LIBRARY OF THK UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. GIK'T OF CALIFORNIA WINE MAKERS' CORPORATION Accession 8.72.4.7... Class ON FOOD. CONSTITUENTS OF FOOD. EUE5H EORMERS Uli HEAT GIVERS MM MINERAL JAIKBS ON FOOD. LECTURES DELIVERED AT THE SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM. BY E. LANKESTER, M.D., F.R.S n OF THE ANIMAL PSODUCT AND FOOD COLLECTIONS- LONDON: EGBERT HAEDWICKE, 192, PICCADILLY, 1873. PEEFACE, A WORD in explanation of the history of these Lectures seems necessary. The substance of them formed a part of my course on Materia Medica arid Therapeutics, at the St. George's School of Medicine, and of a course on the Vegetable Kingdom, in relation to the Life of Man, at the Royal Institution of Great Britain. The form they now assume depended on my appointment to the scientific superintendence of the Food Collection at the South Kensington Museum. Feeling that our great public museums ought to be connected with oral teaching, in order that they might become the means of educating and elevating the people, I obtained the permission of the Com- mittee of Council on Education to deliver courses of Lectures, for the purpose of supplying instruction in connection with the Food Collection. These Lectures were well attended, and I had every reason to be satisfied with their success. Under these circum- stances, I agreed to a proposal of the Publisher of this volume to correct reports of them by a short-hand writer. The six first were thus published, when it was considered desirable that my public instructions at the Museum should be discontinued. As only a part of the Lectures had been delivered when their publication commenced, I was obliged to complete the 8724 .* Vlli PREFACE. Course by writing out the remainder from my notes. The last six will, on this account perhaps, be found less conversational and familiar ; but, I hope, not less instructive. These attempts at popular instruction have been produced at a very low price, in the hope that they may contribute in some measure to advance the study of those laws by which life and health are secured, and without a knowledge of which man can never realize the highest objects of his existence. 8, SAVILE Row, August, 1861 CONTENTS OF FIRST COURSE, ON WATER : Relation of Water to Life Rain Water River Water Spring Water Nature of Pure Water Tests for Pure Water Danger of Impure Water ._ ._ ... , page o ON SALT : The Mineral Substances of Food Their Nature and Sources Different kinds of Minerals in various Foods Importance of Mineral Substances in Food ........ ... ... ... ... ... . . ^ _ _ 33 ON HEAT-GIVING FOODS : Nature of Animal Heat Heat-giving bodies Sources of Starch Its connection with Sugar Sources of Sugar Kinds of Sugar . . . . ._ ... ._ ... ... ......_ ... ... ... ... . . ... ... . . ... 61 ON OIL, BUTTER, AND FAT : Action of Starch and Sugar as Heat-givers Different action of Oils, Fats, and Butters Vegetable Oils Olive and Almond Oil Animal Oils Butter, Fat, Suet, Lard 91 ON FLESH-FORMING FOOD : Vegetable Albumen, Fibrine, and Caseine Wheat, Barley, Oats, Rye, Maize, Beans, Peas, Lentils -. 119 ON ANIMAL FOOD : Milk, the Type of all Food Composition of Animal Food- Beef, Mutton, Pork, Venison, Fowl, Fish .- -. ~ ~ _. 149 CONTENTS OE SECOND COURSE. ON ALCOHOL. Process of fermentation Production of Alcohol Action of Alcohol on the Human Body Effects of Alcohol on the Stomach, the Blood, the Heart, and the Nervous System ? a( J e W ON WINES, SPIRITS, AND BEER. The Manufacture of Beer Nature of Malt Hops- History of the Grape Composition of Wines Bou- quet of Wines Distilled Spirits : Brandy, Rum, Gin, Whisky 213 ON CONDIMENTS AND SPICES. Nature of Condiments and Spices Artificial Manufac- facture of Volatile Oils Condiments : Pepper, Mus- tard, Horseradish, Onions, Spices, Cinnamon, Cloves, Nutmegs and Mace, Ginger Flavours : Oil of Bitter Almonds, Vanilla, Lemon Peel 253 ON TEA. Action of Theine on the Nervous System Early History of Tea Culture of Tea Action of Tea on the System How to make Tea 291 ON COFFEE AND CHOCOLATE. Use of warm Beverages Salep Introduction of Coffee Establishment of Coffee-shops Substitutes for Tea and Coffee Paraguay Tea Chicory Cocoa and Chocolate Action on the System 321 ON TOBACCO. Distinctions between Eood, Medicines, and Poisons Action of Narcotics History of the Introduction of Tobacco Composition of Tobacco and Tobacco Smoke Other Narcotics Opium Hemp Coca Henbane Stramonium Conclusion .. 353 FIRST COURSE. ON WATER. THE object I have in view in this course of Lectures is to bring under notice the principal forms of those subtances of which we partake., from day to day, under the name of Food; by means of which we live, and without which we should die. The life of man is like a fire. Just as the fire must have fuel in order that it may burn, so we must have food in order that we may live ; and the analogy is in many respects quite correct ; for we find that man really produces in his body a certain amount of heat, just as the fire does, and the result of the combustion of the materials of his food is the same as the result of burning fuel in a fire. Man, in fact, exists in consequence of the physical and chemical changes that go on in his body as the result of taking food. B 2 4 ON WATER. One of the most important results of the taking of food is that the human body, which is destroyed from day to day by the processes and the wear and tear of life, is kept up and maintained at a given bulk. Thus, we find, if we take, for instance, a man weighing 154 Ibs., that he would lose in the course of a day from three to four pounds of matter by the various vital processes of his body. Now this matter niust be supplied in order that he remain the same. Then, again, man's body is maintained at a given tempe- rature. If we take a thermometer, and put it under the tongue, and compare it with the atmospheric temperature, there is usually a difference. The ther- mometer will stand at 98 in the human body, what- ever may be the external temperature; and this is the result of a certain quantity of food being con- sumed in the system. Our food, then, first nourishes the body; and, secondly, maintains its heat. We shall find, however, that although these are the prin- cipal processes that go on, they are attended with others connected with the suppply of food. I have here drawn up a table, as a kind of classification of food. CLASSIFICATION OP FOOD. CLASS I. ALIMENTARY OR NECESSARY FOOD. Group 1. MINERAL : Water; Salt; Ashes of Plants and Animals. Group 2.-CARBONACEOUS-FOBCE AND HEAT-GIVING:- Starch; Sugar; Fat. Group 3. - NITROGENOUS OR NUTRITIOUS - FLESH- FORMING : Albumen ; Fibrine; Caseine. ON WATER. 5 GLASS II.-MEDICINAL OR AUXILIARY FOOD. Group 4. STIMULANTS: Alcohol; Volatile Oils. Gronp 5. -NEUROTICS :-Alkaloids. Group 6. NARCOTICS : Tobacco ; Hemp ; Opium. CLASS TO. ACCESSORY FOOD. Group 7. Cellulose ; Gum ; Gelatine. You will see that food is divided into two great groups; into that which is necessary from day to day, and without which we could not live, and that which acts rather as a medicine or as an auxiliary. There is also a third group, which may be regarded as accessory foods. Taking the first group of dietetical substances, we come to water. "We cannot do without water ; we must drink ; and thus it becomes a necessary of life. Most of the other substances in this group are necessarily taken from day to day. Then, in the auxiliary group you will see spirits, wine, and beer: they are not absolutely necessary to life; many per- sons live without them. Then we have tea, coffee, and cocoa they are auxiliaries; and so on with the other substances mentioned in this part of our table. I call these substances medicinal, because they act on the system as medicines. We take alcohol as food, just as we administer sal volatile, camphor, and other drugs as medicines. Medicine and food are more allied to each other than most persons think ; and medicines are constantly administered from a dietetical point of view. In the present course of six lectures, I propose to treat of the group of the alimentary, or necessary sub- (> ON WATER. stances of our food. I have divided these groups into seven, and you will see the first group is more nearly allied to the third than to the second ; but taking the first, we find that water constitutes the basis of all the beverages we take from day to day. When we take beer, we take a large quantity of water ; when we take tea or coffee, we take water. Then there are certain mineral substances which are necessary to form the fabric of our bodies. If we take an animal body and analyze it, we find that there are certain incombustible matters in that body ashes as we call them. These constitute our mineral food. Then there is the group, consisting of substances taken for the purpose of giving force and maintaining animal heat such as starch and sugar ; they are neces- sary_, inasmuch as they act upon the animal system by coming in contact with the oxygen of the air, and give out heat; so we call them combustible. These sub- stances will supply us with material for our first four lectures. We then come to the nutritious group, which constitutes the flesh-forming substances of our food. These are necessary for forming the muscles and nerves of our body. I now commence with water. Water, in many re- spects, more closely resembles nutritive food than it does force-giving food ; that is to say, it more closely approaches, in its relation to the human system, the character of flesh than it does the character of starch or sugar ; and for this reason, that it combines with the tissues of the body, and forms a necessary part of its structure. I have made a calculation that a human body ON WATER. 7 weighing 154 Ibs. contains 111 Ibs. of water. You see, then, how necessary water is. If you reduce the size of the man, you reduce the quantity of water ; and you will find that water enters into the composition of all our food. Before speaking more particularly of water, I will call your attention, in the first place, to its composi- tion : it is not my province to dwell on the elementary composition of food any further than it throws a light on its action. Water, then, is composed of two gases, one called oxygen, and another called hydrogen ; and we can easily decompose water so as to demonstrate its composition. If you take a piece of potassium, which is a metal so malleable that you can cut it with a knife, and put it into water, it has such an affinity for the oxygen of the water, that when combined with it, it inflames. On putting it into water, the metal actually appears to take fire, and is converted into common potash. The hydrogen gas of the water is liberated, and it is this gas which burns during the decomposition of the water. This is a beautiful chemical experiment, and demonstrates the composition of water. But there are many other ways of doing this. If we take a little alcohol, or anything which contains hydrogen, and burn it in atmospheric air, under a glass vessel, we shall find that we produce water ; so that we can easily by household experiments demonstrate the composition of water. I now come to speak of water in relation to the life of plants and animals. Both animals and plants require it ; and no animal, and no plant, exists without cer- tain quantities of water. Sometimes it is so large in 8 ON WATER. quantity, that it constitutes the great mass of the animal or plant. Thus, if we take some plants that grow in water, we find that they are formed of from 90 to 95 per cent, of water; and many of the little animals contained in water, if we take them and expose them to heat, so as to evaporate their water, almost entirely disappear. Even solid timber contains as much as 30 per cent, of water. Plants will not live without water : if we refrain from watering them, they die. The water passes in at their roots and up their stems and into their leaves, and the sun dries them, and evaporates their moisture. The water taken up by plants contains their food, carbonic acid gas and ammonia. These two substances pass into the plant with the water, and out of these things we have manu- factured in the system of the plant all our vegetable food. Carbonic acid gas, ammonia, and water, then, are the food of plants. They contain the four elements, carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen ; and of these the food of man principally consists. I told you just now that a human body weighing 154 Ibs. contains 111 Ibs. of water ; but there are some animals in the lower scale which contain larger quan- tities than this. Thus Professor Owen tells us he took a jelly-fish, and found it weighed 2 Ibs., and when dried in the sun, its solid parts weighed only 16 grains ; so that you see there were 2 Ibs. of water organized by 16 grains of solid matter. If we examine the tissues of animals, we shall find that they contain large quantities of water. This water, which is con- tained in animals, just the same as in plants, is con- stantly liable to evaporation. If you take a piece of ON WATER. 9 blotting-paper, and roll it up, and put the other end in water, you will find the water will be gradually drawn up, and get into the dry end, which you may cut into strips, so as to resemble the expanded leaves of a plant. In this way, water finds its way to the leaves and flowers of plants, and the heat of the atmosphere causes the water to evaporate from the expanded sur- face of the plant, in the same way as in the blotting- paper : the mass is constantly losing its moisture, and water must therefore be supplied. Water is contained in our solid food, and we thus get it entirely independent of our supplying it in a liquid form. I will here call your attention to the table of constituents of food,* and I shall constantly have occasion to refer to it. This table contains a list of the chief articles of our food, and the cross lines indicate 100 parts, which you may read as grains, pounds, or hundred-weights. If you look at it, you will see the various chemical constituents of food are marked in different ways : thus we have flesh-formers marked in one way, heat- givers in another, and so on. Now, then, if you add together the lines which indicate the flesh-formers, the heat-givers, and the mineral matters, all the rest of any one of these articles of food will be water. Let us take, for instance, potatoes : The flesh-forming matter in potatoes weighs 2 Ibs. in the 100, there is a figure in the third column to indicate this fact; the heat-giving matters weigh 23 Ibs., and the mineral matters weigh 1 Ib. ; so that we get 26 Ibs. * This table is given opposite the first page. 10 ON WATER. of solid matter all the rest in the 100 parts, that is to say 74 parts, is water. When you purchase 100 Ibs. of potatoes, you do not purchase 100 Ibs. of solid mate- rial, but 74 Ibs. of water. Now I will draw your at- tention to the great importance of understanding the fact that certain forms of solid food contain but very little water, and that other forms contain a great deal. Thus, for instance, those who live chiefly on potatoes, as the Irish peasantry, require but very little water in their ordinary diet. A very curious fact illustrative of this, took place during the famine in Ireland in 1847. It was all at once discovered that Ireland, in the midst of her famine, was beginning to consume a larger quantity of what might be regarded as the luxuries of diet, such as sugar, ;ea, coffee, chocolate, and the like. The explanation is this: When the potatoes became diseased, the peasantry ate corn, maize, Indian meal, and rice in iheir place, and there- fore lost a quantity of water, t D which they had been accustomed in their potatoes ; and then it was they took tea and coffee, to which they had not been accustomed before ; and there can be no doubt these were consumed in larger quantities for the purpose of supplying the necessary water to the system. From this table you may also calculate the quantities of water in a pound of any kind of food. The quantity of water in a pound of potatoes is about twelve ounces, and this is not got rid of by cooking. Let us now look at the quantity in rice : instead of having twelve ounces, as in the potato, you have but two ounces and an eighth. There is barley, which contains but two ounces of water in sixteen of barley ; and in beans there are but two ON WATER. 1] ounces of water in the pound. With regard to the other cereal and leguminous foods, they have very much the same quantity of water. But there are the cabbage, the parsnip, the turnip, and the carrot, with larger quan- tities of water than the potato ; thus accounting for the comparative inutility of carrots, cabbages, and potatoes as compared with beans, peas, and other materials with which animals are fed. Then with regard to the beve- rages which we take, such as tea and coffee, we find that the greater portion is water. Even with regard to beer, taking table beer, which, by the bye, is much the best for ordinary drinking, it contains not more than half an ounce of alcohol in a pint, and the rest is water ; while the strong pale ales and stout con- tain two ounces of alcohol, the rest being water. Taking the French wines, very few of them contain more than two ounces of alcohol in a pint of twenty ounces. Even our ports and sherries, brandied as they are, contain as much as twelve or fourteen ounces of water in the pint. Now the action of water in our food is very im- portant. There would be no carrying of food into the system but for the agency of water. It dissolves everything that we take; and nothing that we take as food can become nutriment that is not dissolved in water. It would not do to test that by taking things and putting them into water, and seeing whether they dissolve, and rejecting them as food according to that circumstance ; because food undergoes a considerable change in the stomach. It undergoes a change, to begin with, in our mouth. One of the great objects of that change is to render things soluble 12 ON WATER. which had been before insoluble in water. Starch, which we cannot dissolve in water out of the stomach, is dissolved in water directly it gets into the mouth, for the starch is changed by the saliva into sugar, and that which would lie unchanged in water for months, is so changed by the saliva of the mouth and the gastric juice of the stomach, that it is speedily dissolved. Then, where we are taking considerable quantities of dry food, it becomes absolutely necessary that we should add a certain quantity of water, so that this dry food should become dissolved. Such things as oats, barley, wheat, rice, maize, and the other articles of diet in our table containing little water, must have water added, in order that their starch, fat, and gluten may be dissolved and enter into the system. Having indicated the necessity of water, let me call your attention to the sources of water as drunk ordi- narily for the purposes of diet. People are generally very indifferent about water ; and perhaps it arises from the fact that boiling it before we make tea or beer, makes us independent of the impurities of water in its natural condition. At the same time, I do not think it is wise to be dependent for the water needed by the system on beverages containing a variety of foreign ingredients ; and for this reason : that the water gets its soluble powers interfered with by having things in solution. Thus a pint of beer will not dissolve so much of the starch or digested meat as water. So with regard to the food which is digesting ; it is sometimes better that we should pour upon it cold pure water than hot water containing a variety of substances in solution. I am not advocating the giving up of tea, ON WATER. 13 coffee, beer, or wine, but the necessity of taking a portion of the water we daily consume as pure as it can be had. Now there are many sources of water. The first great source is the ocean, which collects all the water from the earth ; and this water contains so large a quantity of salt, that none of us can drink it. The shining sun, however, bears down upon the ocean's surface, and its heating rays penetrating the water, combine, as it were, with it, and raise it up. The at- mosphere, like a sponge, absorbs the vaporous water, carrying it from the Equator to the Arctic and the Antarctic regions ; thus distributing it north and south. It then condenses in the form of rain and of snow, when, sinking into the earth and pouring down its mountain- sides, it forms springs and rivulets, entering the ocean again in the form of rivers ; and now man catches it in tubs or cisterns, in its progress in the rivers, or digs down into the earth, and catches it as it passes along beneath his feet. Thus we have rain-water, river-water, and spring or well-water. I need not dwell on sea-water; but it is a very interesting fact to know, that by a process invented by my ingenious friend Dr. Normandy, sea-water may be distilled and rendered perfectly pure and fit for human use. With regard to rain-water, there is no doubt that it is one of the purest waters that we have, arising from the fact that it is the first condensed water after it has passed from the ocean into the atmosphere ; but its use is liable to the objection, that, where it runs down the sides of houses into cisterns, it passes through an atmosphere frequently contaminated with sulphurous 14 ON WATER. acid and ammonia ; and the unconsumed carbon of chimneys, of which we have so constantly unpleasant reminders in large towns. Still, where rain-water can be collected in the open country, there is no doubt that it is the purest form of water. It is, however, on spring and river- water that we are more dependent; and to the spring and well-waters I would more espe- cially call your attention. There are two kinds of well-waters, or spring- waters, which are consumed in London, as well as most other parts of the world ; and those are the surface- well waters and the deep-well waters. In London, we dig down deep into the chalk and get water from below the London clay ; this is deep-well water. If you glance at this diagram (Fig. 2), you will see how this is. Fig. 2. Diagram of London Basin, a. Gravel. b. Clay. c. Chalk. Here we have represented a section of the valley in which London is situated : it is formed in the chalk. London is, in fact, situated in a basin of chalk. Above the chalk is a deposit, varying in thickness, branching off to the side of the basin, as you see of London clay ; above this clay is a layer of gravel. Now the water passing through or under this gravel, gradually ac- cumulates on the clay ; so that if you dig 20 feet or 25 feet in any of the gravelly districts of London, you get ON WATER. 15 plenty of water; this is called surface-well water; but, if you want to get pure water, you must dig deeper than the clay ; you must go through the clay down to the chalk. Wells dug down to the chalk are called Artesian wells. I shall have to speak of these waters again when I speak of the constituents of water; but I may just say here, that persons suppose it is a matter of indifference whether they obtain their water from surface-wells or from deep wells. This, however, is not the fact ; for, although surface-well water is frequently clearer, cooler,, and more sparkling than deep - well water, it is always liable to suspicion. The sparkling of these waters arises from the carbonic acid gas they contain; and in nhie cases out of ten that carbonic acid is derived from the decomposition of animal and vegetable matters. 'Their cooling taste is no less indi- cative of their imp are origin, as it arises from the formation of salts, which could only occur from the decomposition of organic matter. The situation of these wells, especially in London, explains the origin of these impure matters. The water that supplies the surface-wells of London is derived from the rain which falls upon the surface of the land, and which percolates through the gravel, and accumulates upon the clay. Now this gravel con- tains all the soakage of London filth ; through it run all the drains and sewers of London, and its whole surface is riddled with innumerable cesspools. Here is the source of the organic matter of surface-well waters, and also the cause of their coolness, their sparkling, and their popularity. In most small towns there is a public pump, and, when this is near the churchyard, it 16 ON WATER. is said to be always popular. The character of the water is no doubt owing to the same causes as that of London surface-wells, the remains of humanity in the churchyard supply the nitrates and carbonic acid of the water. From this kind of impurity the water of deep wells in London, and of wells cut into rocks which bring their water from a distance from towns, are entirely free. They frequently contain inorganic salts in abundance, but they do not contain organic matters ; hence, for drinking purposes, they are very preferable to the waters of surface-wells. A great number of these wells exist in London. There is one attached to almost every brewery in London, and other manufacturers, who need pure water for their operations, sink these wells. If you require ocular demonstration of the impurity of surface-well water, let me draw your attention to a series of these waters in the South Kensington Museum, where you will observe that the effect of time and ex- posure upon the surface-well water has been to organize their dissolved organic matters, and the bottles exhibit a variety of forms of plants which have been thus developed. Then we come to river- water. The great distinguish- ing feature of river- water is, that, being exposed to the air, it becomes the medium of life to both plants and animals. We have not only fish, and snails, and reeds and pond-weeds growing in river water, but we have innumerable forms of microscopic animals and plants. Even after this water is filtered, and supplied to towns, as in the case of the Thames to London, these micro- scopic creations abound. Here we have a drawing, ON WATER. Fig. 3. Water from Grand Junction Company (from Cistern). a. Paramacia, 2 species. b. Vorticella convallaria. c. Coleps hirtus. d. Pandorina Morum. e. Scenedesmus quadricauda. f. Navicula amphisbeena. g. ^ sphcerophora. h. Asterionella formosa. i. Fragilaria capucina. k. Brown active sporuies. I. Stationary Green sporuies. m. Threads of slender Fungus, n. Organic and Earthy Matter. copied from one published by Dr. Hassall, representing some of the interesting microscopical objects which are supplied in the river-water. The nitration is improved since this drawing was made, but there is still enough of them supplied to render the Thames water, as sup- 18 ON WATER. plied by any of the London water companies, a highly interesting object under the microscope. There is also another source of impurity in river- water : our lands and farms are highly manured, and the water passing over them carries the constituents of the manure to the river ; and the river- waters are to that extent objectionable. I will now draw your attention generally to the contents of these waters, and endeavour to show you the action of what are called their "impurities." I do not know that it is correct to say that all saline matter is an impurity; our own blood contains 420 grains of saline matter in a gallon. Now if a physio- logist were to say this was an impurity in the blood, he would be laughed at for his assertion. If water con- tains saline matters, it is the necessity of the thing, and, in small quantities, these impurities have never been proved to do any harm. By analysis, however, we can come to the conclusion whether these things are in quantities likely to be injurious. We may have more saline matter in the blood than 420 grains to the gallon; then it would be an impurity. We must therefore recollect how this word impurity is used. There are two kinds of substances in water which are generally called impurities : the first con- sists of saline substances, as common salt, carbonate of soda, and sulphate of lime : these are called saline impurities. Sometimes these saline substances are found in so large quantities as to render the waters medicinal, as in the waters of Cheltenham, Leaming- ton, Harrowgate, and many other places. Such waters are called "mineral." They are remarkable for the ON WATER. 19 permanence of their constituents, and many of them have been known in this country to possess the same constituents for hundreds of years. The most generally useful of these waters, are those which contain iron, and are called " chalybeate/' as the waters of Harrowgate and Tunbridge Wells. Some of these contain larger quantities of sulphuretted hydro- gen than our foulest sewer-waters, and yet are drunk medicinally; such are the waters of Askern, Harrow- gate, Moffat, and Gillesland. That these waters may be drunk with impunity, should be a hint to those who imagine that sulphuretted hydrogen is in itself a dangerous gas. The fact is, it is not so ; and in drains and sewers, and decomposing animal and vegetable compounds, it is not the cause of danger, but a sign of danger. The springs of Epsom are charged with sulphate of magnesia; hence we call this substance Epsom salts. Other substances, more or less injurious in their action upon the human system, are contained in mineral springs, and are prescribed according to the special need of those who seek their aid as medicines. Now I will call your attention to those substances which occur more or less in all our drinking-waters. There are, in the first place, certain gases contained in water, which I will just mention, and there are two which more especially characterize waters : First, there is carbonic acid gas. This gas is found in a variety of substances in nature. Thus, it is found in carbonate of ammonia, and by pouring a little acid of any kind upon this substance, we are able to liberate the car- bonic acid. If you take a piece of chalk and expose it c 2 20 ON WATER. to the action of any acid, you will produce a bubbling, which is the carbonic acid gas escaping. Now this gas has certain properties by which we recognize its presence anywhere ; for instance, if you put a lighted match into it, it immediately extinguishes the light ; if you put a little clear lime-water into a jar containing it, the water becomes turbid. Now this gas accumu- lates in such quantities in some waters, that they are called mineral on account of its existence : such are the waters of Carlsbad and Seltzer. Soda-water, as it is called, is an imitation of these waters. Spring- waters frequently contain from 12 to 20 cubic inches of carbonic acid gas to the gallon. It is not contained in so large a quantity in river-waters as in well-waters ; for when water is exposed to the atmosphere, it flies off. Then there is sulphuretted hydrogen gas, of which I spoke just now. It is not contained in waters ordi- narily drunk. It is, however, formed under two circum- stances : First, it occurs in certain mineral springs, and here it arises apparently from the decomposition of sulphides, which exist in the rocks through which the water flows. In the next place, it exists in waters where animal and vegetable matters are allowed to remain in contact with the salts called sulphates. This is a very curious subject, and one in which many years ago I took a good deal of interest. It was asserted that sulphuretted hydrogen produced yellow fever, and that it had been found to exist in the water of the sea off the coast of Africa. The late Professor Daniell examined specimens of water brought from the delta of the Niger, and found that it contained large quan- tities of sulphuretted hydrogen. At that time I had ON WATER. 21 been experimenting on the production of sulphuretted hydrogen by the decomposition of sulphates in contact with organic matter. My object was to account for the presence of sulphuretted hydrogen in waters, for which there was no evident origin but the sulphur of the neutral sulphates.* I found that the sulphates of all the metals which formed soluble sulphides produced sulphuretted hydrogen, and I pointed out the proba- bility of this decomposition having occurred in Pro- fessor DanielFs specimens; thus accounting for the sulphuretted hydrogen they contained. This turned out quite correct ; for neither the water of the Niger nor the sea off the coast of Africa, has been proved to contain any sulphuretted hydrogen when examined on the spot. The water of the Thames contains a certain amount of sulphates, and these becoming decomposed, con- tribute to a considerable extent to produce the dis- gusting smell of the Thames, as well as of the ditches it overflows on its banks. If you neglect to empty the water-bottle which you employ for cleansing the mouth in the morning, especially in the summer, in London, you will find that in the course of a few days it will smell of sulphuretted hydrogen. Waters containing sulphuretted hydrogen give rise to a peculiar growth of both plants and animals. There is a minute plant, a conferva, which flourishes only in waters containing sulphuretted hydrogen. I have observed this plant in most of the sulphureous springs of Great Britain; it is snowy- white in appearance, * History of Askern and its Mineral Springs. By E. Lankester, M.D. London: Churchill. 1841. 22 ON WATER. and wherever sulphureous waters exist, they may be detected by the presence of this curious plant. In some stages of its growth, it assumes a beautiful pink colour, and the snow-white and pink deposits of this plant have given rise to much speculation amongst writers on these waters. I now come to speak of the saline ingredients of waters. The most common of these matters is carbo- nate of lime, or common chalk. Carbonate of lime alone is insoluble in water, but it is dissolved when water contains carbonic acid. If you take a piece of chalk and put it into a bottle of soda-water, you will dissolve a certain quantity of it, and you will see that it is in this way that water may be rendered impure, or rather, may be made to take up a very considerable quantity of carbonate of lime. We have seen how waters get their carbonic acid ; how waters thus charged with this gas passing over a soil containing chalk or limestone, will dissolve the carbonate of lime. It is natural for waters in chalk districts to take up as much chalk as their carbonic acid will dissolve ; and, when waters are highly charged with carbonic acid, they will dissolve large quantities of carbonate of lime. Thus it is that many of our surface- wells contain as large quantities of chalk as those which come out of a chalk rock. This is always a suspicious circumstance; and when waters contain much carbonate of lime, and do not come from a chalk rock, you may depend on it there is something wrong about their antecedents. Carbonate of lime thus dissolved in carbonic acid may be easily detected by the addition of lime-water. The lime unites with the carbonic acid, which holds the ON WATER. 23 carbonate of lime in solution, and forms with it a fresh portion of carbonate of lime; and as this salt is in- soluble in water, it falls down in the form of a white powder; and not only the carbonate ,of lime that is formed, but that which was held in solution is deposited also ; and thus the water loses all its carbonate of lime. Now this is the philosophy of Dr. Clark's process for softening hard water. He adds lime to it, and the water is deprived of its hardening ingredient, the car- bonate of lime. Dr. Clark's process not only renders the water much softer for washing and cooking pur- poses, but, whilst the carbonate of lime is falling, it entangles, as it were, the organic matters, and renders it much purer for drinking purposes. Great objections have been urged against Dr. Clark's process ; but my conviction is, that all hard waters are improved by it; and, although it has been extensively employed, I am unacquainted with a single drawback to its em- ployment. There is another salt of lime found in water, sulphate of lime. This may be easily detected by nitrate of baryta. The sulphuric acid unites with the baryta and forms an insoluble precipitate. Wherever there is any considerable quantity of sulphate of lime, we can easily detect it by the agency of the nitrate of baryta. Again, if we want to know whether our sulphate is of lime or not, we must add a solution of oxalic acid or oxalate of ammonia, which will throw down the lime. By these tests we may judge of the quantity of sul- phuric acid approximative^ ; but, in order to get a knowledge of the exact quantity of these substances, we must collect the precipitates and weigh them. 24 ON WATEK. Another substance of some importance in water is the chloride of sodium, or common salt, which can only be accounted for in our surface -well waters by the fact of the salt being constantly used by man in cooking, &c., and thus passing into the drains and sewers, is washed into the wells. When we find this substance in waters, we should be careful of using them dietetically. The best test for chloride of sodium is nitrate of silver. It throws down the chloride in the form of a chloride of silver. It is a creamy-looking precipitate, at first white, and gradually becomes bluish-black by the agency of light. It is, in fact, one of the salts used by the photographer to produce his pictures on paper. I might continue these illustrations, but I hope I have shown you sufficient to indicate that a very little chemistry will enable an intelligent person to detect whether water contains large quantities of the more common impurities of water. There is another method of extracting approxima- tively the quantity of saline impurities in water. If we take a quantity of water and boil it in an evaporat- ing basin, the water will at last entirely disappear, and the inorganic matters will be left at the bottom of the vessel. By taking two or three waters, and thus treat- ing them, we can judge, within a little, of their relative amount of impurity. We may judge also to some extent, by this test, of the quantity of organic matters present in water ; for, according as these are present, will the precipitate be of a dark and dirty colour. You must not suppose, however, that the saline im- purities I have mentioned are all that are to be found ON WATER. 25 Fig. 4. From Water of Well at Sandgate (on Mr. George's premises}. a. Rotifer. b. Bursaria? c. Paramcecium. d. Acineta tuberosa ? e. Vorticella. f. Actinophrys Sol. It. Earthy and Organic matter. g. Filament of Conferva, h. Stems of Anthophysa? i. Slender Fungus. in water. There is chloride of calcium, which some- times occurs in such large quantities as to produce very disastrous results on the system. Iron frequently occurs in such quantities as to flavour the water which con- tains it, and when taken in large quantities, it seems to act injuriously on the system. Nitrates occur as the result of the decomposition of animal and vegetable 26 ON WATER. matter, and sometimes in sufficient quantities to act in a depressing manner on the system. The soluble phosphates have also all been found in surface-wells, and evidently come from decaying animals or animal refuse of one kind or another. I now come to speak more particularly of the organic constituents of water. These are of two kinds living and dead. The living are sometimes contained in water in very large quantities. I do not know that the living things are so objectionable as the dead. I believe it to be a much more healthy practice to swallow oysters while alive than to wait until they are nearly putrid ; and that is just the difference between swallowing living and dead animal matter in water. There are two sorts of living things in water plants and animals. I have before drawn your attention to the forms of plants and animals in Thames water. Fig. 4 is a drawing of the living organic constituents of a well-water that was known to have produced disease ; and Fig. 5 is another drawing of the living creatures which inhabit sewer- water. Of course, these things are all microscopic. Although fish, snails, and shrimps live in water, I need not warn you against these, as everybody can avoid them if he choose. Now, if you look at the contents of the two last waters I have mentioned, you will find amongst the plant-like bodies certain filamentous bits, which are really half-developed forms of some low fungus. I do not know if these are them- selves poisonous, but I do know that when present they indicate that a water is dangerous. In 1854 I was requested by the Vestry of the Parish of St. James, Westminster, to examine the water from the pump in ON WATER. 1'1'j. 5. fewer Water (taken from the Sewer in Silca- $t . AnguillulaJLuviatilis. /. Fragments of Muscular Fibre. b. Oxytricha. g. Cells of Potato. c. Parameecium. h. Starch granules of Wheat. d. Vibriones. i. Hairs and integuments of Wheat. e. Filaments of Slender Fungus. k. Spiral Vessels. I. Dead and Decaying Organic matter, as dotted ducts, hair of animal t grit, and de"bris. Broad Street, Golden Square. The cholera had broken out there, and killed five hundred people in less than a week, and the late Dr. Snow had accused the pump of doing all this mischief Now I detected nothing re- markable in that water but the filaments of a fungus. 28 ON WATER. (Fig. 6) . It was a very curious fungus, and interested me so much, that I published an account of it.* Its discovery in the water led to an investigation of the con- dition of the well, and then it was discovered that the well had for some time been in communication with the cesspool of an adjoining house, and subject to periodical overflows of its contents. I have since seen these flocculent fungi in impure water, and you will easily recognize them in the organic contents of the well-water and sewer-water in the illustrations (h, Fig. 4 ; e, Fig. 5) . These fungi-form filaments are accompanied with sombre, ugly-looking animalcules, which are seldom found in pure water (b } Fig. 5). There is also an ill-favoured-looking little worm, much smaller than a thread-worm, and belonging to the same family of animals, which constantly presents itself in impure waters (a, Fig. 5). These things live in water containing decomposing animal and vegetable matter; and it is this matter which is injurious. So that, although the living creatures themselves are not injurious, the water they live in is. With regard to the dead organic matter, which, by its existence and decomposition, gives life to the living structures, it is of two kinds. Either it is in the form of disintegrated, insoluble matters, or it is dissolved in the water. The first you can discover by the aid of the microscope. Thus, if you look again at the draw- ing of the contents of sewer-water, you will find portions of dead plants and animals. In Fig. 5 you have a fibre from the muscle of some animal, and there * Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science, vol. iv. ON WATER. 29 are other odds and ends of organic matters there. These organic matters, when fresh, are not injurious, nor are they injurious when they are entirely decomposed and have entered into new compounds ; but it is while in a Fig. 6. Mycelliuin of Fungus. a. Enlargements seen on larger branches. A. Spore-case of same fungus. B. Moving particles passing through the branches. b. Moving particles. state of change that they act injuriously. They act as ferments, and communicate the state they are in to other bodies with which they come in contact. A curious instance of this tendency of organic matter in water to act as a ferment was related to me by Dr. Dauglish, the patentee of the new process for making aerated bread. This bread is made without fermentation, and for the purpose of preventing some of the bad effects of fermentation on bread ; but, during the last summer, it was found that this bread underwent a chang^ similar to that of fermented bread. Dr. Dauglish suspected it might be owing to the organic matter from the Thames 30 ON WATER. water supplied to the bakery, and had his suspicions confirmed by the fact, that when the water was boiled and filtered before it was used for making the bread, no unusual change was observed. The existence of these organic matters can be best tested by the aid of the microscope. But organic matters may be dissolved in water, and then they cannot be found by the microscope. The chemist estimates these by the quantity of nitrogen which he obtains from the deposit of water which has been evaporated ; but it is very difficult to estimate this form of impurity. I have found the permanganates of potash and soda a very good rough test for ascer- taining the presence of this dissolved matter. Per- manganic acid and the permanganates contain large quantities of oxygen ; and, when they are brought in contact with organic matters, they lose their oxygen and become changed in colour. If you take perman- ganate of soda, which is sold in the shops under the name of Condy's Disinfecting Fluid, and put it into pure water, it produces first a deep violet, and afterwards a beautiful permanent red colour. If the water, however, contains organic matters, the red colour soon disappears, and, in proportion to the quan- tity of organic matter, will be its decolorizing agency. Now if you take a series of waters of different degrees of impurity, you will find that the water which has least impurity retains the most colour. I have tried this in so many instances with a perfectly successful result, that I can confidently recommend it as a test for ascertaining the relative quantities of impurity in water. The same test has been applied by Dr. Angus ON WATER. 31 Smith for ascertaining the organic impurity 'of the atmosphere ; and by this means he has arrived at some very interesting results. It should, however, be recol- lected that many other impurities besides those of organic origin may exist in the atmosphere and act upon the permanganate. This is the case, for instance, with sulphurous acid, which is constantly present in an atmosphere where coal and coal-gas are burned. Before leaving the subject of organic impurities, I would call your attention to the fact that it appears to be through their agency that water acts on lead. You know it is a common practice to store water in leaden cisterns, to serve it in leaden pipes ; and in this way the water acts upon the lead, and deposits certain quantities of it ; and those who drink it suffer as the result. The theory of this action, according to Dr. Medlock, is that the nitrogen of the organic matter becomes oxidized, and converted into nitrous acid, which attacking the lead, forms a nitrite of lead. This is decomposed, and, by yielding up its oxide of lead to carbonic acid, forms an insoluble carbonate of lead, leaving the nitrous acid free to act on further portions of lead. Whether this theory be the true one or not, I will not undertake to say, but it certainly does explain the somewhat anomalous cases of the action of water on lead. Thus water containing small quantities of carbonates from ten to twenty grains in the gallon, will not act on lead, although they contain organic matter. This is the case with Thames water. Distilled water, that is water once distilled, will act on lead : this arises from the fact that it mostly contains organic matter. I was surprised to find, when first using the permanga- 32 ON WATER. nate test, that it was always decolorized by distilled water. But if you re-distil water with hydrated potash, and then expose it to the action of lead, you will find that it will take up no lead. At Man- chester and Liverpool, the inhabitants are supplied with water remarkable for its freedom from saline impurities ; but it has organic matter enough to act on lead. In a recent visit to these cities I had the opportunity of ascertaining this fact in the laboratory of Dr. Edwards, of Liverpool, and Dr. Grace Calvert, of Manchester. The fact is, such is the tendency of water to act on lead, and so deleterious are the effects of this agent on the system, that I have no hesitation in recommending the entire abolition of lead in the manufacture of cisterns and pipes for the service of water for the drinking-supply of towns.* There are many other important relations of water to man to which I could not even incidentally advert : I have endeavoured to direct your attention to it from a dietetical point of view ; but I trust you will have seen how deep an interest every community has in understanding the physical and chemical properties of a substance on which not only our material progress and manufacturing greatness, but our comfort, health, and very existence depend. * In preference to lead pipes, I can unhesitatingly recommend the ]ead-incased block-tin pipes, which cannot be acted upon by any kind of \vater. Fig. I. Salt Mine. ON SALT AND MINERAL FOOD. IN this lecture I wish to bring before you what I have called the mineral substances of food ; and sometimes these substances are called mineral food. The table of constituents of food indicates these mineral matters of our food, and to which people, generally speaking, attach very little importance. Per- sons who prepare our food cooks in the kitchen, ladies who superintend cooks, and order dinners for large families, and people who consume food from day to day, never think of asking whether food contains the right proportions of these ingredients to secure health. Yet, without these, babies get rickets, young ladies acquire crooked spines, fathers get gouty, and mothers have palpitations ; and they do not, however, D 34 ON SALT AND MINE11AL FOOD. think of ascribing these things to the food which has deprived them of the proper constituents of their blood. I think I can show you that this subject is a matter of great importance. I will call your attention to the table again. You will find there the mineral matters marked in by little cross lines, so that you see in cheese there are 3 Ibs. in the hundred; and so, if you cast your eye down the table, you will see they are in small quantities in different substances. Now let me call attention to the flesh-forming and heat or force forming materials of our food. If you give flesh- forming materials, as caseine alone, to a dog, he will die. Then take butter, which is a heat-giving material. If you feed a dog on that he will die, as though you gave him nothing. Then let us take cooked meat, with nitrogenous and fatty matter, 35 Ibs. in the hundred, squeeze out of it the mineral matter, and give it to the dog, and he still dies. No matter, you may mix the caseine, and fat, and starch, and sugar, and yet the dog dies unless you give him the mineral substances about which I wish to speak more particularly in this lecture. I believe it can be proved that those who have acted upon the supposition that the flesh-forming and heat-giving materials were the only things necessary for them, and have neglected attending to these mineral constituents, have suffered in their health. Hence I have put them prominently forward, and I shall endeavour to-day to show you where you can get them, and avoid the danger of neglecting them altogether. Now let me draw your attention to the composition of the human body. ' Suppose we taken a human being ON SALT AND MINERAL FOOD. 35 weighing 154 Ibs., and submit him to analysis, we should find that we should obtain 111 Ibs. of water; and the next thing that would come off would be carbonic acid gas, and then there would be ammonia and sulphuretted hydrogen, and phosphoretted hydro- gen, and gases of that sort: at last we should get a quantity of ashes. Now, in the water, we have oxygen and hydrogen; and in the carbonic acid gas, carbon and oxygen ; and in the ammonia, nitrogen and hydro- gen. In the ashes which are left, you get a variety of mineral substances, salts, as they are called. We get phosphate of lime, carbonate of lime, fluoride of calcium, chloride of sodium, chloride of potassium, sulphate of soda, carbonate of soda, phosphate of soda, sulphate of potash, peroxide of iron, phosphate of potash, phosphate of magnesia, and silica. These are the things about which I shall have to talk to you to-day these ashes which are left, and without which we cannot live. Now if you will persist in having only refined sugar, and the whitest flour, rejecting the bran ; if you will persist in rejecting the salt, and avoiding the liquor that meat is boiled in, you may get albumen and fibrine, but none of these other sub- stances ; and then the first attack of fever or cold may prove fatal. Four men shall be travelling outside an omnibus, one may get acute inflammation of the lungs, another bronchitis, and the other two shall come off free. Was it the riding outside of the omnibus that caused the two to fall ill ? No> it was the state of their blood. They had lived somehow irregularly; somehow their bodies had been deprived of their proper constituents. So you may find half a 36 ON SALT AND MINERAL FOOD. dozen children, all exposed to the contagion of scarlet fever; two take it; one dies, and the other four are free: but the two that have caught it have lived in such a way that their blood has readily taken in the contagion; and the one that has died has got into a condition which has produced death. Hence the importance of attending to these subjects thoroughly ; not getting a little knowledge of them, but a knowledge of what is necessary to the feeding of children and the feeding of men. If we do not attend to these things, we shall, somehow or other, suffer. Now I shall take up these constituents as I have mentioned them, and which is very much according to their importance. You cannot expect me to go into an exhaustive chemical analysis of this subject, and I may just say that chemical science is not in a condition to do so. Neither the chemist nor the physiologist has gone into the phenomena of the action of these sub- stances in our system. The first substance I shall take up is chloride of sodium, common salt. This is the only substance which we take directly from the mineral king- dom. All the other salts we get through plants or animals. But salt is a substance which we take direct from nature, and thus we satisfy the cravings of our system for this substance. Now this salt is composed of two elements of chlorine, a gas, and of sodium, a metal. Chlorine is a most suffocating and even danger- ous gas to experiment with. Sodium is a metal so easily oxidised in the air, that we are obliged to keep it in naphtha, and when we throw it into warm water it takes fire just as potassium does. Now we may ON SALT AND MINERAL FOOD. 37 well wonder that these two substances, so energetic and even dangerous when separated, should be so benignant and beneficial when united. Chlorine is not only a suffocating gas, but, like oxygen, it is a supporter of combustion, and has very powerful affinities. It can be easily separated from common salt by mixing it with peroxide of manganese, and pouring on them a little sulphuric acid. The greenish fumes that arise are chlorine. On account of its energetic chemical action it is used as a disinfectant, a deodoriser, and a bleaching agent. It is used by the paper maker and the calico- printer for the purposes of bleaching. It acts upon colouring matter by decomposing it and uniting with the hydrogen it contains, forming hydrochloric acid. In this way it acts as a deodoriser. Most of the dis- agreeable smells given off by decaying animal and vegetable matter depend on compounds of hydrogen, and the chlorine, uniting with this substance, destroys them. This is the substance, then, which, combining with sodium, forms common salt. Salt determines the life and forms of both plants and animals in the ocean. Withdraw the salt from the ocean, and vou will have none of the life which now exists there. Herrings, mackerel, codfish, and all the forms of fish that we get out of the sea, would retire, and we should have in their stead the fish of our rivers, such as roach, carp, dace, and bream. Instead of the seaweeds, we should have the plants of our fresh waters, the valsineria, the potamogetons, the anacharis, and the water-lilies. In this you will see how this salt influences life and the forms of life. We get it for our own use from the sea, and from those deposits of 38 ON SALT AND MINERAL FOOD. salt which the sea has left in the bowels of the earth. When obtained from the sea, the sea water is evaporated, and contains from ] 6 to 1,800 grains of salt to the gallon of water. But the sea in former times has formed bays, and those bays have been gradually silted up, and the sea has retired from the bay, and the bay now becomes a lake, and this lake is a salt lake. We have many such salt lakes; they are numerous in the Crimea. The Dead Sea is a great salt lake. You will see by this diagram how these changes take place. If the lake thus cut off from the sea receives but little fresh water from rain or rivers, the water will go on evaporating till the lake becomes exces- sively salt ; and this is the case with many salt lakes. It is espe- cially the case with the Dead Sea, where the The sea. Lake formed from bay. water is so dense from the salt it contains, that it is said a human body will not sink in it. Such lakes eventually get dried up, leaving the salt at the bottom, which gets covered up by some insoluble material ; the whole goes again under the sea, and, rising as dry ground, we dig into the earth and find the lake has become a salt-mine. Such mines are found in the new red sandstone of Cheshire, on the conti- nent of Europe, and other parts of the world. The salt obtained in these districts is frequently in a state of solution, and is pumped from wells which are called " Brine Springs/' ON SALT AND MINERAL FOOD. 39 Now, not only do animals that live in the sea re- quire salt, but we find tliat all animals require it. We find, for instance, in the great salt lakes and salt bogs of Kentucky, that there is a certain district there which is salt, called the Big Bone Lick, from the existence in it of the bones of gigantic animals who have died there. These animals, that lived in America before man, were attracted by the salt, and in seeking it there have perished in the swamp, and left their great bones behind them. Now, not only do these large animals require salt, but man requires it. It is so necessary to him, that to tax his salt is one of the surest sources of income to a government. A part of the British revenue in India is still raised on salt. Now, the question comes as to how this salt acts upon the system' ? The quantities of the various saline matters entering into the composition of a human body weighing eleven stone, I have calculated is as follows : 1. Phosphate of Lime, forming the principal Ibs. oz. grs. part of the earthy matter of the bones 5 13 2. Carbonate of Lime also entering into the composition of bone 100 3. Fluoride of Calcium, found in the bones 030 4. Chloride of Sodium, common salt , 3 37C 5. Sulphate of Soda 1 170 6. Carbonate of Soda 1 72 7 '. Phosphate of Soda 400 8. Sulphate of Potash 400 9. Peroxide of Iron 150 10. Chloride of Potassium 12 11. Phosphate of Potash 100 12. Phosphate of Magnesia 75 13. Silica... .... 003 40 ON SALT AND MINERAL FOOD. The quantity of salt contained is not much, but still it is more than any other mineral constituent of the human body, except phosphate and carbonate of lime. When we take these away, we have only left about ten ounces more of these ashes, or mineral matters, and of these ten ounces, the chloride of sodium, or salt, is three ounces and three quarters. Now the question is, where this salt exists. If you take the muscles or the nerves of animals, you do not find that they contain salt ; but if you take the blood of animals, you will find that it contains salt. I do not wish to produce upon your minds any disagreeable reflection, but those of you who have tasted your own blood, must recollect that it tastes salt, and we find three drachms of salt in a gallon of human blood, and that is the quantity nearly in all animals. It is not found in the muscles, in the nerves, or in the bones, or other tissues, but it exists only in the blood. You can easily prove this by taking a little blood, allowing the red particles to coagulate, and then placing a few drops on a piece of glass. If you hold this over the flame of a spirit lamp, so as to evaporate the ^ water, you will have a Fig. 3. CrytUdg cf Salt. ' J number of crystalline bodies formed, amongst which the crystals of salt will be most prominent. Now, it may be asked/of what good is the salt ? You may be sure that it does good. There are some people ON SALT AND MINERAL FOOD. 41 who are foolish enough to believe that man has been wrong in all ages, and that salt has done harm. A medical man wrote a book to show that salt was the forbidden fruit that was eaten in the garden of Eden. He died not very long ago, and as I understand, a victim to his folly. There are some people who have no hesitation in rejecting the practices of their fellow- creatures there are some who insist upon living upon vegetables and I saw a book the other day, written by a person who said he never knew what health was until he lived entirely on animal diet. Let us, then, inquire a little into the probable uses of salt in our system. If we take a vessel, and divide it into two parts by an animal membrane such as exists in our own body, and then put salt and water on one side, and spring water on the other side, so that they may both stand at the same level, in the course of time we shall find that the spring water will go down, and the salt water will rise up and flow over. The pure water in fact passes through the membrane, but the salt water will not. Now, this is precisely the relation of the bloo'd to the membranes of the stomach. It is a solution of salt ; and if we place in our stomachs pure water, it will pass through the membranes of the stomach just in the same way that it passes through the membrane in the vessel. This, then, ap- pears to be one of the important functions performed Fig. 4. 42 ON SALT AND MINERAL FOOD. by salt. It facilitates the absorption of water into the system. This will also account for the thirst produced by taking excessive quantities of salt, or salted food of any kind. Another action of salt to which some physiologists have attached importance is, that it supplies to the system a certain quantity of chlorine which is necessary to the perfection of some of the vital processes. Thus during digestion a fluid is thrown out from the stomach, called gastric juice. This fluid contains free hydro- chloric acid, and the chlorine of this compound could be only furnished by the salt taken with the food. Then salt appears to facilitate certain changes in the system which are beneficial to health, which are difficult to explain exactly. The nature of these changes is indicated by such an experiment as the following : A number of oxen were taken by a great French chemist and experimentalist ; he fed one set of them with salt, and another set of the same weight without salt. For a short time there appeared no difference ; but at the end of a month the cattle that had the salt were sleek and well favoured, while the others had rough coats, and looked less comfortable, and so it went on for two years ; and at the end of that time there was no doubt that the healthier animals were those which had the salt. There seemed to be some improvement in the quality of the blood going on by the action of the salt. The practice of placing pieces of rock-salt in meadows for horses, cows, and sheep to lick, is quite common in this country. It is also well known that marshes which have been overflowed by salt water give an improved appearance to the stock which grazes on them. ON SALT AND MINERAL FOOD. 43 If you take a very small quantity of hydrochloric acid and salt and put it into water, and then add to it a portion of the white of egg, and expose it to a tempera- ture of 98, the egg begins to dissolve; but if you put it into water without the salt it does not dissolve. From this experiment, you see there is this first action of salt in assisting digestion ; you may see from this the propriety of adding small quantities of salt to our food. There are some persons who, from a morbid fancy, will not take it ; such persons are preserved from danger by the cook, who puts it into puddings and cooked meats, and the baker, who puts it into the bread. Such, in fact, appears to be the importance of salt in the blood, that a special provision actually exists, for maintaining, within certain limits, of course, the quantity of salt at a given point. For we find that if we feed our animals either on food containing a large quantity or only a small quantity of salt, that the quantity of salt in the blood remains the same, any excess being thrown off from the system. Of course, a long-continued abstinence from salt in food will lead to a diminution in the blood and ultimately to disease. The history of the use of salt is interesting. The Jews used it in their sacrifices. The Arabs put it on the table as a mark of hospitality. The Abyssinian gentleman carries a piece in his pocket, and takes it out and offers it to a friend to lick as a mark of respect and esteem, which is a process you may not approve. Then the Hindoos swear by their salt, and many of you may recollect that during the late war in Hin- dostan, the sepoy was reminded of his having sworn 44 ON SALT AND MINERAL FOOD. by his salt to serve the queen of England. Then, again, it was formerly a mark of distinction in England. In olden times, persons who sat above the salt were higher in dignity than those who sat below it. Besides being an article of our diet, salt is interesting to us on account of its power of preserving both animal and vegetable food from decomposition. We salt beef, pork, herrings, and other animals, also beans, peas, and various articles of vegetable food, which we are enabled to keep for a great length of time by its agency. It should, however, be recollected in these cases that the salt takes the place of other mineral matters which exist in the fresh food, and which we ought to kno\v the system cannot be deprived of for any length of time without the risk of danger. The next thing of which I will speak, is the phos- phate of lime, which forms the principal part of the earthy matter of the bones. Of this I calculate, that there are 5 Ib. 13 oz. in a human being weighing eleven stone. It is a crystalline body, and as- sumes the appearance of Eig. 5 under the micro- scope. Now this phos- phate of lime must be a very important thing, or it would not occur in such large quantities. I draw your attention to it in the first place, as constituting the earthy If we suppose that there are Fig. 5. Phosphate of Lime. matter of bone. ON SALT AND MINERAL FOOD. 45 5 lb. 13 oz. in the system, at least 4J or 5 Ibs. of that will be contained in the skeleton, in the solid part of the bones of the human body. I shall have occasion again to refer to the composition of bone; but bone contains about 40 per cent, of gelatine, 50 per cent, of phosphate of lime, and 9 per cent, of chalk or carbonate of lime, and 1 per cent, of fluoride of calcium, which is also known as Derbyshire Spar and Blue John. Now, phosphate of lime is so called from being composed of phosphoric acid and calcium. Calcium is a metal, which lies at the base of lime; calcium and oxygen form lime. If you take a piece of chalk and burn it, you know carbonic acid gas is driven off, and quick lime is left. This oxide of calcium combines with phosphoric acid in order to form phos- phate of lime. We get phosphorus for chemical purposes from bones.