o J) I a TEACHERS MANVAL: No. 19. OUTLINES OF EDUCATIONAI HISTORY a S JEROME ALLEN. PH. D. >\ I- ite Dean of School of Pedagogy, Univ. City of N. V. 3 COPYRIGHT, 1892. KELLOGG -C/-CO CHICAGO BEST BOOKS FOR TEACHERS, Classified List under Subjects. To aid teachers to procure the books best suited to their purpose, we Mve IxMow a list of our publication* classified under subjects. Thedivision .'tin:es ;i difiii'ult one to niuko, so that we have m many cases placed the sain,- book under several titles; for instance, Currie's Early Education .'.1'penrs under PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF EDUCATION, and also PRIMARY EDUCATION. Recent books are starred, thus * HISTORY OF EDUCATION, GREAT EDU- CATORS, ETC. Allen's Historic Outlines ot Education, Autobiography of Froebel. 'Bruwoiiur'fi Aspects oi Education BestedtUon. Educational Theories. Best edition. * aDUCATICNAL FOUNDATIONS, bound VOl. 'fll-^, *Kell')irg's Life of Pestalozzi, * Lang's Comenius, ______ Basedow, _______ liousseau and his "Emile" - Horace Mann, - O reat Teachers of Four Centuries, Herbart and His Outlines of the Science of Education. _____ Phelps' Life of David P. Page, - - - Quick's Educational Reformers. Best edition. - + Ueinhart's History of Education, PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATION. Carter's Artificial Stupidity in School, - paper *EL>UCATIONAL FOUNDATIONS, bound vol. '91-'92, paper '92-'93, cl. Fitch's lmproveme"t in Teaching, - paper *Hall (G.S. (Contents of Children's Minds, - cl. II untington's Unconscious Tuition, - - paper Payne's Lectures on Science and Art of Education, cl. Ftemhart's Principles ot Education, _ _ _ cl. *$pencer's Education. Best edition. - - - cl. Perez's First Three Years of Childhood, - - cl. *Rein's Outlines of Pedagogics, - - cl. Tate's Philosophy of Education. Best edition. - cl. *Teachers' Manual Series. 24 noe. ready, each, paper PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION. Allen's Mind Studies for Young Teachers. j- cl. .50 Allen's Temperament in Education, - - cl. .50 Kellogg's Outlines of Psychology, ... paper .25 Perez's First Three Years ol Childhood. Best edition, cl. 1.50 Hooper's Apperception, Best edition. - - cl. .25 Welch's Teachers' Psychology, - - - - cl. 1.25 Talks on Psychology, - cl. .50 Our By Retail . i- rice to Mall Teachers Kxtrn paper .15 pd. cl. .50 .40 .05 cloth cL .as .50 .ro .40 .08 .06 paper .60 Pd. cl. 1.00 I'd. paper .15 Pd. pa pei- .15 pd. paper .IS pd. paper .15 pd. paper .15 pd. cl. .25 .20 .03 cl. .25 .30 .03 paper .15 pd. cl. 1.00 .80 .08 cl. .35 .80 .03 .25 1.00 .25 1.00 1.50 .75 1.50 .15 .60 l.OO .15 .20 .15 .80 .20 .80 1.20 .60 1.80 .15 .40 .40 .20 1.20 .20 1.00 .40 GENERAL METHODS AND SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. (\irrie'8 Early Education, - cl. 1.26 l.OO Pitch's Art of Questioning, - paper .15 Fitch's Art of Securing Attention ... paper .15 Lectures on Teaching, - cl. 1.25 l.OO [CONTINUED OK THIRD COVER PAOE.) pd- pa- P ^' pd- \03 pd .08 .03 .10 .10 08 10 .05 .05 .03 .10 .03 .10 .05 .06 & Pd Pd. OUTLINES OF EDUCATIONAL HISTORY. BY JEROME ALLEN, PH.D., DEAN OF THE SCHOOL OF PEDAGOGY, UNIVERSITY OF THE CITY OF NEW YORK] AUTHOR OF " MIND STUDIES FOR YOUNG TEACHERS," ETC. REPRINTED FROM THE INTERNATIONAL CYCLOPEDIA, AND GREATLY ENLARGED. NEW YORK AND CHICAGO: E. L. KELLOGG & CO. COPYRIGHT, 1892, E. L. KELLOGG & CO., NEW YORK. OUTLINES OF EDUCATIONAL HISTORT. . Annex Cage UA 13 142.0 OUTLINES OF EDUCATIONAL HISTORY. Definition. Educatio, the Latin word from which our word education is derived, is used by Cicero to rep- resent the eartli as the educator and nourisher of all things. Tacitus uses educare to mean the nursing of infancy, but he limits the use of educat/io to training. Quintiliau, the ablest educational author among the Latins, and who was very precise in the use of words, applies educatio to preparatory instruction, but uses in- stitutio to represent what we call academic instruction. Modern Conceptions. Among modern conceptions, that which was embodied in the ideal of the founders of the Prussian national system has been the most popular among recent writers, and perhaps the least satisfactory. By them education is stated to be "the harmonious and equable evolution of the human powers." (See Bain's Education as a Science.) All correct definitions of training must refer to Plato, who said, "Good educa- tion is that which gives to the body and to the soul all the perfection of which they are capable." Every con- ception of education must of necessity be colored by the 840333 4 Outlines of Educational History. philosophical views of the person holding them, and also by national ideals of what school work is to ac- complish. Probably the most comprehensive idea of what correct education should do was expressed by Bishop Temple, who said that, " It is the power whereby the present ever gathers into itself the results of the past, and trans- forms the human race into a colossal man whose life reaches from the creation to the Day of Judgment. The successive generations of men are days in this man's life The discovery of inventions which characterized the different epochs of the world's history are his works. The creeds and doctrines, the opinions and principles of the successive ages, are his thoughts. The state of so- ciety at different times forms his manners. He grows in knowledge, in self-control, in visible size, just as we do, and his education is in the same way, and for the same reason, precisely similar to ours." Pascal expressed the same thought when he said, " The entire succession of man through the whole course of ages must be regarded as one man, always living and incessantly learning." These broad conceptions of educational processes are essentially modern, and the more they take possession of the minds of the people, the more and more will it be realized that education does not consist in following dogmatic courses of study, memorizing little understood statements, or mastering set tasks, but rather the joyous and free exercise of all the human powers in the search for truth. The Greek System of Education. No system of ancient education can with more profit be studied by * Outlines of Educational History. 5 modern students, than the Athenian. Elementary train- ing was comprehended under four divisions, gram- mar, gymnastic, music, and drawing. Under grammar was included writing, the elements of calculation, and composition; under gymnastic, the training of the body in strength and endurance. Music was intended not only as a pastime, but for the purpose of giving harmony and beauty to the body and soul. Under drawing was comprehended geometry and the arts of design, as painting and sculpture. There were in Athens and in other Greek cities schools for the instruction of chil- dren. In some of these the teachers were paid by the state, although this was not general. They were recog- nized by Solon, who provided against abuses in them detrimental to children. The gymnasia were established for the special training of the body, and were intended to promote the equable development of all its parts. This education commenced about the fourteenth year, when systematic attention was given to the practice of athletics. So much can be said concerning Greek edu- cation that it is difficult to decide what to omit. The student of modern education will find a mine of wealth in the methods of Greek culture, from which may be i obtained principles and practices of inestimable value to the teacher in this busy age. It is through a careful study of the forces that have both promoted and re- tarded the progress of the human race that eminent thinkers of modern times have been enabled somewhat clearly to ascertain the true object of teaching. Eminent Theorizers. Among eminent theorizers we have Pythagoras, Plato, Aristotle, Cicero, Quintilian, 6 Outlines of Educational History. Abelard, Ratich, Comenius, Locke, Milton, Rousseau, Rabelais, Pestalozzi, Froebel, and Spencer. Each of these eminent scholars has held distinct views as to the aims, possibilities, and practical ideals of human train- ing. But each of these views, although to some extent practical, were mainly theoretical conceptions of what education ought to accomplish under the most favorable circumstances. Plato's Education. Plato's education was essentially aristocratic. He did not think that teaching would do the lower classes any good. To those who were fitted by nature to become guardians of the state the people must look for the preservation of their liberties and the protection of their rights. Their natures are differ- ent from the natures of other people; in other words, they are philosophers by nature. He would by no means have favored our universal system of education, organized and supported on the theory that every child is capable of receiving a good training. He denied emphatically the fundamental principle, that the state is bound to give every child the means of moral, physi- cal, and mental training. Only those can be rulers who have been educated, and only those can be educated whose natures are superior. The Rulers in Plato's State. The rulers of Plato's state were to be chosen from the very best, and from this idea comes his thought of the future, where those who have attained real existence can have full opportunity