien. 1827. c) TibiAcanus, Rel. Bescbwerden d. Prot in Ung. Lps. 1883. p. 190ss. d) Memoire de Donat Galas pour son pere. 1762. Voltaire, Tralte sur la tolerance & Toccas. de 1 mort de J. Calas. Par. 1763. Brl. 1789. [ffagenbach ( 416) vol. I. Vorles. 2.] e) Kluber, off. Recbt d. deutscben Bundes. Frkf. ed. 2. 1822. p. 849. CHAP. V. EVANG. CHURCH TILL 1S53. 449. MODERN PROTESTANTISM. 549 express the negative side of Protestantism, with none to obstruct its progress 1 or embitter it by opposition, and it now lost its interest in mere negations. In all departments of intellectual effort a new historical spirit had been awakened, and had drawn the hearts of men to subjects connected with past times. It was therefore not surprising that this spirit should have had an influence upon the common feeling of the Church. The old Protestantism, seizing the wea- pons of the new age, endeavored once more to win the empire it had too soon given up for lost. While engaged in conflict with it the opposition first ex- hibited its bitterest earnestness, and like the warrior spirits after the battle of the Huns, they once more entered the deadly strife. Many persons were of course painfully wounded in this contest, and acted inconsistently with their own former course, (a) But a fresh feeling of life now pervaded the Church, the poetry of the old Church hymns was appreciated, (5) the system of popu- lar schools was carefully formed on a Christian basis, and theology disclosed her most ample treasures, especially in Germany. Holland, Denmark, Sweden, and America participated in these blessings with joyful emulation ; but England did so with caution, and even resistance. This progress of the new age, however, could not be arrested ; and it was found, therefore, that the established forms of the ecclesiastical creeds which had been for a time aban- doned, could not as such be re-established. Hence, as Protestantism was obliged at some time to discover the essential contradiction which existed in its original form, and to develope its nature as the Christianity of freedom, the true ideal of this development was presented in the religious indepen- dence whose power was rooted in the Church. But the perfected idea which could not be realized by the age without many a severe conflict and extrava- gance, was exhibited even then in a few personalities, types of the future, which, though deeply agitated in the struggles of science and piety, stood firmly established in intellectual freedom in the church of their fathers. Thus TzscTiirner (1778-1828) openly abandoned the precise letter of Luther's theo- logical system, but in the very spirit and honesty of that reformer, conducted the cause of Protestantism, aroused the common sentiments and feelings which had slumbered in the hearts of its friends, and showed in his polished and stately discourses that every thing truly human in the past or present should be considered as having a relation to Christianity, (c) In like man- ner De Wette (1780-1849) investigated the Scriptures with an independent spirit, allowed the understanding full liberty in his judgment of the creeds of 'the Church, and in morality laid great stress on the right of a subjective con- viction. He has also pointed out with a judicious spirit the peculiarities of antiquity, and the style of sacred poetry which the received doctrines of the Church must necessarily assume, that they may be accommodated to the ordi- nary feelings of the Church. He did not fail also to show how real Chris- tianity had proceeded in the form of the practical spirit and life of the a) Lutzelberger, d. Grande d. frehv. Niederl. m. Amtes. Nurnb. 1838. Giese, Bekenntniese eincs Frjjgewordnen. Altenb. 1846. I) (C. Gruneisen) Die Gesangbuchsreform. (Stuttg.) 1838. c) Polity, Tzsch. Abriss s. Lebens u. Wirkens. Lps. 1828. J. D. GoldJiorn, Mitth. a. Tzsch. letztcn Amta-und Leidenq'ahren. Lps. 182S. 550 MODERN CHtTKCH HISTOEY. PEE. VI. A. D. 1G4S-1S53. Church without disturbance, through all the changes of human speculation, (d) Above all, SchleiermacJier (1768-1834) pointed out the various revolutions through which the age had passed, by proving to the self-complacent party of the Enlightenment, to which he was always a match and superior in every thing which they regarded as supreme, that even on their own ground and when every thing untenable had been boldly conceded, a lifo without God and Christian communion was utterly unsatisfying. Having spent a portion of his early life at Herrnhut, piety toward the Redeemer, even in its peculiar features, was the predominant trait of his character. He was, how- ever, familiar not only with Plato but with Spinoza, and in the full conscious- ness of his freedom, and with the highest esteer: for genuine character wherever he found it, his piety was exercised toward every thing in the uni- verse. It did not, however, assume a Christian character until his own eccle- siastical relations were developed. Hence the fundamental principles of the Reformed Church he drew from the living fountain of universal Christian feeling. This was an experience acquired in a domain inaccessible to philoso- phy. And yet he never surrendered his rights to exercise his analytical criti- cism upon those enactments of the Church in which it had gone aside from the truth, and even upon those portions of the sacred Scriptures which he regarded as fallible. Those portions which were addressed to the feelings he held under the most absolute control of the understanding, (c) 450. The Philosophy of the Absolute and its Ramifications. In direct opposition to the philosophy of faith Fichte had exalted human knowledge until it took the place of divine. When Schelling (b. 1775), start- ing from this position, had construed nature as if it were a shadowy reflection of the spirit, he became deeply interested in its actual living movements, and as his highly gifted mind was engaged in the contemplation of them, he came e?) Idee u. d. Stadium d. Tbeol. (1801) ed. by Stieren. Lps. 1850. Com. u. d. Psalmen. Heidlb 1811. 8 ed. 1829. Lehrb. d. bebr. Jnd. ArchuoL Lps. (1814.) 1S30. Ue. Eel. u. Thcol. BrL (1815.) 1821. EtnL in d. A. T. Brl. 1817. 4 ed. 1S38. in d. N. T. Brl. 1826. 4 ed. 1842. Theodor. o. d. Zweiflers Weihe. BrL 1822. 3 ed. 1828. Lebrb. d. Sittenl. BrL 1888. Die H. 8. ibersetzt Hdlb. (180983.) 3 ed. 1888a. 8 v. Exeg. Handb. z. N. T. 1836-48. Das Wesen d. cbr. GL Baa. 1846. ActensammL u. d. Entlass- ting d. Profl de "Wette v. theol. Lebramt zu Berlin. Lps. 1820. F. Lucke, z. Erin, an de W. (Stud. u. Krit 1850. H. 8.) [Human Life or Practical Ethics, transl. by S. Osgood, Boston, 1842. 2 v. 12. Theo- dore, or the Skeptic's Conversion. Boston. 1841. 2 v. 12. Introd. to the O. T. tr. & enlarged by Theod. Parker. Boston. 1843. 2 v. 8.] e) (Vertr. Briefe u. d. Lucinde. 1800. first publ. in the Athenaeum with Vorr. by Gulzkow, Hamb. 1835.) Ue. d. EeL Eeden an d. Gebildeten unter ihren Yerachtern. Brl. 1799. 5 ed. 1843. Monologen. Brl. 1800. 6 ed. 1843. Die Weihnachtsfeier. BrL 1803. 3 ed. 1837. Ue. d. sogen I Br. an Timoth. BrL 1807. Darst d. theoL Studiums. BrL (1811.) 1S30. Der. chr. Glaube. BrL (1821s.) 1830s. 2 v. Werke s. 1834. in 3 Abth. Briefw. m. J. Gass, ed. by W. Gass, 1852. Deutsche Zeitsch. f. chr. Wiss. 1850. N. 51. Selbstbiogr (in his 26th year) communicated by Lomrnatzsch. (Zeitsch. f. hist. Th. 1S51. II. 1.) Baumgarten-Crusius, u. Schl. Denkart u. Verdienst Jen. 1834, Lucke Erin, an Schl. (Stnd. u. Krit. 1834. P. 4) Sdiweiteer, SchL Eigenthuml. als. Pred. Hal. 1834. Thiel, ScbL d. Darst. d. Idee e. sittl. Ganzen anstrebend. Brl. 1S35. F. Delbruck, Schl. Bonn. 1S37. J. Schaller, Vorl. u. Schl. Ual. 1844. G. Weissenborn, u. SchL Dial. u. Dogm. Hal. 1847. 2 vols. Rienacker, zu Ehren SchL (Stud. u. Krit. 1848. H. 1.) [Eng. translations of S. are : Crit. Essay on Luke by C. Thirlwall, Lond. 1825. 8. Introd. to Plato's Diall. by Dodson, Lond. 1327. 8. Obss. on Sabellius, with notes, by M. Stuurt, in Bib. Eepos. vol. V. p. 265ss. VI. Iss. and Outline of the Study of TheoL with Liicke's Bcminiscences of SchL by Farrar, Edinb. 1850. 8.] CHAP. V. EVANG. CIIUECH TILL 1853. 450. SCHELLING. HEGEL. 55 1 to regard the whole history of the universe as the process by which divinity was developed in the parallel spheres of nature and of mind. In his subse quent researches after truth he viewed the world as an apostasy, and as Burning that it was originally in opposition to God, he explained its origin in God, and its distinction from God. In the estimation of this philosophy re- ligion is the immediate coming of the deity to self-consciousness, Christianity divested of its scriptural simplicity is the turning point of human history, and the system of faith which the Church has formed respecting revelation, the Trinity, and reconciliation, is the explanation which it makes of the great problem of the universe, and by which it expresses its presentiments with regard to the final result, (a) Closely resembling Schelling in the reflective and tranquil manner of his life, Hegel (1770-1831) assumed that the law of logic was the law of the universe, according to which all opposites are elevated until they become lost in a higher unity, until, in fact, they become merely an idea, which, that it may recognize itself as spirit, places the universe as an object- ive reality apart from itself, and by constantly thus raising and separating new opposites which occur in the history of the world, it reveals to itself its own infinite abundance of life. In the view of this philosophy the popular religions which have existed in the world have been the several points by which the divine self-consciousness has developed itself. Christianity being the religion in which the unity of the divine and the human is presented, con- tains the ultimate point of all truth, but in the lower form of the idea, as it remains essentially to those who see things at the stand-point where God and the world, the present and the future, remain in opposition, and general ever- lasting truth is possessed only in the individual facts of Christianity. (&) The personal influence and manner of Schelling after the brilliant period of his residence at Jena, was powerful on society in the south of Germany ; while Hegel, as a Prussian state philosopher, even when idealizing the actual world, produced a profound impression upon the theology, principally of the north. The Rationalists were astonished to find themselves assailed by opponents quite equal to them, both in freethinking and in science, and who yet gave to Christianity an historical importance and an ecclesiastical form far superior to what they were willing to concede to it. They therefore accused their an- tagonists of a pantheism which concealed its inconsistency with morality and religion under the semblance of ecclesiastical orthodoxy. To this it was re- plied, that Rationalism was a stage of improvement which had now, with Kant, become utterly obsolete ; and that although it extolled reason as the supreme law in matters of faith, it had never attempted in a scientific man- ner, even in its most elaborate works, to inform men what reason is, and what ) Lit. in Michelet, vol. II. p. 212ss. & esp. in Zeitschr. f. specul. Physik. 1801. voL II. P. 2. Me- thode d. akad. Studiums. Tub. 1S03. 2 ed. 1813. Phil. u. Eel. 1804. Phil. Schrr. Landsh. 1809. Dcnk- mal d. Schr. v. d. gottlichen Dingen. Tub. 1812. [Hforell, Hist. & crit. View of Spec. Phil, in the 19th cent. (New York. 1848.) p. 433ss. Epit of the H. of Phil, transl. from the French, &c. by O. 8. Ilenry, (New York. 1841. 2 v.) v. II. p. 195ss.] Z>) Lit in Michelet, vol. II. p. Cllss. Differenz d. Ficteschen u. Schell. Systems. Jena. 1801. Phanomenologie d. Geistes. Bamb. 180T. Encyklop. d. phil. Wiss. Hdlb. 1817. 3 ed. 1831. Vorless. iL t Phil. d. Eel. Brl. (1882.) 1840. 2 v. Werke s. 1832. 17 vols. Rosenkrans, Hegel's Leben. Brl. 1844 552 MODERN CHUECH HISTOEY. PEE. VL A. D. 164S-1S53. is its province in religion, (e) After Hegel's death his school became divided into those who used an orthodox, and those who used a heterodox mode of expression. The former class explained its theological views in the spirit of its original master, (d) The latter contended that it was only giving greater distinctness to the original sense of its master, in opposition to the ordinary mode of representation, when it proclaimed that an everlasting life exalted to the absolute idea is in fact the gospel of an everlasting death, that religion when carried to its perfection by reason, is only a God worshipping himself, and that a God-man is one who never had an existence as an individual upon earth, (e) Thus, from the modern attempt to exalt the old orthodoxy, has sprung up a severe struggle for the fundamental principles of Christianity, and the Hegelians were accused by the friends of piety, of atheism, the anni- hilation of the biblical history, the denial of immortality, and a hypocritical pro- fession of Christianity. (/) They replied by reproaching their accusers with a shallowness which could only think of God separate from the universe, a selfishness which never disengages itself from its own little I, a haired of all philosophy, and an apostasy from Protestantism, (g) In some philosophic researches under Hegel's direction, and to carry forward the system which he had commenced, the proof of an immortality of individuals, and of a per- sonal and if possible a triune God, was attempted on the basis of the idea of personality, (h) Schelling, himself, was called (1841) to the professorship left by Hegel, that he might heal the wounds which had been inflicted by philoso- phy there. He described the logical structure by which his predecessor had attempted to complete his system, as a mere episode of that system by a later hand, and as a philosophy looking only at negative results, but without power to escape from its ideal to the actual world. He therefore placed by its side a system of positive philosophy, which, as an hypothesis respecting the play of antemundane potences assuming in the actual world the form of trini- tarian personalities, presented some hope of a complete union of science with a future Johannic Church. But the age had no taste for this second part of Faust, (i) The original moderate Hegelian school was represented by the c) E. g. Marlieineke, Dogmatik. 2 ed. Yorrede. Hegel, PhiL d. Eel. 1832. v. II. p. 234 [Morell, (p. 456ss.) A Henry (p. 208ss.) as above.] d) G. A. GaWer, de verae phil. erga reL pietate. Ber. 1836. Goschel : der Monismus des Gedank- ens. Zur. ApoL d. gegenw. Phil, am Grabe ihres Slitters. Naumb. 1832. Die siebenfaltige Oster- frage. BrL 1836. \Morell, p. 478s.] ) Comp. Michelet, v. II. p. 63T. Die dt Phil. s. Hegels Tode. (Die Gogenw. Lps. 1851. vol. VI. Ch. Buob, la PhiL de FAbsolu en Allemagne dans ses rapports avcc la doctr. chret Montauban. 1842. [Morett, p. 480.] /) H. Leo, die Hegelingen. Hal. (1S3S.) 1839. Kahnis, Euge u. Hegel. Quedl. 1338. Eheinw. Hep. v. XXXL p. 2Sss. g) A. Hitge, Preussen u. d.. Eeaction. Lps. 1S33. G. O. MarbacJi, Anfrnf an d. prot Deutschl. wider unproL Umtriebe. Lps. 1888s. 2 H. (B. Bauer,) Die Posaune d. jiingsten Gerichts u. Hegel d. Atheisten u. Antichr. Lps. 1841. C. Zscliiesche, u. d. Gott d. Prot Leo u. d. Atheism, s. Gegner. HaL 1839. h) J. II. Fichte Beitrr. z. Characteristik d. neuern PhiL Sulzb. 1829. Ue. Gegens., "Wedep. u. iel. d. Phil. Hdlb. 1832. Ue. d. Beding. e. epecul. Theism. Elbert 1835. O. H. Weisse : Ue. d. ge- genw.. Staiidp. d. phil. Wiss. Lps. 1829. Idee d. Gotth. Drsd. 1833. Grundzuge d. Metapbys. limb. '$35. ) J. v. ScJielling, Vorrede zu Cousin, u. fr. & deutsche PhiL from the French by Beckers, Stuttg CHAP. V. EVANG. CHURCH TILL 1853. 450. EOSENKEANZ. STRAUSS. 553 noble individuality of Roserikranz, and set up the motto that true reason must lead to Christianity, that Christianity must be reasonable, and that its found- ers were the perfect individual realizations of the idea, (jfc) But when its true principles were exposed, and the State which had once brought it into notice had withdrawn its favor, it could no longer sustain itself against the general neglect it received. Its essential principle, however, continued to struggle in different departments of literature against the various prevalent systems. Strauss (born 1808) represented the gospels as a mass of fragments composed by the primitive churches as the natural development of their own views and feelings, and yet he looked upon Christ as the ideal genius of gen- uine religion, and as the highest form in which religion has appeared. He did not, however, conceal his conviction that a collision was inevitable be- tween science and the popular systems of Christian theology, whose advocates had raised the question whether he could consistently belong to the clerical profession. Hence, when he was called to the theological faculty of Zurich, the people rose up in behalf of the old system of faith, and the government of the Canton, though willing to make concessions, was overthrown by a committee on religious faith (Sept. 6, 1839). In this affair, however, religious zeal was made in some degree subservient to political objects. (1) When Bruno Bauer, who had been thrown from one extreme of the Hegelian party to the other, and proudly scoffed at all theologians, analyzed the different gospels as mere works of art, originating in a purely literary way, and taking their form and materials with various degrees of success and skill from the prevalent views of the people long after the events of which they speak, it was found that even the freedom of teaching allowed in a Protestant coun- try could, hardly tolerate the propagation of a doctrine which totally under- mined the Church. A decided majority of the Protestant faculties of Prus- sia whose opinions were asked was not obtained, but the civil authorities formed their decision on the ground of the views then expressed, which were, that the sentiments maintained in Bauer's writings were inconsistent with the position of a teacher of theology, (m) Indeed, his own advocates pro- claimed that the new principle was atheistic and sans-culottic, and that phi- losophy had given notice of its complete secession from the Church, (n) When a professor of aesthetics acknowledged himself a Pantheist, and attempted no concealment of his hatred for his opponents, the whole body of the clergy 1834. Schilling's erste Tories, in Berlin. Stuttg. 1841. Paulus, die endlich offenbar gewordene Phil. d. Offenb. (Sch. Vorlesungen itn Winter 1841.) Darmst 1843. Vorwort zu H. Steffens nachgel, Schrr. v. Schelling. Brl. IBlQ.Marheineke, z. Kritik d. Sch. Oflenbarungsph.il. Brl. 1843. (Kapp.) F. "W. J. v. Sch. von e. vieljahr. Beobachter. Lps. 1S43. Sch. u. die Theol. (with the Literature) Brl. 1845. /t) Encykl. d. theoL Wiss. Hal. (1831.) 1845. Krit. Erliiut. d. Heg. Systems. Konigsb. 1840. 1) [Ifase,] Leben Jesu. p. 34. D. F. Strauss, Friedl. Blatter. Altona 1839. Lucke, Strauss u. d. Ziirch Kirche, with a Vorr. by De Wette. Bas. 1839. A. Bodcn, Gesch. d. Beruf. d. Dr. Str. Frkf. 1840. Der Kampf d. Principien im E. Zurich. V. e. Augenzeugen. (Zeitsch. f. hist. Th. 1840. H. 3.) II. Cfelzer, die Strauss. Zerwurfnlsse in Zur. Hamb. 1843. [Strauss' Life of Jesus, from the Germ. Lond. 1846. 3 voh. 8. Letter to Hirzell, &c. Lond. 1844.] m) [Ilase,] Leben Jesn, p. 35. Bauer, die ev. Landeskirche Preuss. u. d. "Wiss. Lps. 1840. Gu- tachten d. ev. theol. Faculttiten d. Preuss. Univ. u. d. Licent. B. Bauer. Brl. 1842. For Lit see Brans, Eep. 1845. vol. II. p. 9Tss. n) Edgar Bauer, B. Bauer, u. s. Gegner. Brl. 1S42. Deutsche Jalirbb. 1842. N. Ss. Opite, B. Bauer u. B. Gegner. Brsl. 1846. 554 MODEEN CHUKCH HISTORY. PEE. VI. A. D. 1648-1S58. in the country rose in opposition to the Antichristianity of Tubingen, and the government censured, but protected him by a suspension of two years. (0) Lewis Feuerbach having placed the old, genuine gospel, which had conquered and despised the world, in direct contrast with the modern system of pro- gress, declared Christianity a fixed idea, and all religion a dream, from which when man awakes ho finds only himself. His baptism of cold water was not unacceptable to such youth as had previously fallen out with the notion of the divine existence, (p) Near the close of the eighteenth century an enthu- siasm for the glorious life of the ancient Greeks reappeared among the poets. The great German poet, who had been profoundly affected by the world's mighty convulsions, now proclaimed the new gospel of the rehabilitation of the flesh in contrast with a Christianity which had been especially designed for the spirit in its horror at a nature peopled with spectres, and which had for 1800 years consoled men in all their sorrows, (g) lie was soon surrounded by a literary circle belonging to a young Germany, which either wished to remove the schism which Christianity had made known between God and the world by means of Christ born on earth as the world's legitimate child, (r) or thought that men would have been happier had they been entirely ignorant of God, and hence declared that the vicars of heaven were not needful for the most exhilarating enjoyments of existence. () This youthful poetry was destroyed as it were in a night, not by the police, but by the serious morality of the German people, (f) The more talented among them directed their atten- tion to a nobler intellectual chivalry, and though the poet who had led them, after long keeping swine, like the prodigal son, among the Hegelians, returned to his forsaken God, he never lost the inclination to jest at holy and unholy things, even on a hopeless sick bed. (u) But the poetry of a Pantheism which leads men according to their moral dispositions to adore either the universe or themselves, and sometimes to worship the Son of God as a son of the people, has often, without being recognized in its true character, prevailed extensively among the half-educated multitude. (/?) But as Christianity had been accused, in quarters where poetry had not joined in the reproach, of a secret worship of Moloch, and of cannibalism as well as of other crimes, it was resolved that in place of this barbarous and slavish religion a pure Humanism should be set up, as the autonomy of the spirit resting upon its own authority alone, a new religion looking distinctly to earthly interests, or triumphing over all religion o) F. Vi*chr, akad. Eede z. Antritte d. Ordinariates, 21st Nov. 1844. Tub. 1844. Lit in Bruns, Rep. 1845. vol. IV. p. 189ss. p) Phil. u. Christenth. Mannh. 1839. Das Wesen d. Christenth. Lps. (1841-43.) 1849. Vorless. u. i "VVesen d. Eel. Lps. 1851. q) IT. Heine, Gesch. d. schonen Lit. in Deutschl. Par. 1833. vol. I. p. 6. 33. 69s. Zur Gesch. d. Eel. a. PhiL (Salon. Hamb. 1835. vol. II.) r) Th. Mundt, Madonna. TJnterhaltungen m. e. Heiligen. Lps. 1835. ) Gutzkow, Yorrede zu Schleierm. Briefen u. d. Lucinde. Ilamb. 1835. (J. P. Lange) Uo. d. Rehabilitation d. Flelsches. (Ev. K. Z. 1835. N. 83ss.) (G. Schwab,) Votuni u. d. junge D. Stuttg. 1836. K Uase, d. junge D. Parchim. 1S37. Paulits, d. Hofgerichta zu Mann- neim motiv. Urtheil u. d. in d. Romano Wally angekL Prefsvergehn. Hdlb. 1836. u) If. Heine, Eomanzero. Hamb. 1851. v) L. Schefer, Laienbrevier. Brl. 5 ed. 1846. Das hohe Lied v. Titus Dlrich. Brl. 1845. F. v. Sal let, Laienevangelium. Lps. 1842. CHAP. V. EVANG. CHUECH TILL 1853. 451. OETHODOX PIETISM. 555 as a conquered territory, (w) A coarse political liberalism, from an extreme hatred of the clergy rejected also the God whom they served, that it might nave its own God of this world and of freedom, (x) This plan of a com- plete rupture with the whole historical development of past times, led the uneducated classes to confound in one general mass their own wants and de- sires with the dregs of philosophy. Soon God was annihilated and the peo- ple were deified, patriotism was despised that all pious reverence might be obliterated with it, and Christ was made prominent only as his name could bo used to sanction democratic and revolutionary principles, (y) 451. Orthodox Pietism and its Extremes. The romantic poetry which prevailed in the beginning of the century was a shadowless picture of the piety of the middle ages. Novalis (v. Harden- burg, 1772-1801) found a religion in poetry, which, having destroyed its own I in its ardent longings over the grave of Protestantism, and over the ruins of Borne, indulged in fond dreams of a new church of the all-pervading deity, (a) The national feeling which had been awakened during the wars for freedom, and, after the victory had been defrauded of its natural development, and re- pressed until it became once more nothing but a pitiful Germanism, now longed to recover the pious manners of earlier days. This longing still re- mained, even when a portion of the youth had ceased to hope for any thing from political agitations. A religious pleasure was derived from an investiga- tion of the mysteries of nature, and of the spiritual world,- and from an effort to break through the limits prescribed for man. (&) In connection with such a disposition, the revolution which then took place in the religious life, in accordance with the laws which regulate intellectual movements, called forth an extreme reaction against the rationalism which prevailed even in the third decennary of that century, and then against the philosophizing Anti- christianity. By means of conventicles and tracts a zealous party was soon formed, and an energetic organ of communication with the public was estab- lished in the Evangelical Church Journal (1827). (c) Its essential character is pietistic, (d) though it is more liberal and better accommodated to ordinary w) Daumer : Die Geheimn. d. chr. Altertb. Hamb. 1847. Die Eel. d. neuen Weltalters. Ibid. 1850. 3 vote A. Ruge, Gesamm. Schrr. Manh. 1846-8. 10 vols. SB) Eheinwald Eep. 1834. vol. V. p. 71s. y) Max Stirner, d. Einzige u. s. Eigentb. Lps. 1845. W. Marr,&. junge Deutschl. in d. Schweiz, Lps. 1S46. J. Frobel, System d. social. Politik. Zur. 1847. a) Schriften, ed. by Tieck & Schlegel, Brl. 1804. 5 ed. 1837-46. 3 vols. ft) Die Seherin von Prevorst. Stuttg. (1829.) 1832. 2 v. [The Seeress of Prevorst, or Eevelatt of the inner life of man. New York. 1838. 8.] Geschichten Besessener. Carlsr. 1834. Magikon, ed. by J. Kerner. Stuttg. 1840. 2 H. c) D. Schuls, d. Wesen u. Treiben d. Berl. ev. K. Zeitung. BrsL 1839s. 2 P. (On the other side: Die ev. Kirche u. d. Consistorialrath Schulz. BrL 1839.) If. Ewald, die Ungeschichtlichk. ev. Geist- lichen. Tub. 1845. L. B. K (onig.) II. Hengstenb. Braunschw. 1845. Der Geist d. ev. K. Z. 2 ed. Brl. 1845. (On the other side: Die Partei d., Ev. K. Z. Von e. Laien. Ev. K. Z. 1846. N. 15s. 18s. 80sa) O. Zschiesche, d. Ev. K. Z. n. ihr Treiben. Lps. 1845. d) retsc7meider, d. Grundlage d. ev. Piet. Lps. 1S33. C. Marldin, Darst. u. Kritik d. mod. Piet. Stuttg. 1839. Comp. Dorner in d. Stud. u. Krit 1840. P. 1. Lit. Survey : Eheinwald, Eep. v. XXVII 1>. 4~ss. 156ss. 556 MODERN CHURCH HISTORY. PER. VI. A. D. 164S-lS5a life than was the pietism of the eighteenth century. It has also been more disposed to enter into the toils and honors of secular life, and in various de- grees it has become connected with the old Protestant orthodoxy, and as- sumed its controversial character, (e) As to its religious elements it embraces the greatest variety, from the genuine piety exhibited by Luther or Spener, full of a joyful faith in a God born of the Virgin, down through the several gradations of pure party zeal, pride, and mental imbecility, until we reach the hypocrisy which uses the language of ardent piety to gain selfish ends, or even to cover the most criminal designs. (/) Although the principal leaders, whenever they expressed themselves in a literary style, committed serious offences against the old Lutheran or Calvinistic theology, and when confessing their sins adopted many rationalistic excrescences, (d patriotic point of view was recognized, the more the right of the Christian congregations to develope by their own energies the constitu- tion best suited to their progress in cultivation, was also acknowledged. The relation of these congregations to the state was to be that of mutual assist- ance, but in the existing organization of the German state confederacies, they were to be dependent only upon the widest national limits, (e) Baden re- ceived with the union a synodal system, but the general synod was to be con- vened only at the suggestion of the sovereign, and then simply as an advisory council. (/) In 1845, Zittel, a pastor of a congregation, proposed to the Diet, that instead of the past religious intolerance, under which Christianity had found no peace, they should try the effect of religious liberty, under which every form of worship should bo tolerated, and no civil penalties should be exacted unless a failure in the performance of civil duties appeared probable. A complete storm of petitions principally from the Catholic sections of the country, against tho majority in the chamber which was ready to concur with the proposition, was the result. The Union Church was here so strictly constituted, that when the pastor Eichhorn felt- constrained in conscience, from his attachment to exclusive Lutheranism, to give notice (1850) of his secession from the united Church, and had received the permission which ho had asked, he was punished by imprisonment, or was directed by the police to leave the country, because in some instances he afterwards performed min- isterial duties for those who like him had forsaken the Church. These per- sons, according to their own confession, knew but little of their former or their present creed, and had in general been involved in the revolutions of that period, but they have hitherto received no permission to form any Lu- theran congregation, (g) The evangelical Church in Bavaria, by an appen- dix to the national constitution (1818), was allowed the privilege of managing its own internal affairs, under the supervision of the supreme authorities of the state. In the Rhenish Palatinate, as soon as the Union was formed, parochial councils with power to fill their own vacancies, district synods and a general synod, chosen partly by and from the congregations themselves, were organized, and it was for this reason that the rationalistic party in that country was able to maintain its ground in the long conflict with the superior consistory at Munich, which was essentially Lutheran, though occasionally under Catholic influence. The order for the election of elders in the congre- gations on the eastern side of the Ehine (1821), was so indefinite with respect d) Rothe, d. Anfange d. K. u. ihrer Ver Witt 1887. 1 voL Die ev. Landesk. Preussens u. d. Wiss. Lps. 1840. e) C. Ullmann, t d. Zuk. d. cv. K Deutschl. Stuttg. 1845. Jul. Mutter, dio nachsten Aufgaben t d. Fortbiid. d. deutsch-prot KVerf. Brsl. 1845. C. C. J. Sunsen, d. Vert d. K. d. Zukunft Hamb, 1845. [Const of the Church of the Future, &c. from tho Germ. Lond. 1848. 8.] K, Jfaee, d. guto ftlte Eccht d. K. Lps. 2 ed. 184T. /) A, KZ. 1S32. N. 201. 1835. N. 98. 1843. N. 101. 117s. 170s. Acta hist ecc. 1885. p. 414ss. 0) Actenmass. Darst betr. Past Eicbh. (Allg. KBlatt 1852. N. IGs.) C. EichTiorn, gosch. Abrisa d. Entsteh. ev. luth. Gemeinden im G. Baden. Stuttg. 1852. CHAP. V. EVANG. CHUECH TILL 1S53. 455. BAVAP.IA. WUETEMBERG. 573 to the peculiar duties of tliese officers, that many feared a hierarchical discipline was intended, and hence such a unanimous expression of public opinion was raised against it, that the government withdrew the plan. (A) The subsequent establishment of the synodal constitution (after 1825) took place under many suspicious limitations : each of the two dioceses were to have a separate general synod ; the representatives of the congregations were io be chosen by the pastors ; one half of all elected for the general synod by the district assemblies were to be set aside by the superior consistory ; all acts were to be merely advisory, and even from such deliberations the hyper- catholic ministry of Abel had power to exclude at pleasure precisely those things which were of any interest to the Church, (i) In Wurtemfyerg, the Church was represented in the diet by prelates nominated by the king, and through these its principal effort was to recover the ecclesiastical property, of which the recollection of the people was still fresh. After 1830, when most of the middle German states received representative constitutions, it became necessary to make many changes in the administration of ecclesiasti- cal affairs, and the Church demanded securities for its established rights. (Ic) But the theory of the semi-liberal constitution of that country was not favor- able to a peculiar department of laws for the Church, and when the clergy set up new claims, they lost their old privileges, until the power and the em- barrassments of the religious interests (since 1840) have combined with the kindred improvements in political and ecclesiastical jurisprudence to strength- en their demands and call forth partial promises, for the oppressions of the people in civil life have compelled them to seek freedom in ecclesiastical agi- tations. (I) The National Assembly in St. Paul's church (1848) had no idea of jeopardizing the unity of the nation of which it was then dreaming, by engaging in the old ecclesiastical disputes ; but in forming a theory of the original rights of the German people, it was driven by a recollection of many civil and ecclesiastical aggressions upon mental freedom to put forth a declara- tion respecting the true relation of the state to religion. During the delib- erations upon this subject, it appeared that some were opposed to every kind of church, but the co-operation of these extreme parties in favor of the com- plete independence of Church and state, was held in check by the hesitation of a middle party, which feared to open the door for an unlimited ecclesias- 7t) A. KZ. 1822. N. 24. 