* Phosphorus is a very in- teresting substance on account of its highly inflam- mable nature. We make lucifer matches from phos- phorus. These matches would not take fire but for the presence of a little phosphorus in the matter at the end. If you take a piece of phosphorus and place it on a plate, and bring a lighted match near it, you will see how rapidly it takes fire. The phosphorus combines with the oxygen of the air, and beautiful white fumes of phosphoric acid are the result. It is strange to see these elements, so terrible when out of our body, all converted to our use when in the body. Now, I should give you a very wrong idea of the importance of this phosphate of lime, and especially of * See Lecture on Bone, in the Course on the Uses of Animals. 46 ON SALT AND MINERAL FOOD. this phosphoric acid which is contained in it, if I left you to suppose that the only important thing was its existence in relation to the lime in the bones ; for the fact is, we find phosphoric acid in the blood, in the liver, and in the lungs, in a free condition. It is intro- duced into the system as phosphate of lime ; and, per- haps, as phosphate of soda, or phosphate of potash. At any rate, from whatever source it comes, during the changes that go on in the system, we find phos- phoric acid playing a very active part. Now, that is an important thing to recollect, because we may be taking a diet which excludes the phosphate, or taking a diet in which it abounds. If we have it in too large a quantity, we are sure to suffer. No sort of medicine that I know of will in any way correct this; and if you are not taking a food which will supply the phosphate of lime, no kind of medicine that I know of will supply its absence. Now, how do we get these phosphates? I have shown you that phosphate of lime is the most important, but there are phosphates generally in the system. We find not only phosphate of lime, but we find phosphate of soda, phosphate of potash, and even phosphate of magnesia in the system ; and thus, you see, there are other phosphates besides the phosphate of lime. How do we get them ? There are two sources of phosphates in our food. The first great source is the cereal plants, and the second is animal food. When I say cereal plants, I mean all those which belong to the natural family of grasses eaten by man. Wheat is the most important t9 us ; but barley, oats, rye, rice, maize, all contain phosphates. Animals, you know, eat grasses of various ON SALT AND MINERAL FOOD. 47 kinds, and from this source they obtain their phos- phates, and when we eat the blood, the nerves, and the muscles of animals, we get our phosphates at second- hand, as it were. It is with wheaten bread and flour that we get the largest quantity. A very interesting question has arisen out of our recent knowledge of these facts, and that is, What is the cheapest way of supplying these phosphates to the human body ? The food which contains them in the largest quantity is the cereal grasses, but these grasses must get the phos- phates before they can supply them to us. Now, it was long ago pointed out, by the great German chemist, Liebig, that one of the great drawbacks on the growth of wheat, and other grain crops, was the want of phosphates in the soil; and that one of the great hindrances to the development of animals, and of man, was the want of phosphates in the food which they take. He also pointed out that we might supply this phosphate of lime, not merely by the agency of animal and vegetable manure, but by the means of what are called " artificial manures." Amongst the sources of phosphate of lime, as bones, he pointed out that the so-called " coprolites," the petrified dung of the extinct Saurian reptiles of the Liassic period was capable of supplying enormous quantities of this material. The experiment was tried and found to answer, and now these remains of former generations of animals are not i-H CM CM C* 1 * 1 1 1 1 I rH O CO CO O - 0 C5 -^ CO J rH rH rH rH | rH rH rH | 1 1 i u OS O ^ So r-i 10 co a rH CM O O 1 1 1 CO CO J CO CO ^ | | 3 * a 1 ^ o .; rH CM (O t^ o So (M Cq rH rH i- CO C* oq 0 XO CO J^ C 3) CO O t^ (M ? CO O C fcfl -^ OS O CO t- (M CM i-l CO OS t^ > r-t 1 U CM CO CO ; (N co o TH c tC i 1 OS rH CO C rH t>- t>- O 5 rH ' !?*. J W g P " ~ " rH ^ ~ I 3 ; .| 3 -g -g j ^ j S c5 6 ON ANIMAL FOOD. of coagulating with heat, as you all know ; and then there is fibrine, which constitutes the flesh, the muscle of atzhoais, and which we also find in the larger propor- tion of vegetable matters used as food. Then I told you there was caseine, which we find in peas and beans, and which, in those substances, is also called legumin. Caseine, like albumen, is held in solution in animal fluids. If you take some caseine and add potash to it, you will dissolve it; and if you take away the potash, by the addition of some acid the caseine will appear directly. We know that the slightest amount of acid curdles milk ; and you will see how it is that in the dairy the slightest amount of acidity, or any ten- dency to change in the sugar, so as to convert it into an acid, will curdle the milk. Hence, the dairy-maid must have an eye as sharp as a needle to detect the least drop of milk on the furniture of the dairy, for it soon decomposes, and she must wipe it away with a cloth ; for if she touches it with her hand, and then afterwards the milk, the whole is turned into curds and whey. So, when we make syllabub, we put the milk to acid wine, and the wine separates the milk, and the curds come up. But if we allow milk to stand for a certain time, we shall find that, naturally, this caseine has a tendency to separate from the milk with the butter which is contained in it and not dissolved in it. If you put a drop of milk under the microscope, you will see little globules of butter floating in it. Here is a drawing (Fig. 2) of the microscopic appearance of milk. The large cells are what is called colostrum, a substance found in the milk of the mammalia for a ON ANIMAL FOOD. 157 rew days after the birth of their young. The smaller globules are those of butter. The butter has a ten- dency to separate, and this is taken off in the form of what we call cream; it is then churned, and the water and sugar and curds are pressed out of it ; and thus the butter of the shops is produced. Now, when we have got the cream, we have left a quantity of milk holding the caseine in solution with sugar and water and the saline matter. If we put an acid to it, the caseine separates, and the pure whey is left. If we now evaporate the whey, the sugar of the milk is left, and this is sold in shops for dietetical purposes. Milk sugar, or lactose, as it is called, nearly resembles grape sugar, or glucose. Grape sugar has 12 atoms of carbon, 12 atoms of hydrogen, and 12 atoms of oxygen ; whilst milk sugar has 11 atoms of carbon, 12 of hydrogen, and 12 of oxygen. So you see how closely these substances are allied. Caseine, then, is the base of the substance which we know as cheese. It is not all caseine ; at least, not all cheese is all caseine, for cheeses differ rather in the butter they contain than in the quantity of their caseine. If you take the table of the constituents of food drawn up by Dr. Playfair, and examine the proportion of caseine in cheese, you will find that it has 31 Ibs. in every 100 Ibs., and 25 Ibs. of heat-givers. So we must 158 ON ANIMAL FOOD. not regard cheese as a flesh-former only, as it in fact contains both caseine and butter. Cheese is made by submitting the curds of new milk to a degree of pressure, which reduces them to the various degrees of solidity which we see in cheese. Our common Cheshire cheeses, Gloucester cheeses, and so on, are made of the cream and curds of one milking; but we do not value cheese so much on account of the caseine as on account of the butter, and just in proportion to the quantity of butter yielded by the cows in the various districts of this country will be the value of cheese. In the meadows of Cheshire there are large quantities of butter-forming food, which give the Cheshire cheese its value. But you may have cheese made with an extra quantity of butter, like a double Gloucester, or a Stilton. Cream taken from the milking one day is added to the milking of another day, and thus a double quantity of butter is secured, and these are the most valuable cheeses. It is not the caseine, therefore, but the butter, which makes the cheese valuable. Now there are cases in which they skim the cream before they begin to make cheese. These cheeses are remarkable for their hardness, because caseine, inde- pendently of the butter, is an exceedingly hard sub- stance ; and these cheeses are sometimes brought into the market, and they are so hard that they are the subject of many a joke. Of such are the Suffolk- bang cheeses made by frugal housewives of that county, who first take the butter and send it to market, and then make their cheese. It is said of it in derision that " dogs bark at it, pigs grunt at it, but neither of them can bite it." ON ANIMAL FOOD. 159 Blomfield, in his " Farmer's Boy/' thus sings the virtues of his native cheese : " Unrivall'd stands thy county cheese, O Giles ' Whose very name alone engenders smiles ; Whose fame abroad by every tongue is spoke. The well-known butt of many a flinty joke, That pass like current coin the nation through. And, ah ! experience proves the satire true. Provision's grave, thou ever-craving mart, Dependent, huge metropolis ! where Art Her poring thousands stows in breathless \*ooms, Midst pois'nous smokes, and steams, and rattling Where grandeur revels in unbounded stores ; [Restraint a slighted stranger at their doors ! Thou like a whirlpool drainst the countries round, Till London market, London price resound Through every town, round every passing load, And dairy produce throngs the eastern road ; Delicious veal and butter every hour, Prom Essex lowlands and the banks of Stour; And further far, where numerous herds repose, Prom Orwell's brink, from Waveny, or Ouse. Hence Suffolk dairy wives run mad for cream, And leave their milk with nothing but its name ; Its name derision and reproach pursue, And strangers tell of ' three times skimm'd skyblue J To cheese converted, what can be its boast ? What, but the common virtues of a post ; If drought o'ertake it faster than the knife, Most fair it bids for stubborn length of life, And like the oaken shelf whereon 'tis laid, Mocks the weak effort of the bending blade ; Or in the hog-trough rests in perfect spite, Too big to swallow, and too hard to bite. Inglorious victory ! Ye Cheshire meads, Or Severn's flow'ry dales, where plenty treads, Was your rich milk to suffer wrongs like these, Parewell your pride ! farewell renowned cheese ! The skimmer dread, whose ravages alone Thus turns the mead's sweet nectar into stone.' ' 160 OX AXIMAL FOOD. This kind of cheese is very indigestible, and is sold at a low price, but still it contains a large quantity of flesh-forming food. But caseine is more easily digested when combined with butter. Hence we find most other cheeses easily digestible as compared with the hard Suffolk cheese. Nor do cheeses alone differ in the relation of the caseine to the butter. It differs accord- ing to the method of preparing it. In some cases the curds are allowed to decompose a little before they are pressed. Then they are pressed with various degrees of tirmness. Cream cheeses are only gently pressed, and eaten new. The colour of the milk affects the cheese, and some are high coloured, whilst others are white. In Cheshire, they colour them with annatto. We find , also in Germany the cheeses have a variety of sub- stances in them. There is the Schabzeiger, which is flavoured by the addition of the plant known in this country as melilot. This cheese finds admirers in Eng- land. The Parmesan is a cheese with much caseine and little butter. Gruyere and Dutch cheeses are alike, but the former have more butter and a richer flavour. Taking cheese at a price of from 7d. to lOd. per lb., the question arises as to whether it is an economical article of food. It contains that form of flesh-forming matter which is furnished by Providence to young children, and the young of all the higher animals ; and in the form in which it is thus supplied, there is no doubt that it is very nutritious. But when it is sepa- rated, the question of its digestibility must be con- sidered. Where cheese is digested, there is nothing which contains so large a quantity of flesh-forming matter; but then you must not go away and think we ON ANIMAL FOOD. 161 can live on cheese. There are persons who like it, and have taken it for a time, but they have been arrested in their course by its indigestibility. But the hard-work- ing man, who labours with his muscles from hour to hour in the open air, with his stomach in the best pos- sible condition to digest his food, rather invests his little money in cheese than in meat, for cheese contains nearly twice the quantity of nutritive matter that you get in cooked meat. In fact, I shall have to show you that the quantity mentioned in the meat is diminished by a substance that is not nutritive at all. But then with regard to persons who do not require it as a nutritive or flesh-forming agent in their food, why is it eaten at all ? It seems to possess an action which renders it desirable, and particularly after taking other foods. Caseine is easily decomposed, or easily put in a condition in which it causes other things to change. I told you in my last Lecture that we add yeast to flour for the pur- pose of causing fermentation. Now, I said that the yeast communicated change to the gluten, and the gluten communicated that condition of change to the starch, and the yeast is the beginning of this series of changes. Now, this caseine is like gluten. It will start a series of changes. Hence, when we put it into the stomach, it starts a change in the food, and this change seems desirable ; for unless the food is placed in a state of change, it cannot be converted into chyle. So that a small quantity of cheese taken with the other food seems to facilitate the digestion, and the taking up of food into the system. Hence perhaps we may see how mankind has got into the practice of partaking of a small quantity of cheese after other kinds of food. 162 ON ANIMAL FOOD. Then there are some persons who prefer mouldy cheese to fresh cheese ; and if you take it for facilitating a change of food in the stomach, you had better take the decomposing cheese, which is more likely to effect the change We must now leave cheese, to speak of those other flesh-forming substances which are derived from the animal kingdom, and which we know by the name of the flesh of animals. Now, the flesh of animals is composed of both fibrine and albumen. I told you that the fibrine of vegetable food was represented by the gluten of wheat-flour, and we get it in bread. Then, the albumen we obtain from asparagus, and such-like vegetables. Now, in animal food we gene- rally find both albumen and fibrine. There are some cases, however, in which we get the albumen separated from the fibrine : this is the case with eggs. Hence the egg is an article of diet. It contains albumen both in the white and the yolk : this yolk, however, in addi- tion to the albumen, contains a quantity of oil ; so that in eating an egg, we are really eating both a heat-giver and flesh-former. But there is also much water : the white of egg contains 85 per cent, and the yolk about 53 per cent, of water. Taking 1 Ib. of eggs, both yolk and white, we shall have about 12 ozs. of water, 2 ozs. of albumen, and 1J oz. of oil or fat; the egg also con- tains saline matters. Then, again, we find the albumen exists in nerves : I speak of the fact that albumen exists in the nerves of all the higher animals; and, of course, when we eat nervous matter we partake of albumen. Albu- men exists in the brains of animals; and we occa- ON ANIMAL FOOD. 163 sionally eat brain sauce, and it is a very palatable addition to the head of a calf when cooked. There is a considerable quantity of albumen in the blood of animals ; and you should give attention to that fact because it is the source of albumen in the tissues. All the fleshy parts of animals contain blood; and the blood contains as much as 7 parts in 100 of albumen ; so that, although we bleed animals generally before we kill them, we still leave a quantity of albumen in the flesh. This leads to a question on which I wish to say a few words; and that is, as to whether we are wise economically, and are justified in bleeding animals to death and throwing away all the blood, which is, after all, good food. When you recollect that we take from 5 Ibs. to 20 Ibs. from a sheep or an ox, and multiply that by the number of sheep and oxen killed in the course of a year, you will find that it amounts to something which is quite frightful to contemplate. Now, I have no hesitation in saying that the blood you take away is just as good food as the blood you leave in, and that you would do much better to leave the blood in the animal. There are other ways of killing animals than bleeding them to death. These are un- pleasant things to think of; but, after all, we have no hesitation in eating the mutton and beef after it is slain, and we ought to be able to give a reason for our extravagance. We do not take the blood away from hares and rabbits : they are brought to the table and eaten by the most fastidious. So also with birds : pheasants and partridges we do not bleed them ; and I tell you more if you did, they would not be so plea- sant to eat; they would lose some of their gamey M 2 164 ON ANIMAL FOOD. flavour. Dr. Carson, of Liverpool, many years ago pointed out the great loss incurred in the present mode of killing animals, and suggested a method of killing them by which the blood was saved ; and Dr. Carson in- duced a certain number of people of Liverpool to try meat killed iii his way, and they declared it so much better, that a butcher was induced to kill his animals in that way, and the result has been that he has surrounded himself with customers. Mr. Carson, son of the late Doctor, was kind enough to send me up a quarter of a sheep which had been killed in this way ; I invited a few friends to partake of it, and they one and all pro- nounced it delicious. Economically, this is an impor- tant question, and it ought to be a consideration whether we are justified in throwing away so large a quantity of this nutritious albumen. The quantities of fibrine and albumen in butcher's meat are- about the same; but I have now to draw your attention to another constituent, which has always figured in all our chemical analyses as flesh-forming matter. If we take a quantity of beef or mutton, or even of pork, and boil it for a certain length of time, we obtain from it a substance which thickens the water as it cools, and makes it into what we call a jelly. Now, that substance has been supposed to be the nutri- tive matter of the meat. It has been extracted and sold separately from the other constituents of the meat, as nutritive matter; the impression is that this matter is more nutritive than other kinds of food, and it is given to persons who are weak and dying for want of strength to keep them up ; and yet I have an extraor- dinary statement to make to persons who believe in ON ANIMAL FOOD. 165 this, that this is not nutritive matter at all; and, although not to be objected to when mixed with other substances, alone it certainly is not capable of sup. porting life. This substance is called gelatine. It exists in the nerves and muscles and all kinds of flesh of animals. It forms, in fact, the cell-walls of animals. The cell- walls of plants are composed of cellulose. Both cellulose and gelatine are insoluble in cold water, and the difference between them is, that gelatine is soluble in hot water. Gelatine is obtained from all kinds of animals, and all parts, and from bone, and skin, and membrane. This gelatine is used in the arts for making size and glue, and for fining beer and wine, arid various other purposes. The sound of the sturgeon and of various other fish is composed almost entirely of this substance, and when prepared and cut into strips it is called isinglass. It is obtained commercially, for dietetical purposes, from a variety of things, from the skins of animals not sent to the curriers, and from bones, and so on; and very good gelatine is procured from the refuse of the tanner's yard. So that the sub- stance which we know in the arts as glue and size, and as food under the name of gelatine or isinglass, is this gelatine which you can get from all parts of animals by boiling. Then, I say, it is not a nutritive substance ; it is not a digestible substance, and, therefore, cannot be nutritive. Many years ago, the French, being fond of soups, and the poor living principally on soups, discovered that those persons who lived on soups suffered in their health. This became a question, of so much importance that a commission was 166 ON ANIMAL FOOD. appointed to inquire into the properties of gelatine, and the result was that it was reported that gelatine had no nutritive property. The impression on the public mind was, however, so favourable, that it was still used in France ; and a second commission was appointed, and the result of its labours confirmed the conclusions of the first commission. In Belgium also a public inquiry was instituted, the result was the same conclusion as the two French commissions. You do not find this gelatine in the blood. If it were a nutri- tive agent, you would find it there. You do not find it in eggs, nor do you find it in milk. Seeing, then, there is no gelatine in these nutritive things, which are naturally prepared to form the parts of the body, we are warranted in concluding that it is not a flesh-form- ing substance at all. Then it appears that this sub- stance is merely an accessory in our usual food, just what cellulose and gum are in our vegetable food. Hence I have called these substances accessory foods. They are not to be rejected ; they do not injure ; on the contrary, I believe there is evidence that they do good. It is found in feeding horses, that if you give them beans or oats alone they will not do so well as if you mix with these more nutritive foods a quantity of chaff, chopped straw, which is little more than cellulose. It appears to me that man has the same relation to these things, and that he requires some indigestible food. In all our food there is a certain quantity of indi- gestible matter, and if it does not disagree it acts beneficially. This is one recommendation of brown bread, it contains more cellulose than flour. Those who can eat brown bread habitually have better health ON ANIMAL FOOD. 167 than those who cannot, or who persist in eating white bread. If we look once more at the table of the con- stituents of food, you will find that the quantity of nutritive or flesh-forming matter in cooked meat is put down at 22 per cent. ; that is to say, in 100 Ibs. ot butcher's meat there would be 22 Ibs. of nitrogenous matter, but you must recollect that this includes a quantity of gelatine. The quantities of these flesh-form- ing matters are calculated on the quantity of nitrogen yielded by the meat. Now the gelatine contains nitro- gen, and I have endeavoured to ascertain the quantities of gelatine in meat, and the question comes, whether we ought to regard all nitrogenous matter as nutritive when gelatine is present ? Deducting, then, the gelatine* I find meat contains less flesh-forming matter than wheat, oats, maize, peas, and beans. But then comes the question of digestibility. There is no doubt in my mind that the fibrine and albumen contained in meat is rapidly taken up and made use of, while there is a doubt as to whether the nutritive matter in wheat, barley, oats, and maize, is all taken up. The gluten of bread, of barley, oats, and maize, is less digestible than the albumen and fibrine of mutton and beef; in the same way as the gluten of bread is more digestible than the caseine of peas and beans. You recollect the large quantity of nutritive matter in peas and beans. The quantity of caseine in peas is 23 in 100, so that they contain really more nitro- genous matter than butcher's meat; but then it is not so digestible, and this question of digestion must alwavs be considered in the administration and con- 168 ON ANIMAL FOOD. sumption of food. The instincts of man seem to have guided him on this question, for when he works hard, or when he thinks hard, he has recourse to animal food, and he has discovered that it is more easily made into flesh than the same substances in vegetable food. It is then, I think, a safe conclusion that where nutritive matters are required, beef and mutton should be given. In cooking these, however, we may endanger their nutritive qualities ; and as it is sometimes a matter of importance, in cases of disease, to give the most nutritious diet, I will say a word or two on the manu- facture of beef tea. You will recollect, then, that as the gelatine is of little v^lue, and the albumen is coagu- lated and rendered less digestible by heat, it is not necessary to boil beef in order to make nutritive beef- tea. The beef should be cut up into small pieces, and a little soft, or distilled water, with a few drops of hydrochloric acid, and a little salt added to it ; after it has stood for a few hours, the liquid should be strained off, and when taken should be heated to a temperature of about 100. This liquid contains not only fibrine and albumen, but other compounds found in the juice of flesh. Amongst other things, it contains two sub- stances, found in the flesh of animals, called creatine and creatinine. They resemble, in their chemical nature, quinine, and they are found in human flesh. It may be that it is those substances which give so much value to animal food. It may be that to have these things ready-made in our food may facilitate the nutrition of the muscles and the other vital parts of our bodies. Beef-tea made in this way contains also the mineral compounds of potash and phosphoric acid. ON ANIMAL FOOD. 169 We may learn a lesson from this method of making beef-tea in the preparation of our animal food. It so happens that the creatine and creatinine, with all the salts of which I have spoken, can be boiled out of meat; and when the meat is served upon the table, and the water is thrown away, you have really got rid of some of the most important constituents of your food. If the meat is put into the water before it boils, and the albumen has time to exude, the saline matters with the creatine and creatinine will also escape, and in this way you get rid of the most important matters of the food. On the Continent they are more alive to the economy of cooking, and in consequence they use the water in which the meat is boiled for the purpose of making soup. "Not only does this apply to meat but also to fish. The liquid in which fish is boiled is just as valua- ble as that in which any other articles of diet are boiled. Then, with regard to the best method of boiling meat, a hint or two may be given here. Where persons have predetermined to throw away the water they boil meat in, they should recollect that albumen is contained in all meat ; and if you put the meat in cold water, it gradually exudes ; but if you put it directly into boiling water, you produce a covering of coagulated albumen around the meat, which keeps in, to a considerable extent, the creatine, and all the other precious pro- ducts of the juice of flesh. The water should boil; that is, it should have a temperature of 212, and be kept at that heat for ten or twelve minutes, then the heat may be reduced to 150, and kept at this heat till the whole is cooked. We were told the other day in the papers that for the last twenty years our 170 ON ANIMAL FOOD. soldiers at home had had meat served out to them which had never been properly cooked; that it was always boiled, and boiled in such a way as to ensure the loss of all the nutritive matter ; and that they were fed on merely the rags of meat. If this be true, it only shows you how practical this subject of cooking food is; which not only involves our individual comfort, but our national welfare. In order to have strong and brave soldiers, you must feed them well. It is not sufficient that you pay the highest price for the best food, you must see that it is not spoiled in the cooking. There are scientific principles lying at the foundation of the art of cookery as of every other human art ; and if you neglect to apply them, if you neglect to educate your cooks in them, you must expect to suffer. Let me add now a few words on the subject of living only on vegetable food. You know from what I have said that I am an advocate of a mixed diet for man, but I would more particularly draw your attention to a state- ment that is often made, that it is not necessary to par- take of animal food at all. Persons who argue thus, put forth, as a first ground, the immorality of the act, and the impropriety and wickedness of taking away life at all. This is surely an absurd assumption; for the Creator has made a certain number of creatures that could not live upon vegetable food, and they naturally prey upon the lower animals which feed on the grass and the herbs of the field. The lion and tiger exist by prey ; and it appears to me that man has a perfect right, without being charged with immorality or impropriety, to take the lives of the lower animals for his food. Then anatomical arguments are adduced against ON ANIMAL FOOD. 171 Tir/cr slull. animal food. It is said that man, in his structure, is better adapted for vegetable than animal food. I must here again join issue, for I believe I can show you from his structure that man is more adapted for a mixed diet than either vegetable or animal alone. Here is a view of the jaws and teeth of a carnivorous creature. (Fig. 3). The jaws are so constructed that they will only move up and down like a pair of scis- sors. This is the head of a tiger. Look also at his sharp-pointed carnivorous teeth, especially the great canine teeth. They are intended for holding and cutting up living food. Now look at the horse (Fig. 4). His lower jaw is quite movable from side to side. Instead of pointed teeth, they are flat, and every arrangement is made for grinding, not cut- ting, the food; and this is the character of the mouth of a herbivorous animal. Now if we take the skull of a man (Fig. 5), we find he has certain Fig. 5. Human skull. teeth canine teeth which, like those of lions and Fig. 4. Horse slcull. 172 ON ANIMAL FOOD. tigers, have the power of cutting ; but he has also flat teeth, and the power of moving his lower jaw laterally, and can bring these flat teeth across each other for the purpose of grinding his food; so that you see he is evidently provided with instruments to enable him to prepare for his digestion both vegetable and animal food. I might prolong this argument by showing you the complicated structure of the stomach of the sheep and the ox, and comparing this with the stomach of the lion, point to the fact that the human stomach has neither the complicated structure of the one nor the simplicity of the other. There are many other points of structure in which man seems to stand between these two groups of animals the herbivorous on the one side and the carnivorous on the other which would seem to indicate his. adaptation for taking both kinds of food. But whatever may be the arguments of the vege- tarians, they do not practically carry out their doctrines, for they partake of considerable quantities of animal food. They take milk and butter and cheese and eggs. Dr. Carpenter states, in a recent review, that he had taken a vegetarian cookery-book, and calculated the quantity of milk, butter, and eggs employed in their food, and found that, if a vegetarian family lived in accordance with the rules of this book, each member would consume half an ounce more animal food a day than he did in his own family, and he was no vegetarian. So that you see people are deceiving themselves who enforce such a doctrine as this. On the other hand, there are some persons who advo- cate a diet of purely animal food. I had a book sent me ON ANIMAL FOOD. 173 the other day, written by a gentleman at Liverpool, \vho states that he has discovered that the panacea for all human evils is the taking of animal food alone; and he takes the opportunity of stating that he is looking for some young lady of similar principles and practice who will link her fortunes with his own and establish a family of carnivorians. There is no question that man may live on a purely vegetable diet ; but the question is as to whether that kind of diet is best for the community. We find in the history of man that those races who have partaken of animal food are the most vigorous, the most moral, and the most intellectual races of mankind. You find that the ancient Jews, although they had certain sanitary regulations with regard to killing and eating animals, partook largely of meat, and were amongst the most vigorous people of their day. We find in modern Europe that those nations who take the most animal food are the strongest; and amongst ourselves, it is just in proportion as we give our labourers animal food, or wages to procure it, that they are stronger and better able to do their work. It is vain for a man to expect to get through intellectual or physical labour without an abundant supply of the material of thought and of physical power, and I have shown you that animal food is one of the readiest means of affording this supply. Before concluding this lecture I would refer to the fact that by pressing the lean of meat we get a liquid which is called the "juice of flesh." It is free from the fibrine, albumen, or gelatine of the meat, and contains principally the mineral matters of the flesh with 174 ON ANIMAL FOOD. creating creatinine, moric acid and osmazone. By evaporating this juice, the compound known by the name of "Extract of Meat/' or " Liebig's Extract of Flesh " is made. This substance itself contains little or no nutritive or flesh -forming matter, but it renders all food more digestible. It acts in fact as a stimulant to a weak stomach and enables it to digest what otherwise would become a source of irritation and disturbance. I might now proceed to discuss more fully the qualities of this compound and the various kinds of animal food which we eat, but my time is exhausted, and I must leave what I have said as hints for your future guidance. I hope I have succeeded in showing you that the subject of food is one deserving your attention. The question of food lies at the foundation of all other questions. There is no mind, no work, no health, no life, without food ; and just as we are fed defectively or improperly, are our frames developed in a way unfitted to secure that greatest of earthly blessings a sound mind in a sound body. SECOND COTJESE. DIAGRAM OF NERVOUS SYSTEM. a a a Spinal Cord. b b Sympathetic Nerves, c c Nerves of Leg. d d e f Nerves of Arm. Nerves of Head. Brain. ON ALCOHOL. IN this lecture I shall take up the second great class of foods. You will recollect that I divided food into two principal classes : the first consisting of those sub- stances which are necessary to our daily life, and of which I have spoken at length ; and the second, of sub- stances which, although playing an important part in food, are yet of such a nature that they may be regarded rather as auxiliaries in the great work of maintaining life, than as necessary to life. I also stated that they acted as many medicines do, and met rather those wants of the system which resulted from a tendency to a diseased condition ; and hence I called them medicinal. When you recollect that this class of substances in- cludes alcohol in its various forms, condiments and 180 ON ALCOHOL. spices, tea, coffee, chocolate, and tobacco and opium, you will at once perceive how different they are from the last class of which I have spoken. Some persons even deny the right of these things to be called food at all. They say that they enter the system and pass from it without forming part of the tissues of the body, and without being changed, and ought not to be called food. This seems to me a hardly justifiable attempt at appropriating the word food in an unpopular sense, and we shall scarcely be able, I think, to persuade people to regard beer and wine and tea and coffee as things not coming within the meaning of the word food. The substances of which I have now to speak all agree in one common action, and that is, they all act on the nervous system. On this account it will perhaps be better that I should give you a slight sketch of the nature of the nervous system. In the lecture on flesh- forming foods, I told you that nervous and muscular tissues were ultimately composed of cells, and that the nervous tissue consisted principally of albumen. In the human body this nervous matter is arranged into a system, of which there are three principal parts the brain, the spinal cord, and the nerves. The nerves per- form two functions, those of sensation and volition. They receive impressions from without, and carry them up to the great centres, the spinal cord and the brain. The impression thus produced is registered, as it were, on these centres; and the result is a corresponding action, and a nerve of motion distributed to a muscle is brought into play. Thus all motion is brought into action by sensation. The spinal cord is the centre of a ON ALCOHOL. 181 series of actions of which the mind is not cognizant: hence the movements performed under its influence are said to be involuntary, and it is regarded as the centre of a system,, which, independently of the brain, is called excito-motor. In the lower animals, which have no brain, the nervous system is entirely' of this character. But in the higher animals and man there is a brain. The brain is the seat of the intellectual functions, the emotions, consciousness, and volition. It is connected on the one hand with a number of nerves, which are called the nerves of special sense, which go from the eye, the ear, the nose, and the tongue ; and on the other hand, with the spinal cord and the nerves of motion. In animals possessed of a brain it gives a controlling power over the action of the nerves .of motion. ' Hence movements effected under its controlling agency are called voluntary. The nerves distributed to the muscles by which we move are more or less under its influence, and they are called nerves of volition, and the muscles are called voluntary muscles. (See diagram of nervous system.) Now, without going further into the anatomy or physiology of this highly-interesting system, I would call your attention to the fact that it is on this system which the alimentary substances of which I shall now speak more particularly act. They strengthen, weaken, or derange the nerves of sensation and motion ; exalt, depress, or change the action of the spinal cord ; and in the same manner act on the intellectual, emotional, volitionary, and conscious functions of the brain^ Medicines which thus act upon the nervous system are N 2 182 ON ALCOHOL. called narcotics ; and did not this term convey the im- pression that the production of sleep is the result of the use of substances to which it is applied, it would be unobjectionable. I do not like the multiplying terms, but I think the word neurotic would be preferable, as applied to these substances, as simply indicative of their action on the nervous system. Let us, then, without further inquiring into their action here, speak of these nerve-influencing foods. I speak first of alcohol, as by far the most important, and as in some measure, in its action, typical of the rest. Alcohol is a substance which is formed by the decom- position of sugar in fermentation, and is the basis of the fermented beverages known as wines, spirits, beer, &c. If we take any of the forms of fermentable sugar which were brought before you in a previous lecture, and place them in circumstances to undergo change, you will find that the elements of the sugar will arrange themselves in a different manner, and that you will have as the result carbonic acid and alcohol. Let us see how this is. Grape sugar (glucose) contains 12 atoms of carbon, 12 of hydrogen, and 12 of oxygen ; or, if we put it into weights, 180 pounds of grape sugar contain 72 pounds of carbon, 12 pounds of hydrogen, and 96 pounds of oxygen. Now during fermentation a certain portion of this carbon unites with the oxygen, and forms carbonic acid, which passing off, leaves the remaining carbon and oxygen with the hydrogen, in the form of alcohol. Or perhaps you will understand the change better by the aid of this diagram : ON ALCOHOL. 183 One atom of grape-sugar contains Carbon. Hydrogen. Oxygen. 12 atoms. 12 atoms. 12 atoms. These are converted into two atoms of alcohol, containing Carbon. Hydrogen. Oxygen. 8 atoms. 12 atoms; 4 atoms. And four atoms of carbonic acid gas, containing Carbon. 4 atoms. Hydrogen. Oxygen. 8 atoms. Carbon. Thus 12 atoms, Hydrogen. 12 atoms, Oxygen. 12 atoms (grape-sugar). 8 atoms, 4 atoms, 12 atoms, 4 atoms (alcohol). 8 atoms (carbonic acid). 12 12 12 Alcohol, then, is composed of 6 proportions of hydrogen, 42 of carbon, and 2 of oxygen ; or put into weight, 94 parts will contain Hydrogen Carbon Oxygen But it is not in reality so simple a body as here represented. A part of the oxygen and hydrogen exists as water, whilst the carbon and the hydrogen form a compound called ethyle; and just as in car- bonate of potash, the carbonic acid is united to the oxide of potassium, so the water in the alcohol is united to the ethyle, forming a hydrated oxide of ethyle. By adding sulphuric acid to alcohol we take away the water, and the oxide of ethyle can be dis- tilled; we then know it under the name of ether sulphuric ether. This change is interesting to us, for 184 ON ALCOHOL. it is in this way we can explain the bouquet of wines and the flavour of spirits. They are in many cases due to ethers formed out of the alcohol they contain. Alcohol is very volatile, and can be distilled from the water of the liquids in which it is formed. It has, however, so great an affinity for water, that pure alcohol cannot be obtained. It is a powerful solvent, dissolving oils, resins, and other substances, and is, on that account, used in the arts. Alcohol is very combustible, and gives out an intense heat, and is used on this account by the chemist for lamps. Whilst burning in the air its hydrogen and carbon unite with oxygen, forming water and carbonic acid gas. It coagulates solutions of albumen; and when mixed with water and placed in an animal mem- brane, it is found to pass through the membrane with less facility than the water. These are two important physical characters of alcohol in its relation to the animal system as an article of diet ; and perhaps we cannot do better than commence our consideration of the action of alcohol on the system, by considering the effect of these physical properties of alcohol on the food and the stomach. By coagulating the albumen of the chyle, it is pro- bable that alcohol may seriously interfere with its .due and easy absorption. The curious fact, too, of the more rapid absorption of water than alcohol by an animal membrane may explain one of the injurious effects of alcohol upon the membranes of the stomach. If the membranes of the stomach have the same power of separating water from alcohol out of the living body, then the stomach is constantly exposed to the action of ON ALCOHOL. 185 a highly-concentrated solution of alcohol, which may serve to increase its injurious effects on the system. In estimating, however, the effects of alcohol on the system, it should always be recollected, that the form and quantity must have a great effect. Thus, taking the two immediate effects to which I have just now alluded, it will be evident, that the stronger the alcoholic solution, and the larger the quantity, the more decided must be its effect. So important is the comprehension of this fact, that I would point out to you that many things which are poisonous and de- structive of life in large quantities, and in a pure form, may be taken with impunity in small quantities and diluted. Thus salt, when taken in large quantities and undiluted, has a most injurious and poisoning effect, but in small quantities it is necessary to life. I mention this, because one of the most distinguished writers on the use of alcohol has not hesitated to commit himself to the fallacy of attempting to con- clude what must be the effects of small doses of alcohol daily, by the effects of large and poisonous doses on the system. We may then, I think, conclude, from the physical facts I have just stated, that the stronger forms of alcohol, as distilled spirits and strong wines, are likely to interfere with the digestion and absorption of our food by their physical action on its constituents. But this action is not, I believe, confined to the food. The inner walls of the stomach are lined with a delicate mucous membrane and glands, whose functions are carried on by the aid of delicate cells, the structure of which is entirely destroyed by the action of alcohol. 186 ON ALCOHOL. There is no better ascertained fact in the whole range of pathological research than that the mucous structure suffers material and dangerous degradation in the habitual spirit-drinker. I would also draw your atten- tion to the fact, that this effect is much more likely to occur when alcohol is taken on an empty stomach, than when taken with food. I have observed, that persons who drink mixed liquors directly after a meal suffer less than those who take them on an empty stomach, the disturbing effect of the alcohol on the food being less serious than that on the mucous membrane of the stomach. This is true of all forms of alcoholic drinks. They are more likely to exert an injurious effect on an empty than on a full stomach, and they are more in- jurious in both cases the less diluted they are. With regard to the action of alcohol by the more rapid absorption of the water, I would just say, that I believe it is more injurious in the form of spirits and water than of wine and beer ; the water apparently separates more rapidly in the former than in the latter case. As far, then, as its physical action is concerned, I do not know that we can say anything good of alcohol at all; it may seriously interfere with the functions of absorption, and injure the coats of the stomach, and when taken injudiciously, a very long way short of producing any effect on the nervous system, it may yet prevent the proper nutrition of the system, and insidiously lay the foundations of incurable disease. The practical admonition which this part of our subject conveys is this : Avoid taking wines, spirits, and beers, on an empty stomach. In cases where they must be taken, let them be as dilute as is compatible with the ON ALCOHOL. 187 object sought to be obtained by taking them. This leads to a very practical question, and that is, how much pure alcohol, in proportion to a given quantity of water, may be taken with impunity? Of course, this is a difficult question to solve, as the quantity which might be taken with impunitv bv one mar might be injurious to another. At the same time, as a matter of experience, I may say, that I have seen little or no inconvenience following the taking, in moderate quantities, the weak table beers of this country. The quantity of alcohol in them is about half an ounce to the pint. I present you here with a table of the quantities of alcohol contained in various fermented beverages, by which you will see that they all contain a larger quantity of alcohol than I think can be taken without running the hazard of injury. Water. Alcohol. Sugar. London Stout oz. 18 oz. 14 oz. grs. 281 London Porter 19i 0} 267 Pale Ale m. 2i 240 Mild Ale 181 jl 280 Strong Ale 18 2 2 136 Table Beer 19i 04 100 Port 16 4 1 2 154 44 360 Pale Sherry 16 4 80 Claret 18 2 Burcrundv 2i Hock ...!:::::::::::: 173 2$ 181 1? ChamDaoTie 17 3 1 133 V/r & .Madeira . ... 16 4 400 Cider 19 3 400 Brandy 94 104 80 Gin, best 12 8 Gin, retail 16 4 and when the fermentation has brought down the quantity of sugar to a certain point, the yeast is cleared away, and this process is called cleaning. The beer is now run into vats or casks, which is called racking. It is still, however, thick raid inuddy, and a solution of gelatine or isinglass is added, for the purpose of clearing or fining it. The beer is now bunged up, and it is ready for use at various periods. Now beer can be made to vary greatly in its quality according to the way in which this process of brewing has been carried on. Of course, the stronger the wort the more sugar, and the more alcohol as the result of fermentation. But you may carry the fermentation up to various points. You may make, at first, a sweet beer or ale by stopping the fermentation, but which eventually shall become very strong by age and fer- mentation. Such are our sweet ales, and ales that get strong by keeping. By carrying on the fermenta- tion you may exhaust all the sugar, and by using malt free from gum you get a clear pale ale, and by adding a larger quantity of hops, our pale bitter ales are produced. The fermentation of these ales being over, they can be sent to a distance : hence the practice of 222 ON WINES, SPIRITS, AND BEER. sending such ale to India. They are, however, gene- rally strong ales, on account of the completeness of their fermentation, and are objectionable on that account. I find that our ordinary bottled pale ale contains more alcohol than hock, claret, or Moselle wines, and as much as Burgundy. The brewing of the pale and bitter ales for the Indian market has led to a great change in public taste for beer, and milder pale and bitter ales are extensively brewed for domestic consumption. My own conviction is, that an immense benefit has accrued from this, as the strong and sweet ales for- merly drunk were objectionable on many accounts. In the first place, they caused a greater consumption of alcohol than was beneficial ; and in the next place, the sugar became a source of disorder and disagree- ment in the stomach. The increased quantity of hop also secures in the mild bitter ales a tonic effect which is very beneficial. For habitual consumption in families the mild bitter ale, with not more than half an ounce of alcohol in the pint, is to be commended above all others. London porter, of which prodigious quantities are consumed daily in this metropolis, is coloured with the black malt. It contains about three quarters of an ounce of alcohol in the pint, and more sugar and less hops than the pale ales. It is, however, miserably drugged in the public-houses. Its strength is reduced by water, and its qualities are brought up again by treacle, liquorice, and salt, and various narcotic agents are added to make up for the loss of alcohol. To such a condition has the porter-drinking population been ON WINES, SPIRITS, AND BEER. 223 brought, that they do not know genuine porter when they drink it, and having acquired a taste for its wretched substitute, they reject the unadulterated article. Stout is only a stronger form of porter. Good draught stout contains one ounce and a half of alcohol in the pint. All beers, ales, and porters may be bottled; and this is done before the active fermentation is over, so that this process engenders in the bottled liquid a quantity of carbonic acid gas, which converts the stouts and porters which contain a great quantity of gum into one mass of froth. It is not quite so bad in the pale ale, but here it is not uncommon to lose half the ale by its seething over the glass when poured from the bottle. Bottled ales are generally stronger than those on draught ; and with some persons the frothing state of the beer seems to agree better than the less lively con- dition of that from the cask. It is the same with wines and water; and carbonated waters and effervescing wines have the same recommendation. I have not time to dwell on the varieties of beers, ales, and porters sold in this country. But they differ very much; and the impossibility of brewing the same beer in two different districts is an interesting fact. One of the most remarkable facts of this sort is the generally acknowledged excellence of the Burton beers. Now it appears there is only one condition at Burton that causes its beer to differ from all others, and that is, the presence in the water of a certain quantity of sulphate of lime. My friend, Dr. Letheby, has 224 ON WINES, SPIRITS, AND BEER. pointed out that this is the real cause of the success of the pale ale breweries of Burton. He says, such water will not extract the saccharine and albuminous matters of malt so fully as others, and that this is desirable in the manufacture of pale ales. I would, however, bear my testimony to the great intelligence and care with which the great pale ale breweries are conducted at Burton-on-Trent. Such prevision and intelligence brought to bear on the minutest details of a great manufactory, cannot fail to be productive of the best results. Then you see, from what I have stated, the beers contain water, alcohol, sugar, and the bitter principle of the hop. In addition to these things, beer always contains a certain quantity of acid. This acid is acetic acid, or vinegar. It is naturally produced by the exposure of the alcohol to the action of the oxygen of the air. The change that takes place is the conver- sion of alcohol, which is a hydrated oxide of ethyle into acetic acid, which is a hydrate of the teroxide of acetyle. This is sometimes called the acetous fer- mentation ; but it is not a process like fermentation, but an oxidation or slow combustion of the alcohol. This process goes on in beer after it has been put in the cask, and it is in this way that beer gets sour. In some parts of the country the beer is preferred a little tart ; but in proportion as it gets acid it loses strength. The hops suspend this process ; and bitter beer is much less liable to this change than sweet beers. The same changes occur in wines, especially sweet wines; and an extensive manufacture of vinegar from wine is carried on. ON WINES, SPIRITS, AND BEER. 225 I now come to speak more particularly of Wine. The term wine is generally applied to fermented liquors to which no additional ingredient is added. Thus the fermented wort of malt is called malt-wine when hops are not added. The term wine is, however, specially applied to the fermented juice of the grape. Of all fruits, this one affords the best material for making wine, and there is a curious chemical reason for this which I may at once explain to you. The various fruits which can be fermented and made into wines contain organic acids. Now these acids vary in che- mical composition and flavour. Thus in apples and pears we have malic acid, in oranges citric acid, and gooseberries, currants, and other fruits, also citric acid, mixed with some other acid. Grapes also contain tartaric acid. These acids do not exist in these fruits in a pure form, but in combination with the alkalies or earths forming salts. These salts are super-salts, that is, they contain a superabundance of the acid, and taste acid in the mouth. With one exception these salts are soluble in water, and that exception occurs in the grape. When the tartaric acid of the grape combines with two proportions of the acid to one of potash it forms an insoluble salt known as supertartrate of potash or cream of tartar. It is the formation of this salt in the wine made from the grape that causes the deposition of a large quantity of the tartaric acid, and the wine is thus prevented from tasting too sour. In the case of other fruits, the acid remains in the wine, and renders neces- sary the addition of sugar to take away the excessive acidity. This gives to other wines an objectionable character. What are called British wines, made from 2.26 ON WINES, SPIRITS, AND BEER. the fruits of the currant, gooseberry, or the orange, require the addition of sugar in order to take away the sourness of the acids they contain. The grape vine (Vitis vinifera), from the fruits of which wine is made, seems to have been one of the earliest useful plants known to man. The first recorded history of the employment of wine is found in the account of Noah's drunkenness. From that time re- ference to this beverage is frequently made in the Bible, and we find amongst the early nations of antiquity that it was the most generally known form of fermented beverages. Like most extensively-cultivated plants, it is very difficult to ascertain of what country the vine is origi- nally a native. It is among the plants of which we have the earliest records in the Books of Moses, and from which it appears to have been made use of in the same manner as at the present day. Although the vine is found in many places of Judaea wild, it may still be doubted whether it is indigenous there, on account of its frequent cultivation. There seems to be little doubt of its being truly indigenous in the East, in the district between the Black and Caspian Seas. In the forest of Mingrelia and Imiretia it flourishes in all its magni- ficence, climbing to the tops of the highest trees, and bearing bunches of fruit of delicious flavour. In these districts no cultivation of the vine exists, and the inha- bitants seldom harvest the abundance of the fruit that is produced. It is not probable that these vines are the remains of former vineyards, as plants mostly dege- nerate when they become wild after cultivation, which is not at all the case with these grape vines. It is ON WINES, SPIRITS, AND BEER. 227 probable that the wild vines found along the borders of the Caspian Sea,, throughout Persia, in the north of China, and in the Deccan and Cashmere, are all indigenous, although the plant is cultivated in these districts. In many spots in France, Germany, Portugal, and Italy, the vine is found wild, but the fruit is very generally of an inferior kind, and it is probably not indigenous in any part of Europe. We have no accounts of the introduction of the vine into Greece. It was evidently cultivated there before the time of Homer, and is supposed to have been later introduced into Italy, and the Romans probably spread it through the north of Europe, and introduced it into Great Britain. Bede, writing in 731, says there are vineyards growing in several places. These vineyards in Great Britain were generally connected with mo- nasteries, as the inhabitants of those places paid great attention to the cultivation of fruit. When monastic institutions were abolished, vine- yards very generally disappeared in this country, probably both on account of there being no monks to attend to them, and better wine being obtained from the fruit of other countries. Much has been written about the reintroduction of vineyards into Great Britain. There can be no doubt that grapes could be produced in abundance, and acquire a certain degree of ripeness in this country ; but our clouded skies and high latitude must prevent the production of fruit in tins country equal to that of the lower latitudes, and under the brighter skies of the continent of Europe. The cultivation of the vine extends from near 55 C Q 228 ON WINES, SPIRITS, AND BEER. north latitude to the equator, but in south latitudes it only extends as far south as 40. It is cultivated at various elevations. In Middle Germany it ceases from about 1,000 to 1,500 feet above the level of the sea. On the south side of the Alps it reaches 2,000 feet ; in the Apennines and Sicily 5,000 feet ; and on the Himalaya as high as 10,000 feet above the level of the sea. The point of the greatest impor- tance in the ripening of the fruit of the vine is the length of the summer. Thus, although the maximum of summer heat is as great at Moscow as in Paris, yet the vine will not ripen its fruit in the former place ; and this arises from the fact that although the greatest heat of the months of June and July are as great as that of Paris, the months of August and Sep- tember are several degrees below. Nor -will the mean temperature serve as a. rule to indicate where the vine may be cultivated. England has a mean temperature as high as many parts of the world where the vine flourishes in the greatest perfection ; but it will be found that although England is warmer than these countries in the winter, it is not so warm in the months of September and October, at which time the vine is ripening its fruit. The vine will bear any degree of heat, and is cultivated in some districts close to the equator. It will not, however, bear heat combined with moisture, and the fruit in European countries is never so good in wet seasons. This, then, will account for the different points of latitude at which the vine ceases to be cultivated in Europe. In France it extends as far as 49 north latitude on the western borders of the Seine. In England, although much cultivated, the ON WINES, SPIRITS, AND BEER. 229 fruit seldom ripens properly in the open air. At Berlin, in 53 north latitude, the fruit is poor. Konigsberg has a north latitude of 54 42', and is the extremest point at which the vine can ripen fruit. On the Rhine its cultivation extends down to Cologne, and even Diissel- dorf. Throughout the middle and south of Europe, to the borders of the Mediterranean, between the Black and Caspian Seas, in Astrachan, in the north of China, in Hindostan, throughout Persia, along the borders of the Euphrates, in Syria, Lower Egypt, Abyssinia, and in Barbary, the vine is cultivated. In the New World, both in North and South America the vine nourishes. In South America, it is cultivated and used for making brandy and wine at Guyaquil-Pisco, in the northern provinces of Chili, at Valparaiso, and is found at Val- davia in the fortieth degree south latitude. On the other side of the continent, at Buenos Ayres, and in various parts of Brazil, it is extensively cultivated. In North America its culture is known to extend as far as 37 north latitude on the Ohio, and on the north-west coast as far as St. Francisco, in 38 north latitude. The vine is also growing now in the southern parts of New Holland and has been introduced from America into the Sandwich Islands. The fruit of the vine is used as an article of diet in several ways. Its agreeable sweet acid flavour, when ripe, has always rendered it a very desirable food when fresh. The ancients also, there can be but little doubt, were in the habit of drinking the expressed juice of the grape before fermentation. Grapes are also dried and used under the name of raisins. The drying is generally effected by cutting half through the fruit stalk while Q 2 230 ON WINES, SPIRITS, AND BEER. they are suspended 011 the tree. Grapes thus dried are called muscatel raisins, and are principally brought from the Levant and from Spain. There is another dried grape used much in this country, called currants or Corinths, but which are very different things from the common currants of our gardens, and are the pro- duce of a vine which grows in Zante and Cephalonia. Raisins and currants contain less water than fresh grapes, and when eaten alone they are liable to produce indigestion. The most extensive use of the grape is for the pur- pose of making wine. In an unripe state the juice of the grape contains malic, citric, and tartaric acids, bitartrate of potash, sulphates nf potash, and lime, with other inorganic salts in less proportion, a little colouring and extractive matter. As the fruit ripens, gum makes its appearance, and grape sugar is formed at the expense probably of the citric and tartaric acids. When ripe, the principal ingredients are sugar, gum, malic acid, and bitartrate of potash. With its extensive cultivation, it is not to be won- dered at that a great number of varieties should be described. The lists from the vineyards of the Continent and from the forcing-houses of England give several hundreds. In most of them the principal difference consists in the form and colour of the fruit, and the shape and clothing of the leaves. So great is the difference in some cases, that Professor Link of Berlin is of opinion that all our cultivated grapes are the products of the hybridization of several species. Independent, however, of any externally different characters, there is great variety observed in the wines ON WINES, SPIRITS, AND BEER. 231 they produce, which depend on causes that have hitherto escaped observation. There are instances of the same variety of vine being planted on the side of a hill or mountain, and the wine which is the produce of the grapes from the highest parts of the mountain will differ essentially from the wine whicli is the produce of the grapes of the lower parts of the mountain. The wines known by the names of Johannisberg and Ru- descheimer, in Germany, are the produce of vines growing close together, and resembling each other in external characters. The vineyards also that produce the Leistenwein, Wurzberger, and Steinwein, are very near to each other. It has been supposed that this difference is owing to the composition of the soil, but much is undoubtedly due to the care which is taken in preserving the fruit from the influence of adverse circumstances. Thus, with regard to the vineyard of Johannisberg, which produces the most costly wine in the world, it is well known that it is surrounded by a wall that protects the grapes from the cooling and dis- quieting influence of winds, and all that requires attention during the culture of the grape is ensured in ihese magnificent vineyards. The fruit of the grape is either purple or white, and the grapes have various sizes and are of very different flavours, but these points are but of little importance in the manufacture of wines. The purple grapes do not necessarily make red wines, nor do the white grapes make white wines. Although the flavour of some grapes is so strong as to give a taste to the wine, as in the case of the muscat grape, yet the flavours of wines are independent of the flavours of grapes. 