to enjoy their lives. Plato was a firm believer in im- mortality. "The mind," he says, "is all that we call ourselves, and the body attends it It is only Outlines of Educational History. j after death, when it has got rid of the clog of the body, that we can see what the soul really is, whether com- pound or simple, and the whole of its condition The soul cannot die by any affection of the body, but only by some disorder peculiar to itself. The soul, by the death of the body, does not become more unjust, and the death of the body is not the punishment of its injustice, for death is to it a freedom from every evil. Since, then, neither the death of the body nor its own depravity can destroy the soul, it must be immortal." The Order of Plato's Studies. In his system mathe- matics came first; in the order, arithmetic, plane and solid geometry, astronomy, and the science of harmony in sound. But these must not be studied for the practical benefit that may be obtained from them, but for the purpose of finding the truth. The end of all education is to draw the mind away from the unsub- stantial shadows of the present, and be able to contem- plate the Idea of the Good. We are to strive to attain real existence. What we now see is not reality, but shadows of reality. It is easy to see that Plato's scheme is far more comprehensive than that of any modern theorist. Plato Compared with Modern Theorists. Locke is intensely practical, Milton is humanistic and some- what pietistic, Rousseau is idealistic, and the modern .graded system is intensely formalistic, but in Plato nothing is omitted that can elevate the soul; in fact, his effort may be said to emancipate the soul and give it a large view of the real life that is worth living. It extends to the body and the soul, covers the whole 8 Outlines of Educational History. life, and brings the mind into communion with real existence. School Education in Ancient Greece. It must be ivmembered that the subjects of a school education in Greece in Plato's time were few. Astronomy was for the most part nonsensical astrology; the natural and physical sciences were not thought of. Arithmetic, except the simple computation of accounts, was theoreti- cal, and chemistry was entirely unknown. It should also be remembered that the Athenian ideal gentleman was a man of leisure and wealth. The mass of the people could not be educated even if they wanted to be. A gentleman was high-minded, aristocratic, and proud. He kept himself aloof from the crowd, whom he con- sidered unworthy to associate with. Ancient and Modern Theorists. The radical differ- ence between Plato and all modern educational theorists is easily seen: yet it must be remembered that he did not advocate an hereditary form of government; but he did advocate purity of class, and the necessity of early discovering the children of gold and the children of silver as separate from the children of bronze and iron. The children of gold must be educated, for it is neces- sary to the existence of the state. They, and they alone, can become its guardians. In his early education music meant a great deal, for it included the inner harmony of the soul. He would have nothing told children but what is good. The nursery-songs must be regulated. All bad influences must be kept away, and even the metre of the poetry should be carefully guarded. Gym- nastic must begin very early, and continue through life. Outlines of Educational History. 9 Worthless lives must not be preserved, but good bodies must be trained into great strength and beauty. Aristotle's Educational Ideas. Aristotle's doctrine was that no one can be a good ruler without first haviinj been a, subject, but he makes a difference between that obedience which is free and that which is slavish. The Spartans endeavored to produce obedience for the sake of conquest and war. This was slavish. The object of government should not be to enslave persons who do not deserve slavery, but to enable us not to become the slatr* of others. It is our duty to cultivate that virtue whirh has its exercise in leisure for its own sake. Each citizen must possess all the virtues, especially those exercised in leisure, such as temperance and justice. But how shall they attain these virtues? By education, beginning with nature, training the habits, and ending in the pro- duction of a good reason. The training the habits must precede the training of the reason, and the care of the body must precede that of the soul, and in the soul the irrational part must precede that of the rational. In a good state system of education care will be given to pro- mote the good physical condition of the citizen. Mar- riage must be regulated according to proper seasons for marrying, and the proper person to marry. The man must marry about thirty-seven, and the woman about eighteen. No crippled child should be permitted to live. In infant education diet is important. Children should be allowed free movement, and should be gradu- ally inured to cold. From infancy to the age of five there should be no compulsory study or violent exer- cise, but enough movement in games to prevent sluggish- io Outlines of Educational History. ness. The overseers of the youth must see that children do not hear any improper tales or stories. All foul lan- guage is to be prohibited, and no young person should hear satirical plays or comedies. From five to seven, time should be given to the "observation" of the lessons they require to learn in the future themselves. Educa- tion, in the strict sense of the word, does not begin until after seven years, and may be divided into two parts : from seven to young manhood and womanhood, from this time to twenty-one. Three Questions Proposed. Aristotle now discusses three questions: 1. Is it desirable to have a definite educational system? 2. Should education be committed to the state, or to private individuals ? 3. If there is to be a system of education, what should be its nature ? In treating of this subject he makes the following points: 1. The education of the young has paramount claims upon the legislators, and as there is a certain character proper to each state polity, so the nature of the polity will determine the educational system of each state. It is evident that education must be regulated by the state; for the state as a whole is one, and so it follows that the education of all the citizens must be one and the same, and the state must see to it that it is so. Every citizen is not his own master, but a part of the state. Aristotle's Discussion of Subjects. Aristotle thinks that there is much uncertainty as to the subjects to be studied : (1) Are they those that are merely useful as a means of getting a living ; (2) or such as tend to the growth of virtue ; or (3) the higher studies? It is right to use subjects that are indispensable, but not those that Outlines of Educational History. i i have a degrading influence by reducing a child to the level of a slavish worker, or that unfits the body, soul,or in- tellect for the practice of virtue. There are some subjects that are liberal in themselves, but illiberal in their effect upon the mind if studied in excess. It is not so much the study, as the object for which it is taken up, that makes it liberal or illiberal. The essential branches of school study are reading and writing, gymnastic, music, and the art of design. Reading and writing are usually taught for their practical utility, gymnastic for promot- ing valor, and music for general culture. Amusement is a temporary relaxation, but leisure means happiness. The subjects studied with a view to leisure form the highest part of an education, and the use of music is found when it promotes the rational enjoyment of leis- ure. It is a liberal and noble study when properly pur- sued. The study of the arts of design makes us scientific observers of beauty. The Value of Gymnastics. Education should begin with physical exercise. This practice may be carried too far, either making the body too athletic, and so fitted for personal encounter, or brutal, as in Sparta. Each of these destroy natural growth and grace. Valor is not the chief end of education. Nobleness should hold the first place in a school system. Aristotle's plan of gymnastic education is: From childhood to youth, light exercises, no hard diet. For three years after youth, other pursuits, but afterward hard diet and severe exer- cise, up to full maturity. The body and the mind should not be subjected to severe exertions at the same time. Music may be studied (1) for amusement, (2) 12 Outlines of Educational History. for moral training, (3) for giving a means of rational enjoyment. Music has a moral power, for it produces certain states of the soul, as enthusiasm, and gives us representations, of anger, courage, gentleness, sympathy, etc. Since children like everything to be sweetened, and since there is a natural sweetness in music, it should be practised. An incidental benefit is found in the fact that music keeps children occupied, but care should be taken in the choice of melodies and rhythms which they practise. Performances of an exceptional or pro- fessional kind should be forbidden. The playing of all instruments demanding professional skill should be for- bidden; in fact, all such exercises should be excluded from a public educational course. The Practical Ideal. In the progress of human thought the practical ideal has been gaining in general popularity, yet in Sparta there was a system of train- ing that proposed to take away every force except that which would render the child of the greatest possible use to the state. In Eome, the dominant idea was potestas power, glory, magnificence. Rome did not train the masses so that each individual in the state could reach the highest development his nature was capable of. The ability to command others and surround one's self with a retinue of servants, an army of followers, and the power of commanding the obsequious homage of all with whom he might come in contact was encouraged. During the middle ages the practical ideal was largely lost sight of, but since the Renaissance, and especially since the thoughts of Lord Bacon have influenced the popular mind, this ideal has been growing in power Outlines of Educational History. 