DISSERTATION 
 
 EMPLOYING EMULATION 
 
 TO ENCOURAGE 
 
 University of California 
 
 Southern Regional 
 
 Library Facility 
 
 CAMBRIDGE 
 
 BROWN, S H A T T U C K, A N IJ CO. 
 1832.
 
 CAMBRIDGE. 
 E. \\. M T C A L F AND COMPANY.
 
 UCSB LIBRARY 
 
 Y- 6 
 
 DISSERTATION. 
 
 THE work of education is but half completed, if, oy the 
 imperfection of the system, wrong principles have been brought 
 into action ; or if any good principles have been left to slumber 
 in neglect and inaction. That system is far from being perfect, 
 how much soever it may be entitled to our regard, which, while 
 it improves the more obvious principles of the mind, suffers oth- 
 ers of greater importance to lie dormant ; or, what is worse, cul- 
 tivates those principles which were never implanted in us for cul- 
 tivation, and which, as they become matured and strengthened, 
 become a torment to their possessor and to mankind. A state of 
 idleness is sufficiently replete with misery, and a mind unemploy- 
 ed is liable to become an organ of incalculable mischief, as well 
 as a burden to itself; but it were better that it should remain even 
 wholly uncultivated, than that it should be taught how to employ 
 its energies in communicating an injurious influence to society. 
 It is comparatively easy to lead the young mind forward, and ex- 
 cite in it a love of study, by rewarding it with the gratification of 
 some predominant desire ; but the most difficult part is to create 
 in it a love of study for its own sake. We should censure that 
 man's conduct who should place the most noxious weeds by the 
 side of some choice plant; for though his object might be to 
 nourish it into strength and beauty, yet the proximity of a luxu- 
 rious weed would wholly absorb the richness of the soil, and de- 
 stroy that very effect which it was designed to produce. 
 
 While changes of the most vital importance are taking place in the 
 moral world, and practices alike inconsistent with reason and 
 Christianity are becoming entirely superseded by habits of vir-
 
 tue, it is the part of prudence, and it certainly does not indicate 
 a spirit of licentious reform, to inspect those systems of educa- 
 tion which were coeval in their origin with reformed systems 
 of government and morality. It is too obvious to admit of dis- 
 pute, that the moral sense of mankind in those countries where 
 the light of Christianity has been diffused, has, within the period 
 of a few centuries, been most wonderfully improved. This, too, 
 has been most thoroughly effected where the conduct of the lead- 
 ing characters has been subject to the scrutiny of public opinion, 
 and where all are free to suggest improvements upon imperfect 
 systems, or principles deserving reprehension. Passions that 
 mankind were once led to think honorable, which were thought 
 an essential requisite both to the happiness of the individual and 
 the well-being of society, and which were fostered and cherished 
 accordingly, have, in a great degree, been restrained ; and have 
 been pronounced by the voice of humanity and public sentiment 
 not only useless, and derogatory to the character of man, but per- 
 nicious to society and a disgrace to human nature. All this is 
 well, and it promises much for further improvement. But let us 
 not stop in a work so auspiciously begun, and hitherto so abun- 
 dantly prospered. Let us not hesitate, while we are purifying 
 the temple of morality, to extend our oversight to that of science 
 and education. Let us not relax our exertions till we have 
 cleansed, not only the sanctuary, but even the courts of that tem- 
 ple where philosophy and religion both mingle their orisons. 
 
 It would be subjecting one's self to the charge of injustice, not 
 to acknowledge that education has rapidly advanced, in the gen- 
 eral impulse which has been given to every department of science 
 and the arts. Within a century we have witnessed improvements 
 which have no parallel in the annals of ethics. But there is yet 
 ample space for further improvement. We have not yet reach- 
 ed the acme in a system of good education. There may be de- 
 fects where we least expect to find them, and which have been 
 overlooked for the same reasons that defects in moral culture were 
 for so long a period undiscovered. There are yet defects in the 
 practice of morality which must be remedied by removing defects 
 in education.
 
 Human society is destined for a higher grade in the scale of 
 excellence, and a nearer approach to perfection, than it has yet 
 attained. As sure as its past history exhibits the various stages 
 of improvement, and as sure as the moral nature of man is suited 
 to progressive advancement in every excellence, so sure it is that 
 human society, in all its departments, moral, civil, and literary, is 
 to undergo an improvement that is boundless and endless as the 
 energies of the immortal mind. But for the accomplishment of 
 this happy and most desirable result, errors both in theory and 
 practice are to be corrected. The almoners of science and phi- 
 losophy, and they to whom is committed the guardians^ of 
 growing intellect, have yet to explore still deeper the resources of 
 the human mind. It devolves upon them to search more nar- 
 rowly into the principles of that subtle substance the intellect. 
 New relations are to be discovered, new powers brought into 
 action. Those motives to, exertion are to be employed, which 
 not only have no bad tendency, but which have a positive virtue ; 
 which have a decidedly good tendency ; which, while they lead 
 the mind onward from one degree of knowledge to another, will 
 strengthen it against every immoral tendency, will guard it against 
 " every appearance of evil," and will perfect it in all the sublime 
 accomplishments of the Christian character. 
 
 This is what an improvement in the systems of education pro- 
 poses ; and it should be no objection to it that education becomes 
 more difficult for those who have it in charge. What if it be 
 more difficult, and require more skill, than when conducted un- 
 der the present received systems ! Is the improvement of the 
 mind to be neglected as soon as the task becomes a difficult one ? 
 Is a reform in the system to be deferred or avoided because it 
 will cause greater exertion ? Is the perfection of our moral na- 
 ture an object of so little importance, as to be overruled by our 
 sluggishness and desire of ease f It should be enough, if the 
 present system be deficient, to call forth our exertions to improve 
 it. That alone should be a sufficient cause for us to set about a 
 reform. How much more, if it be found actually injurious. In 
 fine, if the spirit of improvement in education is to keep pace with 
 the spirit of improvement in morality, we must not shrink from
 
 exeriion. Still more, as it is by the influence of the powers and 
 faculties of the mind developed in the early stages of education 
 that much of the good or bad moral effect in advanced life is pro- 
 duced, if we wish that the expanding mind may be untainted in 
 its morals, it becomes us to watch with a jealous care over every 
 early impression ; and with the most scrupulous fidelity draw out 
 those principles only which will preserve the mind at peace with 
 itself, and unbiassed by any propensities which shall communi- 
 cate their blighting influence to society. 
 
 Among those methods which are used to encourage the mind 
 to ^rary excellence is one which has come down to us almost 
 from time immemorial, and consists in the excitement which one 
 mind feels in acquiring an ascendancy over its compeer and rival. 
 So that there is inculcated no love of knowledge, no aspirings af- 
 ter excellence, but that partial, relative excellence, which involves 
 the inferiority of a rival and the superiority of self. There can 
 be no veneration for truth, and no literary and honorable distinc- 
 tion, but that which is founded on a triumph over what are lite- 
 rally natural defects in another. This is the principle of Emula- 
 tion. It is fostered in the mind from the first years of childhood, 
 and becomes interwoven with the earliest association. The 
 bright and eager hopes of expanding intellect are colored with it ; 
 and study has no relish when the mind is deprived of this incen- 
 tive. From the first hour that the young child is taught to feel 
 that there is a virtue in excellence, it is also made to know that 
 there is a worth in supremacy. He no sooner perceives that su- 
 perior talents command admiration, than that his preeminence is 
 rewarded. Not particularly his diligence, or the natural obsta- 
 cles he has surmounted, are made the objects of reward, not 
 his advance towards perfection he is taught to value ; but all vir- 
 tue is made to consist in excellence that is relative and partial. 
 At least, whatever may be the theory, this is, in practice, the 
 prominent feature of the system. Now, the intellect needs no 
 such helps and stays as these. The mind is composed of nobler 
 elements than to need subjection to a method so unworthy and 
 defective as this. It naturally needs no artificial incitements like 
 this to stimulate it to noble and virtuous action. But it has been
 
 formed for an eminence undefinable ; by its own energies and a 
 natural assimilation to all that is vast, mighty, and boundless. 
 
 The foregoing remarks seemed necessary to introduce the 
 subject of this dissertation. It is The Principle of Emulation 
 as employed in Education to encourage Literary Excellence. I 
 shall consider it under three principal divisions. 
 
 I. Its effect upon education. 
 
 II. Its effect upon the moral character. 
 
 III. In its connexion with the Christian religion. 
 
 I. Its effect upon education. 
 
 It would seem that where this principle is employed, it is con- 
 sidered as the best calculated to advance the mind in knowledge ; 
 otherwise it is not to be supposed that its friends would adhere to 
 it so tenaciously, or advocate its supreme excellence to all others. 
 Those who uphold the system evidently consider it absolutely 
 necessary in education. My first object shall be to show that it 
 is not so. After succeeding in this point, there will be an oppor- 
 tunity to advance a step further and prove its inexpediency and 
 injurious tendency. 
 
 The object in employing this principle is, either to please the 
 mind and relieve the toil of study ; or it is to excite to greater ex- 
 ertions. As to primary schools, it would be manifesting great 
 weakness and ignorance in any one to urge the necessity of 
 adopting any method for relieving the toil of study, or to main- 
 tain that Emulation is the only means by which proper study can 
 be effected, and knowledge communicated. The former would 
 be a cruel slur upon the nature of the human mind ; the latter a 
 palpable contradiction of facts. Who does not know that the 
 young mind is perfectly ductile and pliable ; and may, if rightly 
 managed, be moulded to any form, or to receive any impression 
 which fancy can suggest or philosophy sanction ? There are al- 
 most countless principles which may be employed to encourage 
 the mind to study, without even appealing to Emulation or any 
 principle that involves the danger of infringing the rights of others, 
 which we shall presently show is the tendency of Emulation. But 
 there are also strong objections to employing this principle in higher
 
 institutions. It seems quite unsuitable to the dignity and charac- 
 ter of students who have advanced to the age of sixteen and 
 twenty years, to be obliged to have their known, important, re- 
 quisite duties relieved by some pleasing arts. It promises very 
 little for the discipline of their minds, or for their proper progress 
 in knowledge. They only depend upon such helps, because they 
 have been always taught to lean upon them, not because they 
 naturally need them. The progress would be the same if the 
 mind were always taught to look for no other resources but its 
 own^exertions. 
 