232 ON WINES, SPIRITS, AND BEER. When wine is to be made, the grapes are gathered and placed in vessels from which their juice is expressed by pressure. The juice before it is collected is called must. Of course it consists principally of water, which holds in suspension and solution a variety of substances. The chief of these is sugar sugar in that form which is called glucose, grape, or fruit sugar.* Then we have gum, fat, wax, albumen, and gluten, tartaric acid free, and tartaric acid combined with potash as cream of tartar ; we have also racemic acid, malic acid, and malate of lime, and then there are varying quantities of salts, as the oxides of manganese and iron, sulphate of potash, common salt, phosphate of lime, and even silicic acid. Thus you see this must is a very compound substance, but the three things of most importance in relation to wine-making are the water, the sugar, and the albumen and gluten. The quantities of these ingredients vary in different seasons, and this will account for the difference in the wines made from them. Quantity, however, does not always indicate the difference that will be found in the wine. There may be much sugar, but it may not ferment well, or the grapes may be damaged so as to interfere with the fermentation, but generally the quantity of sugar is an indication of the goodness of the grape, and its fitness for making wine. Grapes are in best condition for making wine when the summer is hot and the season dry in which they are gathered. The heat and light of the sun principally develope the saccharine qualities of the grape. But however much * See Lecture III. ON WINES, SPIRITS, AND BEER. 233 sugar there may be, if the grapes are wet, or get mouldy or decayed before they are gathered, the fermentation is imperfect, and the wines are weak, and sour, and flavourless. This is why there are bad wine, good wine years, and middling wine years. Thus it is known that the good Port wine years have been, for this century, 1802, 1803, 1804, 1806, 1810, 1811, 1815, 1820, 1821, 1822, 1827, 1830, 1834, 1840, 1842, and 1850. In the same way lists can be made out of French and German wines, and it is curious to observe that the good years of one wine are frequently the bad years of another. One of the great difficulties of the wine-maker is to get the must at the right time, and if the grapes have not all ripened equally, this is a great difficulty. If the grapes are gathered too soon the wine becomes sour and hard when old. If they are gathered too late, they ferment in the cask, and also become sour, but from the very opposite reason of the sourness which conies on when the grapes are gathered too soon. The quantity of sugar in grape juice varies from 13 to 30 per cent. When the fermentation is complete, the whole of this sugar is converted into alcohol. The proportion which the alcohol forms to the sugar is about as 1 to 2, so that we may reckon that the wine will contain half as much alcohol as the must contained sugar. This is generally true of the unbrandied wines of France and Germany. In seasons when the must is deficient in sugar, cane-sugar or raisins are added to it in order to increase the quantity of alcohol, but this destroys the flavour of the wine. After the juice of the grape has passed from the wine- 234 ON WINES, SPIRITS, AND BEER. press, it is placed in vats, where the process of fermentation is allowed to take place. It is not necessary to add a ferment to the juice of the grape, as the nitrogenous matters contained in it speedily enter into a state of change, which is communicated to the sugar, and the result is the production of alcohol by the aeries of changes which I mentioned in my last lecture. During this process the juice becomes more turbid, hubbies of carbonic acid gas appear in it, and a froth or scum is formed upon its surface. It becomes more 'iquid by the conversion of the sugar into alcohol, and various matters which were at first held in solution are now thrown down. The fermentation goes on more or less rapidly according to the temperature. It is more rapid in high than in low temperatures, and generally attains its height in three or four days. In this state it continues* for some days longer, and when clear it is run off into another vessel, in which a diminished amount of fermentation goes on for some months. The wine is drawn off" from these vessels into casks, in which it is kept till it is bottled. Now I might detain you here to speak of the treatment of wine after it is put in bottles. It is put into bottles for the sake of keeping it, and the placing these bottles in some safe and convenient place called a cellar is technically called cellaring. Some wines are not much improved by bottling at all, and these you may drink directly from the cask. In wine countries it is not an uncommon thing to drink the wine directly from the cask as we do beer. This is more especially done with the weaker and cheaper wines, and wine is occasionally thus consumed in this country. " Wine ON WINES, SPIRITS, AND BEER. 235 from the wood" is sold in some of our wine shops. Inferior red wines, sherries, and Marsala, are said to improve more whilst on tap in the cask than when bottled. Weak wines cannot be kept long in the cask without a danger of the oxygen of the air converting their hydrated oxide of ethyle (alcohol) into the hy- drated tri-oxide of acetyle (vinegar), which is a result very much to be avoided by those who attach im- portance to the flavour or strength of their wines. Wine in casks gets altered by the evaporation of the water and the alcohol into the air, and also by the absorption of one or the other by the wood. These changes cannot happen when the wine is put into glass bottles. Wine can thus be kept longer in bottles without change than in wood. There is a notion that wine gets stronger by keeping, but this is erroneous. If fermentation goes on a little more sugar would be converted into alcohol, but this is not large even in the case of effervescing wines. It is, therefore, a false notion that wine gets stronger by keeping. Strong wines un- doubtedly keep best. Wines get altered by keeping, and they get weaker by keeping. They should not be kept in hot cellars, nor cold cellars, nor cellars with a changeable temperature. It appears that a uniform temperature of between 50 and 60 is the best for all kinds of wine. Wines are said to ripen sooner in warm cellars than in cold ones, and it is very certain that new wines may be made to assume the flavour of old ones by exposing them to high temperatures, and letting them cool again. This, however, belongs to the art of " doctoring" wines, a practice that very few private individuals care to enter upon, and which, when 236 ON WINES, SPIRITS, AND BLER. earnestly pursued, is done with a view to deception and fraud. Let me now direct your attention to the composition of all wines, and point to those constituents which, in larger or smaller quantities, give flavour and charac- .ter to them. These constituents are water, alcohol, sugar, acids, bouquet, colouring matter, and salts. Of course, I need say nothing about the water ; that will always be in proportion to the absence of other things. I may as well, however, say that it is never less than 75 per cent., and seldom more than 90 per cent., in wines. Alcohol is the constituent which distinguishes wine as well as other fermented beverages. It is not, how- ever, the quantity of alcohol that determines alone the price of wine. Taking, for instance, the analysis of hock wines, as given in Dr. Bence Jones's translation of Mulder's " Chemistry of Wines/' you will find that Marcobrunner, worth, perhaps, fifteen shillings # bottle, does not contain so much alcohol as Geisenheimer, which is sold at two shillings a bottle. Fiery ports, with 25 per cent, of alcohol, are worthless compared with old ports, containing not more than 20 per cent, of alcohol. Here, as in so many other articles of food, it is the flavour which gives the value. The quantity of alcohol per cent, in different wines may be seen in the following table, given by Dr. Bence Jones, as the result of a long series of analyses : In Port from 207 to 23'2 per cent. Sherry 15'4 247 Madeira . 19'0 197 ON WINES, SPIRITS, AND BEER. 237 In Marsala ...... from 19'9 to 211 per cent. Claret ...... 91 111 Burgundy ... 101 13'2 Rhine \vine ... 9'5 13'0 Moselle ...... 8'7 9'4> Champagne ... 141 14' 8 You will see, from this table, that the favourite wines of this country are the strongest. This arises, probably, from two causes : first, our natural love of strong drink ; and, second, from the fact that we pay the same duties on strong as on weak wines. I am afraid, as long as the latter cause exists, it will lead to the consumption of the stronger wines. This is to be regretted, as there can be no doubt that the temp- tation is stronger to take more alcohol than is good with strong than with weak wines. The quantity of alcohol in wine, when genuine, is dependent on the quantity of sugar in the grape. But there is considerable doubt as to whether the quantity of alcohol in our ports and sherries is always the result of the fermentation of the sugar naturally in the grape. It is a fact well known, that with regard to the greater proportion of Ports and Sherries drunk in this country, they have alcohol added to them, both in the countries in which they are made as well as in this country. There can be no doubt that if the taste could be generally diffused for the genuine wines of the Rhine and France, it would be better for the wine- drinking classes of the community. Sugar is the constituent of wine, which has the nearest relation to alcohol. If the whole of the sugar in the juice of the grape is converted into alcohol, then there is none left in the wine. But it frequently 238 ON WINES, SPI11ITS, AND BEER. happens that there is more sugar in the grape-juice than can be converted by the natural ferment of the juice the albumen into alcohol. Thus we have two sorts of wines sweet wines and dry wines. Even strong wines may have sugar left, so that we have strong sweet wines and strong dry wines, and we may have weak sweet wines and weak dry wines. The following are the quantities of sugar found in one imperial pint of several of the commoner sorts of wines : oz. graius. Port 1* 2 Madeira 400 Brown Sherry 360 Champagne 133 Pale Sherry 80 Claret None. Burgundy Hock Moselle Some wines contain a great deal more sugar than any of these, as Malmsey, Tokay, Samos, and Cyprus, which give from two to five ounces in a pint. Sugar is purposely added to some wines, to take off their acid flavour. This is the case with those wines which are called " British," and which contain acids that are not precipitated during the making: such are orange, gooseberry, currant, rhubarb wines. The sugar in wine is in a condition in which it is easily decomposed : hence persons with weak stomachs cannot drink it without producing heartburn. It is also one of the elements of wine which appears to en- - One ounce contains 437& grains. ON WINES, SPIRITS, AND BEER. 239 gender that condition of the system in which gout comes on. It is well known that gout comes on in port-wine drinkers ; and looking at the foregoing table, you will see that it contains more sugar than any of the wines ordinarily drunk in England. Sugar alone will not produce this disease; but sugar in conjunction with alcohol, as in ports and sherries, will produce it. Sugar is found in the same state in beer. Gout is found amongst port, sherry, and beer drinkers, whilst it is almost unknown amongst spirit, claret, and hock drinkers. If wines are bottled before the fermentation is over, the carbonic acid is retained in the wine, and what is called an "effervescing" wine is produced. There are certain kinds of wine which are favourable to this process; and in all countries effervescing wines are produced. In this country we are best acquainted with the effervescing wines of France, which are generally known under the name of Champagne. Hocks, Moselles, and even red wines, are treated thus ; and when the cork is removed from the bottle, the carbonic acid begins to escape, and gives them their sparkling, effervescent character. When such wines contain much sugar, the fermentation in the bottle is arrested before all the sugar is consumed, and they are sweet effervescing wines. In other cases the sugar is all exhausted in producing the carbonic acid, and such wines are then said to be dry. Sparkling or effervescing wines are agreeable to the palate, and, in the same way as bottled ales, they some- times appear to assist the digestion of the food with which they are taken. In some cases, however, there 240 ON WINES, SPIRITS, AND BEEll. can be no doubt that they produce injury. When ne\v, they communicate the state of change in which they are to the contents of the stomach, and inter- fere with the healthy process of digestion. They are less liable to disagree when they are dry and contain but little sugar, than when they contain much of this substance. The quantity of sugar varies in champagne from one hundred grains in the pint to considerably above an ounce. We now pass to the acids in wine. There are two sorts of acids, or, I may say, three. There is tannic acid, which gives the astringency to red wines, and is the principal agent in the formation of the crust ; then there is the tartaric acid which gives acidity to wine ; and there are the acids which, uniting with compounds in the wine, form the flavours and bouquet of wines. It is to the tartaric acid I would now draw your atten- tion. The tartaric acid is the acid which distinguishes the fruit of the grape : it occurs in varying quantity in grapes, but it is always found in wine made from grapes. Mulder says there is from 2 to 7 parts of per- fectly pure tartaric acid in 1 ,000 parts of wine. Then the bitartrate of potash is after all slightly soluble in water, and assists, by its solution, in acidifying wine. Then there is always a small quantity of acetic acid, or spirit of vinegar, in wine Mulder says from i to 2 parts in the 1,000 of wine. You know that the old- fashioned way of making vinegar is to expose wine to the air, and the oxygen of the air uniting with the alcohol converts it into vinegar, thus accounting for the old pronouncing puzzle " White Wine Vinegar is Very good Victuals I Vow." ON WINES, SPIRITS, AND BEER. 241 Well, this oxidation of the alcohol will always take place in making wine; it takes place much more in making beer. Hence the acetic acid is always greater in beer than in wine; but then, beer contains no tartaric acid. Sugar hides the flavour of acids ; so that a sweet wine may really contain much more acid than an acid wine. You will see the quantities of tartaric acid in different wines, and acetic acid in beer, in the following table. The quantities are grains in an imperial pint. Grains. Port ... 80 Brown Sherry 90 Claret 170 Burgundy 160 Hock 130 Moselle 140 Champagne ... ... ... ... ... 90 Madeira ' ... 100 London Stout 54 Porter 45 Pale Ale 40 Cider 120 The cider contains malic acid. The action of these acids on the system has been much misunderstood. It has been supposed that acid wines are bad where there is acidity of the stomach. Now, acidity of the stomach more frequently arises from the decomposition of sugar than anything else; and wines which have sugar enough to cover their acidity have been taken to prevent this state of the stomach, whilst acid wines which contain no sugar have been avoided. Neither tartaric, acetic acid, nor any other acid, has a tendency to favour the development of more acid in 242 ON WINES, SPIRITS, AND BEER. the system. I think this should be generally known ; for there seems to be a prejudice against the acid wines of France and Germany in this country, as though they were capable of producing the pernicious effects of our own saccharine beers, ciders, and wines. I now come to speak of the flavour of wines, or of the bouquet, as it is sometimes called. But flavour and bouquet are two different things. The vinous flavour is common to all wines ; but the bouquet is peculiar to certain wines. All persons are more or less acquainted with the vinous smell. Persons who have drunk much wine are redolent of this odour, and it is especially detected when such persons first come into a room where this odour had not before existed. This smell is very different from that given out by beer or distilled spirits. The substance which thus characterizes wine is called oenanthic ether. It is evidently formed during the fermentation of the grape-juice. This ether is formed in the same way as alcohol. Alcohol, you know, is a hydrate of the oxide of ethyle (HO + O-f C 4, H 5). Now, if we put cenanthic acid (C 14, HBO 2) in the place of water, instead of the hydrate of the oxide of ethyle, we get the oenanthate of the oxide of ethyle, and this is the substance which gives the smell to wine. When separated from the wine, it is anything but pleasant ; but many tastes and smeils, which are unendurable in their concentrated forms, are exceedingly pleasant when diluted. Now the special bouquets or flavours of wines are formed on the same principle as oenanthic ether. Some compound of carbon and hydrogen, like ethyle, the basis of alcohol, unites with some acid, and forms an ON WINES, SPIRITS, AND BEER. 243 ether which gives the surpassing excellence to favourite wines. These ethers can actually be manufactured and added to wines, so that common wines may be made to taste like those of great price ; but the cultivated taste can detect the cheat. These artificial mixtures never equal the natural product. So it is with all artificially- formed essences, spirits and water. You cannot deceive the cultivated olfactory nerve by the artificial scents which are so abundantly manufactured ; nor can you deceive a palate accustomed to Nature's most delicious beverages by the products of the chemical laboratory. The compounds which are formed in wines by keeping, and which give such value to them, are combi- nations of the oxides of ethyle and of amyle (C 10, H 11) with acetic, propionic, pelargonic, butyric, caproic, and caprylic acids. Of course I quite despair of giving you anything like a knowledge of the combinations of those compounds which produce the various odours or flavours of wines. You can, however, understand the principle. Just as water combines with the oxide of ethyle to form alcohol, so any one of the acids mentioned can unite with oxide of ethyle or oxide of amyle to form an odorous compound. Let me give you an example or two. Acetic ether (acetic acid, the acid of vinegar, and oxide of ethyle) is found in most wines that have been kept for a long time. You can buy it of the chemist, and ten or twelve drops will give a bottle of new wine a sort of flavour of old, quite enough to deceive people who never take wine but when they go out to a dinner party. Then there is butyric ether. It is a compound of R 244 ON WINES, SPIRITS, AND BEER. butyric acid with oxide of ethyle. Butyric acid is tlie stuff that gives the rancid smell to butter, but when united with oxide of ethyle it gives the smell of pine- apples. This ether is found in many of the most famous wines. It can be bought of the chemist under the name of oil of pine-apples, and the fraudulent wine- dealer knows how to make use of it to get a higher price for his common Hocks. These, then, must suffice as examples. If you want to study this subject in all its relations, you must under- stand the nature of compound radicals, and especially that series which form ethers with the organic acids. The history of many of these compounds you will find given in Mulder's " Chemistry of Wine/' The colouring matters of wines do not much affect their action on the system. Nevertheless one of the most obvious distinctions between the various kinds of wines drunk in this country is their colour. Thus, we have Port wines and Sherry wines, the one of which is red, and the other yellow or brown. The same distinc- tion holds good between Clarets and Burgundies, and Moselle and Rhine wines. These differences depend on the presence in varying quantities of three substances : a brown colouring matter, a blue colouring matter, and tannic acid. The brown colouring matter is present to a greater or less extent in all the wines we call light or white wines. It scarcely exists at all in some Rhine wines and Moselles, whilst it is present in considerable quantities in Madeira, brown Sherries, and Tokay. This brown colouring matter has no very definite chemical composition, and resembles what the chemists call extractive matter. It exists in greatest quantities in ON WINES, SPIRITS, AND BEER. 245 those white wines in which the skins of the grapes are fermented with the juice, as the skins contain more of this kind of matter than the grape. The darker the wine is from the presence of this colouring matter the more highly it is valued. This arises from the fact that the more alcohol the wine contains the more of this colouring matter will it take up. This is known to wine makers and wine sellers, and they frequently add burnt sugar to their light brown wines to give them the colour of strong wines. The blue colouring matter is found in red wines. These wines are made from purple or black grapes in which the skins are allowed to ferment. This blue dye, like all blue colouring matters, becomes red by contact with acid ; hence the tartaric acid of the wine gives it a red colour. Red wines have also the brown colouring matter, as is shown by the fact that they sometimes lose or throw down the whole of their blue colouring matter, and become brown or yellow. This is seen in very old Ports, and the tendency to it is observed in what is called " twenty Port." When wines are kept they have all a tendency to throw down their colouring matters. . This tendency is very much increased by the presence of tannic acid. This acid, which is present in oak-bark and many other substances used in tanning, is much more abundant in red than in white wines. It is especially present in Port wine and Claret, less in Burgundy. The presence of tannic acid gives an astringent property to red wines not possessed by white. The large quantities of tannic acid in new Port, give it also that tendency to deposit what is called a crust on the lower side of the n 2 246 ON WINES, SPIRITS, AND BEER. bottle in which it is kept : this crust consists of the oxidized tannic acid, which becomes insoluble, and car- ries down with it the blue colouring matter and a cer- tain quantity of the saline matters contained in the wine. The longer Port wine is kept, the larger the quantity of this crust which is thrown down. As this proceeds at the same time with the development of the flavouring substances I have before mentioned, the Port wine loses its colour and density, acquires a finer flavour, and its price is proportionately enhanced. When the Port wine was originally good, these changes give it so great a claim on public favour in this country that at the present day Port wines which have been kept for twenty, thirty, or forty years obtain almost fabulous prices in the market. Of course, this is a mere matter of taste; and such wines have no dietetical or medicinal qualities commensurate with their price. Some writers and experimenters have, indeed, endea- voured to show that the new qualities developed in wines by keeping have much to do with their action on the system. Too little, however, is known on this subject for anything precise or positive to be laid down with regard to the action of these etherial qualities of wines. The last substances contained in wine which I need mention here are the saline matters, the ashes. If you evaporate a wine and then expose the residue to heat, you will get a quantity of incombustible matter, which, when examined, differs both in quantity and quality in different wines. These ashes, when analyzed, present us with the fact that there are held in solution in wines the following salts: Bitartrate of potash ON WINES, SPIRITS, AND BEEll. 247 ^ cream of tartar), tart rate of lime, tartrate of alumina, tartrate of iron, chloride of sodium, chloride of potas- sium, sulphate of potass, phosphate of alumina. These salts occur in the proportion of from one part to four in the thousand parts of wine. They do not make much difference in the flavour or action of wines ; but Mulder says of them, " As distinctive marks of the genuineness of wine, they are 01 the greatest value. Let any one who wishes to convince himself whether a particular wine is adulterated or not, direct his attention to this point, and compare the ash with that of a genuine wine of the same kind as that under examination." Before leaving wines there are two beverages exten- sively drunk in some parts of England, and which are truly wines, but which are known by the names of Cider and Perry. The first is made from apples, the second from pears. The juice of the apple and pear is procured by pressure, and it is submitted to a process of fermentation in the same way as the juice of the grape. In Worcestershire, Herefordshire, and Devonshire large quantities of these beverages are consumed, and, they are -drunk by the people of these counties in the. same way as beer is consumed in other parts of the country. The same general principles which apply to the manufacture of wine are applicable to them. Those sorts of apples and pears which contain the most sugar will yield in fermentation the largest quantity of alcohol. Cider and perry, when carefully made and kept, undergo those changes which result in the pro- duction of bouquets, which render those beverages more highly prized, and some of the better sorts are valued as much as wines. There is more cider manufactured 248 ON WINES, SPIRITS, AND BEER. than perry, and that which is generally consumed amongst the population contains about the same quantity of alcohol as beer. The quantity of this substance in the pint varies from half an ounce to two ounces. The acid, however, in cider and perry is not tartaric acid, but malic acid. Consequently this acid is retained in the liquor when it is drunk. Some persons ascribe to cider very beneficial pro- perties, but I have not been able to make out that it acts on the system differently from ales and beers containing the same amount of alcohol. In conclusion, I will just glance at Distilled Spirits. These alcoholic drinks differ from wines and beers in the fact that they are distilled from some form of fermented liquor. We may obtain the alcohol from beer or wine, or from any substance contaiaing sugar which is fermented. As an illustration of the sources from which alcohol may be obtained, London in his " Ency- clopaedia of Gardening" tells the story of an Irish gardener who was always drunk, yet no one ever knew where he got the means to indulge his propensity. It was not till he was watched with great perseverance that the source of his inebriety was discovered. It was found that he had ingeniously contrived to make a small still out of two watering-pots, attached by their spouts. Into one of these he introduced a mash of fermenting carrots, from which, by the aid of heat from an oil lamp, he was enabled to obtain a coarse imitation of his beloved potheen. Alcohol, then, under the form of distilled spirits, may be procured from any saccharine substance in a state of fermentation. Arrack is made in the East Indies from ON WINES, SPIRITS, AND BEER. 249 fermenting rice or palm sago. Aqua ardiente is made in Mexico from the sweet juice of the American aloe (Agave Americana) . Araka is made in Tartary from fermented mare's milk, arika from cow's milk. Kirsch- wasser in Germany is distilled from fermenting Machaleb cherries. Maraschino is made in Dalmatia from the macaiska cherry. Show-choo is a Chinese spirit distilled from rice-wine. In fact, there is hardly a race of men under the sun who have not learned the art of distilling alcohol after its formation during the fermentation of sugar. In this country we are more particularly acquainted with brandy, gin, whisky, and rum. The word brandy is of German origin, and is a corruption of brantwein, or burnt wine, meaning wine that has been acted on by heat. The best brandy is obtained from wine, but inferior kinds of brandy are made from malt, potatoes, beet-root, carrots, pears, and other vegetable substances. The brandy of France, which is made from white wine, especially that made at Cognac, in the department of Charente, is regarded as the best. When first distilled brandy is white, but it acquires a colour from the casks in which it is kept. British brandy is distilled from fermented malt, and attempts are made to imitate the flavour of French brandy by the addition of a variety of ingredients. Brandy, like wine, contains cenanthic and acetic ethers, and is said also to owe its peculiar flavour to the addition of peach kernels, to the liquor from which it is distilled. Like wine also, it developes by keeping in bottles some of those flavouring substances which give the peculiar value to wine. The consumption of brandy is very large. It is esti- 250 ON WINES, SPIRITS, AND BEER. mated that 15 per cent, of all the wine of France is made into brandy, and that 20,000,000 of gallons are annually made in France, of which at least one-third is exported. Brandy, like wines and other alcoholic drinks, varies considerably in the quantity of alcohol it contains. At the same time it should be recollected that good brandy should contain from 50 to 55 per cent, of alcohol. Thus a pint of Cognac brandy will contain about ten ounces and a half of pure alcohol, the rest being water. Brandy also contains more or less sugar. Pure French brandy contains about 80 grains of sugar in the pint. It also contains acid, probably acetic acid, in the proportion of from 10 to 20 grains in the pint. The spirit next in importance is Gin. This word is a corruption of Geneva, as that is of the French word genievre or juniper. Gin is also called Hollands. Ge- neva, however, is not gin, but a kind of liqueur made from the berries of the juniper, which contain as much as 34 per cent, of sugar, and may be easily fermented. Gin was first made in Holland, and was brought into this country as Hollands gin. It is distilled from corn malt, and various substances are added to it to give it flavour. The most common substances of this kind are juniper berries, but a variety of substances are added to suit the taste of the consumer, so that no two gins are alike. In this country every gin distiller uses his own ingredients, whilst the retailer of gin has also his particular receipts for rendering his gin profitable or palatable, or both. Sometimes injurious substances are added to gin to make it taste strong, as sulphuric acid and sulphate of zinc ; these, however, are adulterations. ON WINES, SPIRITS, AND BEER. 251 The substances used for flavouring gin are numerous enough. Thus, I find enumerated bitter almonds, tur- pentine, creosote, lemon, cardamoms, caraways, cassia, garlic, Canada balsam, horseradish, Cayenne pepper, and grains of Paradise. None of these things are poisonous, and probably all of them assist in determining the action of the alcohol of the gin as a diuretic. Gin does not usually contain so much alcohol as brandy, not more than eight ounces to the pint being found in the best gins. Sugar is added hy many distillers, but others do njt add this ingredient. Gin, as it is retailed, always contains sugar, and not frequently more than four ounces of alcohol to the pint. It is consequently a weaker spirit generally than brandy, and so far is perhaps less injurious when taken raw. I have, how- ever, before stated that the taking raw spirits is a very hazardous proceeding, and cannot be habitually indulged without danger. Whisky is the form in which distilled spirits are most popular in Scotland and Ireland. It is distilled piincipally from corn, although occasionally sugar and molasses are used. It is usually sold stronger than gin or brandy. It has frequently a slight smoky flavour, supposed to IDC derived from the manner in which it is prepared. This is more particularly the case with what is called small-still whisky. This spirit, as it is gene- rally sold in England at the present day, is more free from flavouring ingredients than any other form of distilled spirits. Rum is less generally consumed in England than the other spirits, but from the fact of its being supplied by the Government to our soldiers and sailors, large 252 ON WINES, SPIRITS, AND BEER. quantities are entered for consumption in Great Britain. It is principally made in the West Indies, and our supplies are almost wholly drawn from Jamaica, where it is manufactured from the fermented scum of the sugar-boilers, and molasses. A flavour is often given to it by the addition of slices of pine-apple. It is usually sold considerably above proof, so that a pint of rum will contain 15 ounces of alcohol. It has a peculiar odour, which is due to butyric ether. Like brandy, it improves by keeping, and probably developes the same class of bouquets as wine. The action of the alcohol of rum is of course the same as that of other fermented liquors, but Dr. Edward Smith has pointed out a curious fact in its action on the system, and that is, that it increases the quantity of carbonic acid thrown out from the lungs. This may be due to the butyric ether. Whether this suggestion be correct or not, it is a curious fact, resulting from Dr. Smith's experiments, that whilst other alcoholic drinks decrease the expiration of car- bonic acid, rum should increase it. I must now, however, draw this long lecture to a close, and the next time we meet I propose to discuss the nature and action of those substances which we add to our food under the name of condiments', spices, and flavours. ON CONDIMENTS, SPICES, & FLAVOURS. A PASSAGE occurs in the life of a practical philosopher which is well known to a large number of readers in England, and which so well illustrates the subject of this lecture that I may perhaps be excused for intro- ducing it. " Weal pie/' said Mr. Weller, soliloquising, as he arranged the eatables on the grass ; " Wery good thing is a weal pie, when you know the lady as made it, and is quite sure it an't kittens ; and arter all though where's the odds, when they are so like weal that the wery piemen themselves don't know the difference ?" " Don't they, Sam ?" said Mr. Pickwick. "Not they, sir," replied Mr. Weller, touching his hat. "I lodged in the same house with a pieman once, sir, and a wery nice man he was reg'lar clever chap too make pies out o' anything, he could. c What a number o' cats you keep, Mr, Brooks,' says I, 254 ON CONDIMENTS, SPICES, JtND FLAVOURS. when I'd got intimate with him. 'Ah,' says he, 'I do a good many,' says he. ' You must be wery fond o' cats,' says I. ' Other people is,' says he, a winkin' at me ; ' they ain't in season till the winter though,' says he. ' Not in season !' says I. ' No,' says he ; * fruits is in, cats is out.' ' Why what do you mean ? * says I. ' Mean !' says he; 'that I'll never be a party to the combination of the . butchers to keep up the prices o' meat,' says he. ' Mr. Weller, says he, squeezing my hand wery hard, and visperiug in my ear, ' don't mention this here agin, but ifs the seasoning as does it. They're all made o' them noble animals,' says he, a pointin' to a wery nice little tabby kitten ; c and I seasons 'em for beefsteak, weal, or kidney, 'cordin' to the demand ; and more than that,' says he, ' I can make a weal a beefsteak, or a beefsteak a kidney, or any on 'em a mutton :it a minute's notice, just as the market changes, and appetites wary !' " Well that is the text of this lecture, " it's the season- in' as does it" and you know that condiments and spices are the seasoning with which we make our food pleasant ; and, after all, if you consider what makes the difference between the various kinds of food, you will find that Mr. Brooks's philosophy is the correct one. It is the taste which food possesses that gives it most value in our estimation. Now the nervous system is as much formed for the appreciation of these tastes and flavours, as the ear is for sound, and there is the same relation between the different flavours addressed to the palate, as there is between sounds addressed to the ear. The analogy is also correct in its minuter details just as some combina- tions of colour produce a pleasing impression on our minds, and others produce an unpleasant effect, or as one set of sounds produce discord and another set harmony, so there are some ^flavours that win not har- monise on the palate, and others that will produce the most pleasing and satisfactory results. Some persons ON CONDIMENTS, SPICES, AND FLAVOCKS. 255 may be offended by this analogy. They have so exalted a notion of the lofty tendencies of the cultiva- tion of the arts of music and painting that to mention the art of tasting in the same category is offensive to them. Yet we should recollect that the same Creator who made the eye for vision, and the ear for hearing, made the tongue for tasting, and that no less elaborate provision is made for the one function than the other, and, in fact, we might claim for the palate, as guiding in the selection of proper food and the rejection of that which is injurious, a higher and more necessary func- tion than could be claimed for either appreciation of colour or sound. The tongue is the organ of taste, and it is so con- structed as to allow the substances we put into our mouths to be readily applied to the nerves by which it is supplied. If we examine the structure of the tongue we shall find that its surface is covered with little pro- jections which are called papillse. Into these papillas the nerves are carried which contribute to the sense of taste. The same nerves are also capable of common sensation, and are used as organs of touch. The tongue is moistened by the constant flow of saliva over it, and it is only when moistened that any sense of flavour is communicated to the consciousness. The tongue, alone, however, is not concerned in this appreciation of tastes and flavour, for we find that the sense of smell is jointly occupied with it ; for there are certain flavours that we should hardly taste at all had we no nose, and there are certain of our foods which altogether address themselves to the sense of smell. Take cinnamon, nutmegs, or cloves, 2f)() ON CONDIMENTS, SPICES, AND FLAVOURS. for instance ; if we put any of these into the mouth and close the nose, we can hardly appreciate the flavour; so it is evident that we frequently use the sense of smell in conjunction with the organ of taste. It is a curious fact that the same nerves which give the sense of taste or flavour are the nerves of common sensibility, that is to say, those by which we feel the touch of any object upon the external surface of our bodies by friction or otherwise. When considering the fact which I have just mentioned, that some things are not really tasted at all unless they are smelled, some persons have supposed that there is no real function of taste, but that what we say we taste, we either smell or feel, or that the sensation of taste is compounded of both. The better way to test that is to apply some- thing to a different part of the body, such as quinine or sugar to the leg, and you will find that they produce no impression of taste or flavour in the leg ; although if you put quinine upon the tongue, you will have an excessively bitter taste, and with the sugar as well as sugar of lead and other substances, a sweet taste, and a salt taste with salt, sulphate of soda, and a number of other things ; so that we can thus prove that there are certain things which we really taste and which have no smell. Now we will call these substances which are tasted sapours, in opposition to those which are called odours. Passing on from the nerve of taste I would observe with regard to the nose that it is the organ of smell, and that it has'a distinct nerve of smell. This nerve is the first nerve which passes from the brain, and is called the olfactory nerve. It passes by a number of OA CONDIMENTS,, SPICES, AND FLAVOURS. 257 twigs through a little sieve-like bone,, which covers over the upper part of the cavity of the nose. Now there are certain things which address the organ of smell which are not taken into the mouth. Thus we have a variety of gases and things which we call scents, odours, perfumes, smells, and stinks, which address themselves to the olfactory nerves alone. We find that this function is developed greatly in the lower animals, and even among the wild races of men this power of detecting the odoriferous particles of matter is very much greater than among cultivated and civilised races. The fact of man having senses to guide him in taste and smell is of importance where our intelligence fails to tell what is good for us, as sometimes happens in the case of persons in illness judging as to what is good for them better than the doctor. Doctors have some- times yielded to a patient's wish for some particular food in consequence of this instinctive desire, and the patient has been very much the better for it. Unless the desire evinced by a sick person for some particular article of food is evidently traceable to a depraved appetite, it is frequently a part of judicious treatment to yield to the desire of the patient. As instances of the use by the lower animals espe- cially of the sense of smell, I may refer to the fact that they will instinctively reject food which is poisonous, however carefully you may wrap it up, even when pressed by much hunger. Monkeys, cats, dogs, and animals of the higher class will pertinaciously reject such food, this action being determined on their part by the sense of smell. It is not, however, only by the olfactory nerve that provision is made to guard '.258 OX CONDIMENTS, SPICES, AND FLAVOURS. against the destruction of the animal; a man may be sometimes placed under circumstances in which he will be exposed to carbonic acid, chlorine, or a variety of gases which, if taken into the system, would destroy him ; he has then, besides the sense of smell, by which some of these gases may be detected., a set of nerves which produce the sensation which we call sneezing. These are titillated by various powders and gases which would act injuriously if they went into the lungs. The act of sneezing is the act of throwing away or getting rid of that which if a man got into his lungs would injure him. When a man sneezes he draws back, in cases where if he went forwards he would endanger his life. The taste has reference to food, the smell has reference to that which probably may be good or bad for food. The olfactory nerves are excited to action by substances capable of being applied through the atmosphere to the mucous membrane of the nose. Now let us pass on to consider a little more atten- tively the nature of the various kinds of sapours and odours which we find in our food. To a thoughtful mind there are many ways of classifying these, but I may speak of them as agreeable and disagreeable odours and flavours, addressing both the organs of taste and smell. In the first place, we have a number of agreeable odours, and these odours may or may not accompany our various kinds of food. Such odours as those exhaled by nutmeg, cinnamon, cloves, lemon-peel, pine-apples, lavender, oil of bitter almonds, and vanilla, are employed both to flavour our food and give scent to our perfumes. Then, again, we have another set of odours which are disagreeable, arising from the mineral, ON CONDIMENTS, SPICES, AND FLAVOURS. 259 the vegetable, or the animal world. Vegetable and animal substances decomposing produce sulphuretted hydrogen, which has a disagreeably offensive odour, and is injurious to health. The carburetted hydrogen of the gas which we burn gives out a disagreeable odour. Sometimes these disgusting odours, by custom and habit, become agreeable, and sometimes, in the same way, disgusting food, by custom and habit, becomes agreeable food. We have an instance of this in the preference which some persons give to food which has been kept till it is tainted by decomposition, as in the case of game and venison. There is a story told of a prince who was confined in a prison a long way from the sea- shore, where they never could get oysters until they were what is called a little gone j being fond of oysters, he became accustomed to the semi-putrid flavour of his dead oysters, and afterwards preferred to eat them in this condition. You will find it very difficult to make children take things which, when they grow up, they acquire a taste for take olives or tobacco as instances. The tendency to partake of food in a state of decom- position is natural in some classes of animals. Thus, we find some of the infusorial animalcules are brought into existence under the influence of decomposing animal and vegetable matter in infusions. Some tribes of beetles and shell-fishes prefer decomposing food. The sturgeons amongst fishes, the crocodiles amongst rep- tiles, and the vultures amongst birds, are instances of creatures which, for beneficent purposes, are endowed with an instinctive tendency to prefer garbage, carrion, and offal, to better kinds of food. However well these animals are adapted to endure 260 ON CONDIMENTS, SPICES, AND FLAVOURS. and flourish on, such a diet, it is very certain that man sometimes suffers severely from such food. I have told you that water charged with decomposing animal and vegetable matter produces disease. During the preva- lence of cholera, the cases were very numerous where persons were attacked shortly after eating decomposing food. During the epidemic of cholera in London, in 1849, it was found that poulterers, fishmongers, and greengrocers, suffered more than any other classes from cholera, and I think it is highly probable that this occurred from such persons eating rather of their damaged stock of goods than that which was sound. I have before referred to the mortality of infants during the hot summer of 1859, and which I attributed to the use of decomposing or acescent milk. The way in which those substances injure the system is by imparting to the fluids of the body the same state of change in which they are themselves. It is not all persons that are susceptible of such an action. Most people in health have the power of producing a gastric juice in their stomachs which will restrain the injurious tendency of decomposing food, and thus no evil results. It is more particularly in warm climates and in warm seasons that these effects take place, and the more common forms of disease produced by this food are diarrhoea and cholera. Let us now examine a little more closely the nature of those substances which are more commonly used for giving a relish to our food. I have before spoken of the four elements, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, and although they assume very different forms, they are still the elements whose compounds form the basis ON CONDIMENTS, SPICES, AND FLAVOURS. 261 of all sapours and odours. Of these there is a series which are called essential oils, and another which we may refer to a class of bodies called ethers ; but before speaking of essential oils or ethers particularly, I will call attention to the production of common ether. Ether is a very volatile body, and its odour, when exposed, is speedily diffused through the atmosphere. Now, ether is made from alcohol. Alcohol is the result of the de- composition of sugar. If we take grape sugar we find it composed of 12 parts of oxygen, 12 of hydrogen, and 12 of carbon ; and alcohol, which is the substance at the foundation of all our odours, is composed of 4 of carbon, 6 hydr6gen, and 2 oxygen, arranged as 4of carbon, 5 hydrogen, 1 of oxygen, and 1 atom of water. Now, if we take away from it the water, we have ether left, which is an oxide of a substance called ethyl, composed of 4 atoms of carbon and 5 of hydrogen, the same ele- ments that are found in coal gas. This substance ether, the oxide of ethyl, will combine with acids, so that we have sulphates of the oxide of ethyl, tartrates and citrates of the oxide of ethyl, &c. A distinguished French chemist has discovered that one compound of oxygen and hydrogen and carbon, combining with chlorine, with iodine, and with nitrogen, is capable of producing 1020 different compounds. There are pro- bably thousands of compounds which may be similarly produced, and which give flavours, and odours, and scents, and peculiarities, in directions which we know of, and in thousands of directions which we know nothing of, and the discovery of the nature of these compounds is the direction that organic chemistry is taking at the ^resent day. 262 ON CONDIMENTS, SPICES, AND FLAVOURS. It is one of the most curious features in the history of modern chemistry, that not only has the chemist been able to show the nature of these compounds by pulling them apart, but he has begun to find out the way to put them together again ; and the chemist can now produce in his laboratory what is ordinarily pro- duced by nature in the laboratory of the plant or fruit. One of the first things that was formed in this way was the oil of bitter almonds. You know that bitter almonds contain an oil which may be extracted from them, and has a very pleasant flavour or scent. It is used in custards, puddings, cakes, and in a variety of other ways. There are two or three substances ordi- narily sold in the present day for oil of bitter almonds, which are obtained from very different sources from those from which it is manufactured in nature; there is, for instance, a substance called benzol, which is a compound of carbon 10 and hydrogen 6. Now, this benzol can be formed artificially, just in the same way as the chemist can form ether, by decomposing certain compounds, and leaving the carbon and hydro- gen in the above proportion. This substance is sold in the shops under the name of benzol, benzine, and benzoline, and is probably known by some persons present on account of its being used for cleaning gloves, silk, and other things, as it possesses a greater solvent power in relation to dirt than ether or alcohol. This benzol is obtained from coal tar, which is a most valuable substance ; and although it is rejected at the gas factories, it is likely to become of most essential service to man in the manufacture of very many things. ON CONDIMENTS, SPICES, AND FLAVOURS. By adding nitric acid to benzol we obtain nitro-benzol, or artificial oil of bitter almonds. There is another substance, hippuric acid, extracted from the drainage of our cowhouses and pigstyes, which, when submitted to the action of heat, can be made into nitro-benzol; so that, as I have said in a former lecture, there is no such thing as real dirt, for dirt is merely matter not in its proper place ; the elements are pure, and only have to be again reunited. Al- though this acid is obtained from such objectionable sources, yet its product is introduced into the most delicate soaps and applied to our faces. And this is only one of a series of similar compounds which are found naturally in plants, but which can be imitated by the art of the chemist. There is a substance for which we in England have long been celebrated, called pear oil in the manu- facture of which no pears are used at all. There is a compound called amyl, which is produced by the decomposition of starch, and which can be got from potatoes ; it is composed of Carbon 10 and Hydrogen 11, and when united with common vinegar or acetic acid, we get a substance which cannot be distinguished from the smell of the jargonelle pear. It is with this manufactured pear oil that cheap lozenges, which are sold in the shops at a penny an ounce, are flavoured. There is another of these manufactured essences, called pine-apple oil; it is introduced into a variety of forms of confectionary, and in this case we have our old friend ether coming in again. You have all smelt rancid butter, which has been long kept ; distil that rancid butter and you will obtain butyric acid, mix that with ethyle and it be- 264 ON CONDIMENTS, SPICES, AND l-'LAVOUI;x comes pine-apple flavour. Now, nature has done the same thing ; there has been a manufacture of butyric acid and ethyk going on within that beautiful fruit which we call the pine-apple, and the flavour is the same in the one case as the other. It is this butyric ether which gives the flavour to rum. Then there is the oil of apples. There is an acid in the substance known by the name of valerian, which has an exceedingly unpleasant smell. There are things which for a moment are exceedingly pleasant, but by taking too much they become exceedingly unpleasant. Valerian is a substance of this kind. It contains valerianic acid, and that combined with the oxide of amyl constitutes what we know by the name of apple oil, which is used for flavouring confectionary. The pleasant taste of the apple is produced in that way. Now, this oxide of amyl can be got from potatoes, coal tar, and other substances, so that there is no difficulty in making these oils, and so many of them have been made, that we shall soon have no difficulty in procuring them, without having recourse to the vegetable king- dom. That these things are composed of carbon and hydrogen may be discovered in a variety of ways. By their inflammability, for instance. You may take them and burn them as you would spirits of wine in a spirit lamp, and the result will be carbonic acid and water, from the union of the carbon and hydrogen with the oxygen of the air. You see what an interesting field of inquiry this branch of chemistry opens up ; but I must leave this subject, and say a word with regard to the action of these substances on the system. When taken into the ON CONDIMENTS, SPICES, AND FLAVOURS. 265 stomach they act upon the nervous system as well as on the organs of taste and smell, and produce an effect upon the stomach, increasing the secretion of gastric acid, and promoting digestion. We instinctively add to meat stews Cayenne pepper, and things of that kind, which act as stimulants to the stomach they act as alcohol and stimulate the nervous system. Persons can get tipsy upon oil of cinnamon and oil of cloves, just as they can upon hydrated oxide of ethyle. For instance, there is a liqueur which has lately become celebrated on account of its killing so many French- men it is called absinthe, and is prepared from worm- wood. The wormwood contains a volatile oil, which not only acts as a stimulant to the stomach, but also has a narcotic effect upon the nervous system ; and a distinguished French chemist, the newspapers inform us, has just discovered that this wormwood contains seventeen deadly principles, any one of which would kill an individual who would venture to take it. Absinthe contains, however, as much as 20 per cent, of alcohol ; and perhaps the pernicious effect of this liqueur may be traced as satisfactorily to the alcohol as to the volatile oils it contains. Let me now speak of the classification of these Sapours and Odours. I have found considerable difficulty in this, arising from the various terms that are given to them ; but I have arranged them under the heads of Condiments, Spices, Flavourers, and Bouquets, and to these I would now draw attention. Now what is a condiment ? Well, I have not been able to get a satisfactory answer ; but I have thought that those substances which contain volatile oils, or 260 OX CONDIMENTS, SPICES, AND FLAVOURS. ethers, or whatever you may call them, which can be taken with salt are condiments, and that those, on the other hand, that can be eaten with sugar are spices. I have classed among the condiments as being flavours agreeable with salt garlic, leek, onions, mus- tard, pepper, Cayenne pepper, capers, pickles, parsley, celery, coriander, thyme, sage, mint, fennel, mushrooms, morels, truffles. Now, looking at these condiments, you will find that they all of them contain different kinds of essences, oils, or ethers, and some of them so distinct as to admit of definite classification. Thus garlick, leek, onions, and assafoetida are condiments. Persons fond of onions will get from onions to leek, from leek to garlick, and from garlic to assafoetida; and thus it is that, in the City, if you go to a chop- house, and ask for your steak with a little higher flavour, they take a warm dish, rub a little assafoedida on it, and put the steak on it. You do not perhaps know that you are eating assafoetida ; but you find it agreeable. Now how is this ? If we take some of these chemical bases from the sources of our pleasant scents and odours, and add to these bases, instead of oxygen, a little sulphur, then you will get things with sulphur smells, such as onions, leeks, watercresses, cabbage. When cabbage is boiled there is the sulphur smell which ascends to the drawing-room, and the exclama- tion occurs, " Pray shut the kitchen-door : you are boiling cabbages." Now, in the case of onions, garlic, leek, chalots, and assafoetida, we are dealing with a substance composed of hydrogen and carbon, called allyle (C 6, H 5) . Just as ethyle unites with oxygen, and forms our strong- ON CONDIMENTS, SPICES, AND FLAVOURS. 267 smelling ether, so allyle unites with sulphur, and pro- duces the strong- smelling sulphide of allyle. This group of strong smelling and tasting plants belongs to the fair lily tribe (Liliaceae), and all belong to the same genus, Allium : hence we call them allia- ceous plants. I give you their formidable Latin names in a diagram : Onions Allium Cepa. Garlic Allium sativum. Shalots Allium ascalonicum. Chives Allium Schcenoprasum. Leeks Allium Porrum. Rocambole Allium Scorodoprasum. They have all the same substance to recommend them. In the large Spanish onions there is more starch and less oil, so that they may be eaten as a substantive article of diet. In the case of the bitter taste which gives so pleasant a flavour to mustard, horse-radish, water- cresses, radishes, and cabbages, we have the same element of sulphur as in the onions; but another powerful chemical compound is combined with sul- phur. This substance is cyanogen, the same com- pound which, uniting with hydrogen, forms hydro- cyanic acid. Now cyanogen contains nitrogen, and thus the flavouring essence of the Crucifera? differ from that of the onion by containing this element. We have here, in fact, a sulphocyanide of allyle (C2NS2 + C6H5). The most curious thing with regard to this compound is, that it does not appear to exist in the mustard-seed, 268 ON CONDIMENTS, SPICES, AM) FLAVOURS. for if we express mustard-seeds we get only a bland fixed oil, but if we moisten the powdered seed then this oil is developed. This arises from the action of the caseine of the mustard-seed, which acts as a ferment upon its other constituents and develops this powerful oil. I have said all these oils act as stimulants ; but they have other properties. The oil of mustard, for in- stance, is acrid, and when taken in sufficient quantities will produce vomiting. This is a fact worth knowing, that in the mustard-pot we have one of the safest and swiftest of emetics. Every one should bear this in mind, as in cases where persons swallow poison the speedy recourse to the mustard-pot may save life. A table-spoonful of ordinary mustard mixed in a wine- glassful of water, will seldom fail to produce sickness. The acridity of this mustard oil is so great, that when applied alone to the skin it speedily produces vesication, and when the powder mixed with water is put to the skin in the form of a poultice, a wholesome irritation is produced. Mustard poultices are amongst the safest, most efficient, and most manageable of counter-irri- tants. Every mother of a family should be acquainted with the uses of a mustard poultice. Of course, mustard is much too common and valuable a thing not to be abused. I remember some time ago some foolish person wrote a book recommending mus- tard-seed to be swallowed whole as a remedy for indi- gestion. Of course, if he had recommended people to swallow live frogs, he would have found some stupid people to believe in him, and so people swallowed whole mustard-seeds. I very well recollect ha\ing been called, when commencing the study of medicine, ON CONDIMENTS, SPICES, AND FLAVOURS. 