13 until to-day the average father has no thought that the^ school-training of his son has any value unless it tits him to do something, in other words, helps him to make a* living. So it is that we have a multitude of trade, music, drawing, and business schools. The Dogmatic Ideal. Directly opposed to the practi- cal is the dogmatic ideal. According to this, an educa- tion consists in mastering the technicalities of a course of study, in getting good marks, and graduating with honor. There have been traces of this ideal all down the ages; especially has it been powerful in shaping the educational practices of the Chinese, where little atten- tion is given to the thought of the author studied, but all efforts are devoted toward the memorizing of words. The First Modern Course of Study. The first Euro- pean in modern times who mapped out a formal course of study that should be followed by all students desir- ing to receive the best education was John Sturm. His intimate friend Roger Ascham, the tutor of Mary Queen of Scots and Queen Elizabeth, advocated his ideas with such vigor and success that the great English public schools adopted, in the main, his methods, and until the present time they have followed with little variation his directions. This dogmatic ideal took so strong hold of the minds of educators that it kept our great preparatory schools and colleges in bondage to a fixed curriculum, from which it was considered im- proper to depart. Points in Sturm's Course. In Sturm's course of study Latin and Greek held the prominent place; and so strenuous have teachers been in following, without 14 Outlines of Educational History. proper variation, this ideal, that it was difficult to in- troduce mathematics and the sciences into the English public schools, and until within a few years no New England college required an examination in English as a requisite for admission to their Freshman class. A notable application of this dogmatic thought has been made in arranging public-school courses of study, and so strict have some superintendents been in requiring that all teachers of a certain grade should do certain prescribed work at exactly the same time and in the some way, that one supervisor boasted that he knew what each teacher in his employ was doing at a certain hour and minute. With the progress of correct educational thought in the past few years this dogmatic idea has lost much of its power, and more freedom is given to individual teachers in training the pupils under their care for com- plete living. This change has taken place through the influence of educational reformers, whose works will be briefly referred to in another part of this article. The Christian System. No sketch of educational work would be complete without reference to the doctrines taught by Christ and the practices of the Christian Church. These doctrines may be divided into two parts spiritual and practical. In conducting the education of a child the Christian teacher assumes that nothing but a union of the soul with God through Christ will suffice to drive out the presence of sin, and fortify the life against its attacks. In practical duties self-abnega- tion is the end to be reached. This ideal is contained in the golden rule. During the Christian centuries the Outlines of Educational History. 15 world has been powerfully influenced by these two doc- trines. A New Element. Christianity iiitroduced a new ele- ment into the civilization of the world. Devotion and sincerity became at once the marked characteristics of the Christians. Home education preceded formal sclool training, and in the family select passages of Scripture, songs, and the stories connected with the birth and death of Christ constituted the main part of instruction. More formal methods grew out of the necessity of giving special education to converts from the heathen, who were ignorant of the distinctive doc- trine of the new religion. The First Class of Christian Pupils. The first class of learners were called Catechumens, or hearers. These were candidates for baptism and full membership, and were permitted to attend and take part in all the exer- cises of the Church except the celebration of the Holy Communion. All people, of all grades, ranks, ages, and kinds of culture, even philosophers, statesmen, and rhetoricians, were embraced in this class. The instruc- tors of these persons were called Catechists, and were the first distinct class of teachers in the early Church. The duration of this instruction continued sometimes two years, sometimes three, but could be shortened at the discretion of the Church officers. At first, teaching was informal, but it soon grew into formal ways, and school buildings were attached to all the principal churches : thus from almost the very beginning of Chris- tianity the school and the church have been inseparable. The subjects studied in these schools were the Lord's 1 6 Outlines of Educational History. Prayer, the Old and New Testaments, and the articles of Christian faith, the Creed, the Liturgy, and the Church chants. The Second Class. To these were soon added higher schools for the training of the authorized teachers And preachers of the Church, the first of which was said to be founded by the Apostle Mark, at Alexandria. his school came under the care of Origen, in the year 211, and was continued by him for twenty years. This being the first of its kind, was a type of similar schools until Christianity became the state religion of the Roman empire, and the doctrines of the Christian iaith were studied in all public institutions. Origen taught philosophy, logic, in order to enable his pupils to know true reasoning from false; physics, that they might understand and admire the works of God; geometry and astronomy to lift the heart from earth to heaven. These theological seminaries were established wherever there was any considerable number of Christians, and many of these became the commencement of the Uni- versities of the Middle Ages. As time advanced and the philosophy of Athens and Alexandria disappeared, the Church found it necessary to give more attention to the training of highly cultivated minds and high liter- ary attainments. Clemens, the teacher of. Origen, be- lieved in making Christian doctrine as conclusive and precise as philosophical study. He was very liberal, and taught that the wisdom of the heathen, though dif- fering in form from Christianity, coincides with it in spirit and in truth. Here we find the commencement Outlines of Educational History. 1 7 of a distinct theology, and the beginning of a new philosophy. The Hebrew System. The theocratic idea of educa- tion held by the Hebrews has been more faithfully fol- lowed by the Semitic race than any other conception. The Jews believed that they were the chosen people of God, and from their earliest childhood they were looked upon as religious beings, and for hundreds of years the elders and fathers were the teachers of the people. The children were required to learn the laws of God, to write them on leaves, on sand, and, in later times, on vellum. This learning by heart of select portions of Scripture, and a simple notation by the letters of the alphabet used as figures, constituted all of their elementary edu- cation. One characteristic of Hebrew education was its industrial system all children, of high and low birth, were obliged to learn a trade. Thus, Christ was a car- penter, Paul a tent-maker. Rabbi Judah said that " he who teacheth not his son a trade, does as if he taught him to be a thief;" and Rabbi Gamaliel said, "He who hath a trade in hand is like a vineyard that is fenced." Ruling Motive. Great stress should be laid upon the prevailing motive ruling the civilized world, for it is an axiom that nothing comes without a cause, and the greater the effect the greater must be the cause. It matters very little as to the exact time when any event occurred, but it does matter a great deal for us to de- termine the relation of events to each other, and how waves of thought have swept over the world, affecting not only dominant civilizations, but all that obtains in household arrangements, methods of instruction, gov- 1 8 Outlines of Educational History. ernment, and religious rites. The student of history learns to measure time by events, and to remember that what may seem a long period is in reality a short time when the character of the results accomplished is con- sidered. An Important Event. When Constantino espoused the cause of Christianity a great event occurred, because up to this time Roman power and Roman religion were one and the same thing. The emperor was pontifex maximus, and had from Augustus down to Constantino received adoration as God. It was not until some time after that the Christian religion became accepted by the state at large; but the first period in pedagogical history closes when the heathen schools came to an end, and Christian schools took their place. The Third Era. This time marks the commencement of the third educational era since Christ, and closes when scholastic philosophy ruled Europe. At the end of this third era appears Charlemagne, and after his time two great forces greatly influenced educational thought: these were Feudalism and the Crusades. From the rise of scholasticism to the Revival of Learn- ing marks the fourth era in educational history since Christ, and from the Revival of Letters the fifth. Causes Sought For. Let us go back over the work we have already done for the .purpose of finding out the causes of these great changes in the world's history. The most important question for us to ask and answer is, what has been the ruling motive since the dawn of civilization ? We have had very little to do with thought outside the Grecian and the Roman nations. It would Outlines of Educational History. 1 9 have been interesting for us to have turned aside and investigated the rest of the world, but it would not have been especially profitable, for from the earliest com- mencement of history down to the present time there has been from Homer a continuous thread of educa- tional thought with which we must ever be most deeply interested. What Thought is Allied to Us. It is true that our relations as Christians to the Jews may lead us to study Hebrew institutions, but this would not be especially profitable to us, for our thought is as different from, Hebrew thought as from Chinese or Hindoo thought. The philosophy of the Greeks, and especially the Alex- andrian Greeks, was tinctured by Oriental ideas; but this we must take as we find it without stopping to investigate the sources of the materials entering into this new compound. Also after the Saracenic invasion of Europe we find thought tinctured again with Oriental conceptions. Here we must take what we find without stopping to ascertain the origin of the forces antedating their reception into European schools. The First Scientific Educator. The first that was known concerning the science of education came from Socrates, who stands out as the one great educational- figure in this world's history grander than all other figures, because his thought excels all other thought before his time. Homer only reflected the world in which he lived ; his grand ideals were not creations so much as adaptations and permutations. His masterly genius wove into beautiful forms the great conceptions of the world in which he lived, but no notion of his was 20 Outlines of Educational History. in advance of his time. That which marks the great man arc his ethical tio/itm*. What is his basis of right? not what is his idea of God, but what is his science of duty ? on what does he base his motive of action ? Before Socrates we find no greats- ethical philosopher; everything revolved around an immediate object. Solon legislated and educated the people into habits of order and peace, and at the crowning period of Grecian his- tory all the tribes were united under the leadership of Pericles, because he had great individual power. The Era of Pericles. No Grecian legislator can be com- pared with Pericles in respect to personal power. With him there sprang a galaxy of men who have been the ad- miration of the ages, and will be to the end of time. Under their direction the immortal works of sculpture were prod need that have been studied since; the dramas of ^schylus and Sophocles, the histories of Thucydides and Herodotus; and the great philosophers, Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. The thought that ruled the world at this time was a love of the beautiful as distinguished from mere show, devotion to philosophy, boldness and daring, without fool hardiness, for such according to Pericles were the marks of the true Athenian. Spartan Ideals. In Sparta the leading idea was polit- ical authority of a rigid and abstract kind, causing the life to be merged into and subordinated to that of the state, repressing the freedom of the individual, and making all practical ideals dead equalities regulated by public authority. Everything in Sparta was arranged for the purpose of homogeneity, such as eating at public tables, and putting the family life in the background. Outlines of Educational History. 2 1 The motive under this was all they knew of virtue; but with the best Athenians eating and drinking we re private affairs, excepting at special times when large num- bers eame together at the table, and this was not in order so mueh for the purpose of eating and drinking as for the enjoyment of intellectual intercourse. The virtue of the Spartan was political, but with the Athe- nians it centred in a consciousness of the beautiful and the adapted. The Sophists. The Sophists before the time of Socrates did little more than to make the practice of questioning accepted beliefs and the authority of exist- ing institutions fashionable. Thought up to this time subordinated the subject to the object. No great thinker had turned the thoughts of men into themselves. How Socrates differed from the Sophists. Socrates de- clared to his countrymen the one thing needful for their spiritual well-being. It was, that knowledge and right are one and the same; that they should not merely will and do the things that seem to them to be right, but that they should do and will these things knowingly. Everything should be brought to the test of knowledge, ad this knowledge must be of the freest, fullest, and the best. Intelligence and intellectual conviction are the ground for action. The thoughts of man must be 'turned away from the beautiful temples to the beautiful soul. Socrates professed to be guided by an oracle within which made itself known to him, and which he followed. Here marks the greatest epoch, excepting the advent of the Saviour, in the educational history of this world. Here commencBS the rising sun of subjectivity, 22 Outlines 'of Educational History. illumining the world through the inner self and guiding men out from themselves into other selves, and thus laying the foundation of the grandest of all Christian doctrines ever promulgated in this world of ours the brotherhood of man, coming from the conception of the inherent dignity of man. But the acceptance of this new principle was destructive of all that was character- istic of the Grecian world before the time of Pericles. Its beauty of objects, its choice freshness of exterior relations, its usefulness and wholeness as symbolized in its temples and statues and paintings, were gone. The Effect of Socrates's Teaching. The Grecians did right to condemn Socrates to death; it was a neces- sary thing if they desired the preservation of their old philosophy; but the thought of Socrates took root, and the death of the man could not kill the immortal prin- ciples he had given to the world. Yet Greece in con- demning Socrates condemned itself, and when the final death-blow was dealt to Grecian unity and the temple at Delphi was desecrated, and when at last all Grecian independence disappeared under the universal rule of Roman imperialism, we simply trace the progression of Socrates's philosophy as manifested through succeeding philosophers. The principles of this immortal man, who first of all men this world has ever produced, turned men's thoughts away from the world without to the larger, better, grander, more beautiful world within, were never destroyed, and will never be destroyed to the end of time. The Influence of Rome. Rome rose, and for a time it seemed as though she would be eternal. But when we Outlines of Educational History. 