 Again, Emulation is unnecessary in order that a proper ex- 
 citement to study may be produced ; it is not the only prin- 
 ciple by which this may be effected. With regard to the early 
 education, there are facts to show that it is entirely needless. 
 Since the attention of the public has been called to the subject 
 (which has been but for a few years), methods have been adopted 
 in some of the primary schools to instruct children without children 
 ing this principle in any manner whatever. Where proper disci- 
 pline was observed, the effect has been, that the time was as 
 well employed, the scholars have made as great progress as be- 
 fore, even in some cases greater, the studious have been as regu- 
 lar, the backward as studious, and all better pleased than if they 
 had been instructed according to the old system of rank. These 
 facts, it is true, are not before the public, but they can be substan- 
 tiated by private individuals. And how was it done ? Simply 
 by carefully and faithfully instilling into the minds of children the 
 vast importance there is attached to the acquirement of knowl- 
 edge ; by representing how all are now becoming enlightened 
 and learned ; what an inward satisfaction they have in the acqui- 
 sition of a new truth, and the consciousness of having done a du- 
 ty ; besides, the distant prospect of pleasure and happiness from 
 knowing all that has been done, and how much may be done ; the 
 hope of being useful in the world ; and more than all, by setting 
 before them the boundless extent of the human powers, the im- 
 mense treasures of knowledge laid up for the mind, and fields 
 where it may act. These are only some of the motives set be- 
 fore them. I would not be understood as giving a sketch or plan
 
 9 
 
 of a system to be substituted for the present one, because this is 
 not the object of the dissertation. But all those above mentioned 
 are of much higher power than Emulation, inasmuch as this is 
 merely relative, a desire of superiority to another, whereas those 
 mentioned show nothing like a relation or limit ; they are bound- 
 less. 
 
 There are two or three pretty evident reasons why the teach- 
 ers of common schools are anxious to preserve the system of 
 teaching by employing Emulation. First, a great proportion of 
 them are too indolent to adopt any other than the old established 
 or, to themselves, the easiest method. The system of Emulation 
 gives them little or no trouble, and they are very sparing of their 
 pains, lest they should do more than their duty ! Secondly, many 
 have not the capacity of originating any new method. In fact 
 they can barely teach according to the old one. Much less can 
 they set before the mind the inspiring, ennobling motives, which 
 create a consciousness of its own unlimited powers, and point to 
 an elevation attainable only by its own immortal energies. Thirdly, 
 almost all publications for children unhappily recommend a spirit 
 of Emulation, and the characters drawn in story-books are general- 
 ly represented, as if formed under the influence of this principle. 
 Besides, it is possible that a majority of those teachers who are 
 disposed to exert themselves for the benefit of their pupils, would 
 adopt other methods, if they were apprised of some of those 
 which have been found effectual in producing a proper incitement 
 to study. 
 
 Further, Emulation, in the more advanced seminaries, is not 
 necessary to produce a proper excitement to study. In the first 
 place, because there is reason for supposing, that, even in the 
 present state of things, the amount of study would be as great 
 without any artificial excitement, as it now is, under the excite- 
 ment of Emulation. Almost all students, whether in high rank 
 or low, whose opinions I have heard on the subject, agree in 
 denying its necessity. All look upon it as too much like children's 
 play, and uniformly give their decisions that the amount of study 
 would be greater without such excitements, thinking it a sort of 
 restraint upon their progress, lest they should seem desirous of 
 becoming famed, or appear eager for honors. 
 9
 
 10 
 
 In the second place, if it be still thought necessary that artifi- 
 cial excitement of some kind should be produced, it may be 
 shown that there are other motives to exertion, other excitements 
 quite as strong as Emulation. But our object at present is, simply 
 to show that Emulation is not absolutely necessary. And if it 
 can be shown that other motives to study will have the same 
 effect, that conclusion will follow. Now if the education be 
 rightly conducted in early years, the mind, as has already been 
 shown, will want no excitement of this kind then ; and there is 
 nothing in the nature of the human mind, from which we can 
 infer that it needs other or stronger excitements in riper years. 
 Consequently, if education can be conducted in early life without 
 employing Emulation, it may be also in after years. 
 
 But let us take the case of those who have always studied 
 under the excitement of Emulation ; and let us grant that as the 
 mind progresses and thus becomes stronger, it needs a stronger 
 excitement to study, (which is by no means the truth,) it does 
 not, even upon this supposition, follow, that Emulation is the only 
 and absolutely necessary principle to incite the mind to study. 
 Very much the same course of reasoning might here be used, 
 that was employed with respect to those of an earlier age. For, 
 besides the arguments already adduced, viz. the evidence that 
 students themselves give, the sense of duty, the prospect of being 
 useful, &,c., there is inherent in every mind a desire of knowing, 
 which is a perpetual incitement to make acquisitions in knowl- 
 edge. " Nature has made it delightful for man to know, disqui- 
 eting to him to know only imperfectly, while any thing remains in 
 his power which can make his knowledge more accurate or com- 
 prehensive ; and she has done more than this, she has not waited 
 till we reflect on the pleasure which we enjoy or the pain which 
 we are to suffer." (Brown's Philos. vol. ii. p. 68. Camb. ed.) 
 There is a natural, instinctive, inherent love of knowledge ; and 
 although there are some who cannot be incited, even by the 
 principle of Emulation, yet this love of knowledge is always 
 sufficient, at least in a portion of society, to excite them to study. 
 How valuable then would be this principle, this natural love, if 
 as much care were taken to cultivate it, as there is to foster a
 
 11 
 
 spirit of rivalry ! Might we not hope for greater advances in 
 knowledge? Or, to confine ourselves to the present topic, 
 is it not reasonable to suppose, that the effect would be as good, 
 as important, as if the principle of Emulation were employed ? 
 It is a slur upon the capacities of the human mind to think 
 otherwise. It is doing injustice to the nobler part of our natures, 
 to suppose it incapable of so refined cultivation. 
 
 Having shown that the principle of Emulation is not abso- 
 lutely necessary in education, that there may exist other meth- 
 ods equally good, I shall advance a step further, and show 
 that it is inexpedient. It is so, because, 
 
 1. It narrows the mind, and limits the subjects of its knowl- 
 edge to comparatively few. 
 
 If we look into those departments of instruction where the 
 elementary branches of education are taught under the immedi- 
 ate influence of this principle, we find the business of study re- 
 duced to a mere mechanical process. Young minds are brought 
 down to an undeviating attention to some particular branch or 
 branches, and are not encouraged to give their attention to any 
 other, or to discover the connexion it has with other subjects 
 of importance. The whole object is to gain an acquaintance, 
 perhaps a thorough acquaintance, with that particular lesson or 
 study only j and only so much as shall give them an ascendancy 
 over a classmate. This, at least, is the tendency of the system. 
 For, however much it may be the desire of the instructer that 
 the pupil shall enlarge his mind by a variety of useful accom- 
 plishments, he must consider, that while he is giving so much 
 care to foster the principle of Emulation in a young child's mind, 
 the charm attached to the gratification of that passion is so 
 great, that every means, and those means, too, which seem of 
 the greatest avail to the pupil himself, will be employed to gain 
 that ascendancy which he has been taught to think honorable 
 and praiseworthy. It is no wonder then that he bends his 
 whole mind to gain the obvious advantage, without securing a 
 more distant and surer. 
 
 But with respect to those higher institutions, where, at the 
 same time that a finish is given to the education, a stamp is also
 
 12 
 
 given to the character and pursuits of a young man's future 
 career, the evil is more obvious, as well as extensive. No en- 
 couragement is there given to a young man to follow the leadings 
 of his genius, and to educate himself for that profession or in that 
 branch of science, which his own mind impels him to pursue. 
 Nor is there any reward for whatever advances he may 'make 
 by his own energies ; nor any remuneration for those honors 
 and emoluments which he has foregone for the sake of perfecting 
 himself in that branch for which nature seemed to have designed 
 him. But the encouragements and rewards are all given to those 
 who are either universal geniuses, or who have just mechanism 
 enough in their minds to carry them through a stated routine of 
 daily and weekly performances. I wish not to detract from the 
 merit of those who have placed themselves at the head of their 
 competitors by a laudable and noble industry and application. 
 But the event does not always show, in their future civil, social, 
 and political relations, that they have been the characters' ap- 
 pointed by nature to regulate the affairs of the community, or to 
 effect the most important good to society. 
 
 It is true, that under the excitement which the cultivation of 
 such a principle gives, a scholar makes his way among authors 
 with considerable rapidity, and with a rising reputation ; but as 
 he has no encouragement to enter into the intricacies of any 
 particular branch, it is not to be expected that he will pass 
 beyond, to secure a distant though certain good, when he has 
 been taught to gratify a darling passion, with less labor and by a 
 less circuitous process. 
 
 2. It places an obstacle in the way of attaining to a high 
 degree of excellence and knowledge. 
 
 The former head related to the extent of knowledge, and the 
 variety of subjects. Under this, I speak of the high degree of 
 improvement. It is setting up a standard of a very low order, 
 for the unlimited powers of the mind. At most, it is but a human 
 standard; and there is always risk incurred in setting limits to 
 the progress of intellectual energies. It is in effect saying to 
 the student, Gain this superiority, and your task will have been 
 completed. If it be the case of one who possesses distinguished
 
 13 
 
 talents, his gaining the preeminence will be an effort compara- 
 tively small ; and as he is taught to look no higher than a bare 
 superiority, his exertions will cease when his object is accom- 
 plished. He will use no efforts to rise higher, but only to main- 
 tain the rank he has acquired. 
 