31. 34 42. Works by Lebmus, Kaiser, Fuchs. On the other side : Vogel, Oertel, and others. Paidus, will d. Baierscho Landesk. nicht mundig werden ? (Sophronizon, 1S24. voL VI. H. 1.) i) Stephani, kan. Kecht Tub. 1S25. p. 61ss. F. J. Niethammer, Nachr. v. d. ersten Yersaminl. d. Gen. Synoden in B. Sulzb. 1825. Fuchs, Zust d. prot K. in B. Ansb. 1S30. (Printed) Manu- script : Die Gen. Syn. zu Ansbach im J. 1844. Without place, f. Another revision of this document printed at Ulm. k) BicTcell u. Eupfeld, u. d. Eef. d. KVerf. in bes. Eucks. a. Kurhessen. Marb. 1831. Wunsche d. ev. Geistlichk. Sachs. L. 1831. Grossmann, u. Eef. d. KVerf. in Sachs. L. 1833. For lit. see Stud, u. Krit 1833. H. 2s. G. v. Weber, die Umgestaltung d. KVerf. in Sachs. L. 1833. Braunig, constitutionelles Leben In d. K. Lps. 1838. G. Wolff, dio Zukunft d. prot K. Stuttg. 1840. C. B. Konig, d. nst Zeit in d. ev. K. d. Preuss. Staats. Braunschw. 1848. B. Moll, d. gegenw. Noth, d. ev. K. Preuss. Pasewalk, 1843. Acta hist ecc. 1835. p. 419ss. Brl. KZ. 1845. N. 28ss. G3.(Hundeshafferi) Der deutsche Pro- test, s. Vergangenh. u. heutigen Lebensfragen. Frk 1847. J. Wiggers, die kirchl Beweg. in DeutschL Eost 1843. 574 MODEEN CHUBCH HISTORY. TEE. VI. A. D. 164S-1S58. tical interference from abroad. Accordingly, all were allowed full liberty to believe in any form of religion, or in none, without affecting their civil or municipal rights ; no special political privileges were allowed to any religious societies ; permission was given to form new religious societies, and all were independently to manage their own affairs, subject only to the general laws of the state. A general form of an oath suited to any religious opinions was also provided, and the validity of marriage was made to depend entirely upon a civil act. With respect to the schools there was much contention between the different parties, for the Protestant teachers especially demanded a com- plete emancipation from the bonds of the Church, while the Catholic party with its pietistic adjunct endeavored to attain an opposite result by a free election of the teachers by the congregation. The majority, however, while it held to the principle that all science and instruction in it should bo free, placed the whole school system under the supervision of the state, and re- moved the schools from the inspection of the clergy as such, without forbid- ding the employment of skilful clergymen in the supervision of them, (in) In the composition of the Prussian fundamental laws at Erfurth, these prin- ciples were essentially retained, with the exception only of the article re- specting special political privileges, which the state wished to have power to grant to religions societies whose general aims might specially correspond with its own. The establishment of a state Church, however, was especially guarded against, and all charitable institutions were secured from any infringement. These principles were indeed incorporated in the constitu- tional charter of almost every German state, but the revived diet of the confederation declared (Aug., 1851) that these pretended fundamental l;i\\ never possessed any legal authority. Very little was done even when the power existed to enforce them, for the masses of society were interested only in political questions, and the clergy were jealous of majorities supposed to be unfriendly to the Church. In almost every place committees were ap- pointed by means of the previous ecclesiastical authorities, by whom out- lines of constitutions were prepared, which conveyed the executive power of the Church into the hands of a series of representative synods, rising through several gradations from the congregation, with an unequal number of secular and clerical deputies, and subject, as before agreed upon, to the control of the evangelical sovereign through certain officers. All contemplated at some future period a great evangelical Church of the German empire. These plans were of course laid aside when the political party of the reaction became every where triumphant. A few national churches like those of "Wurtem- berg and Weimar have nevertheless been allowed to have councils chosen partly by the congregations for the administration of their ecclesiastical affairs (1851), which have since been actually elected, anjl been engaged in a limited sphere of Christian activity. In Bavaria, the two divisions of the Church on the eastern side of the Rhine, by the free choice of the congrega- tions at a provisional election, united under one General Synod at Anspach (1849), and obtained from the government (1850-53) an electoral law, ac- cording to which those who possessed the confidence of the congregations m) Fond. Law of Dec. 21, 1848. ArtL 5 and 6. CHAP. V. EVANG. CHUECH TILL 1853. 455. GEEM. CHAETEE. OLDENB. 575 could be appointed to manage their ecclesiastical affairs, and a double number of clergymen could be elected to the general synod, (ri) The General Synod of the Rhenish Electorate assembled in October, 1848, and received from the government a release from the control of the superior consistory, and the grant of an electoral law. (0) A committee appointed by this synod, in a ra- tionalistic spirit and without much consideration, changed the original record of the Union of 1818, which, after the overthrow of the revolution, called forth the opposition of the minority, and received the censure of the Pro- testant faculties of Germany when their opinions were asked respecting it. (p) The General Synod of 1858, in terror of the sword of dissolution, in face of many dishonorable elections of elders, and in consequence of the appointment of a number of clergymen from the division on the other side of the Rhine, returned to the patriarchal electoral laws of 1818, went, in fact, beyond them, and decided with respect to the creed, that the consensus which exists in the principal confessions of the evangelical German Church, of which the Church of the Palatinate is a part, is best to be found in the Augsburg Con- fession of 1540. A reservation, however, was distinctly put forth, that no compulsory obligation of an ecclesiastical or political nature was thus asserted in behalf of the symbolic books. ($-) In Oldenburg alone the favorable mo- ment was improved, and an ecclesiastical government was actually set up (1849) by a synod chosen by the congregations. Here the ecclesiastical au- thority of the sovereign was set aside, and the affairs of each congregation were committed to an assembly of its adult men, and a council chosen by them ; the common business of the congregations was intrusted to an annual general synod, chosen directly by the people, and one half composed of cler- gymen ; and the administration was placed in the hands of an ecclesiastical council chosen by and responsible to the synod. Though this constitution had no connection with the civil power, it was proclaimed by the Grand Duke ; and as men of an ecclesiastical spirit were diosen, it was not unwor- thily carried into execution, and was capable of throwing off any defects which might be found in it. (?') But by its separation from the state, the se- curity of ecclesiastical property was gone, it was soon left without support in consequence of the hostility of the civil officers, the suspicions of the orthodox party for the indefiniteness of its creed, (s) and the dislike of the clergy on account of their dependence upon the congregations, and in a time of general political reaction, few would defend it against the reproach of its revolution- ary origin. A change in accordance with the terms of the fundamental law of 1852 was effected (April, 1853) by the Grand Duke, after an audience with the general synod and the supreme ecclesiastical council, on the ground that the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Oldenburg should independently admin- ) Erl. KZ. 1S49. N. 16. 30. 34. 39. 43. 1850. N. 84. A. K. Z. 1S53. N. 149. o) BrL KZ. 1848. N. 66. 91. 104. 1849. N. 6. 27. 43. p) Gutachten deutscher ev. th. Facultaten u. den der K. d. bay. Pfalz zugedachteu Verfassungs entTV. Frkf. 1851. q) A. KZ. 1853. N. 173. r) Verhnndll. d. Syn. u. d. Yerf. d. Oldenb. cv. K. Oldenb. 1849. 4. Verhandll. d. 1. Lande*syn .850. 4. d. 2. Landessyn. 1851. 4. Gesetz- u. Yerordnungsbl. d. ev. Kirche. vol. I. St. 1. s) Der Nothstand d. ev. K. Oldenb. 1S52. Ev. KZ. 1851. N. 90s. 576 MODERN CHURCH HISTORY. PER. VI. A. D. 1G4S-1S58. ister its affairs in scriptural correspondence -with the confessions of the Re- formation, that it ought not to infringe upon the laws of the state, and that the Grand Duke, who adhered to the evangelical confession, should have the same control of ecclesiastical affairs which was usually conceded to the evan- gelical princes of Germany. This control was, however, to bo limited by the constitution, which, in addition to a supreme ecclesiastical council appointed by the Grand Duke, establishes a triple synodal system regularly ascending from the congregations. No ecclesiastical law can be enacted without the consent of the national synod, which is to be composed of twelve clergymen, seventeen laymen chosen by the district synods, and five persons nomina- ted by the Grand Duke, but elected by the supreme ecclesiastical council. (f) 45C. The Prussian National Church and its Branches since 1840. "When Frederic William IV. ascended the throne which a century before had been occupied by Frederic the Great, the pietistic orthodox party ex- pected to have complete control. Although he had been educated in a school too intellectual and modern to sympathize with every kind of literal orthodoxy, he found spiritual benefit at the baptismal font of the Prince of Wales, and at the laying of the foundation-stone of the portal of the cathedral of Cologne. But the zeal of that party for orthodoxy ho regarded as only an excess of commend- able fidelity, while he looked upon their opponents as perjurers. lie fully understood the* feelings of St. Louis when he co-operated with the Arch- bishop of Canterbury in the establishment of the bishopric of St. James in Jerusalem (1841), but so unanimously was public opinion against what was supposed to be a new attempt to transfer the English ecclesiastical system to Prussia ( 414), that this pious foundation was obliged to bo brought back to its essential object, which was, to be a spiritual union in spite of ecclesiasti- cal differences, and to be a mustard-seed of Protestantism on Mount Zion, which has since sent forth its first shoots under Bishop Gobat (since 184G), though not without some danger of Anglicising and languishing, (a) When the king bestowed his special favors upon the priests of a mediaeval Church, men began to think there was some truth in a prophecy invented near the close of the seventeenth century, but ascribed to an aged monk of Lehnin (about 1300), that after the many wrongs inflicted upon the old Church by the rulers of the house of Hohenzollern, the last should be the king of all Germany, and should then re-establish the convents and restore tho Churcli to its former unity. (&) Indeed, the royal assurance was not needed to con- t) Verhandll. d. a Landessyn. Oldenb. 1853. 4. Gesetz- u. Verordnnngsbl. d. ev. luth. K. voL II. St l.TA. v. Wedderkop, die Vcrf. d. ev. luth. K. Oldenb. 1858. a) (Schneckenburger and Ilitndeshagen) Das anglo-preuss. Bisth. zu 8. Jacob u. was daran liiingt Freib. 1842. (Schneckenb.) Die orient Frage d. deutschen ev. K. Berne, 1843. Hid. die ev. KZ. im. Kampfe f. d. Bisth. in Jerus. Berne, 1844 (Abeken) Das ev. Bistb. zu Jerus. geschichtl. Darst m. d. Urk. Brl. 1842. Briefwechsel (zw. Gladstone u. Bunsen) u. d. deutsche K., das Episco- pat u. Jerus. Hamb. 1844. F. C. Ewald, Journal of Miss. Labors in the City of Jerus. Lond. 1846. Brl. KZ. 1843. N. 6. 1846. N. 52. 63ss. 1847. N. 7. 1852. N. 4 1853. N. 3. IS. b) L. de Eouverot, Extrait d'un manuscrit relatif a la prophetic du frre Hermann de Lebnin. Brux. 1846. Meinhold, in d. N. Preuss. Ztg. 1849. Append, to N. 54. Gieeeler, d. Lehniasche Weiss. Erf. 1S49. Comp. M. W. Ileffter, Gesch. d. Kl. Lehnin. Brandenb. 1851. CHAP. V. EVANG. CHUKCH TILL 1853. 456. PEUSS. NAT. CHUECH. 577 vince the people that he was firmly established in the faith of his fathers, (c) From his regard not only to justice, but to what was ancient and peculiar, he had the last of the old Lutheran imprisoned clergymen set at liberty, (d) At a general synod held at Breslau (1841), these Separatists formed a Lutheran Church of Prussia, under a well-constructed constitution, but rigidly exclu- sive with respect to the established Church and the civil government, (e) and they were recognized by the state as congregations of Lutherans separated from the national Church. (/) Since the cesation of persecution they have increased with less rapidity. They now consist of about thirty ministerial charges, and we hear not only of appeals for aid for the " Lutheran Church involved in debt," but confessions that the love of many has waxed cold, and that the word of God is no longer heard with zeal. () Richter, p. 558ss. p) Review In Bruns. Eep. 1840. voL VI. p. 27288. Comp. Ev. KZ. 1845. N. & q) Comp. BrL KZ, 1846. N. 65. 66. 1847. N. 1. 8. 1846. N. 81. 36. 1847. N. 80. 44. 4G. r) Richter, p. 8S2&S. #) Kruger, p. 12888. 185s. VerhandlL p. 134&S. 36Sss. 527. Richter, p. 359ss. t) Ev. KZ. 1846. N. 77. 78. 81s. 83s. 85. 86s. 95. 96s. 100. 103s. 1847. N. 8ss. 14s. 26s. 29. 80s. Su- delbach, in d. Zeitsch. t luth. Theol. 1847. H. 3. C. Haver, Belencht d. Ord. Form. Barmen, 1S46. Comp. BrL KZ. 1847. N. 47. Apologetical : Dorner, in the Liter. Z. 1847. N. 89ss. Jul. Midler, u. d. erste Preuss. Qen. Syn. BrsL 1847. On the other side: Sander, die modernc TheoL u. d, uralte WbL GL Elbcrt 1847. ) A. KZ. 1841. N. 1S7. Brl. KZ. 1842. N. 44. 103. 1843. N. 47. 82. 1845. N. 40s. 45. 51. 1846. N. CHAP. V. EVANG. CHUECH TILL 1S53. 456. FRIENDS OF LIGHT. 579 to a sound common sense, hard pressed as it was in the domain of science, found its natural theatre for action among the middle classes, and in these assemblies exhibited itself as a popular power, on which even the friends of the Hegelian philosophy, now almost discarded in Prussia, leaned for support. At an assembly held at Co then in the spring of 1844, Wislicenus started the question whether the Scriptures or the Spirit was the rule of our faith, and then, in opposition to the common self-delusion of the rationalists, came to a decision exclusively in favor of the Spirit. But by the Spirit, he meant the spirit of truth and love which always animates every man, and especially every Christian, and by which the Scriptures were themselves essentially pro- duced. Guericke therefore accused him and the Friends of Light generally of having renounced Christianity, and in order to uphold the absolute author- ity of the Scriptures, he did not hesitate, when pressed with the inquiry whether he believed in the story of Balaam's speaking ass, to answer promptly in the affirmative. (v~) Although a general Protestant feeling even among the Protestant Friends was averse to an abandonment of the Scrip- tures, this establishment of a large party, and this discussion of abstract doc- trines before a multitude entirely incompetent to sit in judgment upon them, appeared to most persons of doubtful expediency, (w) "When the ministry of state in Saxony had, in accordance with their oath, prohibited (July 17th, 1845) all efforts and public meetings to call in question the doctrines of the Augsburg Confession, and other creeds of the same general character, (x) a royal interpretation of the law against popular assemblies in Prussia, applied it to the promiscuous meetings of the Friends of Light The consequence was, that they soon lost their importance, and became once more nothing but pastoral conferences, (y} The Evangelical Church Journal in public adver- tisements announced that "Wislicenus and his associates had been virtually excommunicated, by the declarations of ministers, who in some instances had made public confession, and in others had openly renounced the communion of the Church. (2) Hundreds of these were opposed by thousands of pro- tests from persons of all classes, against the spirit of the Evangelical Church Journal, (a) The school of Schleiermacher, and some other friends of the Church, though not belonging to the orthodox party, threw themselves be- tween the combatants (Aug. 15), with the assertion that the doctrinal formula of the free development from Christ to Christ belonged to the same basis with 78. Their Organs : Blatter f. christL Erbauung, by R. Fisctier, Zeitsch. f. prot Geistl. by IT. 2?ie- meyer and Franke. v) Guericlce in d. Ev. KZ. 1844. N. 4(5. 55. 57. 63. 67. 70. 71s. 102. G. A. Wislicenus, ob Schrift, ob Geist, Yerantw. gegen Ankliiger. Lps. 1S45. C. R IConiff, d. rechte Standp. Magdeb. 1844. On the other side: F. Sahettler^ Konigs imruhiges Wort u. unrechter Standp. Lps. 1844. Guericke, ob Schr., ob Geist ? Eia Comitat f. d. Dachpredigt d. WisL Hal. 1845. Comp. E. Schwarz, in d. Jen. A. L. Z. 1844 N. 131ss. 1845. N. 7ss. w) Ue, d. Vereini) The king made known to the Lu- theran association (1850) his desire to establish consistories and superior authorities in the Church, which in the eastern provinces should be Lutheran, with Reformed assessors ; (?) and ho gave orders that, in order to preserve the independence of the two confessions in the Union, the supreme ecclesias- tical council should consist of members from both confessions, and that all business which could properly bo decided by but one of the confessions, should be left to the votes of those who belonged to that confession. The same division was also to bo made in the consistories, (r) The supreme coun- cil separated into two divisions, according as they were members of the Lutheran or the Reformed confessions. Dr. NitzscJi a)one preferred to adhere to the consensus of the two confessions, and was therefore released from all participation in the decision of confessional questions, but he was held up as the patron of the congregations united in the confession by the original docu- ment, (s) These proceedings were regarded by the Lutherans as a legal dis- solution of the Union, and they now therefore demanded in Luther's name, that the monster of the authorities of the united Church which still existed should be completely abolished ; that purely Lutheran faculties, or at least professors, should be appointed ; and that the patrimony of the Lutheran Church should be restored, (t) Even those advocates of orthodoxy who had formerly been moderate in their demands, now raised the watchword that those who governed the Church appeared to give their countenance not to the Union, but to its opponents, and that the natural result of this should be the separation of clergymen and congregations, until finally the royal regent of the Church would be the only individual belonging to the united body, (u) Indeed, the old traditions and necessary policy peculiar to the Hohenzollern family seemed entirely forgotten in the pleasure which all seemed to feel in the separation of the confessions. The king then avowed his just displeasure at the unfair interpretation given to his orders of the previous year. He de- clared that he had never intended to disturb the Union, and thus produce a o) Aktenst H. 1. p. 40ss. H. 2. p. 14ss. BrL KZ. 1853. H. 80. Aktenst d. Abth. d. Minist. p. TOss. p) First in 1844. N. 2s. 1847. N. 1.1849. N. 5ss. 1851. N. 4. q) Printed by Hose, K. d. dt Eeichs. p. 277. r) Order of the Cabinet, March 6, 1852 : BrL KZ. 1852. N. 38. Instructions for the consistories' Hid. N. 41. 6) Ibid. N. 63. Open Declar. in the Monatsschr. Jane, 1852. Luth. Gen. Conf. at Witt Sept 1S52. : BrL KZ. 1852. N. 82. A. KZ. 1S52. N. 105. ) BrL KZ. 1852. N. 61. 90. Deutsche Zeitsch. f. chr. Wiss. 1853. N. Iss. lOss. CHAP. V. EVANG. CHURCH TILL 1S53. 457. BEELIN EVANG. CONFEE. 587 division of the national Church, nor to renew the old controversy about the confessions. The ecclesiastical authorities were therefore directed to oppose all attempts to separate the two confessions, to allow no synods, or even indi- vidual clergymen or congregations, to lay aside the name of Evangelical Con- gregations, or the ritual prescribed for the Union ; and only on the united request of a clergyman and his congregation, after all proper means and per- suasions had been tried, to permit particular congregations to deviate from the regulations prescribed for the Evangelical National Church. () Two views of this proceeding were expressed among the Lutherans : one was that of painful disappointment from a conviction that this order of the cabinet was a complete renunciation of the previous legislation ; and the other looked upon it as a mere check to the wavering course of the whole policy for the Union, (w) 457. Combinations. The Evangelical Conference assembled at Berlin in consequence of a wish expressed by the Kings of TVurtemberg and Prussia, that the Evangelical Church of Germany might be more perfectly united, and continued in ses- sion from January 6th to February 14th, 1846. Some hopes were enter- tained in it of forming a union by a stricter construction of doctrines, and some violent measures were proposed for the accomplishment of such an ob- ject. But as the great majority were only in favor of securing, on the basis of the confessions,- the two fundamental doctrines which asserted that the Scriptures were the only source of the knowledge of saving truth, and that justification was by faith, this diplomatic assembly from its nature could only exchange views and make arrangements for an intercourse between the different parts of the common church by annual assemblies, (a). The Church Conference, which had been for a while suspended, was resumed at the sug- gestion of a private company of persons, and of a journal used as an officia organ by the ecclesiastical authorities of all Germany. (5) It was held after Pentecost 1852 and 1853 at the foot of the Wartburg, and was intended to be a meeting of deputies from the supreme authorities of most of the national German churches for confidential conference, but with no legislative powers, (c) But although these spiritual and secular authorities of the Church stood in this independent position with respect to each other, some of them believed in the development of Protestantism and in the Union, while others saw no reality in either. But as all were anxious to preserve the blessing of some visible form of unity for the whole Protestant Church of Germany, questions ; of a deeper and more dreaded nature were held at a distance. The expe- rience and the wishes of diiferent individuals were here compared, and a *>) Cabinet Order of July 12, 1853: Zeitsch. f. unirte ev. K. 1853. N. 85. w) Luth. Gen. Conf. at Witt. Sept 1853 : Ev. KZ. 1853. N. 83. Comp. 73. 79s. Counter assertion of the king to the Witt. Conf. of Oct. 11 : D. A. Z. 1853. N. 273. a) Literar. Programme : C. Tfllmann (p. 572. nt. &) Official action : Loccumer Artikel. (Die Vor- schliige d. Dr. Snethlage & Euppstein z. Verein d. ev. K. Deutschl. mitgetheilt v. Perez, Grim. 1846. Brl. KZ. 1846. N. 7. 11. 28. 83.) Account in Biedermann, unsre Gegemv. u. Zuk. 1846. H. 2. Die Be- sultate d. Berl. Konf. Lps. 1846. Comp. Bruns, Eep. 1S46. vol. VI. p. 22Sss. I) Allg. Kirchenblatt fur d. ev. Deutschland, ed. by C. G. Moser. Stuttg. 1. 1852. II.- 1858. c) Protocols: KBlatt. 1852. N. 13. 1853. N. 29ss. Brl. KZ. 1852. N. 17. 36. 89. 45s. 1S53. N. 44. 47. 588 MODEBN CHUECH DISTOEY. PEE. VL A. D>164S-1S53. choice collection of hymns for a general hymn-book was adopted, (cC) though not till, in the committee of invited persons conversant with such matters, one party contending for the adoption, at every hazard, of the old text, had been excluded, and another, wishing to preserve the ecclesiastical poetry of the eighteenth century, had been set aside without a hearing of its peculiar views, (e) A desire which had been expressed at a secular festival on the field of Lutzen, to erect a monument to the heroic death of Gustavus Adol- phus, by obtaining minute contributions from the people, was so modified, when the sovereign himself erected a monument over the Swedish stone, as to lead to the idea of a charitable institution bearing his name, to sustain those evangelical congregations which, in the neighboring Catholic countries, were nnable to endure the expense needful for their ecclesiastical support. The Qustavut Adolphvs Institution in Saxony, with some assistance from Sweden, collected (after 1834) a small capital, the interest of which was barely suffi- cient to render the necessity of snch aid more apparent. Finally an appeal from Darmstadt (Oct. 81, 1841) produced another effort in connection with the Saxon institution, though in a superior style (1842). An assembly was then held at Frankfort (1848), at which a wise division of labor was made among various auxiliary associations, with a central committee at Leipsic, and a superior movable assembly of deputies returning at fixed intervals. Tho result of all these proceedings was the establishment of an Evangelical Society of the Gnstavus Adolphus Institution, which, as a Protestant German popular cause, collects the means for sustaining and building churches for many poor and almost extinct congregations. (/) The German governments, though in some cases with reluctance, yielded to the popular influence of this associa- tion, though in Bavaria it was proscribed until 1848, on the ground that it was hostile to the Catholic Church, and inconsistent with the German char- acter, (g) As it was founded principally by the liberal party, Hengstenberg pronounced the association a great lie, (K) and the Prussian crown was unwil- ling to sustain any but an independent Prussian society under the patronage, of the king, (i) But as every effort was likely to be paralyzed by this sepa- ration, the government finally yielded to the popular will, and at the assem- bly at Gottingen (1844) the Prussian deputies extended to it the hand of brotherhood. () The internal importance of the society, in spite of the lim- ited nature of its external object, resulted from the fact that it was a neutral holy ground on which all parties in the Evangelical Church could meet, and on which that Church could once more be seen as an undivided power. When therefore, at the assembly at Gottingen, it was asked that more definite quali- fications should be named for admission to the association than a mere agree- d) Deutsches cv. Kirchengesangbuch in 150 Kernliedern. e) J, Gqfcken, d. allg. ev. Gesangb. u. d. dariiber gefuhrten YerbandlL Ilamb. 1853. /) Leipz. Z. 1832. N. 164 1833. N. 11. A. K. Z. 1835. N. 9. 66. 1841. N. 19. 80. 172. 189. 203. 1342. N. 107. 133. 139. 174. Organ, since the Asserab. at Frankfort : Per Bote des ev. Vereins d. G. A. Stif- tung, issued by K. Zimmermann, 0) A. K Z. 1S44 N. 84 45. Brl. K. Z. 1S49. N. 76. K) Ev. K. Z. 1S44. N. 6. yet comp. 7ss. A. K. Z. 1844 N. 41. Cabinet order of Fob. 14, 1844 : Report of the G. A. St. I. p. 83s. fc) Ibid, p. 2S9*s. IMT!. K. Z. 1S44. N. 15. 17. 73. CHAP. V. EVANG. CHURCH TILL 1853. 457. GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS SOCC. 58S ment with the principles of the Evangelical Church, the request was at once rejected. (I) Dr. Eupp was sent by the superior association of Konigsberg as its deputy to the assembly at Berlin in 1846. A vote being taken on the va- lidity of his credentials on the night of September 7th, a small majority ap- peared against recognizing him as a member of the assembly, (m) Although the general sentiment was averse to a perversion of the society to objects foreign to its nature, yet the orthodox party demanded his exclusion as an apostate, and they were joined by some of the liberal deputies. This was done by the latter either because they wished to prevent the society being made an authority in matters of faith, and therefore allowed the Evangelical Church to be postponed for the Established Church, or they had a superior regard for the success of the society which seemed of special importance in that particular locality. Immediately was heard in every part of Protestant Germany a cry of extreme displeasure at this action, and an immense ma- jority appeared in the local societies in various ways, oifering protests and asserting that the decision at Berlin was based upon a false idea of the Evan- gelical Church, and that the free alliance of love had degenerated into an inquisitorial tribunal, (n) On the other hand, the other party threatened to withdraw, and eve-n then Gustavus Adolphus Societies with separate ecclesi- astical connections had been formed at Koenigsburg and Berlin, and were readily licensed by the government, but never exhibited much life. ( Essal sur la manifestation dos convictions relig. et snr la separation de 1'cgl. et de 1'etat Pa i*42. Kdlb. 1845. Considerations d6di6es a Mss. les ministres demissionairos. Laus. 1845. CHAP. V. EVANG, CHURCH TILL 1.853. 461. ENGLAND. 599 extreme forms, every grade of religious life, from the most enthusiastic exal- tation down to the most sceptical rationalism. Some of the principal sect? among them, however, have recently attempted to unite together in more intimate fellowship. They were protected and made subservient to various party purposes by the opposition in Parliament, but with all his eloquence, Fox was unsuccessful when he pleaded (1790) for their civil rights, (a) But with the increasing spirit of general freedom, public sentiment became changed, and after many attempts at partial relief the test act was finally abolished in 1828, and the exclusive right of the Episcopal clergy to solem- nize marriage and baptism for dissenters was taken away in 1836. They were, however, still compelled to pay taxes to the Established Church, and the House of Lords thought it necessary, by lifeless orthodox forms, to protect the Universities under the patronage of the State against the intrusion of dis- senters. (5) But many powerful associations avowed their determination to promote the principle of religious freedom, not only in England but in every quarter of the world, (c) A charter was obtained for the University of Lon- don (1836), the object of which was principally the education of dissenters. The Established Church became almost a sinecure, while the actual duties of the pastoral office were either evaded, or performed by poorly paid pastors and hired vicars. ($) For a long time the bishops in the House of Lords, with the aristocracy, set themselves in direct opposition to the wishes of the people, and persons of worldly sagacity lost confidence in the spiritual privi- leges of the bishops, as well as in the divine right of tithes. The injurious influence of an Established Church was demonstrated by the dissenters, and the bishops were warned by the government to set their house in order. They appealed to the oath taken by the king at his coronation, that he would maintain the inviolability of the Church, and by virtue of which he held his crown. But an evangelical party had now been developed which especially represented the Protestant, as the High Church party did the Catholic ele- ment in the Episcopal Church. This evangelical party expected deliver- ance only in such a reformation as was demanded by the times, (e) Certain literary men at Oxford, of whom the principal were Newman and Pusey (after 1833), raised the Catholic element to a still higher position. The ob- ject of these persons was avowed to be the revival of genuine Catholicity. Protestantism was disavowed, and many Catholic but old ecclesiastical usages and statutes, so far as they were consistent with the thirty-nine articles, were brought once more into practice. These efforts were favored by the High Church party, until their gradually developed tendencies to Roman Catholi- cism aroused the Protestant spirit of the nation, and Puseyism was rejected, even by the bishops. Since that time many persons have passed over from a) Staudlin, Geogr. u. Stat. vol. I. p. lG2ss. 1) After Beverley : A. Z. 1834. N. 222. 229. Eheinwahl, Eep. vol. XXIX. p. 92ss. C) A. Z. 1834. N. 150. d) A. K. Z. iSSl. p. 312. e) Lord Henley, A Plan of Church Keform. Lond. eel. 4. 1832. [Edinb. Eeview, vol. XXXVIII. p. 14.5. Feb. 1823. XLIV. p. 490. Sept 1826. (Sel. from Ed. Kev. Par. 1835. voL V. p. B01-324.) B. W. Noel, Union of Chh. & State. Lond. & New York. 1849. 