23 cvimine into her inner life we find that it was ex- !' the ages. According to the judgment of the think- ing world no comparison can be made between the life of a typical (in-dun saint like Socrates and the stoical life of a Roman like Caesar. The founders of Rome believed in themselves and nothing more. By deceit and violence they secured their wives, and by despotic authority and severity they kept them and their families in subjection. The Spirit of Roman Civilization. As long as this Roman spirit ruled in the Roman state there was no grounding of the family relation on love and mutual confidence, but the basis was despotic authority and severity on the one hand, and complete dependence and subjection on the other. The wife belonged to the hus- band as his land and slaves belonged to him. The Roman form of marriage was nothing more nor less than a bill of sale, and the authority the father had over his children was only that which he had in his lands and their possession. He was a despot in his family, and only acknowledged allegiance to a power stronger than himself; therefore, because he was compelled to do so, he gave unqualified subjection to the authority of the state. Power was the basis of Roman greatness. While; the early Greek ideal of right was found in forms of beauty and adaptation in the external world, and while Socrates found it in the knowledge of self and their re- lation to the knowledge of self, in the Roman state it was found in individual power, the highest incarnation of which was the emperor, above whom there could be 24 On i lines of Educational History. nothing greater. Artistic and harmonious beauty was nowhere to be found. Thoughtful inner consciousness was in the mind of the typical Roman nonsense. The Meagreness of Roman Philosophy. All that was grasped was the notion of legal personality without the agreements of individual feeling, without the possibility of a future. It was a bloodless, heartless centralization of all in one; that one the head of the family, and above him the head of the state, and above him nothing not even God Himself. There was no piety in the Roman state, there was no poetry in the Roman heart; for poetry and piety come from our knowledge of self and the recognition of a higher power, thinking, acting, living somewhere in the eternal spheres. Jupiter to the Romans was an abstraction of a useful power, and Juno and Minerva, Venus and all the other gods, represented relations in life that could be handled, seen, felt, meas- ured. The Roman was an atheist as far as recognizing any power above the supreme being of the state as a typical all-powerful individual could make him an atheist. Before him was nothing he cared to investigate, and after him nothing he cared to think about. Himself was the all-powerful, all-wise, and the all and in all of what he' cared to be or become. Effect of Roman Philosophy. Now what was the effect of all this upon the thought of the Roman world? It is not necessary to state. Every student of history well knows what that despotic will was which declared that nothing should exist in all the Roman empire contrary to what the emperor willed. Every sect must be sup- pressed, every thought must be killed, every emotion Outlines of Educational History. 25 must be destroyed, by the arm of the law (vi et armis). Thus the Roman state was the supreme, unquestioned ruler of thought and action as far us the Roman eagle was planted as the standard of imperialism. How Rome came to be Great. How Rome came to be dominant is not now a subject under consideration. Suf- ficient to say that she ruled the world for a thousand years. But another force appeared : Jesus was born, the historic Christ came, at the very time when this Roman individ- ualism was enjoying its grandest triumphs; when one of its best emperors was in the seat of Caesar. The goal of all previous time and the starting-point of all history to come was in the manger atBetlehem. When Christ was first adored by the wise men of the East, the spiritual law of Socrates, " Man, know thyself," here met the highest law that was to inaugurate a grander civilization the law of the union of God with man. A Comparison of Thoughts. The only approximation to introspection that the Roman had found was in his theory of legal personality; and the highest spiritual conception of the Greek was in looking upon things unseen in the inner sanctuary of conscious personality and will. Each person under the Roman empire was an atom; the great monad was the state: but when Christ appeared He taught a new philosophy. It was in ad- vance of what Socrates taught, Plato conceived, and Ar- istotle enforced. Christ's Doctrine. The foundation of Christ's doc- trine was the intimate connection of the conscious ego with the absolute spirit, who is from everlasting and shall be to everlasting the Spirit of Truth. When David 26 Outlines oj Educational History. prayed, " Create in me a clean heart, God; and renew it right spirit within me," he uttered a thought purely Socratic in its nature; and when, farther back, men knew good from evil, it was the doctrine of subjectivity: it was consciousness of spiritual hurt and spiritual pain that led them to realize the fact that they were far inferior to that which they ought to be. But when Christ declared that the true essence of all knowledge is to know God, He uttered a truth which is at the very centre and core of Christian philosophy. It is a truth so deep, so far-reach- ing, so all-comprehensive, that salvation, if we know what the word means, comes by it. Perfection is through and in this all-comprehensive truth; and when Christ declared, " the truth shall make you free," He declared a fact which was life eternal. So Christ re- vealed man to himself as a spiritual being, and this means that the conscious soul can obtain perfection by nothing short of organic union with God; and that this union is to be reached through the knowledge of the true God, who is a spirit, and wljose spiritual essence can be- come a part of our individual conscious essence; and thus we become the companions of our Heavenly Father, and one of a glorious company of all others who are in spiritual union with Him. This union or unity causes us to become new creatures: before that we walked alone in the light of individual consciousness, knowing ourselves, studying our wants, guiding our thoughts, reaching up- ward, outward, onward, longing with an infinite desire for the true, the good, and the beautiful; trying to gain light from Socrates and Plato and Aristotle, with the other great and good souls who were before them. But Outlines of Educational History. 27 now a new thought comes : we are not alone " God is with us." We are partakers of the Divine nature; as a brunch is united to the vine, so we are united to God. We have put off the old individualism of self, and now there is another to walk with us none other than God Himself. He now takes us by the hand: more than that enters into our inner self, becomes identified with us, becomes a part of us and we a part of Him; and no more are we alone, but in Him and by Him and with Him we live and move and have our being. We are now dual heirs of an inheritance which our Father has given us. We are now sons of God. Effect of Christian Belief. Now let a man believe this doctrine fully and freely, unreservedly; let him become convinced that he has thus been united to God, and to him there is a new life and infinite joy and source of immeasurable confidence and strength. The very essence of Christian philosophy consivsts in believing in God, the absolute Being, the perfect Spirit, the eternal and un- created Intelligence and Essence of all things. Also identifying himself with Christ's Spirit and with God's Spirit, and these becoming identified with our spirit, and thus living in conjunction with us, guiding, con- trolling all our conduct, and leading us to be the sons of God, so in Him the individual man becomes as perfect as it is possible for God to be perfect. This is the doc- trine of Christ; and so He commands His followers, "Be ye perfect even as your Father who is in heaven is per- fect." Not a perfectness of the individual, but the per- fection of the God -nature filling the human soul. The Extent of Christian Belief. Now in tracing the a8 Outlines of Educational History. history of educational thought we recognize the fact that this doctrine, or rather perhaps we ought to say conrir- linii, became fastened upon the civilized world. Tens of thousands believed it as they believed in their own lives. They gave themselves up with an abandonment of thorough conviction to the results that such a belief would promote. What were their lives ? Why should they count them valuable ? What was their property ? Why should it be kept ? I am not alone: He who is in me, a part of whom I am, He who guides me, whose slave I am He is my master, and where He goes I will go, and what He tells me to suffer I will suffer. All things are His. These great truths are expressed in the Nicene Creed, 325 A.D. The State of the Argument. This is not here an ar- gument urging the truth or the falsehood of these far- reaching, soul-stirring doctrines. It does not matter whether one be Agnostic or Christian; but it does matter that we recognize fully and completely the influence of this thought upon the civilized world, and we should learn to trace the reason why Christianity overthrew the remnant of Roman power and became the ruling force and central spirit of the Holy Roman Empire. Three Phases of Thought. Now we have three great phases of thought: (1) Up to Socrates, Objective ; (2) from Socrates, Subjective; (3) from Christ, Spiritual; for what has been said concerning the doctrine of the Christian is what is meant when we say spiritual. Teutonic Force. One more element of thought re- mains to be introduced, for as we trace the history of the world we shall find the Teutonic thought coming Outlines of Educational History. 29 into prominence and ruling with some degree of force the thoughts of the world. The celebrated picture of Tacitus of Germania shows us a condition and character of people that we must admire, especially when we place it over against the individualism of the Roman world. The ethical force of the Teutonic character as expressed by the one word Oemilth or GemiUhliclikeit. Perhaps the best translation of this word in English is "a feel- ing of satisfaction" a sort of contentment in reference to one's self. In this resides the ethical philosophy of the Germanic character. It doesn't suppose much in- tellectual force, nor does it imply great motive power, but simply rather a state of feeling which leads the individual to be content with the world as it is, and the condition of society in which he finds himself. It doesn't require the belief in the existence of God or the presence of spirits. It does not lead its possessor to build temples, construct statues, or compose imaginative poems ; but it does lead people having this Gemilth to value the comforts of home, to possess some good idea of mother and wife and children, and get some adequate conception of conjugal and filial love. The Essence of Teutonic Philosophy. It would not form a code of laws like Moses, nor mark out penalties for what we would now consider crimes. With the German, murder did not forfeit life, but was atoned for by the payment of a fine. There were few crimes and few severe penalties, and thus the very watchword of the German is liberty and loyalty. And this loyalty is first to the family, and second to the state, as far as that state to them represents the family on a large scale. We shall 30 Outlines of Educational History. recognize this force in tracing the progress of educational thought. Mahometanism. In the seventh century there appeared a new doctrine: its name has become synonymous with power. Mahometanism made prodigious progress. But what is the ethical thought underlying this wonderful religion ? It seemed to take like wildfire. Its votaries were enthusiastic beyond the power of words to express. Forces of passion burned in their literature, and the Oriental nations were captivated by the thought of Mahomet (Prince of God). The principle was simply the abstract idea of the Jewish God, stripped of all limitations included in the Jewish conceptions of Him. " It was the Jewish God conceived in power and abstract unity that became the God of all the world. . Before Him every knee must bow." This was the simple and universal requirement which Mahomet enforced. " Before Him nothing is feared, and all differences of high and low, of family, caste, or nation, are of no ac- count." The philosophers of this doctrine considered they had attained the highest merit in the eyes of God in dying for their faith, and whoever tried to conquer the world to the idea of God was certain of entering at once into ineffable bliss. " God is God, and Mahomet is His prophet" was the watchword in the seventh century, and is the ethical doctrine of more millions on earth to-day than sign their allegiance to any other creed the world now knows, or ever has known since the world be- gan. God is all must be acknowledged as law, order, fate, the world past, the world to corne. The boundless universe, unknown to us, but known to Him, all are Outlines of Educational History. 31 God's and with the sword of the Prophet uplifted his fol- lowers stand over us to-day as they have stood for the cen- turies past with the command, " Confess this or you die." If you acknowledge this with your lips, whether you be- lieve it or not in your heart, it matters not, but if you with your uplifted hand swear by this creed, you live; and so long as yqu continue to swear by this creed you shall live; but the very moment you fail to say, "God is God and Mahomet is His prophet " that moment you shall die. That is all there is of Mahometanism. A Review. A brief review of educational progress, especially in this country, will be necessary in order to know what advancement has been made, and what are the special needs of our times. At the Revival of Learning scholars all at once woke up to the realization of the fact that a mine of literary wealth had been lying just within easy reach, but of which, for hundreds of years, they had been ignorant. The thought of the world was quickened into intense activity. Convents were searched, and libraries of monasteries ransacked for lost manu- scripts of classical works, and the search was rewarded with wonderful success. Aristotle and Plato were re- translated from the original Greek, and new editions of Latin authors appeared with marvellous rapidity. The art of printing, which reached a great degree of per- fection early in the sixteenth century, greatly aided the dissemination of this new knowledge. The old world, that seemed to have been asleep for five hundred years, opened its eyes in amazement and joy upon a new literature, and so, new thought. The works of the an- cients were almost worshipped, and he who could write 3a Outlines of Educational History. and speak, with case and fluency, Ciceronian Latin was considered among the greatest scholars of his time. Ecclesiastics became accomplished classicists, cathedral schools were opened everywhere, especially for the study of Latin. The Revival of Learning. At the opening of the sixteenth century Europe had fairly inaugurated a new educational era. Just at this time the age of discovery and maritime adventure began the New World had been found but this was only the commencement of far more dangerous voyages, and far more exciting ad- ventures than Columbus ever experienced. Books con- taining a little truth, with a good deal of fiction, and illustrated in the most sensational manner, were pub- lished in many countries of Europe. At the beginning of the seventeenth century schools were founded every- where, and no order was more active in accomplishing this work than the Jesuits. So popular did thoir schools become, that many Protestant parents intrusted their children to them for instruction. In Germany princes as well as educators exerted themselves to improve and multiply their schools. Before this time John Sturm had established a gymnasium in Strasburg, where he taught forty-five years, and was greatly influential in fixing methods of instruction in all of Europe. The Jesuits and Sturm. Whether the Jesuits did more than Sturm to establish the methods of classical teaching is a disputed question, but Sturm said, " I have observed what writers the Jesuits explain, and what method they follow, and it differs so little from ours that it seems as if they had drank from our foun- Outlines of Educational History. 33 tain." Yet it is evident, as Von Raumer has said, that " Protestants and Catholics sought the same object in their efforts for literary culture." The ideal was Cicero- nian Latin eloquence. It was, in fact, a pure philologi- cal training, in which almost everything else was lost sight of except speaking and writing. French, German, and English were not valued as literary languages. Latin became the means of communication between all who laid any claim to having a liberal education. Ratich. Among those who attempted to reform these systems of teaching were, first, Wolfgang Ratich, and after him Johann Amos Comenius. Both of these men devoted their lives to the advocacy of their ideas Ratich with moderate and Comenius with a great degree of success. It was urged by them and their followers that the common method of instruction of their time was " a blind groping, without road or object." They declared that words were put too soon in the mouths of scholars; that they were required to name and describe things strange to them, and so, many school exercises were "empty talking without any real substance." They in- sisted that all pupils, even the youngest, should under- stand what they were required to say and do, and should be able to give a clear account of their thoughts, in cor- rect words and sentences made by themselves. Ratich urged the necessity of first reading and speaking the mother-tongue correctly and fluently. Hebrew, Greek, and Latin should be studied in the order named, but the German language should be the medium of communica- tion in all German schools, lie divided his school into six classes, in the three lowest of which the mother- 34 Outlines of Educational History. tongue was solely used. In the fourth Latin was com- menced, and in the sixth, Greek. The teacher of the lowest classes need know no language but German, and he " should form the tongues and languages of the new scholars according to pure Misnian dialect, by daily prayer, short Bible texts, and questions in the form of ordinary conversation." The Maxims of Ratich and Comenius. The favorite maxim of Ratich and his followers, "per inductionem el experimentum omnia," was purely Baconian, and shows that the spirit of this philosopher influenced, at least to some extent, this educational reformer. Co- menius was a man of greater breadth and scholarship than Ratich. He wrote several valuable books, one of which, the Opera DidacMca, filled more than a thou- sand folio pages, and is "a most rich treasure of acute and profound thoughts." But the book that gave Co- menius his greatest fame was his Orbis Pictus, which appeared in 1657, and was for a hundred and fifty years the most popular text-book of the world. It was a prin- ciple of Comenius that teaching should begin with the presentation of actual things. In the Orbis Pictus everything was illustrated by pictures the book is full of figures and cuts, "by the help of which the attention will be awakened and the imagination pleased." This was the forerunner of the thousands of illustrated school- books which have appeared, but among all that have followed not one has been more minutely or profusely illustrated than this. Comenius must be considered the first learned educational reformer of recent centuries, Outlines of Educational History. 