 This position is supported by no poorer arguments than those 
 which are drawn from facts. Whenever there is a competition 
 among students, there are rarely any intermediate grades of ex- 
 cellence between the first and the second in rank. Be the 
 talents ever so exalted, it is not often that we see more than a 
 bare superiority of the first over the second. He is not incited 
 to employ his powers to their utmost strength ; he is not en- 
 couraged to occupy his mind in its greatest capacity, and his 
 efforts cease, of consequence, at the limit proposed. 
 
 Now this is a very imperfect standard of excellence. It mat- 
 ters not so much whether it be human or divine, if it only give 
 the mind full scope for action. But no human being is a fair 
 and proper model for another ; certainly not for those who are 
 trained in independence. They should be taught to imitate no 
 other model than that of perfect excellence. If no model of that 
 kind exists, let us take abstract excellence. Every rational 
 being can be made to feel what that is. Do we set bounds to 
 our moral progress ? Is there any standard on earth which we 
 should be willing to adopt as the limit to all moral excellence ? 
 By no means. Why then shall we limit our intellectual progress ? 
 Besides, it is well known that if the object of our attainments be 
 low, or comparatively low, so in proportion must those attain- 
 ments be low ; for we are never so liable to rise above the 
 mark of excellence as to fall below it. But if we set the mark 
 high, even although we fail of reaching it, yet we rise higher 
 than if the mark had been set beneath. The man who aims his 
 arrow at the sun, will reach a higher point than if he aimed just 
 above the head of his equal. If, then, we make the summit of 
 perfection the object of our wishes, the ascent must be higher 
 than if we are contented with partial attainments. 
 
 3. It discourages industry and application by bestowing its 
 rewards upon talent.
 
 14 
 
 There are examples of students who possess industry and ap- 
 plication without talent ; and there are those who possess talent 
 to so high a degree, as never to need the aid of application to 
 place them above their fellows. When these two characters are 
 found in the same class of competitors, talent will gain the ascen- 
 dancy. Cases sometimes occur, where it is not in the power of 
 industry to become superior to natural abilities. I might fill many 
 sheets with instances of those who have spent their earliest and 
 latest hours in the most unwearied diligence, without ever attain- 
 ing to the wished-for supremacy ; and many, very many have 
 been compelled, notwithstanding their best directed efforts, to re- 
 main among the last in the long line of competitors ; while those 
 who have entered the lists with better advantages, have passed 
 through the course with comparative ease, and yet have obtained 
 the highest honors. This is discouraging. It can be no other- 
 wise to those who are so unfortunate as to fail. They see others 
 rewarded for acquisitions which nature or some previous condi- 
 tion has enabled them to make, while the virtue of their own ap- 
 plication can have no recompense. Unless there be sufficient 
 strength of mind to bear up an individual under such discourage- 
 ments, he must inevitably sink into dispondency, and a disregard 
 of all attainments in excellence. 
 
 But these rewards are partial ; they are unequal. Is there 
 any justice in rewarding the gifts of nature f Why reward a stu- 
 dent because nature has imparted to him more of her gifts than 
 to his fellow ? It might be some palliation of the evil, if provi- 
 sion were also made to encourage the less gifted, and reward 
 their relative progress. But none is made. The system of- 
 fers inducements to those only who can aspire after supremacy. 
 The Christian religion bids us " honor all men," and " render 
 unto all their due ; " and promises a "righteous judgment to all 
 according to their works." Shall we, its advocates, do less . ? 
 
 The argument then consists in this. It discourages industry 
 and application by bestowing its rewards upon those who possess 
 natural advantages which enable them to become superior. Those 
 who possess these advantages will usually attain to the first rank. 
 Now all cannot be among the first. Consequently there are
 
 15 
 
 some, however industrious they may be, who cannot be thus re- 
 warded. 
 
 Still further, these superior advantages are not in the posses- 
 sion of all. They may be the gifts of nature, or they may have 
 been acquired by some previous advantages in the education. 
 If they are the gifts of nature, then those who possess them enjoy 
 the encouragements and rewards also, in remuneration of what 
 nature has given them ! If they are the advantages of some pre- 
 vious condition, the case is but little mended ; for there are others 
 who have not enjoyed these external advantages ; and they must 
 suffer a loss and want encouragement, because they have not had 
 the good fortune to enjoy a previous blessing ! I might also ad- 
 duce instances of those who, from certain external disadvantages, 
 are unable to give as much time as is necessary to place them 
 among the first of their fellows. But I have said enough to show 
 that the cultivation of this principle in our present systems, while 
 it offers encouragements, has a tendency to discourage some ; and 
 that it is also partial and unequal in its rewards. 
 
 4. It does not accomplish what ought to be the object of edu- 
 cation. That is, to aid the natural powers of the mind to the at- 
 tainment of an extensive knowledge of that branch or those 
 branches of science, to the study of which the mind has received 
 a bias by nature. I have once before hinted at this subject, but 
 it deserves consideration under a separate head. 
 
 According to the present system, there is no encouragement 
 for any, excepting those who can give their attention to the whole 
 circle of instruction which the institution proposes. This is per- 
 haps one way to make general scholars, but it is not the most effi- 
 cient way to make useful men. It must be very evident to every 
 one who is in habits of observation, that there is a tendency in stu- 
 dents, indeed in all, to give their attention to particular profes- 
 sions and particular sciences. Indeed this is too obvious to re- 
 quire arguments. Else how is it that we see men divide 
 themselves voluntarily into those various departments which com- 
 pose society and contribute to its advancement. This choice is 
 made, too, in many cases, earlier than we are apt to suppose. It 
 might be made and adhered to with much greater advantage than
 
 16 
 
 at present, if education had for one of its objects to foster these 
 early biases. And the effect upon discoveries in every science, 
 and the advancement of literature might be made incomparably 
 greater than now, if these early propensities were cherished. I 
 am not now upon the question whether these propensities are nat- 
 ural and inherent, or acquired by some causes in the early educa- 
 tion. For whatever may be their origin, the fact that they exist 
 is too notorious to be disputed. 
 
 But the question is asked, whether the principle of Emulation 
 may not be employed to advantage, in encouraging those who 
 happen to have chosen the same profession or science as their 
 favorite study. There are three reasons why it could not be em- 
 ployed. First, because there are so many different branches of 
 science, that this system would be one of too much labor and 
 expense to be faithfully conducted. Secondly, because it would, 
 notwithstanding, be an impediment to intellect, in acquiring cor- 
 rect knowledge of the subjects pertaining to that science. The 
 mind constantly employed in making efforts to supersede a rival, 
 cannot be engaged in the secrets and mysteries of science. It 
 cannot so readily, so freely, and so calmly enter into investiga- 
 tions which involve learning, and penetration, and fidelity. And, 
 thirdly, because if an individual chooses the study of a particular 
 science or profession from the love of it, he can have no surer 
 and stronger impulse to pursue it. Nor is it fanciful to 
 suppose that such love may exist. For there are those who 
 have foregone the honors which are held up as the rewards of 
 distinguished general scholarship, from the sole love of study in 
 one particular branch ; and it is thus that they have testified the 
 strength of their love. If it were an object in education to di- 
 rect and increase that bias, the result would be most admirable. 
 If the enthusiasm of an individual is enlisted, (and by a proper 
 direction of the minds of youth, no doubt exists but it might be,) 
 then all his thoughts will centre in that object. Emulation has no 
 inducements so strong as this. It may excite for a time, but 
 there cannot be much study or interest after the object is gained. 
 The attention must eventually flag. The passion of Emulation, 
 once gratified, becomes sated, and exertion cannot continue.
 
 17 
 
 But on the other hand, when a mind is engaged in a pursuit, 
 from the pleasure it finds there, either in discovering some new 
 truth or in the delightful associations it brings, or from the pros- 
 pect of usefulness, which of all others is the noblest that can urge 
 to action, there is no clanger of its becoming a burden, or the 
 energies becoming relaxed, or the mind's being corrupted by the 
 influence of unkindly impressions and the cultivation of principles 
 that are unhappy and mischievous in their tendency. 
 
 An argument in favor of the system is drawn from what has 
 been adduced as a notorious fact, that students under the influ- 
 ence of this principle acquire a love of study. But there are 
 two reasons why they do not acquire a love of study. 1. Be- 
 cause they study to gratify the desire of superiority. Study is 
 made the means by which this is to be accomplished ; and it 
 would be a much more direct inference that they acquire a love 
 of preeminence. They always regard this as the chief object, 
 and study as the means by which it may be attained. As we 
 have said before, and as facts will testify, so soon as the excite- 
 ment is past which was produced by the competition, that which 
 had appeared to be the love of study becomes quite cooled and 
 transformed ; the individual who has gained the superior rank, 
 never, unless in very extraordinary cases, makes higher advances 
 than a bare preeminence. 2. Many of those who are not thus 
 influenced immediately by Emulation, are in fact influenced re- 
 motely, because the principle has been developed in an early 
 course of education. They study from the influence of thatjore- 
 vious passion, and, if you will, a sort of habit, but not fronVreal 
 pleasure ; whereas, if early pains had been taken to inspire a love 
 of knowledge for its own sake, and as much care as has been 
 used to excite Emulation, more real study would be produced, 
 and some of the wildest passions would never have been waked 
 from their lair. 
 
 II. Its effect upon the moral character. 
 
 Before proceeding further, I shall say a few words respecting 
 
 its connexion with the moral character. " The general history 
 
 of mankind, and the brief page of our own experience, incontesti- 
 
 bly prove that man is almost entirely the creature of education. 
 