12.] Further Eeform Literature : A. K. Z. 1833. Lit Bl. N. 49. Stud. u. Krit 1833. P. Is. 600 MODERN CHURCH HISTORY. PER. VI. A. D. 1648-1858. the Established to the Catholic Church. (/) During this collision of parties., and in consequence of the serious spirit of practical piety excited among tho people (after 1820), a new and fresh life was awakened in the bosom of tho Church itself. The hierarchy gave up a portion of its tithes that thoy mi^ht not have the whole wrested from them. In 1836 a bill for the reform of tho Church was introduced into Parliament by Lord Russell. It diminished tho prodigious inequalities which had existed in the revenues of the bishops, im- proved and increased the parishes by means of a portion of the sinecures, ami placed restraints upon pluralities and the performance of pastoral duties by hired proxies. Some further concessions were made even by the aristocracy, when a Commission for Inquiry was appointed by Sir Robert Peel. Tho ministry, however, admonished tho reformers that they should bo satisfied with what they could get, rather than attempt radical changes. Tho conces- sions were accepted with much reluctance by tho majority in the Lower House, and constituted the commencement of a reform, which was subse- quently carried out in the same spirit in the Ecclesiastical Revenue Bill (1840). (g) When a number of bishops had been consecrated for foreign countries the ministry began also to endow dioceses in England with the sav- ings of tho hierarchy (1847), without connecting with them seats in tho House of Lords, (h) The Church Pastoral Aid Society, with the assistance of Parliament and munificent voluntary contributions from the people, erected numerous churches in the commercial towns, and sent forth assistant preach- ers to supply the spiritual wants of an increasing population. "When Gorham, a vicar, was accused of teaching that the grace of regeneration does not ne- cessarily accompany tho act of baptism, and when the Bishop of Exeter, who was favorable to Puseyism, refused to admit him to the benefico to which he had been presented by the crown, he was instituted (1847-50), in accordance with the verdict of the privy council, the highest ecclesiastical court (after 1833), in spite of the protest of his bishop, on the ground that his views were not inconsistent with the articles of tho English Church. In this affair was exhibited on the one hand, the stubbornness of episcopal orthodoxy even when not much sustained by public opinion, and on the other, the impropriety of submitting theological controversies for decision to the civil courts. But all attempts springing out of it to raise the assemblies of the clergy from their nominal existence to tho real spiritual powers which they formerly possessed (p. 442), or at least to transfer the decision of controversies on ecclesiastical doctrines to the episcopal courts, were frustrated either in Parliament or by the ministry, (i) /) Newman) Tracts for the times, espec. No. 90 ; Remarks on certain passages Jn the 89 Artt 1S41. (Brl. K. Z, 1841. N. 81. 86. 42.) E. R Fiuey* The Articles treated on in Tract 90 reconsidered OxC 1841. H. Abeken, Letter to E. B. Posey, in reference to certain charges against the Germ. Church. Lond. 1842. M. Petri, Beitrr. z. Wurdig. d. Pas. Gott 1843. 2 H. C. Fock, d. Pas. (Schwegler, Jahrbb. 1844. p. T42sa) R. Weaver, d. Pas. A. d. Engl. v. Amtnor, Lps. 1844. Brans, Rep. 1846. vol. VI. p. 18188. vol. VII. p. 89ss. fir) A. Z. 1836, N. 198. Sapplem. N. 211. 216. 233. Brl. K. Z. 1840. N. 73. h) Brl. K. Z. 1847. N. 85. Zeitsch. f. hist Th. 1853. H. 1. [Judgment of tho Dean of the Arches' Court in tho case of Sorhara T. the Bishop of Exeter. Lond. 1849.] CHAP. V. EVANG. CHURCH TILL 1853. 462. NORTH AMERICA. 601 462. Ecclesiastical Affairs in the North American Republic. A. Reed and J. Matheson, Visit to the American Churches. New York. 1835. 2 vols. (Ev. KZ 1837. N. Sss.) H. Caswell, America and the Amer. Church. 2 ed. Lond. 1853. (Ev. KZ. 1839. N. 66ss.) J. D. Hupp, He pasa Ekklesia, or Hist of the Eel. Denominations in the U. S. Phil. 1844. If. Baird, Religion in the U. S. Edinb. 1844. Revised as KGesch. u. kirchl. Statist by a Brandes, Brl. 1844. [Ibid. Chr. Retrospect and Register. N. York. 1850. 12. Ibid. Rel. Denoinm. in the U. S. (in Amer. and For. Chr. Union, vol. I. N. 2. vol. III. N. 4.) Rel. Denomm. in the U. 8. by vari- ous authors. Harrisburg. 2 ed. 1849. P. D. Gorrie, Churches and Sects in the U. S. N. York. 1850.] J. G. Buttner, Briefe aus u. u. N. A. Dresd. 1845. 2 vols. F. v. Jiaumer, [America and the Amer People, from the Germ. N. York. 1846. 8.] Lps. 1845. 2 vols. W. Klose, d. chr. K. in d. Verein. St N. A. (Zeitsch. f. hist. Th. 1848. H. 1.) \J. Dixon, Tour through the U. S. N. York. 1848. 12.] [A peculiar form of ecclesiastical life has been developed in the United States of America. The religious spirit has there been allowed unlimited freedom to assume every variety of external organization, and has found full scope for its utmost zeal. The national and State governments are prohibited by their constitutions from all interference with religion, but Christianity is generally recognized as a part of the common law, stringent regulations are in force against blasphemy and the profanation of the Sabbath, and public prayers are daily offered in connection with all legislative proceedings, (a) Error is permitted to contend on equal terms with truth, no civil disability is imposed for opinion's sake, and all may propagate their views in public and in private as long as the rights' of others are not invaded. As yet, there is no evidence that in such circumstances Christianity will not triumph. In the exercise of its free energies, it has contended with a highly stimulated worldly spirit and a multitude of errors, which have here found their best and often only asylum ; and not only is it almost universally received, but its most prevalent forms are those of the strictest evangelical piety. From the peculiar origin and history of the nation, we should of course expect to find that its ecclesiastical organizations and usages resemble those of the Old World. But the Puritan and Methodistic elements have been especially attracted there, and have become prominent in the national character. The zeal engendered by an earnest Christianity thrown into such powerful conflict with the world, has led its friends to an intense use of ordinary and extra- ordinary means for the conversion of men, and the religious revivals which have sometimes been witnessed in other lands, have here become frequent. (5) Accustomed also to rely much upon the power of numbers, great societies have been formed for the removal of social evils, and for combined effort to plant the institutions of the gospel among the destitute at home and abroad. A majority of the whole population have abandoned the habitual use of intoxicating drinks, and seven States of the Union have already prohibited the sale of them as an ordinary beverage. More than 3,000 ministers of the gospel are sustained principally in the older States, to labor among the newer o) Constitutions of the several States, and of the U. S. &c. N. York. 8. J. Story, Exposition of the Const of the U. S. N. York. 184T. M. McKinney, Amer. Magistrate. (Philad. 1S50.) p. 689. 193. 203. G. T. Curtis, Hist of the Const, of the U. S. N. York. 1854. 2 vols. &) W. B. Sprague, Lectt on Revivals, Albany. 1832. 8. A. Barnes, On Revivals. N. York. 1S41. C. Finney, Lectt. on Revivals. N. York. 1S35. Colton, Hist and Char, of Amer. Revivals, Lond. 1832. 602 MODEEN CHUECn HISTOEY. PEE. YL A. D. !G4S-lS5a settlements of the "West and South, (c) There is one house of worship fo every 646, and one minister for every 600 of the entire population, (it) As each denomination of Christians, in case of general disagreement or griev- ance, finds its ultimate remedy in separation, numerous sects have sprung up, without important distinctions in doctrine or organization ; but the evils of disunion are in many instances much mitigated by an interchange of corre- sponding delegates through their superior assemblies, by the free reception of each other's ministers and members on prescribed terms, and by co-opera- tion in many of the national charitable associations. The Roman Catholic Church has in some instances attempted to ingraft upon itself popular traits and usages, but its general spirit of uniformity has resisted them, and its pre vailing character here is the same as in the Old World. Its growth in this country has been for a few late years remarkably raj. id, almost exclusively by Catholic emigrants from Europe, multitudes of whom, however, ore for ever lost to the general Roman fold, (e) The vast funds, numerous clergy, and other laborers, with which foreign societies have supplied it, have ena- bled it to establish many institutions for education and charity, and erect a splendid hierarchy, which givo it great power for proselytism, and have raised the hope that Rome might recover its life by appropriating to itself the youthful energies of this growing nation. (/) But by its conflicts with educational establishments, by its unity of action in behalf of political inter- ests, and by its sympathies and connections with foreign and anti-republicau influences, it has awakened against itself a powerful political and religious feeling which has sometimes broken forth into unlawful violence, (g) It probably has under its control, principally in the largo cities, in Maryland and in Louisiana, about one in twelve of the whole population. The Episcopal Church, though the oldest (1607), is still among the smallest of the Protes- tant sects, but its progress has recently become accelerated especially among the wealthy and conservative classes. It differs from its parent English Church by its want of a connection with a civil establishment, by an exten- sive participation of the laity in the legislative and administrative power of the Church, and by its synodal constitution under annual diocesan and tri- ennial national conventions, (h) The Congregationalists^ whose first church was formed in the ship which conveyed the pilgrims to America (1619), and who are principally descendants of the English Puritans, believe that each congregation possesses all ecclesiastical power in itself; but in the exercise of this, they form occasional Councils, composed of neighboring ministers and the delegates of contiguous churches, for the ordination, the settlement, and the dismission of ministers ; District Associations, composed of a few minis- ters and churches who may permanently associate for mutual counsel and c) R. Baird, EetrospecL p. 218ss. 259ss. d) Abstract of Census, p. 29. e) Amcr. and For. Chr. Union. Aug. 1852. p. 251. N. York Observer, June 10, 1852. /) Catholic Almanac for 1854. Bait. 1854. Foreign Conspiracy. New York. 1S85. 2T. L. Rice, Romanism, the Enemy of Education, Free Institutions, &c. Cincin. 1S52. 12. (7) Eomanisin incompatible with Eepablican Principles. N. York. 1834 IS. Our Country, its Danger, &c. N. York. 1840. 18. G. B. Cheever, EigUt of the Bible in Schools. N. York. 1S50. 1C. h) S. Wilberforce, Hist of the Prot Episc. Church in Am. Lond. and N. Y. (1844.) 1346. 12 W. White, II. of the Church. N. York. 1S54. 8. A. B. Cluipin, in Hist of Eel. Denom. p. 601ss. CHAP. V. EVANG. CHUECH TILL 1S53. 462. NOETH AMERICA. 603 fellowship; and General Associations or Consociations, comprising all the ministers and churches of a State. Such bodies, however, have only advi sory power, and their decisions have the force of discipline only by their moral influence. The intelligence, the systematic benevolence, and the sober piety of this people, have rendered them especially influential. They prevail principally in the six Eastern States, in New York, and north of the Ohio. They acknowledge the absolute authority of no uninspired creed, but great respect is paid to certain Calvinistic Confessions of Faith and Catechisms which are used among them, and some of their divines have exerted a deci- sive influence upon the theology of the age. (i) Near the close of the last and the commencement of the present century, a number of the Congrega- tional ministers and churches of Massachusetts were known to believe Uni- tarian doctrines ; but a general separation was not effected until (1815) the orthodox party were startled by some announcements respecting the progress of Unitarianism in America in an English publication, and immediately with- drew their fellowship from all who were suspected. (7^) After an excited controversy, the Unitarian Congregationalists were left in a distinct body, which has since extensively prevailed in the vicinity of Boston, with an ele- gant literature, a high standard of morality, and a liberal philanthropy. There are said to be in the United States not less than 250 congregations especially connected together as Unitarians ; but a still larger body who call themselves by the simple name of Christians, the Universalists, and a seced- ing portion of the Society of Friends, agree with them in the distinctive article of their faith. The Baptists follow next in the order of time (1639) ; and if we include under the appellation all who deny the validity of baptism except by immersion, and on the professed faith of the subject, they must be regarded as the most numerous denomination but one in the United States. "With but few exceptions, they are rigidly Calvinistic in doctrine, but they agree with, and even exceed the Congregationalists in their rejection of all human authority in matters of faith, and in their practical maintenance of the independence of the congregations. They, however, have their occa- sional Councils, their Associations for small districts, their Conventions for States, and until the recent separation of the Northern and Southern sections, a Triennial General Convention for the whole nation. A large number of Baptist churches are never represented beyond their district Associations, and differ from their brethren on many important articles of faith and prac- tice. (0 Many minor sects have seceded from the general fellowship, on the ground of questions connected with the Sabbath, missions to the heathen, the nature of the faith and obedience to be professed before baptism, and the i) G. Punchard, View of Congregationalism. Andover, 1883. Ibid. Hist, of Cong. And. 1S4S. Cambridge and Saybrook Platforms of Church Disc. Boston. 1829. 8. T. G. Up7tam t Eatio Dis- ci plinae. Portland. 1829. L. Bacon, Man. of Church Members. New Haven. 1833. It. Baird, Sketches of the Eel. Denom. in Am. and For. Chr. Union, vol. I. N. 3. p. 123. K) Belsham, Memoirs of Lindsey. Lond. 1812. Boston. 1815. A. Lamson, in Eel. Denom. p. 586, Letters on the Introd. and Prog, of Unitarianism in New Engl., in Spirit of the Pilgrims. voL II. and III. Boston. 1829-30. 1) D. Benedict, Hist, of the Baptists. N. York. 1824. W. Hague, Bap. Church Transplanted, &cx N. York. 1846. 12. F. A. Cox and J. Hoby, Baptists in America. Boston. 1839. 12. 504 MODEEN CHUECH HISTOEY. PEE. VL A. D. 164S-lS5a general doctrines of religion, (m) Of late years, some portions of this do nomination have done much to redeem their order from the reproach of in- difference to education, and they have now under their control fourteen colleges, and eight theological seminaries. The Presbyterians are also sepa- rated into many minor divisions, among which the Dutch Reformed (since 1619), the German Reformed (a. 1720), the Associate (s. 1750), and the Re- formed Presbyterian (s. 1762), have always maintained a distinct existence since their first settlement in this country ; and others, as the Cumberland (1810) and the Free Presbyterian (1846), were offshoots from the main body. In 1838 this main body was itself divided into two nearly equal portions, each claiming to be the true Presbyterian Church, but differing from each other in their construction of their articles of faith, and in their views of ecclesiastical policy, (n) With a slight exception with respect to the Cumber- land body, (0) all these members of the great Presbyterian family claim to be Calvinistio in doctrine, and most of them are in fraternal correspondence with each other through their highest judicatories. Their form of government is essentially the same with that of similar European bodies, and they are dis- tinguished for their intelligence, their stability, and their attachment to truth. The Lutherans have retained the faith even better than the language of their ancestors ; they are beginning zealously to cultivate the orthodox literature of their Fatherland, and are providing an ecclesiastical home for the multitudes of a kindred faith who are landing on their shores, (p) The Methodists have adopted the doctrines and discipline of the English TVesleyan connection, with no essential change. Their Episcopacy is not prelatic, but presbyterian, since its powers originate in, and are continued by the eldership, and its duties are simply to preside in the conferences, to station the elders and preachers, to ordain bishops and deacons, to travel through the connection, and to oversee the spiritual concerns of the Church. They have been especially successful in reaching and reclaiming the great masses of society, in carrying the truth in its living power to even the most retired districts ; and though they were the last to commence their labors, seventy years have been sufficient for them to become the most numerous class of Protestant Christians in the Uni- ted States. Their ardent zeal, their active energy, their numerous institu- tions of learning, their earnest literature, and their thorough system of polity, must exert a powerful influence upon the future character of the nation. A division nearly corresponding with the geographical boundary between tho Northern and Southern States, has taken place within their Church on ac- count of slavery, and a number of fragments have fallen away from it on account of its government and discipline, but its general usefulness and sta- bility have not been apparently impaired. (17) Among other minor bodies, m) History of the various Baptist sects in Eel. Denomm., by authors belonging to them. See also Gorric's Churches and Sects, p. 182ss. Baird, in Amer. and For. Chr. Union. voL I. p. 20Sss. 503ss. n) History of the Division of the Presb. Church, (by a Com. of the Syn. of N. York and N. Jer- sey.) N. York. 1852. J. Woods, Old and New Theoldgy. Philad. 1840. 12. N. L. Bice, Old and New Schools. Cincin. 1853. 12. 0) L. Jones, Plea for the Cumb. Presb. Church. Louisville. 1847. 12. p) Ev. KZ. 184T. N. 23ss. Comp. Brl. K Z. 1848. N. 45. Buttner, Briefe. Dresd. 1845. 2 vola. Conip. Eheinw. Eep. voL XLIV. p. 182ss. Q) A. Stevens, On Church Polity. N. York. 1850. 12. Memorial of Methodism. N. Y(rk. 1851. 11 N. Bangs, Hist, of the M. E. Church till 1840. N. York. 1S36. 4 vols. 12. CHAP. Y. EVANG. CHUECH TILL 1S5S. 462. NOETH AMERICA. 605 there are about 6,000 Moravians in twenty-two congregations, under as many ministers, and two bishops claiming apostolical succession ; (?) about 150,000 Friends, whose orthodoxy and efficiency have been increased by a recent secession, and who, in spite of some decline in their numbers, quietly main- tain their ancient doctrines and usages under a regular system of Preparative, Monthly, Quarterly, and ten independent Yearly meetings ; (s) about 6,000 Shakers, who, since the decease of the "Elect Lady" (p. 546), have formed sixteen communities in which all things are held in common, and endeavor to find the purity and bliss of Paradise in perpetual virginity, and a wild mode of worship ; (t) about 8,000 Swederiborgians, with an extensive litera- ture, and a number of highly learned and eminent advocates ; (u) and above 1,100 societies of Universalists, who have formed a regular organization under a regular ministry, and a General Convention, and have collected a respect- able literature. () A system of education, from which all sectarian pecu- liarities is excluded, except with the consent of the local inhabitants of a district, is provided for by law, in some States, with great liberality and intel- ligence, and in all with increasing emulation and zeal, so that already one in five of the whole free population are under its instruction. In many denomi- nations of Christians, candidates for the ministry are required by ecclesiastical rule to pass through what is equivalent to a complete course of collegiate and theological instruction, and in nearly all the usage is more and more in accordance with such a rule. In no part of the world are the clergy more respected and laborious ; and though in most instances sustained entirely by the voluntary contributions of their people, their position and comparatively small number render them independent of popular caprice. The piety of this people, being entirely spontaneous, is remarkably sincere and fervent, and many of its exhibitions, which seem peculiar and even grotesque, will be found not ill adapted to the wants of a peculiar population ; but we need not be surprised to find that an aristocracy of wealth, and a regard for numerical power, should sometimes divert attention from the refinements of a graceful humanity.] 463. Legal Conditions with respect to Catholic Governments. The Congress of Vienna could not agree with regard to the expressions by which the constitution of the Catholic and Protestant churches of Ger- many were to be placed under the protection of the Alliance. The sixteenth article of the Act of the Alliance was therefore merely so formed, that no differences between the parties professing the Christian religion were to create any inequalities in municipal or political rights. The perfect equality of both Churches, so far as relates to the law of the land, has accordingly been more or less expressly acknowledged by most of the states connected with the Alliance, (a) In Bavaria, however, in addition to other violations of Prot- r) L. D. von ScMoeinits, in the Hist of EeL Denomm. p. SSOas. 8) T. Evans and W. Gibbons, Histories in Ibid. p. 2T9ss. 290ss. f) C. Green and & T. Wells, A Summary View of the Millennial Church. N. York. 1323. 12. u) New Jerusalem Magazine. Boston. 26 vols. 1827-1854 v) T. Whittemore, Mod. Hist, of Universalism. Boston, 1880. 12. a) Kluber> Uebers. d. Verb. d. W. Congr. Abth. 3. p. 397. 441ss. Tittmann, Quaeelt de art, IS 606 MODERN CHURCH HISTORY. PER. VL A. D. 164S-1S58. estant privileges, an order dictated by a new zeal in favor of Catholicism, required all persons connected with the army to bow the knee to the sacra- mental host (Aug. 14th, 1838). This was regarded by the Protestants as a measure intended to compel them to commit what seemed to them an act of idolatry, or at least as an illegal imposition upon their consciences. Although it was described to them as legally only a military ceremony, it was practi- cally adhered to as if it were a triumph of the Catholic Church ; and after a long series of forced and partial concessions, it was not completely yielded to the bitter complaints of the whole Protestant population, until (Dec. 12th, 1846) the diet threatened to adopt the grievances of the Protestant deputies as its own. (&) In the Austrian hereditary states, Protestantism was but par- tially tolerated, and until the movement of 1848, its churches were inter- dicted the use of names and spires, and were deprived of important rights, (c) To take from them the necessity of going to foreign universities, a theologi- cal school was opened for them at Vienna (1821). In Bohemia, recollections of the Hussites were awakened with the revival of the national spirit of the ancient Czechen. In the Zillerthal, certain ancient traditions preserved at Salzburg, and evangelical influences upon some Tyrolese travellers, produced a party strongly opposed to the Catholic Church. This opposition was still further increased by the perusal of the Scriptures, and finally induced a few families to make application (1826) for liberty, in conformity with the spirit of the Edict of Toleration, to join the Evangelical Church. But as the states of Tyrol were opposed to a Protestant form of worship in their country, and contended that the Edict of Toleration was never published for such cases^ find as the evangelical party continued to increase even under the oppression of a decidedly Catholic population, and with no services for public worship, the emperor finally commanded them either to settle in some other province, or to emigrate to another country. In these circumstances they addressed themselves to the King of Prussia, who erected for them a church and pri- vate dwellings on his domain of Erdmansdorf in Silesia. Thither, in the autumn of 183T, about four hundred of them removed, although a hundred never became settled there, or in 1838-39 left their new Zillerthal, to connect themselves with some of the Lutherans who had separated themselves from the established churches, (d) In Hungary, when the partial privileges con- ceded by the law respecting religion had been in many ways violated, and the complaints of three millions of Protestants had been for a long time dis Focdcris Germ. L. 1880. W. v. Hohenihal, d. Parltat d. Rechte zw. d. kath. u. nichtkath. Unterth. 1. Bnndesst L. 1881. V) Ev. K. Z. 1S44. N. 67ss. {JT. v. Giech) Die Kniebeug. d. Protestantcn vor d. Sanctissimum d. kath. K. Ulm. 1841. With " Offenen Bedenken " of 1844-45 against later insufficient modifications. A. Ifarless: Offeno Antw. Munch. 1843. u. 2eitschr. f. Prot u. K. 1S43. voL VI. F. Thierech, u. Protest u. Knieb. 8 Sendschr. an Dollinger. Marb. 1S44. J. Dollinger : Die Frage v. d. Knieb. d. Prot v. d. reL u. staaterechtl. Seite. Munch. 1843. Der Prot in Balern n. d. Knieb. Kegcnsb. 1843. Lit Uebers. by Schoder in d. Jen. Lit Z. 1845. N. 202ss. Brans, Eep. 1845. voL III. p. 24ss. Brl. K. Z. 1846. N. 15. 25s. c) J. Hdfert, d. Rechte n. Verf. d. Akatholiken im ostr. Kaiserst Vien. (2 ed. 182T.) 1843. d) (Rteinwald) Die Evangelischgesinnten im ZillerthaL Brl. 1837. In 4 ed. : Die ev. Zillerthalet in Schlesien. 1888. Acta hist ecc. 1837. p. 655ss. Rbeinw. Rep. voL XXXVII. p. 8463. [Exiles of Zillerthal. (Publ. by the Am. and For. Chr. Union.) N. York. 1840. 18.] CHAP. V. EVANGK CnUECII TILL 1853. 463. HUNGAET. FEANCE. G07 regarded, their cause became identified in public estimation with the free development of the state. At the Diet of 1833, the great majority appeared enthusiastic for justice to their Protestant fellow-citizens, but the State-Table preferred entirely to dispense with the mutilated bill of religious grievances proposed to them by the magnates, and rather than take up with a partial grant, to trust to their chances for the future, (e) At the Diets of 1839-40, both Tables united in presenting to the crown certain bills by which the members of the Evangelical Church were guarantied absolute freedom, and equality of legal privileges. But when the papal brief of April 30, 1841, against the ecclesiastical confirmation of mixed marriages without security that the children should be educated in the Catholic faith, had received the royal sanction, the courts began to inflict penalties upon all bishops and pas- tors who acted in accordance with this measure. At the Diet of 1843, bold voices were raised in both Tables in opposition to this system of mediaeval Church polity ; and although there was still an episcopal majority among the magnates, which succeeded in modifying the demands of the other Table, both houses were opposed to the royal order of July 5th, respecting mixed marriages. They declared, that while they were agreed with regard to the principle advanced in that enactment on the subjects of freedom of con- science and complete reciprocity, the only proper application of it, as well as the only way to satisfy the minds of the people, which they could discover, was the enactment of a law by which the children should be disposed of according to the religion of the father, except where special promises had been conceded by one of the parties (reversales) to the contrary. Accord- ingly, the whole subject was virtually disposed of by the royal ordinances of March 25th and Nov. llth, 1844, which left the education of the children of mixed marriages to be determined by the agreement of the parents, acknowl- edged the validity of marriages solemnized in the Evangelical Church, and prohibited the clergy from arbitrarily interfering when persons were dis- posed to pass from the one to the other Church. (/) But the storm which since 1848 has passed over Hungary, has for a while committed to the mili- tary power the Church as well as the country of the orator from whose mouth issued a sword, (g} In the south of France, the long-restrained hostility of the Catholic populace broke out on the restoration of the Bour- bons (1815), and for three months, in Nismes and its vicinity, the members of the Eeformed Church were robbed, murdered, and driven from their dwellings by the flames. JS"o notice of these excesses was taken by the gov- ernment until expressions of indignation from all parts of France and of Europe found their way to the throne. Individual instances of outrage were repeated in 1816, the perpetrators of which were never punished ; and the Protestants were always treated with contempt, until they recovered their privileges at the revolution of 1830. (/*) But their Church was never able e) Berzemczy, Nachr. u. d. Zust ) 4C4. Old and New Sects. 1. The Waldense*, who were connected with the Hussites by fraternal ties, recognized finally in the Reformation (Synod of Angrogna, 1532) the very objects which their ancestors had been obscurely seeking, (a) They were therefore exterminated in France, with the exception of some remnants . living in the High Alps of Dauphine", but they have been preserved under a synodal system of pastors and elders in three Alpine valleys in Piedmont. Here they came sometimes under the influence of distinguished persons bo- longing to the Genevan Church, though generally they retained the character of great pious simplicity. They have been much oppressed by their own authorities, but since the time of Cromwell, they have received pecuniary aid from the English government. Napoleon favored them, but after the restora- tion they were thrown back under their former oppressions, and confined to the narrow valleys of their ancestors. (1) The flag of liberty on the throne of Piedmont opened to them the whole country (Feb., 1848), the inclination generally felt toward Protestantism found among them a primitive legal form, and a great Waldensian church was dedicated with much solemnity in the city of Turin itself (1853). (c) 2. Among the Mennonites in Holland, the Arminian party obtained the ascendency, and when the different factions of the Gross became united, all distinct creeds were abandoned (1800). (d) The Baptists of England and North America had their origin principally among the Independents (since 1630). The largest portion adhere strictly to Cal- vinistic orthodoxy and discipline, but a part are Arminians (General Bap- tists), and some have no ecclesiastical discipline. Some minor communities among them have originated, in some instances, from their adoption of the Jewish Sabbath (Sabbatarians); in others, from their inculcating opposi- tion to the slave-trade as a religious duty (Emancipationists) ; and still in oth- ers, from the principle of abstinence from all controversies on the ordinary orthodox doctrines (Christians), (e) In Germany, persons sometimes became Anabaptists from pietistic scruples, or from some religious extravagances, and a few small congregations have here and there been baptized by the English missionary Oncken, of Hamburg (since 1834). (/) In Denmark, they were w) A. KZ. 1358. N. 175as. a) Herzog, r6m. Waldenser. p. 333ss. 1) W. Dieterici, d. Wald. u. ihr Verb. z. Preuss. Staat Brl. 1S31. Mayerhoff, d. W. In nnsern Tagen. Brl. 1834. Fleck, Eclsc. voL II, 1. p. 21ss. \E. Henderson, Tour in the Valleys of Pied- mont, in 1844 Lond. 1S45. 8.] c) J. H. Weiss, d. KVerf. d. Piem. W. Zur. 1844. BrL KZ. 1843. N. 21. 77. A. KZ. 1853. N. 178. d) Fliedner, Collectenreise. vol. I. p. 183ss. ) Backus, H. of the English- American Baptists. Boston, 1772-84 2 vols. [Z>. Douglas, H. of Bapt Churches in the North of Engl. Lond. 1846. 8.] A. F. Coos and J. Holy, (p. 663.) Archiv. KG. vol. II. p. 57683. KHist Archiv. 1824. St 8. Ev. KZ. 1832. N. 95. 1839. N. 91ss. /) Pupikofer, d. neuer K. in der Schweiz. St QalL 1834. C, Gruneisen, Abriss e. Gesch. d. reL Gemeinschaften in Wurtemb. m. bes. Rucks, a. d. neuen Taufgesinnten. (Zeitsch. hist Th. 1S41 H. 1.) Brl. KZ. 1S40. N. 74. 1841. N. 79. 87. 1851. N. 84 87. CHAP. V. EVANG. CHURCH TILL 1853. 464. UNIT. PLYMOUTH BEETH. 611 at first punished by fine and imprisonment ; but when this course was found to be ineffectual, they were allowed to have a single congregation in Frederi- cia (1842). It was, however, found impossible to confine them within this limit, (g) 8. As Unitarianism could be propagated simply as an opinion, it had less occasion to be extended as a sect. In Transylvania, the Unitarians have maintained a well constructed ecclesiastical system, and have developed their views in consistency with their supernaturalist concessions, (h) In Eng- land they lived legally subject to the axe of the executioner, and although the laws against them had long since ceased to be enforced, even in 1792, Parliament refused formally to abolish the statutes against them, and it was not till 1813 that they were finally tolerated by law. .Lindsey (d. 1808), whose gentle spirit led him voluntarily to withdraw from a congregation connected with the Established Church (1773), and the natural philosopher Priestley founded a few Unitarian congregations, and an academy for free theological inquiry, (i) "When Priestley was obliged to retire to America before the storm of the pop- ular will (1794), he there encountered every kind of opposition. But after his death (1804), a kind of Rationalism began to spread in opposition to the prevalent sentiment of the people there, and found a peculiarly favorable home in the general isolation and freedom of the churches. Several hundred congregations among the Independents and Baptists have embraced it, and for some time it has had the ascendency in the State of Massachusetts. () In England, the greater part of the Presbyterian and General Baptist congre- gations have adopted the same sentiments. "When they thus denied the doc- trine of a Triune, incarnate God, the orthodox Dissenters maintained that they had forfeited their right to all ecclesiastical property derived from foun- dations established for the promotion of the Christian faith. This view was sustained by the civil courts, and many congregations were deprived of their former splendor in public worship, until by a new law (Dissenters' Chapel Bill, 1844), which gave a legal title to such as had enjoyed immemorial pos- session of the fund, a termination was given to this scandal. (?) 