269 to watch the sufferings of a man who had swallowed quantities of these mustard-seeds. He died ; and when we came to open him, we found pints of these mustard- seeds impacted in his bowels. In some spots they were beginning to germinate, for the vital powers of the stomach had not overcome those of the grain, and the distention of the seed by this process seemed to be the cause of the death of the patient. The acrid flavour of the horse-radish is dependent on the same oil as that of the mustard. We add it to our food under the same circumstances as we use mustard, and it acts in the same way. The oil in the horse- radish is contained in the root, and as this root is not unlike some others, it has led to mistakes occasionally fatal. The most disastrous accidents have occurred from taking by mistake the root of the common monkshood or aconite (Aconitum Napellus) instead of that of horse- radish. The root of the monkshood is darker and more fibrous than that of the horseradish, and the mistake can only occur through great carelessness or ignorance. The next group of condiments to which I would refer is what we call peppers. Thus, we have black and white pepper, long pepper, and Cayenne pepper. The black and white peppers are made from the fruits of a plant known by the name of Piper nigrum. These fruits are sometimes used whole, but they are mostly ground in a mill, and sold powdered. The " black pepper " consists of the dried berries ground down whole. The " white " pepper is formed from the same berries, but their dark husk is first removed. The long pepper is produced by another species of plant, the Piper longum. This latter form is not much used in Europe ; it is, however, exten- 270 ON CONDIMENTS, SPICES, AND FLAVOURS. sively employed in the East as a masticatory. In this way it is employed in conjunction with the betel-nut, which is the fruit of a species of palm (Areca Catechu), and contains tannic acid. The stimulant oil of the pepper in conjunction with this powerful astringent forms an agreeable combination, which is not only consumed by the natives of Eastern countries, but by Europeans, who have contracted the habit of masticating it in the East. The active principle of these peppers is a substance called piperine. It contains carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, and resembles in its nature such substances as quinine, being capable of uniting with acids like an alkali. Of its action on the system we have no precise account. It has been supposed, from its use in the form of the long pepper, to be a narcotic, but of this effect we have no very definite information. Cayenne pepper is produced by a very different family of plants, belonging to the natural order Solanacea, a family of plants that yields the potato, the deadly night- shade, henbane, and tobacco. Cayenne pepper con- sists of the dried fruits of two species of capsicum, the Capsicum annuum and the Capsicum f rut escens. These plants are natives of America, and are cultivated in the East and West Indies. They contain an active principle like piperine, which is called capsicin. It is very stimulant, and is taken on account of its flavour, as well as its stimulant action on the stomach. It enters into the composition of curry powder, a compound of condi- ments and spices used extensively as an addition to food in Europe, more especially in this country, and originally imported from the East. ON CONDIMENTS, SPICES, AND FLAVOURS. 271 Another group of condiments are those which arc familiarly known by the name of " mints." They belong to a family of plants called Lamiacece or Labiata. This family is remarkable for containing in their leaves and all parts of the plant minute receptacles filled with volatile oil. These oils have many of them an agreeable scent, and yield the perfumes of lavender, patcholi, and many others. Many of them are cultivated in gardens under the name of pot-herbs. The peppermint (Mentha piperita) is a British wild plant, and its leaves are distilled with spirits of wine, forming essence of pepper- mint. The oil is also distilled alone, and is called oil of peppermint. The oil is used for flavouring peppermint lozenges. The whole plant is also distilled with water, and sold in the shops under the name of peppermint water. It is a useful stimulant for the stomach, and often employed as a medicine. To the same family also belong sage and thyme. The leaves of these plants are used fresh or dry, and form the flavouring of those ingredients which are put into the inside of ducks, geese, roast pigs, sausages, and other animal food brought to the table. lt They are warm and discussive, and good against crudities of the stomach," according to an old writer on this subject. The rosemary belongs to this order, and although not much used at the present day, sprigs of it were formerly stuck into beef whilst roasting, and are said to give it an " excellent relish." Basil, summer and winter savory, and sweet marjoram, are all used in this way, whilst ground ivy, horehound, and pennyroyal are used as medicines on account of the volatile oils they contain. ON CONDIMENTS, SPICES, AND FLAVOURS. Fig. 1. Fruit of Caraway. These oils are all of them compounds of carbon, hy- drogen, and oxygen. Amongst plants which yield volatile oils added to food, must be placed the umbel-bearing plants, or Um- bellifera. The fruits of those plants, which are called seeds, as caraway seeds (Fig. 1), dill seeds, and the like, are re- markable for possessing elon- gated tubes, or receptacles called vittce, which contain volatile oils. Many of these fruits are added to food to give it a flavour, as cara- ways, coriander, fennel, and anise. (Fig. 2.) Sometimes this oil is found in the whole, as in the celery (Fig. 3), fennel, mid samphire. The wild celery (Apium graveolens) contains so large a quantity of an acrid oil as to be poisonous, but when cultivated, that portion of the plant which is kept under ground pro- duces only a sufficient quan- tity of this oil to give it a pleasant flavour. Large quan- tities of this plant are con- sumed, and its beneficial action on the system is probably to be looked for in the mineral substances it contains, as I explained in the second lecture. The leaves of the fennel (Anethum foeniculum) are Fig. 2. Fruit of Anise. Fig. 3. Fruit of Celery. ON CONDIMENTS, SPICES, AND FLAVOURS. 273 more used than its fruits (Fig. 4), and the peculiar flavour of its oil is supposed to be more agreeable with fish than with other animal food. It is said to attract fish, and the angler puts a few leaves of fennel into his box with bait. The samphire (Crithmum mariti- mum] has a poetical interest, and is one of the plants of Shakspeare. The "dangerous trade " of the samphire-gatherer arises from its growing on the sides of steep cliff's ; and one of the most ornamental features of the white cliffs of Albion is the dark-green patches which this plant pro- duces where it grows. It is gathered for the sake of the pleasant oil which is diffused throughout the whole plant, and which renders it an agreeable addition to our food, especially when used in the form of pickle. There is one other group of plants which, although I might have spoken of them under more substantial articles of diet, are, nevertheless, more frequently em- ployed as condiments than anything else. I allude to the Fungi. The late Dr. Badham, in his beautiful book on the " Esculent Funguses of England/' says of their odours and tastes, that " both one and the other are far more numerous in this class of plants than in any other with which we are acquainted." Some of them yield powerfully-disagreeable odours as the Phallus impudicus and the Clathrus cancellatus, whilst others give out the most agreeable of perfumes. I shall not, however, pretend to give you an account here of all the fungi which the Doctor recommends to 274 ON CONDIMENTS,, SPICES, AND FLAVOURS. be eaten either as substantive articles of diet or pleasant additions to sauces. You will be surprised to hear that he enumerates no less than forty-eight species all good to eat. But fungi have this drawback : that some of them are very poisonous, and mistakes occur so often that only persons skilled in distinguishing the various species ought to be trusted for administering them indiscriminately as food. In the markets of the Con- tinent persons are specially appointed for the examina- tion of fungi, and only those which are uninjurious are allowed to be sold. Dr. Badham says that the majority of funguses are harmless; nevertheless, the frightful accounts he gives of their poisonous symptoms and the post-mortem appearances of the brains and bowels of those who have died of them, are enough to alarm the most stout-hearted. I shall, therefore, only refer to those which are eaten generally in England, and which may be taken with impunity. . 5. The Common Mushroom. The first of these is the common mushroom (Aya- ricus campestris). (Fig. 5.) It is so well known that ON CONDIMENTS, SPICES, AND FLAVOURS. 275 I need not describe it here. When eaten it should be fresh- gathered, as after keeping it acquires properties that render it liable to disagree. They may, however, he dried quickly and kept wholesome for any length of time, or they may be powdered, and thus kept. When salted fresh and pressed they yield the sauce known by the name of ' ( ketchup " or " catsup." The mushroom gives a fine flavour to soups and greatly improves beef- tea. When arrowroot and weak broths are distasteful to persons with delicate stomachs, a little seasoning with ketchup will frequently form an agreeable change. The mushroom itself may be cooked in a variety of ways. Some roast them, basting with melted butter and serve with white wine sauce. They may be made into patties and added to fricassees. In France they steep them in oil, adding salt, pepper, and a little garlic ; they are then tossed up in a small stew-pan over a brisk fine, with chopped parsley and a little lemon-juice. The morell (Morchella esculent a) (Fig. 6) is occasionally found in Great Britain, and is considered a great luxury by fungus-eaters. It is cooked in the same way as the common mushroom, but has a more delicate flavour. Although usually obtained from our Italian warehouses, if sought out it may not unfrequently b found in our orchards and woods at the beginning of summer. T The Morell. 276 ON CONDIMENTS, SPICES, AND FLAVOURS. The truffle (Lycoperdon Tuber) (Fig. 7) is another fungus found in the mar- kets of England. It is more rare in England than the morell, but it is brought in considerable quantities from France. They grow entirely Fig. 7.-Tke Twffle. underground, and in France dogs and even swine are trained to discover them. They give a delicate flavour to soups and gravies, and enter into the composition of stuffing for boars' heads, fish, and other kinds of animal food. The condiments I have already mentioned are all produced by the vegetable kingdom. But the power of producing both pleasant and unpleasant volatile and sapid products is not confined to plants. Most persons are acquainted with the perfumes known by the name of civet, musk, and ambergris, which are the produce of animal life. Each kind of animal has its own peculiar taste, and this is dependent on some of those products which I have mentioned so often as giving the great variety of our odours and flavours. Now in some cases animals have these flavours so strongly that we use them for flavouring those less favoured by nature. The lobster is used for making a sauce for fish with less flavour, so also the anchovy of Europe and the tama- rind fish of the East. It was only the other day I received from my friend Dr. Gull a parcel of fish which had a strong smell of mouldy Stilton cheese. This fish, which is called the bummeloh, is caught in great abundance in the Indian Ocean, and is exported to all parts of the East. The Chinese are very fond of it ; ON CONDIMENTS, SPICES, AND FLAVOURS. 277 they, nevertheless, call it koo-too, or dog's vomit. This word is the same as is used to express the abject obeisance required by the Chinese potentates on the introduction of strangers, and which has been so resolutely refused by our embassies. But let us now turn to the spices. I have said we mostly eat these things with sugar ; but the word spice means anything of which we take a little. A spice of a substance is a little of it, or a specimen, as we say in more pompous English. The substances of which I have now to speak differ from the last, in being mostly of foreign origin, and not only foreign, but tropical or sub-tropical. Well might our grandfathers call them spices, for little enough did they get of these things. But the ends of the earth have fallen to our lot, and every boy and girl at school can indulge in a taste for those spices of which the grandees of the land in the time of our rude forefathers knew nothing but through vague rumours of the luxuries of the wealthy East. The first of these spices that I shall mention is cinnamon. This substance is the bark of a plant (Laurus Cinnamomum Fig. 8) which is a native of the East Indies. It belongs to a family remarkable for yield- ing a volatile oil in various parts of their structure. The plants belonging to the genus Laurus yield not only cinnamon, but cassia and camphor, and the well- known bay of our gardens and shrubberies is the Laurus nobilis, the true Laurel of the ancients. It is a mistake to call the Prunus Laurocerasus, which is the English laurel, by that name, as it never occupied the position of honour attributed by the ancients to the bay. T 2 278 ON CONDIMENTS, SPICES, AND FLAVOURS. The cinnamon of our shops is principally brought from Ceylon, where the cinnamon-plant, a small tree, . 8. Cinnamon-tree. is extensively cultivated. About 20,000 pounds are annually consumed in this country. This bark contains an oil which is distilled and sold under the name of oil of cinnamon. Chemically it is a very interesting substance, as it contains a base called cinnamyle, united with hydrogen, and is technically called a hyduret of cinnamyle. It has an agreeable odour and pleasant taste, and is extensively employed as an addition to various articles of food. It is a stimulant, and when taken assists in the digestion of the various kinds of food to which it is added. It is also employed in medicine, where stimulants, and what are called antispasmodics, are required. ON CONDIMENTS, SPICES, AND FLAVOURS. 279 Another species of Laurus yields the hark called cassia, which contains the same oil, but in less quantity, and mixed with a large proportion of tannic acid and other substances, which are less agreeable when added to articles of diet. The same genus of plants yields camphor. Camphor, it is said, is procured from the roots of the cinnamon tree. Camphor is a concrete volatile oil, composed of the same constituents as the oil of cinnamon, and possessed of the same properties. Although best known in this country as a medicine, it is consumed in China as an article of luxury, and used as we take wine or spices. The Chinese do not, however, use the camphor obtained from the common camphor-tree (Laurus Camphora), which grows abundantly in Formosa and other islands on the Chinese coasts. They prefer the camphor of Japan and Borneo, which has a somewhat different flavour, and which is produced by a tree known by the name of Dryabalanops Camphora. This tree also grows in Sumatra, and is described as one of the noblest trees of the island. The camphor yielded by the young trees is liquid, but afterwards it becomes solid. It is seldom seen in this country, as the Chinese pay a high price for this camphor. I might, perhaps, properly have spoken of cloves before cinnamon, as I find we import into this country no less than 200,000 pounds of cloves annually. This aromatic substance is the unopened flower of a plant called the Caryophyllus aromaticus (Fig. 9), which belongs to the myrtle tribe of plants. All the myrtle tribe, including our common myrtle, yield volatile oils in their fruits, flowers, or leaves. From this tribe we 280 ON CONDIMENTS, SPICES, AND FLAVOURS. also obtain allspice, nutmegs, mace, and cajeput. The oil of cloves has the same general properties as that of cinnamon, and it is used under much the same circum- stances. The Pimento berries or allspice, are the fruits of the Eugenia Pimento, a small tree growing in the West-Indian Islands. Four hun- dred thousand pounds of these berries are annually imported into Great Britain. They are extensively employed in the ma- nufacture of sauces, which are eaten with steaks, chops, and other kinds of animal food. Their name, allspice, refers to the very compound flavour these berries possess. Nutmegs are the seeds of a plant belonging to the Laurel family, the Myristica moschata. These seeds con- tain an exceedingly grateful and pleasant oil, and when grated down, are employed to flavour cakes, custards, and negus. Outside the nutmeg seed is a curious organ called by botanists an arillus, which grows much larger in this than most seeds, and when separated it consti- tutes the commercial and dietetical article, mace. Mace, like nutmegs, contains a pleasant oil, and is added to sweet foods to give them a flavour. These oils are Fig. 9. Cloves. ON CONDIMENTS, SPICES, AND FLAVOURS. 281 developed by tropical suns, and we obtain our nutmegs and mace from the Molucca Islands. The nutmeg-tree is also cultivated in Java, Borneo, Jamaica, and Cayenne. Before leaving the laurel family, I will just remind you that the bay itself yields a fragrant oil both in its fruits and leaves, which are added to flavour various articles of food. Those who have read Soyer attentively and what housewife who wished to make her home what it ought to be has not? will remember how often the prescription occurs amongst his sauces of taking two bay-leaves, which of course must be removed before the sauce is served. I wish I could persuade some of my lady hearers, who spend so much time in thumping their pianos, in vain endeavouring to " discourse sweet sounds/' to try their taste upon the manufacture of sauces. How many an uneaten dinner, which goes away to be thrown to the dogs, would be consumed ; how often would the rich be thus lured on to take the food necessary for their restoration to health, which they now loathe and die for the want of. Fine ladies may think this a subject beneath them ; foolish women may think they know quite enough about it ; but the time may come when both alike will repent their pride and folly. We must not pass over spices without speaking of ginger (Zingiber officinale), the most potent, the most useful, and most generally used of all spices. We count the consumption of ginger in Great Britain not by pounds but by hundredweights. Twenty thousand cwts. are annually consumed in Great Britain. What folly and madness, what waste and injury, must come of 28.2 ON CONDIMENTS, SPICES, AND FLAVOURS. this consumption of condiments and spices, if certain of our philanthropic wiseacres are to be believed, u-lio, combining the follies of teetotalism and vegetarianism with the delusions of homoeopathy, denounce the addition of these substances to our diet. Ginger is used mote largely on account of its comparative economy. It is added to cakes, and to ginger-bread, which is a popular article of diet in this country. It also finds its way into sauces, spiced wines, and a variety of the pleasant eat- ables found in the shop of the confectioner. The oil of ginger is deposited in the rootstock or underground stem of the ginger-plant. Similar oils are found in the same situation in other plants belonging to the same natural order as the ginger-plant. These are the Turmeric (Curcuma longa], the Zedoary (Curcuma Ze- doarid], and the Galanga (Alpinia Galanga] . These and other ginger-plants are cultivated in the East Indies. The ginger family (Zingiberaceae) not only yield the plants I have mentioned, but another group whose fruits, containing seeds with an aromatic oil, are called cardamoms. These seeds are used as a medicine in this country, but as a condiment in other parts of the world. The Grains of Paradise, known of old to brewers' druggists, belong also to this group of plants. Before taking leave of the spices, I must mention two products sold in the shops, and used both as condi- ments and spices. I mean " curry powder " and " mixed spices." Curry has been introduced into Europe froin the East. In tropical climates, the inhabitants use much more extensively spices and con- diments than we do. There are two reasons for tlii*. In the first place, food containing these things is test ON CONDIMENTS, SPICES, AND FLAVOURS. 283 liable to putrefy and decompose than when they are absent. They are antiseptics, and this antiseptic effect is, I believe, effected in the stomach. The effect of eating decomposing food is very disastrous in hot countries, and in our own country in hot weather. Hence one use of these warm aromatic oils. But there is another action of these oils, and that is their stimulant effect on the stomach. You will recollect what I said of the action of alcohol in this way. These oils act in the same manner, and as they produce their effects in smaller quantities, they can be taken without pro- ducing injury to the nervous system generally. This stimulant effect on the stomach seems most needed in hot countries, where the action of the heat on the skin causes an excessive activity on the part of its blood-vessels which needs to be counteracted by a power- ful stimulus applied to the mucous membrane of the stomach. From this explanation, you will easily under- stand how many of these substances act in relieving pain in the stomach. Every child knows that a peppermint lozenge will frequently cure the pain brought on by eating an unripe apple. Curry powder is composed of many condiments and spices. Thus we are told that genuine curry contains turmeric, cardamoms, ginger, allspice, cloves, black pepper, coriander, cayenne, fenegrick, and cumin. Mixed spice is a powder very popular amongst the housekeepers of England, and consists of ginger, allspice, cumin, and cloves. This subject is a very wide one, and I might dwell on it further, but I must forbear. Nevertheless, there are two or three other things that I would speak of 284 ON CONDIMENTS, SPICES, AND FLAVOURS. under the name of flavourers. We can hardly call oil of bitter almonds, vanilla, lemon-peel, lemon-juice, and fruit essences, spices or condiments, yet we add them to food to give it a flavour. Although, as I have told you, the oil of bitter almonds can be made artificially, the oil as it exists in nature is better adapted for addition to food. This is done by the addition of those parts of plants which contain the oil. Thus, the bitter almond itself contains this oil, and is frequently used for giving a flavour to cakes. The oil is obtained separately from the almonds, and sold in the shops. It is a very curious substance, and does not appear to exist in the almond till water has been added. The way in which the oil is made is to take the paste of the bitter almonds, after the fixed oil is pressed out, and then to distil over the volatile oil. This product contains also hydrocyanic acid, which is removed by the action of iron, and the essential oil is redistilled. This oil is produced in a very curious way by the decomposition of a substance in the almond-seed called amygdaline. The amygdaline is composed of* carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. The following dia- gram will show those who are learned in chemical symbols the nature of this change : 1 of Hydrocyanic Acid C 2 H N 2 of Oil of Bitter Almonds ... C 28 Hi 2 O 4 Sugar ... ... ... Ce H7 07 2 of Tannic Acid C 4 H4 O 8 3 of Water H 3 O 3 Amygdaline 640 H 2 r O 22 N From the fact that oil of bitter almonds itself is a ON CONDIMENTS, SLICES, AND FLAVOURS. 285 poison, and that hydrocyanic acid is a much more vigorous poison, it is a matter of the utmost importance that this flavour should be used with caution. The leaves of the common laurel, or cherry laurel (Prunus Laurocerasus) also contain a similar oil to the oil of bitter almonds, and likewise hydrocyanic acid. Cherry laurel water has been known to destroy life, so that these leaves require to be used with caution. They are put into custards, and the milk and water with which cakes are made. Noyeau is made from peach kernels and bitter almonds, and the flavour of ratafia is obtained from the same source. The seeds of the peach, apricot, cherry, nectarine, and plum, all contain these products, and are used for flavouring food. The fruit of an Orchidaceous plant known to botanists by the name of Vanilla aromatica (Fig. 10), yields in its tissues a delicious fragrance, which is highly esteemed both as a perfume and a flavourer of food. This plant is a native of the New World, and its flavour was first experienced by Europeans when Cortes led his band of Spanish brigands to the capital of Montezuma, where they found this sovereign smoking his pipe and sipping his chocolate flavoured with the fragrant vanilla. From the time that chocolate began to be consumed in Europe, a demand was made for vanilla, which is now Fig. 10. Vanilla. 286 ON CONDIMENTS, SPICES, AND PI AVOURS. not only used for flavouring cocoa, but puddings, cakes, custards, liqueurs, and other articles of food. The fruit of the vanilla, when analyzed, has been found to contain a peculiar volatile oil, with which is mixed a certain quantity of benzoic acid. These substances give to it its peculiar fragrance. Although we draw our supplies of vanilla almost entirely from Mexico, it appears not impossible to cultivate this plant even in the hothouses of Europe. Several years ago, when visiting the Continent, I saw plants of the vanilla growing in a hothouse in the botanic garden at Liege. They bore an abundance of fruit, and I was assured by Professor Morren, the superintendent of the garden, that they could be used for all the purposes to which foreign vanilla is applied. The consumption of vanilla in this country is about five or six hundredweights annually. At the commencement of this lecture, I alluded to the manufacture of artificial fruit essences. Many of these, as apple oil, pear oil, grape oil, and pine-apple oil, are compounds of ethers and acids. Pear oil, or essence of Jargonelle pears, is a spirituous solution of the acetate of the oxide of amyle ; apple oil is the same ether with valerianic acid ; pine-apple oil is a compound of oenanthic ether with butyric acid. There are probably many others of these oils used. They are manufactured for the purpose of giving a flavour to low- priced confectionary. To the same class of substances I may add the oils of lemon and orange peel. The rind of the fruit of all the orange tribe yields a volatile oil, con- tained in little depositories underneath the epidermis. ON CONDIMENTS, SPICES, AND FLAVOURS. 287 These oils are distilled and added to food, especially the oil of lemons. The recent and dried peels of these fruits are added to cakes, custards, puddings, and beverages, to give them a pleasant flavour. Pre- served in sugar and dried, lemon and orange peel are eaten under the name of " chips," whilst the peel of orange, lemon, and citron, boiled in sugar, form the well-known "candied" peels. This reminds me of a large class of substances which are employed to flavour sugar. The angelica is a plant belonging to the Umbellifera3 ; the whole plant has a pleasant smell, and its stems are scraped and boiled in sugar, forming the candied angelica. The eryngoe, the sea holly (Eryngium maritimum), a despised plant on the sea-shore, is dug up, and its root, candied, is a sweetmeat for royal tables. But my time would fail me to tell of a tenth part of the roots, seeds, berries, and fruits, which, containing pleasant flavours, are done up into sugar sweetmeats, to please the appetite for variety. Sugar is a dull thing to eat from day to day, but, seasoned with these aromas from the vege- table kingdom, it becomes one of the most capti- vating of the indulgences that address themselves to the palate. Here also I ought to allude to acids. I have always had some difficulty in classifying the organic acids which enter so largely into our food. In composition they resemble starch and sugar, and in consequence of this I have placed them, in my " Guide to the Food Collection" at Kensington, amongst the heat-giving foods. We have, however, no direct evidence that they are converted into carbonic acid and water. As articles 288 ON CONDIMENTS, SPICES,, AND FLAVOURS. of diet, they probably all exert the same influence ou the system, and one of the great inducements to the taking of them seems to be their pleasant flavour. In certain states of the system, they are most agreeable to the palate, and there is a desire for them which has led man at all times and in all countries to use them. One of their uses undoubtedly is that they exert a solvent power on the mineral ingredients of our food, and thus assist in carrying them into the blood. This is the case with carbonic acid, which is so agreeable to us in the effervescence of soda water, Selters water, frothing beers, and sparkling wines. There is also reason to believe that in certain states of the system the organic acids may favour the development of the gastric juice in the stomach, and even assist by their decomposition, when in the blood, in oxidizing its contents. We know that however important may be the action of potash in scurvy, this action is vastly increased by the action of the citric acid with which it is combined in lemon- juice. The most commonly used of the organic acids is vinegar, which is diluted acetic acid. Acetic acid is the hydrated oxide, the teroxide of an organic base called acetyle (HO + O3 + CH3). It is usually obtained from the oxidation of alcohol, as I have before explained, but it may be also obtained by the destructive distillation of wood. It is then called pyroligneous acid. Vinegar obtained from the distillation of fermented malt or wine is, however, preferred by the public. It is a curious fact that although the vinegar-maker obtains his malt vinegar without colour, he is obliged to add burnt sugar to colour it in order to satisfy the public ON CONDIMENTS, SPICES, AND FLAVOURS. 289 taste. This is a harmless addition, but it is one of those things which illustrate a feature in the adultera- tion of food generally, and that is, that a great deal of it is done to please the public taste. The antiseptic and agreeable flavour of vinegar has led to its extensive use for preserving vegetable substances, which are eaten under the name of " pickles/' These are generally agreeable additions to our diet, and vinegar taken in moderation is beneficial ; but the practice of taking vinegar to the extent of destroying the digestive energy of the stomach, in order to get thin, is one of those dangerous experiments which folly sometimes pays for with its life. Citric acid is found in many fruits, as the strawberry, the currant, and other acid fruits, but it is found in greatest purity and abundance in the fruits of the orange tribe (Aurantiacece) . Lemon-juice and lime- juice are sold in the shops, and may be used for die- tetical purposes. The slight flavour which the oil of the peel of the lemon gives to the juice renders it, for a variety of dietical purposes, preferable to vinegar. Lemon juice may be added to almost all kinds of stews and made dishes. It is a primary ingredient in sauces for chops, steaks, wild fowl, and game. A squeeze of lemon will improve the flavour of turtle, lamb, veal, and whitebait; it is a precious constituent of jellies; it is the distinguishing feature of lemonade ; a boar's head should not be brought to table without a lemon in his mouth, and those who have drunk tea with only milk to tone it down, have a treat yet to come in the addition of a thin slice of lemon to a cup of genuine hyson. To those of you who would succeed in the art 290 ON CONDIMENTS, SPICES, AND FLAVOURS. of pleasing the palate, let me recommend the profound study of the properties of a lemon. It is a descent to speak of the other acids. Tartaric acid is found in the juice of the grape, and I have already spoken of its properties when telling you about wine. Like citric acid, it may be separated in the form of crystals, and when powdered, being cheaper than citric acid, it is used for making effervescing powders. Malic acid is found in apples and pears, and gives the acidity to those fruits, and the wines made from them known underthe nameof cyder and perry. The poisonous oxalic acid is the flavouring ingredient that recommends sorrel (Rumex acetosd] and the wood-sorrel (OxaJis acetosella) as salad, and the leaf-stalks of rhubarb as a substitute for gooseberries and currants in the early season of the year. All these acids, like oxalic acid, are poisonous in large doses, but we may learn from their beneficial action on the system, that many of these substances which, when taken in excess, destroy the system, may be taken in small quantities, not only with impunity, but with advantage. But I must close this long lecture on matters of taste. I fear I have wearied you, but if I have impressed you with the importance of this subject, I shall have succeeded in my object, and I hope convinced you that Mr. Brooks gave a great practical hint to our cooks and housewives when he knowingly ejaculated, " It's the seasonin' as does it." ON TEA AND COFFEE. IN these lectures, you may regard me as acting the part of your host. I began by giving you a cup of cold water, than which nothing is more provocative of appe- tite. I then placed before you the salt-cellar with its contents, and the various forms of plants we eat as salads, and popularly known as purifiers of the blood. Aware, however, that you could not be sustained on this diet, I introduced you to starch and sugar, and the philosophy of making puddings and eating sweetmeats. These, I explained to you, were heat-giving materials, but inferior even in that function to butter, fats, and oils. I then placed before you bread and meat, poultry, fish, and game, not denying you a glass of ale or wine, to stimulate your digestion, and give a relish to your food. In the present and succeeding lecture we will, u 292 ON TEA AND COFFEE. if you please, repair to the drawing-room, and discuss the merits of tea, coffee, and chocolate, previous to taking a pipe of tobacco with the American Indian, and a dose of opium with the Chinese. Tea, coffee, and chocolate belong to the same class of foods as alcohol and the volatile oils. The constituents they contain act on the nervous system, but they act in a different way. Alcohol and the condiments and spices, discussed in the last lecture, are stimulants of the nervous system; but tea and coffee are sedatives. The one is capable of destroying life by producing excessive action ; the other destroys life by preventing action. The way in which these substances act on the nervous system is still a mystery. One thing seems to be ascertained, and that is, that the active agent, whether we call it a food, a medicine, or a poison, must be brought in contact with the nervous matter on which it acts. Alcohol, on being brought in contact with a nerve, excites it to action ; tea, on being brought in contact with the same nerve, calms and subdues its activity. Hence, alcohol and tea are natural antago- nists. Physiologically antagonists in their action on the human nerves, they have been commercially and dietetically antagonists from the time the latter became known amongst the European nations. The nations of antiquity the Egyptians, Jews, Greeks, and Romans knew nothing of tea. They all regarded alcohol as one of the most precious luxuries of food, and were no strangers to its seductions and destructive influences. The temptations of this powerful agent, and the want of a less stimulating and yet not ON TEA AND COFFEE. 295 less agreeable beverage, was one of the defects of their civilization. We miss from the sculptures of Nineveh, the paintings of Egypt, the statuary of Greece, and the furniture of Pompeii, those vessels which we have bor- rowed from the Chinese, and which are so characteristic of our civilization. The strong spirituous draughts of the Celt, the Saxon, and the Norse, were inhaled from the polished skulls of slaughtered foemen ; the sparkling and highly- tinted wines of the Mediterranean races were poured out of gold and silver tazzas and anaphoras ; or they stimulated appetite by shining through the transparent sides of crystal cups. These ostentatious utensils were unsuited to the modest character of tea or coffee ; and China, which has the merit of supplying the civilized world with the finest of these invigorating infusions, has also presented us with appropriate vessels to contain it, with implements excelling in beauty and refinement anything of this kind that the world had before pro- duced. The Majolica ware of Southern Europe, though covered with a fine and durable glaze, and decorated with designs painted by the scholars of Giotto, Pietro Perugino, and Raphael, was disregarded when the novel and exquisite porcelain imported from China became known. The pure white body of this earthen- ware, formed of the yet unknown kaolin and petuntze, had a charm which, though unaided with artistic adjuncts, bore down all competition. The unpretend- ing brown and semi-turbid "infusion of tea/' held in these elegant cyathides and cylices, or cups and saucers, diffusing around its delicate aroma, soon sur- u 2 294 ON TEA AND COFFEE. passed, in the favour of the cultivated classes, the more exciting and showy freight of the sculptured bowl. For a time tea was sipped out of minute cups of eggshell porcelain hy aristocratic lips only, and amongst elegant social groups, that would have satisfied the fastidious fancy of Watteau; but soon the fashion of tea-drinking descended to the lowest ranks, so that oven in the time of Dr. Johnson, he was able to say, " no washerwoman sat down to her evening meal without tea from the East Indies, and sugar from the \Vest." Tea, coffee, and chocolate were unknown as articles of diet in Europe previous to the seventeenth century. The consumption of tea in the United Kingdom alone at the present time is 80,000,000 pounds annually; of coffee we consume 40,000,000 pounds ; and of cocoa, 4,000,000 pounds in the year, making alto- gether about four pounds every year for each man, woman, and child in the country. It is very natural that we should turn to the compo- sition of these three things, and ask if there be any- thing they contain in common which can explain their action on the system, and the influence they have gained over the appetites of mankind ? Have they, like wines, spirits, and beers, an active agent, which in each case is the basis of its actions and influence? The parts of these plants employed in diet are various. We obtain tea from the leaves of the plant, coffee from the roasted berries, and cocoa from the pounded seeds. Nor are their general properties less varied. Tea con- tains volatile oils and tannin ; coffee contains empyreu- matic oils and cafrcic acid : whilst cocoa contains fifty ON TEA AND COFFEE. 295 per cent, of a fixed oil, solid at the temperature of our climate. But in each of these is found an active prin- ciple. It was first obtained from coffee, and called caffeine ; then from tea, and called theme ; and lastly from cocoa, and called theobromine. Now, the next interesting part of the history of these substances is that caffeine and theine are identical, and theobromine is so closely allied to these in composition, as to lead to the supposition that it must act on the system in the same way. I think, then, you must admit that the evidence is almost complete, from the result of chemical analysis, that their active principles are the agents which have rendered these articles of diet so popular throughout the world. But I have yet another piece of evidence to put in. The only plant used for infusion that could for a moment be put in competition with tea, coffee, and chocolate, is the Paraguay tea. This plant also contains an active principle, which was called Paraguaine ; but, on being analysed, this substance is found to be identical with theine. It is in fact theine. There is another instance of a plant containing theine, and this is in the case of the Paulirda sorbilis, the seeds of which are made into a bread by the Brazilian savages. This bread, called Guarana bread, is found to contain theine. It is pounded and mixed with water and drunk by the Indians as an invigorating beverage Added to these facts, we find that no leaves, seeds, or roots that do not contain theine, are used so extensively for infusions or decoctions by mankind. Under these cir- cumstances, I think we may fairly claim for theine the same position in relation to these beverages that alcohui has in wines, spirits, and beer. It becomes, therefore, a 296 ON TEA AND COPFEE. matter of some interest to ascertain the precise action of this agent on the system. I have no doubt in my own mind that the action of theine on the system is principally through the agency of the nerves. If given in sufficient doses to animals, it kills them. I have given it to frogs, and found that half a grain is sufficient to kill a full-grown frog. The animal is at first paralysed, and after some time becomes convulsed and dies. The death in this case is very similar to that which is observed from the action of hydrocyanic acid, hemlock, and other sedative poisons. Such poisons do not produce sleep or drowsiness at once, and it is only when insensibility comes on that any remarkable derangement of the functions of the brain is observed. This action of the theine on the nervous system seems to me to account for the influence exerted on the system by tea and coffee. They exercise primarily a calmative influence, produce a sense of repose, which, without being depressing in the slightest degree, pre- vents a morbid activity of the nervous system. I can- not but think that the craving for tea and coffee which is frequently exhibited by strong men depends on this influence of the theine on the nervous system. But the action of theine is not altogether dependent on its immediate influence on the nervous system. It has been shown by competent experimenters that it has the same kind of conservative action on the tissues that we found to take place with alcohol. It seems that any of those substances which exert an influence on the nervous system, whether that influence is seda- tive or stimulant, prevent the destruction of tissue. ON TEA AND COFFEE. 297 As I have said before, this is not always a healthful or desirable action. When persons are growing stout, when the blood is getting corrupt from the introduc- tion or retention of improper ingredients, it is fre- quently most desirable that every facility should be given for a change. It should also be recollected that all healthy life depends on the destruction of tissue, and that to prevent this is to retain old stuff instead of new, and to work with bad and imperfect materials when fresh and new ones might be obtained. Besides this general action of theine, certain special actions have been attributed to it. Liebig at one time thought it substituted taurine, a compound procured from the bile, but he has probably abandoned this theory himself. Before leaving theine I would call your attention to its chemical composition, by which you will see that it closely resembles kreatinine, a sub- stance I have before spoken of as contained in the flesh or muscles of animals. It also resembles another compound, which is called glycocoll, and which exists in gelatine, the substance from which we make jellies. It may be that theine exerts some action on the tissues, in virtue of this resemblance. If we compare the composition of theobromine, theine, and kreatinine, with certain active principles from plants with which we are acquainted, we shall find that, although they differ little in chemical compositions, seme of them act as medicines whilst others act as frightful poisons. Take the following series, which gives the quantity of atoms of each of their elements : 298 ON TEA AND COFFEE. Carbon. Nitrogen. Hydrogen. Oxygen. Theobromine .... Theine or Caffeine Kreatinine 7 8 8 2 2 3 4 5 7 2 2 2 Glycocoll . . 8 2 8 6 Kreatine 8 3 9 4 20 1 12 2 Morphine 34 1 19 6 Atropine 34 1 23 6 Strychnine . . 46 2 26 4 60 1 47 14 Many of you will be reminded by this table of the composition of protein, which consists, according to its discoverer, Mulder, of carbon 40, nitrogen 5, hydrogen 31, oxygen 12. This substance, you will remember, lies at the foundation of albumen and fibrine, the materials of which our flesh is made, and you will thus see the close resemblance in composition between some of the most dangerous poisons and the materials of our nerves and muscles. It will probably be found eventually that those substances are most agreeable to the system as food which most nearly resemble the compounds that form the tissues of the body, whilst those act as poisons whose composition is most differ- ent from that of the tissues, on which the life of the body depends. Having said thus much with regard to the action of theine on the system, and which applies equally to tea and coffee, I will now speak of these substances in detail ; and first, of Tea. That tea was first brought into Europe from China there seems to be no doubt; but the exact date of that event is involved in some obscurity. By some ON TEA AND COFFEE. 299 writers, the first introduction of tea into Europe is claimed for the Portuguese, who, as early as the year 1577, commenced a regular trade with China. Edmund Waller, in some complimentary lines to Catherine of Braganza, says "Yenus her myrtle, Phoebus has his bays, Tea both excels, which she vouchsafes to praise; The best of queens and best of herbs we owe To that bold nation which the way did show To the fair region where the sun doth rise, Whose rich productions we so justly prize/* One of the earliest literary references to tea, in a European language, is found in the writings of Gio- vanni Pietri Maffei, who, in his " Historise Indicse," says, " The inhabitants of China, like those of Japan, extract from a herb called Chia a beverage which they drink warm, and which is extremely wholesome, being a remedy against phlegm, languor, and blearedness, and a promoter of longevity."* Father Alexander de Rhodes, who travelled in China in 1623, speaks of the use of tea by the Chinese, and of the fact of its having begun to be known in Europe. Olearius, who was in Persia in 1633, mentions the fact of tea being sold in the taverns and largely consumed by the Persians. There is also evidence about the same time that the Japanese were in the habit of consuming tea in the same way as the Chinese, and that tea was sold in England prior to the year 1657, at the rate of from six to ten pounds a pound. The first coffee-shop was opened in London, in * Quoted in article " Tea/' in " Encyclopaedia Britannica." 300 ON TEA AND COFFEE. George-yard, Lombard-street, in 1652, by one Pasqua, a Greek. In 1660 an Act was passed levying a duty of eight-pence "on every gallon of coffee, choco- late, sherbet, and tea," made and sold. Mr. Pepys informs us in his Diary, under the date of " Septem- ber 25th, 1661. I sent for a cup of tea (a Chinese drink), of which I had never drunk before." We should be glad now to know what he thought of it ; but he does not say, and we are thankful for this short notice. In 1664 it is stated, that the East-India Company ventured to give an order for two pounds two ounces, as a present to his majesty. It was, per- haps, this identical two pounds of tea that, when served up at the royal table, appeared in the form of a dish of leaves, with pepper, salt, and melted butter, and was found so tough that nobody could eat it. Be that as it may, we find the East-India Company ordering 100 pounds of tea, in 1667; and the demand for it had increased to such an extent, that in 1678 they imported 4,713 pounds. From such small beginnings has the influence of this powerful drug increased, till its con- sumption employs a fleet of vessels to bring it to our shores, and the quantity consumed may be calculated by thousands of tons, while the revenue it produces by taxation is between five and six millions per annum. The discovery of the value of tea as a dietetical agent has been very variously described. It was probably first used as medicine, and its pleasant aroma when drunk warm in infusion, and obvious soothing effect on the nervous system, led gradually to its extension from the domain of medicine to that of food. There may be, perhaps, two other good physiological reasons assigned ON TEA AND COFFEE. 301 for the extending use of this substance. In the first place, the waters of China are universally bad, and are only safe for drinking after they are boiled ; they are also flat and tasteless : thus the demand for water in the system would be more pleasantly met by an agent like the infusion of tea. In the next place, the practice of taking warm drinks is a great economy when people live upon a scanty diet, and this added to the preser- vative effects of tea on the tissues, would lead to the use of tea. Before the introduction of tea or coffee into this country, our forefathers were in the habit of using various kinds of infusions, which were drunk warm, as we do tea and coffee. In this way sage was at one time extensively employed in this country, and its leaves were actually originally taken by the Dutch to China as an exchange for tea. Warm drinks are everywhere used by man, and the fact has great phy- siological interest. I am induced to think that the warmth saves the loss of heat to the stomach of raising the temperature of the liquid to that of the human body. Although when the body is full of food and in great integrity, this process of heating up the food in the stomach may not only not injure health, but become a source of comfort, as when ice and iced drinks are taken; yet it is very certain that when people are under- fed and there is any debility from disease, cold drinks and cold food act most injuriously. The youth- ful, vigorous, and healthy may undoubtedly enjoy cold or even iced food ; but for the infant, the feeble, and the aged, warm drinks should be secured. Very absurd stories are told about the early date of the introduction of tea amongst the Chinese, and which. 302 ON TEA AND COFFEE. can only be believed by those who know nothing about China, and the history of its civilization. It was pro- bably first generally used in China about the eighth or ninth century of the Christian era. The tea-plant is a native of China, and since its first use by the Chinese, it has been introduced into Japan, where it is cultivated to a very considerable extent. The tea-plants are evergreen shrubs, having very much the same appearance and belonging to the same family as the plants which are so familiar to us under the name of Camellias. The leaves are not so shining, nor the flowers so large, as those of the camellia. The part of the plant which is used are the leaves, which are picked and Tea " dried at various periods of their growth, and are brought into the markets under the name of black and green teas. The different appearance of black and green teas and the different characters of the tea- plant led botanists to suppose that there were two species of tea-plant, the Thea Bohea, the black-tea plant; and Thea viridis, the green-tea plant. It turns out, how- ever, that the black and green teas of commerce do not depend on different plants, but on the way in which they are prepared, and that green tea can be made from the black-tea plant, and black tea from the green- tea plant. It does not, however, necessarily follow, as some people suppose, that therefore there are not two species of tea-plant. But this really is a matter of very ON TEA AND COFFEE. 303 little importance, although, from the earnestness with which this question has been discussed, you might really imagine that the whole supply of tea to the world depended on the answer. One of the most interesting points in the history of the tea-plant has been its recent discovery in Hindostan. If you will take a map of Asia, you will see that the same character of country prevails from Shanghai to Nepaul, and that it would not be an extravagant in- ference that the plants of China should be found in the northern provinces of India. This had been suspected by more than one botanist, and in 1823 Major Bruce confirmed their suspicions, and brought specimens of the true tea-plant from Assam. Doubts, to be sure, had beeK thrown out as to whether this is the true tea- plant, or a new species ; but whether that be the case or not, it makes very good tea. The discovery of this plant in Assam has led to very extensive efforts for the growth and manufacture of tea in the British East Indies, efforts which I am happy to say are being crowned with success. It would, indeed, be a reproach to England if, after having had this magnificent country placed in her hands, she should do little or nothing by her wealth and intelligence in developing its mighty resources. Great as is our national demand for tea, it would appear that the districts of India capable of supplying it are greater than our consumption. Its production, however, mainly depends on the price of labour. The tea-plant was early introduced into the' New World, and grows luxuriantly, even without cul- ture, at the present moment in the Brazils ; but it requires Chinese poverty and Chinese patience to dry 304 ON TEA AND COFFEE. the leaves for general use : hence its failure in America. Recent experiments have been made to grow the tea- plant in South Carolina, and although the tree has flourished and the tea has promised well, the high price of labour has caused its failure. The preparation of the tea for use is one that is carried on by the Chinese with great care and delicacy. Although many of the processes to which the tea is submitted appear perfectly unnecessary, and the exces- sive attention to little points a mere piece of Celestial refinement, yet the experience of a London washer- woman will at once indicate whether the tea she drinks has been prepared according to Chinese fashion or not. Hence the necessity of introducing Chinese labour where tea for European consumption is manufactured. The Assam tea was hardly a saleable article till manu- factured by Chinese labourers. In the other plantations of India, as at Kumaon, where Chinese labour has been imported, and the native Chinese tea-plant introduced, the tea produced is so good, that little or none of it finds its way to England at all. The palates of our countrywomen at Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay are much too sensitive to the good things of this life to allow us to get much Kumaon tea. I need not detain you long on the subject of the culture and the preparation of the tea. At the same time, there can be no doubt that many of those pro- perties of tea which have rendered it so great a favourite as a beverage throughout the world are dependent on the wonderful care bestowed by the Chinese on its culture and preparation. The wild plants do not yield tea equa? in quality or flavour to those of the cultivated plants. ON TEA AND COFFEE. 305 The soils in which the tea-plants grow best are described as ferruginous clays and sandstones. It would appear that it nourishes in soils containing a little iron, and, as we shall subsequently see, there are smail quantities of iron in the ashes of tea-leaves. The plants are grown from seeds, the best of which are selected, and from six to ten seeds are placed in holes dibbled in the earth. In all districts of China, the leaves are gathered from the plants at different periods of growth. The plants begin to be picked in their second year's growth. The first picking of leaves com- mences in April, and subsequent pickings are carried on till the beginning of September. The first picking consists principally of the young buds, and in each subsequent picking the leaves are larger and more expanded. From the fact that the first picked leaves of the season are employed for the manufacture of the highest priced teas, both black and green, we may conclude that the theine is in larger proportion to the rest of the tissues of the leaf at this season than at any other. The leaves, having been gathered, are always sub- mitted to a process of sorting, which consists merely in separating the larger from the smaller, the coarser from the fine leaves. They are then dried in the open air, and during the drying they are submitted to various processes, but more particularly to tossing in the air. The Chinaman takes a handful of the leaves and throws them up into the air, and they are thus dried most effectually. It is at this stage of the process that a different plan is pursued according as it is wished to manufacture green or black tea. After drying, the 306 ON TEA AND COFFEE. leaves are roasted in hot uncovered pans, and from the exposure to the air in this process green tea results. This is called the dry way ; but if during this process the pans are covered, the moisture evaporated continues in the pans, and a kind of fermentation takes place amongst the leaves, which is attended with an alteration in the colour of the leaves, and the tea is called black tea. This is called the wet way. After the process of roasting, the leaves are again submitted to certain manual processes, by which the leaves are twisted in the hands, and made to assume the curled appearance so characteristic of tea. After this process the leaves are again dried and roasted, and afterwards packed in chests to be sold to the tea merchants. Even after the tea has been sold it is submitted to processes of separating and mixing. The leaves are sifted, so that the larger are separated from the smaller, and these are now sold under various names to the foreign purchaser. The teas sold to the English and American mer- chants in China are known by various names, according as they are green or black. These names either express the quality of the tea, or the name of the district from whence it was brought. Thus green teas, according to their fineness or the period of their picking, are called Young Hyson, Gunpowder, Hyson, Hyson-skin, and Twankay; while the black teas are called Pekoe, Souchong, Congou, and Bohea. These names have some significance in the tea-markets of China and Europe; but in the retail sale of tea in this country, the original qualities and samples of tea are not preserved. Each considerable dealer buys his ON TEA AND COFFEE. 307 teas and mixes them, and sells them under his own particular names. Teas are to be seen in China which never find their way into the European markets. In the Great Exhi- bition of 1851, teas were exhibited which fetch a price of from fifty to sixty shillings a pound in China. These, with many other examples of tea, are to be seen in the Food Collection at the South Kensington Museum. There is a peculiar tea called " Old Men's Eyebrows/' which consists of tea formed into elongated rolls, looking very like delicate cigars made up "in bundles. This tea is employed for making presents. Tea is also done up in little square packets, which seem to have undergone a slight degree of compression whilst preparing. Such tea was preferred by Commis- sioner Yeh, and some of it from his private stock, when prisoner at Calcutta, will be found in the South Ken- sington Food Collection. There also may be seen the brick tea, which seems to be a coarse kind of tea, which has been compressed during preparation. It is easily transported, and is much used by the Mantchu Tartars, and is also manufactured by the Japanese. In fact, I ought to have mentioned before, that the tea-plant is almost as generally planted in Japan as in China, and that the population of that country is equally addicted to its use. Most persons will remember the accounts recently brought to this country of the consumption of tea by the Japanese. Although the natural flavour of the tea is very agreeable and refreshing, the Chinese use a variety of agents to increase its flavour or bouquet. These things are not at all employed for the purposes of fraud, and x 308 ON TEA AND various flowers are cultivated for the purpose of adding them to the tea. Species of the Camellia, a genus belonging to the same order as the tea, yield fragrant scents, which are added to tea. These odours are, however, not appreciated in England, and highly- scented teas are not commonly seen in Europe at all. Having said this much with regard to the culture and qualities of tea, let me now draw your attention to its special composition. According to recent analysis, a pound of tea contains the following in- gredients : oz. GRAINS. Water ... ... ... 350 Theine ... ... ... 210 Caseine ... ... ... 2 175 Aromatic Oil ... ... 52 Gum ... ... ... 2 385 Sugar ... ... ... 211 Pat 280 Taunic Acid ... ... 4 87 Woody Fibre ... ... 3 87 Mineral Matter 350 Now I will just go over these ingredients, and point out to you their action on the system. It will be con- venient for us to follow our usual classification, and speak of the water, the salts, the heat-giving and the flesh-forming substances, and, last of all, the medicinal or auxiliary food-materials of tea. I need say little or nothing about the water here, as in the dried leaves of tea it forms a very inconspicuous ingredient compared with the large quantities of water in which we find them infused before they are employed as food. In fact, the early use of tea and other substances which we infuse ON TEA AND COFFEE. 309 in water may be traced to two causes first, to improve the quality of water ; and, secondly, to rendeK it more palatable when warm. Sugar is added to tea in this country to render it more palatable. Another reason why man adds various flavouring substances to water, is his instinctive ten- dency to take his food warm. In all parts of the world man not only cooks his food, but prefers it warm. This is not only the case with solid food, but also with liquid food ; and whatever may be the quality of the liquid food, whether it be the liquor in which meat is boiled, the milk from the cow, or coffee, tea, or chocolate, he is in the habit of taking it warm. He has undoubtedly made selections of such substances as tea, coffee, or chocolate ; but the more general condition which has led to their use is the innate tendency to partake of warm drinks in preference to cold. This subject is a highly interesting one, and I may allude to it again before I finish these lectures. I now come to speak of the salts of the tea. You see they are in very considerable quantities, as compared with the saline matter of other kinds of food, and, as some of them are soluble, it becomes a matter of in- terest to know what they are. I am enabled to give you a list of these ingredients, as an analysis of the ashes of tea, by Lehmann, has been published by Baron Liebig, in the last edition of his " Familiar Letters on Chemistry." Potash ... ... ... 47'45 Lime ... ... ... ... 1'24 Magnesia ... ... ... 6'84 Peroxide of Iron... ... ... 3'29 310 ON TEA AND COFFEE. Phosphoric Acid... ... ..'. 9'83 Sulphuric Acid ... ... ... 872 Silicic Acid ... ... ... 2 31 Carbonic Acid ... ... ... 10'09 Oxide of Manganese ../ ... 071 Chloride of Sodium ... ... 3'62 Soda ... ... ... ... 5-03 Charcoal and Sand ... ... T09 Now the point of interest about this analysis is not only that most of the ingredients form soluble com- pounds, but that they belong to a group of salts which are most important to the human system. Thus we find here potash, phosphoric acid, and iron, all of them substances required by the system for the performance of its functions and the construction of its tissues. Liebig very properly remarks on the composition of these ashes, that " We have, therefore, in tea a bever- age which contains the active constituents of the most powerful mineral springs ; and, however small the amount of iron may be which we daily take in this form, it cannot be destitute of influence on the vital processes/' The next groups of constituents are the heat-giving, but these I need hardly tell you are very unimportant compounds of the tea. They consist of small quantities of fat and sugar, and, in order that you may judge how much of these things is likely to get into the tea, I may tell you that a tea-spoonful of tea weighs about fifty grains, and as this is supposed to be enough to make a single individual all the tea he requires at a meal, you will see that in two cups of tea you would get about a grain and a half of sugar and two grains of fat. It is questionable whether you get the latter out of the ON TEA AND COFFEE. 