35 and the time will never come when his opinions will not be quoted with respect. The Emile. Except the writings of Comenius, no book has made a more decided impression upon the edu- cational world than Jean Jacques Rousseau's Emile. Its plan of instruction is to allow the youthful mind to un- fold without restraint. Necessity alone is to regulate the education of a child until reason is strong enough to be its guide. The reading of the Emile by J. Heinrich Pestalozzi was the means of leading him to realize the true philosophy of education. Like Rousseau, his principles were founded entirely upon the following of nature. It took him a long time to find the means of reaching the best results, but in the end his method was so clearly shown that no teacher who desires to fol- low him need be at a loss to know what to do. No modern educational reformer has exerted so strong an influence in taking unreasonable and unnatural practices out of the schools, and introducing in them the correct order in developing a human being. The name of Pes- talozzi is deservedly held in high esteem by all students of modern educational science. Froebel. Froebel was a pupil of Pestalozzi, but Froebel saw the light far clearer than Pestalozzi did. His book was childhood. He became intimate with children; and their giving to him their gifts, out of the fulness and freshness of their young hearts, also gave him the central thought of his Kindergarten system- unselfishness, working for others without regard to self. This led him to arrange his system, that economises the waste energies of childish activities and utilizes what 36 Outlines of Educational History. had before been considered unworthy of notice: and this he did without repressing the natural free spirit of childhood (Joseph Payne). Froebel insists that play is the natural business and occupation of the child, and that through play the work of education can be made both methodical and effective. Two words embody the practice of the kindergarten plays and gifts. Early New England Education. From Comenius to the United States is but a single step, for he was invited to become president of Harvard College. Fifteen years after the landing of the Pilgrims public schools were established in Massachusetts, and all children were obliged to attend them. A fine of $50 was imposed upon the parent for failure in doing his duty. Tuition was required of all who were able to pay it. In 1683 every town of 500 inhabitants in Massachusetts was obliged to maintain a grammar-school in addition to the primary school, and those towns failing to do so were taxed and the proceeds given to the next adjoining town. In 1636 the* Legislature of Massachusetts voted 400 toward the founding of a college. It was named in honor of Rev. John Harvard, who left 700 in 1638, and a library of 300 volumes, to the new institution. Early New York Education. The Dutch settlers on Manhattan Island established a school in 1633; others followed, which were supported by the town and the church. When the English took possession of the island, in 1674, every town and village in the colony had a public school, in which tuition was given to all unable to pay. Few public schools were found west and south of New York before the commencement of the present Outlines of Educational History. 37 century, although higher instruction was encouraged, and the charter of the College of William and Mary, in Virginia, was granted in 1688. It provided for a col- lege president and six masters, who were to give instruc- tion in all the branches of a liberal education. This in- stitution continued in active existence until the outbreak of the civil war. In 1746 the colonial legislature of New York authorized the raising of money by a lottery for the establishment of a college, the proceeds of which were devoted to the founding of King's College, now Columbia. Later New York Education. The Western States learned wisdom from the experience of the old cotynies, for the ordinance of 1787, organizing the Northwestern Territory, provided that "religion, morality, and knowl- edge being necessary to good government and to the happiness of mankind, schools and the means of educa- tion shall be forever encouraged." Public laiids were designated for the support of schools, and each of the new States levied taxes for their maintenance. The school system of New York must always look to Gov- ernor Clinton as its father, for on his recommendation, in 1795, " the sum of $50,000 was appropriated for five years for the support of common schools." This has in- creased from year to year, until in 1890 the sum raised in the State of New York by direct taxation for the support of schools amounted to $13,600,000. In all the States of the Union the educational tax has so increased that the income from this source, according to the com- missioner of Education, amounted, in 1891, to the enor- mous sum of $132,000,000. 38 Outlines of Educational History. Public schools that fifty years ago charged tuition to those able to p:iy, are now entirely free to all of school age, and in many cities text-books and other neceswiry appliances are furnished. Public Education of Recent Origin. There were no active efforts in this country to promote a generous, free, public education until near the close of the last cen- tury. Brouson Alcott, the well-known author, born in Massachusetts in 1T99, speaking of schools in the early part of the present century, said that, " until within a few years no studies have been permitted in the day- school but spelling, reading, and writing. Arithmetic was taught by a few instructors one or two evenings a week." Slates were unknown for school use until after the Kevolu tionary War, and blackboards have been com- mon only during the past fifty years. The Rev. William Woodbridge, a successful teacher in the early part of this century, said that in Connecticut in his younger days he has known boys who could do something in the first four rules of arithmetic, but girls were never taught it. When the republic was established the people began to realize that without universal intelligence the union of the States could not be permanent. School funds were created in all the New England States, but owing to a lack of unity of action, the progress was not so rapid in New York, and the States west and south. As late as 1865 rate-bills were in use in New Jersey, New York, Rhode Island, Michigan, and Connecticut. But it is now generally admitted that the giving of an ele- Outlines of Educational History. 39 mentary education to each child in the country, both rich and poor, is a debt the State owes and must pay. In many of the States the whole work of conducting the schools is given into the hands of either a board of education, or a superintendent of public instruction who reports to the legislature at its meetings. The New York Public-school Society. In the city of New York the Public-school Society was established in 1805, and had charge of all public instruction in the city. Its first president was De Witt Clinton, and it continued to provide public instruction until 1853, when it voluntarily turned over to the city its entire system of schools and property, to the amount of $600,000. George Clinton. George Clinton laid the founda- tion of the common-school system of New York, and in fact of the whole country, in 1795; and DeWitt Clinton crowned a long life of honor and usefulness by requir- ing the State to give to every child within its borders the means of getting an elementary English education, free of all expense. Strong efforts have been recently put forth to make all education, both higher and lower, free. By a vote of the people of New York a free acad- emy for boys was established in 1847. This has become the College of the City of New York, for the support of which the city annually appropriates the sum of $150,000. The Female Normal School, now the Normal College, was founded in 1870, and receives an annual support from public funds to the amount of $125,000. Public High-schools, Public high-schools, giving the elements of a liberal education, have been established in most of the cities and larger towns in the Union, and 40 Outlines of Educational History. in many instances the buildings in which these schools assemble are among the best constructed and most thoroughly equipped public edifices in the country. State universities, supported by public funds, and largely attended by both young men and women, have been founded by nearly all the States; and in some instances, as Ann Arbor in Michigan and Cornell in New York, they have become institutions of great effectiveness. The establishment and permanence of these colleges have been greatly promoted by the aid they have re- ceived through grants of public lands from the General Government. Independent and denominational colleges have increased to such a degree, that each leading denom- ination has one and sometimes three colleges in each state. Early Normal Schools. The first normal school of which we have any mention was established in Kheims, France, in 1681, by the Christian Brothers; but it was not until 1846 that the first building erected in this country for a public normal school was dedicated at Bridge- water, Mass. The promoter of this enterprise was the distinguished Horace Mann, the foremost American edu- cator of this century. At the present time most states in the Union have normal schools, and some have many entirely supported by public funds, in which teach- ers are trained in the theory, science, and art of their calling. The State of New York has ten of these schools, supported by annual appropriations amounting in the average to more than $200,000. First University School of Pedagogy. The first uni- versity to establish education as a distinct professional Outlines of Educational History. 41 department of study, on the same grade as law, medicine, and theology, was the University of the City of New York. Its school of pedagogy was inaugurated, with definite courses and degrees, in May, 1890. In addition to the many educational forces already mentioned, there are in the United States and Canada a large number of scientific, theological, law, and manual- training schools. Each State has its deaf, dumb, and blind institutions, as well as soldier-orphan, idiot, and reformatory schools. Educational Journals in the United States. In the different parts of the United States there are about one hundred and fifty periodicals devoted exclusively to the discussion of educational questions. Next to business, religion, and politics, no subject to-day engrosses so much of the thought of the intelligent people of the civil- ized world as education, and it is safe to predict that the coming generation of boys and girls will get far more good from their school-training than has ever been real- ized during the history of the human race. Educational Books. A large number of important works have been published within the last fifteen years. Among those held in esteem by teachers are : J. G. Fitch, Lectures on Teaching; Currie, Early Educa- tion ; Patridge, Quincy Methods; Parker, Talk* on Teaching; Welch, Teacher's Psychology; Payne Lec- tures on the Science and Art of Education; Tate, Philosophy of Education;. Quick, Essays on Educational Reformers, 2d ed. (1890); 0. Browning, Introduction to the History of Educational Theories (1882). The reader is referred in addition to the following 42 Outlines of Educational History. works: Pestalozzi, Sdmmtliche Schriften, 5 vols. (1826); Tommaseo, Sull, Educazione (1851); Morley, Defence of Ignorance (1851); Horace Mann, Letters and Reports on Education (1867); Brochard, History and Progress of Education (I860); Markby, Practical Essays on Educa- tion (1868); Mullinger, The Schools of Charles the Great (1877); Barnard, German Educational Reformer s(\8!&); Jolly, Education, its Principles and Practice (1879) ; Thring, Education and the School (1876); Kiddle and Schem, Cyclopaedia of Education (1877); Kingsley, Health and Education, 2d ed. (1887); Malmffy, Old Greek Education (1882); Galloway, Education, Scientific and Technical (1881); Paulsen, Geschichte des Gelehrten Unterrichts auf den Deutschen Schulen und Universi- taten (1885); Painter, History of Education (1886); Herbert Spencer, Education, Intellectual, Moral, and Philosophical (1886); Rousseau, Emile, with Notes by Julius Steeg (1885); Eosenkranz, Philosophy of Edu- cation (1886); Bain, Education as a Science (1886); Sonnenschein, A Cyclopcedia of Education, ed. by Fletcher (1889); Rosmini Serbati, TJie Ruling Principles of Method Applied to Education, English translation (1887); Guyau, Education et Heredite (1889); Jacobi, rinjsiological Notes on Primary Education (1889); Barnard's American Journal of Education, 30 vols.; Compayre's History of Pedagogy; Dr. Friedrich Dittes, Geschichte der Erziehung und des Unterrichtes, fur deutsche Volksschullehrer ; Dr. Karl Schmidt, Geschichte der Pddagogik von Dr. Emanuel Hannak. * ALJL, KDBtta It* Jfc i. KELLOQG A CO., JVE PF FORK NEW COVER. 8*N ALL O&DER8 TO 84 B. L. KELLOGG & CO., NEW YORK A CHICAGO. WHAT EACH NUMBER CONTAINS. No. 1 Is a specially fine number. One dia- logue in it, called " Work Conquers," for 11 girls and G boys, has been given hundreds of times, and is alone worth the price of the book. Then there are 21 other dialogues. 29 Recitations. 14 Declamations. 17 Pieces for the Primary Class. No. 2. Contains 29 Recitations. 12 Declamations. 17 Dialogues. 24 Pieces for the Primary Class. And for Class Exercise as follows: Tin- Bird's Party. Indian Names. Valedictory. Washington's Birthday. Qarfleld Memorial Day. Grant " Whittier " Sigourney " No. 3 Contains Fewer of the longer pieces and more of the shorter, as follows : 18 Declamations. 21 Recitations. 22 Dialogues. 24 Pieces for the Primary Class. A Christmas Exercise. Opening Piece, and An Historical Celebration. No. 4 Contains Campbell Memorial Day. Longfellow Michael Angelo Shakespeare Washington ChriM inns Exercise. Arbor Day New Planting Thanksgiving Value of Knowledge Exercise. Also 8 other Dialogues. 21 Recitations. 23 Declamations. No. 5 Contains Browning Memorial Day. Autumn Exercise. Bryant Memorial Day. New Planting Exercise. Christmas Exercise. A Concert Exercise. 24 Other Dialogues, in Declamations, and 36 Recitations. No. 6 Contains Spring; a flower exercise for very young pupils. Emerson Memorial Day. New Year's Day Exercise. Holmes' Memorial Day. Fourth of July Exercise. Shakespeare Memorial Day. Washington's Birthday Exercise. Also 6 other Dialogues. 6 Declamations. 41 Recitations. 15 Recitations for the Primary Class. And 4 Songs. Our RECEPTION DAY Series is not sold largely by booksellers, who, if they do not keep it, try to have you buy something else similar, but not so good. Therefore send direct to the publishers, by mail, the price as above, in stamps or postal notes, and your order will be filled at once. Discount for quantities. SPECIAL OFFER. If ordered at one time, we will send postpaid the entire 8 Nos. for $1.40. Note the reduction. SEND ALL ORDERS TO K 1. KELLOGG & CO., NEW YORK & CHICAGO. Reinbarfs Outline History of Education. With chronological Tables, Suggestions, and Test Questions. By J. A. REINHABT, Ph. D. Teachers' Professional Library. 77 pp., limp cloth, 25 cents; to teachers, 20 cents; by mail 2 cents extra. This is one of the little books intended to be studied in con- nection with THE TEACHERS' PBOPESSION. The publishers, by means of these publications bring to the very doors of those teachers who lack the opportunity to attend a normal school a chance to improve in the art of teaching. " Outlines of History of Education " is what its name implies, a brief but comprehen- sive presentation of the main facts in educational progress. The chapters are: Introduction; Education among the Greeks; Educa- tion among the Romans; Education in the Middle Ages; the Dawn of the New Era; Education and the Reformation; Educa- tion in the Seventeenth Century; Education in the Eighteenth Century; Education in the Nineteenth Century. A thorough study of this book will be a good foundation for a more detailed study of the subject. The book is well printed from clear, large type, with topic heads and questions, and is durably bound in limp cloth. Reinbarfs Outline Principles of Education By J. A. REINHABT., Ph. D. Teachers' Professional Library. 68 pp., limp cloth, 25 cents. To give an outline of a great subject, including nothing trivial and leaving out nothing important, is a great art. This difficult task has been successfully performed by the author of this small volume, who is an educator of long experience, and a thorough student of the science of education. The first two chapters give a general view of the subject, and the other chapters treat of the intuitive, imaginative, and logical stages of education, and the principles of moral education. This is one of the volumes intended to be studied in connection with the monthly paper, THE TEACHEBS' PBOFESSION. Type, printing, binding are neat aod durable, and like the History by same author. REINHABT' s Civics IN EDUCATION, is another little book of same price and number of pages. Ready Nov. 1891. BUND ALL ORDERS TO B. L. KELLOGG & CO., NEW YORK MIV!T!i 1 l:M iiMi COVER PAGE.] Gladstone's Object Teaching, - paper .15 pd. Hughes' Mistakes m Teaching. Hex' iliti'in. - cl. .50 .40 .05 Securing and Ketaining Atti ntion, Best efl. ii . Hi-lory, i-l. (.iraimimr. el. ..Vi N M. 1'nlM 11(1 vol. '!'! filiation t.ll: - i-l. 1.IMI itionai question Book .\> ///;/ i-< rised. Soutn wick's Hanfly Hel rl. UK) trick's Quiz UaaiMl of Teaching. ;>(.<' litinn. i-l. .;'" PHYSICAL EDUCATION and SCHOOL HYGIENE. impcr i-l. .26 Jil Buildings, Oroff's Scnool Hytflnne, - MISCELLANEOUS. BtRiMe On Self Culture, .\riin-ft III l:. - . V. XCIKIOI I,aw, - . M nf XVasliiiiKt'i". --- of I In- \Vt, rid, - iirii'hir, - Bas-Reliefe of HTAuthora, each, - paper el. cl. paper ..'in SINGING AND DIALOGUE BOOKS. * Arbor Day, How to Celebrate It, - - - 1 ^l.i( |Ki.-tpai< in-~. - : unary S rHcliruto it, - paper *!ld\. \ in;r and Christ- .1 SCHOOL APPARATUS. Kapi'I I'rarricc Ar-itluiK-ii. ' !',ach, ' Manikin. ->Moii.i Price oa applicatio rlul " Manikin, 4.O .h.i.-khoard Stencils, 500 different n< triiin 5 i. italo^rue. ("niqur" Pencil Sharpener, 1.50 i.lcrn, 25.00 -tanclarfl Physician's Manikin. (Sold by subscription.) 0ff~ l(tn-i> , of all publishers, light schdoi appanitu i'^idi of tin-si- comaiii E. L. KELLOGG & CO., New York & Chicago. THE tTNIVER&ITY OF CU IFORNIA LOS ANGELES