4. The Plymouth Brethren, a society founded by Darby, an English clergyman, and propagated from Plymouth to the Canton of Vaud (1840), felt constrained to abandon the Protestant Church, on the ground that it also had become a Babylon, but they remained strictly Calvinistic in doctrine, and were diligent in religious labors. Regarding themselves as the elect children, and there- fore universally the priests of God, they -relied on the promise of our Lord (Matth. 18, 20), dispensed with a regular clergy, and in small domestic churches waited for the approaching second advent of Christ, (m) 5. A #) Brl. KZ. 1843. N. 9. 1846. K 13. 80. 184T. N. 12. h) (G. Harkos,) Summa Theol. univ. sec. Unitarios. Claudiopoli, 1787. Archiv f. KGesch. voL IV. St. 1. *") T7i. Belsham, Memoirs of Lindsey. Lond. 1820. Memoirs of J. Priestley, (by himself and his son.) Lond. 1806s. 2 vols. W. Turner, Lives of Eminent Unitarians, Lond. 1840ss. 2 vols. k) Walch, nst rel. Gesch. vol. V. p. 175. VII, 347ss. Archiv f. KG. vol. I. p. 83. IV, 149ss. Ev. KZ. 1830. N. 13. 1831. N. 40. I) J. Murch, Hist of the Pres. and Gen. Baptist Churches in the West of Engl. Lond. 1835. K. A. Credner, kirchl. Zustiinde. (Heidlb. Jahrb. 1845. H. 1.) m) J. J. Ilerzog, les Freres de Plymouth et John Darby. Laus. 1845. Ev. KZ. 1844. N. 23. 2S BrL KZ. 1851. N. 90. [C. F. Leopold, in the Stud. u. Krit 1848. H. 4J 612 MODERN CHURCH HISTOET. PER. VI. A. D. 1643-1S53. romance founded on the story that the ten tribes of Israel had heen driven to America, and been converted under the personal ministry of our Lord there, was turned into a holy book which Joseph Smith (b. 1805) claimed to have discovered by revelation, and found to be an historical record by Mor- mon, an old prophet among that people. Professing to be himself an inspired prophet, ho collected around him an active host, which were driven from a number of places, but at last commenced the erection of a city and a splen- did temple in the State of Illinois. Their pious claims upon the property of their neighbors soon armed a multitude of fanatics against them, by whom their temple was destroyed and their prophet was slain (1844). During two 'subsequent years, and in the midst of indescribable troubles, the Mormons went through the wilderness and across the Rocky Mountains to the great ocean, and founded on the Salt Lake (Utah Territory) a city and a flourishing state, which is preparing to take its place under the starry banner of the United States. From this point their messengers are going forth, full of faith in old and now prophecies, into all parts of the world, to baptize the Latter-Day- Saints and to assemble them in their new Zion on the Salt Lake. Their Catechism has an evangelical and almost an orthodox tone ; they take some pains to deny the limited polygamy which is practised among them, and their community of goods is limited to one tenth of all property and annual rents, to be used for objects of common utility. The purpose of their theocratic government is to establish a firm social and military system, and it offers those who have come to them, especially from Scotland and Scandinavia, the prospect at least of a temporal kingdom, (n) 405. Missionary and Bible Societies. fbo ordinary Annnal Reports, esp. of the London, Edinburgh, Basle, Halle, and Berlin Bible So- cieties. For a Gen. View : Knapp, Abriss e. prot Miaslonsgesch. (Halt Jahresb. 1916. 8L 66.) Fortschrltte d. ev. Mfaeionsw. 1m 1. Viertel d. 19. Jahrh. Baa. 1826. F. LOcke, Missionsstudien. Giitt 1841. F. W. Klumpp, d. ev. Missions wesen, s. weltgesch. n. nation. Bedeut Stuttg. 1841. J. Wtggers, (p. 510.) J. II. Brauer, d. Missionswcaen d. er. K. Statistik. Hatnb. 1847-61. I. vol. 1. 2 II. K. J. NitMch, d. Wirk. d. ev. Chr. aof knlturlose Volker. BrL 1862. Comp. Wltemann, d. Un- fruchtbark. d.v. Protestanten nnternommen. Miss. Angsb. 1885. J. Owen, Hist of the Orig. and first ten years of the Bible Soc. Lond. 1816. 8 vols. Lps. 1824. Archiv. 1 KG. vol. IL p. 229ss. Ill, ITlss. A. KZ, 1825. N. 128. 182& N. 25. 1829. N. 86. [F. Schobert, Present State of Christianity, and of the Miss. Establishments. Lond. 1823. 12. J. O. Choute, Hist of Missions. Boston, 1838. 2 vola. JB. B. Edwards, Miss. Gazetteer. Bost 1882. 12. C. William*, Miss. Gaz. Lond. 1828. 12. J. Tracy, II. oi the Am. Board. Boston, 1888. 12.] In the spirit of the present age, which accomplishes great enterprises by means of private voluntary associations, the extension of Christianity has become a popular cause. Boards for missionary societies, each of which is peculiar and distinct in its character, were organized at London in 1795, (a) at Edinburgh in 1796, at Boston in 1810, at Basle in 1816, (&) at New York n) Book of Mormon. Book of Covenants. The former work bs been several times printed since 1830, even in German. Pratt, e, Stimme d. Warnung u. Beleh. f. alle Volker. from the EngL Hamb. 1853. Turner, Mormonism in all Ages. N. York. 1843. Cornell, The Prophet of the 19th Cent Lond. 1842. Raumer, (p. 601.) voL IL p. 154ss. BrL KZ. 1851. N. 69. 1852. N. 100. 1853. N. 6. 42. 45 A. KZ. 1853. N. 8ss. a) W. Ellis, Hist of the Lond. Miss. Soc. Lond. 1844. vol. J 1} W. Hoffmann, Eilf Jahre in d. Miss. Stuttg. 1S53. CHAP. V. EVANG. CHUBCH TILL 1853. 465. MISS. & BIBLE SOCIETIES. 613 in 1820, at Berlin in 1823, at Barmen in 1828, and at Dresden in 1836. Wherever Protestants were found, auxiliaries to these societies were formed, and about five millions of dollars are annually collected for the education and support of five thousand native and foreign laborers in the missions of nearly fifteen hundred stations on the globe. Every party in the Church, especially in England and America, contributes of its money and its prayers, under the conviction that the more a Christian gives for objects abroad, the more he will have of spiritual blessings in his own heart. The English missions aim to make their converts thoroughly English, but the American missionaries avow that they wish to become national pastors, wherever they may be sta- tioned. In consequence of the peculiar organization of the London Society, it was obliged to confine its attention to the simple proclamation of Chris- tianity, and to leave the ecclesiastical connection to be determined by the converts, or rather by the missionaries themselves. The Church Missionary Society recognized indeed only the system of Christian faith professed by the Episcopal Church, but it employed even German missionaries, and allowed them to manage their ecclesiastical affairs in their own way. The difficulties experienced by EJienius (d. 1838), so remarkable for his powerful faith, and who was the first that fell out with the society, sprung entirely from his de- cided literary tendencies, (c) The North German Missionary Society (1836) was much endangered by its controversy about the Lutheran and the Ee- formed Confessions, but with respect to missionary operations it always per- ceived the necessity of a union, (d) The missionary societies of all countries where the German language was spoken, were united (1846) into one gen- eral body, that concert in missionary operations' might be secured by means of periodical general assemblies and a central Board, whose location might be changed according to circumstances, (e) But when the Dresden mission was transferred to Leipsic (1847), it placed itself decidedly on the ground of the Lutheran Confession, and the Bavarian Lutherans pronounced all contributions to the society of Nuremberg sinful, until it received a Lutheran name and character (1852). (/) As most of the missions were commenced under the management of what was called the Methodistic party and the Moravians, it was found that none but those of a kindred spirit would enter heartily into the work of conducting them. Gradually, there- fore, a certain degree of coolness with regard to them sprung up among the Kationalists. (g) Although the doctrines of many of the missionaries may have reminded one more of the Formula of Concord than of the gospel, there were certainly some missionaries, as e. g., those who proceeded from the school of the sincere Jaenike of Berlin (since 1800), whose virtues and sacrifices remind us of apostolic times. (A) Not only ministers with a regu- c) Rheinwald, Eep. voL XXIV. p. 184es. d) Keport of the Nordd. Miss. G. Hamb. 1839. A. KZ. 1847. N. 152. Allg. Missionszeitung, ed. by Brauer, Hamb. 1845ss. e) Brl. KZ. 1847. N. 70. /) L. A. Petri, d. Miss. u. d. K. Hann. 1S4L K. Graul, d. ev. luth. M. zu Dresden an die luth. K. Lps. 1845. Ev. lutb. Missionsbl. Dn u. Lps. s, 1846ss. g) Jiohr, Fred. Bibl. voL XII. IL 4. NotizenbL and oft A. KZ, 1830. N. 83s. ?i) Ev. KZ. 1831. N. 90. 614 MODERN CHURCH HISTORY. PEE. TI. A. D. 1WS-1963. lar education, bnt in some cases mechanics of an elevated religious spirit, were sent forth. Their principal influence has been exerted by means of popular schools, and generally none have been admitted to baptism until their fidelity has been proved. When the Pietists of Halle had begun (1712) to provide cheap Bibles, ({) this attempt to supply those who in different places were found destitute of the word of God, suggested to some benevo- lent people in England the idea of supplying every nation on earth with tho Holy Scriptures in their own language. The British and Foreign Bible Society at London was the first and the most important of all these enterprises. The single penny of the poor soon became a million, and innumerable Bibles arc now distributed in more than a hundred languages. That the whole power of all parties may be combined for the accomplishment of this object, nothing is printed by this society but the word of God, in a faithful, and, when it is possible, in an ecclesiastical translation, without note or comment. Tho rela- tions of the English society to foreign societies were disturbed by its resolu- tion to withdraw from all co-operation in tho circulation of the Apocrypha (1827) ; bnt although the difficulty was nearly settled by mutual conces- sions, () it was made the subject of controversy in the orthodox party in Germany, because those who maintained the divine authority of tho Scrip- tures were against, while those who regarded them as merely traditionary records wore in favor of the Apocrypha, and the practical interest might therefore be so explained as to be on either side. (?) The proposition in Lon- don, to banish from the society all who did not believe in a Triune God, was voted down with great unanimity (1831), but its advocates withdrew, and formed a separate society, (m) 466. Spread of Christianity. In consequence of the revolutionary wars in the south of Europe and America, the dominion of the seas had fallen into the hands of Protestant pow- ers, and all the shores of the earth were open to their missions. Hence, when peace was concluded, the gospel was proclaimed in all parts of the world with more power than ever before, and with a powerful popular sym- pathy in its favor. In the South Sea Islands, even among the milder tribes, Christianity had to contend with the most licentious practices, and the terri- ble sanctity of the Tabu. At Tahiti, the dissenting missionaries, since 1797, never despaired even in the most hopeless seasons, and have finally obtained possession of tho native children. King Pomare II. learned to read and write ; an insurrection in favor of the old religion was quelled after a san- guinary struggle (Nov. 12th, 1815), and the magic work of the first printing press was hailed (1817) with the most joyful anticipations. At the Sand- wich Islands, king Riho-riho had already destroyed the old gods when the American missionaries first landed on his shores (1820). (a) Since that time, most of the Society and Sandwich Islands, as they could not escape the vices A. H. Niemeyer, Gesch. d. Canstein. Bibelanst Hal. 1827. K) A. KZ. 1827. N. 12. 1830. N. 2JL 1) Brl. KZ. 1853. N. 43. m) Ev. KZ. 1881. N. 63s. 1832. N. 34. 05. a) a. Prvwt, Mem. of tho Life of J. Williams. Lond. 1S43. W. J. Besser, J. W. d. Apostel d Budsee. Brl. 2 ed. 1847. CHAP. V. EVANG. CHURCH TILL 1S53. 466. EAST INDIES. 6 1 5 of civilization, have accepted also of the virtues of a Puritanic form of Christianity, and submitted themselves to the theocratic government of the missionaries ; (Z>) hut the English missionaries have been driven from tha Marquesas, and the evangelical churches of Tahiti have been wasted by French ships of war with Catholic priests (since 1842). (c) The old land of wonders, the land of Brahma, had now become subject to the merchants of England. The East India Company has sometimes favored Brahminism be- cause it believed that the security of its dominion might be promoted by the jealousies of the Brahmins and the Mussulmen. But public opinion in Eng- land demanded that the government should act in consistency with the Christian religion, and accordingly, in 1829, the suttees ceased to receive the protection of the laws, and in 1831, all offices open to any natives were made free to Christian Hindoos. The system of caste still presents very great obstacles ; the manner in which the Brahmins have been educated enables them to propose objections (d) which an uneducated missionary finds it hard to answer ; the number of converts is small, and the missionaries' native helpers have very little influence with those whom they have forsaken. The Anglican Church is the only body which has laid the basis of an external polity there. The diocese of Calcutta has been established (1815), and the suffragans of Bombay and Madras have been since attached to it (1833). But the foundations of the old temples have been powerfully shaken by the quiet influence of Christian dominion and improvements, by the schools, a free press, and trials by jury. In the promotion of these objects, Bishop Heber (d. 1826) spent the brief day of his administration in his immense dio- cese laboring principally for the Christian education of the people, (e) Bishop Wilson has declared all distinctions of caste abolished among such as profess the Christian religion (1833), since the gospel has placed all men of every nation and condition on the same footing. (/) On the other hand, the great EammoJiun-Iioy (1780-1833), in possession of the treasures of Indian and Christian learning, has proclaimed that the purely moral worship of the one fc) K W. Lohn, ft. d. Eel. d. Polyncsier, o. d. Tapulander. (Zeitsch. f. hist. Th. 1S42. II. 4) 0. v, Koteebue, Eeise urn d. Welt. Weim. 1830. (Kohr, Pr. Bibl. vol. X. II. 5. XII, 4 XIII, 5.) To be modified by : Ellis, Polynesian Eesearcb.es. Lond. 1880. 2 vols. (Ev. KZ. 1830. N. SOss.) [N. York., 1831. 2 vols.] F. Krohn. d, Missionswesen d. Sudsee. Hmb. 1833. J. Williams, Narrative of Miss. Enterprises in the South Sea Islands. Lond. 1837. C. E, Meinicke, d. Sudseevolker u. d. Christenth. Prenzl. 1S44. IT. Wegener, Gesch. d. chr. K. a. d. Gesellschafts-ArchipeL Brl. 1844. vol. I. C) IT. Lutteroih, Gesch. d. I. Tahiti, u. ihrer Besitznahme durch d. Franzosen. from the Fr. by Bruns. Brl. 1843. W. F. JBesser, d. Missioniir u. s. Lohn. (from Pritchard, The Missionary's Howard. Lond. 1844.) Hal. 1846. -K HicJiaelis, d. Volker d. Sudsee u. Gesch. d. prot. u. kath. Miss, unter dens. Munst. 184T. d) An Apology for Heathenism, and Controversial Treatises against Christianity, by a Brahmin. Translated, with notes by Bp. Wilson. Bombay, 1832. (Mitgeth. v. Poret in Stud. u. Krit. 1853. II. 2.) e) Buchanan, nst. Unters. u. d. Zust d. Christen in Asien. A. d. E. Stuttg. 1813. [Christian Ee- searches in Asia, Lond. 1811. 8. and oft.] Niemeyer, neuere Gesch. d. ev. Miss, in Ostind. (Hal. 1830. St. 77.) Ileber, Journal. Lond. 1826. 2 vols. 4. Life of Heber. Lond. 1880. 2 vols. 4 United in Ero&n Hebers Leben u. Nachrr. u. Ind. Brl. 1831. 2 vols. J. Hough, Hist of Christ in India. Lond. 1839-45. 4 vols. Die Entw. d. chr. Miss, in Ostind. (Bas. Mag. 1841. H. 1. 2. 4. 1842. H. 1. 8s 1843. H. Iss. 1844. H. 2s. 1S45. H. 2.) J. J. WeitbrecM, d. prot. Miss, in Ind. ra. bes. Eucks. a. Ben galen. Ileidlb. 1844. /) Ev. KZ. 1834. N. 73s. 616 MODEEN CHURCH HISTORY. PER. VL A. D. 164S-1S53. God is merely the restoration of original Brahminism, and that this doctrine constitutes the unity of that system with the essential principles of the gos- pel. (?) At Malacca, a Christian school was opened for the education of the Chinese residing there, and Morrison (d. 1844) translated the Scriptures for their use. English cannons have compelled the Celestial Empire to open its gates for the reception of the gospel as well as opium (1842), and the Hessian Missionary Society has avowed its special interest in the conversion of China. Gatzlaff (1803-61), born a missionary, and trained in the school of Jaenike. in the full costume of a native, and sometimes in connection with English merchants, has penetrated with some violence into the interior of China (since 1881). At first ho was obliged to communicate Christianity to the Chinese only in a manuscript form, but after a time he succeeded in sending forth in every direction a large number of native preachers from the Anglo- Chinese seminary, which has been removed from Macao to Hong-Kong, and finally, as a friend of China, has pleaded its cause in the different countries of Germany. (A) The insurrection created by the new Son of Heaven (Tien-ti), has already destroyed the idols (since 1852), threatens to over- throw the Tartar dynasty, and has adopted many ideas peculiar to Christian- ity. (/) Missions of all denominations have been established among the colonies on the coast of Southern Africa, where, in consequence of the rev- erence which the negro generally feels for the white man, the difficulty has been not so much with the decided opposition as with the indifference of a stupid barbarism. The Rhenish Missionary Society looks with pious expec- tations to the -miniature likeness of its own native valley in the Wupperthal belonging to the Colony of the Cape, but when the Hottentots roso against the white men (since 1860), they forgot their catechism. At Sierra Leone has been formed the germ of freedom and of Christianity (since 181C), at an expense of millions of money, but it is continually threatened by a most noxious climate. (!) To secure the benefits of European civilization for his subjects, King Hadama allowed Christianity to be freely introduced into Madagascar (since 1818). The queen who succeeded him, however, com- manded her subjects to think no more of the new doctrine ; the missionaries abandoned the island (1836), and the native Christians were impaled alive, 0) Translation of several principal books of the Veds. ed. 2. Lond. 1S32. Appeal to Christians. Calcutta, 1820s. 2 vols. Correspondence relative to the prospect of the reception of Christ in India. Lond. 1824. A. KZ. 1S24. N. 43. Gesch. d. ev. Miss. Hal. 1837. St 83. p. 956s. [Christ Exam- iner, Sept and Oct 1S26. Spirit of the Pilgrims. voL IL p. 270ss. North Amer. Review. voL XX. p. 898SS.] h) W. If. Medhurst, China, its State and Prospects. Lond. 1S38. Freely revised. Stuttg. 1840. GuUlaff, Sketch of Chinese Hist, Anc. and Mod. N. York, 1840. 2 vols. 12. a Gutzlaff, Journal of Three Voyages along the Coast of China. N. York, 1S33. Lond. 1834. (Ev. KZ. 1833. N. 56. 1834. N. 79ss.) Gaihan's (Gutzl.) chin. Berichte, 1S41-46. ed. by the chin. Stiftung. 1850. A. KZ. 1846. N. 181. 1847. N. 148. 1850. N. 202ss. 1851. N. 40. Beitrr. z. Kunde Chinas in Bcz. a, d. Miss. ed. by K. L. Eiernateki, Cass. 1853. vol. I. IL 2. A. KZ. 1858. N. ISO. *) (0. v. Gerlach,) Gesch. d. ev. Miss, im sudL Afr. Brl. 1S32. (7. and 8. Rep. of the Bert. Soc.) Reports of the Rhenish Miss. Soc. Barm. ISSOss. Hist of the Civilization and Christianization of louthern Afr. Edinb. 1880. Some circulars sent from South Afr. to Bishop Neander, ed. by G. Getcl Hainb. 1S40. CHAP. VI. CATH. CHURCH TILL 1853. 467. PIUS VII. CONSALVI. 617 but Christianity was by no means extinguished. (Z) The remnants of the aboriginal tribes of North America betook themselves to the deeper shades of their primitive forests ; and although some of them acknowledged the God of the whites, others replied to the solicitations of the missionaries, that they had previously lived happily under the protection of the Great Spirit, and that what they had witnessed in their white brethren had only made them doubt the expediency of any change. About sixty-five millions of people are at present adherents of the Evangelical Church. CHAP. VI. THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH UNTIL 1853. 467. Re-establishment of the Roman Hierarchy. Cont. from 439. With the restoration of the Bourbons, a party bound together by the most intimate relations, and ramified in a great variety of forms, became dif- fused in all parts of Southern Europe, and formed a secret connection until 1830 with the apostolical congregation as the nucleus of all their operations. The object of this party was to obliterate all vestiges of the Revolution, and under the name of the absolute monarchic system, once more to divide the world between the Priests and the Barons. Their watchword, that the altar cannot fall without the throne, and the terrible experience of the few past years was sufficient to draw toward them the hearts of the princes. The result was, that the state received an ecclesiastical, and the Church a politi- cal element. By this dangerous connection, the hierarchy obtained many unexpected concessions, but the Church was involved in all the changes of the political system, and its true power was much impaired. And yet the newly-awakened religious zeal which now took possession of the leading spirits of the age, sometimes the result of enthusiasm, and at other times of deliberate purpose, was beneficial to the cause of Catholicism, and raised up many a dilapidated and fallen pillar for its support. Pius VII. once more entered his capital (May 24th, 1814), which, having been reduced to a mere French provincial town, now received him with acclamations, (a) The Ecclesiastical States had their former limits assigned them by the Congress, of Vienna, with the exception of a small district beyond the Po. The pro- vinces beyond the Apennines were exposed to the rapacity of Austria, now the dominant power in Italy. The Diplomatists of Vienna smiled when Consalvi solemnly protested against the dismemberment of the country on the Po, the Austrian occupation of the castle of Ferrara, the refusal to sur- render Avignon, and the secularization and dissolution of the German em- pire. (&) The nations heard with amazement that the pope had pronounced the Bible Society a pestilence (1817). (c) The bull Sollicitudo Omnium (Aug. 7th, 1814), in compliance with what it called the almost unanimous entreaty l~) Ellis, H. of Madag. Lond. 1S38. 2 vols. (Ev. KZ. 1S39. N. 15ss.) Brl. KZ. 1S41. N. 25. Feld- tr, d. Ev. a. Madag. Konigsb. 1845. ) Pacca, Memorie. Orv. 1S33. vol. V. Augsb. 1834. vol. V. &) Kluber, Acten d. Wiener Congr. vol. IV. p. 325. VI. 441ss. c) Walcf, Decreta, quib. societt. bibl. a. P. E. damnantur. Eeg 1818. 618 MODERN CHURCH HISTORY. PER. VL A. D. 1645-1853. of Christendom, restored the order of the Jesuits throughout the world Nowhere, except in the Ecclesiastical States, however, was it able to regain possession of any portion of its former property ; but it received from the former society an inheritance of suspicion and hatred, which its members sought to remove from the popular mind by a course of strict morality and manners. In Naples, Belgium, Ireland, and in most of the American States, they were tolerated ; in Sardinia, they were richly endowed, and intrusted with the education of the youth ; and in some of the cantons of Switzerland they erected edifices for instruction, which were resorted to by many chil- dren of the French and German nobility. Austria, after a protracted refu- sal, opened a few of her provinces to them (after 183C). They were excluded from Russia for their abuse of confidence (1820). () Ibid. 1824. N. 88. c) Msmschmid, rom. Bullar. Lps. 1831. vol. II. p. S09ss. Trionfo della Santa Sede. Eom. 1790. Ven. 1832, and oft Angsb. 1833. 520 MODERN CHUECH HISTORY. PER. VL A. D. 1&4S-1S58. r its own soldiery. To prevent Austria from obtaining complete sovereignty over Italy, the French fleet took possession of Ancona Ly a single hlow (Feb 23, 1832). The Roman court protested against this violation of national law, declared the city of Ancona under an interdict, and thus finally availed itself of the weak side which necessity offered. There was no denying that the deficit in the revenues was annually increasing. An attempt to intro- duce a new code of civil law was defeated by the opposition of the provinces. Ancona was given up by the French and Bologna by the Austrians simul- taneously, Dec. 8d, 1838. The Legations were disturbed by an almost per- petual guerilla war during the years 1848-44. (e) The inhabitants of Rimini (Sept., 1846) demanded with arms in their hands, since every other form of petition and complaint was denied them, the very moderate concession of the legal forms of a civilized state. The Swiss regiments and a fanatical band of papal volunteers stifled this insurrection in blood, and a great part of the edu- cated Roman youth sighed in prisons, or in the mere possession of life in foreign lands. The pastoral epistle of Gregory (Aug. 15, 1832) is full of expressions indicating that the author was conscious that the Roman Church stood on the brink of an abyss, and that it could be saved only by the firm union of all true believers in opposition to modern science and popular freedom, bnt that his unshaken reliance rested upon the protection of the Holy Virgin. (/) Gregory lived to witness, on the other side of the Alps, both defeats and triumphs, but he seemed always to understand with firm moderation what the papacy might according to circumstances demand or endure from others. The festival of the canonization of five saints (May 26th, 1839), was a cele- bration of victory and a season of excitement, (y) Gregory lived, according to his own convictions of duty, the abstemious life of a cloister, or at least under all the restraints of a m6nkish spirit, but he could not control the ava- rice of his subordinate courtiers ; he had no confidence in his people, and therefore put himself under the counsels of a gloomy party ; and he finally left his personal servants and his nepotes rich, the country impoverished, and the government distracted. 469. Pius IX. (June 16, 184C) and Italy. Pius IX. u. s. Reformen. Lps. 1847. If. StiegUU, Erlnn. an Rom. u. d. KStaat im ereten Jahr. sr. Vcrjung. Lpa. IMS. Curd, 4 Paprt als Btaateoberh. u. d. Demagogic, from the Ital. of E. v. Moy Jusb. 1S49. FU. di Boni, Pio nono. Torino. 1850. Die Gegenwart Lps. 1849sa. voL IIL p. 149, 604ss. vol. VII. p. 458. The election was for some time undecided between the Genoese, Lambrus- chini, who had been the real ruler during the last years of Gregory's reign, and Mastai Feretti (b. 1792), of Sinigaglia, once a resident in Chili, and when a prelate much interested in the establishment for the poor, and a father to all orphans. The influence of the Roman nobility to which he belonged, and the perilous condition of the ecclesiastical government, finally determined the choice of the conclave on the second evening, in favor of Feretti. Pius IX. was regarded by his intimate acquaintances as the friend of moderate progress ) A. Z. 1848. N. 280. /) A. KZ. 1882. N. 183s. g) A. KZ. 1839. N. 101. Eheinw. Rep. voL XXVI. p. 91ss. CHAP. VI. CATH. CHtJECH TILL 1853. 469. PIUS IX. GIOBEKTI. 621 but his mind was raised to a consciousness of a divine vocation to be the re' former and deliverer of the Ecclesiastical States by the enthusiasm of the Eo- man people in his behalf, and the opposition he had to encounter. His popu- lar manners won the hearts of the people even when his reforms appeared to them too tardy and incomplete. An amnesty for all who had been imprisoned or exiled for political offences was merely in accordance with what had now become established usage on the accession of a new pope, but he pronounced the word of grace with so much cordiality and good-natured confidence (July 17) that an act which brought such consolation to thousands of families filled all Italy with joy. (a) He commenced his retrenchments in his own household, allowed the press to indulge in a much greater liberty, strength- ened the commissions previously appointed for digesting a code of laws and forms of judicial proceedings by the addition of approved men, granted per- mission for the construction of railroads, opened to the laity the path to the higher civil offices, decided upon a general taxation of all convents in the Ecclesiastical States, gave a liberal municipal constitution especially to the city of Borne, invited men from the provinces in whom the public had con- fidence, to his council of state, entered upon negotiations for the dismission of the Swiss troops, and took initiatory steps for a confederation of the Italian states. His kind intentions with respect to the Jewish quarters in the city were frustrated by the opposition of the Christian population. (5) A portion of the clergy sincerely ranged themselves on the side of the pope, his elo- quent preacher, Ventura, proclaimed that genuine Catholic piety must neces- sarily become reconciled with political freedom, (c) and even the Jesuits de- clared themselves the friends of progress. But so numerous were the injuries committed, and threats received by those who lived upon abuses, and espe- cially by those who had formerly sustained offices (la setta Gregoriana), and so complete was the change of position from that which the modern papacy had hitherto occupied with respect to the political parties, that an open and a secret opposition to this " devouring germ and chief of young Italy " was unavoidably called forth. () he has encouraged the Catholic world in the hope that the immaculate conception of the Virgin Mary to whoso pow- erful protection he ascribes his deliverance, will soon be established, (^) and he has once more committed to the Jesuits the business of public education. (?-) In Piedmont alpne the Jesuits are excluded, not only by the people but by the king (March 3, 1848). Here, where Gioberti himself in difficult times stood at the head of the ministry, they could not be received, for the suc- cessor of Charles Albert, in harmony with the educated portion of the na- tion, adheres firmly to the free development of the state as their best conso- lation for misfortunes in the battle-field, (s) To carry out the article of the constitution which provides for the equality of all citizens before the law, and for the independence of the state upon the clergy, the laws proposed by 8icc(vrdi, the minister of justice, and accepted by the chambers, abolished the ecclesiastical jurisdiction of the clergy in civil and criminal causes, and ri) C. Rusconi, la republics Komana del 1849. Tor. 1850. o) A. KZ. 1861. N. 120. p) BrL KZ. 1852. N. 23. q) Ibid. 1S49. N. 37. 1850. N. 4T. r) Ibid. 1850. N. 12. s) F. Cruger, d. Konigr. Sardin. (Gegenw. 1853. vol. VIII. p. 524ss.) 624 MODEEN CHURCH HISTORY. PER. YL A. D. 1643-1S53. their control over charitable establishments, abrogated the right of asylum, and gave some reason to expect that marriages by a civil act would bo recog- nized as valid, (f) Frawoni, Archbishop of Turin, whose pastoral epistle complained of these laws as sacrilegious, was summoned before the civil court, and on his refusal to appear he was imprisoned and condemned to per- petual exile for resisting the law of the state, and for exciting others to rebel- lion against the civil authorities (Sept. 1 850). (u) Pius IX. extolled his martyr- dom, and protested against a legislation in conflict with legal concordats, and the subversion of the sacred rights of the Church, (c) The government replied that concordats were not international treaties between independent powers, but concessions made by the state to its own established Church, and tin re- fore so far as related to its own department, might be revoked by a legislative act As the Roman court persisted in its established policy of resisting in one country as a violation of the inalienable rig>.i0 cf the Church as long as any hope of success remained, what in another country had become law by the force of circumstances, the only point on which the two parties could come to any agreement was with respect to a diminution of the number of festivals. The masses of the people in different places were kept in an un- happy state of excitement against the government by the perpetual clamor of the clerical party under the direction of Franzoni from his place of exile, against the laws of Siccardi, against the civil marriages, under which all births were declared to be illegitimate, against the courts whioh took any action against priests, and which were immediately excommunicated, against lay professors in the university, against even clergymen who ventured to obey the government, and against the whole process by which they declared that the state was to be Protestantized and unchristianized. The king himself was threatened with excommunication, and the Church with a division. (?) The state, on the other hand, is continually holding forth its signals of free- dom in a seductive manner, and whenever a revolution threatens Italy, to which Gidberti (d. 1852) has bequeathed the lessons and the hopes to be gathered from her Hot altogether undeserved misfortunes, (x) 470. The Galilean Church. 