311 tea at all. Then as we add sugar and milk to our tea, these things from the tea itself are of little or no consequence. The same may be said of the flesh-forming constitu- ents of tea. All vegetable matter contains, to a greater or less extent, nitrogenous constituents, and the quan- tity of caseine in tea, therefore, is not a matter of sur- prise. As the leaves are dried you get a larger quantity than you would from the fresh leaves of plants. In fifty grains of tea we should have about seven grains of cheese or casein, and as probably only a very small quantity of this is dissolved, the nutritive value of tea, as dependent on its casein, need not be discussed. The gum and the woody fibre belong to the acces- sary groups of food. The gum is taken up probably by the water used in making tea, and would appear from its easy solubility in larger quantities in the first cup ; but not being convertible into either heat- giving or flesh-forming matter, it can exert little or no influence in the action of tea in the system. The woody fibre, being insoluble and indigestible, of course can exert no influence. I now come to the most important constituents of the tea. They belong to the group of medicinal foods. They are the very essence of the tea, and without which it would never have been consumed by man- kind. These are the theine, the volatile oil, and the tannic acid. Now I have told you all about theine, so that I need not dwell on its properties here. You should recollect, however, that it is readily soluble in hot water, and that the great proportion of the theine will be taken 312 ON TEA AND COFFEE. up by the water first poured on the tea. Perhaps I may press this matter on those who preside at the tea- table. In a large party it is very unfair to pour out the whole of the superior tea before adding a second quantity of water, as in this case the tea from the second watering contains little or no theine, and, what is worse, little or none of the flavouring volatile oil. The fact is, the beverage from the second mash is a mere apology for tea, and contains neither the active principle nor the flavour of tea. If this were a little thought over, arrangements might be made by which at our tea-drinkings and more fashionable soirees and evening parties, we might more frequently get hot tea instead of spoiled warm water, to which sugar and milk are added to render it tolerable. The quantity of theine in a cup of tea will of course vary in proportion to the relative quantity of tea and water used, but the proportion varies, I calculate, in a cup of tea from the first brewing, from half a grain to one grain. The aromatic oil of the tea, although small in quan- tity, is, in one sense, the most important constituent of tea. The pleasant scent of the tea, the flavour that addresses itself to the palate depends on this oil. I am not aware of any special chemical researches having been made on the composition of this oil. It does not appear to be present in the fresh or unprepared tea- leaf, but to be formed during the process of preparation. It is also much less developed in black than in green tea, and, indeed, it may be questioned whether the two processes by which these teas are prepared do not develop different oils. It is very certain, that whilst ON TEA AND COFFEE. 313 green and black tea contain the same quantities of other constituents, they act very differently on the nervous system. I have known many persons who could drink with impunity black tea, who are made ill and sleepless by very small quantities of green tea. At the same time, this oil does not generally disagree, and many persons can take green tea with impunity. But in estimating the action of tea, there can be no doubt we must always take into effect the oil which is so abundant in the green tea. The effects of the oil of tea on the system closely approach those of Digitalis, or foxglove. When fox- glove is given, there is great anxiety, with palpitation of the heart, and unless given in poisonous doses, ina- bility to sleep. These are the same symptoms as per- sons complain of who take too much green tea, or who are remarkably susceptible of its action. The effect of the theine is to act as a sedative generally on the nervous system, and the oil of tea probably directs this action more particularly to the heart, and this accounts for the anxiety and nervousness felt by persons taking green tea. It may occasionally happen that persons become alarmingly ill from taking green tea, and it is well to know that stimulants are the great antagonists of the action of this agent. A wine-glassful of brandy, with or without hot or cold water, is a potent remedy. The spirits of sal-volatile or any form of ammonia may be given with advantage. The last of the substances found in tea which I shall mention is tannic acid. Tannic acid, or tannin, has been regarded as a very powerful medicine, and you 314 ON TEA AND COFFEE. will be surprised, perhaps, to see that above a quarter of the tea-leaves consist of tannic acid. We have no tannic acid in coffee or chocolate, so that tannic acid may be regarded as one of the distinguishing features of tea. Taiinic acid has a remarkable affinity for certain organic substances. It is on this account that it is the great agent in the process of tanning. It forms with gelatine an insoluble compound, and this constitutes leather.* There is considerable variety in the composition and properties of the substances known as tannic acid, but they all form an insoluble com- pound with gelatine. They also render albumen in- soluble, and otherwise act upon the compounds which are most common in our food. It is, therefore, a fair subject of inquiry, as to how the tannic acid of the tea acts as an article of diet. The action of tannic acid on the tissues is seen in the effect produced on the numerous membranes of the mouth when it is introduced. A white flocu- lent precipitate is formed with the mucus and saliva, and this hangs about the mouth, looking as if the person was afflicted with thrush, an impression is produced on the nerves of taste similar to that which is produced by an acid. There is, however, no sour flavour, but the mouth is, as it were, " drawn up." This is what is called an astringent effect. Such an action in a slight degree is not unpleasant, and occurs with all acid articles of diet, and also when we take tea into the mouth. This effect is * See " Leather," in Dr. Lankester's Course of Lectures on the USES of Animals. ON TEA AND COFFEE. 315 more obvious when the tea has neither sugar nor milk. It is apparently this action upon the mucous membrane of his mouth which is relished by the Hindoo in the chewing of the betel-nut, which contains tannic acid. This astringent or " drawing- up" effect is not imagi- nary, for we find tannic acid is one of the most powerful styptics we possess. A little applied to a bleeding part will arrest the haemorrhage. Internally it is adminis- tered with the same object in view, and in losses of blood from the various surfaces of the body tannic acid is one of the most effectual remedies that can be em- ployed. Now, as tannic acid is soluble in hot water, tea must contain a very considerable quantity, at least two or three grains of this substance in every cup of the first brewing. It cannot be supposed but that the effect of this agent is very considerable. The two most remark- able points of its action are its effects upon the food in the stomach, and its effects as an astringent. I have so often seen dyspepsia removed by persons giving up the practice of taking tea at breakfast, that I have no doubt that the tannic acid of the tea renders the food taken with it more difficult of digestion. Of course, this would only occur in the case of persons in whom the digestive function was already impaired. Such persons may frequently take tea with advantage on an empty stomach. I have often found myself, and observed it in others, that what we called tea dinners, produced a considerable amount of indigestion. As the action of the tannic acid in precipitating the compounds of the food is greater when taken with than without animal food, the obi PC- 316 ON TEA AND COFFEE. tion is greater to taking tea with meals of animal food than merely with bread and butter. The practice of taking tea, provided the theine and oil do not disagree, two or three hours after dinner, seems unobjectionable. At this time the food has pro- ceeded too far in the process of digestion to be seriously interfered with by the tannic acid of the tea. The water of the tea supplies a quantity of liquid which, if taken earlier, would have interfered with digestion, whilst the theine counteracts the stimulating effect of the wine or beer taken at dinner. I know, however, that tea is extensively taken in this country at the evening meal after a middle-day dinner, and that, as it is the last meal taken in the day, solid food is consumed. I wcgild here repeat my conviction that such a meal is always likely to be more healthily digested the less animal food that is consumed at it. Nor is the astringent effect of the tannic acid to be lost sight of. The natural secretion of the mucous mem- brane of the stomach and bowels is diminished, and where there is a tendency to inaction of the bowels, it may be in-creased by tea. I need not, however, go further medically into this subject. I have only wished to say so much as would enable you to judge of the proper use of tea as an ordinary article of diet. And now I come to the weighty and important matter of how to make tea. I have shown you of what tea is composed, and I have dwelt on the chemi- cal, physical, and vital properties of its constituents. From my remarks you will have gathered that the two most important constituents of tea are the theine and the volatile oil : the one acting on the nervous ON TEA AND COFFEE. 317 system, the other giving flavour to the tea, and also having a share in the effect of the tea. The only other thing that can be said to exert any influence on the system at all is the tannic acid, and whether we get more or less of that is a matter of not much import- ance. Therefore, the question to consider in making tea is, how to get the largest quantity of theine and retain the greatest amount of the volatile oil. Now this object is not to be attained by boiling the tea, as we do coffee, and making a decoction, nor by allowing the theine and oil to exude into cold water, as in the case of beef-tea; but the two objects are to be attained by exposing the tea-leaves to the action of boiling water. Boiling water takes up a larger quantity of theine than water at a lower point ; at the same time it gives inten- sity to the volatility of the oil of the tea without dissipating it. Now this process seems a very simple thing, but you will find it is not so easy of accomplishment. When the kettle comes up from the kitchen before it is poured on the tea in the parlour, you may be sure the water does not boil. When the urn ceases to throw out steam the water does not boil. In nine cases out of ten, when the kettle is taken off the fire it ceases to boil. If you pour boiling water into a cold tea-pot it ceases to boil. If you pour it on cold tea it ceases to boil. The fact is, unless you heat your tea-pot to the boiling point, tea and all, before you put in the water, the tea will not be exposed to boiling water at all. A good plan to secure the heating of the tea and pot, before the water is poured in, is to put it for a few minutes on the side of the fire-place, or expose it to 318 ON TEA AND COFFEE. the flame of a spirit-lamp. Putting boiling water into the tea-pot before putting in the tea, previously putting the tea in a cup on the hob, is another good plan. I have invented a tea-pot, with a double cover, into the interstices of which boiling water may be poured, so that the whole is heated up to nearly the boiling point before tea or water is put into the pot. This answers very well, but it makes the tea-pot heavy, and I have never been able to induce a tea-pot manufac- turer to invest his capital in the manufacture of my " double envelope tea-pot." The late M. Soyer, to whom we English are so much indebted for popularising the art of cookery amongst us, recommended that the tea should be ground before being submitted to infusion. This is, undoubtedly, an economical mode of making tea : by it you extract every particle of theine, but then you get more of the tannic acid and the other constituents than you care to have. It makes the tea coarse. It is like new rough Port as compared with Steinberger or Johannisberger wines. When, however, the object is to supply large parties, and to make tea go the furthest way, this is a good plan. M. Loysell has invented an apparatus in which he makes both tea and coffee, and the tea is treated like coffee. It is powdered and sub- mitted to the boiling water at a pressure, and in this way all the soluble compounds of the tea are effectually removed. In making tea for large assemblies I under- stand this process gives a better cup of tea all round than that secured by any other plan. It is, however, in the preparation of this "cup, which cheers but not inebriates," for the household ON TEA AND COFFEE. 3l9 that we are all most interested. There is hardly any point in this process that is indifferent. Without being chemists, the Chinese are very particular as to the water they employ in the making of tea. We know from chemical investigation that some water will take up a great deal more soluble matter than others, and as a rule, soft waters are better for making soups, decoc- tions, and infusions than hard waters. In order to facilitate the action of hard water on tea some persons use soda, and it is true that a certain quantity of the compounds of the tea, especially the colouring matter, are thus rendered soluble which would not be so without the soda. But I question very much whether the tea, as far as its theine and volatile oil are concerned, is any the better for this process. There is no doubt that soft water, such as they get at Man- chester, Liverpool, and Glasgow, is the water which makes the best and most economical tea. Even the material and colour of your tea-pot is not a matter of indifference. Tea-pots that retain the heat are better than those that let it go. A rough black tea-pot is one of the best radiators of heat that could be invented. Hence, black earthenware tea-pots should not be used. While glazed earthenware or porcelain are much better ; but better still are brightly polished silver tea-pots, for they radiate heat much less than any other material. The tea thus made is an infusion of theine and tannic acid combined with the salts of the tea and the volatile oils which give it flavour. In England, before drinking it, we add sugar and milk, or cream. They modify to some extent the flavour of the tea, and 320 ON TEA AND COFFEE. probably its action. Sugar is a heat-giver as well as cream, whilst its caseine is a flesh-former; so that it should be remembered, in taking a cup of tea we are actually consuming one of the most compound of our foods, an article of diet which represents every group of our daily food. The Chinese do not thus adulterate their tea, and prefer, as also do our washer- women, to take their tea pur el simple. The Russians add sugar, but either squeeze in a little lemon-juice or add a slice of lemon. This, I can assure you, is no despicable addition. "When the stomach is already clogged with food, as is the case after dinner, or when thirst is best allayed by acids, then the addition of lemon or its juice is most palatable and pleasant. I have before spoken of the excellent action of lemon-juice on the system, at those seasons of the year when fruit is scarce, and fresh vegetables not easy to be obtained. I have no doubt that the addition of lemon-juice to tea would have a most beneficial effect on the health. At the same time, I do not flatter myself that any of you will try it ; we are all too much the slaves of inveterate habit to allow reason to exercise any influence over our accustomed practice, and had our grandmothers chosen to add vinegar or pepper to their tea, instead of sugar and milk, we should have adhered to the practice, pitying all those whose tastes or judgment had led them to adopt any other way of drinking their tea. I have not exhausted my subject, and in the next lecture, when I come to speak of the other beverages of which we partake after infusing in boiling or hot water, shall perhaps have an opportunity of adding a few more words on the subject of tea. ON TEA AND COFFEE. (CONTINUED.) THE practice of taking warm beverages is almost universal amongst mankind. The inhabitants of the tropical forests of Africa, as well as the natives of Lapland and Kamschatka, are equally addicted to the practice of drinking warm infusions. The Egyptians and Jews, the Greeks and the Romans, all partook of heated beverages of some kind or other. Not only are fluids taken heated, but solid food cooked by heat is preferred warm. Long before the intro- duction of tea and coffee into this country, warmed beverages were popular, and an infusion or decoction called salep was sold hot in the streets of London. It is perhaps worth while, before speaking of coffee and chocolate, to remind you of the nature of this salep. The substance sold in the shops under this name is 822 ON TEA AND COFFEE. procured from the roots of several species of Orchida- ceous plants. Some of these are natives of this country, as Orchis Morio, Orchis mascula, and Orchis maculata. They have all large tuberous roots, which yield, on boiling in water, a mucilaginous substance. This is one of the modifications of starch, and is called by chemists bassorin. There is also accompanying this undoubtedly some nutritious matter, which will account for the general use of salep amongst the natives of the East at the present day. When the roots are ready for use they are dug up and dipped in warm water, by which process a fine brown skin which covers them, something like the skin of a potato, is easily removed by means of a coarse cloth or brush ; they are next arranged on a tin plate, and heated in an oven for ten minutes, which gives them a semi-transparent or horn- like appearance. They are then withdrawn from the oven, and, after exposure to the air for a few days, they are ready for use. When put into cold water they swell up and form a kind of mucilage. One part of powdered salep in forty-eight parts of boiling water forms a thick mucilaginous liquid. It is this liquid, flavoured with sugar and sassafras chips, that was sold in the streets of London before coffee was introduced. I do not know that it can be procured anywhere now ; but I have met with persons who recollect having seen this beverage sold at stalls in the streets of London, as coffee is now. Dr. Percival, a physician in London, wrote a book, as late as 1773, on the preparation, culture, and uses of the orchis-root, in which he refers to the abundance of orchis plants in some parts of this country, and recommends them as an economical ON TEA AND COFFEE. 323 article of diet. I cannot, however, from any experi- ence of my own, speak of the value of the orchis-root in diet. There is one remark I would make, and that is, that the beverages drunk before the introduction of tea and coffee seemed free from any agent capable of acting on the nervous system in the same way as theine. In fact, although the modern warm beverages contain so generally this principle, it would appear that the heat which they contain is, after all, their universal recommendation. The cause of this preference for heated food is, per- haps, worth a moment's inquiry. It has been observed, where persons have taken cold food for a length of time, that they have become depressed, and their stomach disordered. The fact is, when we take food considerably lower than 98, the temperature of the human body, it abstracts heat from the stomach and surrounding tissues ; and unless the system has the power of manufacturing an additional quantity of heat to supply that which has been lost by raising the tem- perature of the food, a general depression of the vital powers will take place. We know that persons are some- times made very ill, and even killed, by taking, in an exhausted state, a draught of cold water or an ice. This is, perhaps, sufficient to indicate the fact, that in taking warm foods and drinks, we are sparing the system the effort of producing a quantity of heat, which can only be done by the destruction of a certain quantity of tissue by the process of oxidation. There is no doubt, that where vigorous oxidation goes on in the body, and a rapid metamorphosis of tissue takes place, there the body will exhibit the greatest amount of power, provided this takes place within the limits of health.. But the Y 324 OX TEA AND COFFEE. human body may be exposed to too much oxidation there may be a more rapid combustion of tissue than there are processes of renewal, and under these circum- stances the body will suffer. It is on this ground, I believe, that warm food and drinks are found so accept- able to mankind. When the body needs food or drink, it is usually in an exhausted state ; and as cold food makes an immediate demand on the system for heat before it can itself supply the materials for combustion, the body is taxed to supply heat at a moment when it is least fitted for it hence the instinctive preference for warm food. This is much more the case with liquid than with solid food, and as the former contains generally little nutritive or heat-giving matter, it acts all the more injuriously on the system when taken cold. These facts will explain a great many of the pecu- liarities of our diet. It shows us why it is that we take our tea and coffee warm at breakfast, after the long abstinence from food during the night. It> explains how it is that many persons cannot drink cold water when they first rise in the morning. It throws light on the practice of eating hot soup at the beginning of the principal meal. It accounts for so large a number of teetotallers substituting warm weak tea or coffee at their meals for cold water. It seems to me to be, in fact, the explanation of the universal preference for warm food amongst mankind where it can be procured. I know there is a contrary taste for taking ices and iced drinks. But this I suspect is more an acquired than a natural taste, and is rather the luxury of the over-fed and the indolent than the instinctive tendency of the race. In fact, ice in this country is only thought OX TEA AND COFFEE. 325 of at any time, after the stomach has been well fortified by previous eating and drinking to resist its depressing action. In the summer season, when the temperature of the atmosphere approaches that of the human body, the taking of iced drinks is more largely indulged in, and it can be done with the greater impunity, as under such circumstances the heat- giving faculty of the system is little taxed by the with- drawal of heat for the surface of the body. Not to prolong my remarks on this subject, I would say what clothing is to the external surface of the body, warm food is to its internal surface, and that just as the skin is in- vigorated by the occasional application of cold, so the mucous membrane of the mouth and stomach may be momentarily pleasantly stimulated by the application of cold ; but the continuous application of cold to either surfaces is a circumstance to be guarded against, as likely to be productive of injurious consequences. But I must now invite your attention to the subject of Coffee. It is a very curious fact, that tea and coffee should have been introduced into Europe about the same time. Coffee, however, came to us from quite a different district of the world from that which pre- sented us with tea. The coffee-plant is a native of Abyssinia, from whence it appears to have been origi- nally introduced into Persia and Arabia. It is known to have been used as an article of diet in Persia as early as 875 ; whilst the credit of its introduction into Arabia Felix is given to Megalleddin, Mufti of Aden. It seems to have been especially acceptable to a Mohammedan population, who by their religion were interdicted the consumption of fermented beverages. It was not till Y 2 326 ON TEA AND COFFEE. 1554 that it was publicly sold in Constantinople. Although attempts were made to stop its sale by the Syrian government, on the ground of its intoxicating properties, it made its way in spite of all opposi- tion. It was not till the seventeenth century that it found its way into Europe. Several notices of it, however, were found amongst European writers before that time. Prosper Alpinus, a Venetian traveller, who visited Egypt in 1580, mentions it in his writings. Burton, an English writer, in his " Anatomy of Melan- choly/' published in 1621, says, " The Turks have a drink called coffee (for they use no wine), so named, of a berry as black as soot and as bitter, which they sip up as warm as they can suffer, because they find by experience that that kind of drink so used helpeth digestion and procureth alacrity." Coffee was first sold in London in 1652. It soon be- came a favourite beverage in London, and coffee-shops were directed to be licensed by the magistrates at Quarter Sessions. They, however, became the resort of the soberer classes of people, who spent their time in talking politics, and were at one time regarded with suspicion by the Government. As the establishment of coffee- shops seems to have exercised a remarkable influence on the habits of the people of England, perhaps I may be excused for quoting the following passage from Lord Macaulay's " History of England." Speaking of the use of coffee-shops, he says, " The first of these establishments had been set up in the time of the Commonwealth, by a Turkey merchant "who had acquired among the Mahometans a taste for the'r favourite b3\erage. The eoiwenience of being able to make appointments in any pirt of the ON TEA AND COFFEE. 327 town, and of being able to pass evenings socially at a very small charge, was so great that the fashion spread fast. Every man of the upper or middle class went daily to his coffee-house, to learn the news and to discuss it. Every coffee-house had one or more orators, to whose eloquence the crowd listened with admiration, and who soon became, what the journalists of our own time have been called, a Fourth Estate of the realm. The Court had long seen with un- easiness the growth of this new power in the State. An attempt had been made during Danby's administration to close the coffee- houses. But men of all parties missed their usual place of resort so much that there was a universal outcry. The Government did not venture, in opposition to a feeling so strong and general, to enforce a regulation of which the legality might wellbe questioned. Since that time ten years had elapsed, and during those years the number and influence of the coffee-houses had been constantly increasing. Foreigners remarked that the coffee-house was that which especially distinguished London from all other cities; that the coffee-house was the Londoners' home, and those who wished to find a gentleman, commonly asked, not whether he lived in Eleet Street or Chancery Lane, but whether he frequented the Grecian or the Rainbow. Nobody was excluded from these places who laid down his penny at the bar. There were houses near St. James's Park, where fops congregated, their heads and shoulders covered with black or flaxen wigs not less ample than those which are now worn by the Chan- cellor and by the Speaker of the House of Commons. The wig came from Paris, and so did the rest of the fine gentleman's orna- ments. His embroidered coat, his fringed gloves, and the lapel which held up his pantaloons. The conversation was in that dialect which, long after it had ceased to be spoken in the fashionable cir- cles, continued in the mouth of Lord Eoppington to excite the mirth of theatres. The atmosphere was like that of a perfumer's shop. Tobacco in any other form than that of richly-scented snuff was held in abomination. If any clown, ignorant of the usages of the house, called for a pipe, the sneers of the whole assembly and the short answers of the waiters soon convinced him that he had better go somewhere else. Nor indeed would he have had far to go. For, in general, the coffee-rooms reeked with tobacco like a guard-room ; and strangers sometimes expressed their surprise that so many people should leave their own firesides to sit in the midst of eternal fog and stench. Nowhere was the smoking more constant than at Will's. That celebrated house, situated between Covent Garden and Bow 328 OX TEA AND COFFEE. Street, was sacred to Polite Letters. There the talk was about poetical justice and the unities of place and time. There was a faction for Perrault and the moderns, and a faction for Boileau and the ancients. One group debated whether ' Paradise Lost ' ought net- to have been in rhyme. To another an envious poetaster demon- strated that ' Venice Preserved ' ought to have been hooted from the stage. Under no roof was a greater variety to be seen earls in stars and garters, clergymen in cassocks and bands, pert tem- plars, sheepish lads from the universities, translators, and index- makers in ragged coats of frieze. The great press was to get near the chair where John Dryden sat. In winter that chair was always in the warmest nook by the fire, in summer it stood in the balcony. To bow to him and to hear his opinion of Racine's last tragedy, or Bossu's treatise on epic poetry, was thought a privilege. A pinch from his snuff-box was an honour sufficient to turn the head of a young enthusiast. There were coffee-houses where the first medical men might be consulted. Doctor John Ratcliffe, who in the year 1685 rose to the largest practice in London, came daily, at the hour when the Exchange was full, from his house in Bow Street, then a fashionable part of the capital, to Garraway's, and was to be found surrounded by surgeons and apothecaries at a particular table. There were Puritan coffee-houses where no oath was heard, and where lank-haired men discussed election and reprobation through their noses; Jew coffee-houses, where dark-eyed money-changers from Venice and from Amsterdam greeted each other; and Popish coffee-houses, where, as good Protestants believed, Jesuits planned over their cups another great fire, and cast silver bullets to shoot the king." The opposition met with by coffee and tea was not at all confined to the Governments of the world. Dr. Lettsom, who gave one of the best accounts of tea in the last century, was not wholly free from prejudices against it, and attributed the increase of intoxication to the use of tea. He says the practice of drinking stimulants is often owing " to the weakness and debility of the system brought on by the daily habit of drinking tea; the trembling hand seeks a temporary relief in some cordial in order to refresh ON TEA AND COFFEE. 329 and excite again the enfeebled system, whereby such persons almost necessarily fall into a habit of in- temperance/' The same charges were brought against coffee ; but the older people grew the better able they were to judge for themselves of the effect of tea upon their system. Dr. Johnson confessed himself " a hardened and shameless tea-drinker, who for twenty years diluted his meals with only the infusion of this fascinating plant ; whose kettle had scarcely time to cool ; who with tea amused the evening, with tea solaced the midnight, and with tea welcomed the morning." The plant which produces Coffee belongs to the same natural order of plants as the Cinchonas do, which yield quinine. It is called Cinchonaceae, or the coffee tribe. The coffee plant which yields the greatest amount of the coffee of commerce is the Coffea Arabica. The genus Coffea is more particularly known in the order by the nature of its fruit, which is a red succulent berry, surmounted by the calyx and corolla, and which contains two cells lined with a cartilaginous membrane of the texture of parch- ment, and in each of these cells there is a single seed, curved at the back, and deeply furrowed in front. If you examine a coffee-seed, you can easily observe this structure, and the drawing (Fig. 1) will give you a good idea of the fruit. Coffea Arabica is an evergreen shrub, or small tree, _ a ~ 330 ON TEA AND COFFEE. with oval, sinning, wavy, sharp-pointed leaves, two or three inches in length. The flowers are white and fragrant, with fine cleft petals, which are united together into a tube, forming what is called a mono- petalous corolla. The anthers of the stamens project beyond the flowers. As the inferior pistil becomes connected with the fruit, the calyx, corolla, and stamens fall off, and the berry first becomes red and then purple. This plant still giowa wild in the moun- tainous districts of Abyssinia, but the demand for its seeds has caused it to be cultivated wherever it will ripen its leaves. The Dutch were the first to carry the plant from Arabia to Batavia, and from Batavia it was carried to Amsterdam. Here the plant flourished in the Botanic Gardens, and a plant was presented by the magistrates of that city to Louis XIV. This was planted in the Jardin du Roi, where it grew, and is said to have furnished the stock of all the French coffee plantations in Martinique. The coffee plant will not grow in any part of the world where the minimum temperature is below 55 Fahrenheit. At the same time it requires shade, and when planted in the plains of Arabia it is always surrounded with large trees, which shelter it from the direct rays of the sun, and prevent its fruit ripening too rapidly. It is cultivated now in all quarters of the globe, and we derive our supplies in this country from very various sources. It comes to us from the Brazils, Venezuela, South Africa, the French and British West Indies, Cuba, St. Domingo, Java, Manilla, Arabia, the East Indies, and Ceylon. Other species of Coffee yield seeds containing the same qualities as the Coffea Arabica. Thus, in Silhet ON TEA AND COFFEE. 331 and Nepaul a species is cultivated which is called Coffea Benghalensis. On the coast of Mozambique there is a species found called by botanists Coffea Mozambica, and in the Mauritius a species grows called Coffea Mauritiana. The seeds of the last species are said to be so acrid as to produce poisonous effects. Whether these are really independent species or merely varieties of Coffea Arabica, it is very difficult to say. Any one, of course, can give an opinion on the subject, and those who know least about the difficulty of determining the real nature of a species will hold the most decided opinions on the subject. The coffee-plant is either propagated by cuttings or by seeds. The plants bear fruit at the end of three years, and are frequently in a condition to bear picking three times in a year. The trees continue to produce for twenty years. They seldom attain a height of more than fifteen or twenty feet. The seeds vary much in size ; those which come from Yeman in Arabia, and which yield what is called Mocha coffee, are the smallest which are brought into the market. The next best coffee to the Mocha is the Java; then. follows the Ceylon, the Martinique, and Batavia. Coffees of inferior quality are brought from the British West Indies. The berries when ripe are collected and prepared in different ways. In Arabia they shake the trees and collect the fruit in cloths, which they expose to the sun and air to dry. When dried, they crush them with a heavy roller, and break the parchment envelopes, and separate the seeds by winnowitig. In our own West India plantations a different mode of preparing the seeds is adopted. A mill is used con- 332 ON TEA AND COFFEE sisting of two wooden cylinders, furnished with iron plates. The berries are put into a hopper, and the beans eventually fall on a sieve, which allows the pulp to pass through and retains the seeds. The seeds are now soaked in water, then dried, and the parchment removed by the action of a vertical wheel. The parch- ment is then separated by a winnowing-machine. The seeds are immediately transferred to bags, by which the greenish colour they possess is preserved. Before considering the method of preparing coffee for use, let us examine its composition. I present you here with the composition of the unroasted coffee berry, as given in my " Guide to the Food Collection at the South Kensington Museum." The calculation for the pound has been made after an analysis by Pay en in the 100 parts. One pound of unroasted coffee contains : OZ. GRAINS. Water 1 407 Sugar 1 17 Fat 1 402 Caseine ... ... ... 2 35 Caffeine or Theine ... ... 122 Aromatic Oil ... ... 1 Caffeic Acid with Potash ... 280 Gum 1 192 Woody Fibre ... ... 5 262 Saline Matter ... ... 1 31 In reading over these analyses let me remind you that there are 437 grains in an ounce. Now there are only three things here that need remark, and they are the caffeine, the oil, and the salts. The heat-giving substances the sugar and the fat are in too small ON TEA AND COFFEE. 333 quantities to need comment. I may say of the caseine as of the same constituent in tea. It is probably riot taken up at all ; so with the accessaries gum and woody fibre. If we were in the habit of eating the coffee grounds, as the Turks are, then the consideration of these things might be of some importance. The caffeic acid has been dwelt upon by some writers. It appears to be a modification of tannic acid, but it has neither the power of forming black salts with iron nor of pre- cipitating a solution of gelatine. Then it is in much smaller quantities than tannic acid in tea, so that should it turn out to have the composition of tannic acid, it cannot be regarded as possessing anything like the importance of that agent in tea. I think, for good or for evil, we may leave it out of our consideration alto- gether. We must also remember that it undergoes decomposition during the process of roasting. The caffeine of the coffee is identical with the theine of tea. I need not, therefore, dwell on its pro- perties. It is, however, an interesting fact worthy of a moment's consideration that the coffee plant should produce a compound which closely resembles the qui- nine and cinchonine of other members of the Cinchona family. If we were in doubt as to the effects of caffeine on the system, we might appeal to the known action of quinine, as illustrative of its action. If there is one fact better proved than another in the history of medicine, it is that quinine has the power of arresting intermittent fever or ague. This is so well known that no tyro in medicine would think of treating a case of ague without quinine. Now it so happens that there are certain cases of ague which will not yield to qui- 334 ON TEA AND COFFEE. nine, and these cases have been known to yield to theine. The composition of these substances is as follows: Carbon. Hydrogen. Nitrogen. Oxygen. Water. Theine ...16 10 4 4 2 Quinine... 20 12 1 2 3 We can hardly doubt that each of them is capable of acting on the nervous system, and that what is true of the action of quinine is also of theine or caffeine. The aromatic oil mentioned in the analysis is the substance which gives the peculiar flavour to coffee. Although given in the analysis of unroasted coffee, it does not appear to be developed till after it has been submitted to this process. The nature of this oil is but imperfectly understood. It appears to be much more fully developed in coffee-seeds which have been kept for some time before they are roasted; at the same time, such is the importance attached to this oil in giving aroma to coffee, that the late Professor Johnston estimated, that if it could be manufactured it would be worth one hundred pounds an ounce. From some experiments by Professor Lehmann it appears that this oil produces on the system much the same effect as the caffeine itself. He distilled roasted coffee with water, and found that this oil could thus be pro- cured separate from the other constituents of coffee. As the result of his experiments, he found that the oil produced the same results as caffeine in retarding the ivaste of the tissues of the body ; that it produced an agreeable excitement and gentle perspiration, and that in its exhilarating action upon the brain it affected the imagination less than the reasoning powers. ON TEA AND COFFEE. 835 When over-doses of the oil were taken, he found it produced violent perspiration, with sleeplessness and symptoms of congestion. These symptoms are some- what different from those produced by the oil from green tea ; at the same time, there can be no doubt that they assist the action of theine generally in the same way, and the fact that green tea and coffee pro- duce the same effect on the system is thus explained. But besides this aromatic oil, there are produced during the roasting certain compounds which give a peculiar bitter taste to coffee. These compounds have not been carefully investigated, and will probably be found to arise from the destruction of the woody fibre and Caffeic acid of the seed. These compounds are given up to the water in greater or lesser quantities, according to the degree of roasting to which the coffee has been submitted, and the kind of water used for making it. Thus, coffee roasted to a reddish-brown colour is said to yield 25 per cent, of its bulk to boiling water, whilst chestnut-brown coffee yields only 19 per cent. Waters containing alkali are found to take up more of the soluble matter than those without. Thus it has been recommended to add carbonate of soda to coffee in the proportion of forty grains to the pound of coffee. We know nothing, however, of the action of these soluble bitter matters on the system, and the taking them must be regarded as a matter of taste. The saline matters, or ashes of coffee, deserve a moment's notice. They are nearly one-third greater than those of tea, and they contain a larger quantity of potash and phosphoric acid. These, as we have seen in one of the previous lectures, are important constitu- 336 OX TEA AND COFFEE. eats of our food, and the habitual use of them must exercise an important influence on the system. It has been observed, that those who drink coffee are not/ liable to gout, and if this be true, it is not altogether improbable that the saline constituents of the coffee may be the agents which act thus favourably on the system. From what we know of the action of these saline substances, especially potash and phosphoric acid, there can be little doubt that they are capable of exercising a beneficial influence in certain states of the system. I must now say a few words with regard to the pre- paration of coffee. You know that the seeds, or beans, as they are called, are brought raw into this country, and the first process they are submitted to is that of roasting. This is mostly done by those who sell the coffee. At the same time, it is a process on which the flavour and pleasantness of the coffee very much depend. If the seeds are roasted too little, the oil and empyreumatic products are not developed ; whilst, if done too much, they are destroyed. The coffee- beans, when roasted, may have three degrees of shade ; they may be reddish-brown, chesnut-brown, and dark brown, and where a full-flavoured coffee is preferred, perhaps the darkest is the best. When the coffee is roasted, it should not be kept long before it is ground and used. It is usually ground in a proper mill, or it may be powdered in a mortar ; but whatever machine is employed for this purpose, it should not be used for . anything else, as coffee has a peculiar tendency to absorb other odours, and thus to acquire a flavour not its own. When ground, it should be used as soon as possible * ON TEA AND COFFEE. 337 for in this state it rapidly gives off its volatile oil. Many devices have been employed to keep coffee after it has been ground, and where this must be done, there is nothing more efficient than a clean stoppered bottle. It is, however, frequently sold in tin or lead packages ; but these do not keep it so well as a bottle. The greatest art, however, of all is, the making the coffee. Time would fail me were I to attempt to tell you of all the methods that have been employed and the instruments that have been invented for the making of coffee. The most common practice, how- ever, of making this beverage, establishes a difference between it and tea. Everywhere tea is used as an infusion, whilst coffee is employed as a decoction. It seems to be very generally admitted, that coffee should be boiled before it is drunk. A common plan is to put the powdered coffee into hot water, in a coffee-pot, and to let it boil for two or three minutes, and then to let it stand by the side of the fire for some little time. The particles of ground coffee are often suspended in this liquid, and a process of clearing is required. This is effected sometimes by isinglass or white of egg ; but this is not necessary, and the pouring a cupful out and returning it will produce the desired effect. Coffee-pots are sold with muslin bags, metallic sieves, and other con- trivances, to produce the clearing. Coffee is, however, exposed to the danger of losing its aroma by boiling, and sometimes boiling water alone is added to it as in making tea. A coffee-pot has been recently invented by M. Loysell, in which the coffee is exposed to boiling water at a considerable pressure, and a very agreeable coffee is produced in this way. One great secret of 338 ON TEA AND COFFEE. making good coffee is, to put enough of the prepared powder. One ounce and a quarter to the pint of water is the least that should be allowed. The cafe noir, or black coffee of the French, contains a larger proportion than this. Cafe au lait consists of strong coffee, to which an equal quantity of hot milk is added. In the making of coffee, as in the making of tea, it should be remembered that the qualities of the coffee are not rendered to water at a lower temperature than the boiling point. It would also appear that coffee will bear boiling, which tea will not. I must now add a few words on substitutes for coffee. At first sight it would not appear to be unna- tural to expect to find in the vegetable world many things which might be used instead of either tea or coffee. And if we regard the general constituents of tea or coffee, this is certainly the case. But when we find that all substances which have been tried are deficient in the active principle caffeine or theine we then have a reason for their failure. As well might we expect to find a substitute for wine without alcohol as a substitute for tea or coffee without theine, or some analogous principle. The proposed substitutes for coffee have been very numerous, and the result of roasting these things has been the production of substances which, when prepared in the same way as coffee, have led to the hope that a substitute had been found. The failure of all of them has, however, clearly shown that they were destitute of the agent that ad- dressed itself to the nervous system, and gave to coffee and tea their hold on the appetites of humanity. I have here a list of substances which have been thus used : ON TEA AND COFFEE. 339 Tris Seeds, I Acorns, Broom Seeds, Fenugrec Seeds, Spanish Acorns, Chick Peas, Eice, Carrot Eoot, Parsnip Eoot, Beans, Lupin Seeds, Chicory Eoot, Dandelion, Beetroot, Wheat, Fruits of the Goosegrass. To these might, undoubtedly, be added many more. In some parts of the world, where coffee is difficult to be had or expensive, they are extensively employed. But you recollect what I said of the necessity of warm beverages. Many of these things are known only in this country as a means of adulterating coffee. There is one of these things, however, which has been so fre- quently associated with coffee in this country, although I do not think it is drunk to any extent alone, that I ought to mention it. I refer to chicory, or succory root. The plant which yields this root is a native of our own chalk soils, and is known by its pretty blue flowers, which appear in the autumn of the year : it is the Cichorium Intybus of botanists, and is the type of a great division of Compositous plants, known by their milky juice, and to which the dandelion and lettuce belong. It does not, however, contain caffeine; the part of the plant used is the root, and when this is roasted and ground, and boiled, it yields a drink not unlike coffee. From being recommended as a substitute for coffee it came to be used for adulterating it, and then a curious fact was elicited : many persons preferred coffee with chicory in it; and there seems to be no doubt that chicory does take from coffee a part of that roughness which renders it disagreeable to the taste of 340 ON TEA AND COFFEE. some individuals. Be this as it may, the sale of chicory is now legalised; and although the addition of it to coffee is regarded as an adulteration, many persons purchase it for that purpose. Chicory contains an empyreumatic oil, and a bitter principle similar to that found in coffee ; it has also a sweetish taste, which probably contributes more than anything else to its modification of the flavour of coffee. On the continent of Europe it is used very extensively alone, and perhaps the influence of its empyreumatic oil on the system may be its recommendation. There is, however, one great objection to its use altogether, and that is the fact of its being adulterated with a variety of utterly worthless and tasteless vegetable matters. I may refer here to substitutes for tea. It is not uncommon to hear reference made to Paraguay tea as a substitute for Chinese tea ; but this is really a mis- nomer, as Paraguay tea is used extensively on its own merits, and is found to contain the same active principle as tea and coffee. The Paraguay tea-plant is a native of the New World, and in some parts of South America it is used as extensively, for the purpose of making a hot infusion, as tea and coffee are in Asia and Europe. This plant belongs to the genus Ilex, plants belonging to the order Aquifoliacea, and which is remarkable for containing our indigenous holly, the Ilex Aqui- folium. The Paraguay tea-plant, or Mate, as it is sometimes called, from the name of the little cup out of which it is drunk, is the Ilex Paraguaensis. It is a shrub attaining the size of an orange-tree. It thrives ON TEA AND COFFEE. 341 well in hothouses in this country, and may be seen grow- ing in great vigour at the Royal Gardens at Kew. It has leaves three or four inches in length, quite smooth, of a bluntish wedge-shape, with large serratUres at their edges. This plant grows wild in the forests of Paraguay and Brazils, but is not cultivated at all. The labour of collecting and preparing the leaves of this plant for use is entirely dependent upon the native Indians. The merchants of Chili and Buenos Ayres send various articles of merchandise up into the interior, which they exchange with the natives for this plant. A con- siderable trade is thus carried on, as it is calculated that upwards of 5,000,000 Ibs. of the leaves of this plant are annually collected in Paraguay. Much less care is taken in the preparation of this tea than in preparing Chinese tea. The natives at certain seasons of the year penetrate the forest, and having selected a tree, they cut off its principal branches with a hatchet. When a sufficient number are cut down they are placed on hurdles. A wood fire is then made, over which, when the flames have ceased to ascend, the hurdles are placed. The branches are kept on the hurdles till they are dried. They are then removed from the fire, and a clean hard floor being made on some spot of ground, they are strewn upon it and beaten with sticks. The dried leaves and smaller branches are thus reduced to a coarse kind of powder, which is usually placed in bullocks' hides, which, when sewed up and dried, are ready for exportation. Some little selection, however, is made during the packing, and three sorts are known in the market ; thus far re- sembling the same stages of proceeding in the collecting 342 ON TEA AND COFFEE. of Chinese tea. The kinds known in the South Ameri- can markets are Caa-Cuys, which consists of the young leaf-buds; the Caa-Miri, which is the leaf separated from its midrib and secondary ribs ; and the Caa-Guaza, or Yerva de Palos of the Spaniards, which consists of the leaf, leaf-stalks, and young branches, all mixed together. The method of preparing this tea is very simple ; it is, nevertheless, peculiar. A cup, which is called a mate, is employed, which frequently consists of a gourd, but is sometimes made of silver or other materials. Into this cup is introduced a long tube, called a bombilla, at the end of which is a bowl pierced with holes, or a round piece of basket-work, the object of which is to allow the fluid to be sucked up without the solid particles passing into the mouth. A small quantity of the yerva is then placed in the cup covering the bowl of the tube, and boiling water is poured upon it. A little sugar is frequently added, and when cold enough, the liquid is sucked up through the tube. The beverage thus formed has a slightly aromatic smell, but very much less than either tea or coffee, and is slightly bitter to the taste. The most curious point about the history of this plant is, that the active principle, which was first called para- guaine, is found to be identical with theme and caffeine. The effects attributed to the action of the Paraguay tea on the system are precisely the same as those of tea and coffee. Probably from knowing less of its action in Europe, we hear less of its evil effects than of even those of tea and coffee ; but we are not to conclude from this that it is at all probable that Paraguay tea is preferable as an article of diet to tea or coffee. The great reason of its not coming into the British market is ; that it has ON TEA AND COFFEE. 343 to pay the same duty as tea. At the same time, I have known English persons who have contracted so great a love for this beverage at Buenos Ayres, that they regu- larly consume it, now that they live again in England, and willingly pay the duty for their favourite beverage. It certainly is worth while considering whether the theine could not be obtained and made use of indepen- dently of the constituents of this plant. I have recently had some theine lozenges made by Messrs. Savory and Moore, of Bond-street, and I find them to possess all the refreshing qualities of tea. I think if such lozenges were made pleasant and sold cheap, that they might have an extensive sale, and be made the means of consuming some of the theine which annually perishes in the forests of Paraguay. The other constituents of the mate are the volatile oil and an astringent principle. The volatile oil, which is evidently in much less quantity than in tea and coffee, appears to be developed by roasting. The astringent and slightly bitter principle is probably some form of tannic acid. It is on this account perhaps that it is used in the Brazils by dyers. I cannot tell you the exact quantity of this astringent matter there is in Paraguay tea, but from its flavour I should judge that there is quite as much as in Chinese tea. I can find no analysis of the salts of Paraguay tea. They probably contain iron, as the infused tea when exposed to the air becomes of an almost inky colour. From what I have said about this Paraguay tea, you will come to the conclusion, I am sure, that it is a very valuable plant, and that it would probably repay atten- tion to its culture and propagation. If it were not 344 ON TEA AND COFFEE. that the Government is perpetually putting its finger into our food, now into our sugar-basin, then into the pepper-box, and again into the tea-pot, it is probable we should have known long ago more about this plant, and have found it an article of diet much cheaper and more efficient than Chinese tea. I find that other species of Ilex, as Ilex Gonghona, have been used in the same way as the Paraguay tea ; but whether this possesses theine, I am not able to say. Our common holly, the Ilex Aquifolium, yields a crystal- lisable principle called Ilicine, which is very bitter, and is said to be an excellent remedy, like quinine, in ague. There can be no doubt of the beneficial action of these principles on the system, and it is well worth further study and experiment as to how far they may be pos- sessed by native and readily-accessible plants. Unfor- tunately, the system of taxing food is so deeply rooted in all European systems of government, that the people are frequently prevented from consuming the less ex- pensive products of their own soil, because a revenue is raised on the productions of foreign countries. It is quite possible that some of our native plants may con- tain theine, or some active principle so nearly allied as to act in the same way, and this can only be discovered by use. A compound made of native plants was for- merly sold in this country under the name of " British Herb tea," but its manufacture and sale were prohibited by the Government. Whilst speaking of substitutes for tea, I ought to mention that one of the most promising of them is coffee-leaves. It appears that in the islands of the Eastern Archipelago the leaves of the coffee-plant are .Jried and prepared in the same way as those of tea. and ON TEA AND COFFEE. 345 used in infusion for drinking. At the Great Exhi- bition, in 1851, Dr. Gardner exhibited some prepared coffee-leaves, and stated that he had succeeded in obtaining from them a considerable amount of theine. The quantity of theine in coffee-leaves appears to be greater than either in Chinese tea or coffee. Mr. Ward, a gentleman who lived for some time in Sumatra, gave some years ago an account, in the Pharmaceutical Journal, of the action of the infusion of coffee-leaves on the natives and himself. His account of its effects agrees very closely with what we know of the action of tea. The Sumatrans prefer the tea from coffee-leaves to the beverage made from coffee-seeds. Mr. Ward him- self employed it habitually, and found from it all the comfort and advantage of tea. One great recommend- ation of the coffee-leaf is, that it will grow in soils and under circumstances that will not develop the coffee- seed. The coffee-leaves are sold in Sumatra, at the price of about three halfpence a pound, and might be packed, of good quality for the European market, at the rate of twopence a pound. Specimens of the dried coffee-leaves with the theine obtained from them are to be seen in the food collection of the South Kensington Museum. I am sure it would be worth while to try the coffee-leaf on an extensive scale, if it be thought desirable to render available for the great bulk of the community a very important article of diet. There is yet one other plant containing theine, which is employed by man as an article of diet, and which we may yet again hear of as supplying food. The plant to which I allude is the Paullinia sorbilis, or Guarana plant. It belongs to the same family of plants as the horse- chestnut. It grows on the river Tapagos, on some of 346 OX TEA AND COFFEE. the head waters of the Orinoco, and elsewhere in the great valley of the Amazon. The fruit of this tree is gathered when ripe and roasted ; after this process the seeds are removed and powdered between stones or mallets, and then made into a thick paste with water. The paste is moulded into cakes, which are baked by the heat of the sun. These cakes will keep good for any length of time. When used they are scraped, and a table-spoonful is added to a pint of boiling water. It is sold all through the Brazils, and is used as a medicine in ague, dysentery, and other diseases. It appears to differ but little in composition from tea and coffee, except that it contains a larger quantity of fat or oil, and in this respect it resembles cocoa or chocolate. According to the analysis of Dr. Stenhouse, guarana is richer in theine than any other of the sub- stances of which I have spoken to you. The following are the per-centages as given by Dr. Stenhouse: Guarana 5 '07 per cent, of Theine. Good Black Tea 213 Coffee 1-0 Coffee Leaves T26 Paraguay Tea 1*20 The plants which are infused and used as warm drinks where Chinese tea has not been introduced, and which do not contain theine, are hardly worth dwelling on. They possess no properties which would lead us for one moment to suppose that they could ever take the place of tea or coffee, or exercise so beneficial an influence on the nervous system. The various agents which have been thus employed have been reduced by Professor Johnstone to a tabular form, and I present you these in the accompanying diagram. ON TEA AND COFFEE. 317 .s 1 * 6 w .! : : : w Jls-S SSgl A- . i 1 1 1 1.8 8 rs 1 l.all'1,111 J , - | .1 -g-- 1 3 131 pi .22 348 ON TEA AND COFFEE. There is one other substance that has a claim to be considered amongst these neurotic beverages, and that is Cocoa. Nevertheless, cocoa differs so much in its mode of preparation, that we might almost regard it as a kind of soup. As cocoa is generally prepared, we take it thick, and consume all it has to offer us. I place it amongst the medicinal foods, because it contains an alkaloid. Nevertheless, it contains more fat, and as much flesh-forming matter as beef; and on looking at it from this point of view, one feels the difficulty of classifying food, and the necessity of weighing well all the constituents of food, if it is to be administered wisely and well. The things you buy in the shops under the name of cocoa and chocolate are the produce of the seeds of a plant known to botanists under the name of Theobroma Cacao. This plant is a native of the New World. The Spaniards, who so cruelly con- quered and took possession of Mexico, were the first Europeans who became acquainted with cocoa. Pres- cott, the American historian, in that splendid picture which he draws of the magnificence and state of Montezuma, the emperor of Mexico, says " The emperor took no other beverage than chocolate, a potation of chocolate flavoured with Vanilla and other spices, and so pre- pared as to be reduced to a froth of the consistency of honey, which gradually dissolved in the mouth. This beverage (if so it could be called) was served in golden goblets, with spoons of the same metal, or of tortoise-shell finely wrought." The golden vessels excited the cupidity of the Spaniard, but the new drink was despised. A Spanish traveller, after the conquest of Mexico, de- scribes the cocoa-nut tree, but speaks of its seeds as ON TEA AND COFFEE. 319 an article of diet with infinite contempt, and says that chocolate was a drink " fitter for a pig than for a man.' J It was left for Linnseus to name the plant ; and with a much finer judgment of the good things of this world, declared that so far from its being food fit for pigs, re- garded it as worthy the regard of gods, and named it Theobroma, the food of gods. Several species of this genus yield seeds from which cocoa may be obtained ; but the Theobroma Cacao is the species from which the cocoa is obtained in Mexico, and the plant which is cultivated in many parts of the world on account of the commercial value of the seeds. The cocoa plant is a tree with large single leaves and small flowers, which grow on flower stalks direct from the stem. (Fig. 2.) The flower is succeeded by a large capsular fruit, about the size of a common vegetable mar- row, and in it are contained from twenty-five to thirty seeds. They are about the size of an almond, and are covered with a thin skin or husk of a light reddish brown colour. These seeds, with the husks on, are brought into this country. In Mexico they are used as money, six of these seeds being worth about a halfpenny. When brought into this country the seeds are prepared in various ways. They are heated and ground down in a mill, and a coarse kind of paste is formed, which is called cocoa paste; or it is rubbed Fig. 2. Cocoa Plant. 350 ON TEA AND COFFEE. into a coarse powder, and called granulated cocoa ; or it is cut into slips, and called flaked cocoa. The husks are more or less removed in these preparations. Again the seeds are submitted to heat, the husks removed and the kernel somewhat broken : they are sold under the name of cocoa-nibs. Lastly, the husks are removed, the nuts are reduced to a paste, and various flavouring agents are added, as vanilla, and the cakes thus pre- pared are called chocolate. The composition of one pound of these seeds in the form of cocoa-paste, is as follows : OZ. GRAIXS. Water ... ... ... 350 Albumen and Gluten ... 3 85 Theobromine ... ... 140 Butter ... ... ... 8 Gum ... ... ... 426 Starch ... ... ... 1 53 Woody Fibre ... ... 280 Colouring Matter ... ... 140 Mineral Matter ... ... 280 If we compare this composition for one moment with tea and coffee, we shall see that the flesh-forming and heat-giving elements of food are greatly in the ascendant. The albumen and gluten are in larger proportions than in bread, or oats, or barley. There is no doubt, then, that when these seeds are eaten entire, or in the form of paste, that they constitute a highly nutritive article of diet. Again, let us look at the fat. Here we have half the paste consisting of pure fat, and acting on the system as any other kind of fatty matter : so that, in estimating the value of cocoa as an article of diet, we ON TEA AND COFFEE. 