 3
 
 18 
 
 His knowledge, his tastes, his hahits, his manners, his morals, 
 nay, even his very religious opinions principally depend upon it. 
 In every country, education and circumstances chiefly form his 
 principles and habits ; and these almost invariably remain with 
 him through life ; so that he is much more permanently what he 
 has become, than what he was created. The wise men and the 
 fools, the saints and the sinners, the ornaments and the dis- 
 graces, the benefactors and the scourges of the world, are not the 
 work of nature, but of man." (Henry Montgomery.) We have 
 witnessed such mighty effects from the work of education alone, 
 that we are led almost to believe in its omnipotence. The evils that 
 we see in the world result not from the evil nature of man so much 
 as from the defects of his education. It is a notorious fact, that 
 almost all the wretched beings who forfeit their lives to the out- 
 raged laws of society, attribute their destruction to a neglected 
 education. And we may safely believe that the natural energies 
 and talents, which have carried many unfortunate wretches on- 
 ward to the commission of enormous crimes, would, had they 
 been properly directed, have exalted them to eminence in virtue. 
 Now if this be true if such be the influence of education upon 
 the character, how important is the knowledge of these things to 
 all who have the oversight and guidance of the mind I A single 
 folly encouraged, a single evil propensity suffered to triumph, 
 a single wrong principle cultivated, may entail many calami- 
 ties upon society. Even for the individual, the misery of such 
 a defect will be too great. It will be more than any one would 
 be willing to endure, if he knew there was an antidote or a rem- 
 edy. But when there is a defect in the education of thousands, 
 in the same community, by the same errors, in the same system, 
 the calamity must be increased in proportion to the numbers who 
 are so unfortunate as to have been subjected to these errors. 
 
 If the evils of individuals, and the egregious vices as well as 
 follies which they have committed, have in most cases resulted 
 from a defect in the education, what is there preposterous in the 
 assertion, that the evils of communities, the disasters of states, and 
 the mismanagement of governments have their origin in the mis- 
 takes which are committed in the early education of those who
 
 19 
 
 % 
 
 compose these communities ? If, as I have attempted to show, 
 early education has such a vast, I may say, universal influence 
 upon the conduct of after-life ; and if the regulation of these mi- 
 nute circumstances have such an extensive bearing upon the 
 character and happiness of individuals and nations ; a fair deduc- 
 tion is, that the more strict is our attention to the early impres- 
 sions of education, the nearer society will advance towards per- 
 fection. If we find by improving upon the systems of education 
 which our ancestors adopted, we are correcting many abuses in 
 society, and avoiding many evils which they suffered, the just in- 
 ference is, that evils which we are now subject to, may, by im- 
 proving our present system, be likewise avoided. The supersti- 
 tious belief in the possibility of apparitions has been expelled, in a 
 great measure, by the introduction of a sounder philosophy, and 
 society rid of its consequent horrors. But every one knows it is 
 most permanently effected by correcting and rightly directing the 
 early impressions. So whatever may be the evil which is hostile 
 to the interests of society, we may trace its origin to the early 
 habits and associations of childhood. There, the evil must be 
 crushed in the embryo. 
 
 I shall not, I trust, be viewed as advancing too far, in saying 
 that the principle of Emulation is such an evil. If its effects were 
 seen only in the childish interests of the school-room, the matter 
 would be a small one. But that germ, with others that are 
 slowly expanding, is not of a nature to remain unripened in a 
 prolific soil, and under culture well adapted 4o advance its ma- 
 turity. The principles cultivated in the school-room, and the en- 
 ergies there developed, whether of a noxious or useful tendency, 
 must remain in the mind to grow with its growth and be strength- 
 ened with its strength. Then as those powers and faculties are 
 brought out into action in the great theatre of the world, these 
 principles become deeply rooted. The little emotion that seemed 
 so harmless and insignificant in the infancy of being, becomes a 
 strong passion, and an all-ruling, all-absorbing principle. The 
 little infantile energy has become a Hercules, and he threatens to 
 become a tyrant. 
 
 Human society is destined to a higher order of refinement than
 
 20 
 
 
 
 it has hitherto attained, and the improvement which it undergoes 
 must be in constant, but certain progression. Its advancement 
 has hitherto, till within a few years, been gradual. Many of its 
 antiquated institutions have, indeed, been superseded by systems 
 better adapted to the wants of society, and the perfection of our 
 moral natures. But many still remain which check its advancing 
 interests. The employment of Emulation in the systems of ed- 
 ucation has been handed down to us from olden time with other 
 systems of philosophy and education which have long since been 
 found inadequate to our wants. This, it is true, is not to be un- 
 dervalued because it has been of long-standing. Neither, on the 
 other hand, is it to be venerated because there is thrown over it 
 the charm of antiquity. The question is, Is it suited to our neces- 
 sities ? Is it in keeping with the march of intellect? Is it wor- 
 thy of a union with our other institutions ? Are its effects suited 
 to the improvement of the age ? Of one thing we are certain. 
 So long as this principle has been employed, (and we know no 
 period when it has not been dignified, though erroneously, with 
 the epithet of noble,) so long as Emulation has been laid hold of, 
 and cultivated, the world has been filled with the intrigues, the 
 tumults, and the strifes of ambition. No profession or science 
 has been exempted from its influence, no sanctuary has been 
 secure from its intrusion. States have been divided into factions, 
 
 demagogues have enjoyed their ephemeral usurpations, 
 rivers of blood have been shed, the rights of mankind have 
 been trodden under foot that tyrants might sport themselves. 
 Even religion has not been proof against its power, the holy 
 office of the priesthood has been sullied with its baneful influence, 
 
 proselytes have been made in a spirit of rivalry, and sec- 
 tarian interests have had their impulse from its power. Or if we 
 penetrate into the more private scenes of social life, the picture is 
 no less saddened with gloomy colors. We see its results in the 
 tongue of defamation and slander, an injured reputation is too 
 often the effect of its power, rival interests are in every bosom, 
 
 and the whisper of malice has been heard, to give vent to the 
 pique of baffled hopes. But it is enough. If Emulation effect 
 but half of this, it is a fire that should be speedily quenched.
 
 21 
 
 It has been attempted to support the system by objecting that 
 moderns, especially Americans, are very much given to radical 
 reform. That the spirit of the age seems to be tending to an en- 
 tire overthrow of all ancient institutions ; and that there is danger 
 in the midst of so much excitement, that many useful and valua- 
 ble systems will be entirely destroyed. 
 
 This is but a light objection, and would not perhaps be notic- 
 ed, were it not sometimes urged with a serious face. But it may 
 be well to say, that if the proposed reform have the slightest ten- 
 dency to injure the peace, or the morals, or the good of society 
 in any manner, this might be an objection. But it is not so. It 
 only proposes to reform it for the better. It proposes to strike at 
 the root of many evils which now infest society. If even nothing 
 more were proposed than to do away the present system without 
 substituting any thing in its place, no actual evil would be com- 
 mitted. For as to the fear that there would be less study, it is 
 well known that there are always some who study for the mere 
 love of it. And besides, we hazard nothing in supposing that the 
 love of fame in students, the mere desire of glory is sufficiently 
 developed in the present generation, to excite them to study in 
 the hope of standing as the first. These two principles would be 
 always sufficient to insure a proper degree of study in every 
 seminary. No actual evil on this head would therefore be com- 
 mitted, even if it were proposed merely to drop the employ- 
 ment of Emulation as a principle to encourage study. And 
 therefore all fears for radical reforms are quite groundless. But 
 if, further, it be proposed to substitute a system and employ a prin- 
 ciple, which not only cannot produce evil results, but which will 
 avoid all those of the present system, and unite all its advantages 
 with many others, these fears are jjholly gratuitous and puerile. 
 
 I must, by way of anticipation, consider one other argument 
 for the present system, which I know exists in the minds of many 
 persons, although it be not fully expressed in words. Almost all 
 are accustomed to consider it as a noble, generous excitement to 
 virtuous action. " It is very inspiriting. There is involved in it 
 such a vivid prospect of glory and happiness, resulting from the 
 hope of being known as the first, the superior, which last
 
 22 
 
 also involves the anticipation of great honor, that a heart sus- 
 ceptible of glowing ardor cannot but be kindled and warmed to 
 the most animated and vigorous exertion." This is the account 
 of it ; and what does it prove ? It proves only that Emulation is 
 capable of being so cultivated as to become a predominerit princi- 
 ple in the human mind ; that the desire of superiority is very 
 strong ; and that men find a high degree of pleasure in gratifying 
 that desire. But this is nothing more than is found connected with 
 the passion of revenge. The man who is excited by this passion 
 may thus plead the same excuse for yielding to it, as the one who 
 is excited by a desire of superiority. Besides, to say that Emu- 
 lation is noble, does not make it so. Moreover, it inspires us with 
 vivid feelings and proud sentiments ; and there is such a thirst 
 for glory in the human breast, that it is to be expected great op- 
 position will be made to subduing such a principle. But if the 
 system is advocated because it inspires a love of glory, or grati- 
 fies a vivid desire, on the same principle might the practice of 
 duelling, pugilism, horse-racing be advocated, for to all these is 
 appended a petty love of glory. By such arguments might am- 
 bition also be advocated, which has overturned kingdoms in its 
 madness and strength. 
 
 But to proceed with the second general division of the subject, 
 the effect upon the moral character is bad for several reasons ; 
 first, in him who gains the superiority, and, secondly, in him who 
 fails of his purpose. 
 
 1. It generates and cherishes in the mind of the young aspirant 
 who gains the superiority, a spirit of supercilious pride and ar- 
 rogant self-love. Indeed how can it do otherwise, when it appeals 
 directly to those passions. It may not create in the mind these 
 passions, but it finds them thejje, and has a direct tendency to 
 give them scope and action. No one will say that they are prin- 
 ciples which ought individually to be cultivated. We are now just 
 emerging, or rather, as I hope, have already emerged from those 
 depths of ignorance, and escaped from the shackles of a false 
 system of ethics, in which countenance was given to the indul- 
 gence of these vicious propensities. ( See History, passim, for the 
 language and conduct of nobles towards their poor dependants,
 
 23 
 
 and slave-holders to their slaves, fyc.) We have seen into what 
 miseries it plunged mankind before the mass of society became 
 more fully instructed into their rights, and before the powerful 
 became imbued with the principles of forbearance and humility 
 which Christianity recommends. Supercilious pride was once 
 thought a characteristic of a noble rnind. But I here assume, that 
 we have become acquainted with a better system of morality. 
 
 There are two species of pride. One is innocent, and the other 
 is reprehensible. The pride of superiority over another, which 
 successful Emulation cherishes, is not the pride of having done 
 well, of having done a virtuous action, the pride of having benefit- 
 ed society, or of having gained a victory over self; this would 
 be an honest pride ; an emotion by all means to be cherished, 
 as one of the noblest rewards of an approving conscience, and one 
 of the highest incitements to continued virtue ; but it is the 
 pride which arises from the mere knowledge of one's own supe- 
 rior excellence. The moral sense of every Christian must tell him 
 that such a spirit is reprehensible. Granting even that it is not 
 designedly this system of education by Emulation, to excite a 
 spirit of pride, still this will not remedy the evil itself, nor excuse 
 the cause that has a direct tendency to call up such a spirit. If it 
 actually produce this effect, let us reject such a system, which is 
 even in its good effects of a doubtful character, and which certain- 
 ly in some respects is injurious. But does it actually foster a 
 spirit of pride ? Does it ! What is pride, but an invidious compar- 
 ison of our superior situation with that of others , ? And when a 
 student is every day and every hour compelled to compare him- 
 self with others beneath him, is he unconscious of his superior 
 situation ? Or when he has the good fortune to rise above a rival, 
 is it not human nature to feel a superiority ? Or when he has 
 outstripped all his competitors, and planted himself on the pinna- 
 cle of fame to be gazed at and admired, is not that a spirit of 
 pride ? But Christianity recognises no such principle to be rank- 
 ed among virtues that adorn the character ; and the Scriptures 
 have furnished us with ample authority for ranking it among fol- 
 lies that are regarded with peculiar abhorrence in the sight of 
 Heaven.
 
 24 
 
 Again, it fosters in him who gains the ascendancy, a habit of 
 regarding his situation with respect to others, rather than a desire 
 of excellence ; and this extends to his moral duties. It is in a 
 moral view that we are now to consider it ; as we have had oc- 
 casion to consider it with regard to literary excellence, under a 
 former head. The evil of setting up an imperfect standard for 
 the attainment of knowledge, is sufficiently obvious ; and the de- 
 fect of such a system must, I think, appear to every one. But its 
 effects must be much more pernicious in morals, inasmuch as 
 upon these depend the present and future welfare of individuals, 
 and the public and private happiness of society. It is the same 
 principle so early developed and so eagerly employed to encour- 
 age literary excellence, that is liable to operate, and according 
 to our daily experience does operate, as the ruling passion in al- 
 most every arena of action and duty. If we educate our children 
 to compare their relative progress in knowledge constantly with 
 the imperfect attainments of those with whom they are associat- 
 ed, we must not think it strange, if they accustom themselves to 
 measure their moral progress by the standards which they find 
 about them. Yet no obstruction could be more effectual than this, 
 to the perfection of our moral natures. No system, I am persuad- 
 ed, would be more ruinous, if allowed to be put into full opera- 
 tion, than comparing our moral attainments with the unfinished 
 models of human excellence. 
 
 As to the question, whether it actually have a tendency to pro- 
 duce this result, we may decide by recurring to facts ; and 1 will 
 take the most obvious example. It happens to be one, where, the 
 least of all, we should desire to find it : I mean in the different 
 sects of Christians. It is the practice in polemical religion, (how 
 reputably, let others decide,) to appeal to the good morals of each 
 one's own sect, and invidiously hint at the licentious freedom of 
 the other ; and the virtue of both is not always seen to be on the 
 increase, often on the wane, as the effect of such unworthy com- 
 parisons. This is even carried into domestic life to a certain de- 
 gree ; and individuals, perhaps unconsciously, compare them- 
 selves and their conduct with that of their neighbours. If it always 
 produced a strife for the mending of the morals, the result might
 
 25 
 
 perhaps be more beneficial to society. But it so happens that a 
 flaw in the character of a neighbour is too often made a plea for 
 unwarrantable indulgences in ourselves. We do not see the full 
 effects which such habits as these might have upon society, be- 
 cause there are other causes which counteract them, and prevent 
 their whole influence. The operation of these effects might stag- 
 nate all morality and virtue. But the causes which now counter- 
 act them, it would be foreign to the subject to explain. 
 
 Aside from the ill effects of such a system upon the morals of 
 society, every one must perceive that its theology is also very im- 
 perfect. For if by a wrong education we acquire the habit of 
 " comparing ourselves among ourselves," there is great dishonor 
 done to the majesty and perfection of the Being, who alone is 
 worthy of being our Great Exemplar. But the partial excellence, 
 and the slow progress of morals, we are certainly at liberty to 
 conjecture, are owing to this comparison with human, imperfect 
 models ; and this evil takes its rise, in connexion with partial 
 and limited knowledge, with the developement of the principle of 
 Emulation in early education. 
 
 So far the evils relate to him who has excelled all his compet- 
 itor?. 
 
 2. We may notice its effect upon him who has been surpass- 
 ed. First, it creates a spirit of envy. What is envy, but a pain 
 the mind feels, because another possesses a certain good unattain- 
 able by itself ? It is the most easily seen in those who have lost 
 the object of their wishes. A certain writer, in drawing a line of 
 distinction between Envy and Emulation, has attempted to justify 
 Emulation by defining it as a certain disquiet merely on account 
 of the superiority of another ; whereas Envy is a disquiet because 
 of the happiness of another. (Rees's Cyclop. Art. ENVY.) But it 
 is not thus easy to exclude the passion of envy from making an 
 ingredient in the composition of Emulation. It is impossible to 
 exclude it by a definition. If a student is emulous of another, it 
 is not on account of his superior knowledge, but simply on ac- 
 count of the superiority of place, and the pleasure connected with 
 it. If it were the superiority of knowledge so much sought after, 
 there would be no need of employing this principle. For it is 
 4
 
 26 
 
 this that is used as a motive to urge the mind to study. And it 
 is by this pain and disquiet one is supposed to feel at the superi- 
 ority of another, that the whole system is built upon. A student 
 observes a competitor above him, he knows that by possess- 
 ing superior knowledge, he can gain and enjoy that superior 
 place. So that he rather uses the attainment of knowledge as a 
 means of gaining superiority, than the principle of Emulation as 
 a means of acquiring knowledge. His mind is disquieted on ac- 
 count of the good which another enjoys. It is that good which he 
 desires ; and so long as it is unattained, his mind is pained that 
 his rival possesses it. If he at last fails of his object, his aversion 
 and uneasiness will settle into envy. While there is a competi- 
 tion, the passion is growing, but when at last he sees his rival 
 preeminent, his mind cannot but be deeply affected by Envy. Was 
 it ever otherwise . ? Let each one answer candidly for himself. 
 
 If an individual possesses the feelings and frailties common to 
 humanity, he must be pained ; such is the tendency of the 
 mind. Nor can this conclusion be avoided by urging that such is 
 not the design of the system. Because, although it be not, yet 
 these are consequences, and consequences, too, which are serious 
 in their nature. For, what is the nature of that pain ? It is shame 
 and sorrow for his own overthrow, and grief and anger at the suc- 
 cess of his rival. And these are precisely the emotions, which, 
 according to the writer quoted above, compose the complex pas- 
 sion of Envy ; Envy, which, according to the testimony of eve- 
 ry writer, is in its nature and effects, the basest, the most mis- 
 chievous, and the most tormenting of all passions ; and by the 
 authority of inspiration, has long ago been classed with the vilest 
 passions of our nature. 
 
 The second ill effect produced upon him who has been excel- 
 led, is, that he is tempted to use some unwarrantable means for 
 accomplishing his object ; or he is stimulated to take revenge and 
 gratify a malicious passion. The passion will operate both in the 
 duties of a student and in those of a citizen ; but the moral effect, 
 the influence upon the mind, will be the same. If instructors 
 have taken pains to draw out the principle, they must not be sur- 
 prised when they see that it has become so strong in some tern-
 
 27 
 
 peraments, as at length to be the sole motive, the only incen- 
 tive to action. If a person perceives that he has failed, and after 
 repeated exertions finds it impossible to gain the ascendancy, ex- 
 cept by throwing obstacles in the way of his rival's progress, will 
 he always hesitate about doing it ? No ; and this is one, perhaps 
 the principal, origin of malice. But a mind stimulated by an over- 
 ruling desire of superiority will not fail of even devising some 
 method for accomplishing this. If the individual at last cornes out 
 into society, he will find ample means for obstructing a rival's 
 progress by defamation, slander, and abuse. And thus it becomes 
 the origin of so many of the ill feelings which disturb the peace 
 of society. 
 
 Another ill effect is that arising from the shame which is caus- 
 ed by defeat. It is the supremacy to which all are stimulated to 
 arrive ; and as there is but one supremacy, so there can be but 
 one supreme. Consequently, some of the competitors must fail. 
 What is the effect . ? All the exertion has not been made without 
 some definite object. If there is glory attached to the winning of 
 the prize and the attainment of superiority of rank, there is also 
 shame attached to the idea of defeat ; because defeat implies 
 inferiority ; inferiority of many noble qualities, splendid ac- 
 quirements, talents, energy, power of accomplishing our object. 
 Shame is always attached to the idea of defeat, and he who is de- 
 feated feels it; in some cases very pungently. An older is asham- 
 ed at seeing a younger competitor above him. Human beings are 
 naturally disposed to think no one superior to themselves till they 
 have personal evidence of the fact. No one is inclined to admit 
 himself inferior to his fellow man. But when he is obliged to 
 make a trial of his abilities, and finds himself defeated, and this 
 defeat is made public, his mind is immediately clouded with 
 shame ; and there always must be a defeat of some, for all can- 
 not be superior. Therefore some must be subject to shame. 
 
 Now what is the effect of shame ? While there is a chance for 
 exertion, it may serve in some minds as an incitement to action ; 
 but when that chance is past, it serves a very different purpose. 
 It depresses and humiliates the mind to a most pitiable degree. 
 Besides, it is too often employed in education as a punishment.
 
 28 
 
 The teacher of youth in its first stages, seizes upon this principle 
 of shame to humiliate a scholar for his negligence ; and after his 
 defeat, often loads him with reproaches for his failure. This is 
 wrong, because no shame should be necessarily attached to de- 
 feat. It is cruel, it is ruinous to weigh down the mind with 
 shame, when its utmost exertions have been fruitlessly given to 
 the attainment of an important purpose. The shame which is felt 
 at such a defeat may be the means of doing infinite injury to the 
 development of the faculties of the mind. In one that is sensitive 
 and diffident, all these energies, which under proper culture might 
 be made of incalculable service to society, are paralyzed ; dis- 
 taste for exertion is the consequence ; and from apathy, the 
 mind sinks down by a retrograde process to negligence, idleness, 
 and their numerous attendant evils. 
 
 This is the fourth ill effect upon the young aspirant whose ob- 
 ject is defeated. It depresses the mind, it takes away that en- 
 ergy which every mind naturally possesses, and always ought to 
 possess ; which is necessary to vigorous and animated exertion j 
 which springs from a sense of its own importance, the dignity and 
 worth of its nature, and the consciousness of powers adequate to 
 its necessities. This knowledge, this consciousness, is, or ought 
 to be, the foundation of all generous and noble-minded achieve- 
 ments. It is not pride the pride of superiority, it is not the 
 feeling of disdain at inferiors, it is not the empty boast of mere 
 possession ; but it is the deep feeling of inward value ; the 
 consciousness of responsibility ; the knowledge of personal influ- 
 ence and personal worth. It is the inward surety of individual 
 importance inherent in every mind, inspiring it with confidence to 
 go forth in the plenitude of its power to accomplish the work of 
 human improvement and human happiness. 
 
 Such is the spirit necessary to stimulate the mind to the execu- 
 tion of benevolent and important designs ; and such a spirit is 
 not merely important, but all-powerful, to move it to the fulfil- 
 ment of its glorious purposes. Defeat, failure, and shame dampen 
 that spirit, and in many cases annihilate its efforts. In the vigor- 
 ous and choleric temperament, the thought of a superior rankles 
 n the breast, and incites the mind to renewed Emulation. But
 
 29 
 
 this is the same spirit that sets the world on fire with its influence, 
 and requires restraining while the passions are yet in the embryo. 
 
 But the far greater proportion, as facts in every seminary will 
 testily, are those who are not so far influenced by Emulation. 
 At least they are not willing to appear in the ranks of competi- 
 tors. Their spirits are dampened, their energies are palsied, their 
 hopes of respectable influence are almost sunk. They once made 
 an effort, but defeat has produced distaste, apathy, disgust. They 
 pass out into society, and by the influence of these impressions, 
 received while under pupilage, are averse to appear forward or 
 interested, in the promotion of any great object, although it prom- 
 ises the welfare of society. They are willing rather to be led ; 
 and thus society is deprived of the aid which it might have from 
 able and efficient minds, injured by a wrong system of education. 
 Hence in almost all countries the domination of aristocracy ; the 
 submission of the many to the few ; but which, in our own coun- 
 try, is checked in a great measure by the spirit of independence 
 in which we are educated. Hence, however, even here, the 
 prevalence of many evils, which might be counteracted and avoid- 
 ed by educating all to a sense of their own worth and responsi- 
 bility, without subjecting a sensitive and diffident mind in early 
 youth to the shame and indignity of seeing the triumph of a su- 
 perior. 
 
 Before closing this head, it may be necessary to notice an ar- 
 gument which has been adduced in support of the system. It is 
 said that there is no desire implanted in the bosom of man, which 
 was not intended by the Creator for some useful purpose ; and 
 from this it is argued, that Emulation was intended to be employ- 
 ed, and the desire gratified. " Every desire," it is said, " was im- 
 planted for some good end." So far may be true. But it does 
 not necessarily follow that all are to be gratified or cultivated. 
 All desires are not equally innocent ; as the desire of revenge, 
 the desire of power, the desire of evil to others ; which is a spe- 
 cies of envy. There may be occasions when such desires were 
 intended to be employed, which we know not of j they may have 
 their use, and perhaps are sometimes absolutely necessary ; but 
 we are not the judges when that proper time is ; they evidently
 
 30 
 
 were never meant to be cultivated ; because He, who is said to 
 have given them, has forbidden us to gratify them. 
 
 All are not ultimate principles in the mind, all are not orig- 
 inally planted in our nature. Because there may be some com- 
 plex desires, which are created by our own power and propensi- 
 ties, in the union of several others. They are ultimate principles 
 alone which are implanted by the Creator ; and it is these alone 
 which are to be cultivated ; such as love, joy, patience, meek- 
 ness, &tc. If Emulation be among the complex desires, (as it ap- 
 pears to be, by the union of the two desires of glory and envy, or 
 the desire of evil to others,) it would be neither safe, nor proper, 
 it certainly is not philosophical, to maintain that it ought to be 
 cultivated as an ultimate principle. 
 
 But even supposing it to be an ultimate principle ; all desires, 
 as every one knows, are not innocent in their effects. Let it be 
 that they have been implanted in the mind for some good end, 
 yet if, in drawing out these principles into action, we find them 
 productive of bad results, it is fair to conclude that we have not 
 yet found the method, or the sphere in which they were intended 
 to be brought into action. There are other desires, such as envy, 
 revenge, &c., which, if we should cultivate them as we now do 
 Emulation, would speedily introduce confusion and disorder into 
 the very heart of communities, and overthrow the foundations of 
 civil society. Innocent principles and desires may be, and ought 
 to be, cultivated, but all others will naturally enough find their 
 own sphere of action. The argument above-stated must there- 
 fore fall quite powerless to the ground. For our own observation 
 and experience, and that of distinguished writers will testify, that 
 Emulation is often productive of the worst results. If the princi- 
 ple were allowed to remain uncalled into action, it would doubt- 
 less often enough perform the office for which nature intended 
 it ; in some inferior capacity, where less evil would result, or 
 need be feared, from its influence and power. 
 
 III. It is inconsistent with the spirit of Christianity. 
 
 The divine revelation of Scripture is, of course, here assumed. 
 For all our systems of education proceed, at least professedly, 
 upon the foundation of the Christian religion ; and wherever in-
 
 31 
 
 struction is given, in our own country, deference is given to the 
 sacred Scriptures as the highest authority to which we can refer, 
 and the only revealed will of Heaven. It is therefore assumed, 
 that whatever is there found written, we are bound by irresisti- 
 ble obligations, to the extent of our abilities, to perform. 
 
 If my object had been merely to produce authority which pro- 
 hibits the fostering and cultivating of such a principle as Em- 
 ulation, it would have been only necessary to refer directly 
 to Scripture on the subject ; from which there is no appeal. It 
 seemed necessary, however, to present the subject in all its bear- 
 ings. If it effect no purpose which cannot be effected by some 
 other method, its use becomes at once very doubtful. If it be in- 
 expedient on the ground of its being unfavorable to the advance- 
 ment of the mind in knowledge, that would seem a sufficient rea- 
 son for discouraging its being employed. For when we once see 
 its bad effects upon education, we wish no more to convince us of 
 its hurtful tendency. Further, if it retard and obstruct the pro- 
 gress of the mind, it is quite preposterous not to reject its use. 
 Still more, if it is found to instil and foster principles into the 
 mind which positively injure it, and demoralize it, we are cer- 
 tainly highly culpable not to substitute some other more harm- 
 less method. But more than all, if we find the authority of 
 Scripture directly opposed to the cherishing of such a passion, 
 not only will the evidence against its practicability and useful 
 tendency be more than doubled, but we shall be, in the highest 
 degree, reprehensible not to reform such a dangerous system. 
 
 I shall premise with a few words in explanation of a passage 
 of Scripture, which has been sometimes quoted to prove that 
 Christianity gives its authority in favor of the principle of Em- 
 ulation. It is found in Romans xi. 14 : " If by any 
 means 1 may provoke to Emulation them which are my flesh, 
 and might save some of them." This is the only place in the 
 Bible where such an expression is used. But in the preceding 
 chapter, verse 19th, we have, " I will provoke you to jealousy by 
 them that are no people, and by a foolish nation will I anger 
 you." But how is this ? Are we to infer, because, in a rhetorical 
 manner, the writer speaks of using methods for the conversion of
 
 32 
 
 the Jews, which are directly opposed to the spirit of Christianity, 
 that he, therefore, actually means that these methods should be 
 used ? I am aware that it is a quotation from the Old Testament, 
 but that does not alter the strength or texture of the argument. 
 He says, " By a foolish nation I will anger you." Are we to 
 suppose that by this he means to cherish and excite a spirit of 
 anger? No one of common judgment supposes any such thing. 
 Every one reads and understands it as merely a rhetorical ex- 
 pression. And this mode of speaking is used, on precisely the 
 same principles that the passions and actions of human nature 
 are very often, by the sacred writers, attributed to the Deity, 
 when his dealings with mankind are spoken of and described. 
 Instances of these are almost numberless in the book of Psalms. 
 The passion of anger is discountenanced by this very Apostle, 
 and is forbidden to be cherished by the general voice of Christi- 
 anity. St. Paul would not, then, of course, advise in another 
 place that it be excited. So also is the passion of Emulation 
 forbidden to be exercised. (Galatians v. 19 21.) We can- 
 not, therefore, suppose that the Apostle, in the passage above 
 referred to, so far contradicted himself and his principles, as to 
 advocate the expediency of cherishing that passion. It is nothing 
 more than a mere figurative form of expression. 
 
 It would be doing the subject injustice not to notice the senti- 
 ments of Dr. Brown, concerning the desire of glory which I con- 
 ceive to be closely connected with this subject. He says, that 
 the love of glory is not only not reprehensible, but it is praise- 
 worthy ; that, " the desire of glory, far from being unworthy 
 of a good man, is as truly worthy of him, as any of those other 
 secondary desires which minister to that primary desire the de- 
 sire of rendering ourselves acceptable by our virtues to Him who 
 made us." (Philos. vol. ii. p. 94.) He goes on to show that it 
 is nothing more than an extension of that same desire, which we 
 have for the affection of our kindred and friends. If it be not 
 wrong to wish for the affection of those around us, it cannot 
 be wrong to extend this wish of affection beyond the circle that 
 immediately encloses us, and derive from a greater number a 
 still stronger excitement to that excellence on which we found 
 our hope of approval.
 
 33 
 
 This is the main point upon which his argument turns. But 
 it is strange that a philosopher of so much acuteness and pene- 
 tration should commit such an error. Or, if he has concealed the 
 truth willingly, the wonder is so much greater, that he should be 
 willing to sacrifice truth to the desire of extolling, in his pompous 
 and declamatory style, the passion that is so popular, and the 
 gratification of which appears so plausibly innocent. There may 
 be cases, and there have been, as he ought to have known, when 
 men have sought the admiration of their fellow men, and even 
 when an individual, in his private capacity, has sought the affec- 
 tion of his own kindred, not by virtuous deeds or beneficent offi- 
 ces to mankind, but by the performance of those actions, which 
 have caused desolation and misery, and made many happy hearts 
 ache, where they have been achieved. Past history will tell of 
 times, when it was deemed a glorious thing to depopulate cities 
 and deluge countries in blood, merely to extend the empire of a 
 despot ; when it was accounted an admirable achievement to 
 hew down armies, for the display of valor, OF break the bonds of 
 natural affection to usurp the throne from its rightful occupant. 
 Monuments erected at the expense of impoverished and ruined 
 districts crusades against the liberties of independent nations 
 tournaments for the sake of honor revenge for the sake of 
 satisfaction ; these are some of those things which the world 
 has called deeds of glory, and to which men have aspired with 
 all the ardor of enthusiasm. And, because the world has bestow- 
 ed upon them its applause, such deeds as these have even gain- 
 ed the esteem of private friends, and long-loved kindred. But 
 are these the objects to be obtained which are " only secondary 
 to that higher object the desire of the esteem of our Crea- 
 tor ? " Then, whenever society shall have pleased to give its 
 sanction to the commission of many heinous crimes, and dignify 
 them with the appellation of glorious deeds, virtue is to consist in 
 causing the misery of mankind, and will be reduced to a mere 
 factitious and arbitrary quality. 
 
 No. It is not indeed always true that the voice of mankind is 
 the voice of God. Qualities that dazzle are not always the most 
 precious ; and there may be occasions, when the splendor of an 
 5
 
 34 
 
 action seems more specious, and attracts more admiration, than 
 one which is truly beneficial to society. The approbation of 
 men is not always the approbation of the Deity ; and the de- 
 sire of glory may have another impulse, -than the desire of the 
 esteem of men on account of actions which are decidedly virtu- 
 ous in their character. 
 
 Again, this theory of Dr. Brown is faulty, because such a spirit, 
 and such desires, do not so much regard the affection of others, 
 as the glory of being known as one of the mightiest and most ex- 
 cellent of the earth ; and this is entirely opposed to the precepts 
 of Jesus, and the whole spirit of Christianity. Humility lies at 
 the foundation of a Christian's life. There are few virtues more 
 frequently enjoined, and of the practice of which we have such 
 beautiful and striking examples. It is opposed to every thing like 
 superiority, or pride, or love of glory, or any invidious compari- 
 sons with others ; and thus shows itself a feature of Christianity, 
 by presenting a direct contrast to the " appearance of evil." 
 The Great Master of perfection, in reforming the old systems of 
 the world, gave precepts which sapped the growth of all evil, by 
 striking at the root. "The stress which the religion of Jesus lays 
 on inward purity," says one of our most distinguished divines, 
 " its preference of the mild, unostentatious, passive virtues, to the 
 dazzling qualities which have monopolized men's admiration, are 
 peculiarities which will strike us more and more, in proportion as 
 we understand distinctly the circumstances under which this re- 
 ligion appeared." Its inculcation of such a spirit may be seen by 
 considering such texts as those,. where command is given for the 
 regulation of the heart, as the source of all good or evil. " Out 
 of the heart proceed evil thoughts, murders," &c. " Keep thy 
 heart with all diligence, for out of it are the issues of life." 
 " Avoid every appearance of evil." Or in those texts, where, as 
 we shall show in another place, we are commanded to love oth- 
 ers better than ourselves. It is on the same principle that the 
 evils of intemperance, at the present day, are attempted to be 
 avoided, namely, by entire abstinence. These examples are ad- 
 duced merely to show, that when evils are to be counteracted, 
 it can be effected only by striking at the very root. The desire
 
 35 
 
 of glory is productive of bad consequences, and there is always 
 danger in giving the smallest indulgence to such a dangerous 
 principle ; and, therefore, the rigorous practice of humility is its 
 only antidote. 
 
 So, also, if the evils arising from the development of the prin- 
 ciple of Emulation are to be avoided, it must be done by instill- 
 ing into the minds of youth, and by rigidly practising, the princi- 
 ples of humility. There is a humility which is opposed to every 
 thing like superiority, but yet is perfectly consistent with true in- 
 dependence, and unobstructed progress towards perfection, 
 whether in education or morality ; and this is to be inculcated. 
 
 To show that there are evils to be feared from this highly ex- 
 tolled, and all-actuating principle, and that I am not alone in my 
 opinion, I will quote from two among the most distinguished writ- 
 ers upon the philosophy of the human mind Dr. Brown and 
 Dr. Reid. 
 
 Dr. Brown, after toiling through a long discussion to prove its 
 worth, and its barmlessness in society, frankly acknowledges that 
 it is a desire of only secondary importance ; and concludes that 
 " either when the glory is sought in unworthy objects, or when 
 the praise of virtue is preferred to virtue itself, it is not merely un- 
 worthy of influencing us, but, as the history of every nation 
 shows, in terrifying examples of the past, may lead to excesses 
 which the world, whose mad admiration, or at least, the hope of 
 whose mad admiration, excited or encouraged them, may for 
 ages lament." 
 
 Dr. Reid, in his essay upon Emulation, although he maintains 
 that in the wise and good, it produces the best effects, yet " in 
 the foolish and vicious it is the parent of a great part of the evils 
 of life, and of the most malignant vices that stain human nature." 
 If such be the tendency of the principle of Emulation, there is 
 no difficulty in accounting for the authority of Scripture against 
 it. It weighs but little, on the other hand, that it is harmless in 
 the wise and good. For, while a part of society are not wise and 
 good, and while the cherishing of it by the wise and good alone 
 is a thing wholly fortuitous and imaginary, great evil must and 
 does result from it. It is to be counteracted by inculcating en- 
 tire humility.
 
 36 
 
 But, to proceed with the testimony of Scripture against the 
 employment of this principle in education, it is quite worthy of 
 observation, that, even in its most enviable situation, it is not 
 found classed with the best of company. The Apostle Paul 
 hesitates not to place it among the worst passions of our nature ; 
 " of which," he says, " I tell you before, as I have also told you 
 in times past, that they who do such things shall not inherit the 
 kingdom of God." (Galatians v. 21.) To the advocates of 
 our religion then, and to the teachers of its principles, here is a 
 truth presented, fhe most weighty and important. How can the 
 practice of educating children, in direct and professed opposition 
 to one of the plainest dictates of Heaven, be tolerated and up- 
 held ? It is true, the prohibition in the text has not a special re- 
 gard to education by the principle of Emulation, but it is meant, 
 doubtless, for the development of the passion in any manner, and 
 in any department of society. But who of the two are the most 
 worthy of censure, those who are the first, and the most eager to 
 encourage the growth of that passion in early life, or those, who, 
 after it is developed, yield to its impulses ? I will leave it to the 
 common sense of every one to decide. Certainly, they who have 
 employed that principle, and used means to cherish and feed 
 it, notwithstanding the express prohibition, are no less culpable 
 than their pupils, for they have ministered directly to their ruin. 
 
 The same Apostle, in another place, with singular emphasis, 
 censures the practice of comparing ourselves with others, and 
 concludes, those " who measure themselves by themselves, and 
 compare themselves among themselves, are not wise." And for 
 a very good reason ; because such conduct, as I have elsewhere 
 endeavoured to show, would be an insurmountable barrier to prop- 
 er improvement. Besides, those comparisons are generally pro- 
 ductive of much ill feeling among private individuals. Yet Em- 
 ulation in education stands on no better ground the comparing of 
 ourselves with each other. 
 
 Again, I see not how this passion can be indulged without a 
 direct breach of the tenth commandment. What is the desire of 
 superiority, but the desire of what is in the possession of another ? 
 A competitor does not desire his rival's knowledge, or the means
 
 37 
 
 by which superiority is acquired. What then ? Simply the su- 
 periority and the honor of it, which he knows is in his rival's 
 possession. He desires ; he desires without restraint ; he desires 
 what is in the possession of another ; and this is covetousness. 
 
 Further, Christianity is peculiarly a religion of humility ; and 
 as education is, or ought to be, closely connected with the sub- 
 ject of religion, any system, which inculcates a spirit the oppo- 
 site of this, is instilling principles which are directly repugnant to 
 those of the Great Teacher. It is almost useless for the preach- 
 ers of Christianity to undertake to teach lessons of humility, 
 when principles are cultivated in early life, directly contrary to 
 such a spirit. How can we expect that society will assimilate its 
 character to the mildness and lowliness of the Great Founder of 
 our religion, while there are such glaring defects in the educa- 
 tion ? 
 
 To quote Scripture to prove the necessity of humility, would 
 be to quote the whole spirit of the New Testament. There are 
 some passages which very obviously recommend humility as a 
 virtue of the highest order in the sight of God. No one can con- 
 template the life and character of Christ, without seeing it exem- 
 plified in ah 1 its perfection and power. Besides, the promise is 
 not to him who exalts himself, but, " he that humbleth himself 
 shall be exalted." Even the "great commandment of all," 
 which was given to regulate our conduct towards our fellow men, 
 sufficiently opposes this passion, " Love thy neighbour as thy- 
 self." But, as if foreseeing that this would not be sufficient for 
 cavillers, the spirit of inspiration has inculcated the duty of pre- 
 ferring others. Paley, in speaking of the duty of self-defence, 
 has remarked in justification of the practice of taking the life of 
 another in that cause, (Philos. Book iv. chap. 1. p. 307,) that 
 we are no where commanded to love our enemy better than our- 
 selves. But we are commanded to " prefer one another." (Ro- 
 mans xii. 10.) " Submit yourselves," says the Apostle, " submit 
 yourselves to one another in the fear of God." (Ephes. v. 21.) 
 " Let nothing be done through strife or vain glory, but in all 
 lowliness of mind, let each esteem others better than himself." 
 (Philip, ii. 3.) "All of you be subject one to another, and be
 
 38 
 
 clothed with humility." (1 Pet. v. 5.) Each of these passages 
 furnishes matter for a separate head ; but I cannot now stop to 
 enlarge upon them, having already exceeded my intended limits. 
 I have only to say, that it seems not possible to discover any fea- 
 ture in the religion which teaches such a spirit, that bears the 
 least resemblance to a system built upon the glory and pride of 
 superior rank. 
 
 Lastly, the only method which Christianity sanctions, is that of 
 striving after the abstract principle of perfection. " We labor," 
 says Paul, " warning every man, and teaching every man in all 
 wisdom, that we may present you perfect in Christ Jesus." (Co- 
 loss, i. 8.) In another place, the Apostle speaks of laboring 
 fervently for them in prayer, that they might " stand perfect and 
 complete in all the will of God." (Coloss. iv. 12.) " Be ye per- 
 fect," says the Saviour, "even as your Father in Heaven is per- 
 fect." (Matt. v. 8.) The " wise man " (Solomon) never coun- 
 sels to get wisdom partially, and make progress relatively, but 
 the " principal thing is wisdom ; therefore get wisdom." Any thing 
 below perfection will set bounds to our progress ; and nothing 
 can more directly militate against the first, the ultimate principles 
 of the mind. Nothing is more thoroughly repugnant to its very 
 constitution. It is setting bounds to that which is in its nature 
 undefinable. Must its improvement be checked, and its progress 
 be limited by any thing but the extent of its own powers ? It 
 was formed for perfection ; and while it is not taught to exert its 
 capacities and energies in unlimited action, it will continue com- 
 paratively imperfect and inert. It is confined in too narrow a 
 sphere ; it thirsts for immortality ; it reaches out for the attain- 
 ment of impossibilities every thing that is noble, or elevated, 
 or difficult, possesses a charm ; and the mind will never flour- 
 ish, it will never expand into its proper strength, and true su- 
 periority, till it is left to go on unconfined in its majesty and 
 might. So far as it is in our power, then, let there Ije no check 
 to its energies, for its destiny is onward, progressive, boundless. 
 
 The conclusion to be drawn from this course of argument, then, 
 is this : That the employment of the principle of Emulation is 
 not only useless, it is inexpedient ; and even more, it is decidely
 
 39 
 
 injurious. Let me briefly recapitulate the process by which we 
 have come to this conclusion. 
 
 The case stands nearly thus ; we find it a principle almost 
 universally employed in the various systems of education, and 
 are, at first, led to suppose it to be the most important principle that 
 can be employed to produce a great amount of study. But if, 
 upon examination, we find that the same amount of study might 
 be produced by employing some other principle, doubts arise as 
 to its utility. Some of the arguments adduced to show that the 
 same effects may be produced by other means are, that, if the 
 object be to please and divert the mind, and relieve the tedium 
 of study, there are other means for effecting this, as by instruc- 
 tive games, various explanatory methods, where no competition 
 is involved, or by cultivating the principle of curiosity ; and the 
 fact, that a judicious mother never finds it necessary to appeal to 
 the principle. As to higher institutions, it is not only unsuitable 
 to the dignity of any young man to be led forward by children's 
 play, but it is a very imperfect method of disciplining his mind 
 for future action and duty. Or, if the object be to excite, there 
 are facts which show that young minds may be taught without 
 this excitement ; even without employing any other method than 
 simply addressing the reason and the understanding. In the high- 
 er institutions, we have the testimony of students themselves 
 against its utility ; the probability that, if proper motives were 
 excited in youth, no others would be afterwards necessary ; and 
 the fact that all have an inherent love of knowledge, which, if 
 properly cultivated, would lead the scholar to almost endless at- 
 tainments. 
 
 We may even go further, and say, that it is inexpedient. This 
 appears evident by observing that it narrows the mind, limits the 
 subjects of its knowledge, and obstructs its high advancement by 
 confining it to the single object of superceding a rival, and by 
 setting up a standard of excellence in human capacities : That, 
 as it has a reward for him who excels, the less talented must fail 
 of obtaining it, however great their industry and application, be- 
 cause the more gifted take it from them ; therefore, they are lia- 
 ble to be discouraged : That these rewards are unjust, because
 
 UCSB LIBRARY 
 
 40 
 
 they are given to those who possess higher gifts by nature, and 
 thus all are not rewarded according as they have improved the 
 talents committed to them : Lastly, that it pays no regard to the 
 bias which every mind naturally possesses to some particular pur- 
 suit. Further, its inexpediency may be seen in a moral view, by 
 its producing a spirit of supercilious pride in him who is superior ; 
 and by leading him to compare himself with others, to the great 
 detriment of his moral progress. In him who is excelled, it pro- 
 duces envy, and some of the baser malicious passions ; it caus- 
 es sharne and consequent degradation of the mind, as well as a 
 stagnation of the mind's nobler energies ; and takes away the 
 consciousness of worth, importance, and responsibility so neces- 
 sary to high and praiseworthy improvement. 
 
 Having shown its inutility and its inexpediency, I proceeded one 
 step further, to show that it is decidedly injurious. But. even if 
 it has a bad moral effect, it is injurious as well as inexpedient. 
 Besides, it appears so in another way. It is injurious in its gen- 
 eral consequences ; by not merely cherishing, but actually culti- 
 vating a principle which produces great evil in society, both in 
 public and private life. This is so plain, that it needs here but 
 little evidence to support it j it being admitted by its own ad- 
 vocates. 
 
 Therefore, the good tendency of this principle, so employed, 
 becomes doubtful, because it does not produce more study than 
 if no particular principle at all were employed, but the mind lelt 
 to its own resources. Further, probabilities are against it, be- 
 cause it is the cause of much evil, as its advocates admit. Last- 
 ly, the weight of evidence is altogether against it, because there 
 are other principles which might be cultivated, not only produc- 
 ing no such bad effects, but which, we have every reason to be- 
 lieve, would produce a greater amount of study, and make society 
 more moral, and more happy. 
 
 As the principle thus employed cherishes the love of glo- 
 ry, and the desire of superiority, it seems to deserve our cen- 
 sure, by arguments against it, drawn from Scripture, amounting to 
 nearly this ; a spirit of humility is that which, among others, 
 peculiarly distinguishes Christianity ; and the inculcation of its
 
 A 000 61 1 025 8 
 
 41 
 
 rigid practice forbids all desire of undue superiority, or whatever 
 implies a spirit of glory. And when we are commanded to love 
 others as ourselves, it should be sufficient to dissuade us from 
 using any means to surpass them, and triumph over them. Or, 
 if a more powerful argument be wanting, we are even taught to 
 esteem others better than ourselves. All these arguments are 
 supported by one which sets the matter at rest, (Galatians v. 19 ;) 
 as it is a decided denunciation against all practice upon such a 
 principle If we add one more, from 1 Corinthians x. 31, all 
 hope of escape appears to be cut off: " Whether ye eat or drink, 
 or whatsoever ye do, do all to the glory of God." 
 
 The simplest conclusion to be deduced from all this is, that 
 the principle of Emulation should not be employed in education 
 to encourage literary excellence. An enthusiast has ventured to 
 say, that men may theoretically speak and write against it ; but 
 he, and he only, who is incapable of excellence, will ever refuse its 
 aid. The mildest answer to this is, that it is an egregious error. 
 For I know, and can adduce, at least one bright and living ex- 
 ample, without making any search, to contradict such a state- 
 ment. The individual not only despised the principle, and refus- 
 ed its aid, but by so doing, actually made himself superior to all 
 his companions, in a certain literary institution of our country. 
 But, if a part only of the evils above enumerated result from it, 
 if there is any danger to be feared from it, let the system be 
 carefully revised. I am willing to appeal to the patriotism of 
 statesmen, to the tender solicitude of parents, to the pious feel- 
 ings of our religious teachers, and to the moral sense of all, if it 
 be not wise to discountenance that system of education which 
 employs the principle of Emulation.
 
 1 
 
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