1. The Charter with which Louis XVIII. entered the land of his fathers, recognized Catholicism as the religion of the state, but guarantied to every form of public worship the protection of the government. The priests who accompanied him, the martyrs of the Revolution, had become by long absence estranged from the people and the spirit of the age, and now, while they demanded the proper reward of their fidelity, they promised to secure the throne of their sovereign, and to regenerate their country. The youth who had grown up in the midst of the revolutionary heathenism stood in need of the gospel, the people longed for the blessings of' the Church, even polite usage regarded all ridicule of religion as disreputable, and De Lamariine, at BrL KZ. 1850. N. 88. u) D. A. Z. 1S50. N. 226. 246. v) BrL KZ. 1850. N. 89. 51. 94. w) BrL KZ. 1851. N. 41. 55. 103. Hist pol. Bll. 1850. voL XXY1. H. 6s. x) Del rinnovamento civile d'ltalia. Par. 1851. 2 vols. CHAP. YI. OATH. CHURCH TILL 1853. 470. FRANCE. CHARLES X. 625 that time still a knight devoted to royalty, succeeded by the pious sadness of his harmonies in becoming the favorite poet of the higher classes, (a) De Lamennais (b. 1781) defended the doctrine of the absolute necessity of an infallible Church as the objective manifestation of the divine reason in oppo- sition to the frenzy of this individual reason of man, contrasted his own glowing feelings of love and hatred with the indifference which prevailed around him, and in his honesty did not conceal his position that he regarded the theocratic right of the papacy as superior to the foundation on which the monarchy rested, (b) Count de Maistre (d. 1821) proved that infallibility belonged as necessarily to the pope as sovereignty to the king, (c) But the clergy, instead of endeavoring to reconcile the discrepancies of the past with the present, seemed determined to render both more prominent. Religious enthusiasm once more beheld the cross of Constantino in the sky, and intoler- ance founded a kingdom of its own in the name of God. Priests of the mis- sion traversed the land in great pomp, contending not only for the faith, but in opposition to every thing which Franco had purchased at such prodigious sacrifices, (d) The principles of freedom which formerly prevailed in the Gallican Church were now inveighed against as heresies. The apostolic con- gregation in connection with the heir-apparent and the illustrious daughter of misfortune, by persevering obstinacy, and in opposition to the inclinations of the prudent king, obtained a Concordat (1817) by which the Concordat of 1801 was revoked, and that of 1516 was substituted for it. So decidedly was public opinion expressed in opposition to this ghost of former times that no one ever ventured to lay a plan of the law before the Chamber of Deputies, (e) "Without the consent of the Chambers, however, the government did as much for the clergy as was in its power. But no sooner had the Cathedral of Eheims witnessed once more a royal coronation, for which even the Holy Chrism was once more found (p. 166), than the hierarchy received from the chambers a pledge of its victory in the law against sacrilege (1825), which, in the true spirit of the middle ages, threatened with terrible punishments every injury done to the Established Church. (/) Once more, however, the government listened to the demands of the popular will expressed even in the House of Peers, and a royal ordinance (June 16th, 1828) closed the schools against the Jesuits who had intruded into them in the character of fathers of the faith, (g) But CTiarles X. allowed himself to be hurried into violent measures, for which he was obliged to atone by the loss of his throne (1830). 2. Instead of a king anointed and appointed by God, a citizen-king was now ) Meditat poet. Par. 1820. Harmonies poet et rel. Par. 1830. 2 vols. l>) Essai sur 1'indifference en matiure de la rel. Par. 1817s. ed. 4. 1822. 4 vols. Defense do TEssaL Par. 1821. De la rel. dans ses rapports avec 1'ordre politique. Par. 1825. ed. 3. 1S26. Des progrds de la rev. et de la guerre centre 1'egl. Par. 1829. c) Du Pape. Par. 1820. rf) Die Hier. u. ihre Bundesgen. in Fr. Aar. 1823. Coup-d'oeil sur la situation actuelle et les vrais interets de Tegl. fr. Par. 1825. Carovi, Rel. u. Phil, in Fr. Gott 1826. e) De Pradt, les quatre Cone. Par. 1818. vol. III. (Archiv. f. KGesch. vol. IV. p. 879ss.) /) A. K. Z. 1825. N. 82. 44. Du Lairet, Hist Abrdgee du sacrilege. Par. 1825. g) Montlosier, Memoire k consulter sur un systems rel. et pol. tendant k renverser la rel., la so- ciete et le trone. Par. 1826. With Vorw. by Paulus, Stuttg. 1826. A. K. Z. 1826. N. 139. 1827. N. 20.- 1828. N. 104. 148. 174. 1829. N. 9. 11. 40 626 MODERN CHURCH HISTOEY. PER. VL A. D. 164S-1S58. chosen by the people. The Jesuits and Trappists fled, the palace of the arch bishop, and a few churches in Paris which had been used for political purposes, were stormed, the crosses together with the lilies were removed, the salaries of the prelates were diminished, and Catholicism lost the prerogative of being the religion of the state. (A) But an intimation from the pope (i) determined the clergy to offer their prayers for the new kingdom, although their minds were full of rancor toward it, and they were connected by many pious bonds with the family of tho exiled king. Louis Philippe made as great concessions to the hierarchy as the origin of his own authority would allow, that a moral basis and a peaceable form might be given to his own dynasty. The Arch- bishop of Paris, H. de Qutlen (d. 1889), an honorable priest and a father to the poor, (i) was yet willing to deny Christian burial to the honest Gregoire, who died immovably faithful to his ecclesiastical character (1831), (Z) and the Bishop of Clermont refused the last consolations of the Church (1838) to the Count Montloxicr, who had once heroically defended the cross of Christ, but had appealed to the laws in opposition to tho Jesuits, (m) The recollec- tions of all that is great in the past history of the French nation stand in striking opposition to the views of tho Church, (ri) and the abyss between Catholic and secular Franco is daily becoming more profound. Lamcnnais, consistently with his general opinion that ecclesiastical piety is to be valued above every thing else, perceived the compatibility of Catholicism with tho sovereignty of the people, and demanded that the clergy should not only give up all their salaries but all interference in political matters, and so be once more poor and free. The Journal of the Future (1'Avenir, 1830s.) was pow- erful in France until it struck upon the rock of a contradiction between the freedom of the mind and the Roman infallibility. Lacordaire, the intelligent disciple of Lamennais, submitted himself to the pastoral epistle of Pope Gregory ( 475), became a mendicant friar, (o) and was apparently willing to bring the sacrifice of obedience. But in his solitude his spirit became in- flamed, and he sent forth to the world the words of a true believer. As Christianity had previously been abused to throw a sanctity around despot- ism, he here attempted to give the democratic Bide of the gospel and of the theocracy, that he might in anticipation of a mighty revolution, announce in prophetic and apocalyptic imagery the overthrow of the monarchy and the universal equality of the children of God. But even this revolutionary prophecy is pervaded by a spirit of profound and sincere piety. Qt>) As La- mennais in his visions of the dead had never mentioned the name of the h) A. K Z. 1S31. N. 155. 1832. N. 87. 97. 167ss. t) After Rozet, Cbronique de Juillet : Minerva. 1833. Apr. p. 38ss. k) Rheinw. Rep. 1841. vol. XXX1IL p. 93ss. Z) Chr. Antiromanns, d. sterb. Greg. u. d. verd. Erzb. Neust M31. Kruger, (p. 530) p. 37Sss. m) A. Z. 1838. N. 854. Append. N. 692. 839. N. 2. n) Kunstblatt 1887. N. 99. Act* hist ecc. 1837. p. 67. o) Lacordaire, M6moire pour le rctablissement en France do 1'ordre des fr6rcs precheurs. Par. 1838. Angsb. 1S39. p) Paroles d'un croyant Par. 1833. (In the Brussels pirated impression, 1834. 12. also Bautain, d'Eckstein & Sainte-Beuve.) JBautain, R6ponse d'un chr6tlen aux paroles d'un croyant Strasb. 1884 aumffarten-Crusiu, Betracht ft. einlge Schriften v. de la Menn. Jen. 1834. [Article in Hcgg'i Chr. Instructor, in Eclectic Mag. for Oct 1850. p. 260ss.] CHAP. VI. CATH. CHUECH TILL 1853. 470. LAMENNAIS. CHATEL. 027 pope, so in Ms rejection of the " Words of a Believer " (June 25, 1834), the pope never used the name of Lamennais, but as a sorrowing father spoke of the man whom France once esteemed as the last of the ecclesiastical fathers. But Lamennais found himself urged on to a position in which he saw the pontificate with its antiquated claims on the one side, and the human race with its ever fresh religious energies upon the other. () the position, or the sincerity of tho individual, an Ideal school began to make its appearance, which pointed out the religious ideas involved in the Catholic dogmas and usages, and endeav- ored to reconcile Catholicism with modern science and improvements. (?) It proceeded from France in the form of a poetic and artistic glorification of the Church ( 444). German philosophy was, sometimes in the spirit of faith, and sometimes in the allegorical strain, incorporated with the Catholic doctrines, (r) Qdrres (b. 1776), who possessed powerful original talents, and united with them a poetical and philosophical temperament, attempted, with- out regard to historical truth, once more to conjure up the spirits of tho mid- dle ages. Wherever a thorough theological discipline was permitted, this Catholicism vindicated itself by showing what the Church had been to past nges, and what it always may be to the human mind. In Germany, this ten- h) A. KZ. 1829. N. 13. 83. 183. 1833. N. 44. 65. f) Kritische Gesch. d. kirchL Unfehlbarkelt Frkl 1791. k) (KMer,} Katholikon. Fur alle untcr jeder Form das Eine. 8 ed. Aarau. 1S82. An d unbeschcidencn Verehrer d. Heiligen, bes. Maria. Ilanau. 1801. Predigten. Ulm. 1812ss. Svols. m) Ue. d. Verb. d. Ev. zu d. tbeoL Scholastik. Tub. 1823. Die kircblicben Zustande d. Gegcnw. Tab. 1849. 8 ed. Brl. KZ. 1850. N. 16. n) Einl. in d. Schrr. d. N. T. Stuttg. n. Tub. (1808-21.) 1826. 2 vols. o) Gesch. d. Textes d. N. T. Lps. 182a N. T. gr. Lps. 1830-5. 2 Th. 4. p) Tzschirner, Briefe Q. Eel. u. Politik. Lps. 1828. KdJder, Beitr. z. d. Versuchen, den Kath. zu idcalisiren. Kngsb. 1828. A. KZ. 1832. N. 155. q) P. B. Zimmer, pbiL Eeligionsl Landsb. 1805. G. M. Klein, Darst d. pbil. Eel. u. Sittenl. Barab. 1818. F. Baader, specuL Dogmat Stuttg. 1828ss. 2 P. F. A. Staudenmaier, Encykl. d. tbeoL Wiss. Mentz. 1834. \J. A. MoMer, Symbolism, or Expos, of tbe Doct Differences between Protestants and Catholics. Lond. 8vo.] r) Page 56. & 111. Symbolik. Mayence. 1832. ed. 4 1835. Tub. Quartalscb. 1838. H. 8. CHAP. VI. CATH. CHUKCH TILL 1853. 4T8. IDEAL SCHOOL. 655 dency was represented by Hoelilcr (1796-1838), who had been aroused by Schleiermacher, and at one time had been pervaded by enthusiasm in behalf of free investigation, but gradually he had been mastered by the majesty of his Church, and now infused a confiding spirit once more into the department of science. In France, since Lamennais has retired from the public scene, its principal representative has been Bantam, who learned to distrust his reason in the school of Kant, until he was prepared to surrender himself to the direction of the Scriptures and of ecclesiastical tradition, the infinite nature of whose principles was unfolded and evinced by their power in the human heart. In opposition to him, the Bishop of Strasburg defended simply scholastic reason (since 1834). (s) Gunther wished to substitute for the hea- thenish philosophy of the scholastics and the ecclesiastical fathers, a Chris- tian philosophy, whose mystical and profound spirit would play about its rational nature in the manner of Jacob Boehme, like an aurora borealis or an ignis fatuus, and might be regarded as the equal sister of the system of faith found in those established doctrines of the Church which always ap- proach nearest to the truth. But this " Romish Court Philosophy" of Treves was forbidden by an order from Rome (1852), and was threatened by German denunciations from the same quarter, (t) The same disposition and views which originated and sustained an old orthodoxy in the Protestant Church, were here also favorable to the Roman Jesuitic Catholicism ; and now when the hierarchy, with its extensive possessions, had lost also its splendid posi- tion, it received, instead of 'the distinguished worldly prelates it formerly pos- sessed, and who often opposed the pope, were very independent, and were restrained only by their political position, a class of bishops whose personal characters were eminent, who were entirely dependent upon Rome, and who used the unbroken power of the episcopacy to educate a clergy of a similar spirit. The literary conflicts of these three parties were especially exhibited in the German periodicals, (11) since in countries where every Church was protected by law, the privileges of the Catholic Church were sufficiently upheld by a censorship of the press and deposition from office. Rome did not prove itself the seat of any very extraordinary theological learning, and wherever it allowed itself to be drawn into literary controversy, it interfered by means of rather rough weapons, (v) Still even the pope prohibited only the reading of certain books, and exhorted all to collect their energies against s) Bautain : de 1'enseignement de la phll. en France. Strasb. 1833. Phil du Christianisme. Str. 1S35. Acta hist ecc. 1S35. p. 305ss. 1837. p. 68sa. C. F. Junge, L. Baut (Zeitschr. hist Th. 1837. vol. VII. p. 2.) Brl. KZ. 1S42. N. 85. f) A. Gunther : Vorschule z. spec. Th. Vien. (lS28s.) 1848. 2 vols. Der letzte Symboliker. Vien. 1834. andPa&stf; Januskopfe. Vien. 1S34 and Veith, Phil. Taschenb. Vien. 1849s. Oischinger, d. chr. PhiL vertieidigt Munich. 1853. F. J. Clemens, d. spec. Th. Gunthers. Colog. 1853. Bit KZ. 1852. N. 61. u) 1; Kirchenfreundby Benkert, Athanasia, d. Katholik by Weis. kath. Lit Z. by Kerz, Luzerner KZ., Sion, hist. pol. Blatter, by Philipps, J. Gorres, J. E. Jorg, deutsche (Kolner) Volkshalle. 2. Frei'm. Blatter u. Theol. u. Kirchenth., by Pflanz, kan. Wachter by A. Muller, constit K. Z. by Lerchenmuller, Stimmen a. d. kath, K Deutschl. 8. Tub. theol. Quartalschrift, Zeitsch. f. d. Erzb. Freiburg, K. Z. by Sengler, Jahrbb. f. Theol. u. PhiL u) Eraun, d. Lehren d. Hermesianismus gutgeheissen u. die entgegensteh. Ansichten verworfen v. d. Bischof v. Strassb. nebst e. Breve Greg. XVI. Bonn. 1885. F. Baader, u. d. Emancip. cL Katholic. v. d. rum. Dictatur. Niirnb; 1889. 656 MODEEN CHUECH HISTORY. PEE. VI. A. D. 1643-1S58. those who for selfish ends, but under the pretence of reform, had conspired against ecclesiastical and divine rights, (w) A few were wise enough to be- come reconciled in a proper manner ; others did not return untU t>ey were obliged to do so as penitent forlorn children, and still others fc-i. out entirely with the Church, (x) The Great Union of 127 Catholics at Dresden (1831) declared that the gospel, explained by the light of reason and of the age, was the only rule of their faith, and among their festivals they reckoned one for the Sun, but none for the resurrection of Christ. On the other Imnd. Carmt insisted upon the literal acceptance of the ordinary doctrines, drove Catholicism back to its principle of an infallibility by which alone men could be saved, and then tormented himself and others by practical difficulties in the way of it. (y) The Abb6 Utlsen of Brussels, in the spirit of the Cath- olic apostolic Church, exhorted men to turn from the Roman Antichrist to Christ, but it was not long before he died, abandoned by all, and with no confidence even in himself (1842). (2) 479. German Catholicism. Eduin Bauer, Gescb. d. deutocb-katb. K. Melss. 1345. W. A. Lampadius, d. dentsch-katb. IV- wcg. Lps. 184) German Catholicism has prevailed almost exclusively among the middle classes of society, but the learned Regenbreclit, a professor of canon law at Breslau, gave in his adhesion to it when the congregation was formed in that city, and Theiner, at the frequent solicitation of different parties, contributed his established reputation to the new movement (x) Both these men, how- ever, have since been estranged and separated from all connection with any congregation, principally in consequence of the course which Ronge has pur- sued. (y) Near the end of the year 1846, it became evident that the leaders in this movement were beginning to sink in public estimation, and that their cause was deficient in religious energy. It could not therefore be concealed that the movement itself had come to a dangerous pause. The new Church then numbered about 60,000 members, nearly half of whom were in Silesia. Where the Catholic population was compact and unbroken, scarcely any inroad was made upon it ; but the remnants and advanced posts of the Cath- olic Church in Protestant countries, which had been gained or maintained with difficulty for centuries, were either lost or much endangered, and seri- ous apprehensions were entertained at Rome that another Reformation was about to proceed from Germany. March, 1848, brought complete freedom to *) (fetftxu : d. Mission d. D. Kathollken. Hdlb. ISO. [Gervin**. Mission ^he^ Catho- lics, Lond. 1846. 12.] (D. SchenTcel, d. prot Gdstlichk. u. d D. Katholiken. Zur. 1846.) D. prot Geist- * S ^ dic stoaterechtL Verb. m taWHL * Baden. Heidelb. 2 ed. 1845. C. Fri^ri^ Die deutachka*. Ord* , I**, 18*. L. *<*** d. > tf*fei Theiner, d. id! Bestrebungen I. d, katb, K Brsl. 1845s, 2 R y) Bit KZ. 1847. N. 15. 660 MODERN CHUECH HISTOET. PER. VI. A. D. 1648-1858. the new Chnrch : in Saxony it was recognized as a civil corporation ; (2) the most rigid Catholic countries were thrown open to it ; in Vienna and Munich it was received with a curious interest ; in Austria it was tolerated, and in Bavaria it was recognized, though the Archbishop of Freysingen would not allow German Catholicism to be properly either Catholic or German. It was, however, soon found that the religious element within and beyond the con- gregations became less and less prominent. Kongo, as a deputy of the demo- cratic unions, published a manifesto, in which he denounced the election of an irresponsible imperial officer as an act of treason to the people; and Dowiat perhaps did injustice to the excitements of his youthful fancy, when he declared that he had looked upon the religions movement as only the means of a social agitation, but that he now regarded such a mask as need- less. The authorities of the Silesian congregations were anxious to guard against the power of mere brnte force, but they wished also to sanctiiy democracy, and make socialism a religion, (a) Probably no complete congre- gations, but some individual preachers who had some Hegelian views, hoped to find on the ruins of the Catholic and Protestant churches their new reli- gion of humanity, a true theocracy in democracy, and God himself in the congregation, (ft) The German Catholics, and those attached to the free con- gregations, naturally felt a sympathy with each other, and had therefore associated together to a considerable extent, (c) before the proposition for their union had been discussed in the third German Catholic council, and a free-congregational diet at Leipsio-Coethen (May, 1850). Some hesitation was felt by the German Catholics on account of the freedom from all forms which characterized the free congregations; and the free congregations were not altogether pleased with the want of freedom which prevailed among the German Catholics, but they were finally united in the presence of the police of both cities, so as to constitute a religions association of free congre- gations for mutual assistance in their religious efforts, but on the basis of a complete independence of each congregation. These were to have an execu- tive committee, to be chosen by a triennial assembly of deputies, but to have no power except to express its opinions, and to make proposals to the congre- gations. () (C. v Brentano,) Das bittre Leiden misers Herrn. Nach den Betrr. d. sel. A. C. Emm. nebst d Lebensumstanden dieser Begnadigten. Sulzb. 1833. 6 ed. 1842. Tholuck, verm. Schrr. voL I. p. Ills, vol. II. p. 477s.-Volksheilige zu Kaltern : A. KZ. 1833. N. 175. BrL KZ. 1840. N. !K\ c) Brl. KZ. 1849. N. 73. 1840. N. 62. 67. 662 MODERN CHUBCH HISTOEY. PEE. VL A. D. 164S-185S. The miraculous cures accomplished by Prince ffohenlohe (about 1820, d, 1849), then a canon at Bamberg, were, it is true, much extolled among the common people, but they had too little importance and character to make much way against the police and the prosaic spirit of the present age. Ift Rome, the conversion of a wealthy Jew was effected by an appearance of the Virgin Mary (1842). (KIENTAL CHURCH. 483. MECHITHAEISTS. NESTOEIANS. CHAP. VII. THE ORIENTAL CHURCH. 665 483. Catholic and Protestant Influences. Greek and Armenian congregations composed of exiles or of persons en- gaged in mercantile pursuits in Catholic countries, were obliged to purchase public protection by an acknowledgment of the papal primacy, and of the procession of the Holy Ghost from the Son as well as from the Father. In return for this the pope conceded to them the usages of their country, to- gether with the cup for the laity, and the marriage of their priests. Among the Armenians the Mechitharists were confirmed by Clement XI. as Benedic- tines (1712), and after the fall of Modon (s. 1717), in imitation of their founder MecTiithar (Comforter, 1676-1749), they founded a monastery at St. Lazarus among the lagoons of Venice, which was designed to be a medium of literary intercourse between their native country and Europe. A branch of it was established at Vienna, which has confined its pious literary views to Germany, (a) In Transylvania the Wallachians were induced by the Jes- uits to enter the Union (s. 1697), but a holy monk who came over the moun- tains (1744) filled the people with horror at this alliance. (5) As soon as the liberty for which the Hungarian Protestants had contended ( 470), was con- ceded also to the United Greeks, the result was likely to threaten their union with the Roman Church. When the American missionaries opened schools (since 1831) among the Armenians in Constantinople and Trebizond, and dis- tributed bibles among the people, many have been opposed to all worship of creatures, and to some other portions of the Armenian forms of service, and have finally been excommunicated (1846). Separate congregations were therefore indispensable, and when formed they experienced the most bitter persecutions, in consequence of an order from the patriarch requiring that all persons should withhold from them the ordinary intercourse of social and commercial life. But, in consequence of the intercessions of others in their behalf, and the favor of the Turks toward a form of worship dispensing with images and pictures, they have gradually attained a tranquil state, (c) The American missionaries have likewise succeeded in confirming (since 1833) in the knowledge of the Scriptures those remnants of the Nestorians which still exist in the mountains of Kurdistan, and which had become mere petrifactions of the Church of the fifth century, and so far as they had not become subject to the pope, established them as the Protestants of the East, (d) In many other countries where the Oriental Church prevails, schools have been established and the Scriptures have been distributed by Protestant mis- a) (Kiuver) Yita dell' Abate Mechitar. Yen. 1S10. Compendiose notizie snlla congregazione del Mechitaristi. Ven. (1819.) 1825. Windischmann d. J. in d. Tub. Quartalschr. 1S35. P. 1. Ehehnv. Rep. vol. XXVIII. p. 162ss. XXX, 157ss. fc) Acta hist. ecc. vol. X. p. HOss. c) Brl. KZ. 1846. N. 35. 77. 1847. N. 36. 42. 65. A. KZ. 1847. N. 136s. (?) A. Grant, The Nestorians, or The Lost Tribes, New York & Lond. 1S41. 12mo. (On the othei hand: E. Robinson, [in Bibl. Eep. for 1841.] Keview of Grant's Nestor. New York. 1841.) [0. P Badger, Nestorians and their rituals, &c. Lond. 1851. 2 vols. S.] Bruns. Kep. 1845. vol. I. p. 185ss. II, OOss. Ill, 84ss. 1846. vol. V. pp. 107, 198, 292ss. VI, 86ss. 666 MODERN CHUECH HISTORY. PER. VI. A. D. 1648-1853. eionaries, until the Oriental Christians have themselves begun to test the doo- trines of their Church by the Word of God, and complaints have been made that the authority of the Church has been impaired, (e) 484. Eussia. Cent, from 418. King, The rites of the Greek Charch In Russia. Load. 1721 4. Big. 1773. 4 (Acte hist ccc. nos- tri terap. vol. L p. 1. 187ss.) Hup*, klrchl. Statist v.Bass. (Nord. Misc. Blga, 1786. Sect llss.) SeUtr- mann, Abr. d. BOM. K. Ert 1783. A. dt StourcUa, Considerations surla doctrine et 1'esprlt de 1'cgl. orthod. Welm. 1S1C. Q. by JTotooiM, Lps. 181T. Pintorton, Bussla, Lond. 1883. (Ev. KZ. 1384. N. 71st) Brlefo 0. d Gottesd. d. morg. K. a, d. BOA (bj Morawieff) by K. r. Muralt, Lps. 1838. with Erklir. Anbang als Lcxldlon d. morg. K. by Ibid. Lps. 1883. [A. Nic. MuraicW, Hist of the Church of Russia, transL (from the Russian. Petersb. 1888.) by Blackmore, Ox 1842.] Die Staatsk Russl. ;m J. 1889. by a priest of the Oratory. Scbaffh. 1844 Die Bedeut d. rnss. K. fur d. gegenw. (Deatscbo Viertclj. Schr. 1841. N. 19.) JTZoM, BusL klrebL Statist (Beater, Bep. 1850. II. 1.) He/eU, d. russ. K. (Tub. Quartalsch. 1553. II. a) A.v. I/axVuiuten, Studien (L d. inncrn Zust Russl. Han. 1847. 2 vola. [/to Ciutin* (Marquis), The Empire of the Czar, or, Obss. on the Boc. Pol & Eel. state and Prospect* of B., from the French. 8 vola. 8. Loud. 1847. K. W.Stactmore, Doct of the Boss. Church, transL from the Slavono-Eusa. Originals. Aberdeen. 1845. 8.] The orthodox emperor was now the natural protector of the orthodox Oriental Church, with a power in both hemispheres such as no successor of Constantino ever possessed. After the death of the patriarch, Hadrian (1702), Peter the Great allowed his see to remain vacant until the people had become accustomed to see its duties performed by a college of prelates, which, under the name of the Holy Synod, was declared to be the supreme author- ity in the Church (1721). (d) This synod is dependent upon the emperor, but the dignity of the clergy and the peculiarities of the ecclesiastical polity are determined by the national character. But Catharine first took posses- sion of all the property of the Church, and then settled upon nearly all eccle- siastical offices and institutions a permanent but very moderate revenue. On the other hand the convents were relieved of the charge of invalids, and sem- inaries were established for education. The clergy are in the habit of filling their ranks from their own families very much as if they were a spiritual caste. Sermons Were at one time prohibited, so that no new doctrines might be propagated among the people, but many primitive and symbolical usages have been tenaciously preserved in the affections of the people. The eccle- siastical language is the old Sclavonic. Many persons were dissatisfied on ac- count of the innovations made in the liturgy by the patriarch, Nicon, and withdrew from the Established Church (1666). By those from whom they thus separated they were denominated Roskolnilci, but by themselves they were called Staroverzi. They conscientiously adhere to all the institutions of their ancestors, abominate the fashions and articles of luxury which have been introduced in modern times, and do not recognize the Czar as the con- secrated head of the Church. Many new sects have sprung from them, and in consequence of the persecutions they have endured, many of them have become the victims of a gloomy fanatical spirit. The DucJioborzi believe in no ecclesiastical connection except that which exists between kindred minds, but they are friends of the strictest morality. Others have adopted a mod* e) Hist pol. Bll. 1853. vol. XXX. H. 5. a) KHist Archiv. 1828. vol. L sect 4 p. 87ss. CHAP. VII. ORIENTAL CHURCH. 484. RUSSIA. ALEXANDER. GOT of worship intermediate between the extremes of abominable lust on the one hand, and of emmchism on the other. (5) While endeavoring to elevate the intellectual character of his people, Alexander did much to improve the con- dition of the National Church. On all lands belonging to the crown village- schools were established, the seminaries were improved, and the priests were exempted from the punishment of the knout. The national struggle against Napoleon subsequently became a war for religion. In mature life the pecu- liar fortunes and plans of the emperor inclined him (since 1812) to a melan- choly style of piety, (c) When the British and Foreign Bible Society was formed in London, at the emperor's request a general auxiliary was established at Petersburg (since 1813), and under the supervision of the Holy Synod an edition of the New Testament was published in the Russian language (1821), and was afterwards gradually sent forth in almost every dialect of every na- tion in the empire. With simple confidence the Bible was placed by the people among their sacred pictures, but an ecclesiastical opposition was ex- cited against it throughout the nation, which was strengthened by observing certain erroneous applications of passages of the Scriptures made by the peo- ple. The emperor was therefore finally induced to abolish the Bible Society in Eussia (1826). (d) And yet the imperial government felt constrained to do something for the conversion of his heathen and Mohammedan subjects in three distinct quarters of the world. Ecclesiastical institutions were estab- lished for the education of missionaries, and inducements were held out to those who might become converts to Christianity. Under Nicolas a plan has been formed and generally favored by the people (since 1825), according to which the whole Eussian nationality is to be civilized by efforts from within itself, and all the tribes subject to its government are to become one in lan- guage and in creed. By the conquest of a portion of the Persian territories (1828) Eussia obtained possession of a great part of Armenia, including the . convent of Echmiadzin, the principal seat of the Catholicus of the Armenian Church, by whom alone the bishops and the holy oil could be consecrated. Measures were however taken by the Armenian Church to prevent its incor- poration with the Eussian. (e) Peter I. gave freedom of worship to both Catholics and Protestants, but this indulgence was confined to those foreigners who resided in the country, and were needed in the public service. When Catharine II. acquired possession of the Polish Eussian provinces, a part of the population became members of the United Greek Church (p. 482), and another part united with the Eussian. But even those who were deeply im- bued with the Eoman element finally yielded to the prevalent inclination, and 6) Strahl, Sectemv. d. russ. K. (EHist Arcbiv. 1824. Sect 4 p. 26ss. 1S25. Sect I. p. 42ss.) Lens, de Duchoborzis. Dorp. 1829. P. I. (Jen. L. Z. N. 166s.) Ev. KZ. 1328. N. 52ss. 1S85. N. lOss. Rheinw. Rep. vol. XXII. p. 270ss. c) Especially Pinfcerton: H. L. E. Notiz u. Alex. Jena. 1S23. [Lend. Weekly Rev. for Mar, 1829. (in Littell's Rel. Mag. vol. III. p. 502ss. Philad. 1829.) Schnitzler, Seer. H. of the Court V bttuv Kal iepwv K a- v6vcaj>, ed. G. A. Ballis et M. Botlis, Athen. 1852. 2 vols. &) #/&, (p. 357.) p. llSas. c) A. KZ. 1833. N. 191. d) A. Z. 1837. SuppL N. 184 A. KZ. 1887. N. 32. D. A. Z. 1845. Suppl. N. 362. The chief organ, T? eyarye\) Noticed indeed in A. KZ, of 1830. N. 27, but not erected until 1831. c) Thiele, Thorwaldsen's Leben u. Werke. Lps. 1832s. 2 vola. d) J. J. Hess, u. Danneckere Christus. Zur. 1826. C. Gruneiaen u. Th. Wagner, Dann. "Wcrkflk Hamb. (1842.) 4. e) W. If. Wackenroder, Herzensergiessungen e. kunstliebenden Klosterbr. ed. by Tieck. BrL 1797. /) Brl. KZ. 1852. N. 20. 24. 82. CHAP. VI1L GENERAL AFFAIRS. 483. CHURCH ARCHITECTURE & MUSIC. 675 his kingdom, and had all the different forms of the ecclesiastical styles of former times represented in the churches of his capital. Frederic William III. had the Cathedral of Cologne once more repaired (since 1824), and Frederic William IV. laid the foundation stone for its completion (Sept. 4th, 1842), that it might he a work of brotherly love for all Germans, (g) Isaac's Church of Petersburg raised its cupolas and granite pillars more proudly than any other church of Greco-Eoman architecture. The three great masters of instrumental music at Vienna have contributed none of their peculiarities nor their highest efforts to the Church. Haydn's Creation, great as it is, is never- theless only a great opera, in which the Lord God with his angels are repre- sented, (h) Mozart did not compose his Requiem until he was dying, (i) and Beethoven, in his own exalted sphere, felt that he was a priest of God, but not In an ecclesiastical sense, and his Christ on the Mount of Olives and his Sec- ond Mass were indeed a Creation, but they never reached their seventh day. Felix Mendelssohn, who had been educated in the rigid school of Sebastian Bach, and amid the glories of Handel's art, has given a harmonious expres- sion to the direct Word of God, combining profound devotional earnestness Avith cheerful artistic beauty, especially in the lyrical strains of his Psalms, and in the more dramatic works Paul and Elijah. Like Eaphael, however, he was taken away from earth (1847) before he had realized in his language the complete ideal of his Christ. While the friends of art in Protestant Ger- many, though generally without reference to the Church, labored to promote an understanding and love of the old ecclesiastical muse, (&) the Italian churches resounded with the most frivolous opera melodies. The papal chapel alone preserved the old serious style, though much of the skilful per- formance of former days was lost. When the mode of singing hymns in quartettes, which, in some Eeformed churches, and particularly in Switzer- land, was an inheritance from their ancestors, was first introduced by an as- sociation in Stuttgard, and recommended by the Synod of Wurtemberg (1823), many voices were raised against it on the ground that such a style of singing was too artistic for a congregation. (I) Liturgical forms of divine service were brought into use first at Berlin, and afterwards in other places, in which the old Catholic as well as Protestant masters of Church music were re- vived, (m) - ,.' j./- 488. Emancipation and Conversion of the Jews. liiesser, der Jude. Alton. 1832ss. ff. W. JBohmer, Gleichstellong der Juden. Gott 1833. Jost, neuere Gesch. d. Israel. 1815-45. BrI. 1846. 2 vols. Since Moses Mendelssohn (d. 1786) and Lessing gave to each other the hand of fellowship the Jews have participated with much eagerness and suc- g) Brl. KZ. 1842. N. 73. 1848. N. 69. 1849. N. 80. \fi) L. A. a Bombet, Life of Haydn, in Letters. Prov. 1S20. 12. i) K Holmes, Life & Corr. of Mozart. New York. 1845. 12.] k) (Thibaut ) Ueber Reinheit in d. Tonkunst. Heidlb. (1825. 1826.) 1851. I) Kocher, d. Tonk. in d. K. Stuttg. 1823. A. KZ. 1823. N. 7. 105. 1825. N. 45.-1S2*. N. 122. 1S24 N. 28. 60. 1826. N. 32. m) Ev. KZ. 1844. N. 51s. 1845. K 15. 105. 1851. N. 48. 676 MODERN CHTTBCH HISTOEY. PER. VI. A. D. 1MS-1855. cess in tha improvements of modern times, (a) A rational tendency has thus been formed which exhibits a purely biblical literature, and withdraws the mind entirely from the Talmudic institutes. In its struggles against the old Rabbinism it has founded a new Temple with a simple form of public wor- ship in the language of the people. Some attempts to accomplish a still more extensive reform were made, and it was found that in doing so either the Mosaic system without circumcision (to which, however, Christian gov- ernments compelled the Jews to adhere) might be made consistent with an unlimited progress in improvements (Frankfort, 1840), or their national dis- tinctions might be abandoned, and they could still adhere to the religious character peculiar to Judaism (Berlin, 1846). (&) The educated Jews on the west of the Vistula have generally given up their religious national peculiari- ties, and are not prevented by their adherence to Moses from believing also in Christ. They stand therefore, with respect to Christianity, precisely where Moses Mendelssohn stood. It was natural that persons in this condi- tion should begin to demand a complete equality of civil rights. The watch- word civil and religious freedom for all the world t gained a powerful party in favor of such an emancipation. Napoleon called a meeting of the great Sanhedrim (1806), (ach, d. Judenth. u, d. neueste Lit Stnttg. 1886. [M. Samuels, Mem. of M. M. & Corresp. with La- vater. Lend. 1827. 2 d. 8.] &) U, A. Francolm, d, rationale Judenth. BrsL 1840. Nethiboth Olatn. Vergleich zw. d. rnodernen Jadonth. u. d. EeL Mosis u. d. Proph. (from the EngL) Frkf. 1889. A. frdnJcel, d. mod. Judenth. ; d. Frankf. Eef. u. d. neue Zeit EeutL 1844. D. A. Z. 1946. N. 41. c) Procea verbal des seances de I'assemblee des deputes franc, professant la reL Jufve. Par. 1806. Eevue des deux mondes. 1852. Sept 15. d) Pavlus, die jud. Nationalabsondrnng. Heidlb. 1881. On the other side: Erug, Henoticon. Entw. e. Eeligionsgesetzes christl Staaten. Lps. 1886. ) D. A. Z. 1847. N. 161. 219. M. Veil, d. Entwurf e. Verordn. f. d. Verb. d. Juden in Prenssen Lps. 1847. Stahl, d. christl. Staat u. sein Verb. z. Delsmus u. Judenth. Brl. 1847. , CHAP. VIIL GENERAL AFFAIRS. 488. JEWS. 489. SLAVERY. 677 The National Assembly in St. Paul's Church, over which on one occasion a Jew presided, granted by an almost unanimous vote full rights of citizenship to the Jews ; (/) but the execution of this enactment has been almost uni- versally prevented in the German States by Christians belonging to the edu- cated and the ignorant classes, (g} In England, Parliament has removed the civil disabilities of the Jews (since 1829), but the oath of adherence to the Christian faith required of all members of Parliament has prevented their ad- mission there. And yet the city of London has repeatedly chosen a Roths- child for its representative (since 1847). The Lower House has more than once adopted Russell's proposal to change the form of this oath, but the Lords have hitherto rejected it, on the ground that the admission of a Jew would be an insult to the Son of God, and the commencement of an atheistic government. (K) While the rationalist party took no special interest in the work of converting rationalist Jews, (i) the pietists entered upon it with p.e- culiar zeal. Societies of the Friends of Israel were formed for this purpose in England (1808), in America, and in some of the German cities. (&) The result of these efforts proves that aside from those Jews who live in countries not professedly Christian, and those who are already seeking salvation, and therefore need instruction or protection, more may be expected from the power of Christian, improvements in Europe, under the influence of which the Jews reside, than from any direct attempts at conversion, against which they have such prejudices. The inhabitants of the Ghetto in Rome were compelled once more in 1823 to listen every Sabbath to a sermon for their conversion. (I) In the East the legend of the middle ages with respect to the fanatical use of Christian blood was now revived, and used to justify every kind of cruelty and horrible outrage against the Jews (1840). (wz) 489. Abolition of Slavery. E. JSiot, de 1'abolition de 1'esclavage ancien en Occident. Par. 1840. Tk F. Buxton, d. afrik Scla venhandel u. s. Abhiilfe from the EngL by Julius. Lps. 1841. [The African Slave Trade and Its abe tors. Lond. 1841. 8.] The Church has always endeavored to mitigate the evils of slavery (p. 138), and as soon as it possessed the power, to restrain them by legal enactments. But it was not until some time in the middle ages that the last remnants of European slavery were abolished by law. After Europe had for three centu- ries gathered up the riches of America by means of the newly introduced slavery of the African (p. 338), the great principles of universal liberty com- bined with those of the gospel in demanding the emancipation of the negro. 44 A party of the Saints," as they were called in derision, which had sprung /) Stenograph. Bericht. 1848. vol. III. p. lT54ss. 0) A. KZ. 1851. 33T. 119. Brl. KZ. 1851. N. 83. A) A. Z. 1S34 N. 184. 1836. N. 381. (Jewish Disabilities Bill) D. A. Z. 184T. N. 362. 1S49. N. 167. (Friedldnder) Sendschr. an Tellern von einigen Hausvdtera jud. BeL Brl. 1T9. comp. Tho- luck, verm. Bchrr. vol II. p. 126. *) Rheinw. Rep. vol. XXIII. p. 84, 186ss. vol. XXV. p. 82, 274ss. vol. XXVIII. p. 273ss. Die Freunde Isr. Nachrichten v. d. Ausbr. d. Reiches G. Bas. 1841. 3 P. Qawsen, d. Verkund d. Ev unter d. Jnden. from the French. Ilamb. 1844. 1) A. KZ. 182a N. 41. m) A. Z. 1840. N. 140s. & others. 678 MODERN CHURCH HISTORY. PEE. VL A. D. 1643-1858. from the Methodistic movement, contended for a long time almost hopelessly in Parliament against the existence and the necessity of slavery in the colo- nies. Their speeches awakened hopes among the slaves, which, in some in- stances led to insurrections. During one of these, among the negroes of De- marara, the passions of the people became so inflamed that a missionary whose name was Smith was condemned, and died in confinement (1824) before the king's pardon arrived from England. When the tumults among the slaves of Jamaica had been quelled, the chapels of the Baptists and Meth- odists on the island were demolished, and the lives of their preachers were in peril because they had preached that all the children of God were free, (a) The abolition of the African slave trade by political treaties (1830) was found to be entirely inadequate to effect the object at which it aimed, as long as slavery itself enjoyed the protection of the laws, (ft) After years of prepara- tion in various ways, the English nation made an offering of a hundred and twenty millions of dollars to indemnify the masters, that after a certain time of preparation by instruction the slaves might be introduced to the privileges of citizens, and that all of them might be declared free in the colonies of England after the 1st of August, 1884. As the slaves had become Christian- ized by such means and by previous efforts, their emancipation was found to be practicable and safe, (c) An Order was established by the Abbess Javohoy for the purchase of negroes in the French colonies with a view to educate them, and thus prepare them for civil freedom, and its efforts have been at- tended (s. 1888) with some degree of success, (d) A society for the extinc- tion of slavery was formed at Paris (1885). The constitution of the Repub- lic of 1848 abolished all slavery on French territory, and the National Assem- bly of 1849 decreed that all losses of the owners of slaves in consequence of emancipation should be compensated from the public treasury. Denmark de- clared that all children of slaves born after the passage of the act of manu- mission should be free, and fixed upon a certain year (1847) as the definite limit beyond which all slavery was to cease throughout its colonies, (e) In the Southern portion of the United States the material interests which would be seriously injured by the abolition of slavery, came into violent collision with the enthusiasm which demanded that all who had been redeemed by the blood of Christ should, at all hazards, be set at liberty. The sovereign people began (1885) to hang those clergymen who preached against slavery, and the negroes who listened to them, in accordance with their own forms of justice (Lynch's law.) (/) Gregory XVI. having reviewed the decrees of his predecessors, condemned the trade in negroes as utterly inconsistent With Christianity (1839) ; (gr) but instead of being diminished, its horrors becam more dreadful. a) A. KZ. 1824. N. 98, Ev. KZ. 1882. N. 93. 1) A, Z. 1885. N. 142. 0) Abschaffung d. Sklav. in d Colonicn. (Ausland. 1884. N. SSSsa.) d) A. Z. 1885. Suppl. N. 149. e) D. A, Z. 1847. N. 252. /) A. Z. 1885. N. 244. ff) A. KZ. 1840. N. 19. CHAP. VIII. GENERAL AFFAIRS. 490. ST. SIMON. SOCIALISM. 679 490. St. Simonism and Socialism. As civil liberty triumphantly advanced, and taught men that they had an equal right to the natural productions of the soil, and as at the same time industry became freed from its trammels, and, by the progress which it caused in the natural sciences, produced reciprocal advantages, the wealth of the world accumulated in the possession of the few, and threw the masses of society, on the other hand, into a state of the most hopeless want, (a) Under these circumstances, the idea arose with great power, especially in the minds of many in France and England, either by a social revolution to introduce a community and a just distribution of goods (Communism), or by an organi- zation of labor into free associations for trade and subsistence, to assist those portions of society which have been oppressed, in obtaining a proper share of the enjoyments and improvements which are now exclusively in the pos- session of a few (Socialism). (5) Christianity was found compatible with such efforts, and even countenanced them to some extent, by the aid of such facts in its primitive period as the compassion of Jesus for the poor, his indig- nation against the wealthy, one attempt at a community of goods, and in the history of its orders and sects having much to say of a voluntary surrender of wealth, and a community of goods in a variety of forms, (c) But as Christianity was interwoven with all the existing relations of society, and Pantheism had now made the idea of renouncing the pleasures of this life intolerable, by destroying all hope of another world, Communism has, in the person of its first leaders, who fell under the guillotine of a merely political revolution in France, (d) for the most part renounced all connection with Christianity, (e) But as the unavoidable necessity of some kind of religion was perceived, the idea was adopted of making it the basis of the new order of things. Accordingly, in France, Count St. Simon gave to his plan for improving the condition of laborers by elevating industry to the highest pos- sible privileges, the name of a religion a new Christianity. (/) When he died, in consequence of an attempt at suicide (May 19, 1825), a single disciple, Olinde Kodrigues, stood by his death-bed. The new worldly gospel which had been introduced in the midst of the liberty and the excitements imme- diately following the revolution of July, was proclaimed by sermons, mis- sions, and polemical treatises sent forth from Paris. It declared that Catho- licism was in its dotage, that Protestantism was a mere" negation, that Christ o) The Claims of Labor. Lond. 1845. Engels, d. Lage d. arbeit classo in Engl. Lps. 1845. V) L. Stein, d. Social u. Commun. d. heutigen Frankr. Lps. 1848. (BlunUchli^ Die Communis- ten in d. Schwciz nach d. b. Weitling vorgefund. Papieren. Commissionsbcricht Zur. 1843. c) C. B. JTundeshagen, d. Commun. n. d. ascetische Socialreform im Laufe d. christL Jahrhh. (Stud. u. Krit 1845. H. 3s.) J. P. Bomang, d. Bedeut. d. Comm. a. d. Gesichtsp. d. Christenth. n. d. sittl. Cultur. Zur. 184T. Proudhon, d. Sonntagsfeier. a. d. Fr. Eatisb. 1850. d) F. N. Bdboeuf, lo tribun du peuple. Par. (1795.) F. Buonarotti, la conspiration de Baboeut Brux. 1S28. e) (P. 554s.) Coinp. Gcneralbericht an d. Staatsr. v. Neuchatel u. d. geb. dentsche Propaganda. Zur. 1846. Ev. KZ. 1846. N. 98. /) Introd. aux travaux scientiflques du 19. S. Par. 1807. 2 vols. 4. Reorganisation de la societt Europ. Par. 1814. Catechisme des industriels. Par. 1824. Le nouveau cbristianisme. Par. 1825, (Oeuvres p. O. Rodrigues. Par. 1832. 2 vols. Extracts in Bucbholz neuer Monatschr. vol. 21s. 84s.) 680 MODERN CHURCH HISTORY. PER. YL A. D. 1648-1853. had provided only for the spiritual portion of our nature, and that St. Simon was about to reinvest the flesh in its rights. Siinonism became, on the one hand, a deification of the world, and on the other, a consecration of industry as a series of operations upon the divinity itself. Its general law was, that after the law of inheritance had been abolished, every individual should receive from the common stock in proportion to Lis capacity, and every capacity according to ita works. This principle was to be carried out under the direction of a hierarchy, whose arbitrary power was concealed under tirades about love and self-sacrifice. (?) Even noble minds wore sometimes captivated by the unsparing manner in which the evils of the present state of society were kid bare, by the substitution of merit for the accident of birth, and the reinvestiture of the disinherited son of European society in the rights of a man. The boldest language which this spirit of the age ven- tured to use, was that in which an exclusive attention to material interests was dignified with the name of religion. But when Enfantin, one of the leaders of this party, a stately and energetic but narrow-minded man, in his character of the highest revelation of the Deity, bestowed his principal atten- tions upon women, and, as their Messiah, made woman free by destroying the restraints of marriage, and aiming to attain privileges like those of Mo- hammed, a schism was produced (Nov., 1881), and Rodrigues proclaimed that Simonism had apostatized from St. Simon. The saloon of the Simonists was closed by order of the government, and they were themselves arraigned be- fore the legal tribunals for propagating principles dangerous to morality. Their condemnation (Aug., 1832) was a convenient kind of martyrdom, and the supreme Father Enfantin still continued the object of a confiding venera- tion to all true believers, (h) But the public prominence which their hier- archy and morality had attained, destroyed all public confidence, and their monastic seclusion, their costume, and their phraseology became a matter of general ridicule, (t) Robert, Owen (b. 1772), a benevolent manufacturer of England, became convinced, by observing the poverty and unhappiness of those around him, that man had been conducted by the present system of civilization to the very verge of an abyss. After vainly attempting to regen- erate human society on his own possessions in England (since 1800) and in North America (1828), he turned his attention, by means of lectures, tracts, and missionaries, to the neglected portion of the English nation. He con- tended, that instead of standing in the way of one another, men should co- operate and enjoy the fruit of their common toil ; that instead of the present system of unnatural marriages, there should be a free choice of kindred spirits ; and that instead of families, there should be congregations. So far as our knowledge at present extends, we have no certainty that the existence g) Doctrine de SL Sim. Par. 1828. cd. 3. 1S31. vol. L Communion g6n6rale de la famille de St 8. Par. 1S31. J. Le Chevalier, rel. St Simonienne. Enseignement central. Par. 1831. (Zeitschr. f. hist. Th. vol. I. Part 2.) Association TJnivereelle. Par. 1831. . 7i) Le Chevalier, sur la division. Par. 1832. Proces des St S. Par. 1882. i) Carort, d. St Sim. u. d. neuere franz. PhiL Lps. 1831. Bretschmeider, d. St S. u. d. Chris- tenth. Lps. 1832. M. Veit, St Simon u, d. St Simonisten. Lps. 1884 Matter, in d. Stnd. u. Krit 1832. P. 1. Kapff, in d. Tub. Zeitsch. 1832. P. 2. CHAP. VIII. GENERAL AFFAIRS. 491. HOLY ALLIANCE. 681 of man is protracted beyond the present life, and hence every religion which leads the mind beyond this world is a delusion. Men are responsible to no superior being; but should they be placed from childhood in right cir- cumstances, without the perverting influence of poverty and ignorance, they would be animated by a spirit of kindness toward every living thing, which would render any division of property entirely unnecessary. () This scheme of Socialism found great favor (since 1836) among those who were engaged in manufactures. Simonism had been utterly ruined by the laughter of the French people, and it was perfectly safe for the government to confide the rectification of Owen's theories to the sound sense of the English people. But the dangerous spirit of Communism is still undermining the foundations of European civilization, and has not yet been allayed by the higher authority of the State, nor by the benevolent power of Christianity. (?) 491. The Holy Alliance. Krug, la sainte AIL o. Denkmal d. h. Bundes. Lps. 1S16. (Gesamm. Schrr. vol. III.) Archiv d. h. Bundes. Munich. 1818. Notiz ii. Alex. Jena. 1828. p. 29ss. Eylert, Friedr. Wilh. IIL voL IL Abth. 2. p. 24SSS. F. F. Fleck, d. Krieg u. d. Ewige Friede. Lps. 1849. Under the influence of the Emperor Alexander, then consoling himself for his lost ideals, and seeking religious instruction in the society of Madame de Krudener (p. 595), (a) the princes of Europe, with the exception of the King of England, the Pope, and the Sultan, organized a Holy Alliance (1815), that the members of it might become a great Christian family, in which, regardless of the various ecclesiastical divisions, the law of Christian love might be made the supreme law of nations. The statesmen of Europe smiled at the strange language; the Holy Alliance in its actual operation, soon turned out to be very much like other holy leagues of former times, and it finally dwindled imperceptibly away (since 1830). Monarchs belonging to the three Churches of Christendom in 1840, even conquered the Holy Land for the Turks. And yet this ideal thus involuntarily recognized, or in the commotions of an extraordinary period rapidly vanishing, is an everlasting truth, and a prophecy of a future reality. For the accomplishment of what Henry IV. and Elizabeth once had in view, (J) and respecting which many philosophers have dreamed, an annual Congress of the friends of peace has . been formed (since 1843), under the influence of an American association of Quakers (since 1815). The advocates of this movement declare, that the welfare of Europe is sacrificed to sustain the expense of an armed peace establishment ; that the principles of Christianity utterly forbid war ; and that all the disputes which arise between different governments, may be &) Ev. KZ. 1889. N. 43. A. KZ. 1840. N. 81. 50. BrL KZ. 1840. N. 22. Khctnw. Bep. 1841. voL XXXII. p. 179ss. 242ss. [R. D. Owen, Book of the New Mor. World. N. York. 1S44. New View of Society. N. York. 1825. 12. Debate with Campbell Cine, 1880.] P. 591. Hirscher (p. 654.) A. Vinet, d. Social in s. Princip. from the Fr. by Hofmeister, with Vor\v. by A. Neander, Brl. 1849. If. Mera, Armuth u. Christenth. Stuttg. 1S49. ZT. Arnim-BLvan- lerg, d. hohern Stunde wie sie sein sollten u. wie sie sind. Brl. 1851. a) C.HI. Eynard, Vie de Me. de Krudener. Par. 1849. 2 vols. &) G. G. Gervinus, Einl. in d. Gesch. d. 19. Jahrh. Lps. 1853. p. 194s. [Introd. to the Hist of the 19th Cent., from the Germ, of Gervinus. Lond. 1853. 12. p. 75.] 682 MODEEN CHUECH HISTOET. PEE. VI. A. D. 1643-1S53. brought to an amicable termination by the decisions of arbitrators, (c) The declamations of this Congress, and Elihu's pipe of peace, have been made the subject of general derision, for even Christ has brought a sword into our world ; but the gospel, attended by an advancing civilization, holds up this Peace of God, this holy alliance of the nations, as the great ideal which it perpetually strives to attain. c) A. KZ. 1650. N. 121. [R Burritt, Thoughts and Things at Home and Abroad, with Life, by Mary Howitt Boston. 1858. 12. T. C. Upham, Manual of Peace. N. York. 1886. 8. C. Sumner, The Grandeur of Nations. Boston. 1847. (Orat and Addresses. Boat. 1850. 12.) J. Dymond, Accordance of War with Chr. Phtlad. 1888. 12.] APPENDIX, [Some of the first pages of this translation were stereotyped before the seventh German edition was announced in this country. The following is nearly all the additional matter in the course of those pages, and all which seemed of importance.] P. 7, the author says of Matthias Flacius and Caesar Baronius, that they " were agreed in acknowledging the authority of the primitive Church and its dogmas, and in regarding the history of the Church as a conflict between Christ and Satan ; but according to Baronius, Christ, though sometimes slum- bering in his little vessel, has conducted it safely through every storm; while, according to Flacius, Antichrist has set up his seat of power in the midst of the Church itself." Add to the last sentence of 11 : " The necessities of modern times have been provided for especially by the graceful work of Berault Berncastel, (a) by the compilation of Henrion, (&) and by Rohrlacher, (c) whose labors dis- play a considerable sympathy with the researches of German scholars." Near the middle of p. 10, Neander is said to have given to the pietistic school before represented by Milner, "a scientific character, by uniformly referring to the original authorities, by entering heartily into the peculiarities and earnestly developing the doctrines of past times, and by giving promi- nence to long-neglected representations of the Christian life, as they were variously exhibited in particular individuals of uncommon talents. He dis- plays a confidence in Christianity as a divine leaven, which must gradually pervade all human affairs ; and though affectionately attached to the Church as the fellowship of the saints, he is tolerant toward all who oppose it on merely doctrinal grounds, and he clothes his descriptions with an ample and devotional, but unassuming, simple, and natural oriental drapery. (cT) In the same spirit, Jacobi has commenced a Text-Book, in which general principles a) Hist do 1'eglise. Par. 1778-91. 24 vols. With Contin. by Pelier de Lacrofo, RoUano, etc. &) New e) Fragm. de canone in Murat, Antiqq. Ital. voL III. p. 853. It may after all have been intended only for a Montanistic object ( Tertul. de pud. c. 2 : illo apocryphus Pastor moechoruin.) Comp. Thiersch, d. K. im Ap. Zeita. p. 251ss. c) Rev. 1, 20. 2, 1. 8. 12. 18. 8, 1. 7. Neither with Gabler, (1. c. p. 14ss.) Agents, and at the same time personifications of the Churches, nor with Roihe (p. 423s.), ordinary bishops, but which ex- isted originally in the plan of the apostles, nor with Thiersch (K. in Ap. Zeita. p. 278ss.), superior pastors, a kind of bishops. Comp. De Wette, Offcnb. Jo. p. 41s. d) Acts 6, 6. 13, 3. ) 1 Cor. 11, 1-15. /) Ep. ad Philemon. Gal. 3, 2S. fir) Rom. 13, 1-7. 1 Pet. 2, 13-16. 688 APPENDIX. CONFLICTS OF CHRISTIANITY. In the first sentence of 44 : " The devotional exercises of the Christian assemblies, like those of the Jewish synagogues, consisted, in addition to an attendance in the church at Jerusalem upon the temple service, generally of prayers, singing of psalms and even of the first strains of the Christian hymns, (a) the reading of the proper sections of the Old Testament, and discourses founded upon these." It is also said, that "Apostolic epistles were sometimes exchanged between different congregations (Col. 4, 15s.)," and that " in Greek congregations, baptism was sometimes administered to those who stood as proxies for the dead. (&)" On p. 45, after what is said of Sept. Severus : " but the process of trial by torture, to induce the accused to deny their faith, which had been author- ized by Trajan, and after the time of Marcus Aureliua had been practised with increased severity, was strictly enforced by the courts, at least in Africa, (c)" After what is said of Alex. Severus : " and yet, in the code of laws which TJlpian collected for the use of the proconsuls, were included tho penal enactments against the Christians. (o-t/zoi>) was kept with a love-feast, as a festival of rejoicing for the accomplishment of the work of re- demption, at the close of the great fast on the evening of the fourteenth of Nisan. In other parts of the Church, the Resurrection of our Lord (TT. avaa-Tdai^ov) was celebrated on the Sunday after the full moon in the spring, and the pre- ceding week of the fast was observed as a representation of the Passion-week. "When Poly carp visited Rome (about 160), this difference in reckoning was discussed, though without injury to Christian unity. But the Roman bishop, Victor, attempted to excommunicate the Asiatic congregations as heretics (196), for their course in this matter. Public opinion was in favor of the Roman usage with respect to this festival, but it could not sustain the violent measures of the Roman bishop against those who differed from him only upon a ritual observance. Polycrates, in behalf of the Asiatic bishops, ap- pealed, as Polycarp had done, to the example of John, who had observed the a) Constitt. app. VIII, 32. Comp. Stinsen, Hippolyt vol. I. p. 492. 6) Herm. Pastor II. mand. 4, 1. Tertul. dc pudic. c. 12. Cone. Jttiberit. c. Is. 7. etc. PASCHAL CONTROVERSY. WORSHIP. BAPTISM. 69 1 Passover in their way among them and their ancestors, (a) But in Laodicea and the country around it, the churches continued to eat the paschal lamb in the Jewish manner, as a type of Christ's sacrifice. A remonstrance against this was presented (about 170) from Alexandria, from Kome, and even from Asia Minor, on the ground that it was inconsistent with the whole represen- tation of John in his gospel, in which Christ was never said to have par taken of the paschal supper according to the law, because he was himself the true Lamb of God, (5) The Roman usage finally prevailed in the third cen- tury, and even then, those who contended, though in ignorance, that this festival should be kept according to the Jewish law, were spoken of in Eome among the heretics, (c) But there were still some deviations, in different parts of the Church, from the general usage of reckoning the Easter Sunday from the course of the moon, (d) The fifty days," &c, Near the close of 70, instead of the " cock and anchor;" " and the palm ; symbols taken principally from the Old Testament, but of typical import. From the use of these in their houses, Christians were led to use them IL. ornamenting their tombs; and as works of art in fresco or mosaic, they were gradually introduced from the catacombs into the churches. But even," &o. Instead of the first sentence of 71 : " On the basis of the apostolic wor- ship, and under the influence of obscure recollections of the services of the temple on Zion, a solemn form of worship was gradually introduced, though some peculiarities prevailed in the different metropolitan districts which pre- vented entire uniformity in its details, (e) Prophetic and apostolic writings, in the most extensive sense of these words, and the acts of the martyrs, dif- ferent according to local usage and interest, were read in the public assem- blies. The homilies which followed were delivered principally by the bishop alone ; they were in the East constructed and uttered in a rhetorical style, and they were therefore, even in the third century, extemporized by those whose peculiar talents fitted them for such an exercise. The songs in honor of Christ as a God, in which the oldest hymns that have reached us were used, had a resemblance to the Pindaric odes, and show an Alexandrian spirit. (/)" In the same section, the bread and wine presented by believers are called " oblationes ;" " the consecrated bread taken home by them, or sent to the absent, was eaten every morning before any thing else ; " (g} u baptism was ad- ministered usually by immersion three times, to the sick by sprinkling (B, clinicorum), with reference to the death of our Lord, and in the name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost ; " " anointing (^pta/ia), as well as impo- a) Eus. H, ecc. V, 28-25. Tertul. de pracscr. {Append.) c. 53. Socrat. H. ecc. V, 21. &) Eus. H. ecc. IV, 26. Chronicon pascli. ed. Dindorf, voL I. p. 12ss. (Melito, Bp. of Sardes. Clemens Alex., Apollinaris, Bp. of Hierapolis, Hippolytus.) c) (Orig.) Haeres. Rcfut p. 274ss. d) F. Piper, Gesch. d. Osterfestes. Brl. 1S45. e) Constitt. fipp. VIII. Comp. the Alexandrian view according to Tattam's representation in Bunsen, Hippol. p. 494ss. /) Clem. Paed. Ill, 12. (Clem. Hymn, in Salv. ed. Piper, Gdtt. 18S5.) Ubers. b, Munter, Sinnb. u. Kunstvorst. p. 16s. ff) Tertul. ad uxor. II, 5. comp. JBuneen, Hippol, p. 504. 692 APPENDIX. ANCIENT CHURCH. sition of hands, was the consummation of baptism ; and confirmation (COD- signatio) hecame finally a distinct rite." P. 71, instead of the sentence commencing with "Justin": u Tho memorabilia of the apbstles, quoted by Justin , correspond essentially with the history given in the synoptic gospels. But some deviations from it can- not be fully explained by allowing that they were written from an indepen- dent recollection. They rather imply that he could not have made use ol these synoptic gospels, but that he must have had besides them, or instead of them, such a revision as was in use among the Jewish Christians, like the Gospel of the Hebrews, or the Gospel of Peter, (a)" After the ninth line on p. 78 : u In these respects they entirely correspond with the Martyr- Acts of Ignatius. (&) The feelings of humility and of self- respect, as well as the desire to die, shown in them, were very possible in a character highly esteemed in the age in which the martyr lived, and the abuse of the soldiers, and his free intercourse with his friends, were consistent with the Roman laws on imprisonment. But not only have we indubitable evidence that the more extensive text has been revised, (c) and that other epistles have been added to the original seven, but even the shorter text dis- covered again in the seventeenth century, has not proved to be perfectly genuine, (d) The newly-discovered Syriac translation of three epistles, in the briefest and the rather less hierarchic text, produces the impression that it can be only an extract, (e) But if even the germ of these epistles should prove to be spurious, and not essentially the same with the fundamental ideas in the more extended work we now have, they would still be an important document of the middle of the second century. (/) The Epistle of Polycarp to the Philippians is a modest admonition to morality, was written with reference to the actual circumstances of their Church, makes several allusions to Paul, and is pervaded by the same spirit as the first epistle of John, and the pastoral epistles. The obvious reference to Ignatius is probably of a later origin. (0) Papias," &c. The title of 74 is changed into "Apocryphal Literature." References are : a) Note Z>. p. 7t. Semisch, d. app. Denkw. d. Just Goth. 1843. ffilgenfeld, krit TJnters. u. d, Erv. Jnst, d. Clem. Homilien. u. Marcion's. HaL 1850. 6) (After the editt. of the Patres app.) Corpus Ignatlanum by Will. Cureton, Lond. 1849. Ignatti quae feruntur Epp. cum ejusd. martyrio, coll. editt graecis, vereionibusq. syriaca, armen., lat rec. J. IL Petermann, Lps. 1849. M. J. Wocher, d. Brr. d. h. Ign. fibers, u. erklart Tub. 1829. c) On the other hand only paradoxically : K. Meier, d. dopp. Rec. d. BIT. d. Ign. (Stud. u. Krit 1S3S. H. 3.) <) Against the genuineness: J.DaUaeus, Baur, J. E. C. Schmidt, (abridged in his KGesch.) and Netz, (as referred to in Note a. p. 78.) Schwegler, nachap. Zeita. voL II. p. 159ss. (respecting a Pauline as a counterpoise to the Petrine Clementines in Rome after the middle of the 2d cent) For the genuineness : Pearson, Voas, Kothe, Huther, and Dusterdieck, (as referred to in Note a. p. 73.) e) Note &. p. 73. C. E. J. Bunaen, Ign. u. s. Zeit 7 Sendsch. an Neander. Die 3 achten u. 4 unachten Brr. d. Ign. Hmb. 1847. 4. On the other side : Baur, Die Ign. Brr. n. ihr neuester Kri- tiker. Tub. 1848. H. Denzinger, u. d. Aechth. d. bish. Textes d. Ign. Brr. Wurzb. 1849. G. Uhlhorn, d. Verb. d. syr. Rec. d. Ign. BIT. z. d. kurtzern griech. (Zeitsch. f. hist Th. 1851. H. 1.) /) (Polycarpi, Ep. c. 13.) Iren. V, 28. Orig. in Luc. Horn. 6. (vol. III. p. 938:) Eus. H. ecc. Ill, 86. 00 Note c. p. 78. For the genuineness, with the exception of interpolations (but more vigorom than Dallaeus and Bunsen) : Hitachi, altkath. K. p. 604ss. GNOSTICISM. SA.TUENINUS. OPHITES. 693 JUbsheim,fo causls suppositt libror. inter Christt (Dss. ad H. ecc. vol. I. p. 217ss.) LucJce, jEinl. in d. Offenb. Job. ed. 2. 1848. p. 66ss. Reuss, Gesch. d. H. Schriften N. T. ed. 2. Abtb. I. p. 235ss." Add to 74 : " Commencing with the written controversy with heathen- ism ( 52), this kind of ecclesiastical literature was now developed in a con- troversy with the heretics, and penetrated deeply not only the sense of the Scriptures, but the spirit of the Church itself. It is divided into three schools, according to local traditions, but in consequence of the intercourse which then prevailed in the Church, these traditions were very extensively , diffused." Kef. 75 : Schliemann is to be corrected with respect to Ebionism, by, " Ritsclil, altkatb, K p. 102ss." After " apostate" (line 17), p. 75 : "According to Roman accounts, they trusted to the law for justification, as they believed that Christ was justified, and became the Messiah by completely fulfilling it. (a) On Gnosticism (p. 76), after the reference to Eitter : IT. Rossel, Gesch. d. Untersuch. u. d. Gnost. (Th. Scbrr. eingef. v. Neander. BrI. 1847. vol. I. p. 179ss.") In the first sentence of 76 (p. 76), after " infinite " : " and indeed re- specting the origin and development of the divine existence " ; and at the close of the same sentence : " which combined all the speculations and fan- cies of earlier and contemporaneous philosophies, and endeavored to pene- trate all the mysteries of the divine, as well as of human history." P. 77, Saturninus is said to have had " a special relation to Menander," and to have held, that " Satan was the original ruler over matter (vXrj)" that the seven planetary spirits, " with the view of founding a kingdom for themselves, wrested from Satan's kingdom the materials of the present uni- verse," and that " the God of the Jews put himself at the head of the plan- etary spirits, and to assist them, raised up a series of prophets. But as their God could not prevail against the demoniac powers, one of the highest Aeons (vovs), as Christ in the semblance of a body, came to redeem the supe- rior human race 'from the power of Satan, as well as of the planetary spirits. To effect this, he gave them the Gnosis and the Law, which directed them to abstain from every thing by which men became subject to matter. The fol- lowers," &c. 78, on the Hellenistic Gnostics, commences thus : " 1) The Ophites (Naao-o-TjiW) constituted the transition from the Oriental to the Hellenistic Gnostics. They originated probably in Phrygia before the time of Christ, and called themselves simply Gnostics ; but in Egypt they adopted Christian notions, though they always remained openly hostile to Judaism. They pro- fessed to believe that the Son of Man emanated from the Original Source (/3u3os), in which the male and female powers were combined, and that the Mother of Life (rrvcvjjia aytov) sprung from him and his parent. From her connection with the former original types of humanity, Christ was born, and from the excess of light then sent forth, was produced Sophia, i. e., the prin- a) (Oriff.) Haeres. Eefut p. 257. (594 APPENDIX. ANCIENT CHUECH. ciple of redemption and of creation. TFhen Sophia, the imperfect and adventitious offspring of this connection, aspired to be like God, she plunged into chaos, and gave birth to Jalddbaoth, i. e., the son of chaos. This being, that he might create a special kingdom for himself, brought forth the seven planetary spirits ; and when these also aimed at independence, in great rage he threw himself into the slime from which the universe was formed, and the outward image of his wrath became quickened into the serpent-spirit (dcptopopcpos). To supply the planetary spirits with employment, he, with their assistance, formed man in his own image ; and after Sophia had given inspiration to this work of his hands, he animated it with his own spirit to have dominion over divine things. But in this process he had parted with his highest powers, and now saw with terror that his creature was superior to himself. To prevent man from becoming conscious of these exalted pow- ers, he commanded him not to eat of the tree of knowledge. Sophia, having been brought by the apostasy of her offspring to repentance for her fault, and to a consciousness of her divine nature, now endeavors to attract to her- self and to purify the spiritual light-power in the world created by Jalda- baoth. Availing herself of the enmity of the serpent-spirit against its parent, she induces man to transgress the prohibition respecting the tree of knowledge. Hence, what is called a Fall in the books of the God of the Jews, was in fact a transition to a higher mental state. In great wrath the Creator of the world now throws men down to the lowest material world, and harasses them with all the pains and temptations incident to matter, but reserves a chosen people for his own special possession. Individual persons, endowed with high intellectual powers, are raised up by Sophia, but she vainly strives to free them from their bonds, until the Aeon Christ unites himself with the Messiah sent by the Creator of the world, and brings to men the saving knowledge of the true God. Jaldabaoth had his own Mes- siah crucified, that he might thus destroy the superior being connected with him, but who had previously departed. In the end, Sophia, with her pneu- matic followers among men, will be led back to the blissful fellowship of God; and the God of the Jews, deprived of the light of all the pneu- matic powers, will gradually sink into the abyss of annihilation. The ser- pent," &c. " 2) Basilides of Alexandria (120-130) completed, and at the same time transcended the Gnosticism which professed to be an esoteric doctrine pre- served by Matthias. The Ineffable (TO apfarov\ the Deity who exists not merely for time (6 OVK &v 3eds), has the germ of every thing in himself, and gives existence to every thing not by emanation (TrpojSoXq), but as Jehovah does to the light. In this germ of the universe (rravo"rrepp.ia TOV KOO-/IOV) ex- isted a threefold sonship (vio-rqs Tpi^pr)s)j which the Original Being produces by the attractive power of his beauty. The first mounts directly up to him- self, and constitutes the happy world of spirit (TrX^pw^a) ; the second forms the confines of this heaven, and is represented by the Holy Ghost (TO n&optov Trvtvpd) ; and the third remains in the original germ of the universe, and needs purification. From this last sprung the first and the second ruler of the world (apx) Origen knew of this party even in his day, and speaks of their selection from the law and the gospel, their book which fell from heaven, and of their new forgiveness of sins, (c)" P. 85, last line, after " appreciated," read : " but the fantastic nature of their dogmas, their partial adoption of pagan notions, their high-wrought, or, sometimes on the contrary, variable system of morals, and the position which they endeavored to maintain in the Church, (d) or at least their ordi- nary connection with Catholic Christianity, render a judgment respecting them at the present day on various accounts, a matter of difficulty, (e)" 83 is entitled "I. The Asiatic-Eoman School," and reads : "A Chris- tian theology was produced especially in the controversy with the Gnostics, in which an attempt was made to adhere to the historical basis of Christian- ity as the common property of all, and to apprehend its practical relations in a scientific manner. While therefore philosophy was recognized, true Chris- tianity was looked upon as consisting in the writings and traditions which had been preserved from the apostolic times, and those things which were intelligible to the common people. Irenaem v/as the principal agent in intro- ducing this 'school to the "West. He was a disciple of Poly carp, and in conse- quence of the intercourse between Asia and the congregations recently estab- lished upon the Ehone he became a presbyter in Lyons. During his absence on a mission to the Eoman bishop, Eleutherus, to effect an accommodation with the Montanists (ITT), he escaped the massacre under Marcus Aurelius. (/) The same year, however, he became the successor of Pothinus, the martyr- a) According to the genuine epistle of Clement, the Pastor of Hennas, and the writings of Jus- tin in opposition on the one hand, to Schwegler, nachap. Zeita. vol. L p. 402ss. and on the other to Dorner, L. v. d. Person Chr. vol. I. p. 156. Comp. KitscM, altkath. K. p. 253ss. Hilgenfeld, Evv. Justins. p. 220. l~) Haer. Eefut. p. 292ss. c) In Ens. II. ecc. VI, 38. d) Comp. 79. Tertul. c. Valent c. 4. e) E. g. Vopisous, Vita Saturnini c. 2. Just. Apol. I. c. 26. /) Eu-s. H. ecc. V, 4. 698 APPENDIX. ANCIENT CHURCH. bishop of ninety years of age, and soon restored the agitated congregation tc its former prosperity. The only proof of his own martyrdom (about 202; consists in some remembrances or wishes which existed at a much later period in the Frankish Church, (a) The recollections of his youth went hack nearly if not quite, to apostolic times, (J) and he was therefore strenuously opposed to Gnostic speculations and all attempts to explore the abyss of Deity, (c] His confidence in the writings of John was no less than his familiarity with them, and we therefore find him using the most glowing imagery of Asiatic tradition, and maintaining that the Holy Spirit was still poured out upon the Church, (d) and that the millennial kingdom was near at hand, (e ) He was practically inclined to nothing in Montanism but the moral earnestness which he found in it, and though he rebuked the assumptions of the Roman bishop, he was accustomed in the spirit of peace, and in opposition to those who would rend the glorious body of Christ on account of a mere difference in the mode of apprehending Christian truth, (/) to point the whole "West to the Roman see ( 62, nt. <, 69, nt. 5). His writings were to his people as if composed in a foreign land, and consequently were but little known among them ; with respect to their peculiar meaning they soon became to a consider- able extent foreign to the whole Church, and the principal part of them were therefore at an early period lost, (y) The Roman presbyter, Caius, in an elo- quent dialogue with Proclus, the principal advocate of Montanism at Rome, presents us with a good representation of that system, and the arguments urged against it (202-18). (K) "With the moderate feelings of a Roman con- versant with the trophies of apostolic martyrdoms, this distinguished presby- ter presumes to reject not only the Phrygian prophecies but the notion of an earthly millennial kingdom, the authorship of which he transfers from an apostle to a heretic. (2) nippolytus, who calls himself a disciple of Irenaeus, has left some allegorical explanations principally of the Old Testament, and some works against heretics, which were regarded as very valuable. (&) The nature and style of these writings, as far as the titles and fragments we have, afford us the means of judgment, (?) the general acquaintance with them which the Syrian Church possessed, (m) and the veneration as a martyr which was given him at Antioch, indicate that he resided in Asia, but his statue found near Rome in the old Tiburtine street (1551) with a catalogue of his writings and the Easter-cycle engraved upon his cathedra, (ri) and a a) Greg. Turon. II. ecc. Franc. I, 29. Z>) Ep. ad Florinum : JSus. H. ecc. V, 20. c) Iren. II, 23. 6. d) Ibid. Ill, 11. 9. e) Ibid. V, 25-86. /) Ibid, IV, 33. 6. 0) Note &, p. 83. L. Duncker, d. h. Iren. Christol im Zusammenh. m. dessen theol. u. anthrop. GrundL Gott 1843. Ji) Eus. H. ecc. II, 25. VI, 20. f) This sense of Eus. H. ecc. II, 23. can no longer be disputed, since tbo account of Dionysius Alex, has been compared with it ) Phot cod. 121. Eusebius (H. ecc. VI, 22 comp. 23.) thought that the period of bis literary ac- tivity was only just before that of Origen, and from this Jerome (Catal. c. 61.) has inferred that he exerted a direct influence upon the latter. 1) 8. Hipp. Opp. ed. J. A. Fabricius, Hamb. 1716-18. 2 vo!s. f. GaUandii BibL voL IL m) Ebedjesu in Assemani BibL or. voL III, P. 1. TO) Note ff, p. 96. A horrible engraving of it is given in Fabric, vol. L p. 86, but a better litho graph is before Bunsen's, [Hippolytus and. his age, new ed. Lond. 1854. 2 vols. W. E. Taylor, Hip poL &, the Chr. Church of the 3d cent Lond. 1S53. IS.] ASIATIC-ROMAN SCHOOL. HIPPOLYTUS. 699 Roman festival in which a great annual feast was observed by the people to his honor in the fourth century, imply that he must have resided in a Eoman territory. Not .only does the most ancient testimony favor this "Western resi- dence, but it would seem that the Portus Eomanus mentioned as his see can be no other than the Eoman harbor opposite Ostia. (a) As he was one of the most distinguished astronomers of his day he made the first calculation of Easter for the West. (5) As was naturally to be expected, the tradition from Irenaeus through the Eoman clergy, if not a moral sympathy with the Montanistic tendency, produced in such a man a strong partiality for the Eevelation by John, and for a kingdom of Christ at the second advent, though the time for it was placed far in the future, (c) The work against all here- sies found in 1842 on Mount Athos ((T), has been partially and arbitrarily abridged, and many passages in it have been in various ways corrupted. As the first book had long been known under the name of the Pholosophumena of Origen, the whole work was published under the same name, (e) but it bears unquestionable evidence of having been composed by some distinguished member of the Eoman Presbytery under Zephyrinus and his successors. (/) The representation of the 32 heresies is to some extent literally borrowed from Irenaeus, with the omission merely of declamatory expressions, but it is also enlarged by accounts from original documents. The heresies themselves are traced to the philosophy of the Greeks, to the systems of magic, and to the ancient mysteries ; they are assigned to these philosophical schools in a rather violent manner, and these schools are described so as to favor such a division. The whole is pervaded by moral seriousness in contrast with an easy submission to Callistus, the Eoman bishop, who is described as the patron of all heretics ( 62). The authorship of it must be referred to either Caius or Hippolytus, and as it contains nothing which reminds us of the po- lemics of the first ; as the writer acknowledges himself the author of a work on the Universe, (g) which on the cathedra is ascribed to Hippolytus, and as no witnesses speak of a treatise against all heresies except by him, (h) a) Peter, the Metropolitan of Alexandria about 306, in the Prooemium of the Chron. paschale p. 12 : eVto-KOTTos Tltprov irX^iov rys 'Pw/iijs. E. J. Eimmd, de Hipp, vita et scriptis. Jen. 1839. P. I. Z. F. W. Seinecke, Leben u. Schrr. d. H. (Zeitsch f. hist. Th. 1842. H. 8.) On the other hand : since Le Moyne has written much in favor of Portus Eom. in Arabia, now Aden ; C. F. Haenell (de Hipp. Gott. 1884. 4.) is in favor of Sostra, in consequence of a misunderstanding of uvavrus in Eus. H. ecc. VI, 20. Comp. Dorner, Lehre v. d. Person Chr. I. p. 604ss. V) Canon paschalis, a cycle of 16 years seven times repeated from the year 222, in the treatise e) On the Cathedra: "fwep rov Kara 'Iwavvnv fvayyehtov /cut airoKa\fyeus. Perhaps also: Uepl xa/Jto>iciTa>j> airoffr. TrapdSoffis, belongs here. Tlepl 'Ayrtxpltrrov is preserved in: Fabric. vol. L p. 4ss. In Ebedjesu : Kev TreVre o-7roi8a) and finally it was especially hostile to the Eomish Church, in proportion as the latter ceased to favor Montanism. For it was not so much Tertullian as the Eoman bishop who changed his views (c) with reference to that system, and we need not be surprised that a liberality like that which sprung up under Zephyrinus, and an act of pardon like that which Callistus proclaimed for all who had been expelled for licentious con- duct, should have made this church in the eyes of the stern disciplinarian worse than a den of robbers, (d) And yet the West continued so tolerant toward Montanism that a number of female martyrs adhering to that system have been canonized in the African Church, (e) and Tertullian, to whom the Paraclete was rather a restorer of apostolical order than an innovator, and religious ecstasy was rather a theory than a principle, became so prominent, that he was looked upon as the model for the Latin theology. This theology was then disinclined to any philosophical theories respecting divine things ; it spoke of Athens and the Academy as irreconcilable with Jerusalem and the Church, and turned its whole attention to questions respecting the con- dition of the Church, and things essential to salvation. A congregation of Tertullianists in Carthage could have had nothing but a local importance, and reunited with the Catholic Church in the time of Augustine. (/) Thascius Caecilius Cyprianm may be regarded as the personal representative of the Catholic Church in his day. (g~) Having enjoyed," &c. After "assistance," p. 90, 8th line from the bottom: "and to encourage others to a similar course he extolled such acts as an expiation for all the sins of believers." Qi) Instead of the sentence beginning " Cyprian had now become," p. 91, line 7th, read : " Cyprian was now pledged to die a martyr's death," (i) and at the close of 84, p. 91, add: "Both leaders in the African Church died in the assurance that they would soon be raised again from the dead by the a) Be virgg. vel. c. 1. 6) De poenit. c. 7ss. comp. de pudic. c. 1. comp. 16. Ad uxor. I, 3. comp. de fuga in persecut. De virgg. vel. c. Is. c) Note e, p. 89. d) The edictum peremtorium Tert. de pud. c. 1. has now its complete explanation : (Orig.) Haer. Eefut. 1. IX. p. 290s. ) E. Chastel^ Etudes hist, sur I'lnfluence de la cbarit 6 durant les premiers sieclea chret Par. 1858 SARDICA. CHARITIES. HERMITS. 707 and freedom. The management of its funds -was under the superintendence of the bishop through a steward (ofcovo/iof ), the distribution " &c. The application of the 2d sentence in 126, should be limited to " the East." The sentence beginning in the 6th line from the foot of p. 140 should com- mence : " In the fourth century female presbyters disappear, (a) and the ordi- nation of deaconesses," &c. The sentence before the last on p. 142 should read : u On account of these divisions the council of Sardica (347) committed to Julius, Bishop of Rome, a judicial cognizance of the reception of appeals in the case of bishops. But when this decree was presented to the African Church as a regulation coming from the Nicaean Synod, it refused obedience, and threatened every one who should appeal to any ecclesiastical authority beyond the sea." (5) Before " Synods " in line 2d, p. 143, insert " first." In tlie last sentence on p. 145, Gregory is said to have improved Church music " by simplifying its style, and by his school." After ** charms " in the last line of p. 147 : " the Church contended con- tinually against superstitions derived from paganism, but unconscious of their origin." (c) Before " The Church," line 10th, p. 148 : " The Christian duty of bene- ficence which was even then performed with a munificent generosity, was enforced by preachers on communistic principles, appealing to the avarice of men." (<$) After " Spirit," a few sentences beyond : " and even the old idea of the millennial kingdom had to yield to the interpretation, that it meant only the spiritual influence of the gospel," (e) The 2d sentence of 134 reads: "The necessity of some fellowship brought the hermits together in a community of neighboring huts (Xavpa)." Instead of u Amun in the desert of Mtra " in the next sentence, insert : <; Macarius in the Sketic desert" (/) The date near the foot of p. 150 should be " 422." w Add to the sentence ending on line 7, p. 152 : " and in the African Church offerings for the dead were laid upon their graves," (g} and to the last sentence of the same section : u seeking edification from the vestiges of past ages." Qi) Add to the references for 139 : " A. Z. Zestermann, die antiken u. chr. Basilikea. Lps. 1847. J. Kreuser^. chr. KBau, s. Gescfe. Symbolik, Bildnre!. Bonn. 1851. 2 vols. F, Kugler, HB. d. Gtesch, d. Mal-erei s. Constantly 2 ed. Brl. 1847. vol. I. p. 1-107." a) Conv. Laodic. can. 11. &) Cone. Afric. Ep. ad. Bonif. {Constant, p. 1013s.) Cone. MiUvit, can. 22. (Codex, cann. Ecc. Afric. c. 28. c) Syn. Trull, c. 61. 62. 65. Comp. Ohastel, Destruct. da. Pagan, p. 809ss. d) Chrysost. Horn, in Act It 24. (Opp. vol. IX. p. 93.) e) Aug. De civ. Dei XX, 4ss. /) Macarii Aegyptii Epp., Homillarum loci, preces, od. U. J. Floss, Col. 1850. Comp. TiscTuM- dorf, Eeise in d. Or, voL L p. IWs. g) Aug. .Confess. VI, 2. h) Already Eus. VI, 11. Itinerarium Hierosolymitanum, a. 333. H. Meideffffer^ d peregriaa- Uonib. rel. Tur, 1670. EoMnson, Palestine, vol. II. p. 208ss. 708 APPENDIX. ANCIENT OHUECH. The last clause of the 2d sentence in this section is limited to " the "West- ern Church." Before the last clause of the 3d sentence, insert : " the central portion elevated about the height of the windows above the side aisles," &c. Before the last clause of the 5th sentence insert : " where monuments were usually erected," &c. A few sentences after, " the Roman temple-form," should read : " built in the form of the Rotunda for temples and baths." After " Safaator," Kne 2, p. 156 : " surrounded with emblems of the sal- vation of man, and in the midst of the apostles, whose countenances were serious and dignified, and whose persons were in the ancient Roman costume. In the seventh century, however, this style ceased to be popular, for . then a general decline took place in all the arts, and the Byzantine style which origi- nated in Constantinople, and showed a sympathy with this corruption, pre- vailed with its inherited skilfulness, but its complete want of nature." After " chosen " in line 7th, p. 156, the sentence continues : " and Chris- tian and pagan symbols were mingled together, especially in the reliefs of the sarcophagi." (a) After the 1st sentence of 142 : " At its foundation lay also the question which had then become so prominent, whether the whole influence of the priesthood was derived from the personal character of its members, or from the general grace communicated through their order." The first sentence of 143 : " Audius (Udo) broke off from the Church in Mesopotamia because it would not listen to the exhortations to repentance which the zealous layman gave it," &c. After the last sentence in 148 : u A class of persons who arrogantly called themselves Apostolical* (also 'An-orajcrucoO, from their little corner in Asia Minor claimed to be the only true Church, and held out no hope to those who possessed property or lived in marriage. They agreed substantially with the tendency which proceeded from Eustathius, the honored Bishop of SebasU, according to which there was no special merit in martyrdom, which proudly or restlessly separated from the great Church, and were finally cut off from it at the Synod of Gangra (between 862 and 870)." An additional reference for 144 : " Eplph. hacr. 52. August, haer. 81." After the Isfc sentence of 144 : " Their worship reminds one of the Adamites, who were followers of a pupil of Carpocrates, and were first men- tioned during the last part of the fourth century, under the imputation, by common report, of wishing in their grotto churches to bring back a state of paradisiac innocence, by means of a paradisiac style of dress. They there fore rejected all relations founded upon distinctions of sex. The condernna tion of the Priscillianists was obtained at the synod." &c. After " letters " in 2d line of 147 : " and in the modern legislation." In the middle of p. 164 : "Thor is the god of thunder who overcomes a) Piper, Qesch. d. Osterfestes. (Berl. 1345.) vol. L p. 88. 77ss. THOB. THE GERMANS. SPANISH CHRISTIANS. 709 winter and all the powers of nature hostile to man, and is the hero who is especially the friend of the people." After " unmolested," line 4th, p. 166 : " The conquerors revered a saint like Severinus (d. about 481) of unknown origin, who, without official dig- nity, but claiming to act by the divine command, with an extensive spirit- ual influence, ameliorated the miseries of the national migrations in the countries along the Danube. The German " &c. After " sect," in the last sentence of 153 : " some sought martyrdom by reviling Mohammed, others despaired of Christ," &c. INDEX. A Aargau, Convent" in, 646. Abel Ministry, 578, 658. Alexander Bererua, 46. Alexander of Alexandria, 112; of Hales, 820; of Russia, 667, Anglican Church, 421s., 442, 497&, Abelard, 241, 888. 631. AnhElt. 418 Abderrhaman, 163. Alexander II., 192 ; III., 202s^ Anna Lee, 576. Abgarus,85. 214, 216; V., 276; VL. 232, Annegarn, 12. Abraham a St. Clara, 520&, 858; V1L, 612, 617; VI 11., Anomians, 114 Abraxas, 78, 695, Absalon of Roeakilde, 249. Abubekr, 110. 618. Alexandria, Bishopric, 61, 141. Alexandrian Theology, 9lss. Ansemi^antab., 193, 239; of Laon, Glossea, 243. Aby^nU, 108. Alexandrian and Antlochian AMgar,245. Acaciua.114.128. schools, 117, 126, 706, Anspach, Gen. Synod, 574 Academy, Platonic, 17, 823. Achamoth, 79. Alexlani, 813. Alexias Comnenus, 262. A lithiums, 129. Anthropoinorphltes, 121, 153, Acta Apostolornm, 97. Adelbert of Bremen, 914; of Alfadur, 165, Alfred the Great, 284 Antldicomarianites, 152. Antlnomian Controv., 402s. Menu, 185, 199; of Prague, A :.'!,r.. ;.;. Antioch, Bishopric, 61. 250. Adamites, 708. Adlaphoriadc Controv^ 897, 405, Alli'-ri (ir.-_-.>rio, .KV AllemsiMl of Aries, 280. Alliance Evang., 692 ; German, 605:Gennan Diet, 674; Uo- Antlochian School, 117, 126. Antitrinitarlans, 482. Antonelli, 628, 684 Antoninus Pius, 45; of Flor- AdoptionlstB, 130. Advent, 154; Second, 40, 94 Advocatia, 216. ence, 264. Antonius, Hermit, 64 ; of Padua, 293 ; Hospitallers of St., 228. Aegidius of Vlterbo, 234 ipitolma, 42. AkfLNL Alombrados, 519s, Antony Ulricb, 493. Aphthartodocetae, 129. vollanua, 47. Aeneas Sylvius, 230s. Altar, 69. Altenburg, 865, 563. Apocrypha, 71, 96, 614 ?02ss. 'Airo>coT<a\oi, 123. Anabaptism, 70, 90. Anabaptists, 431s. 610. Appenzel, Reform, 886. Appropriation, Principle, 650. Albanians, 856. Ananus, 26. Apuleius, 47. Alberlcus, 188. Anastasius, 128, 182. Aquarii, 64 Albert of Brandonburjr, 875 ; Auathematlsms, 126. Arabians, 108s., 168, 235. of Mentz, 863, 372, 892; of Anderson, 418. Aranda of Spain, 527. Riga, 251 ; of Strasbourg, 204. Albert Durer, 806, 445. Andraea Jac., 409 ; J. YaL, 449. Andronlcus, 854 Arcesilaus, 17. Archbishops, 244s., see Metro- Albertinus Mussatus, 264 Angel Brethren, 508. politans. Albertus Magnus, 820. Albigensian "War, 255s. Angela of Brescia, 463. Angelica of Port Royal, 517s. Archdeacons, 141, 215. Architecture, Ecclea., 155ss., 802 Albordoz, 274. Angelico of Fiesole, 805. 675s. Alculn, 179, 180. Angels, Worship of, 152. Archpresbyters, 141. Aleander, 871. Angelus Silesius, 520. Arelate Synod, 114 INDEX. 711 Arianism, 11 IBS., 165. Ariininum Synod, 114. Aristides, Apologist, 50. Aristotle, 16s., 236, 320. Arius, 112, 119. Armenians, 62, 108, 181, 260, 665. Arminians, 415ss., 491, 610. Arnauld, 517. Arndt, 448. Arnobius, ,52. Arnold, 8; of Brescia, 200; .f Citeaux, 256. Arnulf, Emperor, 1ST: of llheims, 189. Arsenius, 354s. Artemon, 99, 705. Arts in Middle Ages, 302. Asa, Doctrine of the, 164. Ascensio Jesaiae, 703. Ascetics, 63. Aschaflenburg Concordat, 281. Asiatic-Koman School, 88, 697ss. Asses, Festival of, 221. Asylum, 138. Athauarich, 165. Athanasius, 113s., 115, 117. Athenagoras, 51, 95, 702. Athens, 116. Athos, 354. Attila, 144. Audius, 158, 708. Augsburg Confession, 883 ; Diet, 383. Augusti, 10. Augustine Eremites, 316. Augustinism, 122s?., 380, 509. Augustinus, 106, 122ss., 138, 15S, 176; of Canterbury, 167. Augustus of Saxony, 408. Aurelianus, 46. Auricular Confession, 148, 176, 223. Austria, Catholic, 635, 640 ; Prot- estant, 417s., 493ss., 548, 606. Avignon, 273, 274, 275, 525, 526, 531. B Baanes, 160. Babylonian Exile, 272, 368. Bach, J. Sebastian, 485. Bacon, Koger, 326 ; of Verulam, 489. Baden Conference, 646 : Contro- versy, 644; Disputation, 387; Synod, 572. Babrdt, 537. Bajus, 467. Ba'ldur, 165. Baldwin, Flandr., 197, 207. Balsamon, Theodore, 135. Ban, 176, 811. Baptism, 41, 70, 252, 691. Baptisterium, 155 ; of Florence, 304. Baptists, 431s., 603, 610. Baradai, Jacob, 181. Bar Cochba, 42. Bardas, 258, 260. Bardesanes, 83. Barlaam, 354. Barletta, Gabriel, 300. Barnabas, 28, 36. Baronius, 7. Bartholomew's Night, 426s. Bartolomeo Fra, 305. Basedow, 545. Basilica, 155, 303. Basilides, 78, 694s., 694s. Basiliscus, 123. Basilius, 258; Magnus, 117,149, 706. Basle, Council, 279,291, 350; Tie- formation, 387 ; Society at, 539. Basnnge, 10, 361. Bassi.Matteode, 462s. Bauer, Bruno, 553. Baur, 24. 594s. Bautain,' 655. Bavaria, 375, 892. 527, 536, 572, 605s., 635, 642, 653. Bayle, 861, 490s. Beatification, 807. Beatoun, Card., 424. Beaumont, 519. Becket, Thomas a, 203. Bede Venerabilis, 161, 179. Beethoven, 675. Beghards, Beghines, 318. Belgium, 633. Bellarmine, 458, 468s. Bells, 153. Bena, Amalrich of, 340. Benedict, Levita, 185, 209; of Nursia, 151 ; III., 186 ; VIII, 190; IX., 190; X., 192; XI., 272; XII., 274; XIII., 276, 513; XIV., 514, 519. Bengel, 491. Bequests to the Church, 139. Berault-Berncastel, 683. Berengarius, 237s. ; II., 189. Bernard of Clairvaux, 189, 200, 229, 240, 242. Berne, Deception at, 801; Re- formation, 387. Bernini, 464. Berno of Clugni, 226. Berthier, 532. Berthold of Calabria, 230; of Eatisbon, 300. Berulle, Petrus de, 462. Beryllus, 100, 705. Bessarion, 356. Bethmann-Hollweg, 590. Beza, 402, 447. Bezieres, 256. Bible Hours, 445 ; Prohibition, 243,332, 670; Societies, 612ss., 667; Versions, 331s., 373. Biblia Pauperum, 332. Bickell, 562s. Biel, 322. Bilderdyk, 596. Birgitte, 309, 317. Bishop of Bishops, 61. Bishops, 3S, 59, 214, 293s. ; Suf- fragan, 293; Protestant, 443s., 567s. ; Three Great, 61s. Blandrata, 434. Blau, 654. Blood Baptism, 70, 313. Boccaccio, 327. Bockelsen, 431. Bodin, 522. Boehme, Jacob, 448. Boehmer, J. H., 492. Boethius, 133. Bogomiles, 262. Bohemians, 248s., 347ss., 477. Bohemian Brethren, 850s. Boleslaus, 249. Bolingbroke, 500. Bologna University, 236. Bonaventura, 297, 325. Bonifacius (Winfred), 163, 173, 176, 179 ; VIII., 271, 286, 301. Borgia, Caesar, 282s., 284 ; Kod- erigo, 282. Borromeo, Charles, 461. Bossuet, 8, 360, 515, 520. Bourbons, 426ss., 607s. Bourdaloue, 516. Bourignon, 519s. Bouthillier de la Eance, 521. Bradwardina, 333. Brahminism, 471s. Bramantes, 304. Brazil, 633. Bremen, 245, 413, 564. Brentz, 889s., 891, 408. Breslau Union, 569; German Catholics at, 657. Bridaine, 516. Britain, 53, 167, 173. Brown, 423. Brethren, Bohemian, Moravian, 350 : of Christian Schools, 521 ; of the Free Spirit, 340 ; of the Common Life, 318. Bruggler Sect, 509. Bruhellesco, 304. Bruno, Carthusian, 227; Jord., 448. Bucer, 390. Suddens, 491. Buddhism, 473s. Buffon, 523. Bugenhagen, 880, 419. Bulgarians, 256. Bullinger, 361. Buonaparte, 532. Burchard of Worms, 210. Burgundians, 165s. Burial, 69. Buttler, 510. Byzantines, 253, 260s. Caecilianus, 157. Cainite?, 80. Cajetanus, 271 ; and Luther, 361 Caius, Presbyter, 699. Calas, John, 548. Calasanza, 463. Calcutta, Bishopric, 615. Calderon, 464. Caliphs, 110. Calixtines, 350. Calixtus of Helmstadt, 8, 4S6s. ; II., 199 ; III., 281. Callenberg, 511. Callistus, 689, 704. Calovius, 485, 486. Calvin, 401ss. 447. Calvinism, 412ss. 595s. ; Saxca 407. Camaldoli, 227. Cambray, League of, 234. Cameel, Sultan, 266. Camisards, 495. Campanus, 433. Campegius, 376. Camus, 529. Canon of the N. T., 71s., 447. Canones Apostolici, 57. Canonici, 177, 213s., 292s. Canonissae Saeculares, 317s. Canonization, 213, 307. Canossa, 195. Canute the Great, 246. Capaccini, 632. Capellus, 490. Capito, 399. Capuchins, 463. Caracalla, 45. Caracci, 464. Carbeas, Paulician, 202. Cardinals, 213s., 290. Carlos, Don, 629s. Carlstadt, 365s., 372, 380, 33d Carmelites, 229s., 316. Carneades, 17. Carpocratians, 80s., 696. Cartesius, 489. Carthusians, 227s. Carthage, Synod, 124. Casas, Barth. de la, 883. Cassander, 463. Cassianus, 125. 712 INDEX. Casslodorus, 133, 151. Cafitellio, 447. Casuistry, 833s., 454s. Catacombs, 69. Cataphryges, 66. Catechism of France, 534; of Heidelberg, 418 ; Luther's, 3S2 ; Roman us, 466. Catechumens, 65. Catharine de Bora, 8SO ; de Me- dici, 427; of Russia, 666; of Siena, 808s. Catharists, 251ss., 842. Cathedrals, 141, 804, 674. Catholic Church, 62, 146. Catholicism, 68, 147, 151, 460, 652 ; and Protestantism, 463s., 4S6SS. Catholicns, 62, 667. Cellitae, 818. Cclsus, 49. Censorship of Books, 288, 460s. Centuriae Magdeb., 7. Cerdon, 81. Cerinthus, 84 Cevennen, 495. Chalcedon, 127. Chaldean Christiana, 127. Chalmers, 597. Chantal Fnincisca, 468. Chapters, 214,292; Controv. on Three, 180. Charles Albert, 622. Charles Alex, of Wurtemb., 493; the Great, 169, 178,174, 179; Augustas, 540 ; the Grow, 187 ; the Bald, 1S7; of Anjou, 866, 270; Mattel, 163, 172; Stuart I . 425 ; 1 1., 497s. ; I V. of Spain, -' 7 1 ; V., 870s., 414*,, 429 ; V 1 1 1. of France, 282, 852; I3L, 428; 625s.; IX. of Sweden, 418s. Charter, German, 578 ; Imperial, 418. Chateaubriand, 534. Chazars, 256*. Chemnitz, Martinus, 898s., 409, 411). ( 'lierhury, 409. Chleregati, -71 Children, Bft[.tism of, 70, 224, 481. Chlllafm, 40. 94, 298s., 707. Chtlperic, 178. China, 108, 838, 474*, 521s., CIS, 88te Choral, 441 Choreplscopl, 60, 214, 293. Chosroes, 107. Christian L of Saxony, 410s. ; of Mayence, 221. Christians, 26. Christicrn II., 419 : III., 419. Christina of Spain, 680s. ; of Sweden, 512. Christmas, 154. Christopher, 152. Chrlsto Sacrum, 671. Christ Party at Corinth. 82. Chrodegang of Mentz, 17;. Chrysocheres, Paulician, 202. Chrysostom, 120s. Chubb, 500. Church, 1; Ideal of, 437?.: Kl- ders of, 571 ; Architecture, 155s.; Alliance Evan?., 590; Conference, 537 ; Singing. 153, 800s., 445s., 675s.; History, Idea of, I ; Province, 2 ; Value of, 3; Property, 216; Music, 465, 4S5, 675. Cimabue, 305. Circumcelliones, 158. Cistercians, 228. Civil Marriage, 624. Clara of Assisi, 296. Clarendon, Diet of, 203. Claudius, Emperor, 37; of Tu- rin, 233; of Wandsbeck, 542. Clausen, 561. Clausenburg, Diet of, 417. Clemangis, 325, 844. Clement of Alexandria, 91s. ; of Rome, 86. 57 ; Droste, 639s. ; Flavius,87; II ,190; III., 196; IV., 268, 270; V., 272s., 811; VL, 274; VII., 275, 876, 890, 421,450; VIII., 456, 466,467; IX., 512, 518; X., 512; XI., 618, 618; XII, 514; X11I., 524; XIV., 525. Clement, Dominican, 428. Clcmentinae, 88s., 2S6, 702&. 697. Clrnry, 57, 140, 176, 193s., 201s., 814. Clermont, Synod, 196, 197. Clovls, 166. Clugnt, Congregation, 226. Cocct-ius, 490. Cochin China, 664 ( oek, i >,.:,:;. Codex Dionys., Theod., and Jus- tin, 185*. CoelestlneIII.,205; V., 270. Coclestlus, 122, 124 Coellbacy, 68, 148, 176. 198, 222, ObdtolM, i''7! Cola di Klenzo, 274s. Collgny, 428. CollegYallsm, 492, 572. Ooneftaots. 481 Collins, 499. Collyridianl, 162. Colomt.ino, 817. Colonna Sciarra, 272. Columba, 167, 177. Columbanus, 163. Columbus, 888. Commines, 264. Coimnodua, 45. Comr.enl, 261, 262, 855 Communism, 679, 707. Conception, Immaculate, 224, 801. Concord, Bootof,410; Form of, 409. Concordat, AschafTcnburg, 281 ; New German, 635; 1 r. n<-h. 285, 688s., 625 ; Tuscan, 628 ; of Worms, 199. Concordium of Wittenberg, 899. Condillac, 528. ConfeoBlo Augustana, 8S3 : Hel- vetica, 416; Tetrapolltana, 890. ConflMon, M. Confederation, 590; Swiss, 883s. Conflrmation, 70, 692. Confucius, 474. Confutatio Cont Augsb., 888. Congregatlo de Auxfliis, 467. Congregation Apost, 617. Congregations, 445. Congregationalism, 603. Conrad III., 201 ; of Hochstede, 803; of Marburg, 294, 808. Conradino, 26S. Consalvi, 533, 674 Conscientiarians, 501. Consistories, 441 ; Prussian, 5S6. Consistory, Supreme, French, 608; Prussian, 578. Constance, Council. 277s., 291 848s. ; Bishopric, 646. Constans II., 132. Constantta of Sicily, 203, 206. 270 Constantinople, Synod of. 115s. 130,132,156,259,355; Storm ing of, 207, 856. Constantinus Magnus, 55, 103 118, 152, 157; Donation of, 184; Copronymus, 156; Po gonatus, 132 ; Sylvanus, 159. Constantius, 114; Chlorus, 55. Constitution Unicenitus, 518; Civil, of French Clergy, 531. Constitutiones Apostolicae, 57. Contarini, 89a Convent Life, 149s., 225s., 816s.. 462s., 662s. Convcrtites, 470, 672s. Convocations, 442. Convnlslonalres, 519. Copernicus, 489. Copts, 181. Coquerel, 609. Coran, 109, 110. Corday, Charlotte. 581. Cordicolatras, 521.' Corinth, Parties in, 82. Cornelius, 674; Rom. Bishop, 67 Corpus Christ! Festival, 801. Corpus Evangelicorum, 492. Corpus Juris Canon ici, 286. Correjrgio, 464 Coscia, Cardinal, 513s. Cothen, Assembly at, 579. Covenant, Scottish, 424. Cramer, 9. Cranmer, 422. Crell, Nic., 411. Crecen^ 51. CresconitiB, 186. Cromwell, 426. Cross, Elevation of the, 154. Crucifixes, 156. Crusades, 196, 220 ; End of the, 269. Crypto-Calvinism, 407. Culdees, 167. Cumberland Presbyterians, 604. Cup, Withholding of the, 224s. Curiaiists, 239, 478. CypriamiB, 48, 89ss., 701. Cyran, Abbot of 8t, 517. Cyrillus of Alexandria, 126, 182 (Constantinns), 248; of Jeru- salem, 118; Lucarls, 4SO. Cyrus, 181. Czechen, 606. Czerskl, 657. Dalberg, 686. Damiani, 192, 221, 224, 812. Damietta, 268. Dancers, 818s., 446, 605. Dandolo, 207. Dannecker, 674 Dannenmayr, 11. Dante, 826s. Danz, 10. Darby, 611. Darmstadt, 644. David of Dlnanto, 840. Deaconesses, 89, 140, 707. Deacons, 88, 58. Death, for Heresy, 158, 430. Decius, 46. Decretals, False, 184 ; Gregorian 286. Deists, 498SS. Demetrius of Alexandria, 92. INDEX. 713 Democritus (Dippel), 501. Denmark, 245, 246, 419s., 561s., Extern, 131. Elders, 88, 58, 572s. Exorcism, 70, 411. Extravagantes, 286. 678. Denuntiatio Evangelica, 215s. Eleutherus, 699. Elias of Cortona, 298. Eyck, Van, 806. Des Cartes, 489. Eliot, 510. F Desiderius, 196. Deventer, 818, 330, 519. Elipandus, 180. Elizabeth of England, 422; of Faber, Stapulensis, 832 ; of Con. stance, 886. Devil, 221, 440. Brunswick, 493 ; Saint, 808. Fabricius, 496. De Wette, 549. Aiocnropct, 21, 108, 505. Elkesaites, 85, 698. Eller, Elias, 509. Facultates Quinquennalcs, 460, 643. Diderot, 523. Elvenich, 638, 640. Faith, Rule of, 72. Didymus, 118. Elzevir Press, 465. Falckenberg, 334. Dimitrij, 481. Dio, Jo. di, 463. Emancipation of Jews, 675ss. ; of Catholics in Ireland, 649s. ; Farel, 400. Fasts; 67s., 154. Diocletianus, 54 Diodorus, 118s. of Slaves, 677s. Emblems, Sacred, 69, 691. Fathers of the Faith, 625. Faust, 810. Diognetus, 51. Emmerich Nun, 661. Faustus, 125. Dionysius Alex., 95, 100; Are- Empire, 136, 174, 210, 533; Ko- Febronius, 528. opagita, 132, 177 ; Exiguus, man, 136 ; Koin. German, 174, Felicissimus, 90. 135 ; Komanus, 100. 210 : Latin, 207. Felix of Urgel, ISO; of Valois, Dioscurus, 127, 144. Ems, Punctation at, 528. 230; II., 128; V., 280. Diospolis, Synod of, 124. Dippel, 501. Encratites, 64, 83. Encyclopaedia, 523. Fenelon, 515, 520. Ferdinand I., 392, 417, 468 ; II., Disciplina Arcana, 70. Enfautin, 680. 477; VII., 629; the Catholic, Dissenters, 497s., 598ss. Engelhardt, 9. 287. Dissidents, 420, 434, 494. Divorces, 71. Docetae, 35. England, 167s., 203s., 208, 421s&, 497s., 649ss. Enlightenment, Age of, 537ss. Feretti, 620. Feudal Law, 171 ; Monarchy, 182. Feuerbach, 554. Dodwell, 500. Eon, 253s. Fichte, 543, 552. Dolcino, 342. Dollinger, 12. Eperies, Massacre at, 494. Ephesus, Synod, 127, 123. Filioque, 116, 258. Finns, 250. Dome, 303, 304, 674. Ephraein, 118. Firmian of Salzburg, 493. Dom Gerle, 529. Dominicus Dominicans, 296ss. Epictetus, 47. Epicurus, 17. Firmilian of Caesarea, 91. Fisher, 421. Domitianus, 37. Domitilla, 87. Epiphanes, 80s. Epiphanius of Constantia, 118. Flacius, Illyricus, 7, 406, 447ss., 469. Donatello, 804. Epiphany, 68. Flagellants, 312. Donation of Constantino, 183s. ; Episcopacy, 59s. ; Constantino's, Flavianus, 127. of Otho, 190 ; of Pipin, 173. 137; of Prot Princes, 441. Flechier, 516. Donatists, 157s. Episcopal System, 59s., 289 ; Fletcher, 506. Donauworth, 476. Protestant, 441. Fleury, A. II., 518; Claude, 8. Dort, Synod of, 415s., 442, 596. Dositheus, 27. Episcopalians in U. S., 602. Episcopi in Partibus Infidclium, Florence, Synod of, 280, 355. Fontainebleau Concordat, 535. Droste, 637s. 293. Fontevraud, Order of, 228. Druids, 53. Dubois, Cardinal, 518; Mission- Episcopius, 416. Episcopus Universalis, 141. Fools, Festival of, 218. Formosus, 187. ary, 664. Erasmus, 330s., 331, 345, 379s. Fortunatus, 90. Duchoborzi, 666. Erastians, 425. Fox, C. J., 599 ; George, 502. Duels, 231. Erdmansdorf, 606. France, Protestant, 426ss.. 494s., Dufresne, 664. Eric, St., 250. 607s., comp. 627. Dulon, 564. Erigena, 233, 234. Francia, Dr., 632; Francesco, Dunin of Posen, 639. Ernest the Pious, 484. 806. Duns Scotus, 321. Dunstan, 221. Ernesti, 538. Erwin of Steinbach, 308. Francis I. of France, 285, 870 ; of Paris, 518s. ; of Sales, 461. Dutch Keformed Church, 604. Espartero, 630. Essenes, 22 ; Christian, 26. Franciscans, 296s. Franciscus of Assisi, 295s.; De Este, 457; Duchess of, 429. Paula, 317. E Esthonians, 251, 668. Francke, A. H., 4S7s. Easter Chronicle, 102; Contro- Ethelbert of Kent, 167. Frank, Sebastian, 436. versy, 63, 154 ; Laughter, 300. East Indies, 108, 470ss., 510, 522, Ethics, 147, 333. Eucharistic Controv., 234s., 237, Frankfort, Synod of, 178, 180. Franks, 166, 172. 615, 664. 389, 399s., 401s. Kransoni, 624. Ebel of Koenigsberg, 560. Enchites, 158, 262. Fratres de Communitate, 298; Ebionites, 74, 83s., 698. Eudo de Stella (Eon), 253s. Minores, 296; Praedicatores, Eckard, Dominican, 322. Eudoxia, 121s. 296. Ecclesiastical Law, Docc. on, 56, Eugenius III, 200 ; IV., 279. Fratricelli, 299. 170s., 210, 286s., 843, 440s., Eunomians, 114, 705. Frederic I., 202, 204; II., 205ss., 393s., 492, 571ss. ; Diets, 590s. ; Eusebians, 113. 206,265ss., 340; III., 280; the Assemblies, 60, 146, 290s. ; Dis- Eusebius of Caesarea, 14, 95, 102, Great, 501, 538, 547 ; the Wise, cipline, 65, 147s., 175s., 222s., 111, 117; of Emisa, 118; of 864s., 371. 875; I. of Denmark, 311s., 439; Property, 139s., Nicomedia, 113. 419; III. of the Palatinate, 171s., 216s., 443s.; Architec- ture, 155s. Eustathius, 159, 708. Eutyches, 127. 412 ; V., 477; of Austria, 273 ; Augustus of Saxony, 492; Wil- Eck, 365s., 370, 387. Edda,163, 164. Euthymius Zigabenus, 261. Evagrius, 102, 705. liam I., of Saxony, 411; II., 540 ; III., 540s., 566, 636, 675 Edelmann, 501. Evangelia Apocrypha, 692s. IV., 576, 580, 5S2s., 639, 675. Edessa, 53 ; School at, 127. Evangelical Alliance, 592; Church Freemasons, 303, 634, 671. Edward I. of England, 271 ; III., 346 ; VI., 422. Alliance, 590; Conference, 587; Society, 595, 608; KZeitung, Friars, Mendicant, 295. Friends, 605. Egede, Hans, 510s. 555, 562, 579. Fritigern, 165. Eginhard, 161. Evangelists, 38, 608. Froissart, 264. Eichhorn, Minister, 580; Pastor, Excommunication, 65, 176, 311, Fronto, 49. 572. 584. Frumentiu?, 108. 714 INDEX. Fry, Elizabeth, 503. Fryth, 421. Fulco of Neuilli, 207. Fulda.169. Fulgcntius Ferrandns, 186. Funk, G., 404. Gailer of Kaisersberg, 800. Galerius, 54. Galileans, 25. Galilei, 460. Galilean Church, 58, 178, 2S7, 51458., 425, 624. Galileans, 46. Gallus, 46, 168. Gamaliel, 22, 2$, Ganganelli, 525s. Gangra Synod, 708. - Gassner, 527. Gebbard of Cologne, 476. Gelasel, Coadjutor, 689. Gelasiui 1L, 199. Gellert, 541. General Synods, 146, 290 ; Gen. Germ. Library, 689. Gennadlus, 856. Gentile Christianity, 8L Gentilis, 483. George of Saxony, 875&, 891. QflrtMTt IttTttC Gerhard, 412, 469; Groot, 818; ttcgarellt, 841. Germ. Catholicism, 656 ; Church, 1600S., 685s. ; Order of Knlgfata, 282. 836*., 662; Theology, 822 ; Informed Church, 604. Gerson, 276, 277, Gessius, Floras, 87. Gcysa of Hungary, 250. <;fr..r.-r, 11. (.liibcllinoH, 206; Heretical, 840. Gl.lbcrtl,804 Gieaeler, M. Gifts of Grace, 40, 63. Giotto, 800. Glass, Pain Glass, Painting on, 308, 674 Greek Church, Schism, 259s.; Union, 855, 665, 667. Greenland, 247, 510s. Gregoire, 529s., 626. Gregorius Ilium., 62 ; Nazienzen, 115, 117; Nyssa, 117; Turo- nensis, 161 ; Thauinaturgus, 95; Festival of, 224 Gregory the Great, 142, 145s., 167; IV.. 184; V., 189; VI., 190; VIL, 188, 191s., 198SS., 221, 288, 248; VIII., 199, 204; IX., 266; X.,269; XL, 275, 346; XII., 276; XII L, 423, 451s.; XV., 457s. ; XVL, 619s., 680, 688, 668 ; V. of Constantinople, 669 ; VI., 670. ribfaUQLOta, ;ru~!.a.-!i, ;.:'_'. Groot, Gerhard, 818. Grnndtvig, 661. Gualbert, 227. Guelphs, 196, 206. Guericke, 10, 669, 510, 579. ,655. Gnosticism, 76&, 6950s., 697. Gobat, 676. Gobet.485. Gocb, John of, 851. God, Friends of, 841; Judgment of, 218. Godfathers and Godmothers, 70, Godfrey of Bouillon, 197; of Lorraine, 192; of Strasbourg, 244. floerres, 688, 654 Goethe, 642. Gomarus, 415. Gorham, 600. Gospel, Everlasting, 299. Gothic Architecture, 802s. Goths, 165. Gottschalk, 235 ; Prince of the Wends, 249. Grammont, Order of, 227. Granvella, 893. Gratianus, Emperor, 105s., 158 Decretals of, 209s. Gravamina of the Germ. Nation 872, 874. Gray League, 3S7, 478, 479. Gr't Britain, Reformation, 421ss. Greece, Ancient, 15ss. ; Modern 669s. Guicclardlni, 265. Guido of Spoleto, 187. Guinefortts, Sainted Dog, 220. tata* oSm&m, ;u./.>!, r,7'j. Gunpowder Plot, 425. Gnsuvns Adolphus, 478; Socie- t Onyon, 520. B Haco the Good, 246. Hadrian, Emp., 45, 60: 1., 174, . 201, 202, B7i vi, : -.-., >'. Hatrne, Societies at, 689 ; Synod, Hagen,861. aZwWjn. ii:,!, M. :..'. :,:.'. Hall, Snabian. 840. H ::.-, IM. 188, Mfc Hnllcr, Bertbold, 886. Haniann, 642. Hamburg, 949, 668s., 610s., 686. Hamel, 467. Hamilton, Patrick, 424 Handel, 485. Hanno of Cologne, 192. Hanover, 478, 496. Haas BMfat, *74 Harald Haarfager, 246; of Jut land, 245. Harmonist*, 658. Harms, 661. Hange, 647. ll:t\.::i. <'.7.\ ll.'i\ in".-'.' -!. Heart of Jesus, 621. Heathenism, Germ., 162?., 169s. 175, 247; Greek Koman, 13 Heber, Reginald. 615. Hebrews, Sect of, 609. Heerbann, 171. Hegel, 561, 679. Hegesippus, 14. Hamburg, 845. Heine, 654 Helena, St, 1S2, C74. Heliogabalus, 45. Hellenism, 21. Helmstadt, 486. Heloise, 242s. Hclsen, 656. Uelvetii Eefunn., 334, 899. e'Jvctlus, 523. emming, 837. emmerlin, 344. engstenberg, 555*, 570 enkei in Hesse, 463. enoticon, 115. cnrion, 688. enry I. of Germany, 1SS ; III. 190; IV., 192, 198, 193; V. 198; VI., 205; VIL, 287; L of Engknd, 19S; II., 2^3; VII.. -j>7; VIII, 877, 421; III. of France, 428 ; IV., 423, 461 ; of Brunswick, 892: Lion, 249; Monk, 253; of Walpot, leracleon', 696. leraclius, 107, 181. U-nk-r, 541. leresy, 74 842. leruiann of Cologne, 892, 89C. lermas, 86. [ennesians, 637s., 640. lermias, 6L lermits, 150. I. r:n. _-,:,..-. r.'.it'.-*. lerod Agrippa. 25. lerrwl of Landsperg, 243. k-rrnhutters, 424 !. 071. lease, 881s., 440s.. 662s. Hessbusiu5,40s, 411. l,-;,-r.!.-\y, :.:,'.>. letzer, 488. lierecas, 702, lierarchy, 20, 57s, 187s., 1S2, 617s. Herocles, 60. licronymns. Bee Jerome, 817. Iieronymltea,817. lilarion,149. Hllarius, 118, 144; of Arelule, 144. Hlldcbrand, 191ss., 238. Hincmar of Laon, 187 ; o Khclins, 187. 288, 285. aippoSyjlfa, 664 Il/.'.r..-.'^. Hirscher, 654 Hochsteden, Conrad of, 803. Hochstratcn, 829. llcM-niuvrn, :.''.'.". Hohenlohe, 648 : Alex., 6C2. Hohenstaufen, 202, 267s. ; Over- throw, 267. Holbach, 528. Holland, 696, 634. Holstein, 561. Holy Alliance, 284, 891, 631; Land, 152, 196, 670; Scriptures, 71, 111, 881s. 878, 446s., 465s., 592s.; Spirit, 115; League, Iloinberg, 882. 'O/tooul'.<\ C> l ; '. Murillo, 464 Synod at, 125, 267, 865. Lyra, Nic. de, 881. Mediolanum, Synod of, 114. Musa,168. Music Eccles., 153, 465, 675. M Melancthon, 866s., 878, 878, 883, 891, 898, 404&, 489s., 446s. MysUcisoL 289s., 822ss., S44 t 5W, Mablllon, 615. Mclchlzedekians, 99, 702. 655s., 661. Macarius, 707. M i-li'h itf 1 '>\ Machiavelli, 828. UetotfoiMO. N Macedonians, 115. Mellto, 51, 71. N3be, 10. Menander, 27. Nantes, Edict of, 428, 494 MadSAMtf. life ' Mendaeans, 77 Naples. 629. Madlai, 609. Mendelssohn, Felix. Moses, 675. Napoleon, 532, 688, 648, 676. Mficdcburc &6& M*!i'l i<"iiit i *r75. Old Testament, 71. Olevianus, 413. Olivetans, 817. Olga, 257. Olshausen, 570. Oncken, Missionary, 610s. Ophites, 80, 693s. Orange, Synod of, 125. Oratory, Priests of the, 462, 465. Orders, 225, 295, 462ss., 662. Organs, 153. Origen, 52, 71, 92, 130, 703. Original Sin, 122. Orleans Eegent, 513; Dynasty, 626ss. Orosius, 106, 124. Osiander, 403. nan, 256 ; de Murrhone, 270 Osseni, 85. de Viueis, 266, and Paul, Fes- Otho of Bamberg, 249 ; of Frcy- singen, 188; I., 189, 249; III., 189; IV., 206,216. tival of, 154; the Great, 666. Peter's Church, 304. Peterson, 418. Overbeck, 674. Petrarca, 827. Owen, 680. Petrus Alexandrinus, 65 ; Apos- tle, 26, 30, 81, 154 ; Fullo, 128 ; P Pachomius, 149. Lombardus, 224, 239; Mogilas, 481; Venerabilis, 229, 242; Pack, Otho von, 881. Waldus, 254. Paganism, 104. Peucer, 408. Pa|i, 8. Pfaff of Tubingen, 492. Painting, 69, 804s., 445. 464, 674. Pfefferkorn, 329. Paion, 490. Pfeffinger, 406. Palamas, 855. Pflug, Julius von, 892, 393. Palatinate, 392; of Bavaria, 492, Phanaroea, 160. 528. Pharisees, 22. Palestrina, 465. Philalethes, 553, 581. Palavicini, 860. Philip I. of France, 194, 196, Pallium, 153, 173, 212. 198; Augustus, 204, 207 ; the Pamphilus, 95. Fair, 271, 819s. ; of Hesse, 375, Panoplia, 261. 882, 390, 891, 396, 898; of Sca- Pantaenus, 91. bia, 206; II. of Spain, 414, 429, Pantheism, 551s., 554. 461. Pantheon, 152, 464. Philippists, 404. Papacy, 61s., 142s., 183s., 195, Philippopolis, 262; Synod of, 265ss., 288s., 450s., 511ss., 524ss., 114. 617ss. Philippus the Arabian, 46. Paphnutius, 148. Philo, 21. Papias, 73. Paracelsus, 448. Philoponus, 133. Philostorgius, 102, 705. Paraguay, 475, 524, C32. Philostratus, 47. Paris Univ., 236, 276, 320 ; Synod Phocas, 142. of, 178, 340, 535. Photinus of Sirmium, 114. Parma, 525. Photius, 258, 260 ; Heathen, 1064 Parson's Letter, 288. Phthartolatrians, 129. Pasagii, 252s. Piarists, 463. Pascal, 517. Picards, 341. Paschal Controv., 68, 154, 691. Paschalis II.. 197ss. Picts, 167. Pietism, 487, 491; Orthodox, Paschasius Eadbertus, 224, 234. 555. Passau, Treaty of, 398. Piligrin of Passau, 250. Pastors, 293. Paterini, 252. Pilgrimages, 152, 213. Pipin, 172, 173. Patriarchs, 141 ; of Constantino- Pisa, Synod of, 276s., 284, 291. ple, 356s. Pistoia, Synod of, 528s. Patricias, 167, 190. Pius II., 281 ; IV., 451, 455 ; V.. Patripassians, 98. 451, 467; VI., 526, 531, 532; Patronage, 214. VII., 533, 617,632,646; VIII. Paulus, Apostle, 27s., 31s., 40 ; of 619, 635, 637; IX., 620ss., 633; Bernried, 193; Gerard, 484s.; Unions, 641. of Samosata, 100; of Thebes, Planck, 360. 64s.; the Simple, 150; II., Plastic Arts, 304. 281s. ; III., 890, 895, 450, 452, Plato, 16. 454; IV., 451, 462; V., 457, Platonism, 47, 93, 328. 467; Warnefrid, 161, 179; of Plays, Sacred, 302. Heidelberg, 544. Pleroma, 78, 694. Paulicians, 159s., 261. Pletho, 355. Peace, Everlasting, 681s. ; of Plinius, 44. God, 208, 217; of Linz, 479; Plotinus, 48. of Westphalia, 479 ; of Vien- Plutarch, 47. na, 417s. ; of St. Germain, 427. Plymouth Brethren, 611. Peasant's War, 377s. Poeschl, 661. Pedro, Dom, 631. Poissy Conference, 427. Peel, 600. Poland, 249, 420, 494, 668. Pelagian Controv., 122, 383, 467. Pelagius, 122 ; Eom. Bishop, 130. Pella, 87, 74. Polentz, George, 375. Polotzk, Synod of, 668. Polycarp, 45, 73, 690, 692. Penances, 65, 175s., 222. Polycrates, 690s. Penitential Convulsions, 487s. Penitentials, 292s. Penn, William, 502. Pomare II., 614. Pombal, 524, 631. Pomerania, 249. Pentecost, 24, 68. Pomponazzo, 328. Pepuziani, 66. Pontifex Maximus, 103. Peripatetics, 828. Pontius, Abbot, 229. Persians, 107. Pornocracy, 188, 388. Perugino, 306. Porphyrians, 118. Pestalozzi, 545. Petavius, 515. Peter D'Ailly, 277, 844; of Porphyrius, 48, 50. Portiuncula Indulgences, 293. Port Eoyal, 516. Amiens, 197 ; of Aragon, 207, 270 ; of Bruys, 253 ; of Castel- Portugal, 524, 527, 629. Possevino, 481. 713 INDEX. Pothlnus, C97, C99. Eavaillac, 42& Roskolnici, 666. Poussin, 464. Rawicz, 658. Rossi, Count, 622. Prague Bishopric, 249 ; Univer- Raymond of Bezieres 256 ; de sity, 826, 34$. Pragmatic Sanction, 268, 2S1, Pennaforte, 286; de Sabunde, 825; du Puy, 232; of Thou- Rothschild, 677. Rousseau, 528. 2S4,285. louse.256. Rovaard, 11. Praxeas, 99. 704 Raynal, 528. lioyko, 11. Preaching Friars. 296. Raynaldus & Rubens 464 Predestinarians, 125, 285. Readers 547. Ruchat, 861. : i nation, 1 22, 225, 879, 401. Premonstrants, 229. Realists, 239, 321s. Recognitions of Clement, 692,708. Rudoljih cf ITapsbunr, 2C9s.; a 8nablsl95; 11., 417. I'r.-byteresses 89, 707. Presbvterles in Bavaria, 672s. Redemptorists 621. Redeemer, Order of the, 817. RQgen, 249. Rnffo, Cardinal, 535. Presbyterians 428, 498, 697, 604 Reformation in Cath. Church, Rulinus, 98, 120. -H. 89. 68, 140. Present!* Passlva, 687. : John, 887. 276s., 888, 848; Forerunners of the, 861; Protestant, 860; Introduction of. 886. Rupert of Deutz, 24a Rnpp,680,684,689, to&aa, I...M. r...... c.. Prierias 863. Reformed Church, 884s., 899s., Russian Church, 257, 481s., 666. Pri^thood, 57,136,187,188,448s. Priestley, 611. * 696s.; Presbyterian Church, Russia, Protestantism in, 670*., 668. Prtmarius of Adrymetum, 188. Regalia, 216, 2S7. K ;l ;r.-:M,.<-k.K>. I'ri-'-illiannslSS. Probabilism, 884, 464, 517. i:. ..iif-r. .-:.t. .-,-,:.. Regino of Pruem, 210. \l\\\ -\'T' irk. "..:'. Ryswick, Peace of, 493. Proclns 48. Rehm.10. Proooplus 188, 161, 850; Ga- Reichlln-Meldegg, 11 8 /.;!', ;..:. P.elmarus 687. Sabbatarians 447, 610. Professlo Fidel Tridentlna, 466. !;,.;; 1 ir ,] ,',, Sabellicns 265. Proll, 668. Propaganda. 470. l'r..pliecy. Messianic, 20s. I 'n phots, 88: Little, 495. ).-.-. ^ :,-.-.;. '.:.'. Reynardus 24&s^ 816. Religion, Prussian Edict of, 640. Kelirions Peace of Angsburg, ..-.: ! N ..: :n! r.-, :,^4. Rejlgll,225. Bacerdotintn,*63. Sacharelll, a Sacramentarian Controv., 284s., P.-.~.-;:i-m. 47". 91%. !,... !::,- 1 rind^Mft 287, 889s, 899s., 401. Protestation of Spej -i r Protestantism, 487s.; Develop- ' of, 648m; and Calho- . Remonstrants 418. top*] M, ,-.!!._-. .-.:.',. liege, Law on, 625. Saints Worship of, 151s., 228, .ing Parties, 169, 251es., Resdtittlo?Edict of, 479. 807s, 620. ::,-. 1 ' ' r i ' ' t ' ' i ' ' . - I '*''.-' 8t Germain, Peace of, 427. Provincial Synods 60, 290s., 631. Reuciilln, 829. St John. Knights of, 232, 819s ; PrudeottoaTuA rOtt ItovcrMiJ^L 60T Disciples of; 77. Prussia, 886, 875, 666ss., 576s*., Kcvlvals in America, 601. Revolution, EofL, 497s ; French, Bt M.-irin. Ml. St Maurus 462, 481. Pscudo-IsidoVus, 1S4. L,629ss.; ILT6ss. Bt BtOMb ',7-.. I ' .'''ill-* " ' - ' Reynard the Fox, 816. ** 1 i 1 ; ' i "' ' i naeus,696; of Lucca, 265. I:,,M-:, B^MKOttiMt Sales Francis of, 461. Public Worship, 168s, 177s., Rhonso, Electoral Alliance of, Salisbury, John <.f, 241. Salle, Baptist de la, 621. !' :."n. r..i, I:;.' 274, 287. BMnS "' Porntory. I-*-'. Puritans 862, 864, 480, 601. stn, 509s. Rlcd, Jesuit, 474s Richard Ccear de Lion, 204s; Simon, 615; of St Victor, 240. RkMte :-. Richer, 460. Sakburg, Evangelicals of, 498. Samaritans 28, 26s Samosatenlani, 100. Samiisaeans 85. BMMML MB, (juadratus Apologist 50, QuartodeclmanI, 154 Rienxo, Cols de, 274s. Rubber sVnod, 128, 144 Robert Onlscard, 192, 196; of teebo L,tOTi. Sandwich Islands 614s. Ban Gnd, -.M. Sardlca, bynod of, 118s., 142, ( MU'lcn 6*tx rlssei, 828; of Clteaux, 707. lenjudt )<. 228; Stephens 466. 8arpl,860,457. Quesn.:. Robespierre, 631. Saturntnus 77, 69a Quietism. 519s. liobinSOD. 4mfh Saumur Academy, 490. Rodrignes Ollnde, 679. Savonarola, 852a. Quinisexta, 134 i: .hr, M.\ .VI. ROnnow of Roskilde, 419. Saxony, 169, 685. Saxon Reformation, 3C3s, 492s R Roger of Sicily, 196, 200. 662,678s. Rabanns Mannis 283, 184 i;,,! rb'K-li.-r .;"-:'. Scanderbeg, 856. llabbl Akiba, 42. Roman Catholics in the U. S., Scapular of the Virgin, 230. Rabbinism, 42s, 602. Schaff, 684 liadbod, King of Prisons 168. Rome, Pagan, 17^ 48s. ; Bish- Scheibel, 569s. Radicalism, 563, 647s. opric of, 61, 142s; Republic, Schelllng, 650s^ 552. liammohnn Roy, 615s mm, Schiller, 542. Kanke, 360s. ' Romantic School, 655, 674 Schism, 275. Raphael, 806. Romualdo, 227. Schleiermacher, 11, 650. Kapp, 558. Roncalian Plains, Battle, 202. Schmidt, J. R Ch., 9. Ratherius, 286. lion 2*% 6^6s. Schneidemuhl, 658. Rationalism, 500s., 507s., 644, Ronsdorf, 509. Schoeffler, Abbe, 664. 550s. Roothaan, 61S. Schoenherr, 660. Ratisbon, Alliance of, 376 ; Diet, Rosary, 800. Scholasticism, 238s., 820s 393, 412, 477. Roscellinus 239. Scholz, 654 Ratramnus, 234, 235. Rosenkranz, 553. Schroeck, 9. Rauroer, 583. Rosicrusians, 449. Schulz, Court Preacher, 540. INDEX. 719 Scriptures, see Holy Scriptures. Sclmderoff, 571. Schurf, 381. Schurmann, 508. Schwenckfeld, 435. Schwerin, Count, 5S2. Silesia, Lutheran, 569s. Scotland, 167, 424, 497s., 597s. Scottists, 321s., 332s., 467. Sootus, Duns, 321 ; Erigena, 233s. Seckendorf, 360. Segarelli, 341. Selnecker, 409. Semiarians, 113s. Semipelagians, 124s. Semler, 9, 538. Sendomir, Agreement at, 420. Seniores, 58. Separatists of Wurtemberg, 557s.; of Prussia, 569s. Septimius Severus, 45. Serapeion, 106. Sergius III., 188; Patriarch, 131 ; Tychicus, 261. Sermons, 300, 445, 515s. Servetus, 430, 433. Servites, 317. Sethites, 80. Seven Sleepers, 46. Severians, 129, Irfl. Severinus, 709. Severus Alexander, 46. Severus, Gnostic, 83. Sextus Decretalium Liber, 286. Shaftesbury, 499, 610. Shakers, 446, 605. Sibour, 629. Sibylline books, 97, 693, 704. Siccardi, 623s. Sicilian Monarchy, 2GG, 514; Vespers, 270. Sickingen, 329, 867. Sierra Leone, 616. Sieyes, 530. Bigbert of Gemblours, 182s. Sigismund, Emperor, 277, 348; III., of Sweden, 418, 420. Simeon Metaphrastes, 260s. ; Sty- lites, 150s. Simon Magus, 27, 84 ; de Mont- fort, 256 ; Stock, 230 ; of Tour- nay, 267. Simonists, 679s. Simony, 191, 221 ; comp. 2SSs. Sintenis, 565. Siricius, 149, 159. Sirmium, Synod of, 114. Sixtus IV., 282, 311 ; V., 456, 466. Slavery, Abolition of, 677s. Slaves, 257, 706. Slavonic nations, 248s., 257. Sleidanus, 360. Smalcaldic Articles, 390s. ; League, 383s. ; War, 395s. Smith, Missionary, 678; Mor- mon, 612. Socialism, 679. Socinians, 434s. Socrates, 16; Scholasticus, 102. Soissons, Synod of, 239, 242. Sollicitudo omnium, Bull of, 617s. Sonderbund, 648. Sophronius, 110, 131. Sorbonne, 426, 458. Soter, 79. South Africa, 616. South America, 475, 522, 632. Southcote, Joanna, 546s. South Sea Islands, 614. Sozomenus, 102. Spain. 54, 168, 172, 287, 294, 429, 527,535,629ss. Spalatinus, 360, 871s. Spalding, 544. Spee, Fred., 454. Spener. 487. Speyer, Diet of, 381. Spinola, 496. Spinoza, 409. Spirituals, 298s. Spittler, 9. Sponsors, 70. Stiiudlin, 10. Stahl, 590. Staroverzi, 666. Staupitz, 362, 380. Stedinajers, 339s. Steinbuhler, 527. Stephanus, 25; of Tigerno, 227. Stephen I., 91 ; II., 173 ; VIL, 187; IX., 192; Botzkai, 417s. ; of Hungary, 250 ; of Dresden, 560. Stockholm, Society in, 539. Stolberg, 11, 672. Strasbourg, Synod, 608 ; Faculty, Strauss, 553. Strigelius Victorians. 403. Suarez, 458. Subordinationists, 9Ss., 704s. Sulpicius Severus, 102. Sunday, 41, 68, 154. Superintendents, 444; General, 568. Superior Consistories, French, 608; Prussian, 578; Eccles. Council of Prussia, 583. Supernaturalism. 544. Surplice Fees, 216. Suso, Henry, 323s. Sutri, Synod of, 190. Sweden, 245, 246. Swedenborg, 507. Swedenborgians, 507s.. 605. Switzerland, 3S4ss. Sword, Brethren of the, 251. Sylvanus Constantinus, 159s. Sylvester I., 143, 184; II., 190, 197 ; III., 190. Symbolik, 671. Symbols, Christian, 69, 691. Symbolum Apostolium, 72; Athanasianum, 116. Symeon, 45. Symmachus, 105. Syncretism, 486. ^vveiffUKToi, 63. Swe'/cSTj/uoj, 160. Synergistic Controv., 405s. Synesius, 119, 138, 706. Synodal Constitution, 60s., 440ss., 572 ; Courts, 175, 222, 293. Synod, Holy, 666, 670. Syrian Gnostics, 77ss. Taborites, 350. Tafel, 507. Tagliacozzo, Battle of. 26S. Tahiti, 614. Talleyrand, 529. Talmud, 43. Tanchelm, 253. Tancred, 205. Tasso, Torquato, 464. Tatianus, 51, 83. Tauler, 322. Taxation of the Church, 140, 216, 530. Temperance Societies, 601. Templars, 232, 31Sss., 663. Territorial System, 492, 572. Tertiaries, 296. Tertullianus, 52, 6'2, SSs. 69T. 701, 702s. Test Act, 498, 599. Tetzel, 363, 365. Thaddeus, 35. Thamerus, 486. Theatines, 462. Theiner, 653, 659. Thek.a, St, 97. Theocracy, 20. Theodora, Empress, 129, 157, 261 ; Eoman, 188. Theodoretus, 102, 127, 130, 132. Theodorus Ascidas, 180; Balsa- mon, 125; Lector, 102; of Mopsuestia, 118, 130 ; of Tar- sus, 179. Theodosius I, 105, 115s., 188; II., 126. Theodotus, 99, 704. Theodulph of Orleans, 1T9. Theopaschites, 128s. Theophanes, Confessor, 102. Theophilanthropists, 532, 627. Theophilus of Alex., 121 ; of An- tioch, 51. Theophylactus. 261. Theosophy, 447ss. eord/cos, 126, 152. Therapeutae, 22. Theresia, St., 461. Thesaurus Supererog., 311 Theses Lutheri, 363. Thibet, 522. Thiers, 623. Thirty Years' War, 476s. Thomas, 85; Aquinas, 321, 331 333, 335 ; a Becket, 203 ; Chris- tians, 127; a Kempis, 32i More, 421. Thomasius, 4S7s , 491. Thomists, 321s., 332, 467. Thorn, Insurrection, 494; I 'is cussion at, 42*0. Thorwaldsen, 674. Three Chapters' Controv., 130. Thuisto, 162. Thurificati, 56. Tiberius, 87. Tillemont, 8. Tindal, 421, 499. Tirkler, 834 Tischendorf, 592. Tithes, 139, 171s., 530, 600, 680. Titian) 464. Titus, Emperor, 37. Toland, 499. Tolbiacum, Battle of, 166. Toledo, Synod of, 116. Tolentino, Peace of, 532. Toleration Eccles., 496s. ; Edict, 548, 581. Toloinei, 317. Tongues, Speaking with, 24s.,55S. Tonsure, 153, 177. Torgau, League of, 376s. Torquemada, 294. Tournay, 267, 824 Tournon, 522. Tours, Synod of, 235. Tradition, 72, 111, 467. Traditores, 56. Trajan, 44. Tranquebar Mission, 510. . Translatio prisca, 135. Transubstantiation, 153, 224s., 233. Transylvania, 417, 494, 665. Trappists, 521. Trent, Council of, 394, 454s. Treves, Bishop of, 643; Coat pilgrimage of, 656. Trinitarians, 230s. 720 IXDEX. Trinity, 93, 116.- Trittenheim, 265. Vespasianus, 87. Veto Act, 597. Wil.lcnspuch crucifixion, 559. Wllboluiina, Bohemi:i Troubadours, 244 Truce of God, 208, 217. Trullan Synod, 184, 143, 156. Tubingen, University, 832 ; School, Older, 545 ; New, 698s. Victor L. 63, 99, 704 ; IL, 191 ; IIL, 196, 202. Vienna Concordat, 231; Con- gress, 605, 617 ; Peace of, 417 ; Theol. Faculty at, 606. William of Champeaux, '24u : ,.f 8t Amour, 'j;7; of llirsau, 227 ; of Occam, 821 ; of Orange, 493; the Conqueror, 194 Wilson, Bishop, 015. Turkey, 670. Vigilantiuft, 159. Winer, 598. Tunis, 268s. Vlgiliu* 129s. \\' u j'r-,-1 J 1 f >N Tl/ITO V Vigils, 67 Winkelmann, 672, 674 Tyrannicide, 884, 442*., 458s. Tyrol, 543, 606. Tzschirner, 9, 549, 671s. Vlllani, 264 Vilmergen, Battle of. 495. Vincent de Paula. 468. Vincentius Ferreri, 318 ; of Beau- Wiseman, 651s. Wislicenus, 579, 5SO. Witches, 175 ; Trials of, 810s., 491. Witgensteln, 509* u vals,264; of Lirinnin. 111. Witfra, 17.'. Uhlich, 578*, 682. . r.93. Wittenberg Univ., 826; Theses, 868; Fire signal, 869; Icono- Ulrich'of Augsb.,218; of tcmb 891. Virtflin* Magidan, 810. -.804 clasm, 872s. ; Surrender of, 896; Concordium, 899; Phil- Ultramontanista, 682* Uniformity, Act of, 428. Unigenittu, Bull of, 549. Union, 468*, 626s. ; Evang., 608*; of the Ev. Church, 666*., 678; of tbe Cath. and Greek Church- . .. ;-:, ,. .. Unitarians, 98*, 488*, 608, 611. Universalia, 289. Visitation, Articles of, 411 ; Book VHu's', 8L, Dance, 8ia Vladimir, 257. Vladlslaiw IV. of Poland, 420. Voice* Calling, in Sweden, 509. V,,lr ;i !r... :.:::. Mr \,.-..i. I,..,;.- l[>l>h>ts of, 404s. ; Luthuranisin, .468. WUdltnir, 967. r.< >hemia, 850. Woolln. Wolf, 4S99.; Peter, 11. Wolfcnbattel FrajAr., 587. Wolfram of R-^heiibach, 244 Unlversalist* 605. Vulgate, 111, 466. Woltmann, 8Go. CTntanttlM, Mfc IN Women, 89, 140, tM. r ; ,;,,r Rhtttt I'n.v.. 47::. ,',;::. Urban II., 196,197: IV. 801; V.,275; VL, 275, 802; VIII.. 4.V..1.VJ. :.;'.. rri :i ,,.r.-.T. :,,-. Urlnia%6. W Walafrid Strabo, 241 Waldensct, 254*. 842*, 610. Walter, Hans, 446 : of the Vojwl- welde, 244: of St. Vi.-t.>r, -Jii. Wartburg, Luther at, 872* Works, Necessity of, 405s., 409. Worms, Concordat, 199 ; Diet nt, 871* ; Synod at, 195. Worship, see Public Worship. WQrtemberg, 891. 657,6788., 646. Wupperthal in Africa, 616. w,-.-.- : .,...!..r. :.,; v.j. WycUfle, 84C* Utraqnists, 880*, 477. w, _-,:, iv Utrecht Jansenlsts, 519; Union of, 415. Weimar DispnL, 406; Ecclw. r-!,r. :.7t. X Xavlor, 452, 472. WeUliaiipt, 697. Xlnienea, 294, 831. V wSSSS+m VateMM M Wenceslaus, 948* 848* T \V. :,.:-. :;'. Young Germany, 654. Werkmeister. 684. Valcntlniantu II., 110 ; IIL, 189, Werthelm Bible. 490. Z 1 it. Wesel, Jobn of, 851* Zablana, 77. Inus, Gnostic, 79s, 696. Zachariaa, Pope, 173. Yul.-rl.inus, 46. \y. --'.':..::. /. istona, m. Zeno iMuricn* 128 ; Stole, 17 Vsnvnr.m u | ram r Pnan r. ':. :. VaDombro L OB*rCttfc Wetras,Dietof. 4ia '/.['.. rtii:i!. i'."''i. ValUhn* L7& Vandals, Itth Westpbal,%7. Zlnzendorf, 608* Ziska, 850. Vasa, 418. Westphalia, Peace of, 479. Zittel, 672. Vasart,803. Vaud, Canton of, 400, 698, 611 \V, -!.:;,. r.M. Wbltefleld, 606s. Wkhtn/ltL KOMTM, ML Zosimus, 108, 124. Zulpich, Battle of, 166. Venema, 11. \V l*'I Vi 1 1 r - \ ' Zurich, 886, 658. Vergerin* 469. Verschooren, 50. Wigand, 408, 411. Wllberforce, 506. Zw-ickau Prophets, 872* 43L Ewfn^884Mri9l, THE END. 14 DAY USE RETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED LOAN DEPT. This book is due on the last date stamped below, or on the date to which renewed. Renewed books are subject to immediate recall. C'D LI APR 3 i95i UNIV. OF CALIF.. 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