351 must not estimate its medicinal action alone, but the influence of its heat-giving and flesh-forming matters. The alkaloid it contains, and which is called theobromine, is, nevertheless, an interesting substance. It differs from theine in containing a larger quantity of nitrogen. It is, however, a curious fact, that re- cently theobromine has been converted artificially into theine ; it is, therefore, not at all improbable that theobromine may be converted in the human body into theine, and act in the same way upon the nervous system. Cocoa is prepared in various ways. The paste or powder is boiled with water, and sugar and milk are added according to taste. In this way, however, it can hardly be regarded as a substitute for tea and coffee ; it is, in fact, a substitute for all other kinds of food, and when taken with some form of bread, little or nothing else need be added at a meal. The same may be said of chocolate, which only differs from cocoa in the more careful manner in which it is prepared, and the flavouring substances which are added to it. Chocolate may be mixed with water and milk, and taken in the same manner as cocoa. When a sufficient quantity of sugar is added, it is made into a variety of articles of confectionary, in the preparation of which our French neighbours so greatly excel us. One of the delusions practised on the public is to call certain preparations of cocoa " homoeopathic ; " but analysis shows that these preparations, neither in their quality nor the proportions in which they may be taken, differ at all from ordinary cocoa. The cocoa seeds roasted, arid sold under the name of 352 ON TEA AND COFFER. " nibs," may be infused in boiling water in the same way as tea-leaves; and under these circumstances a beverage is obtained which in many respects resembles tea and coffee, as the albumen and fat are not taken up in this way. The husks of the cocoa seeds which are separated in some of these preparations are not lost. They are said to contain a noticeable quantity of theobromine, and also the flavouring aromatic oil of the cocoa. They are sold for making a beverage which is not unlike tea or coffee in its action on the system. I must now conclude my notice of this group of substances, which have gradually come to be used in such enormous quantities by mankind in the form of warm beverages. Whatever may have been the influ- ence of a heated liquid in leading to their first use, I think you cannot but see that the principle they contain which addresses itself to the nervous system is the agent which has determined their special selection. It would, therefore, be unwise in the highest degree to neglect the study of these important agents. From what we already know, they are evidently potent for good and for evil, and it is only by a careful study of their action on the human body that we can expect to secure the one or prevent the other. ON TOBACCO. IN this lecture I propose to make some remarks on those substances indulged in by man, known by the name of narcotics, and more particularly on tobacco. In approaching this subject, I am reminded of the connection that exists between food and medicine, and medicine and poisons. The more one investi- gates the relation of food to the human system, the greater must be the conviction that food is not only capable of maintaining healthy life, but, by proper modification, can be made the means of curing disease. Our life is so essentially dependent on food, that we may increase its activity by increase of food, and decrease it by decrease of food, and change its character by change of food. Diseases manifest themselves in an increase, or decrease, or a change of vital action. It 354 OX TOBACCO. must be evident, therefore, that in the management of food we have the great means for the cure anjl removal of disease. In the classification of food which I gave you at the commencement of these lectures, I showed you that certain substances which we habitually take as food act in the same way as medicines; hence I called them medicinal foods. Such substances are alcohol, the volatile oils, and the theinal principles. These are themselves powerful medicinal agents, or belong to groups of substances which yield them. From a medi- cine to a poison there is but a step, and that is not one of kind, but of degree. The alcohol that invigo- rates the stomach and cheers the social meal, recalls to life the frame exhausted with febrile poison, but kills when taken to excess. The oxalic acid of our spring tart is a pleasant febrifuge in fever, but poison- ous when swallowed by the ounce. Common salt is one of the great necessaries of life, but in drachm doses acts as an emetic, and may be accumulated in the system till it destroys life. Such, then, is the connec- tion between food, medicine, and poison, that all our food may be made medicinal and all our medicines may become poisons. I need not remind you how such a view as this lays the axe at the root of all pretensions to cure disease by remedies that can exert no influence on the system. If you are eating and drinking, and men tell you they are curing your diseases with infinitesimal doses, don't believe them. Your food is exercising a far more powerful effect on your system than their remedies. The only remedies that can be rationally employed as medicines ON TOBACCO. 355 are those which act as food on the system. If they are capable of increasing or decreasing the vital actions of your bodies, then they may or may not do you good, according to the skill with which they are administered; but away with the folly and imposture that would lead you to believe that the natural actions of your bodies are influenced by agents whose existence cannot be detected by the senses. I know nothing more degrad- ing in the intellectual history of the past, with its witch- craft, charms, amulets, royal touches, and holy waters, than the belief of certain portions of the medical pro- fession and the public in the abracadabra of " similia similibus curantur," and the efficacy of infinitesimal doses. You must excuse these expressions, I speak strongly because I feel warmly. I am ever ready to make allowance for the opinions and practice of my medical brethren. The rational treatment of disease involves problems of the highest complexity, in endea- vouring to understand which, two minds, equally anxious to reach the truth, may yet arrive at different conclu- sions. But such conclusions, arrived at by the painful road in which truth ever leads her votaries, are very different from the ready-made hypothesis which is adopted to get rid of the difficulties of inquiry, and which is acted on regardless of the sacrifice of human life, so long as the selfish object for which it was adopted is attained. The substances, then, to which I wish now to draw your attention, are more particularly known as poisons. In proportion as our food becomes dangerous to human life so does it appear to exercise a fascinating influence. Our life is distinguished by its nervous activity. We 2 A 356 ON TOBACCO. feel, we think, we are conscious, we enjoy only as the nervous system acts. It is on this system that the pleasant poisons of which I have now to speak act. Poisons, or at any rate our food-poisons, act on the nervous system in various ways. They may stimulate the nervous system, and we call them stimulants : such foods are alcohol and the volatile oils. On the other hand, they may depress the nervous system, and we call them sedatives : such an action we found tea and coffee to exert. I would not, however, lead you to suppose that all stimulants of the nervous system are pleasant in their action. Such is not the case with strychnia, which, far short of acting as poison, stimu- lates the motor nerves to very unpleasant and some- times painful activity. So with sedatives. However pleasant may be the sedative action of tea and coffee, few persons could be found to enjoy hydrocyanic acid or Digitalis. You must not, therefore, misunder- stand me, it is not because all foods may act as medicines, and medicines poisons, that, therefore, all poisons may be used as foods. Nevertheless, the addiction of some people to taking medicine is so re- markable that I should not wonder at some clever writer starting the theory that all physic may be food. The Turks indulge in corrosive sublimate; the Styrians in arsenic. Quack pills, containing gamboge, jalap, calomel, and other drugs, are consumed, to the utter destruction of health, in this country by ton loads every year. I know of nothing so virulent and nasty that has not its defenders or victims. Now I am not going to speak of the stimulant or sedative group of our poisonous foods to-night, but of a ON TOBACCO. 357 group to which the term narcotic has been more particu- larly applied. When a medicine attacks more particu- larly the brain we call it a narcotic. Our stimulants and sedatives are narcotics at last, as you know by the action of alcohol on the brain. But some of these things seem to attack the brain at once, and such are tobacco and opium and henbane. They act also as stimulants and sedatives. So that you see that these things all act generally on the nervous system; but that some prefer exerting their greatest action on the sympathetic nerves, others on the spinal nerves ; this on one part of the brain, and that on another (see dia- gram) . We cannot explain all this, but it is interest- ing for us to know the fact. Of the two agents of this class most largely used by mankind, the one tobacco is called an intoxicating narcotic, whilst the other opium is a soporific nar- cotic. I shall have little time to speak at all of the latter, and my remarks must be chiefly devoted to tobacco. The plant which yields this substance be- longs to the genus Nicotiana, a name given to it in honour of Jean Nicot, a French ambassador at the court of Portugal, who first introduced this plant into France. Belonging to this genus are several species which yield, at the present day, the tobacco of commerce. These plants belong to the natural order Solanacece, a family which yields us not onl* tobacco, but stramonium, deadly nightshade, henbane Cayenne pepper, tomatoes, winter cherries, vegetable eggs, smoking cane, potatoes, Quito oranges, and mandrakes. At first sight this looks like an incon- gruous family, but still you will see certain common 2 A 2 358 ON TOBACCO. properties running through the whole order. All con- tain, more or less, substances that act on the nervous system, and thus increase from the mild poison of the solanums till we arrive at the deadly principles of the atropas, the henbanes, and the tobaccos. Although there seems little doubt that smoking was introduced from the New world into the Old, yet the material for the practice was not found wanting, for at least two species of Nicotiana, the N. rustica and N. Persica, are indigenous to Asia. It is, however, to the American plant, the Ni- cotiana Tabacum (Fig. 1), to which I would more particu- larly confine your attention. This plant is an annual, and great care is taken in its cul- ture in the countries where it grows. Its stem rises five or six feet in height, branching at the top. The leaves are sesile, very large, and ovate or lanceolate in form. They are of a pale-green colour, and are sticky when taken hold of. The flowers appear in bunches at the end of The corolla is funnel-shaped, yellowish, of a dull-red colour at their edges. The seeds are numerous and contained in an ovate two- celled capsule, which is surrounded by the calyx. The tobacco-plant grows readily in this country in almost any good garden-soil. The seeds should be Fig. 1. Virginia Tobacco. the stem or branches. ON TOBACCO. 359 sown in March or April, and in July or August the flowers will appear, and at this time it may be cut down and dried for use. It is, however, a native of tropical and subtropical regions, and, like other plants under the same circumstances, it fails to yield its peculiar products in perfection. "When first introduced into Europe, it was grown with the potato in the British islands. Sir Walter Raleigh cultivated it in his gar- den at Youghal; it was also grown in France, Ger- many, Spain, Portugal, and other parts of Europe. It is now only grown in gardens in Great Britain. Although its first cultivation for sale in England was prohibited, the reason now is very different from what it was at first. Our rulers then thought it would injure the people to allow them to grow it, now they think it would injure the revenue to allow them to do so. Those who smoke need not regret this, as Euro- pean tobacco is very inferior in all the properties for which tobacco is consumed, compared with that which comes from the warmer countries of the world. The best tobacco in the world comes at the present day from Cuba, where it was originally discovered. It is, however, cultivated extensively in the United States, in Virginia, Maryland, Ohio, and Kentucky. Even Canada produces a decent tobacco. South America sends also its tobacco into the markets of Europe, known by the name of Kanaster. It is grown exten- sively in the northern and western provinces of India, and in the islands of the Eastern archipelago. A famous tobacco is brought from Manilla. From Persia is brought the delicate " Shiraz tobacco," pro- cured from Nicotiana Persica, whilst the aristocratic 360 ON TOBACCO. Latakia is produced in Turkey by the Nicotiana rustica. (Fig. 2). In Africa and Egypt, the American spe- cies flourish, and France is supplied with the principal part of her tobacco from Algeria. Even the Cape of Good Hope sends its cigars to England, and for weak smokers the inferior tobac- cos of Germany, Holland, and other parts of Europe, find their way here. In the Food collection at South Kensington will also be &und tobaccos from Japan, Siam, and China. For smoking, tobacco undergoes little or no prepara- tion. At the proper season of the year, the plant is cut down, and the leaves are packed together and dried under cover. At first they undergo a process of change, which is known technically by the term " sweating," and perhaps the constituents of the plant are modified at this stage. Chemically, however, nothing is known on this point. After a month's drying, the tobacco is said to be " in case," that is, it is now ready for being sorted and packed. The leaves, which resemble each other, are tied up in bundles, and they are put into boxes or casks. The latter are used in Virginia, and each contains from 1,000 to 1,200 Ibs. of tobacco. The qualities of the tobacco differ even from the same district, and in the markets they go by various names. Thus in America ship's tobacco is manufactured from ON TOBACCO. 361 the strong Virginian leaf, whilst the fine Virginia leaf is prepared for chewing. One sort is prepared for making Cavendish, whilst another is used for cut and shag tobaccos. Tobacco is brought into this country either in the form of the leaf, or as manufactured. Manufactured tobaccos pay a much higher duty than the leaf tobacco ; hence, those who prefer the foreign manufacture, as cigars, cheroots, or cigarettes, Cavendish, Latakia, Turkey, or Shiraz tobaccos, have to pay a much higher price for them than if they patronized the British manufacturer. Unless persons are well acquainted with foreign tobaccos, they had better at once make up their minds to the consumption of that which is British made. In manufacturing the tobacco, the first thing done is to open the hogsheads or bales in which the leaves have been packed. The leaves are pulled apart, and if the mid-rib or centre rib of the leaf has not been removed it is now cut out ; not, however, thrown away. The largest and strongest leaves are used as covers for pigtail tobacco ; the other leaves are spread on the floor and moistened with water. This is all the English manufacturer is allowed to do; on the Continent, how- ever, the manufacturer adds salt and sugar and other things to the water, which is necessary to the manu- facture at this stage. These additions give various qualities to the tobacco, and some may even improve it; but under present circumstances the principle is bad, as it gives the fraudulent manufacturer an oppor- tunity of adding substances which give no flavour to the tobacco, but increase considerably its weight. In 362 ON TOBACCO. this country the penalty is very heavy for using any substance in the adulteration of tobacco ; nevertheless, the high duty presents a great temptation, and if during the moistening process nothing is added to the water, there are frequently other leaves substituted for those of the tobacco. These, however, can be easily detected, not so much from their chemical composition as from their microscopic structure. If you examine the leaves of tobacco under the microscope you will find them covered with very peculiarly shaped hairs. They are club-shaped. None of the leaves which are used for adulteration have these hairs, and the presence of other shaped hairs or the absence of the club-shaped ones in a leaf are sure signs of adulteration. The presence of sugar or salt or nitre can of course only be detected by chemical operations. Sugar is found naturally in the tobacco leaf; but when it is found in excess, it must be looked upon as a fraud. After the leaves have been properly moistened, they are arranged according to the ultimate form they are to assume. If they are to be cut into tobacco, they are laid one on the top of another, and pressed, and placed under a cutting-machine, which, acting in the same manner as a chaff-cutting engine, cuts the tobacco leaf into strips. The cut tobacco is shaken out by the hands, and afterwards dried, and, according to the leaf used, is called " Virginia shag/' " Maryland returns," "Kanaster," "Turkey," or any other recognizable name. " Bird's eye " is produced from the same leaf as "shag;" but the mid-rib is allowed to remain in the leaf, and, on being cut, leaves those little white bits which have acquired for it its fanciful name. ON TOBACCO. 363 Every country where tobacco is grown manufactures its own cigars, and these are frequently sold in shops in England. The British manufacturer, however, generally prefers West Indian, Havannah, or European tobacco for making cigars. These cigars are sold at varying prices, according to the value of the tobacco. The price paid for British-made cigars in the shops is from 10s. to 16s. a pound. The price for foreign cigars is from 25s. to 40s. a pound ; and aa I am speaking of the price of tobacco, I may say that shag and other coarse tobaccos manufactured in this country are sold from 4s. to 5s. a pound, while foreign manufactured tobacco costs from 14s. to 18s. a pound. In making cigars the mid-rib of the leaf is removed altogether, whilst the perfect leaves are used for making the outside wrappers and the imperfect ones for the inside of the cigar. Cheroots are elongated cones which are cut in two. The cheroot is often preferred to the cigar on account of its allowing a freer access of air to the tobacco, and burning more quickly and with less accumulation of oil at the smoked end. Cigars can of course be made of any size ; at the same time, a common size is usually adhered to in particular manu- factories, so that the size at once indicates the maker of the cigar. The prepared leaf of the tobacco-plant, when not made into cigars, is called tobacco, whether its desti- nation be mastication or smoking. Thus there are uncut tobaccos known by the names of " Pigtail," " Negro-head/' and " Cavendish." Pigtail, which is a long string of tobacco, is made by sorting the leaves one within the other, in such away, that when a wheel 364 ON TOBACCO. to which the tobacco is first fastened, is turned, the tobacco is drawn into a long cord. This cord is made up into balls, which are called rolls, casks, hanks, cakes, or negro-heads, according to the form or shape they assume. This tobacco is used both for chewing and smoking. It is cut up when used for smoking. Such tobacco is generally stronger than any other form, as from its method of manufacture the volatile narcotic principles are prevented from escaping. Of course, with an article consumed to such an enormous extent as tobacco, the varieties of forms which its manufactured produce presents are very great. I have only mentioned those which are perhaps familiar to those who never ventured on smoking even a ciga- rette. This reminds me that this term is applied to a small cigar extemporaneously manufactured. A little tobacco is taken and rolled up in a piece of paper, and the cigarette is produced. Tobacco is usually smoked from a pipe. Whatever doubt may attach to the statement, that smoking came from the New World, there seems to be no doubt that the pipe was invented in America. Many of the native tribes of North America celebrated their great national solemnities with the pipe. This pipe, called the calu- met, was adorned on such occasions with the coloured feathers of birds, with beads and gems, and other orna- ments. The bowl was made of a red stone resembling porphyry, and the stem was six feet in length. A pipe- bearer first held it to the sun, then to the different points of the compass, after which it was handed to the principal chief, who, after smoking himself, presented it to the assembled conclave. The forms which this ON TOBACCO. 365 instrument assumes at the present day are almost infinite. Almost every solid material which can be chiselled or moulded have been employed to make the bowl, whilst the stem has been made of a still greater number of substances. Whatever presents itself naturally in the form of a tube, or that can be con- verted into one, has been thus employed. The end of the tube which is placed in the mouth frequently differs in material from the stem itself, and amber, costly gems, ivory, and other materials, have been used for this purpose. Sometimes between the bowl and the stem a vessel of water is inserted, so that the smoke is purified by this kind of washing, and this is a favourite form of the nargheli of the Turks. But I need not discourse to you on pipes, as a peep into the window of any one of the 1,800 tobacconists' shops in London will give you an idea of their variety. Suffice it to say, they have been made of the most costly materials, have had bestowed on them the most elaborate workman- ship, and their form, size, and character, are frequently characteristic of the races of men who use them. The honour of introducing the pipe into England is disputed. You have all heard the story of Sir Walter Raleigh, whose servant, having observed him smoking, thought he was on fire, and threw a pail of water over his head. It appears, however, that Sir Francis Drake and his companions had become smokers, and brought the practice to England before Sir Walter ever laid his eyes on the New World. This was as early as 1560. Whole fields of tobacco were cultivated in Portugal before 1584, the assumed date of the exploit of Raleigh's servant; at any rate, at the latter end of 266 ON TOBACCO. the sixteenth century, the practice of smoking was becoming so general in Europe, that fears were enter- tained lest the populations that smoked would degene- rate into a barbarous state. It was at the beginning of the seventeenth century that tobacco-smoking spread over the East. So thoroughly oriental has this practice become, and so essentially a part of the habits of the great Asiatic nations, that many writers have professed themselves sceptics as to its recent introduction amongst them. It was not on account of its favourable reception by the rulers and governments of the world that tobacco found its way to the remotest corners of the earth. Everywhere persecution awaited it. It was excommunicated by the Pope. The sultans and priests of Turkey and Persia denounced smoking as a sin against their religion. In Russia the practice was punished by the bastinado for the first offence, by cutting off the nose for the second, and by decapita- tion for the third. In Transylvania the punishment for growing tobacco was a confiscation of all property. In the canton of Berne an eleventh commandment was added to the decalogue "Thou shalt not smoke." Good Queen Bess, perhaps out of regard to her favoured Raleigh, rather winked at than approved the practice, only interdicting its use in churches. She even condescended to banter Sir Walter about it ; and he induced her to lay him a wager that he could not tell the weight of the smoke he sent out from his pipe. He performed before her majesty a chemical experi- ment, which, if it had not won the wager, is worthy of being recorded as a proof that he possessed the ON TOBACCO. 367 genius that might have laid the foundation of modern chemical science. He took the tobacco he was about to smoke, and having weighed it, he put it in his pipe ; having smoked the tobacco, he weighed the ashes, and proved to her majesty's satisfaction that the dif- ference between the two must be the weight of the smoke. What a subject for an historical painter. The queen paid her lost wager, saying she had often heard of those " who had turned their gold into smoke ; but Raleigh was the first who had turned his smoke into gold." But a philosopher was soon to sit upon the throne of England; one who judged men and nature not according to the tendencies of the vulgar rabble, but by the high standard of a royal intellect. His majesty not only passed laws to forbid smoking, hut fulminated " a counterblaste to tobacco," which, as it is the type of most of the counterblasts since issued, I may be excused for quoting a specimen. " Surely," saith our monarch, " smoke becomes a kitchen farre better than a dining chamber; and yet it makes a kitchen often- times in the inward parts of men ; soyling and infecting them with an unctuous and oyley kind of soote as hath been found in some great tobacco takers, that after their death were opened. Now my good countrymen let us (I pray you) consider what honour or policie can move us to imitate the barbarous and beastlie manners of the wild, godless, and slavish Indians, especially in so vile and filthy a custom. Shall we that disdain to imitate the manner of our neighbour France (having the style of the greate Christian king- dome), and that cannot endure the spirit of the Spaniards (their king being now comparable in largenesse of dominions to the greatest emperor of Turkey) ; shall we, I say, that have been so long civill and wealthy in peace, famous and invincible in war fortunate in both we that have been able to aid any of our neighbours (but never deafened their ears with any of our supplications for assis- tance) ; shall we, I say, without blushing, abase ourselva" so far as 368 ON TOBACCO. to imitate these beastlie Indians, slaves to the Spaniards, the refuse of the worlde, and as yet aliens from the holy covenant of God ? Why do we not as well 'imitate them in walking naked as they do, in preferring glasses, feathers, and toys, to gold and precious stones as they do ? Yea, why do we not deny God, and adore the devils as they do ? Have you not, then, reasons to forbear this filthie noveltie, so basely grounded, so foolishly received, and so grosslie mistaken in the right use thereof P In your abuse thereof sinning against God, harming yourselves both in person and goods and raking also, thereby the marks and notes of vanitie upon you, by the custom thereof, making yourselves to be wondered at by all forreine civill nations, and by all strangers that come among you to be scorned and contemned. A custom loathsome to the eye, hateful to the nose, harm full to the braine, dangerous to the lungs, and in the blacke stinking fume thereof, nearest resembling the horrible Stygian smoake of the pit that is bottomless." But tobacco is not only smoked, it is also chewed, and distinguished above all other substances in being stuffed up the nose. The practice of chewing is not confined to tobacco, nor was it introduced from the New World. Throughout the nations of Asia the prac- tice of chewing the betel-nut is prevalent. This nut is the fruit of a palm, the Areca Catechu, and contains in its albumen a quantity of tannic acid. The seed is cut with a knife, and the shavings mixed with long pepper and lime, and introduced into the mouth as a mastica- tory. Narcotic effects are ascribed to these agents. The practice of chewing the one thing would probably pave the way for the other. But chewing does not appear to have been practised in Europe till the intro- duction of tobacco. The effect of this very disagree- able use of tobacco is the same on the system as smoking, the only difference arising from the absence of an empyreumatic oil, which is produced by burning the tobacco. All forms of tobacco may be chewed, but ON TOBACCO. 369 those who have acquired this habit generally prefer the woven and pressed tobacco, as pigtail and negro- head. A third method of employing tobacco is snuffing. The practice of introducing irritating substances up the nose for the purpose of producing sneezing is as old as Hippocrates, but I am not aware that it was ever regarded as an indulgence till the introduction of tobacco. The preparation of the tobacco for snuffing is much more elaborate than for smoking. According to the quality of the snuff, the entire leaf or the ribs and mid-ribs of the leaves alone are employed. These are sprinkled with water and laid in heaps ; they thus be- come heated, and a kind of fermentation takes place, which produces a considerable change in the composi- tion and qualities of the tobacco. The leaves, after having been subjected to this process, are dried and powdered. They are then put into close boxes and undergo a second time a process of heating and fermen- tation. This gives to the snuff its agreeable pungent odour. In this process some of those ethers are pro- bably developed which give flavour and odour to so many other things. Snuffs are either moist or dry. The moist snuffs are called rappees, and are frequently scented by the addition of various kinds of perfumes. The " high- dried " snuffs, such as those which are called Scotch, Irish, and Welsh, are exposed to heat in shallow metal trays or pans before a brisk fire, and strongly heated. During this process a large quantity of ammonia is evolved. Although the general effects of tobacco are to a certain extent produced by snuffing, there is no doubt 370 ON TOBACCO. that the pleasure of the snuff-taker is more local than that of the chewer or smoker. At the same time snuff can be consumed to an injurious extent, and like all other forms of narcotic it may be easily abused. There is one use of snuff that is so local and peculiar that I ought to allude to it here. I mean the practice of " dipping/' patronized by the ladies of some parts of America. This form of taking snuff is practised in North and South Carolina, in Georgia, Alabama, Florida, and Eastern Tenessee. It consists in rubbing a stick, wetted at the end and dipped in snuff, about the interior of the mouth and within the interstices of the teeth. Sometimes the mouth is filled with the delicious powder, which the dipper moistens and sucks with the same pleasure as the male chewer sucks bis quid. Other substances are both occasionally chewed and snuffed as substitutes for tobacco, but only in excep- tional instances. The practice of snuffing, I ought to add, is liable to a dangerous action in the system, which is not the case with smoking and chewing. This arises from the introduction, by accident or design, of sub- stances more injurious to health than an excess ot tobacco. Thus, snuff is frequently packed in lead packages, and the snuff, acting on the lead, gets into it a sufficient quantity to act poisonously in the system. I have been consulted by persons with all the symptoms of lead poisoning, who have got rid of them when they have left off their snuff. I may add that this is only the case with the moist snuffs, and that the lovers of high- dried Welsh and Lundy Foot need not be alarmed. But then there is the retailer, the fraudulent fellow who wants ON TOBACCO. 371 to get more out of everybody than fair profits and short weight will enable him. He adds all sorts of things to snuff ; and not being instructed in toxicology, he sometimes adds poisons. The oxides of lead, mer- cury, antimony, and other poisonous metals, have been found in snuff. But I must now say something to you on the action of tobacco. In order to do this, we must first ascertain what are the chemical constituents of the tobacco leaf, and of tobacco smoke; for we shall find the smoke differs somewhat from the tobacco itself. I present you here with the analysis of a pound of tobacco shag tobacco : Oz. Grs. Nicotina 419 Concrete volatile oil ... 7 Chlorophyle 1 46 Gum 1 222 Starch ' 279 Albumeii and gluten 349 Sugar 139 Salts 2 245 Water 1 402 It is very evident that, with the exception of the two first, none of these constituents can exercise much influence on the system, even when the tobacco is taken in the form of a quid. I might, perhaps, be allowed to draw your attention to the ashes, which exist in un- usually large quantities. The soluble salts amongst them would be swallowed if the tobacco was chewed, and might act on the system in the same way as the other saline constituents of plants. They are also interesting as explaining how it is that the cultivator of the soil finds tobacco an exceedingly exhausting crop. 2 B 372 ON TOBACCO. It is also worthy of note that the nitrates are abundant in the salts, and perhaps account for the ready way in which tobacco burns. In smoking, of course the volatile products of the above analysis are alone taken into the mouth, and the following are the ingredients which various observers have detected in tobacco smoke : Nicotine. Empyreumatic Oil. Butyric Acid. Carbonic Acid. Ammonia. Paraffine. Empyreumatic Resin. Acetic Acid. Carbonic Oxide. Carburetted Hydrogen. Water. Sir Walter Raleigh would have been astounded could he have known the villanous products liberated from his experimental pipe. King James must have had an inkling of its composition when he denounced it as a " black, stinking fume/' resembling " the horrible Sty- gian smoake of the pit that is bottomlesse." Butyric acid is the stinking product of rancid butter. Carbonic oxide is the poison of charcoal stoves. Carburetted hydrogen and paraffine are products of coal gas. We can hardly discover the tobacco in the smoke, but there is the nicotine; and although we do not find the con- crete oil, we find the empyreumatic oil, and these are the three things alone of which we need take any notice in our inquiry. In fact, those who smoke need not to regard the concrete oil of the tobacco at all, as it appears to be dissipated or changed into the empy- reumatic oil. So that we must seek for the influence of tobacco in its nicotine and empyreumatic oil. Nicotine is an alkaloid, like quinine or morphine, and ON TOBACCO. 373 is found in the tobacco combined with acids. It can be separated from these acids and obtained in its pure form, when it presents itself not as a solid, like other alkaloids, but as a colourless liquid. It has a most offensive, suffocating odour, and an acrid, burning taste. By exposure to the air it becomes brown, and this is the colour it generally presents when kept. It boils and is decomposed at a temperature of 482 ; but as it passes into a vapour before it reaches this point, it is not decomposed in the process of combustion, to which it is exposed in smoking. It is an active poison, and a very small quantity destroys life. I have known two distinguished chemists who have within the last few years destroyed themselves by its agency. It was the poison employed by Count Bocarme for the murder of his brother-in-law, and whose trial at Mons, a few years ago, will be remembered. The quantity of nicotine contained in different kinds of tobacco varies from 2 to 8 per cent. Virginia and Kentucky leaves, from which shag and birdVeye tobaccos are manufactured, contain 6 per cent. ; Mary- land leaves, from which returns are made, contain 2 per cent. ; and Havannah cigars contain less than 2 per cent. It is clear that if the effect of the nicotine is alone sought to be attained, that it is much more economical to purchase shag or birdVeye than returns or real Havan- nah cigars. But amongst those who indulge in tobacco, as with those who affect wine and tea, there are other qualities sought for besides the mere action on the nervous system. The palate must be gratified, and there are bouquets in tobaccos and cigars as there are in wines and teas flavours, for which those who have cul- 2 B 2 874 ON TOBACCO. tivated a taste for them will pay a higher price than for the quantity of the active principle which renders these articles of consumption desirable. Of the empyreumatic oil there is less chemically known than of nicotine. It is, however, easily obtained by passing tobacco smoke through water. It is this oil which collects in the tubes of pipes, and which renders them so offensive to all but the most inveterate smokers. It has an oleaginous appearance, and is of a yellow colour when pure. It is acrid to the taste, producing a sensation of heat in the mouth. One drop placed on the tongue of a cat has been known to pro- duce death. The Hottentots use it to kill snakes. It has been supposed to be the "juice of cursed hebenon" referred to by Shakspeare, in the play of " Hamlet," as a "leperous distilment." But in this instance Shakspeare follows the old story on which his play was founded, and the "juice of cursed hebenon" was rather " The mixture rank of midnight weeds collected With Hecate's ban, thrice blasted, thrice infected," than any natural production. No poison that we know of at the present day would answer to the Ghost's description of a poison, " Whose effect Holds such an enmity with blood of man, That, swift as quicksilver, it courses through The natural gates and alleys of the body; And with a sudden vigour it doth posset And curd, like eager droppings into milk, The thin and wholesome blood : so did it mine ; And a most instant tetter bark'd about, Most lazar-like, with vile and loathsome crust, All my smooth body." ON TOBACCO. 375 Both nicotine and the distilled oil act on the nervous system, yet with a difference : nicotine paralyses the heart, which the oil does not. It paralyses the heart by its action on the brain. This was shown by Sir Benjamin Brodie, who found that, although the heart of a dog was paralyzed by tobacco when its head was on, the heart went on beating if its head was cut off. On the other hand, the oil seems to address itself more to the spinal cord and the motor nerves. The respiratory muscles cease to act, the lungs become congested, and convulsions and coma terminate life, whilst the heart still beats. The two together seem to leave no part of the nervous system unattacked ; whilst nicotine seizes on the citadel, the distilled oil attacks the outposts, and the whole man body and mind is brought under their influence. What man is there who has reached the age of twenty who has not experienced the effects of these agents ? First, the sneezing and coughing, indicative of the objection of the respiratory nerves; then the sensation of heat and dryness in the throat, and pre- sently the sense of nausea ; then a tendency to sigh followed by a general uneasiness, a wish to get home if out, or to go to bed if at home. Perhaps the heart has palpitated ; but, at any rate, the eyes have become dim, the nicotine has forced its way to the base of the brain ; at last there is giddiness, and now the pipe or cigar is laid down and dropped from the hand. If the determination to smoke has not been very energetic, water is asked for, and perhaps brandy-and-water is supplied, and a speedy recovery has taken place; but, where the will has been at work in spite of all premoni- 376 ON TOBACCO. tory symptoms, the novi'ce may become insensible, and a fainting fit be the result. Such are the results of a first smoke : a sure proof, one would have thought, that tobacco ought not to be indulged in. But even this state has its fascinations. In those first moments, before any painful effects were experienced, the poison had spread its snares. In that languor there was a sense of relief, and in that giddiness there was a dreamy pleasure, which even as you smoked became more real, whilst the agonies of the first trial became ever less, and thus many of you have become confirmed smokers. I can defend you on no other ground than that it gives you pleasure. I cannot say that it does you any posi- tive good ; and I have looked in vain for proofs of its destructive influence on health. The late Dr. Pereira states, in his book on " Materia Medica," that he is not acquainted with any well-ascertained ill-effects resulting from the habitual practice of smoking. Dr. Christison says the same. Duchatelet examined statistically into the health of the workmen in the French snuff and tobacco manufactories, amounting to 4,000 in number, and could not discover that they were less healthy than other artisans. Dr. Prout gave it as his opinion that excessive tobacco smoking interfered with the healthy qualities of the blood. Many medical writers have recorded cases in which excessive smoking has produced symptoms of illness, which have disap- peared when the smoking has been given up. But with regard to the effects of the moderate use of tobacco, I am sorry to say that I have nothing decidedly against it to tell you. The opinions of medical men are really not worth quoting, unless ON TOBACCO. 377 backed by something like evidence. It is not because a man dies of apoplexy, or paralysis, or fever, or any other disease, after smoking tobacco, that we are to conclude he died in consequence of it. My allopathic brethren, as they are called, are very ready to laugh at the absurd conclusion of the homceopathist, who, be- cause his patient gets well after a homoeopathic dose, concludes that he gets well on account of it ; but they should be careful not to fall into the same error with regard to tobacco. If you will not, therefore, give up this habit of smoking, from motives of economy, from a sense of its unseemliness, from its making your breath smell, and your clothes filthy, from its polluting your hands and your house, and driving women and men from you who do not smoke, I dare not, as a physiologist or a statist, tell you, that there exists any proof of its injurious influence when used in moderation. I know how difficult it is to define that word moderation ; and yet, in my heart I believe that every one of you has an internal monitor that will guide you to the true expla- nation of it in your own case. The first symptoms of giddiness, of sickness, of palpitation', of weariness, of indolence, of uneasiness, whilst smoking, should induce you to lay it aside. These are the physiological indica- tions of its disagreement, which, if you neglect, you may find increase upon you, and seriously embarrass your health. The action of tobacco is much stronger on children and young persons than on adults. The fatal cases of poisoning by smoking or the application of tobacco on abraded surfaces have been chiefly in children and lads 378 ON TOBACCO. from fourteen to seventeen years of age. I think this should serve as a warning to parents and those engaged in the education of youth, to prevent the practice of smoking amongst boys. In more than one case where I have been consulted, I have been led to suspect that smok- ing has produced a state of the nervous, system, which resulted in attacks of palpitation from slight causes. In certain diseased conditions of the system I have found tobacco most injurious. There is a state of the nervous system which frequently comes on as the result of dyspepsia amongst the overworked men of London, which is accompanied with a slow pulse, and tobacco seems to act as a poison. In such cases, it needs to be carefully avoided. In some diseases of the heart, it acts injuriously when taken to excess ; whilst in others I have found it to have an exceedingly beneficial action. Generally where there is depression or lethargy, or a tendency to inactivity of the muscular system, or the mental powers, there tobacco would appear to act injuriously. Its effects in such states may be judged of by the fact, that many persons who can smoke with impunity after a meal, or whilst drinking alcohol, are utterly unable to do so before a meal, or without some form of alcoholic beverage. The modifying effect produced on the system by tobacco after large potations of alcohol is a subject of some interest. A distinguished medical writer has stated his conviction, that the man who both drinks and smokes is less liable to injure himself than the man who smokes or drinks alone. We have no means of testing this theory upon a scale sufficiently large to answer for its truth ; but from what I have said of the ON OPIUM. 379 action of alcohol and nicotine, you will see that the one agent is the antagonist of the other in its action on the nervous system. The one is a stimulant, the other is a sedative. Nevertheless, they both stimulate, and they both act as sedatives ; but the tobacco acts as a sedative in small doses, and the alcohol in large. The quiet intoxication, which is the last result of alcohol, is one of the immediate effects of tobacco ; and this may in some measure account for its supplanting alcohol; for we find, that just in proportion as tobacco has increased in consumption, alcohol has diminished. However much this may be regretted by those who dislike the practice of tobacco-smoking, it must be a source of gratification to all those who wish well to their race. Whatever may be the evils, real or imaginary, of the abuse of tobacco, they are as nothing compared with the terrible effects of alcohol. If tobacco and alcohol were tried before any competent tribunal for all the evils they have inflicted on society, I believe, that if alcohol were condemned to be hanged, tobacco ought to get off with a month's, im- prisonment. I have hardly left myself time to dwell upon another narcotic agent which is consumed largely by man- kind. I mean Opium. This sub- stance is the produce of the poppy- plant, Papaver somniferum (Fig. 3), which, although it grows in this country, is a native 380 OPIUM. of Syria, from whence it has found its way to other parts of the world. The Poppy tribe of plants yield a milky juice. This juice is collected from the opium poppy, and the dried juice is the substance known by the name of opium. This substance has from the earliest times been known as a powerful narcotic agent acting on the brain, and producing a tendency to sleep. It has been on this account used in medicine, and perhaps to 110 other agent does man owe so deep a debt for the alleviation of his pain and sorrow in disease as this. It would be altogether impossible for me here to speak of the medicinal properties of opium. It must suffice you for me to say that, whilst its primary action seems to be to subdue the activity of the brain and to produce sleep, it acts generally on the nervous system. The sympathetic nerves, the nerves of motion and sensation, the spinal cord, are all alive to its action, and where the object in the treatment of disease is to subdue the activity of any of these portions of the nervous system, there opium is employed. It was hardly to be expected that an agent possessing so much power over the human system should escape the strong tendency of mankind to employ as luxuries all agents affecting pleasurably the nervous system. Gradually has the use of opium spread. Turkey first set the example, and the prac- tice has wound its way throughout the East, till it has become the besetting sin of the Chinese. The practice of opium-eating is exceptional in Europe, but much larger quantities of it are consumed than could be accounted for by its medicinal use, and there is no doubt it is taken to a certain extent upon the same OPIUM. 381 principle as alcohol, tea, and tobacco. The effects of opium -eating, though not so disastrous as those of tippling, are nevertheless much more destructive than those of smoking. The action of the opium is less exciting than that of alcohol, but more pleasant than that of tobacco, while its subsequent effects are less dangerous than those of alcohol and greater than those of tobacco. It is on this account that it becomes a matter of serious consideration for those who would put down both drinking alcohol and smoking tobacco, as to whether it might not lead to the equally objec- tionable practice eating opium. Opium when analyzed chemically is found to be a very compound body. Its narcotic properties, or its soporific properties, are now known to depend on an active principle called morphine. This principle is often separated and used in medicine instead of opium. Other narcotic agents are employed by the in- habitants of various parts. Thus, throughout Asia and Africa, the Hemp plant, the Cannabis sa- tiva (Fig. 4), is cultivated, and in these regions yield a resinous principle which produces a kind of in- ebriating effect. The nar- cotic properties of this Fig.*. Hemp. plant were known to the ancient Egyptians and 382 THE COCA PLANT. Greeks. It is known in the countries where it is used by various names. In Syria it is called haschisch, and it may be news to some of you to know that our word assassins is supposed to have come from this word. The story is that during the wars of the Crusaders, the soldiers of the Saracen army, when delirious with their favourite drug, were in the habit of rushing down upon the camp of the Christians at night, plundering and murdering, in spite of the danger to themselves. They were known by the name of hashasheens : hence our word. Other narcotics of interest, on account of their employment as intoxicants, are the Coca of South America and the Amanita of Lapland. I have before alluded to the latter. The coca grows wild in the woods of Bolivia and Peru. It was cultivated by the natives of Peru when they were discovered by Pizarro and his band of Spaniards, and to this day it is the solace and the support of the Indian in his native mountains. He is never seen without his leather pouch to hold the leaves of the coca plant. The leaf is generally chewed, but it is sometimes infused and made into tea. "Wondrous effects are attributed to this poison by those who take it, and certainly- the statement of travellers of the power of endurance of hunger and labour under the influence of this strange drug are sufficiently noteworthy to render a further investigation of its properties desirable. Another narcotic remarkable for its application as a poison and an inebriant, is the Thorn-apple Datura stramonium (Fig. 5.) It grows wild in this country, and its leaves are gathered and dried, and smoked by THORN APPLE. 383 those who'suffer from asthma. In Russia the seeds were formerly employed to increase the intoxicating effects of beer. They are used in India for the purpose of being added surreptitiously to the food of travellers, Fig. 5. Thorn Apple. and producing a state of intoxication, in which the victim is robbed. Under the name of "Jamestown weed/' Dr. Beverly, in his "History of Virginia," gives a curious account of the action of this plant on some soldiers who ate it as a salad : "The effect," he says, "was a very pleasant comedy, for they turned natural fools upon it for several days. One would blow up a feather into the air ; another would dart straws at it with much fury ; another, stark naked, was seen sitting in a corner, like a monkey, grinning and making mouths ; a fourth would fondly kiss and paw his companions and sneer in their faces with a countenance more antic than any in a Dutch droll. In this frantic condition they were confined lest in their folly they should destroy themselves. A thousand simple tricks they played, but after eleven days they returned to themselves again, not remembering anything that had Another of our native weeds deserves notice on 384 DEADLY NIGHTSHADE, ETC. account of its narcotic properties, and that is the Deadly Nightshade Atropa Belladonna. (Fig. 6.) Its rich Pig. 6. Deadly Nightshade. black berries often tempt children to take them, when they are seized with a delirium, which often ends in death. The Henbane (Hyoscyanus niger} is also one of our own narcotic poisons, producing, as the result of its being smoked, a peculiar kind of delirium, with other effects, on the nervous system. The beautiful Fox- glove (Digitalis purpurea] also contains a principle acting on the nervous system in a similar way to nicotine. But I must leave these native " sisters of sleep."* The whole subject of poisons is worthy of popular study, as I hope I have convinced you, from the short notice I have given of those which we use as a part of our daily food. * For much interesting information on these subjects, the readei may consult "The Seven Sisters of Sleep," by M. W. Cooke. ^CONCLUSION. 385 In the remarks I have made in this lecture, I know that there are some persons in this audience, and some for whom I entertain the highest respect, who could have wished me to adopt a very different line of treat- ment to that which I have thought it right to pursue. To them I would say, that the way I should treat this subject has not been a less serious matter of considera- tion with me than their own views on it. I have not dared to regard the pleasure of partaking of these nar- cotics as altogether vicious, when I consider how largely they contribute to the solace and enjoyment of my fellow creatures. I hope I have said nothing that could by any straining be interpreted into countenancing a use of these things, which would interfere with the healthy development either of the mind or the body. One of the objects I have had in view in the delivery of these lectures has been, to bring before you the wonderful laws by which God upholds your daily life. To be sure I have chiefly spoken of the materials which God uses from day to day in the maintenance of that glorious " temple" which He has given you to dwell in, a temple in which He himself has condescended to dwell, but, I trust, that in the fulfilment of this humble purpose, however imperfectly it may have been performed, that I have never forgotten the apostolic rule for the guide of Christian men, that " whether, therefore, ye eat or drink, or whatsoever ye do, do all to the glory of God." ROBERT HARDW1CKE, PRINTER, 11)2, PICCADILLY. $tttoim0 PUBLISHED OR SOLD BY ROBEET HAEDWICKE, 192, PICCADILLY, W. ANY WORKS IN THIS CATALOGUE MAY BE HAD FROM ANY BOOKSELLER. For Facility of Reference the Works are arranged under Subjects, with Index to Authors. COHsTTIEIETTS. PAGE Sowerby's English Botany 5-10 Works on Ferns 10-11 Works on Fungi 12-13 Works on Astronomy 20 Natural History, Popular Science, and General Science 9-21 Publications of the Ray Society 39 Genealogical, Heraldic, and County History 25-26 Miscellaneous Literature 26-30 Hardwicke's Elementary Books 22 Mackenzie's Educational Books 23 Medical and Surgical 31-38 Hardwicke's Science-Gossip 56-64 The Monthly Microscopical Journal 48-55 Popular Science Review Contributors and Articles, Vol. 1 .... 41-47 INDEX TO AUTHORS. PAGE Adams, L. A., F.S.A 43 Alder and Hancock 40 Alderson, Sir James 81 Allman, Prof., F.E.S 39, 40 Annandale, Thomas, F.E.C.S 31 Ansted, Prof., F.B.S 17, 42 Anstie, Dr 43 Armitage, Dr 24 Baird, Dr., F.L.S 40 Baker, J. G., F.L.S 10 Barker, Dr., S 28 Barnard, H 24 Barrett, W. F 44 Barwell, E., F.R.C.S 32 Bastian, Dr., F.E.S 46 Bate, Spence, F.E.S 45 Beale, Dr. Lionel, F.E.S 44 Beckstein, Dr 20 Belcher, Eev. H 30 Bennett, J. H., M.D., F.E.S 46 Beigel, Dr. H., L.E.C.P 32 Bell, Joseph, F.E.C.S 32 Blackwall, J., F.L.S 39 Bond, Dr. F., F.C.S 43 Boner, Charles 16, 43 Bowerbank, Dr.. F.E.S., F.L.S. ... 39 Bowring, Sir John, L.L.D 26 Brande, Prof., D.C.L., F.E.S.L. ... 31 Brearey, F. W , 46 Breen, James 42 Briofc, M. C 24 Brown, I. B., F.E.C.S 32 Browne, Mrs 24 Brown, Eobert, D.C.L., F.E.S. ... 40 Buckman, Prof., F.L.S., F.G.S. 18, 42 Burmeister, Prof. ." 39 Burnaby, George J 20 Canton, E., F.E.C.S 33 Carpenter, Dr., F.E.S 39 Carruthers, W., F.L.S 45 Carter, E. B., F.E.C.S 33, 46 Chamisso, A. von 26 Chambers, G. F., F.E.A.S 42 Church, H. J., F.C.S 33 Church, Prof. 45 Cleland, Prof. 46 Cobbold, Dr. T.S., F.E.S 43 Cooke, M. C 12,13,14 Coote, Holmes, F.E.C.S 33 Cormac,J.E.,M.D.(Cam.)F.E.S.E. 38 Coulson, W., F.E.C.S 33 Crookes, William, F.E.S 42,44 Cross, Dr 28 PAGE Curry, F., M.A., F.E.S 40 Daniel, P. A 30 Darby, EBT. W. A., F.E.A.S 20 Darwin, C., F.E.S 39 Davies, Thos 15 Davis, Dr. J. H., F.E.C.P 33, 34 Dawkins, W. B., F.E.S 45 Debus, H., F.E.S 43 De Quatrefages, A 18 Dick, Dr. H 34 Divers, Dr , 44 Dougall, J. D 27 Douglas, J. W 39 Dowie, James 28 Dyer, W. T., B.A 11 Ellis, Eobert, M.E.C.S 34 Eyton, Charlotte 16 Fleischmann, A., M.E.C.S 27 Flower, W. H., F.E.S 40 Forbes, David, F.K.S 46 Forbes, Prof., F.E.S 45 Foster, Prof. 44 Fraser, Dr. P 34 Frazer, Dr. W 34 Fripp, Dr. H., F.E.S 44 Fry, Herbert 26 Galton, J. C., M.A., F.L.S. ., 46 Gam gee, J 21 Glaisher, James, F.E.S 44 Goodfellow, Dr. S. J., F.E.C.P. ... 34 Gore, G., F.E.S 42 Gorham. M.E.C.S 34 Gosse, P. H., F.E.S 42 Gray, Dr. J. E., F.E.S 45 Grove, Dr. John, M.E.C.S 34, 35 Gulliver, Prof., F.E.S 44 Giinther, Dr., F.E.S '. 39 Habershon, Dr. 8. O., F.E.C.P. ... 35 Hanks, H., L.E.C.P., Edin 28 Harris, Wm., 24 Henslow, Eev. G., F.L.S 43 Hickman, W., M.B., F.E.C.S 35 Hicks, Dr. B., F.E.S 42 Hincks, Eev. T.. M.A 46 Hofmeister, Dr., F;E.S 39 Hogg, J.,F.L.S 45, 42 Hooker, Dr., F.E.S 45 Hooker, Sir W. J., K.H 10 Honghton, Eev. W., F.L.S 42 Howden, P., V.S 21 Hull,E., F.G.S 42,44 Hulme, E. T., M.E.C.S.. F.L.S. ... 35 Hunt, Eobert, F.E.S 42 INDEX. TAGB Huxley, Prof., F.R.8 39 Jones, Prof. T. R., F.G.S 43 Jones, J)r. W. H., M.R.C.8 35 K. K. (illuminated books) 30 Kinahan, G. H 17 Langley.J. Baxter, M.R.C.8., F.L.S. 35 Lankester, Dr., F.R.8... . 13, 15, 29, 30 Lanbester, E. Ray 42 Lankeater, Mrs 5, 11, 12 Lawson, Dr 18, 29, 35, 41 Le Hardy, Miss 27 Leighton, Rev. W. A., M.A 40 Lewes, G. H 42 Liebig, Baron 36 "Lord, J. K 16 Lowth, G. T 30 Lukis, Captain J. H 27 Mackie, S. J., F.G.S 43 Marsh, Dr. J. C. L., M.R.C.P 27 Masters, Dr. M., F.L.S 40 Meyen, Prof. 40 Miller, W. A., M.D., V.P.R.8 46 Milne, Alex., M.D 36 Milton, J. L 18, 36 Mivart, Geo. F.G.S 46 Monckhoven, D. Van, Ph.D 19 Morris, Dr. E., F.R.C.S 36 Morris, Prof., F.R.S 47 Nelson, David, M.D 17 Norton, A. T., F.R.C.S 36 Nunn, T. W., F.R.C.S .. 37 Ogle, W., M.D 46 Parker, W. K., F. S 40 Patterson, Robt., F.R.S .. 43 PengeUy, W., F.R.S 47 Proctor, R. A., F.R.A.S 20, 44 Procter, Wm., M.D 37 Pulkr, Alfred, M.D 36 Ransonnette, Baron 28 Robson, J. E 15 Richardson, Dr. B. W., F.R.S 43 Sanderson, Dr. J. B., F.R.S 37 PAGB Samuelson, James 42 Sawyer, James M. B 37 Shaible, Dr. C. H., Ph.D 28 Schleiden, Prof. 12 Sclater, Dr., F.R.S 40 Scott, John 30 Seemann, Dr. B., Ph.D., F.L.S., F.R.G.S 43 Sheen, J. R 27 Sheppard, Dr. E 27 Simmonds, P. L 21 Sims, Dr. J. Marion 37 Smith, David, M.D 37 Smith, John, A.L.S 11 Smith, W. G., F.L.S. .. . 13 Sorby, H. C..F.R.S 44 Sowerby, J. E 5.12 Spear, J 24 Spicer, Rev. W. W., M.A 14 Steenstrup, Prof. 39 Strickland, H. E., F.R.S Syme, J. T. B., F.L.S 5 Symonds, Rev. W. S 16, 43 Tate, R., F.R.G.S 13 Taylor, Dr. A. 8., F.R.8., F.R.C.P. 31 Taylor, J. E., F.G.S 17, .19 Teevan, W. F., F.R.C.S 38 Trimen, H., M.B., F.L.S 11 Trousseau, Prof. A 38 Turner, Mansfield '1 1 Unwin, W. C 46 Vincent, John 19 Voelcker, Prof.,F.C.S 47 Waite, S. C 21 Walford, Rev. E 25 Walker, C. V., F.R.S 43 Whitley, N., C.E 46 Williamson, Prof., F.B.S 39 Winn, J. M., M.D 38 Wood, Jno., F.R.C.S 37 Zander, Dr. A 33 Zerffi,Prof. 30 A PUBLISHED OE SOLD BY ROBERT HARDWICKE, 192, PICCADILLY, LONDON, W. Sowerby's English Botany: Containing a Description and Life-size Drawing of every British Plant. Edited and brought up to the present standard of scien- tific knowledge, by T. BOSWELL SYME, LL.D., F.L.S., &c. With Popular Descriptions of the Uses, History, and Traditions of each Plant, by Mrs. LANKESTEK, Author of " Wild Flowers Worth Notice," "The British Ferns," &c. The Figures by J. E. SOWERBY, JAMES SOWERBY, F.L.S., J. DE C. SOWEBBY, F.L.S., and J. W. SALTER, A.L.S. " Under the editorship of T. Boswell Syme, F.L.S., assisted by Mrs. Lankester, ' Sowerby's English Botany,' when finished, will be exhaustive of the subject, and worthy of the branch of science it illustrates In turning over the charm- ingly executed hand-coloured plates ot British plants which encumber these volumes with riches, the reader cannot help being struck with the beauty of many of the humblest flowering weeds we tread on with careless step. We cannot dwell upon many of the individuals grouped in the splendid bouquet of flowers presented in these pages, and it will be sufficient to state that the work is pledged to contain a figure of every wild flower indigenous to these isles." The Times. " Will be the most complete Flora of Great Britain ever brought out. This great work will find a place wherever botanical science is cultivated, and the study of our native plants, with all their fascinating associations, held dear." Athenceum. " Nothing can exceed the beauty and accuracy of the coloured figures. They are drawn life-size an advantage which every young amateur will recognize who has vainly puzzled over drawings in which a celandine is as big as a poppy they are enriched with delicate delineations of fruit, petal, anther, and any organ which happens to be remarkable in its form and not a few plates are altogether new A clear, bold, distinctive type enables the reader to take in at a glance the arrangement and divisions of every page. And Mrs. Lankester has added to the technical description by the editor an extremely interesting popular sketch, which follows in smaller type. The English, French, and German popular names are given, and, wherever that delicate and difficult step is at all practicable, their derivation also. Medical properties, superstitions, and fancies, and poetic tributes and illusions follow. In short, there is nothing more left to be desired." Guardian. " Without question, this is the standard work on Botany, and indispensable to every botanist The plates are most accurate and beautiful, and the entire work cannot be too strongly recommended to all who are interested in botany." Illustrated News. \* Subscribers to this great National Undertaking may commence at any time without buying all the back numbers at once. Prospectuses and Specimens gratis. ROBERT HARDWICKE, 192, Piccadilly. Sowerby's English Botany, Volume 1 contains Aconite Coralwort Ladies' Smocks Pheasant's eyes Alyssums Corydalises Larkspurs Poppies Anemones Cresses Lilies Radishes Awlwort Crowfoots Madwort Rape Banebury Cuckoo flower Marigold Rockets Barberry Earthsmoke Mayflower Rues Barrenwort Figwort Moiikshood Scurvy grasses Bearsfoot Flixweed Mousetails Spearworts Buttercup Fumitories Mustards Stocks Cabbages Gilliflowers Nailwort Toothwort Caltrops Headwark Nasturtiums Traveller's joy Candytuft Hellebores Navews Turnips Celandines Horseradish Old man's beard Wallflowers Charlocks Hutchinsia Pasque flower Whitlow grasses Coleseed Jack-by-the-hedge Peony Woad Colewort Kingcup Pepperworts Wolfsbane Columbine All the Plants ranked under the orders Ranunculacece, Berberidacea. Nymphseaceae, Papaveraceae, and Cruciferae. Sowerby's English Botany, Volume 2 contains the Aaron's beard Cyphel Pansies 1 Spindle tree Alder Dyer's weed Pearlworts Spurreys All-seed Flaxes Pinks Stitch worts Balsams Fuller's herb Purslane i Storks' bills Bladder-nut Heartsease Ragged Robin Sun dews Bruisewort Herb Roberts Red rot Sun rose Buckthorns Holly Rocket Sycamore Campions Limes Rock roses Tamarisk Carnation Limiewort Rose of heaven Tutsan Catchflys Lychnis St. John's worts Violets Chickweeds Mallows Sandworts Water blinks Claytonia Maples Sea heath Waterworts Corn cockle Mignonettes Soapwort Wild Williams Crane's bills Milk worts Sorrels Yarr Cuckoo flower Mcenchia All the Plants ranked under the orders Resedacese, Cistaceae, Vio- laceae, Droseraceae, Polygalacese, Frankeniaceae, Carophyllaceae, Por- tulacaceae, Tamariceae, Elatinaceae, Hypericacese, Malvaceae, Tiliaceae, Linaceae, Geraniacese, Ilicineae, Celastraeese, Rhamnacese, Sapindacese. Sowerby's English Botany, Volume 3 contains the Agrimonies Burnets i Gean May Apples Cherries Gorse Meadow-sweet Avens Cinauefoils Greenweeds Medicks Beams Cloudberry Hawthorns Medlar Birdsfoots Clovers Honeystalks Melilot Blackberry Cotoneaster Ladies-finger Mountain-ashes Blackthorn Dewberry Lady's mantles Nonsuchs Brambles Dropwort Lamb-toe Oxytropis Briars Eglantine Liquorice Parsley piert Broom Fenugreek Lucernes Pear Bullace Furzes Marl-grass Peas ROBERT HARDWICKE, 192, Piccadilly. Sowerby's English Botany, Volume 3 (continued) contains the Plum Queen of the mea- dow Raspberries Rest-harrows Roebuck-berry Roses Saintfoin Service-trees Shamrock Sibbaldia Silver-weed Spiraea Strawberries Sweetbriars Tares Tongue under tongue Tormentils Trefoils Vetches Vetchlings Waxen wood Whins Whitebeams Whitethorns All the Plants ranked under the orders LeguminiferEe and Rosaceae. Sowerby's English Botany, Volume 4 contains the Alexanders Earth-nuts | Isnardia Pennywort Angelicas Elders j Ivy Purslane Anise Eryngo Lamb's-lettuces Rose-root Astrantia Evening primroses Linnaea Samphires Bald-money Fennels Livelong Sanicle Bay, rose Golden moss London Prides Saxifrages Bedstraws Gooseberry Loose strife Scabiouses Bladder- seed Goosegrass Lovage Squinancywort Bryony Goutweed Madders Stonecrops Caraways Grass of Parnassus Mare's tail Stoneworts Carrots Grass- poly Masterwort Sulphur-wort Celery Guelder-rose Meal tree Teasels Cheese-rennet Hare's-ears Milfoils Thorough-wax Chervils Hart wort Mistletoe Tilla-a Cicely Hemlocks Moschatel Valerians Coriander Herb, Bennet Mugwort Venus's comb Coniel Currants Herb, Gerard Hog's fennels Navelwort Nightshades Wayfaring tree Willow herbs Banewort Holley, sea Orpines Woodbines Dogwood Honeysuckle Parsleys Woodruffs Dropworts House-leek Parsnips All the Plants ranked under the orders Lythraceas, Onagraceaa, Cucurbitaceae, Grossulariaceae, Crassulacese, Saxifragacese, Umbelliferae, Araliaceaz, Cornaceae, Loranthacese, Caprifoliacese, Rubiacese, Valerian- aceae, and Dipsaceae. Sowerby's English Botany, Volume 5 contains the Aster Elecampane Heliotrope Salsify Blue-bottle Everlastings Hemp-agrimony Samphire Burdocks Feverfew Inula Saw-worts Bur-Marygolds Fleabanes Knapweeds Sneeze-worts Butter-bur Fleaworts Lettuces Southernwood Cat's Ears Galinsoga Leopards'-banes Sow-thistle Chamomiles Goats-beards Marigold Spikenard Coltsfoots Golden-rods Mayweeds Star-thistles Corn-flower Goldylocks Mugwort Succorys Cotton- weed Groundsels Nipple-wort Tansy Cudweeds Hawk-bits Ox-eye Thistles Daisy Hawks' -beards Ox-tongue Wormwoods Dandelions Hawkweeds Ragworts Yarrows All the Plants ranked under the order Compositeae. ROBERT HARDWICKE, 192, Piccadilly. Sowerby's English Botany, Volume 6 contains the Andromeda Bunny Henne-belle Rosemary Arbutus Butter-and-eggs Higtaper Sheep's-bit Ashes Canterbury-bell Jacob's ladder Snapdragons Azalea Centaurys King's-taper Speedwells Bartsias Cicendias Ling Strangle-weed Bearberrys Convolvulus Lobelias Strawberry-tree Belladonna Cow wheats Louseworts Tea-plant Bell-flowers Cranberry Menziesias Thorn-apple Betonys Devale Moneywort Throat-wort Bilberrys Dodders Monkey-flower Toadflaxes Bindweeds Euphraisie Mother - of - thou- Tooth- wort Bird's-nest Eyebrights sands Torch-blade Bitter-sweet Felwort Mudwort Valerian Bleaberry Figworts Mulleins Venus's looking- Bog bean Fleullins Nightshades glass Broom-rapes Foxglove Pennyweed Vervian Brooklime Gentians Periwinkles Violet Brown -rapes Hag-taper i Primprint Whortleberry Brownworts Hare-bell Privets Witches' thimble > Buck beans Heaths Rabbit's-motith Winter-greens Bull-dogs Heather Rampions Yellow-rattles Bullock's- wort Henbane All the Plants ranked under the orders Campanulaceae, Ericacea.-, Jasminaceae, Apocynaceae, Gentianaceae, Polemoniaceae, Convolvula- ceae, Solanaceae, Scrophulariacea?, Orabancliaceae, and Verbenacece. Sowerby's English Botany, Volume 7 contains the Alkanets Amaranth Archangel Balms Basil Betony Bladderworts Borage Brook-weed Bugles Buglosses Butterworts Calamints duckweed Clarys Comfreys Cowslips Creeping Jenny Cyclamen Dead-nettles Forget-me-nots Germanders Gipsey worts Gromwells Ground ivy Knawels Lavenders Loosestrifes Lungworts Mad wort Marjoram Mints Moneywort Motherwort Nettles Oxlips Oyster-plant Pennyroyal Peppermint Pimpernels Plantains Primroses Rib- grass Ruptureworts Saltwort Skull-caps Sea lavenders Self-heal Strapwort Thrifts Thymes Water violets Woundwort Dine Hemp-nettles Horehounds Hounds' tongues Illecebrum All the Plants ranked under the orders Labiatas, Boraginaceae, Len- tibulariaceae, Primulacese, Plumbaginaceae, Plantaginaceae, Parony- ohiaceae, and Amarantacese. Sowerby's English Botany, Volume 8 contains the Alder AUgocd Asarabaca Aspen Beech Beet Birches Birthworts Bistorts Box Buckthorn Buckwheats Chestnut Crowberrv Docks Dog's mercurys Elms Fir Goosefoots Hazel Hemp Hop Hornbeam Hornworts Junipers Knotgrasses Mercury Mezereon Myrtle Nettles Oaks Oraches ROBERT HARDWICKE, 192, Piccadilly. Sowerby's English Botany, Volume 8 (continued) contains the Osiers Pellitoryofthewall Pepper Persicarias Pine Poplars Purslane Rhubarb Sallows Saltworts Samphires Seablites Sea beet Sorrels Spurges Starworts Willows Yew All the Plants ranked undsr the orders Chenopodiaceas, Polygona- ceae, Eleganaceas, Thymelacese, Santalaceae, Aristolochiaceae, Empe- traceae, Euphorbiaceae, Callitrichaceae, Ceratophyllaceas, Urticaceae, Amentiferae, and Coniferae. Sowerby's English. Botany, Volume 9 contains the Arrow-grasses Epipogium Lily of the valley Snowdrop Arrow-head Flowering rush Lloydia Snowflakes Asparagus Fritillary Martagon lilies Solomon's seals Asphodels Frog-bit Naias Squils Bryony Garlics Narcissuses Star of Bethels Bur- reeds Gladiolus Orchises Sweet-flag Butchers' broom Grass-wracks Pondweeds Thrumwort Cats' tails Helleborine Ramsons Trichonema Chives Herb- Paris Ruppias Tulip Coral-root Hyacinths Saffrons Tway-blades Crocuses Irises Scheuchzeria Water plantains Cackow-pints Lady's slipper Semethis Water- soldier Daffodils Lady's tresses Sisyrinchium Water thyme Duckweeds Leeks Smilicina All the Plants ranked under the orders Typhacese, Araceae, Lemna- ceae, Naiadaceae, Alismaceas, Hydrocharidaceae, Orchidaceaa, Iridae- ceas, Amaryllidaceae, Diascoriaceae, and Liliacese. Sowerby's English Botany, Volume 10 contains the Pipewort Sharp - flowered , Blysmuses Prickly Sedges Wood Rushes Rush Club Rushes Grey Sedge Three-leaved Rush Shining - fruited Bull Rushes Spiked Sedges Clustered Rush Three - flowered Rush Lesser - jointed Cotton Grasses Kobresia Axillary Sedge White Sedges Rush Rush Dioecious Sedges Haresfoot Sedge Two - flowered Capitate Rush Flea Sedge Black Sedge Rush Toad Rushes Rock Sedge Alpine Sedges Sea Rushes Mud Rush Few - flowered Hoary Sedge Common Rush Heath Rush Sedge Tufted Sedge Soft Rush Round - fruited Curved Sedge Mountain Sedges Diffuse Rush Rush Marsh Sedges Water Sedges Hard Rush Brown Cyperus Brown Sedges Heath Sedges Northern Rush Galingale Sea Sedge Mud Sedges Thread Rush Black Schcenus Panicled Sedges Fingered Sedges Blunt - flowered Fen Sedge Paradoxical Sedge Silvery Sedges Rush Beak Sedges Great Sedge And other Sedges And all Plants ranked under the Orders Juncaceae and Cyperacese. 10 ROBERT HARDWICKE, 192, Piccadilly. Sowerby's English Botany, Volume 11 contains the Alpine Grasses Barley Meadows Bent Grasses Bog Hair Grass Bristle Grasses Brome Grasses Canary- Grass Cocks'-foot Grass Cord Grasses Couch Grasses Creeping Grasses Cut-Grass Darnel Dog's-tail Grasses Fesque Grasses Finger Grass Fox -tail Grasses Hair Grasses Hard Grass Hares'-tail Grass Heath Grasses Holy Grass 1 Lyme Grass Marram j Mat Grass Meadow Grasses I Melic Grass ! Millet Grass ; Moor Grass Nit Grass Oats Oat Grass Panic Grass Quaking Grass Reeds Ribbon Grass Rye Grasses Small Reeds Timothy Grasses Vernal Grass Wall Barley Whorl Grass Yorkshire Fog All the Plants ranked under the Order Graminacere. Sowerby's English Botany. The Prices of the Volumes are : Bound cloth Half morocco Morocco elegant Vol. 1. (Seven Parts).. Vol. 2. ditto Vol. 3. (Eight Parts) Vol. 4. (Nine Parts) Vol. 5. (Eight Parts). Vol. 6. (Seven Parts) Vol. 7. ditto .. Vol. 8. (Ten Parts) . Vol. 9. (Seven Parts) VoLlO. ditto .. Vol.11. (Six Parts) . s. d. 1 18 1 18 2 3 2 8 2 3 1 18 1 18 i 13 i 18 i 18 i 13 . *. & 2 2 2 2 2 7 2 12 o 7 j 2 2 2 2 17 2 2 2 2 1 17 . by 11 in., without descriptive Letterpress, One Guinea. The British Ferns. (A Plain and Easy Account of). Together with their Classifica- tion, Arrangement of Genera, Structure, and Functions, directions for out-door and in-door Cultivation, &c. By Mrs. LANKESTER. Fully illustrated, price 4s. coloured by hand ; 2s. 6d. plain. "Not only plain and easy, but elegantly illustrated." Athenaeum. The Flora of Middlesex. A Topographical and Historical Account of the Plants found in the Connty ; with Sketches of its Physical Geography and Climate, and of the progress of Middlesex Botany during the last three Centuries. By HENRY TRIMEN, M.B. (Lond.), F.L.S., Botanical Department, British Museum, and Lecturer on Botany, St. Mary's Hospital ; and WILLIAM T. THISTELTON DYER, B.A., late Junior Student, Christ's Church, Oxford ; Professor of Natural History, Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester. With a Map of Botanical Districts. Crown 8vo. cloth, price 12s. 6d. 12 ROBERT HARDWICKE, 192, Piccadilly. The object of this book is to give a complete and accurate catalogue of the plants which have at any time been recorded to grow in Middlesex, either as natives or in a more or less completely naturalized state ; to indicate the special localities where they have been found, and to trace the history of their discovery. The existence of many of these is attested only by records in scarce or little- known books, or by the original specimens preserved in old collections. " A carefully and conscientiously compiled volume The authors have done their best to render it complete and useful to botanists. The biographical and historical notes and the diligent research displayed amongst scarce publications and British Museum manuscripts, render it manifest that the authors have been engaged in a labour of love, and in a sympathetic record of the scientific diligence of not a few unremembered but most devoted botanists "Athenaeum. " So many tastes and interests are catered for in this volume, that our authors are sure to get full meed of praise and thanks from all sorts and descriptions of plant-lovers, and we too are happy to aid in the general chorus." Gardeners' Chronicle. The London Catalogue of British Plants. Published under the direction of the London Botanical Exchange Club, adapted for marking Desiderata in Exchanges of Specimens ; for an Index Catalogue to British Herbaria ; for Indicating the Species of Local Districts ; and for a Guide to Collectors, by showing the rarity or frequency of the several species. Second Edition, 8vo. sewed, price 6d. Wild Flowers worth Notice. A Selection from the British Flora of some of our Native Plants which are most attractive for their Beauty, Uses, or Associations. By Mrs. LANKESTER. Illustrated by J. E. SOWEEBY. Fcp. Svo. cloth, coloured by hand, price 4s. " We could while away a long summer day talking of the pleasant things sug- gested by this little book. Although all intelligent persons cannot become bota- nists, not to know the wild flowers of our country is to be ignorant both of our country and ourselves. And this little book will, as a pocket companion during holiday rambles the descriptions and plates being both good destroy this igno- rance in reference to at least a hundred plants. After mastering it. the student will be not a little astounded at his own learning, when he surveys it in the syste- matic chapter of contents." Athenteum. Microscopic Fungi. (Rust, Smut, Mildew, and Mould). An Introduction to the Study of Microscopic Fungi. By M. C. COOKE, Author of "The British Fungi." Fcap. Svo. nearly 300 coloured Figures. 2nd Edition, with Appendix of New Species, price 6s. " There is a thoroughness about Mr. Cooke's writings which always makes his communications welcome. He is not content to gather information from cyclo- paedias, classify and adapt, and then give a new form to the thoughts of others. On the contrary, he strikes out a new course of study, and after a laborious course of analysis, produces an entirely original work, one on which nothing of the kind had been before attempted." Wesley an Times. ROBERT HARDWICKE, 192, Piccadilly. 13 The British Fungi. (A Plain and Easy Account of). With especial reference to the Esculent and other Economic Species. By M. C. COOKE. New and revised Edition, with Coloured Plates of 40 Species. Fcp. price 6s. " A very readable volume upon the lowest and least generally understood race of plants. For popular purposes the book could not have been better done." Athenaeum. Mushrooms and Toadstools: How to Distinguish easily the Difference between Edible and Poisonous Fungi ; with two large sheets, containing Figures of 29 Edible and 31 Poisonous Species, drawn the natural size, and coloured from living specimens. By WORTHINGTON G-. SMITH, F.L.S., &c. In sheets, with book, price 6s. ; on canvas in cloth case for pocket, 10s. 6d. ; on canvas, with rollers and varnished, for hanging up, 10s. 6d. " Before the appearance of Mr. Smith's book scarcely more than three or four kinds were freely accepted by prudent cooks. We have now before us the list of esculent mushrooms recommended, nay, warranted by Mr. Smith, of all of which he and his friends have freely partaken, with the most satisfactory results, and many of which are far more delicious in flavour and toothsome in substance than the meadow and horse mushrooms, generally known as the mushrooms of com- merce." Pall Mall Gazette. The British Reptiles. A Plain and Easy Account of the Lizards, Snakes, Newts, Toads, Frogs, and Tortoises indigenous to Great Britain. By M. C. COOKE, Author of "The British Fungi," &c. Fcap. 8vo. cloth, fully illustrated, 4s. plain ; 6s. coloured. British Mollusks; Or, Slugs and Snails, Land and Fresh-water. A Plain and Easy Account of the Land and Fresh- water Mollusks of Great Britain, containing Descriptions, Figures, and a Familiar Account of the Habits of each Species. By RALPH TATE, F.B.Gr.S. Fcap. 8vo. cloth, fully illustrated, 4s. plain ; 6s. coloured. Schleiden's Principles of Scientific Botany. Or, Botany as an Inductive Science. Translated by Dr. LAN- KESTER. Hundreds of Woodcuts, and 6 pages of Figures, beauti- fully engraved on Steel. Demy 8vo. price 10s. 6d. Every Botanical Library should possess this work, as it contains the principles upon which all structural botany is based. " 14 ROBERT HARDWICKE, 192, Piccadilly. A Manual of Structural Botany. By M. C. COOKE. New Edition, with Chemical Notation. Illus- trated by more than 200 Woodcuts, price Is. ; bound, Is. 6d. " Condensed yet clear, comprehensive but brief." Globe. " We are confidently able to recommend the little volume to public favour, its very low price bringing it within the range of all purchasers." Era. A Manual of Botanic Terms. By M. C. COOKE. New Edition. Greatly enlarged and including the recent Teratological terms." With more than 300 illustrations. Fcp. 8vo. cloth, price 2s. 6d. We do not hesitate to say that by a careful use of this book a sound know- ledge of the theoretical portion of botany may be obtained without tedious labour." Mining Journal. The Collector's Handy-Book of Algse, Diatoms, Desmids, Fungi, Lichens, Mosses, c. With Instructions for their Preparation and the Formation of an Herbarium. Translated and Edited by the Kev. W. W. SPICER, M.A. With 1U Illustrations. Fcp. 8vo. cloth, price 2s. 6d. "The publisher of this work well deserves the thanks of all amateur naturalists, and especially of those who have not an unlimited amount of money to expend on their favourite pursuits. The practical hints for collecting, mounting, and preserving, are so varied and abundant that the collector can desire no better vade mecum." Naturalists' Circular. Economic Products from the Vegetable Kingdom. Arranged under their respective Natural Orders, with the Names of the Plants, and their parts used in each case. Demy 8vo. price Is. 6d. Collection Catalogue for Naturalists. A Euled Book for keeping a permanent record of Objects in any branch of Natural History, with Appendix for recording interes- ting particulars, and lettered pages for general Index. Strongly bound, 200 pages, 7s. 6d. ; 300 pages, 10s. ; and 2s. 6d. extra for every additional 100 pages. Working Catalogues, Is. 6d. each. A really good catalogue, upon a simple and inexpensive plan, has long been a desideratum with naturalists and collectors. Fewr will originate or prepare a catalogue for themselves, and it is a frequent matter of regret, that large and otherwise valuable collections are rendered comparatively useless for want of such a history. Again, how many naturalists pass through life, enriched with knowledge gleaned from Nature's inexhaustible store, but whose knowledge, alas! dies with them, for they leave behind them no record with their collections. SThis catalogue commends itself to all naturalists, whether they be ornithologists, ento- mologists, botanists, conchologists, or mineralogists. In addition to the ruled and printed form of catalogue, there is a ruled and paged appendix, and an Index lettered and ruled. The appendix is intended to receive such notes and observations as are too long to be recorded in the column for remarks ; and the index at the end of the work is intended to furnish an easy means of reference to the contents of the Catalogue. ROBERT HARDWICKE, 192, Piccadilly. 15 Botanical Labels, (A Series of.) For labelling Herbaria adapted to the names in the London Catalogue of Plants and the Manuals of Professor Babington and Dr. Hooker, with extra labels for all new species and varieties recorded in the recent volumes of the Journal of Botany, and the Exchange Club Reports. By JOHN E. ROBSON. With Index. In all 3576 labels, like specimen. Complete, Price 5s. VIOLACE^E. Viola lactea, Sm. Cream-coloured Violet. Heaths, E. England. LOG. TEM. | j COL. The Preparation and Mounting of Microscopic Objects. By THOMAS DAVIES. Fcp. cloth, price 2s. 6d. This manual comprises all the most approved methods of mounting, together with the result of the Author's experience and that of many of his friends in every department of Microscopic Manipulation; and as it is intended to assist the be- ginner as well as the advanced student, the very rudiments of the art have not been omitted. "Nothing is more difficult to those who handle a microscope for the first tune than to get their objects in a fit state for exhibition and preparation. They will, therefore, feel greatly indebted to Mr. Davies for a little book on ' The Preparation and Mounting of Microscopic Objects.' It is clear, full, and practical; and it soon reveals to the careful student the valuable fact that a great deal may be done with very simple appliances. We recommend it to young microscopists as a book which supplies a felt deficiency." Guardian. Half-Hours with the Microscope. By EDWIN LANKESTEB, M.D., F.R.S. Illustrated by 250 Draw- ings from Nature by TUFFEN WEST. CONTENTS. Half an hour on Structure. Half an hour in the Garden. Half an hour in the Country. Half an hour at the Pond-side. Half an hour at the Sea-side. Half an hour In-doors. Appendix. The Preparation and Mounting of Objects. Third Edition, much enlarged, with full description of the various parts of the Instrument, price 2s. 6d. plain ; 4s. coloured. " The beautiful little volume before us cannot be otherwise than welcome. It is, in fact, a very complete manual for the amateur microscopist. . . . The ' Half- Hours ' are filled with clear and agreeable descriptions, whilst eight plates, executed with the most beautiful minuteness and sharpness, exhibit no less than 250 objects with the utmost attainable distinctness." Critic. 16 ROBERT HARDWICKE, 192, Piccadilly. Hardwicke's Science-Gossip : A Monthly Medium of Interchange and Correspondence for Stu- dents and Lovers of Nature. Monthly, 4d. ; Annual Volume, in cloth, price 5s. See pages 56 to 64. At Home in the Wilderness : Being Adventures and Experiences in Uncivilized Regions, in which it is shown where and when to encamp ; how to equip and manage a train of pack mules ; break, gear, and saddle wild horses; cross streams, build log shanties, trenail a raft, dig out a canoe or build it with bark or hide, manage dog sleighs, tramp on snow shoes, &c. By J. KEAST LORD, late of the British North American Boundary Commission. Crown 8vo. cloth, price 6s. In the Plain and on the Mountain. A Guide for Pedestrians and Mountain Tourists in the Plain and on the Mountain. By CHARLES BONER, author of "Chamois Hunting in Bavaria," "Forest Creatures," &c. With illustrations of dress requisites, &c. Fcp. 8vo. price 2s. " A little book which compresses into a very small space a great deal of good advice." Pall Mall Gazette. "We recommend Mr. Boner's book to all travellers, either on mountain or plain." Athenaeum. The Book of Knots. Illustrated by 172 Examples, showing the manner of making every Knot, Tie, and Splice. Price 2s. 6d. " It is an honourable characteristic of our literature that it contains numerous admirable and complete treatises on many special subjects. Mr. Robert Hard- wicke, publisher of many pleasant and useful works, has sent forth a ' Book of Knots,' by Tom Bowling, illustrated with one hundred and seventy-two diagrams, showing the manner of making every knot, tie, and splice, for the moderate price of half a crown, or nearly six knots a penny." All the Year Round, May 23, 1868. Old Bones ; or, Notes for Young Naturalists. By the Rev. W. S. STMONDS, Rector of Pendock, Author of "Stones of the Valley," &c. With References to the Typical Specimens in the British Museum. Second Edition, much im- proved and enlarged, fully illustrated, fcp. 8vo. price 2s. 6d. " The plan pursued by Mr. Symonds is a very simple one. He adopts the classi- fication of Professsor Owen, and carries the young naturalist from family to family, beginning with man and ending with the lowest fishes, making his own remarks as he goes on. We recommend these notes. The volume is neatly got up, and deserves a sale amongst the class for whom it is intended." Athenaeum. Notes on the Geology of North Shropshire. By CHARLOTTE EYTON. Now ready, fcp. 8vo. cloth, price 3s. 6d. ROBERT HARDWICKE, 1.92, Piccadilly. 17 Geological Stories; A Series of Autobiographies in Chronological Order Being the Autobiography of A Piece of Granite ; A Piece of Quartz ; A Piece of Slate ; A Piece of Limestone ; A Piece of Sandstone ; A Piece of Coal ; A Piece of Rock-Salt ; A Piece of Jet ; A Piece of Chalk ; A Piece of Purbeck Marble ; A Lump of Clay ; A Piece of Lignite ; The Crags ; A Boulder ; A Gravel Pit. By J. E. TAYLOR, F.G.S., Author of "Half-hours at the Seaside," &c. Large fcap. 8vo., fully illustrated, price t^J^^f The Handy-book of Rock Names. By G. H. KINAHAN, of the Irish Geological Survey, fcap. 8vo., price 4s. On the Being and Attributes of the Godhead, As evidenced by Creation. By DAVID NELSON, M.D., Edinburgh, Author of "The Principles of Health and Disease," &c. Demy 8vo;, price 10s. 6d. The Applications of Geology to the Arts and Manu- factures. Six Lectures delivered before the Society of Arts. By Professor D. T. ANSTEAD, M.A., F.R.S. reap. 8vo. cloth, illustrated, price 4s. provement of Soils by Minerals. I. On the Formation of Natural Soils by Derivation from Rocks, and on the Improvement of Soils by the admixture of II. On Natural and Artificial Springs, and on the various sources of Water Supply for Towns and Cities, in con- nection with the Geological Structure of the Vicinity. III. On Mineral Materials used for the Purposes of Construction : Plastic and Incoherent Materials (Clays and Sands). IV. On Mineral Materials (continued] : Building Stones and Slates, and their Relative Value under given Circum- stances of Exposure, and on Methods of Quarrying. V. On Stratified Deposits of Minerals, as Coal and Iron Ore, usually obtained by Mining Operations, and on Mining Methods for such Deposits. VI. On Metalliferous Veins for Lodes and their Contents, and on the Ex- traction of Metalliferous Minerals from Lodes. "The science of geology largely engages the attention of the public; but per- sons are frequently deterred from the study of it by the dry and tedious style of writers dedicating their talent to its exposition. Professor Ansted has supplied a book which meets the public want The chapters relating to agricultural geology have an especial interest for farmers ; but the whole are deeply interest- ing and worthy of recommendation." News of the World. " Professor Ansted takes in hand a subject of some difficulty, but of universal importance. In this he describes the different kinds of mineral veins, their con- tents, and the methods adopted to extract those contents, and thus fitly concludes his labours in elucidation of the practical application of geological knowledge to economic purposes, especially in connection with the arts." Daily News. Transactions of the Victoria Institute Or, Philosophical Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Twenty parts, at 3s. 6d. to 5s. each. Lists on application. A 3 18 ROBERT HARDWICKE, 192, Piccadilly. Metamorphoses of Man and Animals. Describing the changes which Mammals, Batrachiane, Insects, Myriapods, Crustacese, Annelids, and Zoophytes undergo whilst in the egg ; also the series of Metamorphoses which these beinga are subject to in after-life. Alternate Generation, Partheno- genesis, and general Reproduction treated in exlenso. With Notes, giving references to the works of Naturalists who have written upon the subject. By A. DE QUATREFAGES. Translated by HENRY LAWSON, M.D. Crown 8vo. cloth, price 6s. " We have already said enough to show that the essay which Dr. Lawson has introduced to us in an English garb is one which marks a new era in the history of Embryology, and which presents to both general and scientific readers infor- mation which has heen hitherto confined to the realms of dusty periodicals of all languages. ' The Metamorphoses ' is a work which tends to elevate the science of Biology, and deserves the attention of all classes of cultivated readers." Lon- don Review. Science and Practice in Farm Cultivation. By Professor BUCKMAN, F.L.S., F.G.S. CONTENTS : 1. How to Grow Good Root Crops. 2. How to Grow Good Grass Crops. 3. How to Grow Good Clover Crops. 4. How to Grow Good Corn Crops. 5. How to Grow Good Hedges. 6. How to Grow Good Timber. 7. How to Grow Good Orchards. Fully Illustrated. Complete in One Volume, cloth, 7s. 6d. The Stream of Life on our Globe. Its Archives, Traditions, and Laws, as revealed by Modern Dis- coveries in Geology and Palaeontology. A Sketch in Untechnical Language of the Beginning and Growth of Life, and the Physio- logical Laws which govern its progress and operations. By J. L. MILTON, M.R.C.S. Second Edition, crown 8vo. cloth, pp. 624, price 6s. CONTENTS : The Beginning of Life. Glance at the Laws of Life. England long, long ago. Life in the Blood. The First Dwellers on Earth. Life in the Nerves. The First Builders. Life of a Giant. The First Wanderers. Life of Men of Genius. The First Colonists of Sacred j Influence of Smoking on Life and History. Race. The First Language. Life in the Stars and Planets ; or, The First Alphabet. Coloured Stars and their In- The Battle of Life. habitants, &c. &c. " A very agreeably- written record of some of the newest and most remarkable discoveries in geology, language, and physiology. The language is always un- technical and picturesque. It has the merit of inspiring interest in subjects often treated in a manner to repel the ordinary reader." Lancet. ROBERT HARDWICKE, 192, Piccadilly. 19 Country Cottages. A series of Designs for an Improved Class of Dwellings for Agri- Labourers. By JOHN VINCENT, Architect. With cultural numerous Plans, Elevations, &c. illustrated, price 12s. New Edition, folio, fully Photographic Optics: Including the Description of Lenses and Enlarging Apparatus. By D. VAN MONCKHOVEN, Ph.D. Crown 8vo. cloth, with more than 200 illustrations, price 7s. 6d. Preliminary Ideas. Refraction of Light. Chromatics. Lenses. Aberrations. BOOK I. PHOTOGRAPHIC LENSES. Spherical Aberrations. Description of Photographic Ob- jectives. Employment of Photographic Ob- jectives. BOOK II. APPAKATUS FOB ENLARGEMENTS. On the Negative intended for En- largement. Description of Apparatus for En- largements. Theory of Formation of Enlarged Image in Woodward's Apparatus. Imperfections of Woodward's Ap- paratus. The Dyalitic Apparatus. Description and Setting up of Dyalitic Apparatus, and of all Apparatus for Enlargements. Management of Enlarging Ap- paratus. Setting-up Enlarging Apparatus in Winter. Setting-up of Movable Dyalitic Apparatus. Application of Heliostat to En- larging Apparatus. Setting-up of Heliostat with En- larging Apparatus. Parallel Solar- Light Apparatus of Bertsch. Indirect Enlargement by the Sun or by Diffused Light. Application of Artificial Light to Enlarging Apparatus. Half-Hours at the Seaside : Or, Recreations with Marine Objects. By J. E. TAYLOB, F.G.S., Author of " Geological Stories," &c. Small 8vo. with about 150 Illustrations, price 4s. plain ; 6s. coloured. CONTENTS : Half an Hour with the Waves. Half an Hour with Preparations. Half an Hour with Seaweeds. Half an Hour with Sponges. Half an Hour with Seaworms. Half an Hour with Corallines. Half an Hour with the Jelly Fish. Half an Hour with Sea Anemones Half an Hour with Sea Mats and Squirts. Half an Hour with Sea Urchins and Starfish. Half an Hour with Shell Fish. Half an Hour with Crustaceae. 20 ROBERT HARDWICKE, 192, Piccadilly. Half-Hours with the Telescope : Being a Popular Guide to the Use of the Telescope as a means of Amusement and Instruction. Adapted to inexpensive Instru- ments. By R. A. PROCTOR, B.A., F.R.A.S. Fcap. 8vo. cloth, with Illustrations on Stone and Wood, price 2s. 6d. CONTENTS : Half an Hour with Bootes, Scorpio, Half an Hour on Structure of Instrument. Half an Hour with Orion, Lepus, Taurus, &c. Half an Hour with Lyra, Hercules, Corvus, Crater, &c. Ophiuchus, &c. Half an Hour with Andromeda, Cygnus, &c. Half-hours with the Planets. Half-hours with the Sun, Moon, c. "It is crammed with starry plates on wood and stone, and among the celestial phenomena described or figured, by far the larger number may be profitably ex- amined with small telescopes, and none are beyond the range of a good three- inch achromatic. The work also treats of the construction of telescopes, the nature and use of star maps and other subjects connected with the requirements of amateurs The book is full of ' useful and interesting information,' and will form a valuable companion to the various admirable handbooks for which Mr. Hardwicke enjoys so good a reputation." Illustrated Times. Half-hours with the Stars: A Plain and Easy Guide to the Knowledge of the Constellations, showing, in 12 Maps, the Position of the Principal Star-Groups Night after Night throughout the Year, with Introduction and a separate Explanation of each Map. True for every Year. By RICHARD A. PROCTOR, B.A., F.R.A.S., late Scholar of St. John's College, Cambridge, and Mathematical Scholar of King's College, London ; Author of "Saturn and its System," " Half-hours with the Telescope," "The Handbook of the Stars," " Sun-views of the Earth," &c. &c. Second Edition, demy 4to. price 5s. " Nothing so well calculated to give a rapid and thorough knowledge of the position of the stars in the firmament has ever been designed or published hither- to. Mr. Proctor's ' Half-hours with the Stars ' will become a text-book in all schools, and an invaluable aid to all teachers of the young." Weekly Times. . The Astronomical Observer: A Handbook for the Observatory and the Common Telescope. By W. A. DARBY, M.A., F.R.A.S., Rector of St. Luke's, Man- chester. Embraces 965 Nebulae, Clusters, and Double Stars. Royal 8vo. cloth, price 7s. 6d. "I think the design of the work has been well carried out. The catalogue will no doubt be very acceptable to the amateur observer desirous of obtain- ing a knowledge of practical astronomy, and it will also be useful in the library of the regular observatory." From the Earl of Route, K.P., F.R.S., ffc. Chamber and Cage Birds. Their Management, Habits, Diseases, Breeding, and Methods of Teaching them. Translated from the last German Edition of Dr. Bichstein's Chamber Birds, by W. E. SHUCKARD. New Edition, by GEO. J. BARNESBY, Judge of Show Birds. Dei by. Price 3. 6d. ROBERT HARDWICKE, 192, Piccadilly. 21 Science and Commerce. Their Influence on our Manufactures. A Series of Statistical Essays and Lectures describing the Progressive Discoveries of Science, the Advance of British Commerce, and the Activity of our Principal Manufactures in the Nineteenth Century. By P. L. SIMMONDS, Editor of The Journal of Applied Science, Honorary and Corresponding Member of Various Foreign and Colonial Societies. 600 pp. Fcap. 8vo. price 6s. CONTENTS. Silk Trade and Manufacture : On Silk Cultivation and Supply in India. Production of Silk. Iron Manufacture. Progress of our Mineral Industries. Glass Manufacture. Earthenware and Pottery. Dyes and Colouring Stuffs : Dyes obtained from the Animal King- dom. Mineral Colours and Dyes. Vegetable Colours and Dyes. The Manufacture of, and Trade in, Pre- cious Metals and Fancy Articles. The Grocery and Allied Trades : The Commerce in Groceries. The Leather Trade and Tanning Sub- stances : The Leather Manufacture. New Paper-making Materials and Progress of the Paper Manufacture. On Nuts : their Produce and Uses. Obligations of Commerce to Science and the Vegetable Products Imported. Mineral and Animal Substances entering into Commerce. The Industrial and Manufacturing Uses of Shells. The Progress of Science in the 19th Century. The Cotton Manufacture : Production and Consumption of Cotton. Our Cotton Supplies. The Cotton Trade. The Woollen Manufacture : The Wools of Commerce. Wool and the Woollen Trade. Our Wool Supplies. Colonial Wools. The British Woollen Manufactures. A The Worsted Manufacture. B The Woollen Manufacture. C Shoddy Fabrics. Chief Mineral and Vegetable Products of Commerce. The Cattle Plague. With Official Reports of the International Veterinary Congresses, held in Hamburg, 1863, and in Vienna, 1865. By JOHN GAMGEE, Demy 8vo. 860 pp. price 21s. Horse Warranty. A Plain and Comprehensive Guide to the Various Points to be noted, showing which are essential and which are unimportant. With Forms of Warranty. By PETER HOWDEN, V.S. Fcap. 8vo. price 3s. 6d. Graceful Riding. A Pocket Manual for Equestrians. By S. C. WAITE. With Il- lustrations. Fcap. 8vo. cloth, price 2s. 6d. " In the school, on the road, on the course, or across country, th's little book will be invaluable ; and we heartily recommend it." Morning Post. 22 ROBERT HARDWICKE, 192, Piccadilly. One Hundred Double Acrostics. A New Year's Gift. Edited by "Myself." 16nio. cloth, price 2s. 6d. Hardwicke's Elementary Books. Price Twopence each. Under the above title is presented to the public a complete Library of Elementary Works adapted for the use of the people. Thousands of people at present skilled as handicraftsmen, and as workers in the various arts and sciences of life, plod on from day to day, with some vague notion that they can improve their own particular calling ; but it generally ends in nothing, because they are ignorant of the first principles of those laws wh:ch regulate the things in which they are enraged. It is a rare occurrence to meet with workmen who know anything beyond what they picked up in their appren- ticeship, or obtained by imitating others more skilled than themselves. It will be the aim of HARDWICKE'S EI.KMKNTART BOOKS to teach these first principles. No labour or expense will be spared to make the information of a thoroughly reliable character ; and where advisable, a free use of authentic illustrations will be brought to bear. "Hardwicke's series of * Elementary Books of Science' at present includes Optics, Hydraulics, Hydrostatics, Geography, Chemistry, Mechanics, and tlu parts vary in price from twopence to sixpence. Each part is a very admirable epitome of the subject it treat?, and there is more reliable information in any one of these little pamphlets of a few pence than there is in many a costly volume. The woodcuts are in outline, or only slightly shaded, and their subjects are ex- ceedingly well selected." London Renew. NOW READY. Mechanics. Fully illustrated by nearly 100 cuts. Two parts, 2d. each ; com- plete, 4d. ; bound in cloth, 6d. Hydrostatics. Fully illustrated. Complete, 2d. ; in cloth, 4d. Chemistry. Three parts, 2d. each ; complete, 6d. ; cloth, 8d. Hydraulics. Fully illustrated. Complete, 2d. ; cloth, 4d. Optics. Fully illustrated. Complete, 4d. ; cloth, 6d. Pneumatics. Fully illustrated, 2d. Oilier Works of a similar cAaracisr are in preparation, and will shortly be announced. ROBERT HARDWICKE, 192, Piccadilly. 23 Mackenzie's Educational Books. Intended for Schools or Self-instruction. ALREADY PUBLISHED. Mackenzie's Tables. Commercial, Arithmetical, Miscellaneous, and Artificers'. Cal- culations in Bricklaying, Carpentry, Lathing, Masonry, Paper- hanging, Paving, Painting, Plastering, Slating, Tiling, Well- sinking, Digging, &c. &c. Fractions and Decimals. Forms of Receipts and Bills. Calculations on Man, Steam, Hallways, Power, Light, Wind, &c. Language and Alphabets. Calendar of the Church. Scripture Money, Principal Foreign Moneys and Measures. Geographical and Astronomical Tables, &c. &c. Com- plete, price 2d. ; cloth, 6d. Murray's English Grammar. Complete, word for word with the Shilling Editions. Price 2d. ; cloth, 4d. Mayor's Spelling. With numerous Cuts. Price 4d. ; or, two parts, 2d. each. Walkinghame's Arithmetic. Same as the Half-Crown Edition. Price 4d. ; or, two parts, 2d each ; cloth, 6d. Short-Hand. With Phrases and Exercises, to gain facility in the use of all the characters, by which perfection may soon be attained. Complete price 2d. Phrenology. Explained and Exemplified. Complete, price 2d. Bookkeeping. By Single Entry, with explanations of Subsidiary Books, being a useful system for the Wholesale and Retail Shopkeeper. Com- plete, price 2d. 24 ROBERT HARDWICKE, 192, Piccadilly. Elements of Arithmetic. From the French of M. C. BRIOT. Translated by J. SPEAR, Esq. Crown 8vo. cloth, price 4s. " The little book before us is a translation of a French school arithmetic, and we notice it especially in reference to the metric system, which is clearly ex- plained in its pages, and put toward in the introduction as one of the prominent features of the work." Morning Star. Hangnail's Questions, Complete, Is. The Cheap Edition of this valuable School Book is now ready. It has been carefully revised and brought up to the present time. It is well printed and strongly bound. " Published in a compact form, neatly bound, and being condensed without being abridged, comes before us in a greatly improved form. Few books contain so much information in so small a space." Portsmouth Guardian. Method for Teaching Plain Needlework in Schools. By a LADY. Price 2s. 6d. Illustrated by Diagrams and Samplars. This useful method is based on steps which are gradual, wfll defined, and clear to the perception. It is calculated to insure the improvement, of each individual child, and while it offers the necessary instruction to the less talented pupil, it enables the more clever one to attain the highest degree of perfection. Oral Training Lessons in Natural Science and General Knowledge. Embracing the subjects of Astronomy, Anatomy, Physiology, Chemistry, Mathematical Geography, Natural Philosophy, the Arts, History, Development of Words, &c., intended for Teachers of Public Schools, and also for Private Instruction. By H. BARNARD, Principal of Lincoln's School, Minneapolis. Crown 8vo. price 2s. Education and Employment of the Blind. What it has been, is, and ought to be. By T. R. ARMITAGE, M.D. Demy 8vo. cloth, price 2s. 6d. Institutions and Charities for the Blind In the United Kingdom (a Guide to), together with Lists of Books and Appliances for their use ; a Catalogue of Books published upon the subject of the Blind ; and a List of Foreign Institutions, &c. By MANSFIELD TURNER and WILLIAM HARRIS. Demy 8vo. price 3s. ROBERT HARDWICKE, 102, Piccadilly. 25 Dedicated by Express Permission to H.R.H. the PRINCE of WALES. The County Families; Or, Royal Manual of the Titled and Untitled Aristocracy of the Three Kingdoms. It contains a complete Peerage, Baronetage, Knightage, and Dictionary of the Landed Commoners of England, Scotland, Wales, and Ireland, and gives a brief notice of the Descent, Birth, Marriage, Education, and Appointments of each Person, his Heir Apparent or Presumptive, a Record of the Offices which he has held, together with his Town Address and Country Residences. By EDWARD WALFORD, M.A., late Scholar of Balliol College, Oxford. 1,200 pages, 11,000 families. Pub- lished Annually. Price 2. 10s. " What would the gossips of old have given for a book which opened to them the recesses of every County Family in the Three Kingdoms we will not say every recess, for here and there we observe what may be termed 'The Blue Beard family cupboard,' omissions which are not made evidently without very good cause '. There are, for example, some awkward blanks of parentage to be found. Very many have no fathers ; at all events none such as they cared to name. In some places the particulars of marriages are omitted, possibly with prudence. This work, however, will serve other purposes besides those of mere curiosity, envy, or malice. It is just the book for the lady of the house to have at hand when making up the county dinner, as it gives exactly that information which punctilious and particular people are so desirous of obtaining the exact standing of every person in the county. To the business man, The County Families stands in the place of directory and biographical dictionary. The fund of information it affords respecting the upper ten thousand must give it a place in the lawyer's library; and to the money-lender, who is so interested in finding out the difference between a gentleman and a ' gent,' between heirs-at-law and younger sons, Mr. Walford has been a real benefactor. In this splendid volume he has managed to meet an universal want, one which cannot fail to be felt by the lady in her drawing- room, the peer in his library, the tradesman in his counting-house, and the gentleman in his club." Times. " It possesses advantages which no other work of the kind that we know of has offered hitherto. Containing all that is to be found in others, it furnishes information respecting families of distinction which are not to be found in the latter. It will prove to be invaluable in the library and drawing-room." Spec- tator. "To produce such a work in the perfection which characterizes 'County Families ' must have been an almost Herculean task. It is sufficient for us to ?ay that accuracy even in the minutest details appears to have been the aim of Mr. Walford, and the errors are so few and slight that they may readily be passed over." Weekly Register. By tJie same Author, published annually, The Shilling Peerage, The Shilling Baronetage, The Shilling Knightage, and The Shilling House of Commons, Giving the Birth, Accession, and Marriage of each Personage, his Heir Apparent or Presumptive, Family Name, Political Bias and Patronage ; as also a brief Notice of the Offices which he has hitherto held, his Town Address and Country Residences. 26 ROBERT HARDWICKE, 192, Piccadilly. The Complete Peerage, Baronetage, Knightage, and House of Commons. In One Volume. Half-bound, with coloured edges, for marking the different divisions. Price 5s. How to Address Titled People. Companion to the Writing-Desk ; or, How to Address, Begin, and End Letters to Titled and Official Personages, together with Tables of Precedence, copious List of Abbreviations, Rules for Punctuation, and other useful information. New Edition. Royal 32mo. price Is. " A word, and more than a word of praise is due. Full information on every subject of importance to correspondents is afforded in n. The instructions OH official points will not fail to be of importance to many persons unable to obtain the proper information from even much larger works of the same kind." Court Journal. " This is one of the most useful little books we have for a long time seen." Era. The Royal Guide to London Charities. Showing, in Alphabetical Order, the Name, Date of Foundation, Address, Object, Annual Income, Number of People benefited, Mode of Application to and Chief Officers of every Institution in London. By HEBBERT FRY. Published Annually, price Is. 6d. Peter Schlemihl. From the German of ADALBERT VON CHAMISSO. Translated by Sir JOHN BOWRING, LL.D., &c. Crown 8vo. cloth, with Illus- trations by George Cruikshank, price 2s. 6d. ; the Illustrations on India paper, price 5s. Hardwicke's Shilling Handy-Book of London. An Easy and Comprehensive Guide to Everything worth Seeing and Hearing. Royal 32mo., cloth, price Is. CONTENTS : Bazaars. Ball-rooms. Cathedrals. Dining-rooms. Exhibitions. Mansions of Nobility. Markets. Money-order Offices. Monuments and Statues. Museums. Music-halls and Concert-rooms. Out -door Amusements. Omnibuses. Palaces. Parks. Passport Offices. Picture Galleries' Regulations. Popular Entertainments. Police-courts. Prisons. Railway Stations. Steamboats. Theatres. Telegraph Offices, &c. ROBERT HARDWICKE, 192, Piccadilly. 27 Shooting Simplified. A Concise Treatise on Guns and Shooting. By JAMES DALZIELL DOUGALL. Second Edition, Re-written and and Enlarged, with a Special Chapter on Breech-Loaders. Fcap. 8vo. cloth, price 6s. Wines and other Fermented Liquors. From the Earliest Ages to the Present Time. Dedicated to all Consumers in the United Kingdom. By JAMES RICHMOND SHEEN. Fcap. 8vo. cloth, price 5s. The Common Sense of the Water Cure. A Popular Description of Life and Treatment at a Hydropathic Establishment. By Captain J. H. LUKIS, late of the 61st Regi- ment, and the North Durham Militia. Crown 8vo. price 5s. " We have seldom read a more amusing book than this. Capt. Lukis is a clever well-bred gentleman, who has found the greatest pleasure of his life in the strict discipline of hydropathy, and in this volume he chats pleasantly about his own experiences, and puts in a very popular form the chief arguments in favour of the water cure. There is not a dull page in the book." Morning Herald. Special Therapeutics, An Investigation into the Treatment of Acute and Chronic Disease by the Application of Water, the Hot-Air Bath, and In- halation. By J. C. LORY MARSH, M.D., M.R.C.P. Crown 8vo. price 3s. 6d. Bathing : How to do it, When to do it, and Where to do it. By EDGAR SHEPPARD, M.D., Medical Superintendent of the Male Department, Colney Hatch Asylum. Third Edition. 8vo. sewed, price Is. Plain and Practical Medical Precepts. Second Edition, revised and much enlarged. By ALFRED FLEISCHMAN, M.R.C.S. On a large sheet, price 4d. The Home Nurse. A Manual for the Sick Room. By ESTHER LE HARDY. Second Edition, fcap. 8vo. cloth, price 2s. 6d. Air. Cleanliness. Dress. Diet and Cookery. Practical Duties. Moral Duties. The Patient. Visitors. Setons, Issues. Blisters and-Plaisters. Chamber of Death. &c. &c. " In our notice of the first edition we expressed OUT approbation of the manner in which she had performed her task ; and we are gratified to see that the useful lessons she inculcated both in regard to nursing and medical attendance have met with such general approval as to require another edition of her unpretending but really valuable volume." Lancet. 28 ROBERT HARDWICKE, 192, Piccadilly. On Teething of Infants. Its prevalent Errors, Neglects and Dangers ; their influence on the Health, and as causes of death of Children. Including the dangers of Teething Powders, Soothing Syrups, &c. By HEXKY HANKS, L.R.C.P. Edinburgh, M.R.C.S. England, &c. Illustrated by Cases. Fcap. 8vo. cloth, 3s. 6d. The Domestic Management of Infants and Children. In Health and Sickness. By S. BARKER, M.D., Brighton. 8vo- price 5s. Also, The Diet of Infancy and Childhood. By S. BARKER, M.D. Demy 8vo. sewed, price Is. The Gastric Regions and the Victualling 1 Depart- ment. By AN OLD MILITIA SURGEON. The whole outward and inward man, from the crown of his head to the corns on his little toes, all tell the sad tale of the Gastric Regions' Wrongs. Crown 8vo. cloth, price 2s. 6d. " This is a most useful, and by no means a dull or heavy book. . . . The old Militia Surgeon gives some most useful advice, in a pleasant practical manner, respecting different varieties of food and their effects upon the system." Observer The Foot and its Covering. With Dr. Camper's work on "The Best Form of Shoe, "translated from the German. By JAMES DOWIE. New Edition. Fcap. 8vo. cloth, illustrated, price 2i. 6d. Auvergne : Its Thermo-Mineral Springs, Climate, and Scenery. A new Salutary Resort for Invalids. By ROBERT CROSS, M.D. With three Tinted Lithographs, price 4s. Sketches of Ceylon. Sketches of the Inhabitants, Animal Life, and Vegetation, in the Lowlands and High Mountains of Ceylon, as well as the Sub- marine Scenery near the Coast, taken in a Diving Bell. By Baron EUGENE DE RANSONNETT. With 26 large Chromo-lithographs, taken from Life by the Author. Folio, 2. 10s. First Help in Accidents. Being a Surgical Guide in the absence or before the arrival of Medical Assistance. For the use of the Public, especially for Members of both Military and Naval Services, Volunteer?, and Travellers. By CHARLES H. SCHAIBLE, M.D., Ph.D., Royal Military Academy, Woolwich. Fully illustrated. ROBERT HARDWICKE, 192, Piccadilly. 29 First Help in Accidents (continued.) Hanging. Poisoning. Scalds. Sprains. Suffocation. Bites. Choking. Bleeding. Cold. Broken Bones. Dislocations. Bruises. Drowning. Burns. Exhaustion. And other Accidents where instant aid is needful. In sup. royal 32mo. cloth, price 2s. 6d. " A most useful and interesting little book, which is besides prettily got up, and contains some accurate and nice woodcuts. In 200 small pages we find, con- densed, whatever can be done in case of accidents until the arrival of a profes- sional helper ; in fact, the work is a short but complete manual, and will prove of great service to military men, volunteers, and tourists. . . . The instructions are plain and to the point, and there is a welcome absence of technical terms." Spectator. A Manual of Popular Physiology : Being an Attempt to Explain the Science of Life in Untechnical Language, By HENRY LAWSON, M.D., Co-Lecturer on Physio- logy and Histological Anatomy in St. Mary's Hospital Medical School. Fcap. 8vo. with 90 Illustrations, price 2s. 6d. Man's Mechanism. Life. Force. Food. Digestion. Respiration. Heat. The Skin. The Kidneys. Nervous System. Organs of Sense. &c. &c. " Dr. Lawson has succeeded in rendering his manual amusing as well as instruc- tive. All the great facts in human physiology are presented to the reader suc- cessively ; aud either for private reading or for classes, this manual will be found well adapted for initiating the uninformed into the mysteries of the structure and function of their own bodies." Athenaeum. Dr. Lankester on Food. A Course of Lectures Delivered at the South Kensington Museum. ByE. LANKESTER, M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S. New Edition. Price 4s. Dr. Lankester on the Uses of Animals In Relation to the Industry of Man. By EDWIN LANKESTER, M.D., F.R.S. A Course of Six Lectures, delivered at the South Kensington Museum. Crown 8vo. pp. 350, cloth, fully illustrated, price 3s. Silk. Wool. Leather. Bone. Soap. Waste. Sponges and Corals. Shell-fish. Insects. Furs. Feathers, Horns, & Hair. Animal Perfumes. " The information is presented in the most lucid, graceful, and entertaining manner." Economist. " Every one who peruses them will be grateful to the author. The history of those creatures whose products become through man's skill so useful to him is given with such charming feeling that the interest of the reader is attracted and enchained, whether he wills or no." Era. 30 ROBERT HARDWICKE, 192, Piccadilly. Practical Physiology : a School Manual of Health. Being a Practical Guide to the Means of Securing Health and Life. Intended for the use of classes and general reading. By Dr. LANKESTEB, F.R.S. Fifth Edition, fcap. 8vo. illustrated, price 2s. 6d. " It is copiously illustrated. There is not a school of any kind for males or females, rich or poor, in which the book might not be used as a text-book ; indeed, it ought to be as common as an English Grammar. Few persons are capable of forming an idea of the increase of human happiness and material prosperity which would follow a more general appreciation of the laws of health." Lancet. Domestic Medicines : their Uses and Doses. In the jbsance of professional assistance, with Tables of Weights and Measures ; the preparation of Beverageg suitable for the Sick Room. Poisons and their Antidotes. Sixth Thousand, 32mo. cloth, price Is. The Changed Cross. Words by L. P. W. Illuminated by K. K. Dedicated to the Memory of those blessed ones who having, " through much tribu- lation/' finished their course with joy, now rest from their labours ; and to those also who are still running with patience the course set before them, " Looking to Jesus." Square 16mo. elegantly printed, with illuminated crosses and border lines, price 6s. Spiritualism and Animal Magnetism. By Professor G. G. ZERFFI, Ph.D. Second Edition. Crown 8vo Price Is. 6d. " This is a very clever book. It disposes of Spiritualism pretty conclusively, and it gives expositions of Animal Magnetism in connection therewith that are, as far as they go, as convincing as such efforts well can be." Church Hernld. " A few more such books as this excellent little treatise, and we shall have no more table-turning or spirit-rapping. Perhaps, before long, the force at which we now either ignorantly tremble, or with equal ignorance sneer, may be doing material work. "Lund and Water. "As far as Professor Zerffi renders a more rational account of spiritualism than those who are enthusiastically devoted to the study, the little book under notice is worthy attention." Bath Journal. Degrees and " Degrees ;" Or, the Traffic in Theological, Medical, and other " Diplomas " Exposed. By the Rev. HENRY BELCHBB, M.A., Assistant Master in King's College School, Dedicated, by permission, to the Rev. Alfred Barry, D.D., D.C.L., Canon of Worcester, Prin- cipal of King's College, London. Demy Svo. price Is. 6d. Notes on Conjectural Amendments of certain Passages in Shakespeare's Plays. By P. A. DANIEL. Crown Svo. price 3s. 6d. A Statesman at Home. A Dramatic Fragment. By G. T. LOWTH. Crown Svo. limp cloth, price 3s. 6d. ROBERT HARDWICKE, 192, Piccadilly. 31 MEDICAL AND SURGICAL WORKS. The Pocket Guide to the Pharmacopoeia. Being an Explanatory Classification of its Drugs, Preparations, and Compounds. All Essentials being comprised in a form and size adapted to the Practitioners' Note Book. To enable the busy Practitioner to do justice to his vocation, and avail himself of what no memory could otherwise retain, this little book has been compiled by one who has long felt the want of some such aid. Limp cloth for the pocket-book, Is. Observations on Sea-Sickness, And on some of the Means of Preventing it. By Sir JAMES ALDERSON, M.D., D.C.L., F.K..S., Consulting Physician to St. Mary's Hospital. Crown Svo. cloth, price 2s. Surgical Appliances and Minor Operative Surgery. By THOMAS ANNANDALE, F.E.C.S., Edinburgh. Fcap. 8vo. cloth, price 5s. Abstract of Surgical Principles. By THOMES ANNANDALE, F.R.S. and F.R.C.S. (Edin.) price Is. each. I. Inflammation, Suppuration, Abscess, Sinus and Fistula, Mortifi- cation, Ulceration, and Ulcers, price Is. II. Tumours, or Morbid Growths, price Is. III. Dislocations, price Is. IV. Fractures, price Is. Chemistry. By Professor BRANDE, D.C.L., F.E.S.L., and Professor ALFRED S. TAYLOR, M.D., F.R.S., F.R.C.P. Loud. Fcap Svo. cloth, 900 pages, price 12s. 6d. " For clearness of language, accuracy of description, extent of information, and freedom from the pedantry and mysticism of modern chemistry, no other text- book comes into competition with it. . . . The best guide to the study of chemistry yet given to the world." Lancet. " Conceived and worked out in the most sturdy common-sense method, this book gives, in the clearest and most summary method possible, all the facts and doc- trines of chemistry, with more especial reference to tbe wants of the medical student." Medical Times. .C*i t ~ 32 ROBERT HARDWICKE, 192, Piccadilly. On the Cure of Clubfoot, without Cutting Tendons. By RICHARD BARWELL, F.R.C.S., Surgeon and Lecturer on Anatomy, Charing Cross Hospital. With 28 Photographs. Second Edition, greatly enlarged, crown 8vo. 7s. 6d. By the same Author, A Treatise on Diseases of the Joints. Illustrated by Engravings on Wood. Demy 8vo. cloth, price 12s. Also, Causes and Treatment of Spinal Curvature. Crown 8vo. with Woodcuts, price 6s. A Manual of the Operations of Surgery. For the Use of Senior Students, House Surgeons, and Junior Practitioners. Illustrated. By JOSEPH BELL, F.R.C.S. Edinburgh, Lecturer on Surgery, Assistant- Surgeon, Clinical Ward, Royal Infirmary. Surgeon to the Eye Infirmary, Edinburgh. Fcp. 8vo. price 6s. On Inhalation as a Means of Local Treatment of the Organs of Respiration by Atomised Fluids and Gases. By HERMANN BEIGEL, M.D., L.R.C.P. 8vo. cloth, illustrated, price 6s. On Surgical Diseases of Women. By I. BAKER BROWN, F.R.C.S. (by Exam.), Surgeon to the London Surgical Home. Third Edition, revised and enlarged, demy 8vo. price 15s. By the same Author, On Ovarian Dropsy: Its Nature, Diagnosis, and Treatment. The Result of Thirty Years' Experience. Post 8vo. cloth, price 5s. Also, On Scarlatina and its Treatment. Second Edition, fcp. 8vo. cloth, price 2s. 6d. ROBERT HARDWICKE, 192, Piccadilly. 33 The Ophthalmoscope : Its Varieties and its Uses. Translated from the German of ZANDER by R. B. CARTER, F.R.C.S. Eng. (by Exam.). With Notes and Additions. 68 Woodcuts and 3 beautiful Coloured Chromo-litho- graphs. Koyal 8vo., price 9s. On the Arcus Senilis ; or Fatty Degeneration of the Cornea. By EDWIN CANTON, F.R.C.S., Surgeon to the Charing Cross Hos- pital. With numerous illustrations. Svo. cloth, price 10s. 6d. The Chemical Processes of the British Pharmacopoeia, And the Behaviour with Re-agents of their Products. By HENRY J. CHURCH, F.C.S. Fcp. Svo. price 3s. By the same Author, Carbolic Acid as a Disinfectant. And as a means of preventing the spread of the Cattle Disease. Svo. sewed, price Is. 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Until a theory, in fact, has obtained the sanction of the purely scientific world, it holds no place n the pages of the Popular Science Revicio ; but as soon as a fact is recognized as an unquestionable scientific truth, and long before it reaches the general public by any other channel, it takes its place in the pages of the Popular Science Review. Here it is laid out in the plainest but most exact language possible, and, if necessary, is illus- trated fully, not in that claptrap style which is adopted by magazines af a particular class, but in a clear, distinct, and yet modest fashion, plainly setting forth the aims and desires of the author. The plan of the Popular Science Review is briefly as follows : First some a number of articles illustrated by a variety of page-plates, and dealing with those questions in each branch of science which have been most recently the subject of communications to the Scientific Societies. These are invariably done by men who are at once the most eminent and representative in the several branches of science to which they belong : we refer to the names of Contributors as a proof of this. Leaving the Original Articles, we come next to the Reviews. These are short, but as a rule they are to the point ; and they generally con- tain notices of every scientific book which has been published during the quarter. Finally, we come to the Scientific Summary. In this we find a very perfect record of the principal work done at home and abroad in the following various branches : Archaeology, Botany, Geology, Pakeon- tology, Chemistry, Mineralogy, Microscopy, Metallurgy, Mining, Physics, Photography, Zoology, Comparative Anatomy, and Medicine. Fhis department is divided amongst a number of men, and generally may be said to put the general reader au courant with the progress f science at home and abroad during the quarter which has elapsed revious to publication. Thus, altogether, the Journal furnishes an amount of scientific in- rmation, in a popular and yet exact form, which cannot be found in ny other English periodical. Vols. I. to XI., Sets in Numbers, 5. 15s. 11 vols. cloth, 6. 14s. Half-morocco, 8. 8s. Cloth Covers for Binding, price Is. 6d. each. 42 ROBERT HARDWICKE, 192, Piccadilly. Popular Science Review, Vol. 1 contains: Corn. By Prof. J. Buckman, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.S.A., &c. Illustrated. The Daisy. By Mrs. Lankester. Illus- trated. The Crown Animalcule. By P. H. Gosse, F.R.S. Illustrated. The Lowest Forms of Life. By James Samuelsou and Dr. Bruxton Hicks, F.L.S. Iron and Steel. By R. Hunt, F.R.S. Artificial Light. By Prof. Ansted, F.R.S. The Breath of Life. By W. Crookes, F.R.S. The West Coast of Equatorial Africa. With a Coloured Map. The Great Comet of 1861 . By J. Breen. Illustrated. Caverns and their Contents. By Prof. Ansted, F.R.S. The Lowest Forms of Life. Illustrated. The Flower Animalcules. ByP.H. Gosse, F.R.S. Illustrated. Cotton. By Dr. Lankester, F.R.S. Illustrated. Gram. By Prof. Buckman, F.L.S. Il- lustrated. The Reflex Theory- By G. H. Lewes. Solar Chemistry. By R. Hunt, F.R.S. With Coloured Diagram. Optical Phenomena of the Atmosphere. - By G. F. Chambers. The Phosphorescence of the Sea. With a Plate. The Sun and Solar Phenomena. Witt a Coloured Plate. By James Breen F.R.A.S. Light and Colour. With a Colourec Plate. By Robert Hunt, F.R.S. The Application of Science to Electro- plating. By G. Gore, F.R.S. Artificial Precious Stones. By W. S Howgrave. The White Clover. By Mrs. Lankester With two Plates. The Human Heart. By Isaac Ashe B.A., T.C D. The Great Exhibition of 1?,62. The Britannia and Conway Tubulai Bridges. With Page Plate. ByW.C, Unwin, B.Sc. Primitive Astronomy. With twc Coloured Illustrations. The Physics of a Sunbeam. With Coloured Plate. By R. Hunt, F.R.S The English California. By G. P Bevan, F.G.S. The Contents of Caverns (concluding Part). By D. T. Anstert, F.R.S. The Microscope, with Directions foi its Use. Illustrated with Woodcuts By C. Collingwood, M.B., F.L.S. The Builder Animalcules. With a Pag( Plate. By P. H. Gosse, F.R.S. The Common Truffle. With a Pag< Plate. By Jabez Hogg, M.R.C.S. &c. Popular Science Review, Vol. 2 contains The British Oak. Two Page Illustra- tions. By Prof. Buckman, F.L.S., F.G.S., &c. Tubifex Rivulorum, the Red Worm of our Rivers. With a Coloured Plate. By Edwin Ray Lankester. Anaesthetics. By Dr. T. L. Phipson, M.B., F.C.S., &c. Barmouth and its Scientific Attractions. With a Tinted Illustration. The Electro-plating Process (conclud- ing Part). With an Illustration. By George Gore. Notes of the Exhibition of 1862. The Mistletoe and Parasitic Plants. By Mrs. Lankester. Illustrated. The Winter Life of Plants. By Harland Coultas. The Vinegar Eel. By Jabez Hogg, F.L.S. With Tinted Plate. The Eye of the Ox and its Microscopi- cal Structure. By E. Beckitt Truman. With Tinted Plate. 1 Mars. By James Breen, F.R.A.S. Witt Coloured Plate. Our Fresh-water Polyzoa. By Rev W. Houghton, M.A., F.L.S. Twc Page Plates. I The African Lion in its Native Haunts By Jules Gerard. The Human Skin. By Isaac Ashe, M.B, With Page Plate. The Furniture Woods of Commerce. By P. L. Simmonds. Fossil Birds. By S. J. Mackie, F.G.S, Illustrated. History of a Beech-tree. By Harland Coultas. The Antiquity of Man. By J. R. Leif child, M.A. On the Physical Geography of the Ionian Islands. By Prof. D.T. Ansted, M.A., F.R.S. The Telescope. ' By James Breen, F.R.S. Our British Jungermanise. ROBERT HARDWICKE, 192, Piccadilly. 43 Rotifera or Wheel Animalcules. Part IV. The Flexible Creepers (Notom- matina). By Philip Henry Gosse, F.R.S. Illustrated. On the Morphology of Vinca minor (small Periwinkle). By James Buck - man, F.L.S., F.G.S. Colour Blindness. By Jabez Hog"- F.L.S. Illustrated. PopularScience Review, Vol. 3 contains : J holographic Printing and Engraving, with a Photograph of a Complete Page of the Times Newspaper printed from Stone. By William Crookes, F.R.S. ^resh Air. By E. Lankester, M.D., F.R.S. rlicroscopic Fungi Parasitic on Living Plants. By M. C. Cooke. Coloured Illustrations. )n the Physical Geography of the Ionian Islands. By Prof. D. T. Ansted, M.A., F.R.S. 'he Metropolitan Main Drainage Works, with a Map of the Works. By S. J. Mackie, F.G.S. Diseased Pork, and Microscopic Worms in Man. By John Gamgee. Illus- trated. Sodily Work and Waste. By Francis T. Bond, M.D., B.A. (Lond.), F.C.S. 'he Railway Tunnel through the Alps. With Tinted Illustration. Jreek Fire : its Ancient and Modern History. By B.W. Richardson, M. A., M.D. rote's on Earthquakes. By Rev. W. S. Symonds. 1 On Printing Telegraphs. With Co- loured Fac- simile Illustration. By R. S. Culley. I Herrings and Herring Fishing. By the Editor. ! On Proper Clothing. By E. Lankester, M.D., F.R.S. ! On the Absorption and Radiation of Heat, With two Page Illustrations, By H. Debus, Ph.D., F.R.S. Botanical Exercises. By Rev. G. Hen- slow, M.A., F.L.S. Pre-historic Dwellings. With Tinted Illustrations. By G. E, Roberts, F.A.S.L. The Aniline Dyes. With Page of Silk Illustrations. By Dr. T. L. Phipson, F.C.S. On the Action of Manures. By Baron Liebig. The Old Red Sandstone Fishes of Eng- land. By E. Ray Lankester. Illus- trated. Oysters and Oyster Culture. By the Editor. Illustrated. The Pneumatic Dispatch. By S. J. Mackie, F.G.S. Illustrated. Thermometry. By G. F. Chambers. Popular Science Review, Vol. 4 contains : xtraordinary Ships. By S. J. Mackie, F.G.S. Illustrated. oodFood. By Ed win Lankester, M.D., F.R.S. n the Origin of Local Floras of Great Britain and Ireland. By Harland Coultas. Illustarted. [etamorphism. By Prof. D. T. Ansted, M.A., F.R.S., &c. [orphological Peculiarities of Linaria spuria. ByE.S.Magrath. Illustrated, he Metric System. By James Spear. Illustrated. ecent Investigations into the Natural History of the Red Coral. By the Editor. Illustrated, rhat is a Stimulant? By Francis E. Anstie, M.D. he Source of Heat in the Sun. By Robert Hunt, F.R.S. Illustrated, aup for Children. By Baron Liebig. egetables. Fruit, and Water as Sources of Intestinal Worms. By T. Spencer Cobbold, M.D., F.R.S. Illustrated, he Anatomy and Physiology of the Foraminifera. By W. C. Williamson, F.R.S. Illustrated. Waves of Heat and Waves of Death. By B. W. Richardson, M.A., M.D., F.R.S. Origin of our Kitchen Garden Plants. By Harland Coultas. The Geology of Mineral Springs. By Francis T. Bond, M.D., B.A., F.C.8. Illustrated. Train -signalling in Theory and Prac- tice. By Charles V. Walker, F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Extract of Meat. By Charles Boner. On Sponges. By Robert Patterson, F.R.S. The Physical Phenomena of other Worlds. By Robert Hunt, F.R.S. Migration of European Birds. By A. Leith Adams, M.A., M.B., F.G.S., F.L.S. On the Difficulties in Identifying many of the Lower Kinds of Algae. By J, Braxton Hicks, M.D,, F.R.S. On the Oldest known Fossil (Eozoon Canadense) of the Laurentian Rocks of Canada ; its Place, Structure, and Significance. By Prof. T. Rupert Jones, F.G.S. 44 ROBERT HARDWICKE, 192, Piccadilly. Balloon Ascents and their Scientific Importance. By James Glaisher, F.R.S. Illustrated. On the Highest Magnifying Powers and their Uses. By Lionel S. Beale, M.B., F.R.S. Darwin's Observations on the Physio- logy of the Process of Fertilization in Plants. By M. C. Cooke. Illus- trated. What is a Tonic ? By Edward Divers, M.D., F.C.S. The Eruption of Etna. By S. J. Mackie, F.G.S. Inside the Eye: the Ophthalmoscope and its Uses. By Ernest Hart, Oph- thalmic Su geon and Lecturer on Ophthalmic Surgery and Medicine at St. Mary's Hospital Medical School. Illustrated. Is the Whitebait a Distinct Species? By the Editor. Illustrated. On the Means of Communicating be- tweenl Guards and Passengers on Railways. By Thomas Symes Pri- deaux. Atlantic Telegraphy. By Robert Hunt, F.R.S. Illustrated. On Pure Water. By Edwin Lankester, M.D., F.R.S. On the Nature and Diagnostic Value ol Raphides and Other Plant Crystals, By Prof. Gulliver, F.R.S. On Lake Basins. By Prof. D. T. Ansted, M.A., F.R.S. Illustrated. j Epidemics Past and Present: theii Origin and Distribution. J On the Microscopic Anatomy of an Insect Larva (Corethra plumicornis), By E. Ray Lankester. Illustrated. The Moon. By James Breen, F.R.A.S Illustrated. Photography, and some of its Applica- tions. By the Editor. Popular Science Review, Vol. 5 contains: Insects Injurious to the Turnip Crops. By Rev. W. Houghton, M.A., F.L.S. Coffee. By Baron Liebig. Australia and Europe formerly One Continent. By Berthold Seeman. Ph.D., F.L.S., V.P.A.S. On Ozone in Relation to Health and Disease. By B. W. Richardson, M.A., F.R.S. Glaciers and Ice. By W. F. Barrett. Illustrated. On the Phenomena of Motion, Sensi- tiveness in Climbing Plants. By Rev. G. Henslow, M.A., F.L.S. With Page Illustration. On the Construction and Use of the Spectrum Microscope. By H. C. Sorby, F.R.S. On the Volvox Globator. By J. Brax- ton Hicks, M.D. (Lond.), F.R.S. Engraving with a Sunbeam. Wood- bury's Relief-printing. By J. Traill Taylor. Illustrated. Entozoon-like Bodies in the Muscles of Animals destroyed by Cattle Plague. By Lionel S. Beale, M.B., F.R.S. Our House Spiders. By J. Blackwall. F.L.S. Raised Beaches, and their Origin. By Edward Hull, B.A., F.G.S. On Milk, and its Adulteration. By Augustus Voelcher, Ph.D., F.C.S., &c. The Amoeba: its Structure, Develop. ment, and Habits. By Prof. W. C. Williamsom, F.R.S. On the Solfatara and Fumaroles in the Neighbourhood of Naples. By Prof. D. T. Ansted, M. A., F.R.S. The Graphotype Process. By the Editor. Illustrated. Hydrse or Fresh-water Polypes. Bj Rev. W. Houghton, M.A., F.L.S. How to Work with the Telescope Part I. By R. A. Proctor, B.A., F.R.A.S. On the Exhaustion of our Coal. B} Leonard Lemoran, M.E. On Hybridization among Plants. Bj Rev. G. Henslow, M.A., F.L.S. On the Light -emitting Apparatus ol the Glowworm. By Henry Fripp, M.D. Sun-force and Earth-force. By Dr, Richardson. The Eruption of Santorin. By Prof, D. T. Ansted, F.R.S. On the Movements of the Diatomacere By E. Ray Lankester. Aerolites. By Townshend M. Hall, F.G.S. On the Electrical Principles of the Atlantic Telegraph. By Prof. G. C, Foster. The Bone Caverns of Gibraltar, Malta, and Sicily. By A. Leith Adams, A.M., M.B., F.G.S., &c. Notes on Lophopus crystallinns. By J. Josselyn Ranson and T. Graham Ponton. Genesis or Parthenogenesis ? By II. E, Fripp, M.D. Modern Views of Denudation. By Edward Hull, B.A., F.G.S. How to Work with the Telescope, Part II. By Richard A. Proctor, 13. A. F.R.A.S. ROBERT HABDWICKE, 192, Piccadilly. 45 Popular Science Review, Vol. 6 contains : On Growth of some of the Algae. Illus- trated by a few of the Common kinds. By J. Braxton Hicks, M.D., F.R.S. The Geology of Sinai. By Rev. E. W. Holland, M.A. The Planet Mars in January, 1867. By Richard A. Proctor, B.A., F.R.A.S. Illustrated. On Water-filters. By Edward Divers, M.D., F.C.S. Illustrated. Our Fresh-water Entomostraca, Shell Insects, or Water-Fleas. By W. Baird, M.D., F.L.S. Illustrated. How to Photograph Microscopic Ob- jects. By Edward T. Wilson, M.B. Oxon. Illustrated. Recent Discoveries in Insect Embryo- geny. By Henry Fripp, M.D. Illus- trated. On the Struggle for Existence among Plants. By J. D. Hooker, M.D., F.R.S. How to Study Meteorology. By G. T. Chambers, F.R.A.S. Illustrated. On Sensitive Flames. By W. F. Barrett. Illustrated. Paraffin Lamps and their Dangers. By John Attfield, Ph.D., F.C.S. Venus's Flower- basket (Euplectella) . By Dr. J. E. Gray, F.R.S. Illustrated. An Attempt to Approximate the Date of the Flint Flakes of Devon and Cornwall. By Spence Bate, F.R.S. Illustrated. Jupiter without his Satellites. By Richard A. Proctor, B.A., F.R.A.S. Illustrated. Fitzroy Weather Forecasts. By G. F . Chambers, F.R.A.S. Illustrated. On Life Insurance and Vital Statistics. By W. Hardwicke, M.D. New Electro-Magnetic Machines. By S. J, Mackie. Illustrated. The Botany of a Coal-mine. By Wm. Carruthers, F.L.S. Illustrated. The Microscope in Geology. By David Forbes, F.R.S. Illustrated. Why the Leaves Fall. By Maxwell T. Masters, M.D., F.L.S. A Message from the Stars. By Robert Hunt, F.R.S. On the Planarise of our Ponds and Streams. By E. Ray Lankester. Illustrated. Ventilation and Ventilators. By the Editor. Illustrated. Physics of the Brain. By B. W. Rich- ardson, M.A., M.D., F.R.S. Popular Science Review, Vol. 7 contains: The Common Fresh -water Sponge (Spongilla fluviatilis;. By Prof. W. C. Williamson, F.R.S. Illustrated. The Hurricane, the Typhoon, and the Tornado. By Prof. D. T. Ansted, F.R.S. Sensitive Plants. By Maxwell T. Mas- ters, M.D., F.L.S. Illustrated. The former range of the Reindeer in Europe. By W. Boyd Dawkins, M.A., F.R.S. rhe Science of a Snow-flake. By Robert Hunt, F.R.S. Illustrated, he Food of Plants. By Prof. Church, M.A., F.C.S. he Gems and Precious Stones of Great Britain. By J. Morris, F.G.S. Illus- trated. the Fresh- water Sponge (SpongillaJ an Animal? By John Hogg, M.A., F.R.S. ow to Dissect a Flower. By M. C. Cooke. Illustrated. he Polari scope and how to Work with it. By C. Hockin, M.A. Illus- trated. ree Nematoids. By H. Carlton Bastian, M.D., F.R.S. Illustrated. On the Animals which are most nearly intermediate between Birds and Rep- tiles. By Prof. Huxley, LL.D., F.R.S. Illustrated. The Study of Chemical Geology. By David Forbes, F.R.S., &c. Plants known by their Pollen-grains and other Cells. By George Gulliver, F.R.S. The Great Eclipse of August I/, 1868. By R. A. Proctor, B.A., F.R.A.S. Illustrated. On the Range of the Mammoth. By W. Boyd Dawkins, M.A., F.R.S. Caddis-worms and their Metamor- phoses. By Rev. W. Houghton, M.A., F.L.S. Illustrated. What is Wine? By August Dupre, Ph.D. Iron Shields and Iron Forts. By S. J. Mackie, Assoc. Inst.C.E. Illustrated. The Air or Swimming Bladder of Fishes. By Rev. W. Houghton, M.A., F.L.S. How to make a Geological Section. By Prof. D. T. Ansted, M.A., F.R.S. Illustrated. The Life of a Seed. By Maxwell T. Masters, M.D., F.L.S. Illustrated. 46 ROBERT HARDWICKE, 192, Piccadilly. Popular Science Review, Vol. 8 contains: Flying Machines. By Fred. W. Breary, Hon. Sec. to Aeronautical Society. The Compound Eye of Insects and Crustacea. By Henry Fripp, M.D. Illustrated. True and False Flint Weapons. By N. Whitley, C.E. The Planet Mars in February, 1869. By Richard A, Proctor, B.A., F.R.A.S. Illustrated. On the Molecular Origin of Infusoria. By J. Hughes Bennett,M.D.,F.R.S.E. Diagrams. The Cuttle-fish. By St. George Mivart, F.Z.S. Illustrated. The Nature of the Interior of the Earth. By David Forbes, F.R.S. On the Use and Choice of Spectacles. By R. Brundell Carter. F.R.C.S. Diagrams. The Use of the Spectroscope in Astro- nomical Observation. By Richard A. Proctor, B.A., F.R.A.S. Illustrated. The British Lion. By W. Boyd Daw- kins.M.A., F.R.S. Passion-flowers. By Maxwell T. Mas- ters, M.D., F.L.S. Illustrated. The Natural Development of Bacteria in the Protolamic Parts of Various Plants. By M. A. Bechamp. The Planet Saturn in July, 1869. By R. A. Proctor, B.A., F.R.A.S. Popular Science Review, Vol. 9 contains: The Heat of the Moon. By J. Carpenter, ; The Turret Ships Monarch and Cap- F.R.A.S. tain. By S. J. Mackie, C.E. Illus- " Under Chloroform." By B. W. trated. The Usefulness of the Fifth in Music. The Sertularian Zoophytes of our Shores. By Rev. T. Hincks, B.A. Illustrated. Hydrogenium. By Robert Hunt, F.R.S. The Structure and Affinities of the Sea- squirts (Tunicata). By J. C. Galton, M.A., F.L.S. Illustrated. The Fertilization of Salvia, and of some other Flowers. By "\ViUiam Ogle, M.D. Illustrated. "In Articulo Mortis." By Benjamin W. Richardson, M.D., F.R.S. Experimental Illustrations of the Modes of Determining the Composition of the Sun and other Heavenly Bodies by the Spectrum. By Wm. Allen Miller, M.D., D.C.L., V.P.R.S. Illus- trated. What is Bathybius ? By Prof. William- son, F.R.S. Are there any Fixed Stars ? By Richard A. Proctor, B.A., F.R.A.S. Illus- trated. Kent's Hole. By W. Boyd Dawkin.s, M.A., F.R.S. The Lingering Admirers of Phrenology. By Prof. Cletand. The Anatomy of a Mushroom. By M. C. Cooke. Illustrated. The Chemistry of a Comet. By Edward Divers, M.D., F.C.S. Richardson, M.D., F.R.S. The Deposits of the Atlantic in Deep Water and their Relation to the White Chalk of Cretaceous Period. By Prof. D. T. Ansted.M.A., F.R.S. What is Wine ? By A. Dupre, Ph.D. The Fertilization of Certain Plants (Didynamia). By W. Ogle, M.D., Oxon, F.R.C.P. On some Interesting Points in the History of the Polyzoa. By Rev. Thomas Hincks, B.A. The Structure of Rock Masses (Stratifi- cation Joints, Cleavage). By David Forbes, F.R.S., &c. The Planet Jupiter 1S69-/0. By Rev. T. W. Webb, M.A. Microscopic Test Objects under Pa- rallel Light and Corrected Powers. By Rev. J. B. Reade, F.R.S., P.R.M.S. The Fertilization of Various Flowers by . Insects (Compositae, Ericaceae, &c.). By W. Ogle, M.D., F.R.C.P. On the Sphaerosira Volvox of Ehreu- bcrg. By Prof. Williamson, F.R.S. By Rev. C. Hope Robertson, M.A. The Anatomy of the River Mussel By John C. Gatton, M.A., Oxon. F.L.S. On a Simple Decimal System for Eng- land. By Royston Pigott, M.A., M.D., Cantab , M.R.C.P., F.C.P.S., F.R.A.S. What Fills the Star Depths. By R. A. Proctor, B.A., F.R.A.S. On the Apparatus employed in Deep Sea Explorations on Board H.M.S. Porcupine in the Summer of 1869. By W. Lant Carpenter, B.A., B.Sc. The Geology of Mont Cenis Tunnel. By Prof. Ansted, F.R.S. With Map and Section. Greenwich Time and its Telegraphic Distribution. By W. Ellis, F.R.A.S. The Echinus, or Sea Urchin. By S. G. Mivart, F.R.S. Illustrated. The Sun's Corona. By R. A. Proctor, B.A., F.R.A.S. Machine Guns or Mitrailleuses. By S. J. Mackie, C.E. ROBERT HARDWICKE, 129, Piccadilly. 47 Popular Science Review, Vol. 10 contains :- Hitting the Mark; or, Cannon-balls and their Striking Velocity. By G. W. Royston Pigolt, M.A., M.D. Illustrated. Natural Selection Insufficient to the Development of Man. By the Rev. George Buckle, M.A. Polymorphic Fungi. By M. C. Cooke, M.A. Illustrated. The Eclipse Expeditions. By R. A. Proctor, B.A., F.R.A.S. Notes on Butterflies. By Rev. C. Hope Robertson, F.R.M.S. Illustrated. On Sleep. By Dr. Richardson, F.R.S. The Discophores or Large Medusae. By Rer. T. Hincks, B.A. Illus- trated. The Issues of the Late Eclipse. By J. Carpenter, F.R.A.S. Grafting; its Consequences and Effects. By Maxwell T. Masters, M.D., F.R.S. Illustrated. Coal as a Reservoir of Power. By Robert Hunt, F.R.S. The Plymouth Breakwater Port. By S. J. Mackie, C.E. Plate. The Structure of Roqk Masses (Folia- tion and Striation). By David For- bes, F.R.S. Illustrated. ByT. South Africa and its Diamonds. Rupert Jones, F.G.S. British Bears and Wolves. By W. Boyd Dawkins. M.A. , F.R.S. The " Lotus " of the Ancients. By M. C. Cooke, M.A. Illustrated. Greenland. By William Pengelly.F.R.S. F.G.S. Observations on Jupiter in 1870-71. By Rev. T. W. Webb, M.A., F.R.A.S. The International Exhibition at South Kensington. By S. J. Mackie, C.E. Illustrated by Heliotype Process. How Fishes Breathe. By J. C. Galton, M.A., M.R.C.S., F.L.S. Illustrated. Mr. Crook e's New Psychic Force. By J. P. Earwaker. The Moss World. By R. Braithwaite, M.D., F.L.S. Illustrated. Theory of a Nervous Ether. By Dr. Richardson, F.R.S. On Pleistocene Climate and the Rela- tion of the Pleistocene Mammalia to the Glacial Period. By W. Boyd Dawkins, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S. Illus- trated. Star Streams and Star Sprats. By R. A. Proctor, B.A., F.R.A.S. Popular Science Review, Vol. 11 contains: Mimicry in Plants. By A. \ nett, M.A.B., Sc. F.L.S. W. Ben- Illus- trated. ^^^^^^^ Recent Microscopy. By Henry J. Slack, F.G.S., Sec. R.M.S. Experimental Researches on the Con- tortion of Rocks. By L. C. Miall. Illustrated. Psychic Force and Psychic Media. By J. P. Earwaker, Merton Col., Ox- ford. Strange News about the Solar Promi- ninences. By Richard A. Proctor, B.A. Illustrated. Madder Dyes from Coal. By Edward Divers, M.D., F.C.S. On the Structure of Camerated Shells. By H. Woodward, F.G.S., F.Z.S. Illustrated. On the Temperature and the Move- ments of the Deep Sea. By Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S. The Eclipse of last December. By R. A. Proctor, B.A., Sec. R.A.S. The Lithofracteur. By S. J. Mackie, E.C.C. Illustrated. The Physiological Position of Alcohol. By Dr. Richardson, F.R.S. The Nature of Sponges. By Henry J. Slack, F.G.S. Illustrated. On the Probable Existence of Coal- measures in the South-east of Eng- land. By Joseph Prestwich, F.R.S., F.G S. Illustrated. Bud Variation. By MaxwellT. Masters M.D., F.R.S. An Account of a Ganoid Fish from Queensland (Ceratodus). By Dr. Gunther, F.R.S. Illustrated. Greenwich Observatory. By James Carpenter, F.R.A.S. Illustrated. The Recent Fossil Man. By J. Morris, F.G.S., Prof, of Geology in Univer- sity College, London. Illustrated. The Hydroid Medusae. By Rev. Tho- mas Hincks, B.A., F.R.S. Illus- trated. The First Chapter of the Geological Record. By David Forbes, F.R.S., &c. Electrical Signalling and the Siphon Recorder. By J. Munroe, Assistant to Sir W. Thomson. Spontaneous Movements in Plants. By A. W. Bennett, M.A.B., Sec. F.L.S. Plate LXXXIX. News from the Stars. By Richard A. Proctor, B.A., F.R.A.S. Life Form of the Past and Present. By Henry Woodward, F.G.S., F.Z.S. KOBERT HARI\VICKE. 102, Piccadilly. All Xkroseopnte who care to know what is going on at home or abroad should take in- THZ MONTHLY MICROSCOPICAL JOURNAL IVtmmdvm, o/tfc tfoy^ lficro^pie.1 Sorirfy, amf Jfccotf o/ rpHIS Journal is devoted exclusively to the interests of Microscopical ^ Science in the widest mad most accurate sense of the term. It contains not only the proceedings of the Royal Microscopical Society, but also embraces communications from the leading Hktologi Great Britain, the Continent, and America, with a compreheasiTe ittmmf of the latest Foreign Inquiries, Critical Reviews and Short Notices of the more important works, Bibliographical Lists, and Descriptions of all new and improved forms of Microscopes and Miscroscopic Apparatus ; Correspondence on aU matters of ffistological Controversy ; and finally, a Department of " Notes and Queries," in which the student can put such questions as may elicit the special be desires to obtain. The Editor has also made arrangements for the publication of the most important Papers read before Local A flSOciatMSM. Contributions by most carefully-drawn Plain or Coloured Plates, and the text is printed in clear and legible type, ta* affording the Mkroscopist a readable Monthly Record of all that takes place in the branches of science specially interesting to him. By OH ptovMmg a journal at once thoroughly scientific, advanced, and rnssynsiiisni, and issued at such short intervals as to meet the requirements of active investigators, the Publisher hopes to receive the support of all workers with the Microscope, and the assistance and co- of all who desire to possess a periodical which creditably the labours of British and Foreign Histokgiste. ROBERT HABDWICKE, 192, Piccadilly. The Monthly Microscopical Journal, Volume 1, price 10.* 6i, 392 Page* of L*tar-prt, 17 WoodaUt contain* -. raefcBM of Pa:..:* of Nerves m Muscle of Frog's Tongue. By Dr. Maddox. _itoCho- ByDr. J. L.W. 1 Dr. Maiioac. Witt A ^Otfli^^^iiOfl frf tftC By M'. ;tor Photo-Micrography. By Liewt. Colonel J. J, Woodward, M.D., T>e V;-.ai r jnctions of th- D:.-.S*i Protozoa. By Dr. G. C. W a ;.:c:.. tMBU ByM,WJSiBSMI tefhCaMsMe4aa>srf of M ByJ.Mmie, _________ , MJ)., F.I-S. limO^ By John Majall, jmu, F.R.M.S. oSl on Mv ir .t:ri* E y H . Wallkn, On the Coostroctiom of ' BvM. On a New The Comotitr Strnctare of Hi|ili Leaves. By John Gorham, M.B.C.S. Tne Con^tracticn of O-.ject-G.a~e* f ;.- ths Microscope. By F. H. Wenham. On Triarthn kmgueta. By C. T. Hudson, LL.D. On a Hew Growing Slide. By C. J. Owen's Views on and Vital Forces. By Lionel S. Beate, M.L . F.R.S. *. ByS.J.McIn- |X^ X JW.V-D W m^BB> EiSsr 1 " on trie of te Orarian Egg of By M. J. Gerte. Lewes. By W. ft. M'Nab, MJ>. On the Mkxoseopieal Structure of some By H. C. Sorby, ByF. On the irkena aad Loftnsia. By Dr. Car- penter, V^.BJB., and H. B. Brady, F.L.S. tion. By M . Cornaiia. Or: A* IMhBMfi B< l> B^^- 7 . 50 ROBERT HARDWICKE, 192, Piccadilly. The Monthly Microscopical Journal, Volume 2, with 344 Pages of Letterpress, 19 whole-page Plates, price 10s. Qd., contains : On the Rectal Papilla: of the Fly. By B. T. Lowne, M.R.C.S. With Plate. On the Diatom Prism, and the True Form of Diatom Markings. By the Rev. J. B. Reade, M.A., F.R.S. Observations on the Supposed Cholera Fungus. By the Rev. M. J. Berkeley, M.A , F.L.S. On the Correlation of Microscopic Physiology and Microscopic Physics. By John Browning, F.R.A.S. Notes on Hydatina lenta. By C. T. Hudson, LL.D. With plate. Some Remarks on the Structure of Diatoms and Podura Scales. By F. H. Wenham. Structure of the Adult Human Vitreous Humour. By David Smith, M.D., M.R.C.S. On the Use of the Chloride of Gold in Microscopy. By Thomas Dwight, jun., M.D. On a Simple Form of Micro-Spectro- scope. By John Browning, F.R.A.S. On the Structure and Affinities of some Exogenous Stems from the Coal- Measurefi. By W. C. Williamson, F.R.S. With plate. On the Battledore Scales of Butterflies. By John Watson, Esq. With Three Plates. On Methods of Microscopical Research. By H err 8. Strieker. On the Construction of Object- Glasses for the Microscope. By F. H. Wen- ham. Jottings from the Note-book of a Stu- dent of Heterogeny. By Metcalfe Johnson, M.R.C.S. A Supposed Mammalian Tooth from the Coal-measures. By T. P. Barkas, F.G.S. On Holtenia, a Genus of Vitreous Sponges. By Wyville Thompson, LL.D., F.R.S. Icrospectroscopy. Results of Spectrum Analysis. By Jabez Hogg, F.L.S. Memorandum of Spectroscopic Re- searchesontheChlorophyll of Various Plants. By the late William Bird Herapath, M.D., F.R.S. Observations on Mucor Mucedo. By R. L, Maddox, M.D. With plate. Flosctdaria coronetta, a New Species, with Observations on some Points in the Economy of the Genus. By Charles Cubitt, Assoc. Inst. C.E., F.R.M.S. With two plates. On the Detection by the Microscope of Red and White Corpuscles in Blood- stains. By Joseph G. Richardson, M.D. On the Staining of Microscopical Pre- parations. By Dr. W. R. M'Nab. Some further Remarks on an Illumina- tion for verifying the Structure of Diatoms, and other Minute Objects. By F. H. Wenham. On the Rhizopodal Fauna of the Deep Sea. By William B. Carpenter, M.D., V.P.R.S. On the Structure of the Stems of the Arborescent Lycopodiaceae of the Coal-measures. By W. Carruthers. F.L.S. Illustrated. On the Development of the Ovum of the Pike. By E. B. Truman. Illus- trated. On the Presence of Foraminifera in Mineral Veins. By Charles Moore. On the Relations of the Ciliary Muscle to the Eye of Birds. By Henry Law- son, M.D. Illustrated. Experiments on Spontaneous Genera- tion. By Edward Parfitt, Curator of the Devon and Exeter Institution. The Histology of the Eye. By John Whitaker Hulke, F.R.S., F.R.C.S., Assistant- Surgeon to the Middlesex Hospital, and Surgeon to the Royal London Ophthalmic Hospital. On Collecting and Mounting Entomos- traca. By J. G. Tatem. Further Remarks on the Nineteen-Band Test-plate of Nobert, and on Immer- sion Lenses. By Col. Woodward. On High Power Definition, with Illus- trative Examples. By G. W. Royston Pigott, M.A., M.D. My Experience in the Use of Micro- scopes. By Dr. H. Hagen. Further Remarks on the Plumules of Battledore Scales of some of the Lepidoptera. By John Watson. The Development of Organisms in Organic Infusions. By C. T. Stani- land Wake, F.A.L.S. ROBERT HARDWICKE, 192, Piccadilly. The Monthly Microscopical Journal, Volume 3, 334 Pages of Letter-press, 20 whole-page Plates, price 10s. 6d., contains : On the Shell Structure of Fusulina. By W. B. Carpenter, M.D., F.R.S. On the Comparative Steadiness of the Ross and the Jackson Microscope- stands. By W. B. Carpenter, M.D., F.R.S. A New Method of Using Barker's Films. By Edward Richards. A New Tube- dwelling Stentor. By C. A. Barrett, M.R.C.S. A Contribution to the Teratology of Infusoria. By J. G. Tatem. The Polymorphic Character of the Pro- ducts of Development of Monas Lens. By Metcalfe Johnson, M.R.C.S.E. On the Reparation of the Spines of Echinida. By W. B. Carpenter, M.D., V.P.R.S. On the Colouring- Matters derived from the Decomposition of some Minute Organisms. By H. C. Sorby, F.R.S., &c. Cercariae, Parasitic on Lymnaea stag- nalis, By Jabez Hogg, Hon. Sec., R.M.S. Experimental Researches on the Anat- omical and Functional Regeneration of the Spinal Cord. By M. M. Masius and Van Lair. Observations on some Points in the Economy of Stephanoceros. By C. Cubitt, Assoc. Inst. C.E., F.R.M.S. Notes on Diatomacese. By Prof. Arthur Mead Edwards. The New Binocular Microscope. By Samuel Holmes. Reminiscences of the Early Times of the Achromatic Microscope. By J. S. Bowerbank, LL.D., F.R.S. On an Apparatus for Collecting Atmo- spheric Particles. By R. L. Maddox, M.D. The Magnesium and Electric Light as applied to Photo-Micrography. By Brevet Lieut. -Colonel J. J. Wood- ward, U. S. Army. Remarks on High Power Definition. By F. H. Wenham, R.M.S. On a New Critical Standard Measure of the Perfection of High Power Defini- tion, as afforded by Diatoms and Nobert's Lines. By Dr. Royston Pigott. Structure of the Scales of Certain In- sects of the Order Thysanura. By S. J. Mclntire, F.R.M.S. Organisms in Mineral Infusions. By C. Staniland Wake, F.A.L.S. Markings on the Podura Scale. By G. Royston Pigott, M.D. Cultivation, &c., of Microscopic Fungi. By R. L. Maddox, M.D. Jottings by a Student of Heterogeny. By Metcalfe Johnson, M.R.C.S. No. 2. The Mode of Examining the Microsco- pic Structure of Plants. By W. R. M'Nab, M.D. Edin. On the Microscopical Examination of Milk under certain Conditions. By J. B. Dancer, F.R.A.S. On the Stylet- Region of the Ommato- plean Proboscis. By W. C. Mclntosh, M.D., F.R.S.E., F.L.S. On a Method of Measuring the Position of Absorption-bands with a Micro- Spectroscope. By J. Browning-, F.R.A.S., F.R.M S. On an Undescribed Stage of Develop- ment of Tetrarhynchus corollatus. By A. Sanders, M.R.C.S., F.R.M.S. On a New Instrument for Cutting Thin Sections of Wood. By M. Mouchet, Hon. F.R.M.S. On the Calcareous Spicula of the Gorgonacese their Modification of Form, and the Importance of their Characters as a Basis for Generic and Specific Diagnosis. By W. S. Kent, F.L.S. On Pollen ; as an Aid in the Differ- entiation of Species. By C. Bailey, Esq. On Professor Listing's Recent Optical Improvements in the Microscope. By Dr. H. Hagen. On the Structure of the Stems of the Arborescent Lycopodiacese of the Coal-Measures. By W. Carruthers, F.L.S. .F.G.C., Botanical Dept., Brit. Museum. The Mode of Examining the Microsco- pic Structure of Plants. By W. R. McNab, M.D. Edin. Description of some Peculiar Fish's Ova. By W. B. Carpenter, M.D., .52 ROBERT HARDWICKE, 192, Piccadilly. The Monthly Microscopical Journal, Volume 4, 342 Pages of Letter-press, 14 wliole-page, Cuts, price 10s. 6d., contains: On Fungi and Fermentation. By J. Bell, F.C.S. On the Origin of the Colouring Matter in Mr. Sheppard's Dichroic Fluid. By E. Ray Lankester, B.A., F.R.M.8. Object-Glasses and their Definition. By F. H. Wenham. On the Optical Advantages of Immer- sion Lenses and the Use of Deviation Tables for Optical Research. By Royston Pigott, M.A., M.D. OnSynchsetamordax. By C.T.Hudson, LL.D. Notes on Diatomacese. By Prof. Arthur Mead Edwards. On an Erecting Binocular Microscope. ByJ.W.Stephenson,F.R.A.S.,F.R.M.S. Further Remarks on the Oxycalcium Light, as applied to Photo-Micro- graphy. By Brevet Lieut.-Col. J. J. Woodward. Cursory Remarks on the Podura Scale, Lepidocyrtus curvicollis, and De- geeria domestica, or the Speckled Variety. By R. L. Maddox, M.D. Description of a Simple Air Sieve. By Metcalfe Johnson, S.C.E. The Microscopic Structure of the Hu- man Liver. By Dr. H. D. Schmidt, of New Orleans. Microscopic Examination of the At- mosphere. By Geo. Sigerson, M.D. Microscopical Examination of Rocks and Minerals. By S.Allport,F.G.S. On the Structure of the Pleurosigma angulatum and Pleurosigma qua- dratnm. By John Anthony, M.D., Cantab. Object-Glasses and their Definition. By F. H. Wenham. The Ciliary Muscle and Crystalline Lens in Man. By J. W. Hulke, F.R.S. On the Preparation of Specimens of Soundings for the Microscope. By Prof. A. M. Edwards. Circulation of the Latex in the Latici- ferous Vessels. By H. C. Perkins, i M.D. On a New Species of Parasite from the Tiger. By T. Graham Penton, F.Z.S. On the Application of the Microscope to the Study of Rocks. By H. C. Sorby, F.R.S. ,&c. On the Focal Length of Microscopic Objectives. By C. R. Cross. The Patterns of Artificial Diatoms. By H. J. Slack, Sec. R.M.S. Ancient Water- Fleas of the Ostraco- dous and Phyllopodous Tribes Bi- valved Entomostraca. By Professor T. Rupert Jones, F.G.S. On the Real Nature of Disease-Germs. By Lionel S. Beale. F.R.S. On the Histology of Minute Blood-ves- sels. By Brevet Lieut.-Col. Wood- ward. On the Formation of Microscopic in closed Cells. By A. W. Wills. The Ciliary Muscle and Crystalline Lens in Man. By J. W. Hulke. On the ." Hexactinellidse " or Hexra- diate Spiculed Silicious Sponges taken in the "Norna 1 * Expedition. By W. Saville Kent, F.Z.S. On a Mode of Ascertaining the Struc- ture of Scales of Thysanuradeae. By Joseph Beck, F.R.M.S. On the Advancing Aplanatic Power of the Microscope and New Double Star and Image Tests. By G. W. Royston Pigott, M.A., M.D. American Microscopes and their Me- rits. By C. Stodder. On a New" Anchoring Sponge, Dorvillia agariciformis. By W. Saville Kent, F.Z.S. On Aplanatic Definition and Illumin- ation, with Optical Illustrations. By G. Royston Pigott, M.A., M.D., &c. On Selecting and Mounting Diatoms. By Cap.F. H.Lang. On Certain Cattle-plague Organisms. By Boyd Moss, F.R.C.S. Notes on New Infusoria. By J. G. Tatem. EGBERT HARDWICKE, 192, Piccadilly. 53 The Monthly Microscopical Journal, Volume 5, 286 Pages of Letterpress, 20 whole-page Plates, contains :- Notes on Fluorescence v. Pseudo- dichroism. By the Late Rev. J. B. Reade, F.R.S., P.R.M.S. Notes on the Minute Structure of the Scales of Certain Insects. By S. J. Mclnfeire, F.R.M.S. On an Optical Illusion Slide ; Cracks in Silica Films. By Henry J. Slack, F.R.M.S. Object- Glasses and their Definition. By F. H. Wenham. On the Mounting of the Diatom Prism. By F. W. Griffin, Ph.D. On Pterodina valvata: A New Species. By C. T. Hudson, LL.D. Observations on the Use of the Aero- coniscope, or Air-Dnst-collecting Apparatus. By R. L, Maddox, M.D. On the Employment of Colloid Silica in the Preparation of Crystals for the Polariscope. By Henry J. Slack, F.G.S., Sec. R.M.S. The Development of Phycocyan. By T. C. White, M.R.C.S. The Anatomy of the Round Worm (Ascaris lumbricoides, Linn.). By B. T. Lowne, M.R.C.S., Eng. On the History, Refractions, Defini- tion, and Powers of Immersion Len- ses and New Refractometers. By Royston Pigott, M.A., M.D. On Microscopical Appliances. By Dr. Royston Pigott. Recent Investigations into Minute Or- ganisms. By H. J. Slack, Sec. R.M.S. On a New Form of Binocular Eye-piece and Binocuiar Microscope for High Powers. By C. D. Ahrens. On Crystalline Forms modified by Col- loid Silica. By Henry James Slack, F.R.M.S. Object-Glasses and their Definition. By F. H. Wenham, R.M.S. Nobert's Nineteenth Brand and its Ob- servers. By Charles Stodder. On the Structure of the Podura Scale, and Certain other Test Objects by Photo-Micrography, By Lieut.-Col. D. M. Woodward. Microscopical Examination of Water for Domestic Use. By James Bell, F.C.S. On the Winter Habits of the Rotatoria. By C. Cubitt, F.R.M.S. The Magnifying Power of the Micro- scope. By Count Castracane. A Few Experiments bearing on Spon- taneous Generation. By Metcalfe Johnson, M.R.C.S.E. On the Mode of Working out the Mor- phology of the Skull. By W. Kitchen Parker, F.R.S., President R.M.S. Linear Projection considered in its Ap- plication to the Delineation of Ob- jects under Microscopic Observation. By C. Cubitt, F.R.M.S. Optical Appearances of Cut Lines in Glass. By Henry J. Slack. Transmutation of Form in Certain Protozoa. By Metcalfe Johnson, M.R.C.S.E. Microscopical Examination of Two Minerals. By Professor A. M. Ed- wards. Additional Observations concerning the Podura Scale. By Lieut. J. J. Woodward. Remarks on the Scales of some of the Lepidoptera, as "Test Scale" of Lepidocyrtus curvicollis. By R. L. Maddox, M.D. On the so-called Suckers of Dytiscus and the Puvilli of Insects. By B. T. Lowne, M.R.C.S. KOBERT HARDWICKE, 192, Piccadilly. The Monthly Microscopical Journal, Volume 6, 302 Pages of Letterpress and 18 whole-page Plates, price 10s. Gd., contains: On Bog Mosses. By R. Braithwaite, M.D., F.L.S. Structure of Podura Scales. By F. H. Wenham, Vice-president R.M.S. On some New Parasites. ByT. Graham Ponton, F.Z.S. On some Improvements in the Spec- trum Method of Detecting Blood. By H. C. Sorby, F.R.S., &c. On the Cellular Structure of the Red Blood Corpuscle. By Joseph G. Richardson, M.D. On the Use of Nobert's Plate. By As- sistant-Surgeon J. J. Woodward, U. S. Army. On the Employment of Damma in Microscopy. By Professor Arthur Mead Edwards, New York. Experiments on Angular Aperture. R. B. Tolles. Mycetoma: the Madura or Fungus- foot of India. By Jabez Hogg, Hon. Sec. R.M.S. Diatomaceous Earth from the Lake of Valencia, Caracas. By A. Ernst, Esq., and H. J. Slack, F.G.S. The Silicious Deposit in Pmulariae. By Henry J. Slack, F.G.S. , Sec. R.M.S, Observations and Experiments with the Microscope on the Chemical Effects of Chloral Hydrate and other Agents, on the Blood. By Thomas Shearman Ralph, M.R.C.S., England. Floscularia Cyclops; a New Species. By Charles Cubitt, F.R.M.S. Mr. Tolles's Experiments on Angular Aperture." By F. H. Wenham. On the Microscopical Structure and Composition of a Phonolite from the " Wolf Rock." By S. Allport, F.G.S., with Chemical Analysis by J. A. Phillips. On Spore-cases in Coals. By J. W. Dawson, LL.D., F.R.S. On a New Rotifer. By C. T. Hudson. On the Examination of Mixed Colour- ing Matters with the Spectrum Microscope. By H. C. Sorby, F.R.S. On Spectra formed by the passage of Polarized Light through Double-re- fracting Crystals seen with the Mi- croscope. By Francis Deas, M.A. Remarks on some Parasites found on the Head of a Bat. By R. L. Mad- dox, M.D. Notes on the Resolution of Amphi- pleura pellucida by a Tolles Im- mersion th. By Assistant-Surgeon J. J. Woodward, U. S. Army. A Rare Melicertian. By Chas. Cubitt. Micro-ruling on Glass and Steel. Ey John F. Stanistreet, F.R.A.S., with Illustrative Remarks by Henry J. Slack. The Fungoid Origin of Disease and Spontaneous Generation. By Jabez Hogg, Hon. Sec. R.M.S. ! On an Improved Method of Photo- graphing Histological Preparation^ by Sunlight. By J. J. Woodward. Hsematozoa in Blood of Ceylon Deer. By Boyd Moss, M.D. Microscopical Fissures in the Masti- cating Surface of Molars and Bi- cuspids. By J. H. M'QuiUen, M.D. ! Transmutation of Form in Certam Protozoa. By Metcalfe Johnson. On Gnats' Scales. By Jabez Hogg, Esq., Hon. Sec. R.M.S. The Examination of Nobert's Nine- teenth Band. By F. A. P. Barnard. An Incident in the Life of a Chelifer. By S. J. Mclntire, F.R.M.S. On the Form and Use of the Facial Arches. By W. K. Parker, F.R.S., President R M.S. i On the Angular Aperture of Immersion Objectives. By Robt. B. Tolles, of Boston, U. S. A. I Notes on Pedalion Mira. By C. T. Hudson, LL.D. Another Hint on Selecting and Mount- ing Diatoms. By Capt. F. H. Lan. | The Monads' Place in Nature. By Metcalfe Johnson, M.R.S.C.E. i Mapping with the Micro-Spectroscope, with the Bright-line Micrometer. By H. G. Bridge. Some Remarks on a " Note on the Re- solution of Amphipleura pellucida by a Tolles immersion |th. By Assistant- Surgeon J. J. Woodward, U. S. Army. Infusorial Circuit of Generations. By Theod. C. Hilgard. Notes on Professor James Clark's Flagellate Infusoria, with Descrip- tion of New Species. By W. Saville Kent, F.Z.S. , F.R.M.S. Instrument for Micro-ruling on Glass and Steel. By J. F. Stanistreet. ; On the Conjugation of Amoeba. By J. G. Tatem, Esq. ; Crystallization of Metals by Electricity under the Microscope. By Philip Braham, Esq. Infusorial Circuit of Generations. By Theod. C. Hilgard. On the Connection of Nerves and Chromoblasts. By M. Geo. Punhett. ROBERT HARDWICKE, 192, Piccadilly. 55 The Monthly Microscopical Journal, Volume 7, 294 Pages of Letterpress, 20 whole-page Plates, price 10^. 6d., contains : Markings on Battledore Scales of some Lepidoptera. By John Anthony, M.D. Cantab., F.R.M.S. The Nerves of Capillary Vessels and their Probable Action in Health and Disease. By Dr. Lionel S. Beale, F.R.S., F.R.C.P. New Erecting Arrangement for Bino- cular Microscopes. By R. H. Ward, M.A., M.D. On a New Micrometric Goniometer Eye-piece for the Mioroscope. By J. P. Southworth. Action of Hydrofluoric Acid on Glass, viewed Microscopically. By H. F. Smith. On the Relation of Nerves to Pigment and Other Cells or Elementary Parts. By Dr. Lionel S. Beale, F.R.C.P. On the Structure of the Stems of the Arborescent Lycopodiaceae of the Coal- Measures. By W. Carruthers, F.R.S. On Bog Mosses. By R. Braithwaite, M.D., F.L.S. The Advancing Powers of Microscopic Definition. By Dr. Royston Pigott, M.A., Cantab. Microscopic Object-Glasses and their Power. By Edwin Bicknell. Remarks on a Tolles Immersion ^th. By Edwin Bicknell. Maltwood's Finder supplemented. By W. K. Bridgman. On a New Micro -Telescope. By Prof. R. H. Ward. Mycetoma, the Fungus Disease of India. By Jabez Hogg, F.L.S. The American Spongilla, a craspedote, flagellate Infusorian. By H. James Clarke, A.B., B.S. Refractive Powers of Peculiar Objec- tives. By R. B. Tolles (U.S.). On the Development of Vegetable Or- ganisms within the Thorax of Living Birds. By Dr. James Murie, F.L.S., F.G.S., &c. Remarks on the Finer Nerves of the Cornea. By Dr. E. Klein. Note on the Resolution of Amphipleura pellucida by certain Objectives made by R. and J. Beck and by William Wales. By Dr. J. J. Woodward, U. S. Army. Stephenson's Erecting Binocular. By J. W. Stephenson, F.R.A.S. On a Presumed Phase of Actinophryan Life. By J. G. Tatem. On the Various Phenomena exhibited by the Podura Test under Micro- scopic Resolving Powers. By G. W. Royston Pigott, M.A., M.D. Researches on the First Stages of the Development of the Common Trout (Salmo Fario). By Dr. E. Klein. On the Classification and Arrangement ol Microscopic Objects. By Dr. James Murie, F.L.S., F.G.S., &c. On Bichromatic Vision. By J. W. Stephenson, F.R.A.S., Treas. R.M.S. The Supposed Fungus on Coleus Leaves, and Notes on Podisoma fuscum and P. juniperi. By Henry J. Slack, F.G.S. Optical Curiosities of Literature. By the Rev. S. Leslie Brakey, M.A. On an Improved Reflex Illuminator for the Highest Powers of the Micro- scope. By F. H. Wenham. On a Silvered Prism for the Successive Polarization of Light. By J. W. Stephenson, F.R.A.S., Treas. R.M.S. Structure of Battledore Scales. By J. Anthony, M.D., F.R.M.S. Beale's Nerve Researches. Dr. Beale. in Reply to Dr. Klein. Crystallization of Metals by Electricity By Philip Braham. On the Means of Distinguishing the Fibres of New Zealand Flax from those of Manilla or Sizal by the Mi- croscope. By Captain Button. 56 ROBERT HARDWICKE, 192, Piccadilly. CHEAP NATURAL HISTORY PERIODICAL. Hardwicke's Science-Gossip : An Illustrated Medium of Interchange, and Gossip for Students and Lows of Nature, About Animals, Aquaria, Bees, Beetles, Birds, Butterflies, Ferns, Fish, Fossils, Lichens, Microscopes, Mosses, Reptiles, Rocks, Seaweeds, Wildflowers. Edited by J. E. TAYLOR, F.G.S., Author of " Half-hours at the Seaside," " Geological Stories," &c. " This is a very pleasant journal, that costs only fourpence a month, and from which the reader who is no naturalist ought to be able to pick up a good four- penny-worth of pleasant information. It is conducted and contributed to by expert naturalists who are cheerful companions, as all good naturalists are : technical enough to make the general reader feel that they are in earnest, and are not insulting him by writing down to his comprehension, but natural enough and direct enough in their records of facts, their questioning and answering each other concerning curiosities of nature. The reader who buys for himself their monthly budget of notes and discussions upon pleasant points in natural history and science, will probably find his curiosity excited and his interest in the world about him taking the form of a little study of some branch of this sort of know- ledge that has won his readiest attention. For when the study itself is so delightful, and the enthusiasm it excites so genuine and well-directed, these enthusiasms are contagious. The fault is not with itself, but with the public if this little magazine be not in favour with a very large circle of readers "- Examiner. Hardwicke's Science-Gossip, Amoeba, the, 45. Ants, 113, 116, 143, 179, 185, 234, 235, 239, 262, 263. Aphides, Swarms of, 287- Aquarian Difficulties, 154, 188, 213, 239. Badger, the, 87. Balance of Power, 193. Bees, 34, 41, 93, 137, 143, 166, 167, 185, 214, 257, 263, 286, 287. Bitten by a Viper, 131. Black Cradle, 270. Breeze-fly, the, 194. Bromley, and What I found there, 246. Cabbage Butterfly and its Metamor- phoses, 30, 74. Cat-fleas, 278. Caterpillars, Brood of, 126, 168, 288. Chapter from the Life of a Volvox, 244. Circle of Life, 145. Cleaning Diatomaceae, 52. Colour of Birds' Eggs, 39, 47, 87, 142, 231. Common Things Unknown, 88. Coral Reefs, 112, 220, 285. Vol. 1. Selection from the Index.* Crickets, 42, 66, 84, 113, 128, 166. Cui Bono ? 25. Dead Fly on the Window, 10. Diatoms, 27, 52, 85, 95, 114, 140, 148, 163, 167, 237, 250. Diet of Worms, 180,214. Duckweeds, 5, 258, 286. Ferns, 20, 34, 37, 44, 66, 67, 93, 109, 114, 117, 187, 188, 190, 214, 291, 262, 284. Fly in Pike-fishing, 280. Fly Parasites, 93, 227. Foot of a Fly, 253. Four Years' Acquaintance with a Toad, 12. Gathering Seaweeds, 173. Gossamer Spiders, 151, 191, -2 13. Gossip about Mansuckers, 49. Green Drake-fly, 231. Hair worm, more Notes on the, 19". Hairs, Chapter on, 29. Hermit Rooks, 226. House Ants, 170, 239. House Fly, the, 82. Humming-bird Hawk-moth, 20S. * In making a selection from the Index to each volume] space precludes giving more than about one-tenth of each volume. EGBERT HARDWICKE, 192, Piccadilly. 57 Imperfectly-developed Flowers, 103. Independence, 241. " In Memoriam," '265. Insect-moulds, 133. Intelligence of Starling, 13 Jelly Animalcule, 58. Jelly-fishes, 248. Keyhole Limpet and Parasite, 122. Leaf Teachings, 52. London Rocket, 149. Lord Scarabaeus, 98. Microscopic Illumination, 130. Mistletoe, 114, 2/3, 283. Mounting Objects, 46, 65, 93, 94, 116, 163, 191. Notes on the Hawthorn, 198. Old Trees, 222. Orchids, How to Grow, 124, 162. Otter-shell, the, 79. Pigment-cells, 106. Piratical Gulls, 272. Plantain, the, 232. Plant Animals, 177. Plea for Nettles, 275. Polarized Light, 224. Polycystius, Popular History, 100. Puzzle worth thinking about, 127. Rock Whistler, the, 242. Sea-Anemones, 40, 155, 158, 167, 188 190, 196, 213, 239, 260, 285, 286, 287. Sea-wrack, 204. Short Commons, 49. Silurus, European, 56. Six-spot Burnet, 119, 151. Snake-stones, 37, 61, 94. Spiders, 24, 36, 39, 86, 143, 151, 206, 213, 215, 239, 256, 282. Spiracles of Insects, 199, 254. Splitters and Lumpers, 73. Strange Remedies, 85. The Deep, deep Sea, 169. Tit in Moustaches, 26. Toads, 12, 62, 87, 111, 114, 233, 256. Tom Tidler's Ground, 126. Variations in British Plants, 32, 228. Vipers, 2, 95, 108, 131, 143, 160, 191. What do Crickets eat? 113, 128, 166, What Katy did, 146. What to seek and what to avoid in the Choice of a Microscope, 267. What's your Hobby? 1. Why objects appear larger through the Microscope, 8, 45. Window Gardens, 92, 117, 141, 284. Wren, the Blue, 199. Hardwicke'S Science-Gossip, Vol. 2. Selection from the Index. Amoeba, the, 223. Analogy of Form, 266. Ancient Toads and Frogs, 47, 69, 94, 117, 141. Anecdotes, a Chapter of, 221. Ants, 89, 150, 213, 238, 272. Aquaria, 14, 21, 22, 46, 66, 69, 74, 95, 104, 164, 166, 191, 215, 239, 260, 261, 262, Bath Bricks, 81. Beauty, a thing of, 73. Bees, 17, 22, 47, 70, 71, 115, 119. Beetles, 41, 71, 88, 89, 183, 190, 279- Bell-flowers, 219. Belted Kingfisher, 26. Bethlehem, Star of, 115, 136, 163, 186. Bittern, the Little, 200, 277. Bouquet of Grasses, 53. Caddis Larvae, 95, 109. Canada Balsam, 175. Captive Owl, 4. Cats, 63, 88, 255. 260, 276. Caterpillars, 133, 161, 176. 182, 213. Chapter of Anecdotes, 221. Corallines and Acalephs, 124. Cowslips, 153. Crown Animalcule, 253. Death-watch, 34, 75, 254, 278. Desmidiaceae, 101, 147. Diatoms, British, 62, 87, 108, 112, 133, 162, 182, 281. Electric Fishes, 268. Fairy- ring Champignon, 225. Ferns, 46, 61. 95, 164, 173, 269. Fossil Plants, 37. Fossil Wood, 250. Fossil Wood in Flint, 15. French Mary gold, 163. Galls and Gall Insects, 165, 215, 228. Gill Fans of Sabellse, 29. Glow-worm, 15, 238, 243. Grey Mullet, the, 145. Hairs, Star-shaped, 248. Illuminators for High Powers, 32, 65, 66. Imperfectly-developed Plants, 8. Insect Fungi, 127, 176. Insect Vovarium, 80, 118, 207. Insects, 41, 55, 91, 93,112, 117, 147, l6l, 184, 185, 204, 213, 249, 282. Jute ; what is it ? 84. Ladybirds, 169. Lizard, the Common, 79. Mistletoe of the Uak, 152, 186, 212. Moa, the, 14. Mounting, 19, 20, 23, 33, 47,93, 94, 114, 125, 209, 245, 260, 263, 282,. 283. Odd Fishes, 50, 99, 171. Our Club, 193. Periodic Phenomena, 49. Pests, and their Checks, 54. Pin- centres and Rose-centres, 106. Puff Balls, 270. Rural Natural History, 83, 163. 58 ROBERT HARDWICKE, 192, Piccadilly. Salamander, Japanese, 130. Saw-fly, the Great, 181, 273. Scales of Insects, 55, 91, 112. SCIENCE-GOSSIP, 1, 135, 158. Serpents at Meals, 244. Shooting Stars, 274. Snails and their Houses, 195, 230. Spectrum Microscope, 52. Speedwells, 121. Spider-crabs and their Parasites, 178, 211. Spiders, 7, 22, 40, 63, 119, 138, 141, 169, 189, 201, 209, 213, 255, 277, 279. Spring, 97. Starch, 34. Hardwicke's Science-Gossip, A Century ago, 127. Age of Niagara, 139- Amidst the Ruins, 31. Analogy of Smell, 59. Aquaria, dust on, 69, 117, 118, 141, 142. Atrnpos, 51. Bitten by a Viper, 175, 199, 213. Blindworm, the, 179, 260. Blood Beetle, the, 27. 62, 71, 94. Bouquet from Helvellyn, 242. Bugs, 269, 276, 282. Century ago, 127. Chignon -fungus, the, 107. Cholera-fungus, the, 206. Cockroaches, to Kill, 166, 212, 280. Cornish Colloquies, 182. Crickets, how to get rid of, 263, 2/9,281. Crocodile in England, 7, 41. Death's-head Moth, 190, 213, 214,262. Death-watch, the, 29. Dermestes ? what is, 28, 206. Diatoms, 9, 35, 81, 91, 103, 115, 133, 156, 180, 188, 228, 269. Disguises of Insects, 193, 233, 234, 26l, 279- Dodo, the White, 5, 52. Dragon-fly, the, 225. Echoes from the Club, 231. Edible Bird's Nest, 39. Fangs of Spiders, 237, 2/0, 2/6. Feast of Roses, 145. Foraminifera, 36, 129, 215, 236, 263. Freshwater Sponge, 247. Freshwater Sticklebacks in Seawater, 38. Germination of the Toad-rush, 150. Hairs of Dermestes Larva, 28, 206. Hardy Foreign Ferns, 83. Helps to Distribution, 244. Hints to Object-mounters, 91, 139. Huxley on the Study of Natural His- tory, 73. Is Lichen-growth detrimental to Trees ? 241. Leaf-mining Larvae, 169, 212. Left by the Tide, 217- Sticklebacks, 5, 45, 153, 165. Teachings of Natural Science, 251. Track of the Pygmies, 154,203,239,26 . Turtle, the Edible, 24/. Under the Snow, 25. Vegetable Caterpillars, 176. Vegetable Fibres, 10. Venus, Observations on, HO. Vivarium for Insects, 80, 118, 207. Viviparous Fish, 241. Wasps, 22, 88, 116, 276. Water-Beetles, 183. Water-Fleas, 156. Wings of British Butterflies, 27. "Woodpecker, 6, 41,95. 119. Vol. 3. Selection from the Index. Lichen Dyes, 266. Maple, Aphis of the, 204. May Mushrooms, 112, 135. Melicerta, N. E. Green on, 33. Mermis nigresceYis, 221. Monmouth Deposit, 133, 156, 180. Mosquitoes, /8. Mounting in Balsam and Chloroform, 8, 21, 23. My little Green Monkey, 179- Nest of Wood Wasp, 247. Organization of Mosses, 249. Oxlip, the, 137, 163, 165, 187, 235. Perils of a Naturalist, 15. Podurae, 45, 53. Preservation of Fossils, 22, 23, 44. Primeval Britain, 198. Primroses, 42, 114, 136, 141, 167, 235. Ramble in South Africa, 154. Rare Birds, Shooting, 69, 93, 94, 160. Rhythm of Flames, 49, 95. Rural " Folk-lore," 1 7". Rural Natural History, 86, 117, 118. Sandstone, Markings in, 20. Skeleton Leaves, 22, 117, 141, 246. Skeleton of Purple Urchin, 32. Snakes, 273. Sociable Mites, 124. Something to do, 99. Spiders' Nests, 37, 40. Spirngyra, 60. Sponge- washings, 228. Sticklebacks in Seawater, 38, 87. Swallows, 50, 101. Temperature of Lakes, 272. Toad-flaxes, 201. Travellers' Tales, 25. Unity of Mankind, 110, 152, 173, 245, 269. Viper, the, 22, 175, 199, 280. Wasp, Sting and Poison-gland of, 60. What's in the Honey? 30, 68. Wheat Mildew, 16. White Dodo, the, 5, 52. Winter Work, I. ROBERT HARDWICKE, 192, Piccadilly. 5.9 Science-Gossip, Vol. 4. Selection from the Index. " Ackersprit," 248. Agricultural Ant of Texas, 1 . Animals that never Die, 16, 40, 62, 106. Ants, 23, 5Q, 88, 117, 118, 138, 143, 150, 177, 190, 213, 234, 261, 263, 282. Astrantia major, 194. Birds, 9, 34, 41, 64, 88, 95, 160, 185, 191, 257. " Black Jack," 232. Bugs, 17, 31, 46, 214. Butterflies, Plumules of, 44, 137, 186, 214, 239,269. Caddis- worms and their Cases, 152, 189. Century ago, a, 183. Cockroaches, 15, 22, 215, 239. Collecting-bottles, 111. Cuckoos and Hedge-sparrow, 113, 143, 161, 167,214,261. Cuckoo.spits, 158. Daddy Longlegs, 256. Daphnia, the Heart of, 227, 279. Darwinism ? what is, 241. Death-watch, the, 87, 113. Double Eggs, 117,226. Dragon-fly, the Pupa of a, 245. Earthquakes, Phenomena of, 217- Fairy Rings, 221, Ferns, 43, l6l, 162, 183, 187, 213, 231, 237, 238, 240, 26l, 263, 281. Forget-me-nots, 97- Formation of Fern Seeds, 183. Fossil Teeth, the, 53. Freshwater Actinia, a, 247. Frogs, 41, 69, 94, 206, 213. Furze Mites, 49, 114, 160, 209, 271. Giants, Traces of the, 55. Gossamer, 51, 58, 124, 143. Grasses, on the Study of British, 197, 224. Grasshopper, the Large Green, 196,236. Hairs of Indian Bats, 26. Hawfinch, the, 109, 160. Hawthorn, Variation in the, 267. Hedgehogs, 23, 69, 81, 100. Hobby, the, 229. Holly-tree, the, 107. How Birds and Insects fly, 9, Infusoria, 44, 57, 125, 155, 164. Irritability and Sensation, 25. Kingfisher, the Common, 204, 234 King of the Rats, 135. Kite, the, 251. Maine Deposits, 85. Maple Blight, 136, 188. Merlin, the, 156. Metamorphoses of Insects, 35. Microscopic Seeds, 253. Mole Mite, 232. Mosquitoes, 207, 211, 212, 215, 236. Oxlip, the, 35. Palates of Mollusca, 20, 200. Pebble-ninding, 134. Perley's Meadow Deposit, 131. Phantom Larvae, 78. Polyzoon from Victoria Docks, 255. Primroses, Pink, 43, 66, 147, 187- Reptiles, from the Coal-Measures, 104, 142, 167, 214. Reptiles in Confinement, 272. Sand Wasp, the, 205. Scalariform Tissue, 276. Sensorial Vision, 145. Silver-mining in Eastern Nevada, 193. Slug Parasite, 274. Smew, the, 55. Spicules of Echinoderms, 175. Spiders, 8, 11, 21, 22, 23, 24, 41, 47, 51, 58, 63, 82, 124, 128, 143, l6l, l65, 167, 195, 213, 238, 26l, 262, 263, 281, 283. Splits, 169. Spring Phenomena of Plant Life, 121. Stag-Beetle, the, 109- Stings and Poison-glands of Bees, &c., 148, 205. Storm-glass, 24, 93, 117, 143, 167. Trees, Age of, 202, 231, 259. Unity of Mankind, 6, 34. Vegetable Hairs, 11, 101. Vipers, 23, 46, 70, 95, 165, 180, 212. Wax wing, the, 181. Why? 265. Wood-sorrel, the, 52, 280. 60 ROBERT HARDWICKE, 102, Piccadilly. Hardwicke'S Science-Gossip, Vol. 5. Selection from the Index. Achtrontia atropos, 220, 257, 278. Admiral, the Red, 257, 262, 278. Age of Fish, 141, 214. Animal from the Salt Lake, 78, 130, 234. Aphis Lion and Lacewing Fly, IS. Ash-Trees, Violets under, 91, 11 6, 117, 166, 188, 189. Badger and Otter, the, 90, 118, 137, 258, 262, 277. Botanical Allusion in Tennyson, 91, 116, 117, 166, 188, 189- British Birds, 39, 85, 107, 113, 156, 179, 227, 253, 274. Buds as Objects for Winter Study, 34. Butterflies, 58, 116, 140, 164,212,273, 274. Cats and Starfishes, 214, 234, 239, 263, 282. Cats before a Storm, 117, 141, 164, 167. Celandine, 52. Cells for Microscopic Objects, 139, 236, 260, 281. Centipede, a Luminous, 46, 47, 69, 71. Cheyleti, 5. Christmas and the Microscope, 44. Christmas Berries, 13, 94, 138. Cilia, about, 63. Coal, the Story of a Piece of, 1, 46, 71, 96. Cochlearia officinalis, 43, 66, Ql, 114, 143. Comatula rosacea, 209. Cuckoo, the, 16. 64, 65, 185, 262. Death's-Head Moth, 220, 257, 278. Dendritic Spots on Paper, 22, 46, 71,80. Diatomacese, 22, 6l, 67, 72, 92, 109, 139, 158, 163, 183, 187, 220. Drawing from the Microscope, 87, 1 39, 165. Early Birds, 113, 136, 137. Enchanter's Nightshade, 62. English Plant Names, 25. Epistylis, 83. Fish Scales, 12, 41, 67, 163, 187, 260, 281. Floral Giants, 9- Food for Bullfinch, 215, 237, 238. Fragillaria Crotunensis, 109, 158, 183, Frog, 63, 76, 161. Fumart, the, 22, 45, 68. Garden Decoration, Wild Flowers for, 169, 265. Geophilus electricus, &c., 49, 65, 71. Geranium Robertianum, 133, 191, 262 Geraniums, Carpels of, 211, 235, 238. 261 Gnats, 16. Hawk-Moths, 16, 119,220, 234, 257,2/3. Hawthorn, 22, 23, 43, 70, 93, 1 16, 1 18. Holly, the, 213, 235, 238, 25Q, 280, 283. Humble Bee, Winter Home of the, 41, 134, 164, 166. Hybernation of Bees, 41, 90, 93, 134, 164, 166. lanthina, 31, 64. Influence of Light on Insects, .'17, 77, 137, 165, 188, 273. Insects of the Season, 233, 234. Kestrel, the, 179, 257. Ladybird, 232, 239, 267, 283. Lampreys and Lamperns, 1 45 . Lapwing, the, 107, 167. Laurel Berries, Sic., 47, 70, 114. Laurel-Leaves, 20, 45, 68, 71. Leeches, 76, 93, 143, 161, 160. Lepisma succharina, 94, 118, 142, 163. Light Attracting Insects, 57, 77, 137, 165, 188. Ligurian Bees, 213, 237, 256, 263, 283. Luminous Centipede, 46, 47, 69, 71. Monsters of the Deep, 55. Mosquitoes, 17, 54. Moth, the Fish, 94. 118, 142. Myriapods, 49. Norfolk, Rare Birds in, l60, 161, 184, 192. Otter and Badger, the, 90, 137, 258. Otters, 90, 118, 137, l6l, 165, 184. Phronima, 73. Poppy Seeds, 11. Rudd, Scales of the, 12. Scales of Butterflies, 212, 214. Scurvy Grass, 43, 66, 67, 91, 114, 143. Sea Anemones, 56, 90, 198, 210. Sea Birds, Association for the Protec- tion of English, 10, 42. Sections of Fossil Wood, 18. Siskin, the, 39. Starfish, Cats and, 214, 234, 239, 26:;, 282. Surirella, a New, 61. Vine Diseases, new, 59. Violets under Ash- Trees, 91,116, 117, 166, 188, 189. ROBERT HARDWICKE, 192, Piccadilly. 61 Hardwicke's Science-Gossip, Vol. 6. Selection from the Index. Abstinence of Insects, 64. Animated Oats, 190, 211, 212, 237. Antique, Studies from the, 14, 45, 71. Ants, 87, 185, 241, 263. Apterous Insects, 49, 105, 126, 164. Aquarium Difficulty, 40, 121, 142, 165, 179, 191, 215, 216. Bees, 21, 24, 34, 42, 47, 65, 70, 117, H9, 141, 142, 143, 161, 164, 165, 166, 167, 188, 190, 212, 213, 215, 236, 237, 257, 269. Beetles, 112, 113, 143, 233,263. Birds, 13, 35, 54, 58, 65, 86, 108, 113, 132, 157, 159, 179, 184, 246, 276. Borago, 165, 189, 212, 213, 214, 239. Butterflies, 22, 143 1 , 251, 283, Caterpillar, 47, 70, 149, 239. Cats, 16, 17, 23. Charadrius pluinalis, 58, 95, 114, 188. Chenopodium Bonus Henricus, 189, 214, 234, 238. Chrysopa perla, 231, 237, 239. Cleaning Shells, 190, 214. Cowper and the Nightingale, 142, 175, 209. Cowslips, 141, 164, 166, 190. Cuckoo, the, 108, 138, 281. Derivation of Foxglove, 43, 67, 69, 91, 93, 115, 118, 135, 166. Diatoms, 22, 37, 55, 61, 140, 178, 235. Dodder, the, 117, 118, 120. D'Orbigny's Foraminifera, 81, 106, 155. Dragon-fly in Town, 237, 262. Dun Cow, Kibs of the, 23, 38, 63, 69, 94, 96. Eggs, 92, 114, 132, 185, 191, 212, 251, 259, 283. Embryos, Tricotyledonous, 115, 139, 145, 226. English Plant-Names, 127, 210, 211, 227, 234. Female Moths, Attractive Power of, 153, 174, 213. Fish, Scales of, 92, 140, 187, 235, 279, 280. Flies, 65, 249, 273. Foraminifera, 9, 68, 81, 106, 155, 167, 209. Foxglove, 43, 67, 69, 91, 93, 115, 118, 135, 166, 260. Frog, the, 71, H9, 191,233. Good King Harry, 189, 214, 234,238. Hairs, 111, 116,212,235. Hawk-moths, 114, 161, 209, 229, 232, 233, 283. " Hoddy-doddy," 21, 70, 93, 94, 212. Holly Berries in July, &c., 186, 210, 213, 234. Insects, Brain of, 262. Insects, 8, 41, 49, 64, 76, 92, 105, 118, 126, 133, 137, 164, 224, 236, 247, 255, 262. July, Holly Berries in, 186, 21#, 213, 234. Lotus, its History and Traditions, 124, 208, 231,272. Manipulation, 20, 187. Mergus albellus,Q5, 110, 137. Mosquitoes, 167, 168. Mosses, 83, 139, 275. Otters, 21, 54, 90, 113, 114, 137, 138, 209. Phacelia tenacetifolia, 167, 189, 211. Plant Names, 127, 210, 211, 227, 234, 262. Plover, the Golden, 58, 95, 114, 188. Fodder, 91, 117, 118, 120. Polyxenus lagurus, 187, 209. Pygidium of Lace wing Fly, 231, 237 239. Queen of Spain Fritillary, the, 233, 258. Ribs of " the Dun Cow," 23, 38, 63, 69, 94, 96. Rue and Rosemary, 39, 40, 67, 118. " Sembling" of Moths, 153, 174, 213. Shells, New British, 130, 138, 161, 277. Smew, the, 95, 110, 137. Snow Bunting, the, 71, 90, 114. Sphinx atropos, 114, 161. Studies from the Antique, 14, 45, 71. Study of Natural History, 112. Sundew, Hairs of the, ill, 212. Titmouse, the Bearded, 65, 95. Toad-flax, the Ivyleaved, 43, 71. Toads devouring Bees, 117, 141, 142, 161, 164, 166. Tricotyledonous Embryos, 115, 139, 145, 226. Veronica Buxbaumii, 43, 91, 186. Wasps and Bees Do Toads eat them ? 117, 141, 142, 161, 164, 166. Wiltshire, Spur- winged Goose in, 51, 95. Wingless Insects, 49, 105, 126, 164. Woodpecker, Greater Spotted, 184. Woodruff, the Sweet, 47, 69, 70, 93. Zinc Troughs for Bees, 142, 167. Zonites glaber, 161, 277. 62 ROBERT HARDWICKE, 192, Piccadilly. Haidwicke'S Science-Gossip, Vol. 7. Selection from the Index Anecdotes, twice-told, 192, 212, 237. Ants, 1, 17, 90, 127, 245, 270, 2/3. Arge Galafhea, Parasites on, 233, 258, 262. Bat, the Vampire, 233, 2/7- Bats, 41, 66. Bees, 15,71, H6. Birds, 10, 6s, 92, iso, 159, 161,209, 214, 226, 236. Blind-worm, the, 160. Borax and Cockroaches, 117, H2, 166, 168, 214. Borrago, 139, 214, 239. Botanical Exchange Club, London, 96, 114, 117. Boulder, the Story of a, 5, 94- Budget of Queries, 143, 166, 187. Bullfinches, Captive, 154, 183. Buxbaum's Speedwell, 114, 139. Cammocke, 114, 142. Canine Predilection for Fruit, 263, 283. Caterpillar, 65, 95, 193. Cerastium, Abnormal, 259, 279- Chicken with four legs, 258. Cleaning Skeletons, 165, 191, 213, 239, 262, Cluster-Cup, New British, 156, 188. Cockroaches and Borax, 117, H2, 166, 214. Cockroaches, 168, 190, 212, 168, 214. Cotssold Lion, 119, 142. Crimson-speckled Footman, 234, 239, 262, 277. Deiopeia pulchclla at Brighton, &c., 234, 239, 262, 277- Diatomacese, British, 68, 105, 188. Dogs and Fruit, 263, 283. Earthworms, 118, 142, 143, 166, 167, 189, 212, 262. Earwigs, 94, 11 6, 119. Echinodermata, Peclicellariae of, 42, 119. Eel-pout, 20, 30. Eggar Moth, the Small, 90, 113, 116, 165, 213, 237, 238, 257, 262, 263. Eggs, 21, 32,70, 93,94, 118, 207, 23", 238, 262, 263, 283. Elephant Parasite, 131, 185, 211, 234. Eyestones, 21, 4G, 69, 89, 93, 95. Fish in the Jordan, 166, 189, 213. Fish Scales, 20, 44, 140, 164, 188, 236, 260, 280. Fleas! Fleas! 97, 155. Floras, Local, 163, 187, 212, 214, 259, 279- Flowers and Insects, 258, 282. Folk- Lore, 213. Fox-Moth Larvae, 263, 276, 283. Fungi, 23, 43, 69, 77, 91, 116, 188, 236. Gardeners, Early, 19, 43. Gentian, 91, 119, 139, 143. Golden Oriole, the, 158, 258. Gorgoniadte, 52, 92, 113. Hairs of Plants, 83. 204. Hawfinch, 137, 184, 212,213. 239, 262. Heartsease, 43, 163. 165, 191. Hemp Agrimony, 116, 189. Idolncoris elephantis, 131, 185, 211, 234 Is the Landrail a Bird of Passage ? 45 70, 71,90,94. Kestrel's Egg, 237, 262. Larvae of Fox-moth, 263, 276, 277, 283 Lepidoptera, Eggs of, 70, 93, 94. Longevity of the Goose, 112, 167. Lotus, the 19, 118, 142, 166. Luminous Plants, 121, 191,243. Lung of the Frog, 9-2, 120. Marine Aquaria, 196, 256, 281. Missel-thrush v. Squirrel, 131, 189, 214 237, 238, 256, 257, 278. Moths, Processionary, 106, 135, 189 225. 209, 239, 263, 2/6, 277, 283. My Kestrel. 62, 8R. Oolitic Fossil Plants, 157, 212. Orange-tip Butterfly, 16 1, 208, 238. Ornithological Queries, 119. Otters, 17, 89, 161, 189. Oxlip, Primrose, 115, 133, 163. Pineapple, the, 82, 114. 117, 143, 187. Posting Natural History Specimen! 191, 215, 235, 259. Processionary Moths, 106, 185, 20{ 239. Protective Mimicry, 204, 248. Skeletons, Cleaning, 165, 191, 213, 23< 262. Small Eggar, 90, 113, 116, 165, 213, 23; 257, 263. Soles, Bait for, 237, 261. Sounding Apparatus, 117, 137. Spiders, 12, 18, 35, 46, 152, 215, 231. Star-fish, Pedicellarise of, 42, 1 19. Sunshine, Bat in, 161, 215. Tamarisk manna, 45, 70. Tortoise Eggs, 208, 263. Trichiurus lepturus, 17, 88, 113. Tritons, 142, 166. Turbid Aquarium, 93. Water-snake, 142, 165, 167. White Ants, i, 9o. White Varieties, 191, 201, 210, 235, 23{ 281, Wryneck, the, 87. ROBERT HARDWICKE, 192, Piccadilly. 63 Science-Gossip, Vol. 8. Selection from the Index. \cherontia atropos, 20, 40, 46, 184, 238, .lauda arborea, 44, 68, 70, 93. jaobium, Ravages of, 208, 2l6. .nts, 44, 69, 109, 201, 214, 261, 263, 264. quaria, Marine, 112, 165. .rborescent Silver, 17, 47, 62. ees, 38, 56, 145, 189, 212, 238, 239, 282. eetles, 45, 145. lelemnites, 252. ird-life, 18, 53, 66, 73, 79, 114, 116, 140, 162, 165, 167, 174, 184, 187, 214, 235, 238, 263, 280. utterflies and Moths, 31, 65, 89, 95, 114, 117, 121, 139, 189, 236, 241, 280. amberwell Beauty, the, 234, 239, 249, 263, 282. anine Gyrations, 52, 95, 115, 140, 163, 188. aterpillars, 22, 58, 94, 115, 137, 142, I6l, 165, 167, 188, 190, 215, 237, 262. leaning Feathers, 191, 240. leaning Foraminifera, 69, 144, 183, 207. leaning Skeletons, 23, 39. lothes-moths, 115, 164, 166, 190, 214, 238. oal, Sections of, 87, 277. ollecting and Preserving, 25, 49, 73, 97,121, 145, 169, 193, 199, 217,241, 265. olleetion Catalogue, 118, 162, 175, 212. olours of Lepidotera, 175, 237, 261 . oluber Austriacus, 108, 232, 239. ompass-flower, 281. ry of Woodpigeon, 93, 11 6, 140, 165, 236. urious Habits of Swallows, 57, 143. ammar, mounting in, 71, 72, 256, 276. eath's-head Moth, 20, 40, 46, 184,238. >o Animals commit Suicide ? 76, 116. ried Flowers, 40, 70, 71, 91, 92, 137. uck, the Tufted, 70, 94, 143, 164. els in Paste, 41, 70, 87, 118, 281. ggar Moth, the Small, 9, 137, 190, 283. , supposed Parasite of the, 108, 142. line in North Wales, 71, 94, 119. -stones, 138. d Cricket, the Green, 59,92, 119, U, 182, 238. ras, Local, 64, 138, 142, 232, 259. aminifera, cleaning Sand, 69, 144, 3, 207. sil Birds, New, 1 14, 162, 187. sil Butterfly, New, 114. illary, the Queen of Spain, 139, 237, Jgi, 22, 35, 90, 95, 113, 116, 164, 185, 93, 210, 232, 239, 247. Gas-light: does it kill Plants? 118, 141, 142, 191, 212. Gipsy-moth, 23, 69, 119. Glass-rope Sponge, 35, 56, 106, 183. Glow-worms, 68, 91. Golden Eagle, 115, 165, 258. Gold-fish, 93, 139, 165. Gryllus viridissimus, 59, 92, 119, 141 182, 238. Hawfinch, Gossip, 130, 189. Heracleum gitfanteum, 215, 237. How to stock a pond, 119, 142. Hydras, Fresh-water, 132, 237. Ichthyosaurus, 43, 92. Insects, 12, 18, 21, 87, 89, 139, 161, 185, 212, 234, 236, 256, 257, 278, 282. Larvae, 161, 199, 215, 234, 283. Lepidoptera, Colours of, 175, 237, 26l. Lesser Pettychap, 93, i;8. 143, 167. "Liver," the, 22, 40, 41, 69, 93, 163, 212. | Lunatics and the Moon, 116, 163, 190. Mice and Birds, ll 6, 214, 231. Microscopical Difficulties, 164, 165. Montagu's Harrier, 167, 189. Mosses about London, 1 1, 35, 64. Moths, 9, 22, 23, 45, 47,69, 89, 115, 119 121, 137,139, 163, 164, 166, 190, 214, 230,236, 238, 241, 280. Naturalists' Clubs, 46, 64, 115, 185. Naturalists, Work for, 18. New Books, 34, 83, 129, 200, 242. Nightingale, the Irish, 198. Noctuas, Sugaring for, 115, 141, lb'4. Oak Eggar Moth, 22, 47, 137. Optical Phenomenon, 213, 263. Origin of the Game-cock, 164, 236. Pacific Deep-sea Explorations, 186, 211, 260. Parasites on Starling, 213,-237. Passion-flower, the, 95, 1 13, 117, l6ti. Phosphorescence, 142, 257, 262, 282. Pigeons, Wood, 93, 116, 140, 165, 236. ! Podura Scales, 16, 41, 47, 100, 208. Poisoning dried Plants, 40, 70, 92. Preserving Fungi, 116, 185, 193. 210, 239. Resurrection Plant the, 213, 231. Rotatoria, new Species of, 9, H2, 25(5. Rotifer, Parasitic, 112, 137. Rural Natural History, 2 1 5, 237, 253, 282. Saffron, 21, 107, 141, 143, 163, 164, 166, 189, 215. Scientific Guide-books, 142, 188. Sections of Vegetable Substances, 1/7- 231, 255,282, 283. Shamrock, the True, 113, 138, 142. ! Showers of Frogs, 20, 143, 167. ! Silver, Arborescent, 17, 47, 62. 64 ROBERT HARDWICKE, 192, Piccadilly. Hardwicke's Science-Gossip, Vol. 8 continued. Singing Mice. 47, 65, 94. Snake, the Smooth, 208, 232, 239, 258. Spicules of Sponges, &c., 20, 95, 188. Spiders, 140, 182, 213, 261. Sponges, 17,20, 35, 56,95, 106, 160, 185, 281. Stag Beetle, 42, 92, 95, 139, 190. Starlings, 93. 117, H8, 140, 213, 237- Swallows, 57, 89, 115, 143,212, 235,23", 239. Tissues, on Staining, 111, 120, 136. Test-scales of Podurae, 16, 41, 47, 10< 208. Tufted Duck, the, 70, 94, 143, 164. Unicorn, the, 46, 68, 95. Vitrina pellucida, 44, 69, 11 6. Wasps, 70, 163, 214, 239, 282. Web-weaving Caterpillars, 58, 94, 11 142. Whitebait, 44, 263, 281, 282. Young Caterpillars in Confinement, 16 188, 237, 262. HARDWICKE'S SCIENCE-GOSSIP, Published Monthly, price 4d. Each Volume can be had separate! Price 5s., in purple cloth. All the numbers are kept in print. Volume 9 commenced January, 1873. TV/T R. HARDWICKE begs to inform Authors < "Works on Natural History, Travel, Gener Science, and Miscellaneous Literature, that he hi at his command the requisite means for bringii all "Works published by him prominently before tl Public, both at home and abroad. Being practical acquainted with Printing, and having been mar years engaged in business requiring an intima knowledge of the best modes of Illustration, he enabled to offer great facilities to Gentlemen wl entrust their Works to him. Estimates of Cost, Terms of Publishing, and oth particulars on application. LONDON : 192, Piccadilly, W. WYMAJf AND SONS, PRINTERS, GREAT QUEEN STRBKT, LONDON, W.C- UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY BERKELEY Return to desk from which borrowed. This book is DUE on the last date stamped below. CU-MED INTERLIBRARY JAN 5 19 APR 2 8 1978 80.08, APR 3 26 199J .OAN LD 21-100?n-9,'481B399sl6)476 u.c. L: THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY