UC-NRLF c^P ;d c;7 [^[^c, LLL/S EN GLI S H ':::^ L xi x uo Y sVANCED ^VW : sick. THE PART8 OF SPEECH. 15 A few verbs serve simply to connect two or more words so as to form a sentence. iis was will he seemed looked ^ appeared The simplest form of the verb is a single word, as strike, see, love; but a verb is often made up of two or more words, as did strike, may have seen, should have been loved, 33. Definition. — A verb is a word used to say something about some person or thing. QU E STIONS. TeU sometliing an animal is. Tell something an animal does. What words in the sentences you have just made, enable you to say something about the animal? What is the class-name given to all such words? What is the literal meaning of the word verbf What does this indicate? What is the difference between a noun and a verb? In the sentence, The poor child is sick^ what is the use of the verb is? Q-ive some examples of verbs made up of two or more words. Define verb. THE ADVEBB. 33. We have seen that an adjective is joined to a noun to aid in denoting more exactly the meaning of the noun. Just as the noun apple is applied to a great many things that resemble one another, and differ in color, number, etc., so the verb go denotes action of which there are many varieties with re- spect to the time, manner, and place of its perform- ance. • 16 ENGLISH QMAMMAB. The men go slowly. rapidly, cheerfully. daily, now, there. The car goes smootlHy, downward* yonder, constantly, soon. A word thus used with a verb to denote the time, place, manner, or some other characteristic of the action expressed by the verb, is called an adverb. The nearness of the adverb to the verb is implied in the name adverb, meaning near or at the verb. 34. The adverb is joined also to the adjective, generally to denote the degree or measure in which the meaning expressed by the adjective is to be un- derstood. f not ) ( extremely J Ths girls are \ nearly > read/y, Ja/mes is I very v sick, quite ) ( slightly ) 25. Again, an adverb is often joined to another adverb to indicate the degree or measure of the lat- ter's meaning. The ship sailed very swiftly. He spoke somewhat TwpefuUy. 26. The adjective and the adverb are said to modify the meaning of the words to which they be- long; that is, they change or measure the meaning of those words. Thus, read denotes a particular action; but noth- in'g about the word shows how, or when, or where, THE PABT8 OF SPEECH. 17 or -under what circumstances, the act is intended. But read slowly^ read carefully^ read now, read aloud, are expressions in which the measure of meaning of the word read is diminished so as to denote an action in a particular manner, or at a particular time. The adjective red, when joined to the noun apple, has a similar effect in lessening the extent or measure of the application of the word apple. The word mod- ify is derived from the word modus, a measure or boundary, and another word meaning to make. A modifier, while it thus lessens the extent of application that a word may have, adds to its ex- actness of meaning. Thus, lazy boy and go early show much more exactly the hind of boy intended, and the time of performing the action expressed by go, than the un- modified words could show. 37. Definitioj^. — A modifier is a word whose mean- ing is used to render more exact that of another word. Note. — A modifier may consist of two or more words, as will be explained hereafter. 38. Definition. — An adverb is a word used to modify the meaning of a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. Exercise 4. — Point out the verbs and the adverbs in the following sentences, and tell the word whose meaning each adverb modifies: 18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 1. The judge rode slowly down the lane. 2. The brook ripples and dances merrily on its way to the ocean. 3. The moon shone softly through the trees. 4. The lady sang very sweetly a song I had often heard in my childhood. 5. The traveler rapidly climbed the hill and soon was gazing eagerly into the beautiful valley. 6. The lark flies swiftly and soars very high. 7. Many very poor people live respectably and comfort- ably. 8. The ship that sailed away so gayly never came back. 9. The young hunter held his rifle carefully and shot di- rectly upward. 10. A tiny crocus shyly peeped from her grassy home and softly whispered to the wild rose. QUESTIONS. Tell in single words different ways in which a person may write; walk ; speak ; read. What do snch words generally denote with regard to the action expressed? What is the class-name applied to them? What is the hteral meaning of the word admrhf With what other parts of speech is the adverb frequently used? Q-ive examples. What do the adverbs in the sentences yon have formed, express? Wherein do an adjective and an adverb agree? Wherein do they differ? In the expression, The white Jwrse, is the number of animals to which the word horse may be applied, increased, or is it diminished, by the use of the adjective white? Why? In the expression. She sings sweetly, is the applica- tion of the verb sings increased or diminished by the use of the adverb sweetly? Why? What word do we use to denote the relation that exists between a noun and an adjective, a verb and an adverb? What other use may a modifier have beside that of lessening the ap- plication of the word to which it is joined? Define modifier. Define adverb. To THE Teacher.— It is not correct to say that an adverb modifies a verb. It is only partially correct to say that an adverb modifies the msaning of a verb. To be consistent, we should say that the meaning of the adverb modifies the meaning of the verb. This last form of expression m, however, too clumsy for general use. As far as possible, pupils should be required at least to say, that the meaning of a rumn, etc., is modified by an adjective, and that of a verb, etc., by an adverb. THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 19 THE PBONOUN. 29. The four parts of speech already described include nearly all the words in our language. The remaining words make up four other classes, one of which is called the pronoun. The name pronoim denotes that this part of speech is employed as a substitute for the noun, for pro means for, or instead of. By using the pronoun, we are able to avoid the awkwardness of speech that would come from fre- quently repeating a noun. For example, without the pronoun, we could not easily avoid such sentences as, Mary said that Ma/ry would study Mary's lessons. The boys promised the boys' teacher that the boys would obey the teojoher's requests. With the aid of pronouns, these sentences are much improved. Ma/ry said that she would study her lesson. TJie boys promised their teacher that they would obey his Another great advantage arising from the use of the pronoun is that a single pronoun may denote a multitude of persons or things, all having different names, or even names that are not known by the speaker. Thus, the pupils in a school, or the people in a crowd on the street, may be denoted by such pronouns as you^ your^ they, their^ them, all, these, I, we, who, whom, which, it, etc. HoAje all finished their exa/mples f These are citizens, but those are soldiers. 20 ENGLISH OBAMMAB, 30. Definition. — A pronoun is a word that de- notes persons or things without naming them. Exercise 5. — Fill the blanks with pronouns, and then make a list of the pronouns, 1. The fishers dropped lines in the lazy tide. 2. Speak clearly if speak at all ; Carve every word before let it fall. — Holmes. 3. When Europeans first explored North America found occupied by roving tribes of men looked very unhke . 4. rejoice to see the morning sun send beams through window. 5. The longer live, the more rapidly years seem to pass. 6. are blest lives are peaceful. 7. The falcon's bill has a deep notch in ; helps in tearing food in pieces. 8. Then the httle Hiawatha Learned of every bird language, Learned names and all secrets. 9. The boy put hat here, and hat there ; but why placed so, do not know. 10. Every man should think that is responsible for own actions. QUESTION s. What are the two principal uses of the prmumn? What is the literal meaning of the word? Define pronoun. THE PBEPOSmON. 31. If the words that make up a sentence be dis- arranged, that is, if their relations to one another be destroyed, we get a meaningless result. THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 21 Thus, the following words express no thought: The room window erdered the open an burglar through. But if they are arranged so as to be properly re- lated to one another^ we have a sentence. The burglar entered the room through an open window. There is a class of words whose use is to connect and bring into relation two unrelated words, one of which is a noun or a pronoun. A word of this kind is called a preposition, so named because it is derived from two Latin words nieaning placed before. Speah to in about by with ' Charles. A castle - over against upon for under the sea. 33. The preposition and its accompanying noun or pronoun*, either with or without modifying words, form what is called a phrase. A phrase so formed is called a prepositional phrase, to distinguish it from other kinds of phrases of which we shall learn here- after. The canoe floated down the river. He sat within a smaU, cheerless, wnfwm/lshed room. The noun or pronoun following a preposition is called the object of the preposition ; and the preposi- tion is said to connect the object with some word that usually precedes the preposition. Thus, in the foregoing sentences, river is the object of the preposition down ; and down connects floated and river. ^2 ENGLISH GltAMMAK The function or use of the prepositional phrase is 1. To modify the meaning of a noun or a pro- noun, as is done by the adjective. He is a hoy of courage = He is a courageous hoy. 2. To modify the meaning of a verb, an adjective, or an adverb, as is done by the adverb. H6 acted ivith promptness = He acted promptly. The prepositional phrase is called an adjective phrase inodifier when it is- used like an adjective, and when it does the work of an adverb, it is an adverbial phrase^ or adverbial phrase modifier. 33. Definition. — A preposition is a word used with a noun or its equivalent, so as to form an adjective modifier, or an adverbial modifier. Exercise 6. — Fill the blanks with prepositions from the following list, that will bring the words into re- lation. at up upon above about beyond by down into below after across on with under beside before between of within near beneath until against for over amid among around through from past aboard opposite during concerning 1. dropped — - the clouds. 6. a field the house. 2. waited the station. 7. diameter a circle. 3. waited the train. 8. a dream home. 4. watched — - my bedside. 9. ill fever. 5. knelt the rug. THE PABT8 OF SPEECH, 83 11. quarrels friends. 12. ladder the bam. 13. nest the branches. 14. asleep the sermon. 15. friends the seas. 16. life the grave. 17. house the corner. 18. wrecked the coast. 19. walk breakfast. 20. degrees zero. 21. work sundown. 22. went his business. 23. dived the waves. 24. errands the poor. 25. letter a cousin. 26. soar the clouds. Exercise 7. — Fill the lilanks with prepositions from the foregoing list, that will connect the words and bring them into , relation : 1. Heaven hides all creatures the book fate. 2. Ten vessels came port the storm. 3. The boys live home their parents. 4. Henry found his ball a bench which stood the old oak. 5. The storms a century have whistled the branches this famous tree. 6. The travelers went the ocean, the burning sands the desert, high mountains and deep val- leys, and returned home many months sight-seeing. 7. The boat went the tide, but the wind. 8. The farmers hide the kernels corn the cool, damp earth. 9. As we walked the meadow we heard the bleating the flocks the hill. 10. Every moment that flies our heads takes the future and gives the past. 11. Our canoe touched the shore, a short distance the spot where our friends were standing. 12. The children went out the shower to gather flowers the hillside. 13. Clouds gather the storm, but sunshine follows it. 14. I shot an arrow the air. 15. The traveler told us his thrilling adventure a lion. 24 ENGLISH QBAMMAB, QUESTIONS. What is the result if the words of a sentence are disarranged? "What is the class-name given to the wofds that are used to bring into relation two unrelated words? What else do prepositions do? Why is a preposition so called? What is a prepositional phrase composed of? "What is the noun or pronoun following a preposition called? What parts of speech may be modified by phrases? Q-ive instances. Define preposition* THE COK-JTTKrCTIOlSr. 34. Another class of connecting words is the conjunction, — a word that means joining together. The preposition, as we have seen, connects words, and brings them into relation. The conjunction gen- erally connects sentences and brings them into rela- tion. The motmtains look blue " and because if . therefore . fhey are far away. 35. Although the principal office of conjunctions is to connect sentences, yet some of them, especially and^ are sometimes used to connect words. They are brother and sister. The lady wore a black and white dress. 36. Unlike the preposition, the conjunction can not be used as the introductory word in an adjective or adverbial phrase. This is the test by which the preposition may always be distinguished from the conjunction. THE PAUTS OF SPEECH. 25 37. In uniting two or more sentences by means of conjunctions, there is often a great saving of words. The resulting sentence, however, may always be separated into those from which it was derived. My cousin fished and swam in the lake on Satwrday, This sentence consists of two sentences, united and shortened: j My cousin fished in the lake on Saturday, {My cousin swam in the lake on Saturday. 38. When the conjunction is used to connect words in a sentence, the sentence can not be de- composed in the way shown above. Thus, take the sentence. The human tody consists principally of hlood^ fleshy and hone. This is not equivalent to The human body consists principally of blood. The human body consists principally of fiesh. The human body consists principally of bone. 39. Conjunctions often occur in pairs, and some- times the first of a pair is used not to connect, but to introduce, Tliough he were a giant, yet I should not fear Mm. He is neither honest nor truthful. He is either sick or very tired. 40. DEFiisriTiON. — A conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentences. 26 EN0LI8H GRAMMAR. Exercise 8. — From the following list select suitable conjunctions to fill the Nanks : and nor that except therefore but so unless although nevertheless for if whether hence notwithstanding or else either because in order that yet than neither however so that 1. He was punished he was guilty. 2. He was pardoned he was guilty. 3. I would pay you I had the money. 4. We can not go we finish our task. 5. He can not cross the river the water is shallow. 6. The man came, he did not stay long. 7. The poor man gave more the rich man. 8. the rain came down in torrents, we started on our journey. 9. I will trust him, he deceived me before. 10. The lady could dance sing, she played beautifully. 11. Everybody behoved him, he must have been truthful. 12. We must go at once, stay at home all day. 13. I will lend you the money, you seem to need it so badly. 14. I have not decided I shall walk ride. 15. The children played outside while the day was fine, came into the house as soon as it began to rain. Exercise 9. — Make one sentence of each pair of sentences by using conjunctions selected from the foregoing list: Example.— The boy robbed the nest. He was punished for his cruelty. The boy robbed the nest and was punished for his cruelty. THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 27 1. His daughter was the hght of his eyes. His daughter was the joy of his soul. 2. The messenger mounted the stairs quickly. The staira were very steep. 3. Roses love the sunshine. , They do not love the shade. 4. Time waits for no man. Tide waits for no man. 5. The teacher reproved the pupil. The pupil failed in recitation. 6. She talks more than she thinks. She talks but little. V. You will take cold. You are not properly clothed. 8. Our guest will depart. The storm is still raging. 9. I could not weep. I could not laugh. 10. He paid me promptly. I trusted hira again. QUESTIONS. Wherein do the words classed as prepositions and the words classed a& conjunctions, agree? Wherein do they differ? What is the principal oflace of conjunctions? What else do they do? Mention some conjunctions that serve to connect words. Some that occur in pairs. Make sentences con- taining neither— nor^ either— or, both— and. THE INTEBJECTION. 41. The seven classes of words thus far ex- plained have each a particular, office or function in the sentence. We are able to determine the part of speech to which any particular word in a sentence 28 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. belongs only by learning how it stands related to other words in the sentence. There is, however, a class of words called the in- terjection, or exclamation, that has no grammatical relation to other words in the sentence where it occurs. Interjections do not aid in the expression of thought, but indicate emotion or feeling, and serve no other purpose than to show by what kind and degree of feeling our thought is accompanied. Alas! My hoy is dead. Hurrah! We have a holiday. Oh! Excuse my awkwardness. The words alas, hurrah, and oh, in the preceding sentences, are called interjections, — a name that means something thrown in among other things. The name implies that the interjection is not necessary to the grammatical completeness of a sentence. Words commonly used as verbs, nouns, adjectives, adverbs, etc., are sometimes employed as interjec- tions. Good! That hall was well caught. Hush! You will scare the hirds. ^'If^^! What do you mean hy ''if"? Well! Have you solved the exam^ple at last? Now ! Are you not ashamed of yourself? 43. Definition. — An interjection is a word express- ing strong feeling, and not related to other words in the sentence. THE PABT8 OF SPEECH. 29 Exercise 10. — From the following list select suitable interjections to fill the blanks : Ohl Come! Well! Hey! Nonsense ! Ahl Stop! Hurrah ! There ! Dear me ! Lol Alas! Hark! Shame ! Good-bye ! So! Help! Hem! Indeed! Ha, ha! Fie! Fire! Hist! Begone ! Farewell ! How! Look! Hush! Look out! Ah me! Why! Bang! Behold ! Beware ! dear! See! Hallo ! Huzza ! Welcome ! Heigh-ho ! 1. ! I am surprised to hear it. 2. ! Here comes the train. 3. I shall not see you again. - — ! 4. ! You i 3an not make me believe that. 5. 1 He is . deceiving you. 6. ! It was a very funny sight. 7. ! Is an ybody awake within? him. 8. ! cried Samoset to the white men. 9. ! ! cried the traveler, as the robbers fell upon 10. ! I knew I could do it. 11. ! Did you hear that strange sound? 12. ! I do not understand you. 13. ! The clouds are breaking away. 14. The maiden wrung her hands and cried, ! and 15. ! Let me never see you again. 16. ! ! A victory ! 17. ! My blood runs cold ! 18. The captain said 1 and 1 went the guns. 19. ! that thou shouldst die. 20. ! Do not awake the child. Note. — It is well to avoid the use of interjections as much as possible, both in speaking and in writing, particularly those used to express the feeling of contempt or dislike ; such as, fudge ! hosh I pshaw I hah I 30 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, QUESTIONS. How do you determine the part of speech to which any partictilar word in a sentence belongs? Of the eight parts of speech, how many are used for the expression of thought? How many solely for the expression of feeling? What is it called? How may a verb be used as an interjection? A noun? An adjective? An adverb? Q-ive an instance of each. Define CHAPTER III. ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE. SUBJECT AI3D PBEDICATE. 43. We have seen that a sentence consists of two principal parts: 1. The subject, — the word or words denoting that about which something is said. 2. The predicate, — expressing what is said of the thing denoted by the subject. Sometimes the subject consists of a noun only, as Time flies; sometimes of a pronoun, as He walks, She rides; sometimes, of a noun or pronoun with one or more adjective modifiers, as. The swift boat scuds hefore the breeze. Friendless, homeless, hopeless, they wandered from city to city. Without its modifiers, the noun or pronoun that denotes that of which something is said is called the subject noun, or the subject pronoun, and the verb in the predicate is called the predicate verb. ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE. 31 44, The subject often consists of two or more words equivalent in meaning to a noun ; as, To err is hwmcm. Walking in the hot sun is weary work. In these sentences, to err, and walking in the hot sun, are called phrases; and because they perform the offices of nouns, they are called noun phrases. 45. Sometimes the subject of a sentence is an ex- pression containing itself a subject and a predicate ; as, Why he came to see us^ soon became evident An expression used in this way, as the subject of a sentence, is called a noun clause. That he committed the crime, was clearly sTiown at the trial. Phrases and clauses serve for other purposes be- side those mentioned above, as will be shown here- after. Exercise 11. — In the following sentences, point out the subject and the predicate, and tell whether the subject is a noun, a pronoun, a phrase, or a clause : 1. Long among them waited a maiden. 2. I stood on the bridge at midnight. 3. Written their history stands on tablets of stone. 4. To make others happy should be our chief delight. 5. That the earth is roimd. has been proven. 6. By the pale moonlight is the time to view fair Melrose. 7. Listening to sweet music brings rest to the weary mind. 8. Whatever hath been written shall remain. 9. Charity suffereth long and is kind, is the law of love. 10. To love poetry is the mark of a refined mind. 32 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. THE COMPLEMENT OP A VEBB. 46. If we should construct a variety of sentences by joining subjects to suitable verbs, it would soon appear that verbs differ in two important respects. We should find that, 47. 1. Some verbs are capable of forming the predicate of a sentence without the aid of any other word. Such are called verbs of complete predication. ( runs. ( sings. The hoy I walks. The bird < flies. ( thinks, i eats. 48. 2. Some verbs are incapable of forming a complete predicate without the aid of one or more additional words. Such are called verbs of incom- plete predication. That which is added to the verb to fill out its meaning is called its complement, — a word meaning that which fills or completes. ( caught the fox. ( is a gentleman. The dog I hit the boy. The. man < seems sick. ( scared the burglar. ( looks tired. Verbs of incomplete predication are of two kinds. 49. 1. Verbs whose complement is either an ad- jective modifying the subject, or a noun or pronoun denoting the same person or thing as the subject. We are tired. They were late. I feel bad. It was I, Mavd was a teacher. He became President. ELEMENTS OF TEE SENTENCE. 33 An adjective so used is called the predicate ad- jective. The noun or pronoun that Completes the predicate in the way explained above is called the predicate noun or predicate pronoun. 50. 2. Verbs whose complement is a noun or a pronoun denoting that which receives the action ex- pressed by the verb. He sawed wood. We caught fish. The sv/a lights the earth. The storm wrecked a steamer. We assisted him, 51. A noun or pronoun used in this manner is called the object of the verb. The noun or pronoun taken without any modifiers is called the object noun or the object pronoun. 52. The complement of a verb may be a phrase or a clause. V He is with his sister* The teacher said that the earth is round. They explained hotv the accident happened. Exercise 12. — In the following sentences^ point out 1. The subject and predicate. 2. The predicate nouns and predicate adjectives. 3. All objects of verbs and of prepositions, 4. All clauses used as subject or as object. 1. I hear the shouts of the school-boys. 2. The old orchard gave forth the first faint scent of the apple-blooms. 3. A bobolink and a robin sang a sweet duet. 4. Fame is the fragrance of heroic deeds. 34 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 5. The soldier lay lifeless but beautiful. 6. "We heard the bleating of the flock, And the twitter of birds among the trees. 7. Men will judge us by the company we keep. 8. The laws of Nature are just, but pitiless. 9. God sent His singers upon earth With songs of sadness and of mirth. 10. Washington is the Father of his Country. 11. King Alfred was a sublime character. 12. I shot an arrow into the air. 13. The day is cold and dark and dreary. 14. Windsor Castle is the residence of Queen Victoria. 15. Hiawatha learned the names and the secrets of many birds. 16. Straws show which way the wind blows. 17. We believed that the ring was stolen. 18. I remember how my childhood fleeted by. 19. The sailor thought he saw a light. 20. History teaches that the Civil War was a critical event in the existence of this nation. QUESTIONS. What is a sentence? What are the two principal parts of a sentence? What part of speech, must the predicate contain? Why? What parts of speech may the principal word in the subject be? Make a sentence with a noun as the subject. With a pronoun as the subject. What collections of words may take the place of a noun or a pronoun in the subject? G-ive an example of a noun phrase. Of a noun clause. What is the quality that all verbs have in common ? What are the two respects in which verbs differ? What is the meaning of the word complermnt ? What are the two kinds of complements of verbs? What are the marks by which you may distin- guish them? What relation does a predicate noun, pronoun, or adjective, bear to the subject noun or pronoun? What relation does the object noun or pronoun bear to the predicate verb? What else may constitute the complement of a verb besides a noun or pronoun ? ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE. 35 ADJECTIVE MODIEIEBS. 53. We have seen that an adjective joined to a noun, to denote more exactly what the noun names, is called a modifier. It has been explained also that precisely the same work done in a sentence by an adjective may be done by two or more words taken together and used as the equivalent of an adjective. Honest hoys, hoys of honesty , hoys that are honest. Blue-eyed girl, girl with blue eyes, girl who has blue eyes. The expressions in full-faced type are all adjective modifiers. . Adjective modifiers are, therefore, of three kinds with respect to form. 54. 1. A word. JRed roseSy pine trees, three days, silk hat, large apples. 55. 2. A phrase. Any modifier that consists of several words is called a phrase modifier, provided it contains no word that asserts. The most important phrase modifiers are those that begin with a prepo- sition and end with a noun or a pronoun. To dis- tinguish them from phrases of other kinds of which we shall learn hereafter, they are called prepositional phrases. If used to modify the meaning of a noun or a pronoun, they are prepositional adjective phrases. The girl with golden hair is my sister. She wore a dress of many colors. 36 ENGLISH OBAMMAR, The hoy witJi his father, in the boat, on the horse, by the road, under the bridge* The grapes at the market, for him. along the fence* upon the vine, against the wall* 56. 3. A clause. I know a girl who has blue eyes. Here the noun girl is modified by who has hlue eyes. This modifier contains the predicate verb has, and in this respect differs from the phrase, which contains no asserting word. A modifier in this form is called a clause. The house that Jack huilt stands in a region where rain never falls. The nouns house and region are modified by the .adjective clauses that Jack built, and where rain never falls, respectively. Exercise 13. — Point out all the adjective modi- flers, and tell what words they modify. Tell also which are phrases; and which, clauses. 1. A gentleman of great learning addressed the pupils of the first class. 2. The travelers visited the house in which Shakespeare lived. 3. Children that live in the country welcome the birds of early spring. 4. Pennsylvania contains many varieties of forest trees. 5. The book that I loaned you has not been returned. 6. The lady who visited us wore diamonds of remarkable brilliance. ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE. 37 7. The people that come late must take the back seats. 8. The man from whom we buy provisions is a dealer in fine goods. 9. The gardener plucked large bunches of luscious purple grapes. . 10. The children of the slaves sang the songs of David. 11. He that would thrive must see the white sparrow. 12. I remember the rock where the cataract fell. 13. Cromwell defeated the army of the king. 14. The sweetest music that a mother hears is the prattle of her little children. 15. The moon, that once was round and full. Is now a silver boat. 16. The roses that adorned the garden are now withered and dead. 17. Bright flowers deck the meadow where the cattle graze. 18. I heard from the boughs the sweet notes of a nightin- gale. 19. The factory where the brothers worked was burned. 20. I know a bank whereon the wild thyme blows. ADVERBIAL MODEPTERS. 5'7. If a word is used to modify the meaning of a verh^ an adjective^ or an adverb, we know the word to be an advert. A phrase used for the same pur- pose becomes an adverbial phrase, and a clause so used becomes an adverbial clause. C into the yard. The hoy ivalked I over the hill, ( t?irouf/h the woods. The foregoing phrases modify the verb walked^ and are, therefore, adverbial phrases. 38 ENGLISH QHAMMAB. ( US the night came. We left the dty } when we had finished our work. ( before the ship sailed. The verb left is modified by the^ clauses on the right, which are, in consequence, adverbial clauses. A phrase or a clause may itself be modified by an adverb. Nea/rly across the ocean, JSxactly where Columbus landed. Just before the battle. 58. Definition. — A phrase is a group of words not containing a subject and predicate, which performs the ofiice of a noun, an adjective, or an adverb in a sentence. 59. Definition. — ^A clause is a group of words con- taining a subject and predicate, which performs the office of a noun, an adjective, or an adverb, in a sentence. Exercise 14. — Tell which modifiers are adverbs, which are adverbial phrases, and which are adver- bial clauses. Tell also what each modifies, 1. I will come when I have finished my lesson. 2. Smooth is the water where the brook is deep. 3. He had a fever when he was in Spain. 4. Some must watch while some must sleep. 5. We stood upon the ragged rocks When the long day was nearly done. 6. When the shadows of evening fall, the sunbeams fly away. 7. Far above the organ's swell rang out a childish voice. 8. The little birds chirped as they opened their drowsy eyes. CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES. 39 9. The swan sings before it dies. 10. The sun rises in the east and sets in the west. 11. My heart leaps up when I behold A rainbow in the sky. 12. Make hay while the sun shines. 13. An honest man speaks as he thinks. 14. We walked along the path toward the station. 15. With a quick motion, the deer lifted his head a little, and turned his ear to the south. QUESTIONS. What is the office of a word used as a modifier? What part of sx)eech is Tised as a modifier of a noun or pronoun? What collections of words may take the place of an adjective ? Make a sentence containing an adjective phrase. An adjective clause. What part of speech is used as a modifier of a verb, an adjective, or an adverb? Q-ive examples. What collections of words may be used to perform the office of an adverb ? Of what parts of speech may a phrase perform the offices? What is it called in each instance? Of what parts of speech may a clause perform the offices? What is it called in each instance? Enumerate and illustrate the various words and collections of words that may form the subject of a sentence. The complement of a verb. Define phrase. Define dame. CHAPTER IV. CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES. ANALYSIS AWD SYNTHESIS. 60. There are two methods by which one might make himself acquainted with any thing made up of related parts; as, for example, a watch. He might take the watch apart, piece by piece, and while doing so, stucjy the details of its structure and 40 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. the relation of its parts one to another. An operation hke this, which begins with the whole and descends to the parts that compose the whole, is called analysis. The word means a taking apart or separating. Or he might begin with the parts, and, after some experiment and study, get an excellent knowledge of the watch by putting its parts properly together. An operation of this kind is called synthesis, which means a putting together. These two methods are the reverse of each other, and both are applicable to the study of the sentence. Both enable us to understand how words are related to one another and to the whole sentence. 61. Defin"ition. — Analysis in grammar is the pro- cess of separating a sentence into parts, according to their use. 63. Defiketion. — Synthesis in grammar is the pro- cess of constructing sentences whose parts are given, their use being known or stated. QUESTIONS. How many ways are there of studying any thing made np of parts? If you separated a chair into its parts, discovering how one part was related to another and to the whole, what would this method of study be called ? If you were given the parts of a chair, and were required to put them together so as to form a complete piece of furniture, what might this opera- tion be called? Tell what you would have to do to become acquainted, by analysis, with the construction of a violin. By synthesis. Invent an illustration of analysis. Of synthesis. What is the object of both analysis and synthesis in grammar? Define analysis. Define synthesis. CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES. 41 SYNTHESIS OP SENTENCES. 63. We have already seen that, when considered with respect to the use that is made of them, sen- tences are of three kinds : declarative^ when used to make a statement; interrogative^ when used to ask a question ; imperative, when used to express a com- mand or entreaty. 64. But sentences may be classified with reference to their structure ; that is, by considering their parts or elements. Sentences have great variety of structure, but they may all be divided into three great classes : the simple sentence, the complex sentence, and the compound sentence. I. The Simple Sentence. 65. The simplest form a sentence can have is that in which a subject noun or pronoun is joined to a suitable verb, or to a verb and its object, so as to form a statement, a question, or a command. Birds fly. I have read the hook. The dog barks. Mary ate the apple. He walks. The sim lights the earth, 66. Such sentences may be lengthened by the addition of modifiers ; but so long as these modifiers are words or phrases, and not clauses, the sentences are still simple sentences. Pluck the ripe, yellow apples from the old tree. Did the wolf in the fable eat the gentle little lamb f 42 EN0LI8H GRAMMAR. Exercise 15. — As in the model, lengthen the fol- lowing sentences by properly adding to them the given m,odifiers : /Sentence. Word Modifiers. Phrase Modijiers. ( many ( amnong tTie stately trees 1. Birds fly < wonderful I in South America ( every-where ( along the Amazon River Along the Amazon River, in South Am^erica, m^any wonderful birds fly every-where among the stately trees. - __, , , ( the, often { of the forest 2. Flowers bloom < / . "^ . ., , ,. . ( sweetest ( zn the loneliest nooks 3. Grirl sat < very silent \in a pretty crimson chair the I nea/r the window little 4. CMldren skated •< happy (many ) ^t, , • \ , f over the clear ic& near the village ( swiftly ^ , ( on the steel runners < down the hill ( with great speed iine 1 -< down the hill 6. Pa/remts tracked footsteps " the frantic the . smaU , of the lost child across an open field into t?ie forest 7. General must be " 8. MoAid gave flowers \ faithful ^ and duUful fa little of cm a/rray the L beautiful , with downcast eyes to the teacher CLA8SIFICATI0N OF SENTENCES, 43 9. 8pa/rrow makes home -< ' the small brown its in the trees of owr streets 10. Nest swings (the snow-filled lonely drearily >■ upon the leafless i/ree 67. By means of conjunctions, two or more simple sentences may often be contracted, or shortened, into one simple sentence that has, 1. A compound subject. In making such contrac- tions, changes in the forms of some of the words are often necessary. Leah went to the sea-side. ) __ Leah's mother went to the sea-side. ) ~~ Leah and her mother went to tJie sea-side. 2. A compound object. T?ie child gathered shells along the sea-shore, ) ___ T?ie child gathered pebbles along the sea-shore. S ~~ The child gathered shells a/nd pebbles along the sea-shore, 8. A compound predicate. The sun wo/rms the earth, f The sv/n lights and warms the earth. The children are young. The children are happy. The children are young a/nd happy. ;!= 44 , ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 4. Two or more of the foregoing elements com- pound. Mary gathered violets. Mary gathered buttercups. ' Mary pressed violets. Mary pressed buttercups. Lily gathered violets. Lily gathered buttercups. Lily pressed violets. Lily pressed buttercups. Mary and Lily gathered and pressed violets and buttercups. 5. Any other compound elements. TTie teacher spoke firmly. ) _ The teacher spoke pleasantly. ) The teaclier spoke firmly but pleasantly. Henry was respectful to his teacher. ) _ Henry was obedient to his parents. S ~ Henry was respectful to his teacher and obedient to his parents. A simple sentence that is formed by the synthesis of two or more simple sentences contains such con- junctions as andj but, as well as, either — or, neither — nor^ both — and, etc. Night is pleasant, as well as day. Life is short but very precious. Soth his money and his good name are lost. Neither his father nor his m^other was living. 68. Definition. — A simple sentence is a sentence containing one subject and one predicate, either of which may be compound. Note. — Great care should be taken that, when a sentence is written, the proper marks of punctuation are inserted. For the rules governing punctuation, see pages 270-78. CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES. 45 Exercise 16. — Contract each set of sentences into one simple sentence: 1. Fine roses are found in Japan. Fine roses are found in China. Many beautiful lilies are found in Japan. Many beautiful lilies are found in China. 2. The high wind blew down trees. The high wind carried away fences. The high wind did much damage to property. 3. No sound was heard during the long night. The barking of the dogs was heard during the long night. 4. The city of Vancouver has only six thousand inhabitants. The city of Vancouver has much traffic. The city of Vancouver has much wealth. 5. The buttercup comes early in the spring. The buttercup stays late in the fall. The daisy comes early in the spring. The daisy stays late in the fall. 6. He spoke of the grass. He spoke of the flowers. He spoke of the trees. He spoke of the singing birds. He spoke of the humming bees. 7. John is a citizen of New York State. I am a citizen of New York State. 8. I care not much for gold. I care not much for land. 9. Her cheek was glowing fresh. Her cheek was glowing fair. Her cheek was glowing with the breath of morn- Her cheek was glowing with the soft sea air. 10. Pride goeth forth on horseback, grand and gay. Pride cometh back on foot. Pride begs its way. 46 ENGLISH GBAMMAB. QU ESTI ON S. Define sentence. What are the two plans upon which classifications of sentences are made? How are sentences classified according to the nso that is made of them f Define each kind or class. What is meant by saying that sentences are classified according to structure? How are they so classified? What is the simplest form of a sentence? How may such sentences be lengthened? What part of speech is used in contracting two or more simple sen- . tences into one? Give an example of a sentence with a compound subject. With a com- pound object. With a compound predicate. With both subject and predi- cate compound. With a compound predicate complement. n. The Complex Sentence. 69. We have seen that a clause may be used as a modifier. 1. A clause may, like an adjective, modify the meaning of a noun or a pronoun. TMs is the house that my father buUt, We visited the city where Columbus was horn. Here that my father built modifies the noun house, and where Colurribus was born modifies the noun city. The words that and where are used to connect the clauses between which they stand. 2. A clause may perform the office of an adverb. The birds returned when spring came. The concert hod begun before tve arrived. 70. Of the two connected clauses in each of the foregoing sentences, one has a more important rank CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES. 47 than the other. Thus, in the sentence, The birds returned when spring Carrie^ the clause when spring came is said to be dependent or subordinate, because it is a mere modifier of the verb retv/rned. The birds returned is called the leading or principal clause. 71. A sentence that contains one principal clause and one or more dependent or subordinate clauses is a complex sentence. 73. Besides its use as a modifier, the subordinate clause may be used like a noun in the complex sentence. 1. As the subject of the principal clause^ What he said a/mused the cMldren. That he was guilty seemed almost certam, 2. As the object of the verb in the principal clause. Can you explain what you mean? I can not say when I shall return* S. As the object of a preposition. My cov/rse will he determined hy what he says* 73. DEFiisriTiON.— A complex sentence is a sentence that contains one principal clause and one or more subordinate clauses. 74. The principal connectives that join an adjec- tive clause to a noun or a pronoun, are the pronouns 48 ENGLISH OBAMMAB. who, whose, whom, which, that, and the adverbs where and when. The principal connectives that join an adverbial clause to a verb or an adjective are the adverbs where, when, while. The adverbs mentioned above are often called con- jv/active adverbs, because they not only modify the verbs in the clauses they introduce, but also connect these clauses with some word in the principal clause. Exercise 17. — By means of suitable connectives form a complex sentence out of each set of simple sentences, making necessary contractions: -\ Our children always retire for the night. The clock strikes nine. - j The snow remains unmelted longest. ( The drifts are deepest. ( The teacher detained her pupils. 3. \ They had failed in their lessons. ( They had been disord.erly. ( "We sat on the shore at the sea^side. 4. •< The sun sank below the hills. ( The stars began to shine brightly. P j A boy became Lord Mayor of London. (The boy was called Dick Whittington. i The farmer carefully locked the stable-door. 6. •< His horse had already been stolen. ( He valued the horse very highly. i Harry's mother gave him a beautiful pony. 7. •< Harry was ten years old. ( The pony came from Texas. 12. 15. CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES, 49 The whale is not really a fish. It is eagerly huiAed in the Arctic Ocean. Its body yields oil and whalebone. P ( The waters of the Q-ulf Stream grow cooler. ( The Gulf Stream flows northward. ( Tennyson lives on the Isle of Wight. 10. } He wrote the beautiful ** Idyls of the King." ( He wrote them many years ago. ■ We see the lightning. 11. \ We hear the thunder. We may expect rain. The fleeing troops of Sheridan rallied at Winchester. He had ridden twenty miles to join them. ( Whittier saw many things in nature. 13. } Other people could not see them. ( He was a poet. ( Q-eorge Washington was the first President of the 14. } United States. ( He was inaugurated April 30, 1789. {Benjamin Franklin discovered electricity. Benjamin Franklin invented the lightning-rod. Benjamin Franklin was a statesman. Benjamin Franklin was a patriot. QU ESTI ON S. r What are the three offices which a clause may perform in a sentence? "When is one sentence said to be subordinate to another, or dependent on it? Q-ive an illustration of a clause used as an adjective. As- an adverb. As a noun : when it is the subject of a sentence ; when it is the object of a verb; when it is the object of a preiwsition. Point out the principal clause, the subordinate clause, and the con- nective, in each of the illustrative sentences in paragraph 72. Define cmnplex sentence. Point out the principal clause, the subordinate clause, and the connective in each sentence you make in Exercise 17, and tell whether the subordinate clause is a noun, an adjective, or an adverbial clause. 50 ENGLISH OBAMMAB. III. The Compound Sentence. 75. Two simple sentences may be united so that one of them is of higher rank or importance than the other. This, as we have seen, forms a complex sen- tence. 76. Again, two or more principal clauses, with or without subordinate clauses, may be found in a sen- tence. Such a sentence is called a compound sentence. Art is long and time is fleeting. The sun Tiad set, hut the moon was sMning brightly. Either he him^self com^mitted the cri^ne, or he knows who the culprits are. 77. A compound sentence must have at least two principal or independent clauses. Either or all of these clauses may have dependent clauses as modi- fiers, or as objects of verbs or prepositions. When the tide turns the anchor will he raised a/nd the vessel will take its departure. Whittier lives at Ameshury, near the heautiful Merri^ mac that he loved in his youth, and he will probably remain there until he dies. 78. Definition. — A compound sentence is a sen- tence containing two or more principal or independ- ent clauses. Exercise 18. — Form compound sentences of the fol- lowing sets of simple sentences^ and tell which clauses are principal, and which subordinate, ( The rain descended. 1. •< The floods came. ( The winds blew. 2. < CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES. 51 The frost killed the leaves. The rain loosened their hold upon the boughs. They floated silently to the earth. wThe snow covered them with its white mantle. .1 His fevered brow grew cool again. He breathed a blessing on the rain. 4. ( It was the month of November. ( The sun shone warm and bright. ( The door was softly opened. 5. •< A little girl peeped in. ( She quickly ran away again. ^ j The night grows dark. ( Thick drops patter on the pane. ^ j The men could not go sailing. ( A storm had arisen. 8. 10. (A. (ari^ soft answer turneth away wrath. G-rievous words stir up anger. \ Master books. [ Do not let books master you. The cork-tree grows to a height of forty feet. Its trunk is from two to three feet in diameter. j There was a strange look in his eyes. I He was very merry. ^ j Conceit may puff a man up. ( It will never prop him up. QUESTIONS. "Wherein do a complex sentence and a compound sentence agree? Wherein do they differ? What is the smallest number of principal clauses you may have in a compound sentence? May you have a subordinate clause in a compound sentence? Under what conditions? Point out the subordinate clauses in th^ illustrative sen- tences in section 77. Define compound sentence. 52 ENGLISH GBAMMAB, Al^'ALYSIS OP THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 79. Sentences may be analyzed by means of dia- grams so as to show the functions of words, phrases, and clauses, and their relations one to another. Dia- grams, however, are not essential to analysis. An analysis, such as the explanation printed below, is sufficient. Tfie feathery snow feU silently to the earth. Subject, Predicate, r— 1 I 1 S. y. snow P. V. fell [The I silently I feathery | to earth ' I the Explanation. — It is a declarative sentence, because it ex- presses a statement. It is a simple sentence, because it contains one subject and one predicate. The subject is Ths feathsry snow. The predicate is fell silently to the ,ea/rth. The subject noun is snow. The predicate verb is fell. The modifiers of the subject noun are The and feathery. The modifiers of the predicate verb are silently and the ad- .verbial phrase to the earth, in which the modifies earth. Mary and I recited a long dialogioe before the school. Subject. Predicate. .^___ ^. N. Mary P. T. recited O. N. dialogue aij(i > before school ^ S. Pr. I ! / I I the 'loiig CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES. 53 The teacher patted the hoy's curly head lovingly and praised his careful work. Subject. Predicate. ' 1 p. V. patted O. N. head S. N. teacher /\ 1 lovingly ^-/ arid V p. V. praised the boy's curly |The O. N. work Ms carefvil The winds and the waves fiercely tossed and buffeted the frail vessel and its passengers. Subject. Predicate. S. N. winds P. V. tossed The S. N. waves I the and >— -y* and >- — C and !/ \p.V.huffeted f \ 6, N. fiercely O. N. vessel the •fraU passeng^ers its Exercise 19. — In accordance with the preceding models, analyze the following simple sentences and explain the analyses: 1. The bright flowers of the morning-glory climbed over the garden wall. 2. The tassels on the maple-trees sway softly in the breeze. 3. A tall lady with dark eyes stood before an ancient mirror. 4. The harvest-moon looked pleasantly down through the great elm-boughs. 5. The wise and strong should seek the welfare of the weak. 6. He put spurs to his horse and galloped away. 7. I have lived by the sea-shore and on the mountains. 8. The billows rolled and plunged upon the sand. 9. The editor read the poem and published it. 54 ENGLISH OEAMMAB. 10. Paris is built on both sides of the Seine, and has many bridges. 11. Fierce winds often sweep over the desert and fill the air with sand. 12. The stars and the moon watched over the lost babes. 13. A white dove fluttered gently down to the little maid. 14. Cool ferns and soft mosses grow abundantly in the ravine. 15. The thirsty horses and cattle drank freely of the pure water. 16. A pretty child swung slowly in a hammock and sang a little song. 17. Madge arose, rubbed the frosted pane, and stared into the starry night. 18. The lost dog wandered about the streets and watched for its master. 19. A soldier's widow and her only child lived in a little hut near the village. 20. We heard the moaning of the wind and the patter of the rain. 21. The deer shrink northward from the settler's fire. 22. There I lingered all October through In that sweet atmosphere of hazy blue. ANAIiYSIS OF THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 80. A fine monwment marked the spot where he was buried. Subject. Predicate. r S» y. monument P. V. marked O. N. spot I A i Ithe ) fine wh:ei:e S. Pr. he P. V. Iwas buried Explanation. — It is a declarative sentence, because it ex- presses a statement. It is a complex sentence, because it contains a principal and a subordinate clause. CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES, 55 The principal clause is A fine monument marked the spot. The subordinate clause is where he was buried; the con^ nective is where. The subject of the sentence is A fine monum^ent. The predicate of the sentence is marked the spot where he was buried. The subject noun is inonwment; its modifiers are the arti- cle a and the adjective fine. The predicate verb is marked. The object noun is spo^; its tnodifiers are ^T^e, and the adjective clause, where he was buried, of which T^e is the subject pronoun, and was buried is the predicate verb. Note. — The higher rank of the principal clause is indicated by being printed in full-face type on heavy lines. The de- pendent clause is joined by a dotted line to the word it modifies. Ths rain that begem so gently soon poured in torrents. Subject. ; Predicate. I 1 I 1 S. y. rain P. V. poured S. P. that The soon ' I in torrents P. V. began I gently I so T?ie house where Jack a/nd JUl lived, stood at the foot of a steep hill. Subject. Predicate. I 1 I 1 S. N. house P. V. stood ' '-' I at foot ' I the of hill la 56 ENGLISH OBAMMAB. We ate and dramk until our hunger and thirst were entirely gone. Subject. Predicate. S. Pr. We II 1 P. V. ate S. N. hunger ! X 1 I*- V. drank until andN S.N. thirst i/ I P. V. were gone |our (entirely An observant country hoy always knows where the robin budlds her nest, and where the squirrel has his home. Subject. Predicate. ! J S. N. boy 1 r S. N. robin P.V.builds O.N. nest /\ Ithe 1 where Iher /i P. V. knows O. cl. / j , An observant country always \ j \! S.N. squirrel P.Y.has O.N. home Ithe I where This Exercise 20. — In accordance with the preceding models, analyze the following complex sentences^ and explain the analysis: - 1. He who cries about spilled milk mourns unwisely. 2. China has many high mountains whose tops are almost always covered with snow. 3. The ermine lives wherever it can find a snug hiding- place. 4. I dozed and dreamed until the dawn flushed through the waning moonlight. ' CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES. 57 5. The children sat by the window that opened upon the veranda. 6. The child that was most loved died soonest. 7. I stood on the bridge at midnight, As the clocks were striking the hour. 8. Jack and Jill lived in a little house that stood at the foot of the hill. 9. Character carries with it an influence that commands the confidence and respect of mankind. 10. The young moon hung in the purple west, When the sun had gone to rest. 11. I admire a boy who has manliness and courage. 12. We stood upon the ragged rocks, . When the long day was nearly done. 13. The bark that is vainly tossed by the tempest may founder in the calm. 14. Winter dies when the violets awake. 15. He who laughs at crooked men should walk very straight. 16. New knowledge that we discover for ourselves, always gives pleasure. 17. Roses were blooming in the gardens of the old Southern houses that stood along the bay. 18. The swimmer bravely breasted the waves, which every moment threatened his destruction. ANALYSIS OF THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 81. The commanders arranged their m^en, and the "baUle began immediately, Subject . Predicate. I 1 I 1 ^^j^^^S^jJ^^onunaiiders^^ P. V. arranged O. N. wen I The I their I and I S. N. battle ! F. V. began I the I immediately 58 ENGLISH ORAMMAB. In the spring a fuller crimson comes upon the rohin's breast ; In the spring the wanton lapwing gets himself another crest. Subject. Predicate. I 1 I : 1 S. y. crimson P. V. comes 12* n I In spring ] upon breast (aiid) I the i I robin's S. N. lapwing ! P. V. gets O. Tf. crest I the ((for) himself I another wanton | jn spring I the Exercise 21. — Study the model given above, and analyze the following compound sentences : 1. The child nestled in the comer, and the wind blew the rain away from her. 2. The cattle are quietly feeding in the pastures, and the people are resting in their pleasant homes. 3. The mountain slopes of Switzerland are covered with vineyards, and pleasant villages fill the valleys. 4. Men may come and men may go, But I go on forever. 5. I love my wife, I love my friend, I love my children three. 6. Now the lost has found a home. And a lone hearth shall brighter bum. 7. We enjoyed our walk, although the rain fell fast. 8. The wind was blowing over the moors. But the sun shone bright upon the heather. 9. The storm had cleared the air, and a heavenly calm succeeded. 10. A torn jacket is soon mended ; but hard words bruise the heart of a child. PART II. ■ • CHAPTER I. THE DIVISIONS OF GRAMMAR. 83. Grammar tells us how words are formed, how they are classified, how they are joined to form sen- tences, how sentences are classified, and the relations that both words and sentences bear one to another. (16.) • 83. Hence, grammar has to do, 1. With words separately considered; that is, not united to express thought. 2. With words joined in sentences. 84. A spoken word is a sound, or a combination of sounds, having a meaning. 85. When a word is written or printed, certain characters called letters are used to represent the sounds of the spoken word. 86. Definition.— Orthography is that part of gram- mar which treats of the correct representation by letters of the sounds that make up a word. The word orthography is derived from two Greek words, meaning right or true, and writing. It means, therefore, correct writing. (59) 60 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 87. In the study of grammar, words are first classified according to the way in which they are used in sentences. This has led to the division of all the words in our language into eight classes, called parts of speech. It will be found, however, that nearly all of these classes or parts of speech may be further subdivided. This process of arrang- ing the words of a language in classes is called classification. 88. Again, if you will look carefully at a sentence, such as, Charles rode on Ms father^ s horse, you will notice that three of the words, rode, his, and father's, are modifications of other words, and that each modi- fication is made in order to express a variation of meaning. Bode is a modification of ride, to indicate that the event took place in past time. His is a modified form of he, and 's is added to father, in both cases to show possession. All such changes are called inflections. 89. Definition. — Inflection is any change in the form of a word to indicate variation in meaning or use. 90. Inflections may be made in four ways : ^ 1. By an internal change in the word; as, ridCy rode; see, saw; man, men. 2. By adding a letter or a syllable ; as, learn, learns, learned; book, hook's, hooks ; straight, straighter, straightest. 3. By the use of auxiliary or helping words ; as, learn, will learn, have learned, had learned; happy, more happy, most happy. 4. By the use of a woi^d quite different in spelling and sound; as, he, am, is, was; good, better , best. THE DIVISIONS OF GRAMMAR, 61 91. That form of a word to which inflections are added is called the stem. Thus learn is the stem to which s and ed are added to form learns and learned. 9^. The inflections of nouns and pronouns are called declensions ; of adjectives and adverbs, com- parisons; of verbs, conjugations. Prepositions, con- junctions, and interjections are not inflected. 93. Then again, in studying words, we may con- sider not only the classes into which they are divided, and the changes they undergo in order to express our meaning, but also their growth and structure, 94. Some words are prime ; that is, they can not be traced back to any simpler words in the language ; as, many bush, tree. Others are compound ; that is, are composed of two or more simple words ; as, rose-hush, apple-tree. Others are derivative ; that is, are built up by adding pre- fixes (syllables placed before) or suffixes (endings) to simple words ; as, befriend and friendship, from friend. 95. Word-formation deals with the study of the growth and structure of words. Summing up, we may say that words are studied as to their classification, as to their inflection, and as to their formation. These are the main divisions of that part of grammar known as Etymology. 96. Definition. — Etymology is that part of gram- mar which treats of the classification, inflection, and formation of words. The word etymology comes from two Greek words, meaning 62 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. true and word. It means, therefore, the science of the true meaning of words. 97. But grammar, as we learned in § 82, treats not only of individual words, but also of the joining of words in sentences. 98. DEFi]sriTio:^r. — Syntax is that part of grammar which treats of the way in which words are joined in sentences. The word syntax is derived from two Greek words, meaning together and arrangement. It signifies, therefore, proper ar- ra/ngement. 99. Syntax lays down the rules that govern the formation of all sentences, whether in prose or in verse. 100. In addition, however, to the rules of syntax, there are special rules for the arrangement of words in the musically measured sentences used in poetry. 101. Definitioi^. — Prosody is that part of gram- mar which treats of the rules that govern verse. The word prosody comes from a Greek word, meaning har- monious. It properly means the m^easurem^ent of verse. Exercise 22. — Complete the following synopsis: Grammar Of sentences ORTHOORAPHY, 63 QUESTIONS. Wliat are the two principal subjects of which grammar treats? Into what may a spoken word be analyzed ? What is Ineant by analysis? How is an elementary sound represented? Define ortlwgraphy. What is the principle on which words are classified? What are the classes called? How many are there? Name them. If you change the form of a word in order to express the meaning you desire to convey, what is the change called ? Define inflection. State four ways in which inflections are made, and give an example of each. What are the inflections of a noun or a pronoun called? Of a verb? Of an adjective ? Of an adverb ? How are words classified according to structure ? What is the difference between a simple word and a compound word? Between a simple word and a derivative word ? Between a compound word and a derivative word? What are the three parts of etymology? Define etymology. Define syntax. Define prosody. CHAPTER II. ORTHOGRAPHY. 103. Definition. — Orthography is that part of grammar which treats of the correct representation by letters of the sounds that make up a word. 103. We must distinguish between spoken sounds and the names of the letters or characters used to represent these sounds in writing or printing. Authorities differ as to the exact number of sounds used in pronouncing the words of the English language, but most of them agree in placing the number at not less than forty-three. 104. An alphabet of a language is composed of all its letters arranged in order. 64 ENGLISH GBAMMAR. The word alpTiabet is derived from alpha and beta, the names of the first two letters of the Greek alphabet. The earliest written characters were, like the Egyptian hieroglyphics, pictures of objects, and from these our letter forms are derived. 105. The letters of the English alphabet are twenty-six in number, as follows: Roman : Aa, Bb, Cc, Dd, Ee, Ff, Gg, Hh, li, Jj, Kk, LI, Mm, Nn, Oo, Pp, Qq, Rr, Ss, Tt, Uu, Vv, Ww, Xx, Yy, Zz. Script : ^a, 3tC "tgc, ^4 ^ < m .3 •-^cc s >» xn ^ ^ ^ i •s ^„^ V 5 ? Is 1 r^ \ 3 3 «M Cs3 >^' A • ,-.-.*-^ ^^^^,^_^ ,-^A. — X ^^^^^^ ,-i-j^— ^ ^^^^ © /248. The uses of the compound personal pro- nouns are two: 1, Reflexive; 2, Emphatic. 24:9 • The reflexive use, indicating that the actor becomes the object of his own action, is seen in the following: I know myself now. — Shakespeare. Ziove thyself last. — UM. He tlwbt wrongs his friend wrongs himself more. — Tennyson. Vaulting ambition wMch overleaps itself, — Shakespeare. 250. The emphatic use is seen in such expressions as, I myself saw the deed. Tennyson employs myself in both ways in the following line : And I vfiyself sometimes despise myself* Parsing. 251. A personal pronoun is parsed as a noun is parsed. (See § 218.) ETYMOLOGY. 109 Exercise 30. — Parse all the personal pronowns in the illustrative sentences found in §§ 334, 336, 337, 343, 349, and 350. Exercise 31. — Parse all the personal pronov/ns in Exercises 28 and 29, QUESTIONS. Wherein do a noun and a pronoun agree? Wherein do they differ? Wliat are some of the grammatical functions of nouns and pronouns? What are the properties of pronouns? What is the noun, to which a pronoun refers, called? Give a sentence in which the antecedent does not precede the pronoun. Classify pronouns. Why are the personal pronouns so called? Name the personal pronouns of the first person. Of the second person Of the third person. Why are the personal pronouns of the first and second persons not inflected for gender? Explain the expression methinks. ^VTiat does the plural form we denote? What is the meaning in the lines quoted in § 334? Quote lines that show the use of tJiou and ye in poetry. Distinguish and illustrate the backward and forward use of it. State, and illustrate the history of its. How are the forms my, thy, etc., and mine, thine, etc., used? Explain the construction, This book of mine. Make sentences showing the reflexive and the emphatic uses of the compound personal pronouns. Interrogative Pronouns. 353. Definition. — An interrogative pronoun is a pronoun used in asking questions. 353. Tlie interrogative pronouns are who^ which^ what, and whether. Who hath Relieved our report, and to whom is the arm of the Lord revealed ? — Bible. * 110 ENGLISH ORAMMAB. What is sweeter than honey f IVJiat is stronger than a lion P— Bible. Tfliich of you by taking thought can add one cubit to his stature 9 — Bible. V 354. Who refers only to hTiman beings, and to personified objects, and is thus declined: Singular, Plural. NOM. who who Poss. whose whose Obj. whom whom 355. Who and whom are always, and whose oc- casionally used alone. Whose, like the possessive cases of personal pronouns, is generally joined to a noun as a modifier. TFho told you so f From whom did you get the book f Whose umbrella did he take ? ThAs is mine, whose is that f 356. Between who and wTvich there is a distinction in meaning. Wlw asks a question in a general way; as, WJiO calls so loud 9 meaning who of all persons. Whdch inquires for a particular individual from a group or class. Which (of the two) is the natural m,a/n And which the spirit f Who deciphers them f — Shakespeare. 357. Which is used in the nominative and ob- jective cases, either alone or as a modifier of a noun, for either number and for any gender. WJiich was it ? T^ich of you told me 9 Which will you hxwe ? ETYMOLOGY. Ill* Wliich hook did he choose f JFJiich numbers did she select ? The word which comes from the Anglo-Saxon, hwilCy con- tracted from hwa-liCy what-Ukey of what kind f » 358. What may be used either alone or joined to a noun. When used alone, it is singular and neuter ; when used with a noun, the noun may be of any gender and either number. What does it matter f What do you want f Wherefore rejoice f What conquest brings he home ? What tributaries follow him to Borne f— Shakespeare. What kinQj going to war against another king, sitteth not down first and consulteth f — Bible. 259. What is often used to introduce an ex- clamation ; as, What dignAty, what beauty , in this change From mild to angry, and from sad to gay 1 — ^Wordsworth. What is sometimes used as an interjection to ex- press surprise ; as. Eh / how ! what ! Captain, did you write the letter then f — Sheridan. 360. Whether is equivalent to which of two? It is now generally used as an adverb. In older En- glish it occurs frequently as an interrogative pro- noun ; as, WJiether of them twain did . the will of his father ?— Bible. 112 EN0LI8H GRAMMAR, Relative Pronouns. 361. Definition. — ^A relative pronoun is a pro- noun that relates to an antecedent and serves to connect clauses. The distinguishing mark of a relative pronoun is that it can not form the subject or the object of a simple sentence, but is em- ployed to introduce a clause. By some a relative pronoun is called a conjunctive pronoun, because it has the power of a con- junction as well as that of a pronoun. In the sentence. The dog dropped the hone, which then fell into the water, which is equivalent in meaning to and it. 363. The relative pronouns are who, whicTi, that, what, with the compound forms whoso, whoever, whosoever J whichever, whichsoever, whatever, what- soever. As and Itut are occasionally found as relative pronouns. 363. Who, which, and what were originally inter- rogative pronouns. Then they came to be used in- definitely in the sense of some person or thing^ especially after the conjunctions if and as, as in the expression, As who should say, etc., .meaning. As if some one should say. Finally, they came to be used as relatives. That, originally a demonstrative pro- noun, became a relative before any of the others. 364. Who and which are declined as follows: Angular and Plural. SingiUar and Plural. NOM. who which Poss. whose whose Ob J. whom which That and what are not inflected to indicate case. ETYMOLOGY. 113 365. Who is now used only for persons, and in personification ; which^ for animals and things with- out life. That may be used for persons, animals, and things. The letter being folded was delivered to the squire, and by him delivered to the messenger, who waited vAthout. — Sir Walter Scott. There is a vast nv/mher of absurd and mischievous fallacies, which pass readily in the world for sense and virtue, while in truth tliey tend only to fortify error and encourage crime. — Sydney Smith. Blessed is the man that walketh not in the counsel of the ungodly. — Bible. Wake, wake I all ye that sZeep.— Longfellow. The songs and fables that are come from father to son, — Addison. 266. That is to be preferred to who and which in the following cases: 1. When the antecedent embraces both persons and things: TTie soldiers and cannon that I saw. 2. As a general rule, who or which is to be used when its clause introduces a new fact about the antecedent ; that is to be preferred when the clause is dependent, and limits or defines the antecedent. * A convenient test to decide whether it is better to use wlio or whdch, or tliat, is suggested by Dr. Abbott: "When using the relative pronoun, use w?io and which when the meaning is and he, it, etc., for Tie, it, etc. In other cases use that, if euphony allows." 114 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. I heard this from the inspector y who {and he) heard it from the gitard that traveled with the train. Fetch me all the hooks that lie on the table, and also the pamphlets, ivhich {and those) you will find on the floor. This rule, it must be admitted, is not generally observed, even by the best modern authors. It was followed, however, up to the beginning of the present century; and there is a tendency among writers of the present day to return to it be- cause of its clearness and convenience. It covers the specific rules given by most grammarians to use that after an adjective in the superlative degree, etc. Dr. Abbott notes the following exceptions: 1. When the antecedent is already restricted by some ex- pression, e.g. by a possessive case, modern English uses who in- stead of that in a restrictive clause ; as. His friends from the city, whom he was not expecting, called at his office. 2. If the relative is separated from its verb and from its ajitecedent, who or which is preferable to that. There are many persons who, though unscrupulous, are commonly good-tempered, and tvho, if not strongly incited hy self -interest, are ready, for the most part, to think of the interest of their neighbors. 3. If the antecedent is modified by tJiat, the relative must not be tJiat. Addison ridicules such language as, TJiat rem^ark that I made yesterday is not that that I said that I regretted that I had made. 4. That, as a relative, can not be preceded by a preposition, and hence, throws the preposition to the end of the clause. This is the rule that I adhere to is perfectly correct; but when the preposition has more than one syllable, and may be mistaken for an adverb, the construction sounds harsh. It is better to say. This is the mark beyond which I jumped, than This is the mark that I jwmped beyond. ETYMOLOGY, 115 5. After indefinite pronouns modern English prefers who. There are many {others, several, those) who can testify, etc. 26*7. Whose is used for persons, for lower ani- mals, and even for things without life, and always to modify the meaning of a noun. On a rock, whose haughty brow. Frowns o'er old Conway's foaming tide. — Q-ray. Sow can we praise the verse whose mtosic flows With solemn cadence and majestic close, Pure as the dew that filters through the rose f — O. W. Holmes. It is more common, however, especially in prose, to substi- tute of which for whose when the antecedent denotes some- thing without life. Society .... has great reason to rejoice when a class, of which the influence is moral and intellectual, rises to ascend- ency. — Macaulay. 368. Which is now used only for the lower ani- mals and things without life. Formerly it was used, for persons, as in the Lord's Prayer: Our Father which art in Heaven, 369. WTUch is frequently used as an adjective ; as, JFhich things are cm allegory. — Bible. In this case, it refers back to a number of incidents already related, and modifies the word Occasionally, the antecedent is repeated for the sake of clearness. He offered no defense for the ridiculous fable of the pigeon; which pigeon (not which fable), on the contrary, he represented, etc. — De Quincey. 116 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 370. In Shakespeare, the which, used to distinguish be- tween two or more possible antecedents, is comrrion. Ths better part of valor is discretion; in the which better part I have saved my life. 371. What is always neuter, and is nsed only in the nominative and objective cases. Its antecedent is never expressed. In meaning, it is equivalent to that which or the thing which. Nominative Case : What is one man's meat is another man's poison. Objective Case : What I Tiave written I have written. The student must consider carefully in determining the case of what. In the first sentence, the clause what is one man's meat is the subject of the second is, and What is the subject of the first is. In the second sentence, What I have written is a noun clause and the object of the second have writteii. What is the object of the first have written. 373. In older English we find the antecedent expressed, as in the sentence, That what we have we prize not to the worth. —Shakespeare. 373. In poetry and elevated prose, wTiat is occasionally found as an adjective : What time the splendor of the setting sun Lay beautiful on Snoivdon's sovereign brow. — Wordsworth. 374. As is used as a relative pronoun after such and same : Nature ever faithful is To such as trust her faithfulness. Tears, such as angels weep, burst forth. — Milton. ETYMOLOGY, 117 275. The compounds whoever^ whichever, what- ever ; whoso, whosoever, whichsoever, whatsoever, are generally used, like what, without an antecedent. Whosoever is the only one declined: NoM. whosoever Poss. whosesoever Obj. whomsoever The forms with so are rarely used in modern English. These com.pounds all have an indefinite or general meaning. WJioso eats thereof forthwith attains wisdom. — Milton. (Whoso = every one who.) I think myself beholden whoever shows me my mistakes. — Locke. {Wlwever = no m^atter who.) 376. The relative is sometimes omitted when it is the object of a transitive verb; as, The booh I purchased = The hook that I purchased. Had I hut served my God with half the zeal I served my Mng, he would not in mine age Have left me naked to mine enem^ies. — Shakespeare. Here we must supply with which after zeal; but such a construction as that above is hardly allowable in modern English, except in poetry. In poetry the relative is sometimes omitted when it is the subject of a verb ; as, *Tis distance (that) lends enchantment to the view. — Campbell. 277. If the antecedent is a personal pronoun, it is often omitted; as, Who steals my purse, steals trash = He who, etc. 378. When whOy which, and what are used in subordinate clauses, care must be taken to determine whether they are 118 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. relatives, or whether they are interrogative pronouns. To de- termine this question in any given case, Professor Bushton sug- gests the following test : " Turn the sentence into a question. If the dependent clause gives the answer to such a question^ the pronov/n is an interrogative;'' as, I ashed who was there. Question.— TFT^^a^ did you ash? Answer.— Who was there f They inquired what he was going to do. Question. — Wliat did thsy inquire ? Answer. — What was he going to do? 379. The person, number, and gender of a relative pronoun are the same as the person, number, and gender of its antecedent. 380. The antecedent may be a noun, a pronoun, a phrase, or a clause. We join ourselves to no party that does not carry the flag cmd heep step to the music of the Union. — Choate. To him who i/a the love of Nature holds Communion with her visible forms, she speahs A various la/nguage. — Bryant. We are hound to obey all the JDivine commands^ which we can not do without Divine aid. Homer is remarTcably concise^ which renders him, lively and agreeable. — Blair's Rhetoric. Here the antecedents are party, Mm, to obey all tine. Divine commands, and the fact that Homier is concise. 381. Occasionally but is found as a relative pronoun. TJiere is not a wife in the west country, But has heard of the well of St. Keyne. — Southey. ETYMOLOGY. 119 382. Clauses introduced by relative pronouns are of various kinds : 1. Coordinate with the clause containing the antecedent, and with it, forming a compound sentence. A relative clause is of this kind when the relative pronoun means a/ad he, it, etc., hut h6y ity etc.; as, The crow dropped the cheese, which (= and it) the fox immediately snapped up. Yesterday I met m.y old school-fellow, whom {= and him) I recognized at once. Although some authors regard sentences like the foregoing as complex, yet they are undoubtedly compound, and there is excellent authority for this view. 2. Adjective, when the relative clause is used to define, limit, or, in other words, to modify a noun or its equivalent. (For the use of wTio, which, and that in restrictive clauses, see § 266.) As, Have you ever heard of Ethan Allen, who captured Ticonderoga ? The mam, that hath no music i/n himself is fit for treasons, stratagem^s, and spoils. 3. Noun. A relative clause used as a substitute for a noun is often introduced by what; as, JVliat the ignorant thinJc of grammar is of no consequence. Here, What the ignorant think of gramm^ar is the subject of is. Within a relative clause, a parenthetical clause is sometimes introduced ; as, We met the Colonel and his wife, who, we thought, were very agreeable people. This is equivalent to We m^et the Colonel cmd his wife, and we thought they were very agreeable people. The sentence is compound, and the relative clause is a noun clause, object of the predicate verb thought. 283. In parsing an interrogative or a relative pronoun, state, 1. The antecedent. 2. The person, number, and gender. 3. The case. 4. The reason for the case : of what verb it is the subject, etc. 120 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Exercise 32. — In the following excerpts point out the clauses introduced hy relative pronouns, state whether they are noun or adjective clauses, and parse each of the relative pronouns : 1. There is no creature with which man has surrounded himself that seems so much hke a product of civilization, so much like the result of development in special lines and in special fields, as the honey-bee. — Burroughs. 2. Katrina Van Tassel was withal a little of a coquette, as might be perceived even in her dress, which was a mixture of ancient and modern fashions, as most suited to set off her charms. — Irving. 3. Who is the happy warrior? Who is he That every man in arms should wish to be? It is the generous spirit who, when brought Among the tasks of real life, hath wrought Upon the plan that pleased his boyish thought. Whose high endeavors are an inward light That makes the path before him always bright ; Who with a natural instinct to discern What knowledge can perform is diligent to learn; Abides by this resolve and stops not there. But makes his moral being his prime care. — Wordsworth, 4. What surprised me most was the sound of my own voice, which I had never before heard at a declamatory pitch, and which impressed me as belonging to some other person, who — and not myself — ^would be responsible for the speech : a prodigious consolation and encouragement under the circum- stances. — Hawthorne. aUESTIONS. "WTiereiii do a personal pronoun and a relative pronoun agree ? "WTierein do they differ? Wherein do an interrogative pronoun and a relative pronoun agree? Wherein do they differ? When they are used in dependent clauses, how- can you distinguish between who., which., and ivhat as relatives and as inter- rogative pronouns ? ETYMOLOGY. 121 Distinguish the use of wJio^ which^ and that^ as regards the gender of the antecedent. What is the general rule with regard to the use of the relative pro- noun in co-ordinate and restrictive clauses? Under what circumstances are who and which to be preferred to that in restrictive clauses? State with regard to each of the illustrative sentences in § 380, whether it is compotind or complex, and give a reason in each case. Demonstrative Pronouns. 384. Definition. — A demonstrative pronoun is a pronoun used to point out that to which it refers. 385. The demonstrative pronouns are this with its plural these^ and that with its plural those. 386. G-rammarians differ greatly about the classification of these words. Some call them pronouns ; some, adjectives ; some, adjective pronouns ; and others, pronominal adjectives. In this book they will be called demonstrative pronouns when they stand alone, and adjectives when they are used to modify the meanings of nouns. Some grammarians include yon and yonder among demonstrative pronouns, but it is perhaps better to regard them as adjectives. 387. Demonstrative pronouns are used under the following conditions : 1. When they introduce or specify some person or object, this referring to the nearer, that to the more distant. This is my hook. Is that your cane ? Are these your gloves f Those are my friends. 2. When they have a backward reference and are equivalent to the one .... the other ; this referring 122 ENGLISH QBAMMAB, to the latter of two things mentioned, that to the former. Some place their bliss in action, some in ease. Those call it pleasure, and contentment these, — Pope. .... reason raise o'er instinct as you can In this 'tis God directs, in that 'tis man. — Pope. 3. When that or those is used to prevent the repetition of a preceding noun ; as, The castle of Sterling is such another as that of Edinburgh. — Smollett. The mercantile buildings of New York are finer than those of London, 4. When this or that refers to a word, phrase, or clause going before ; as, He Tiad great store of knowledge. This he used to the great- est possible advantage. To be or not to be, that is the question. Indefinite Pronouns. 388. Definition. — An indefinite pronoun is a pro- noun that does not denote any particular object. 389. The indefinite pronouns are one, none, some, any, aught, naught, each, every, either, neither, other, else, sundry, several, certain, all, with various com- pounds. 390. Some of these words are used as pronouns ; others, as adjectives ; most of them, in both ways. When used as pronouns, they are called indefinite ETYMOLOGY. 123 pronouns ; when used to modify the meanings of nouns, they are adjectives. 391. One is simply the numeral one with derived meanings. It is used both as a pronoun and as an adjective. As a pronoun, it has a plural ones and a possessive case one's. Its principal meanings are as follows : 1. As denoting people in general; as, One can say to one^s friend the things that stand in need of pardon, and at the same time 'be sure of it. — Pope. The reflexive forms one's self and oneself are used with the same meaning. 2. To avoid the repetition of a noun already used; .as^ You seem to he a close observer, sir, — Necessity has made me one. 3. As correlative with other , to distinguish two different persons; as, Two men went up into the Temple to pray ; the one a Pharisee, and the other a publican. — Bible. 4. As equivalent to person^ creature, or being ; as, Take heed that ye despise not one of these little ones. — Bible. 393. Any one, some one, no one, each one, either one, neither one, every one, the one, etc., may be re- garded as compounds of one^ and, in parsing, should be treated as single words. 393. None, derived from the Anglo-Saxon ne, not, and an, one, means strictly not one. It is used only 124 ENGLISH GBAMMAR, as a pronoun, and should be always singular, though occasionally it is found in good authors in the pluraL Its derived form no is used as an adjective. Seed not though none should call thee fair. — ^Wordsworth. Terms of peax^e were none vouchsafed. — Milton. Other hope had she none, — Longfellow. She hnd no honnet on her head. — Dickens. 394. Some is used both as a pronoun and as an adjective. As a pronoun it is used both in the singular and in the plural. In the singular it usually implies quantity. Of the grain, some was ripe and some was not. Some of his skill he taught to me. — Sir Walter Scott. Some said one thing, and some said another. 395. Any is used as a pronoun and as an ad- jective. With a singular noun, it generally implies quantity; with a plural noun, number. Used in a negative sentence, it excludes all. Wlio is he/re so base, tliat would be a hondm^an f If any, speak; for him have I offended. — Shakespeare. He never had any influence. He has not received any letters. 396. Aught, and the negative form naughty are equivalent respectively to anything and nothing^ and are used as pronouns; as, Nothing extenuate. Nor set down aught in malice. — Shakespeare. If naught in loveliness compare, With what thou art to me. — Wordsworth. ETYMOLOGY, 125 397, Each and every are sometimes called dis- tributive pronouns, because they refer to the mem- bers of a class. Note the distinction in meaning: Each means all the individuals of a class taken separately ; every means all the individuals of a class taken collectively. Each may refer to two, or to more than two ; every always implies more than two. Each is used both as a pronoun and as an adjective ; every, as adjective only ; as, Th^t each who seems a separate whole slwuld move Ms rounds. — Tennyson. Every soldier was on duty, except the cavalry, 398, The expressions each other^ every other, no other, one another, etc., are generally regarded as compound indefinite pronouns; as, They did not speak to each other. I know no other. 399, Other is used as an adjective in such phrases as the other day, some other iDook. It is a common error to substitute the adverb otherwise for other ; as, He had no love for literature, poetical or other, — not otherwise. 300. Used as an indefinite pronoun, other has a possessive other's and a plural others; as, Sow well I have perform^ed my part, let others judgeo The other^s judgmem^t is too severe, 301. Another is to be distinguished from the other. The latter means the second of two; the former, one of any number more than two. 126 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 303. Either and neither, sometimes called alter- native pronouns, mean respectively one of the two, and not one of the two. They are used both as pro- nouns and as adjectives, and have the possessive forms either^s and neither's. Truth may lie on both sides, on either side, or on neither, — Carlyle. So parted they as either^s way led. Neither^ s clavm was just. Occasionally we find either used for each; as, On either side is level fen. — Crabbe. It is better to use each for one and other ; either, for one or other ; as, Each clai/med to he right; either might have teen mistaken. 303. Either or neither should never be used to refer to more than two objects. For neither in the following sentence substitute no one: Only three persons saw the act, and neither of theni would testify. 304. Certain is used both as a pronoun and as an adjective ; as, To hunt the hoar with certain of his friends. — Shakespeare. A certain man planted a vineyard. — Bible. 305. Same is used with the to prevent the rep- etition of the noun to which it refers, and is then an indefinite pronoun ; as, Se that ahideth in me, and I in him,, the same hringeth forth m^uch fruit. — John xv. 5. This usage is now generally confined to legal phraseology. ETYMOLOGY, 127 306. Such is commonly used as an adjective, oc- casionally as a pronoun: Such harmony is in immortal souls. — Shakespeare. Mere strength of wnderstandmg would Iiave mode Mm such in any age. — De Quince y. Usage justifies tlie use of su^h witli another adjective, though some grammarians have pronounced it wrong. Milton speaks of such worthy attempts. 307. So is often used with the force of an in- definite pronoun, when we might expect such; as, We think our fathers fools, so wise we grow ; Our wiser sons, no doubt, will think us so, — ^Pope. Exercise 33. — Parse fully each ^ronowa in the following selections: 1. Shall I ask the brave soldier who fights by my side In the cause of mankind, if our creeds agree? — Moore. 2. Apologies only count for that which they do not alter.— Disraeli. 3. They rested there, escaped awhile From cares that wear the life away. — WMUier 4. Kind as a mother herself, she touched his cheeks with her hands. 5. What is noble ? — that which places Truth in its enfranchised will. Leaving steps, like angel traces, That mankind may follow still. E'en though scorn's malignant glances Prove him poorest of his clan. He's the noble — who advances Freedom, and the Cause of Man ! — Swain. 6. The other weapon with which Thoreau conquered all obstacles in science was patience. He knew how to sit immova- 128 ENGLISH ORAMMAB. ble — a part of the rock he rested on — until the bird, the reptile, the fish, which had retired from him, should come back and resume its habits, — nay, moved by curiosity, should come to him and watch him. — Emerson. 7. Gorgeous she entered the sunlight which gathered her up in a flame. While straight in her open carriage, she to the hospital came. — Mrs. Browning. 8. He giveth little who gives but tears. He giveth his best who aids and cheers. He does well in the forest wild Who slays the monster and saves the child; But he does better, and merits more Who drives the wolf from the poor man's door. — Trowbridge. 9. Her presence lends its warmth and health To all who come before it. If woman lost us Eden, such As she alone restore it. — Whittier. 10. That power of endurance, that quickness of apprehen- sion, that calmness of judgment, which enable man to seize the opportunities that others lose, and persist in the lines of con- duct in which others fail — are these not talent ? — are they not in the present state of the world, among the most distinguished and influential of mental gifts? — Buskin. Exercise 34. — Make sentences containing this, that; these, those; one's, ones; each other, one another; either, neither; the one, the other. THE ADJECTIVE. 308. Definition. — An adjective is a word used to aid in denoting more exactly what is named by a noun, or the equivalent of a noun. (Work again Exercise 3.) ETYMOLOGY, 129 309. An adjective may be used in either of two ways : 1. To modify the meaning of a noun or its equivalent directly; as, A red apple. A man, wise and goodf was elected mayor, 2. As the comple- ment of a verb of incomplete predication ; as, The apple is red. The hoy has become wise. In the latter case the adjective modifies the meaning of the subject noun, or its equivalent, indirectly. Classes. 310. Adjectives are divided into three principal classes : I. Adjectives of quality ; as, good, bad, fine, coarse^ thick, Am^erican, English, French, Homeric, etc. n. Adjectives of quantity ; as, much, little, enoug\ all, one, two, three, etc. III. Demonstrative adjectives ; as, A, an, the, your^ first, second, tenth, this, that, these, those, etc. 311. Adjectives of quality denote the kind of thing that the noun names, or the class to which it belongs. Adjectives derived from proper nouns, as, American, German, French, are called proper ad- jectives, and should always be written with capital letters. 313. Adjectives of quantity tell either how many or how much we mean of that which the noun names. They include, 1. The cardinal numeral adjectives: one^ twOy three, etc. 130 ENGLISH OBAMMAB. The words pair, dozen, hundred, thousand, milUon, are sometimes nouns, and may be used in the plural. One, two, etc., may also be used as nouns, as in the expres- sion, TTiere are three ttvos in six. 2. Words of indefinite meaning: all, half, many, few, much, little, several, enough. Most of these words may also be used as nouns ; as. All is lost. Much remains to he done. Enough has been said. In such expressions as, A great many men, Full many a flower, the modifying words, A great many and full many a, are best parsed as phrase adjectives. Little, as in, to make much out of little, means hardly any thing. A little, as in, you have a little money, means some. In the same way few means hardly any; and a few means some; as, I have a few things against thee. — ^Bible. Few of their ships were taken. — Smollett. 313. Demonstrative adjectives include: I. The Article. There are two articles: an, some- times contracted into a, called the indefinite article; and the, called the definite article. II. Ordinal numeral adjectives ; as, first, second, third, to point out which one of a series. III. Words like yon, yonder; this, that; these^ those; when used as adjectives. 314. The indefinite article an, derived from the numeral one, is used in speaking of any one of the things for which the noun is the name ; as, an orange, an old m.an. The form an is used before words beginning with a vowel sound ; as, an apple, an heir. ETYMOLOGY. 131 An drops the n and becomes a before a word be- ginning with a consonant sound, and with u when it has the force of yu; as, a man^ a horse, a wire, a year, a university. 315. Some writers, though by no means all, use an before vocal ti, where the accent falls on the second syllable of the word ; as, an historical event. 316, Where several objects are mentioned, each to be considered separately, the indefinite article should be repeated before each ; as, Leawe not a foot of verse, a foot of stone, A page, a grave, that they can call their own. — Pope. 31T. But where two or more nouns refer to the same person or thing, the indefinite article should precede only the first. A Jcing and a spriest refers to two different men. A Icing and priest means that one man holds both offices. By the same rule, A black and a white horse, means two different horses ; a black and white horse, means that both colors are to be found on the same horse. 318o As the indefinite article points out one thing of a kind or class, it should never be used with a word denoting a whole kind or class. We should never say, A silk-worm is a kind of a cater- pillar, but, A silk-worm is a kind of caterpillar, 319. Where a noun preceded by the indefinite article has two or more adjective modifiers, all of 132 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. the same general meaning, the article should be prefixed only to the first ; as, There is about the wTiole hook a vehementy contentious, re- plying manner. But when a marked distinction or emphasis is to he noted, the article should be repeated before each adjective ; as, He went like one tJiat hath been stimned. And is of sense forlorn; A sadder and a wiser man Se rose the morrow m^orn. — Coleridge. 330. The definite article the has several uses: 1. To point out a particular object, or class of objects ; as, The man that hath no music in him^self Nor is not moved with concord of sweet sou/nds. Is fit for treasons, stratagenfis, and spoils. —Shakespeare. 2. To point out some object previously known or mentioned ; as, I can not agree with the editorial I read this m,orrwng, 8. To call attention to a proper noun, naming some distinguished person or thing ; as, Shakespeare was the Homier of our dram^atic literature. We speak also of the Smiths, the Macdonalds, as members of the same clan or family; and of the Hudson, the Alps, the Mediterranean. 4. To indicate a whole class ; as in the names of nations, the French, the Spanish, the Scot, the ETYMOLOGY. 133 Mexican; in singular nouns used as terms in the natural sciences, the geranium^ the cat, the hear; in the names of professions, as, the church, the bar, the army. 5. With an adjective to form an equivalent for an abstract noun ; as, the true, the beautiful, 331. When two or more nouns in apposition, or when two or more adjectives, modify the meaning of the same noun, the definite article, except for the sake of emphasis, is placed only before the first; as, I received a visit from Mr. Bichardsoriy the "broker cmd real estate agent. If parts allure thee, think how Bacon sMned, The wisest, brightest, meanest of m^ankind. — ^Pope. When the adjectives do not describe one and the same thing, the article must be repeated if the noun is in the singular, or it must be placed before the first adjective only, if the noun is in the plural; as, The first and second chapters of Genesis, or, The first and the second chapter of Genesis. Inflection. 333. Adjectives are not infiected to express gen- der, person, or case ; but qualitative and a few quan- titative adjectives undergo changes to express the degree or relative amount of the quality or the quantity. These changes are called degrees of com- parison. 333. There are three degrees of comparison : the positive, the comparative, and the superlative. 134 ENOLISH GRAMMAR. 324t. Definition. — The positive degree of an ad- jective is the form of it that implies the comparison of one thing or group of things with all the rest of the class. A tall tree. A good man, A fast train. 335. Definition. — The comparative degree of an adjective is the form of it that is used to denote that one thing or class of things has more or less of a certain quality than another thing or class of things. John is stronger than James. Oranges are less sour than lemons. 336. Definition. — The superlative degree of an adjective is the form of it that is used to denote that' one of three or more things or classes of things, has the highest or the lowest degree of a certain quality. Jupiter is the largest of the planets. Diamonds are the least perishahle of precious stones. 337. The following rules are given for forming the comparative and superlative degrees from the positive. . 1. Adjectives of one syllable, and many adjec- tives of two syllables usually add er to the positive to form the comparative, and est to form the super- lative. Positive. Comparative. ^perlative. bright brighter brightest happy- happier happiest able abler ablest mellow mellower mellowest genteel genteeler genteelest ETYMOLOGY, 135 The following orthographical changes should be noted : (a) If the positive ends in e silent, only r and st are added: brave braver bravest (6) Adjectives ending in a single consonant pre- ceded by a single vowel double the final consonant before er and est. red redder reddest big bigger biggest hot hotter hottest (c) If the positive ends in y^ preceded by a con- sonant, the y is changed into i before er and est. pretty prettier prettiest 2. Adjectives of more than two syllables usually form the comparative and superlative degrees by prefixing more and most^ or less and least^ to the simple form of the adjective. beautiful more beautiful most beautiful cheerful less cheerful least cheerful 328. This last is not a true inflection, but a sub- stitute for inflection. Some writers prefer the forms in er and est even for very long words. Thomas Carlyle uses fruitfuUer^ powerfullest, inflammablest It is largely a matter of euphony. In the older writers, double comparatives and superlatives, such as wore braver , most imJcindest, are used. These are now regarded as incorrect. 136 ENGLI8R GBAMMAE. 339. Some adjectives, few in number but of very- frequent occurrence, are irregular in their compari- son. The most important are given below: Superlative, best worst least most most latest, last farthest nearest oldest, eldest furthest foremost, first hindmost inmost, innermost (outmost, outermost, 1 utmost, uttermost nethermost upmost, uppermost nigh est, next topmost The double comparatives worser and lesser are now seldom used. Older and oldest are used of both persons and things ; elder and eldest of persons only ; as. My eldest sister. Former, latter, elder, upper, inner, are now used principally to mark relations of space or time, seldom as comparatives. Positive, Comparative, good better bad, ill, or evil worse nttie less much more many more late later, latter far farther near nearer old older, elder forth, adv. further fore former hind hinder in, adv. inner out, adv. outer, utter neath, prep. nether up, prep. upper nigh nigher top, noim rath, rathe rather 330. Adjectives that in themselves express the highest degree of a quality, or that have no shades of meaning, are not compared ; as, supreme, extrern.e, eternal, infallible, perpendicular, dead. ETYMOLOGY. 137 331. The comparative degree of an adjective is used when two things are compared ; the superlative^ when more than two are compared. Of two such lessons, why forget The nobler and the manlier one ? — Byron. This, though a good rule for beginners, is not always adhered to by writers , of authority. Thack- eray writes, TMs court had been the most magnificent of the two. 333. When a comparative is used with than, the thing compared must always be excluded from the class of things with which it is compared. Brazil is larger than all the countries of South America^ should read, Brazil is larger than all the other , etc. 333. When a superlative is used, the class that furnishes the objects of comparison, and that is introduced by o/, should always include the thing compared. Brutus was the noblest Boman of them aZL This rule is violated by Milton in, Adam, the goodliest man of men since horn His sons; the fairest of her daughters, Eve. 334. The noun or a pronoun modified by an ad- jective is sometimes understood ; as, When I buy books I always buy the best (books). Substitutes for the Adjective. 335. The principal use of an adjective is to separate the thing we wish to talk about from other 138 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. things having the same name. This purpose, how- ever, may be served by other words or groups of words : 1. A noun or a pronoun in the posssessive case ; aS| A father^ s love = fatherly love. My brother gave me his purse, 2. A noun in apposition ; as, The conductor, Robert Spear ^ told me tTie story. 3. A noun used as an adjective ; as, A gold crown; the cotton m^anufactory. 4. A prepositional phrase ; as, A man of much learning ; a story in three chapters* 5. A verbal phrase ; as, Worlcmen hired to dig ; accidents, resulting in death; tread to eat, 6. An adjective clause ; as. The house that JTach built. Bunyaii was the man that wrote the ^^ Pilgrim^ s Progress J' Parsing the Adjective. In parsing an adjective, tell, I. The class to which it belongs. 11. The degree of comparison. III. The noun or the pronoun whose meaning is modified. ETTMOLOOT. 139 Exercise 35. — In the following selections, parse the adjectives; point out all adjective phrases and clauses; and tell what each modifies : 1. There is no kind of achievement you could make in the world that is equal to perfect health. ~ Car Z^/Ze. 2. Know ye the land where the cypress and myrtle Are emblems of deeds that are done in their clime. Where the rage of the vulture, the love of the turtle, Now melt into sorrow, now madden to crime? — Byron. 3. In this country, where the rough and ready understanding of the people is sure at last to be the controlling power, a pro- found common sense is the best genius for statesmanship. — Lowell. 4. However good you may be, you have faults ; however dull you may be, you can find out what some of them are ; and however slight they may be, you had better make some — not too .painful, but patient — effort to get quit of them. — J. RusMn. 5. I had read of the soothing companionship of the forest, the pleasure of the pathless woods ; but I thought, as I stumbled along in the dismal actuality, that if ever I got out of it, I would write a letter to the newspapers exposing the whole thing. — C. D. Warner. 6. The rocks under water took on the most exquisite shades — purple and malachite and brown ; the barnacles clung to them ; the long sea-weeds in half a dozen varieties, some in vivid colors, swept over them, flowing with the restless tide, like the long locks of a drowned woman's hair. — C. D. Warner. 7. I sometimes sit and pity Noah ; but even he had this ad- vantage over all succeeding navigators, that, wherever he landed, he was sure to get no ill news from home. He should be canonized as the patron saint of newspaper correspondents, being the only man who ever had the very latest authentic in- telligence from everywhere. — Lowell. QUESTIONS. Wherein do an adjective and an adverb agree? Wherein do they differ? Give examples of each of the ways in which an adjective may be used. Form proper adjectives from Spain, Britain, Austria, Canada^ Greece, Italy^ Turkey, Scotland, Ireland, Mexico, Holland, Germany, Egypt. 140 EN0LI8H QBAMMAB. Make sentences containing the words hundred^ thousand, and million, used in the plural. Make sentences containing the expressions, little, a little, few, a few. When should an be used? When should a be used? Give the rule for the use of the indefinite article before a series of nouns. Make sentences illustrating the different uses of the definite article. Define each of the degrees of comparison. Distinguish between older and elder as to meaning. Give the rule for the use of the comparative followed by than, and make a sentence to illustrate it. Give the rule for the use of the superlative followed by of, and make a sentence to illustrate it. Point out the errors in the lines from Milton quoted in § 333. THE VEBB. 336. Definition. — ^A verb is a word used to say something about some person or thing. (Read paragraph 21, and work Exercise 4, again.) The word that stands for the person or thing about which something is said, is a noun or a pronoun in the nominative case, and is called, in analysis, the subject noun or the subject pronoun. As has already been stated, a phrase or a clause may take the place of a noun. It is often convenient to speak of a subject noun, pronoun, phrase, or clause, when considered apart from modifiers, simply as the subject of the verb. A verb may tell us with regard to that about which some- thing is said that it does something, as. The sun rises ; or that it is in some state, as, My lady sleeps ; or that it has something done to it, as, The prize is won. 337. With regard to their subjects, grammarians distinguish personal and impersonal verbs. A personal verb is a verb that has a determinate subject; as, Edison invented the phonograph. , What is your ailment? It is bronchitis. ETYMOLOGY. 141 An impersonal verb has no determinate subject. The sub- ject, not clearly present to the mind of the speaker, is indicated by the neuter pronoun it; as, It rains. It snows. How dark it grows ! How fares it with you f Me lists — it pleases me, and Methinks = it seems to me, are impersonal verbs. (See §231.) Classes of Verbs. 338. According to their uses in sentences, verbs are divided into two great classes : Transitive and Intransitive. 339. Definition. — A transitive verb is a verb ex- pressing action that is received by some person or thing : A rolling stone gathers no moss. A soft answer turneth away wrath. — Bible. Vanity Fair wa^ written by Thackeray. The word transitive comes from the Latin transire, to pass over. The action is supposed to pass from the agent or actor to the person or thing acted upon. The person or thing acted upon is expressed, when the verb is in the active voice (see 353), by a noun or a pronoun in the objective case, called, in analysis, the object noun or pronoun. A phrase or clause may take the place of a noun. Some verbs appear to take two objects ; as, I told him the news. Here, news is the object and him is the equivalent of an adverbial phrase, to hirriy and may be parsed as an adverbial objective. 340. Definition. — An intransitive verb is a verb expressing being or state, or action not received by any person or thing : Water is a fluid. The babe sleeps. The sun shines. 142 ENQLISH OBAMMAR. 341. A verb that is usually transitive may be- come intransitive; and an intransitive verb, tran- sitive : 1. Some verbs are used both transitively and intransitively ; as, Transitive, Intransitive. The hoy flies a kite. The eagle flies. The driver walked his horse. . The man walked. The girl ran a needle into her The horse ran away, finger. He speaks many languages. He speaks slowly. In all cases, the sense must determine whether the verb is transitive or intransitive. 2. A verb, otherwise transitive, becomes intransitive when the action is done to the agent, and a reflexive pronoun is omitted ; as, Transitive. Intransitive. The sea broke the ship to The sea broke (itself) on the pieces. rocks. The cook turns the meat. The needle turns (itself) to the pole. The fishermen spread their The clouds spread (them- nets in the sun. selves) over the sky. 3. Some verbs, usually transitive, may be made intransitive by adding predicate adjectives ; as. Transitive. Intransitive. The butcher cuts the meat. The meat cuts tough. The hoy is eating the cakes. The cakes eat short and crisp. She tastes the milk. The milk tastes sour. 4. A verb, usually intransitive, may be made transitive by the addition of a preposition, either separately or in composi- tion ; as. Intransitive. Transitive. He laughed. He laughed at me. He looked. He overlooked the work. ETYMOLOGY. 143 5. Some verbs, usually intransitive, become transitive, when followed by nouns of like meaning ; as. Intransitive. Transitive. He died. He died the death of the righteous. She , sleeps. She sleeps the sleep of the innocent. The hoy ran. The hoy ran a race. 343. Some verbs appear to be used transitively, when such is not the case ; as in the sentence, He ran a mile. Here mile is not the object of ran, but an adverbial objective, or part of an adverbial phrase, a preposition being understood : He rem for a mile. 343. Some intransitive verbs may form the pred- icates of sentences without the help of any other word or words ; as, The hahy creeps. The rose blooms. 344. Some other intransitive verbs can not form the predicates of sentences without the addition of a predicate complement. Such verbs are called in- complete intransitives. (See §49.) The complement may be a noun, a pronoun, an adjective, a phrase, or a clause. 345. Incomplete intransitive verbs may express: 1. The identity of two persons or things. I afn the author of the hook. He is my brother. 2. The assertion that a quality belongs to a person or thing: Gold is heavy. The prisoner is guilty. 3. A presumed identity ; as, He seems, looks, hecomes, wealthy. He seems, looks, hecomes, a rich man* 144 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 346. In all cases where a verb takes after it an adjective that modifies the subject, or a noun or pronoun denoting the same person or thing as the subject, it is an incomplete in- transitive verb ; as, The rose smells sweet. The milk tastes sour, 347. Some verbs in the passive voice (see 354) are used as incomplete intransitives ; as. He was considered a gentlefnan. He was elected PresidenU 348. Some grammarians call an incomplete intransitive verb a copula, because it couples, so to speak, two parts of speech. The complement is also called the attribute, INFLECTIONS. 349. Since the verb is the part of speech used to say something about some person or thing, it is evident that the assertion may be made under vari- ous conditions as to the actor and the receiver of the action, the intention of the speaker, the time re- ferred to, the number of persons or things con- cerned, and the person (grammatical) of the subject. 350. Verbs are inflected to e:5ipress these various conditions or relations, which are called respectively voice, mode, tense, number, and person. These are sometimes spoken of as the properties of the verb. Few of these inflections are true inflections. Most of them are made by the use of helping or auxiliary verbs'; that is, verbs that drop their own meaning for the time being, and aid in expressing the meaning of the principal verb. ETYMOLOGY. 145 Voice. 351. Definition. — Voice is the form of a transi- tive verb that shows whether the subject denotes the actor or the receiver of the action. 353. Only transitive verbs are inflected for voice. They have two voices — the active and the passive. 353. Definition. — ^A transitive verb is in the act- ive voice when its subject denotes the doer of the action. Ccesar defeated Pampey. Here Ccesar, the subject of the verb defeated y denotes the actor ; and, consequently, the verb is said to be in the active voice. 354. Definition. — A transitive verb is in the pas- sive voice when its subject denotes the receiver of the action. Pompey was defeated t?y Ccesar. Here the subject, Pompey y denotes ohe receiver of the action ; and, consequently, the verb, was defeated, is in the passive voice. By studying the foregoing examples, it will be seen that the object of the verb in the active voice becomes the subject when the verb is changed to the passive voice. When the verb in the active voice is followed by an object and an adverbial objective (see 339), either one may become the subject of the passive. I told him the news may be changed either to TTie news was told him,, or to He ivas told the news. In all such sentences as the two examples just given, the noun or pronoun following the verb in the passive voice is in the ob- jective case, and is the equivalent of an adverbial phrase, (See § 209.) 146 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 355. Verbs nsually intransitive, when made tran- sitive by the addition of a preposition, take the pas- sive voice ; as, He ivas laughed at by James, 356. In English, there are no inflections for the passive voice. It is expressed by prefixing the various parts of the verb he to the past participle of the verb. Exercise 36. — Express the sense of the following sentences hy using where possible the passive voice instead of the active : 1. Fear tied his tongue. 2. Fire once destroyed the city of Chicago. 3. Something attempted, something done. Has earned a night's repose. 4. Summer flowers fringe the dusty road with harmless gold. 5. Attention held them mute. 6. His eloquence had struck them dumb. 7. Thy sharp lightning, in unpracticed hands. Scorches and burns our once serene domain. 8. Each thought of the woman who loved him the best. 9. Once a dream did weave a shade O'er my angel-guarded bed. 10. Not a soldier discharged his farewell shot O'er the grave where our hero we buried. Mode. 357. DefitstitioNo — Mode, or mood, is a form or use of a verb that indicates the manner in which the action or state is to be regarded. An action may be regarded as a fact, or as a command, or as merely thought of, or as named after the manner of a noun. ETYMOLOGY. 147 358. Hence we distinguish four modes: 1. The Indicative Mode. 2. T/^e Imperative Mode. 3. Ths Subjunctive Mode. 4. The Infinitive Mode. The forms of the verb in the indicative, suhju/ncti/ve, and im^- perative modes, are sometimes called j^^^ forms, because they are affected by the person and number of their subjects. The* term is used to distinguish them from the forms of the infinr itive, which are not so limited. 359. Definition. — The indicative mode is that form or use of a verb by which it expresses a state- ment or a supposition as a fact, or asks a question. God scatters love on every side Truly among his children all. — J. R. Lowell. Breathes there the man with soul so dead Who never to himself hath said This is my own, my native land f - Sir Walter Scott. If he is wealthy, he is not a gentleman. 860. Definition. — The imperative mode is that form or use of a verb by which it expresses a com- mand, a request, or an exhortation. Go away. Give me that hook, if you please. Go thou and do likewise. As a verb in the imperative mode is- always addressed to some one, the subject is the personal pronoun of the second person, generally understood, as in the first two examples given above : Go (you) away. Give (you) me. 361. Definition.— The subjunctive mode is that form or use of a verb by which it expresses a state- 148 ENGLISH GBAMMAB, ment, or a supposition, not as a fact, but as merely thought of. The word subjunctive is derived from the Latin sub, under, and junctuSy joined, and the mode is so called because it is most frequently used in a clause that is joined in a dependent way to a principal clause. Hence, it is called by some gram- marians the conjunctive mode. 363. A verb in the subjunctive mode is generally, though not always, introduced by one of the con- junctions, if J though, unless, except, lest, that, and the like. The conjunction, however, is not a part of the verb, nor is the subjunctive mode always used after one of these conjunctions. 363. The subjunctive mode may express: 1. A future event about which we are uncertain : Though he slay me, yet will I trust Mm, Take heed, lest thou fall. 2. A wish : I wish Tie were here. Thy Mngdom come, 3. An intention : The sentence is tJiat you be fined ten dollars. 4. A condition regarded as untrue or as uncer- tain : Had he been hilled, it would have been better. Should it rain, I shall not come. 5. A consequence that is untrue or uncertain be- cause a conditipn is untrue or uncertain : Sad he followed my advice, he would now be rich. Should he follow my advice, he would become rich. ETYMOLOGY, 149 364. Three points should be carefully noted by the student : 1. From the fact that a verb is in a conditional clause, it does not necessarily follow that it is in the subjunctive mode. "Whenever the condition is re- garded as true, the verb is in the indicative mode ; as, Subjunctive Mode. — If the earth were flat^ men could not sail around it. Indicative Mode. — If the earth is round, men can sail around it. In the first sentence the earth's flatness is something merely thought of, not assumed as a fact ; in the second, the earth's rotundity is assumed as a fact. » Subjunctive Mode.^ — Though the boy^s coat were made of silk, he would soil it. Indicative Mode. — Though the boy^s coat was made of silk, he soiled it. In the first sentence we speak of a possible, in the second, of an actual, coat. 2. A verb in the subjunctive mode is not always preceded by a conjunction expressing doubt or un- certainty. When the conjunction is absent, however, the verb is either placed before its subject; as, Were I he, I should go; Or the subject is placed after the first auxihary, if the verb consists of two or more words; as, Had he been prudent, he would now he alive. 3. The tendency of modern English is to drop 150 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, the use of the subjunctive mode, and to substitute the indicative. The tendency is not a good one. Exercise 37. — Make four sentences, each contain- ing a verb in the indicative mode. Make four sentences, each containing a verb in the imperative mode. Make five sentences, each containing a verb in the subjunctive mode. Exercise 38. — Qive the mode of each verb printed in italics, 1. Though he lost the battle, he did not lose honor. 2. Though he lose his life, he will not lose his honor. 3. If thou go^ see that thou offend not. 4. Though you fail at first, try again. 5. Though William is tall, he is young. 6. If he were not so tall, less would he expected of him. 7. I do beseech ye, if you hear me hard, Now, whilst your purpled hands do reek and smoJce, Fulfil your pleasure." — Shakespeare. 8. But were I Brutus, And Brutus Antony, there were an Antony Would ruffle up your spirits. 4 Infinitive Mode. 365. Definition. — The infinitive mode is that form or use of a verb by which action or state is named after the manner of a noun. We eat to live. We desire to be honored. * 'Tis hetter to have loved and lost^ T?ia/n n&ver to have loved at a??.— Tennyson. ETYMOLOGY. 151 The name infinitive (from Latin in, not, and finis, limit) signifies that the verb is not inflected to denote person and nvmfiber, as are verbs in the other modes. In only one case is the infinitive form of the verb really ^a anode — that in which it is preceded by a subject, a noun or pro- noun in the objective case ; as, He advised him to proceed, ' (See § 195.) In all other cases, the infinitive is either a noun, an adjective, or an adverb, and might be classed among ver- bals. (See 370.) 366. The preposition to, though placed before the infinitive when used alone, as, to have, to love, to speak, is not a part of the verb, and is generally omitted after the verbs may, can, shall, will, m^usty let, dare, do, hid, make, see, hear, feel, need, etc.; as. You may come. He dared not attempt the journey. You mahe me think ill of you. 36*7. The infinitive mode of a transitive verb re- tains the function of governing a noun in the ob- jective case, and then becomes part of a phrase ; as, I like to hear good music. 368. A verb in the infinitive mode may be used for various purposes in a sentence : 1. As a noun phrase forming the subject. To climb steep hills requires slow pace at first. — Shakespeare. 2. As a noun phrase forming the object of a verb. I Uke to walk. 3. As a noun phrase forming the complement of a verb. To see is to believe. 152 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 4. As part of a noun phrase used as the object of a verb. TTie teacher told her scholars to sing. In this construction the noun or pronoun that precedes the infinitive, is said to be its subject, and is parsed as in the ob- jective case. (See § 195.) 5. As an adverbial phrase modifying the mean- ing of a verb, an adverb, or an adjective. The sower went forth to sow, I am glad to hear this. In this construction the infinitive is, by some gramifiarians, called the gerundial infinitive. 6. As an adjective phrase. Water to drink is scarce, 7. As an adjective phrase forming the comple- ment of a verb. The governor's authority is to he supported. 369. The infinitive has two forms : as, to sit and to have sat; and, in the case of transitive verbs, has forms for both the active and the passive voice : as, to love, to he loved; to have loved, to have heen loved. Exercise 39. — Ghive the mode of each verb printed in italics: 1. The tear-drop who can hlame, Though it diTYi the veteran's aim? 2. Eat lest ye faint. 3. Except ye repent, ye shall all likewise perish. ETYMOLOGY, 153 4. Truth from his lips prevailed with double sway. And fools, who came to scoff, remained to pray, —Goldsmith, 5. Hence in a season of calm weather, Though inland far we 6e, Our souls have sight of that immortal sea Which brought us hither. — Wordsworth. Exercise 40. — Pich out the verbs in the infinitive mode, and tell how each is used: 1. To obey is better than to be punished. 2. It is useless to inquire. 3. The mother rejoiced to hear of her son's success. 4. I am sorry to hear it. 5. The Colonel ordered the soldiers to march. 6. It is a sin to speak deceitfully. 7. The children had a long lesson to learn. 8. To hesitate is to be lost. 9. To know what is best to do, and how best to do it, is wisdom. 10. I tried to remember what I had read about encounters with bears. — C. D. Warner. 11. To rifle a caravan is a crime, though to steal a continent is a glory. 12. That fellow seems to me to possess but one idea, and that is a wrong one. — S. Johnson. 13. Foreigners do not feel easy in America, because there are no peasants and underlings here to be humble to them. — Lowell. 14. I tried to think what is the best way to kill a bear with a gun, when you are not near enough to club him with the stock. — C. D. Warner. 15. The foot is arched longitudinally and transversely, so as to give it elasticity, and thus break the sudden shock when th^ weight of the body is thrown upon it. — O. W. Holmes. 16. Unpracticed he to fawn, or seek for power. By doctrines fashioned to the varying hour; Far other aims his heart had learned to prize, More skilled to raise the wretched than to rise. — Goldsmith. 154 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 17. Modern civilization offers Ho such test to the temi)er and to personal appearance as this early preparation to meet the inspection of society after a night in the stuffy and luxuriously upholstered tombs of a sleeping-car. — C, D, Warner, Verbals. 370. There are two forms of the verb that are called verbals. They are the gerund and the par- ticiple. THE GERUKD. 371. The gerund, or, as it is often called, the verbal noun, is formed by adding ing to the simple form of the verb, and is almost similar to the in-" finitive mode in meaning. 373. Definition. — A gerund is a verbal used as a noun. The word gerund comes from the Latin gerere, to carry, and is so called because the meaning of the verb is carried on be- yond the modes. 373. The gerund has some of the functions of both noun and verb. It is a noun in that it may be the subject of a verb, or the object of a verb or of a preposition ; it belongs to the verb because it is modified by adverbs and adverbial phrases, and, when derived from a transitive verb, governs a noun or pronoun in the objective case. 374. The following are examples of its use: 1. As the subject, or as the complement of a verb. Seeing is believing. Walking is a healthy exercise. Doing good is the only certainly happy action of a man's life. ETYMOLOGY. 155 2. As the object of a verb or of a preposition. JoTwh learns drawing. True worth is in being, not seeming. In doing each day that goes by Some little goody not in dreaming Of great thi/ngs to do by and by, • 375. The gerunds of have and be aid in forming compound gerunds. He is conscious of having done a good action. Seing trusted makes us honorable. 376. We find the gerund used in sucii forms as a-goi/ng, a-milking; as, *' Ttu going a-milking , sir" she said. In the days of Noah, while the ark was dr-preparing, — Bible. Simon Peter said unto thetUy *' I go a-fishing." — Bible. Tlie a in these expressions is not the article, but an old preposition, meaning in or on, which governs the gerund in the objective case. The preposition is probably omitted in the seemingly passive use of the gerund : The house is now building, 377. We find the gerund also in composition with a noun ; as, walking-stick = a stick for walking; carving-knife = a knife for carving. 378. The gerund^ or verbal noun, is to be care- fully distinguished from two other forms ending in ing : {a) The participle, which, while retaining some of the functions of the verb, has those of an ad- jective ; (&) The abstract common noun denoting action; as, The handling of money pleases some people. 156 EN0LI8H GRAMMAR. STi9. To distinguish between the gerund or verbal noun, and the participle or verbal adjective, is not difficult. It is less easy to distinguish between the gerund and the abstract com- mon noun ending in ing. As a general rule, it may be said that when the verbal noun in ing is preceded by the article or is followed by of, it is an abstract common noun; if it governs an objedtive case, it is a gerund ; as, Abstract Noun. — After the passing {= passage) of the aet, the Legislature adjourned. Gerund. — After passing the act, the Legislature adjou/rned. THE PARTICIPLE. 380. Definition. — A participle is a verbal ad- jective. And children coining home from school Look in at the open door. — Longfellow. Up rose old Barbara Frietchie then, JBowed with her four-score years and ten. — Whtttier. The word participle comes from the Latin participare, to share, partake. It is so called because it partakes of the func- tions of a verb and of an adjective. It is verbal, because it is modified by adverbs and their substitutes, and, when derived from a transitive verb, governs an objective case. It is adjective, because it modifies the meaning of a noun or a pronoun. 381. This is the mark by which the participle ending in ing is to be distinguished from the gerund and abstract common noun : if the word modifies the meaning of a noun or a pronoun, it is a parti- ciple; if it is used as a noun, it is a gerund or an abstract common noun. Participle. — Firing his gun, the hunter accidentally wounded a little girl. Gerund. — Firing a gun is a dangerous pastime. ETYMOLOGY. 157 Abstract Common Noun.— T^ firing of the ca/rmon was heard a long dista/nce, 383. The participle has three forms : 1. The present or imperfect participle ending in ing, which expresses the action or state as being still incomplete or in progress; as, Toiling f rejoicing^ sorrowing ^ Onwa/rd through life he goes, — Longfellow. 2!Tew Morn, her rosy steps in the eastern clime Advancing, strewed the earth with orient pearl. — Milton. 2. The past participle, formed in several ways, which expresses the action or state as completed. Something accomplished, something done. Has earned a night's repose. — Longfellow. Ye mind me of departed joys, Departed never to return. — Burns. 8. The perfect participle, which expresses action just completed or still continuing in its effects; as, Saving packed Ms trunk, he was ready to depart 383. The past participles of transitive verbs have a passive force ; that is, the noun modified is the receiver of an action; as. And he, neglected and oppressed, Wished to he with them and at rest. — Scott. 384. Participles are often used as adjectives of quality; as, A startling occurrence. Blasted hopes. In parsing such expressions, it is better to say i/mperfect or past participle used as an adjective of quality. 158 ENGLISH ORAMMAB. 385. In forming the imperfect participle by adding ing to the simple form of the verb, observe the orthographical rules given in § 131 and § 135. Exercise 41. — Note when the form in ing is a gerund, when it is a participle, and when it is an abstract noun. 1. Our united efforts could not prevent his going. 2. Instead of reasoning more forcibly, he talked more loudly. 3. We considered the best methods of raising money; or, more properly speaking, what we could most conveniently sell. 4. Wandering from place to place, she patiently waited her lover. 5. Who has not heard the crying of the children? 6. "Sirrah," replied the spider, *'if it were not for breaking an old custom, I should come to teach you better manners." 7. Reading and writing are indispensable in education. 8. He spent hours in correcting and polishing a single couplet. 9. The groaning of prisoners and the clanking of chains were heard. 10. Besides the nets made by spiders to ensnare insects, some species have the power of running out a long thread, which answers the purpose of a balloon in raising them from the ground and carrying them floating a long distance in the air. — U. S. Morse. Tense. 386. DEFiNiTio:Nr. — Tenses are forms of the verb that indicate the time to which the action or state is referred, and also the completeness or incomplete- ness of the event at that time. The word tense comes from the Latin tempus, time. 387. As three divisions of time may be thought of, time present^ time past, and time future, so there ETYMOLOGY, 159 are three principal tenses— i\iQ present tense, the past tense, and the future tense. Present Tense, I walk. Past Tense. I walked. Future Tense, I shall walk. 388. An action or state may be stated with refer- ence to time present, past, or future, in four ways: 1. As indefinite ; that is, without regard to whether it is complete or incomplete. I walk. I walked. I shall walk, 2. As progressive or incomplete : I am walking. I was walking. I shall he walking, 3. As perfect or complete : I have walked. I had walked. I shall have walked. 4. As continuous up to or before some other time mentioned or implied: I have been walking. I had been walking. I shall have been walking. 389. These variations of tense may be displayed in tabular form, thus : TENSE. INDEFINITE. PBOGRESSIVB OR CONTINUOUS. PERFECT. PERFECT PROGRESSIVE. PRESENT. I love. I a,m loving. I have loved. I have been loving. PAST. I loved. I was loving. I had loved. I had been loving. I shall love. I shall be lov- ing. I shall have loved. I shall have been loving. 160 ENGLISH GRAMMAB. Primary Tenses. I- 390. A tense is present, past, or future, with reference to time ; indefinite, progressive, or perfect, with reference to completeness or incompleteness of action. Accordingly, twelve tense forms may be dis- tinguished. Six of these tenses are usually called primary tenses : The present indefinite, the past indefinite, the present perfect, the past perfect, the future in- definite, the future perfect. 391. The present indefinite is used in various ways : 1. It states what actually takes place. I sit beneath the elm^s protecting shadow. Whose graceful form Shelters from sunshine warm; WMle far around me, in the heated meadow. The busy insects swarm. — James Freeman Clark. 2. It indicates what is customary. So when a good man dieSf For years beyond our ken The light Tie leaves behind himn lies Upon the paths of men. — Longfellow. The mountains look on Marathon, And Marathon looks on tJie sea. — Byron. 3. It is used for the future when the context shows that future time is referred to, or in the case of events expected immediately; as, Dv/ncan comes here to-night. — Shakespeare. ETYMOLOGY: 161 .... When I am forgotten, as I shall be. And sleep in dull cold marble, when no mention Of m,e more m,ust be heard of — Shakespeare. 4. It is sometimes used in describing past events to make the description more vivid; as, A cloud of smoTce envelops either host, And, all at once, the combatants are lost. — Dryden. 5. It is used of an author saying or stating some- thing in his books ; as, Shakespeare says: ''Her voice was ever soft, Gentle and low; an excellent tJung in woman.** The passive form of the present indefinite is, I am taught. I am, loved. 393. The past indefinite tense, Haughty I lovedf expresses an action occurring before the present, without reference to duration of time ; as, I ate a peach yesterday. In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth. It is also used to express what was customary at a former period ; as. Much as he (the Indian) loved war, the fair and open fight had no charms for him. — McMaster. 393. The present perfect tense expresses (1) an action just finished; (2) an action done in a space of time not yet exhausted; (3) something whose consequences still remain : 162 EN0LI8H GRAMMAR. (1) I have sent the letter ; The messenger has come, (2) It lias rained all the week (up to this time) ; We have seen great events this year. (3) I have been a great sinner (meaning I was so in my youth, and now bear the consequences). The form in the passive voice is, I have been taught, 394. The past perfect tense shows that the ac- tion was complete before a certain time or before another action was commenced : / had loved, I had taught. Yesterday at three o'clochy I had completed my work. Before my arrival, he had departed. The form in the passive voice is, I had been taught^ I had been loved, 395. The future indefinite tense expresses an ac- tion referred as a whole to future time: I shall teach ; I shall love. The form in the passive voice is, I sJiall be taught ; I shall be loved, 396. The future perfect tense expresses an action supposed to be complete at some future time: I shall have taught; I shall have loved. In a few years my son will have completed his college cowrse. The form in the passive voice is, I shall have been taught; I shall have been loved. ETTMOLOOT, 163 Secondary Tenses. 397. The progressive forms, called secondary tenses, represent the action as continuous in pres- ent, past, or future time: Active. Passive. Present. I am teaching. I am being taught. Present Perfect. I have been teaching. Past. I was teaching. I was being taught. Past Perfect. I had been teaching. Future. I shall or will be teach- ing. Future Perfect. I shall or will have been teaching. A verb in the indicative mode has all the tenses. Complex Forms of Tenses. 398. Complex forms made by the aid of the auxiliary, or helping, verb do^ are often substituted for the present and past indefinite tenses, indicative mode ; as, I do write. He did write. These are often called emphatic forms, because in speaking the stress of the voice is laid upon the auxiliary. They are most commonly employed, however, in negative and interrogative sentences ; as, Does he write ? jDo I appear cross f I do not know you. We do not teach Latin. Formation of the Tenses. 399. The present indefinite is usually the simple form of the verb. 400. The past indefinite is formed in two ways : 164 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 1. By a change in the body of the word; as, write, wrote. Verbs of this kind are called by some grammarians strong verbs; by others, irregular verbs. 2. By adding d or ed to the present; as, love, loved; walk, walked. By some grammarians these are called weak verbs; by others, regular verbs. In a few cases the final d has been changed into t; as, sleepy slept. 401. The perfect tenses, except in the progressive form, are formed by means of the indefinite present, past, and future of have, followed by the past parti- ciple. 403. The progressive tenses are formed by the parts of the verb be, followed by the imperfect participle. 403. The future tenses are formed by means of the auxiliary verbs shall and will, followed by the infinitive mode. ^__ 404. Care should be taken to use shall and will correctly. Shall originally meant to owe ; as in the words of Chaucer: That faith I shall {I owe) to God. Hence, the word still involves something of the idea of obligation. Will involves the idea of wish or intention, and is more appropriate in the first person as expressing the choice, intent, or decision of the speaker: J tuill speak = It is my intention to speak. ETYMOLOGY, 165 The following rules should be carefully studied: 1. In the first person will expresses a resolution or a promise ; as, We will be avenged . . . we^ll hear him, We^ll follow him, we^ll die with him. — Shakespeare. 2. In the second and third persons will expresses simple futurity: If you visit Mm,, you will find Mm busy, I think it will rain to-day. 3. In the second person in interrogative sentences, will anticipates a wish or intention ; as, Will you dine with us to-7norrowf 4. In interrogative sentences, will should never be used with the nominative case of the personal pronoun of the first person, because we are always supposed to know our own minds. It is nonsense to ask, Will we take a walk ? It is fair to assume that we know whether we have any such intention or not. 5. Shall in the first person is used merely to foretell; as, I shall read awMle. 6. In questions, shall with the personal pronoun of the first person marks a simple interrogation ; as, Shall I see Mm f Or asks permission ; as. Shall I read = Do you wish me, or will you permit me to read? 166 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 7. Shall in the second and third persons, expresses (a) a promise, (&) a command, or (c) a threat: (a) rbtt shall have these books to-morrow = I promise to let you have these hooks to-m^orrow. (&) TTiou slialt Twt steal = I command thee not to steal. (c) He shall he punished for this = I threaten or promise to punish him, for this. The more important of these rules have been summed up in the following verses : • In the first person simply shall foretells; In will a threat or else a promise dwells. Shall, in the second and third, does threat; WiUf simply y then, foretells the future feat. In modification of the first rule it must be added that if a word denoting wilUngness is used, shall should be used instead of will. We say, I shall he happy to accept your invitation ; not, I will he happy, etc. 405. The, tenses of the subjunctive mode are formed in the same manner as the tenses of the in- dicative, except the future, which, expressing a future condition or supposition, takes would, should, or might as the auxihary: If I should strike him, he would fall. Would and should are the past tenses of will and shall, and are used, when auxiliaries, according to the same rules. Might is the past tense of may. 406. The infinitive mode has two tenses, the present and the perfect ; as, to love; to have loved. UTYMOLOOr. 167 407, The imperative mode is used in but one tense, the present. It is the simple form of the verb used as a command, a request, or an exhortation ; as, Strike and spare not. 408, The tenses of the passive voice are formed by the tenses of the verb to be, followed by the past participle of the principal verb. Exercise 42. — Make a list of the verbs in the fol- lowing sentences^ and tell the m^ode and tense of each : 1. During the long journey the lady scarcely spoke a word. 2. No longer mourn for me when I am dead. 3. Rejoice with them that do rejoice, and weep with them that weep. 4. When the child was dead, thou didst rise and eat bread. 5. Day dawns upon the mountain side : — There, Scotland, lay thy bravest pride. — ScotL 6. He had faithfully performed his task. 7. The steamer was going straight for the rocks. 8. That boy shall be made to hold his tongue. 9. When will you see your cousin? 10. ** Listen ! " said the little man, deigning no reply to this polite inquiry. " I am the king of what you mortals call the G-olden Biver. The shape you saw me in was owing to the maUce of a stronger king, from whose enchantments you have this instant freed me. What I have seen of you, and your con- duct to your wicked brothers, renders me willing to serve you ; therefore, attend to what I tell you. Whoever shall chmb to the top of that mountain, from which you see the G-olden River issue, and shall cast into the stream at its source three drops of holy water, for him, and for him only, the river shall turn to gold." Number and Person. 409, A verb is said to agree with its subject in number and person ; that is, it is said to be singular 168 ENGLISH ORAMMAB. or plural, and first, second, or third person, according to the number and person of its subject. Observe the following rules : 1. A plural subject takes a verb in the plural, as, We are successful; a singular subject takes a verb in the singular, as, I ain your brother. 2. When the subject contains two or more nouns joined by and, the verb must be plural ; as, Mary and Jane are sisters. 3. When the subject contains two or more singular nouns joined by or, either — or, or neither — nary the verb must be sin- gular ; as. Either John or James is the culprit. Neither the hutcher nor the taker has called. 4. A collective noun, when singular in form, may take a verb in the plural if the speaker is thinking of separate things ; as, A herd of cattle were grazing in the field. If, however, the multitude is thought of as one thing, the verb should be in the singular ; as. The herd was sold for $2,000. We may say either The committee reports^ or The Corrif mittee report. 410. In olden times, the verb had several inflec- tions to mark number and person. Now, except in the verb to be, there are only two : 1. Ust, st, or t, to form the second person singular of the present and past tenses of the indicative mode ; as, Present: walkest, canst. Past : spakest, calledst, wast, 2. Us or s, and the now little used terminations eth or th, used to form the third person singular, present tense, of the indicative mode ; as, Present : caUeth, doeth, calls, does, searches. In the tenses of the subjunctive mode, the inflection for the third person singular is omitted altogether ; and the inflection ETYMOLOGY. 169 for the second person singular is found only in the forms shouldsty wouldst, and wert. The second person singular is now used only in poetry and in solemn or pathetic prose (see 236) ; as, Happy season of childhood? .... kind Nature, thou art to all a bountiful mother; that visitest the poor man's hut with auroral radiance ; and for thy nursling hast provided a soft swathing of Love and infinite Hope, wherein he waxes and slumbers, danced round by sweetest Dreams !—Thos. Carlyle, Sartor Besartus, 411. A verb in the imperative mode is used in but one person, the second. Exercise 43. — Make sentences containing verbs in the following forms : 1. First person, singular, present, indicative. 2. First person, plural, perfect, indicative. 3. Third person, singular, present, indicative. 4. Third person, plural, past, indicative. 5. Third person, singular, past perfect, indicative. 6. Third person, singular, present, indicative, used interroga- tively. 7. Third person, singular, past, used negatively. Exercise 44. — Tell the mode, tense, person, and number of each verb in the following selections : The more we live, more brief appear Our life's succeeding stages: A day to childhood seems a year. And years like passing ages. — T, Ca/mpbell, Star that bringest home the bee, And set'st the weary laborer free I If any star shed peace, 'tis thou. — T. CampbeU, 170 ENGLISH GBAMMAR. The sun upon the lake is low, The wild birds hush their song, The hills have evening's deepest glow. Yet Leonard tarries long. Now all whom varied toil and care From home and love divide, In the calm sunset may repair Each to the loved one's side. — Sir W. Scott. QUESTIONS. Q-ive the definition of a verb. "What is meant by the subject of a verb? In what case is a subject noun or pronoun? What may be substituted for a noun or pronoun as the subject of a verb? Give examples. What is a, personal verb? An impersonal verb? Give examples. What is a transitive verb? An intransitive verb? Give examples. Give examples of verbs that are usually transitive, being used in- transitively. Give examples of verbs that are usually intransitive, being used transitively. What are the properties of a verb? To what class of verbs is voice confined? Define vmce. Active voice. Passive voice. Define mode. What are the four ways in which the action or state de- noted by a verb may be regarded ? What are the four corresponding modes ? Give a definition of each. What is the important point of difference between the indicative made and the subjunctive mode? Give examples of the five uses of the subjunctive mode. Give examples of the uses of the infinitive mode. In what respect do a gerund and a participle agree? In what respect do they differ? In what respect do a participle and an adjective agree? In what respect do they differ? Explain the idiom, She goes a-milking. Give examples of the gerund in composition. Why is the participle so called? Give examples of the two forms of the participle. Define tense. What are the three natural divisions of time ? What other considerations enter into the classification of tenses? Enumerate the different uses of the present indefinite tense, and give one example of each. What is the difference in meaning between I wrote and I was writing.^ Between I have written and I had written ? Between / shall write and / shall have written? What is meant by strong and weak verbs? What are the other names for these classes of verbs? Give ten examples of each. ETYMOLOGY. 171 How are the perfect tenses formed? The progressive tenses? The future tenses? Give examples of each. What is the original meaning of shall? Of wUl? What does wUl express in fhe first person? In the second and third persons? What does shciU express in the first i)erson ? In the second and third persons ? Make sentences con- taining shaU and wHl in each of the persons. What determines the number and person of a verb? What are the inflections that mark number and person? Conjugation of the Verb. 413. By arranging in an orderly way the verb forms that in the various modes and tenses corre- spond to the different persons and numbers of sub- ject nouns and pronouns, we have what is called conjugation. 413. The present indicative or infinitive, and the past indicative, of any verb, together with its pres- ent and past participles, are called its principal parts, since one of these parts is found in each of the various forms of that verb. 414. A verb that wants any of these principal parts is a defective verb; if any one of these four has two different forms, the verb is a redundant verb. 415. A verb is called a notional verb when it re- tains its full meaning; as, / write^ I will (decide) that you should go, A verb is called an auxiliary verb when it loses its full meaning, and serves merely to help in ex- pressing the meaning of a notional verb ; as. He will go. In the sentence, He tvill go, will does not mean that he decides to go. It merely expresses futurity. In, I have bought 172 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, the house, Tiave loses the meaning of possess and is a mere sign of the present perfect tense. The auxiliary verbs are sJiaU, willj have, he, do, may. Conjugation of Auxiliary Verbs. 416. SHALL AND WILL. Indicative Mode. Slngviar, shall, will, j shalt, ( wilt, ^ shall, ( will, PRESENT TENSE. .1 5 2. Thou 3. He 1. We Plural. j shall, (will, _ ^ ( shall, '• ^"'^ I will. shaU, will. 3. : 1. I 2. Thou 3. He SingtUar. j should, ( would, shouldst, wouldst, j should, ( would. PAST TENSB. Plural. 1. We I 2. You should, would, 5. They] should, would, should, would. ShaU and will, followed by the infinitive without to, form the future tenses in the indicative mode. Should and would, though originally past in meaning, are now used to form the future tenses of the subjunctive mode, particularly when the verb is not preceded by one of the con- junctions expressing a condition, if, though, etc. (See §405,) 'V^Jien should and would are used to state facts, they are notional verbs in the indicative mode and are followed by a de- pendent infinitive ; as, I should like to see you. TTiey would go in hatMng. Will is also used as a notional verb in the sense of choose, determine. It is then conjugated regularly. 417. HAVE. Prin. Parts: Have. Had. PRES. PART. Having. PAST PART. Had. ETYMOLOGY. 173 Indicative Mode. PBES. TENSE. Singidar. 1. I have, 2. Thou hast, 3. He has, or hath, Plural, 1. We have, 2. You have, 3. They have. PAST TENSE. Singular. 1. I had, 2. Thou hadst, 3. He had. 1. We had, 2. You had, 3. They had. Subjunctive Mode. (Generally used sifter i/, thai^ tJwugh^ etc.) PBES. TENSE. Singular. Plural. 1. I have, 1. We have, 2. Thou have, 2. You have, 3. He have, 3. They have. Imperative Mode. PRES. TENSE. PAST TENSE. Singular. Plural. 1. I had, 1. We had, 2. Thou had, 2. You had, 3. He had, 3. They had. Infinitive Mode. PBES. TENSE. PERFECT TENSE. dar. Plural. 2. Have (thou). 2. Have (you or ye). To have. To have had. PBESENT. 1 PAST. PEBFECT. Participle : Having. Had. Having had. Gerund : Havmg. Having had. The verb have is both notional and auxiliary. As a notional verb, meaning possess, hold, keep, it is found in all the modes and tenses. As an auxiliary verb, its present tense is used to form the present perfect tenses of other verbs, as. He has succeeded; its past tense, to form the past perfect tenses, as, He had suc- ceeded; its future indefinite tense, to form the future perfect tenses, as. He will have succeeded; its present infinitive, to form the perfect infinitive, as, To have su^cceeded; and its pres- ent participle, to form the perfect participle and gerund, as. Having succeeded. When it is used as an auxiliary, the original sense of possessing no longer appears. Hast is a contraction for havest ; had, for haved; has and hath, for haves and haveth. 174 ENGLISH OBAMMAR, 418. BE. PRESENT. PAST. PRES. PART. PAST PART. Prin. Parts: Be, Was. Being, Been. Indicative Mode. PRESENT TENSE. Singular. Plural. 1. I am, 1. We are, 2. Thou art, 2. You are, 3. He is, 3. They are. PAST TENSE. Singular. Plural. 1. I was, 1. We were, 2. Thou wast, 2. You were, 3. He was, 3. They were. PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. Singular. Plural. 1. I have been. 1. We have been, 2. Thou hast been. 2. You have been. 3. He has been. 3. They have been. PAST PERFECT Singular. TENSE. Plural, 1. I had been, 1. We had been. 2. Thou hadst been. 2. You had been. 3. He had been, ^ 3. They had been. FUTURE TENSE. Singular. Plural. 1. I shall be, 1. We shall be. , 2. Thou wilt be. 2. You will be. 3. He will be. 3. They will be ; 1. I will be. or. 1. We will be. 2. Thou Shalt be. 2. You shall be, 3. He shall be. 3. They shall be. FUTURE Singular. PERFECT TENSE. Plural. 1. 1 shall have been, 1. We shall have been, 2. Thou wilt have been. 2. You will have been. 3. He will have been. 3. They will have been; 1. I will have been, or, 1. We will have been. 2. Thou shalt have been. 2. You shall have been. 3. He shall have been, 3. They shall have been. ETYMOLOGY, 175 Subjunctive Mode. (Generally used after e/, that^ though^ etc.) PRESENT TENSE. Singvlar. Plural. 1. I be, 1. We be, 2. Thou be, 2. You be, 3. He be, 3. They be. PAST TENSE. Hural. 1. I were, 1. We were, 2. Thou wert, 2. You were, 3. He were, 3. They were. PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. Singular. Plural. 1. I have been, 1. We have been, 2. Thou have been, 2. You have been, 3. He have been, 3. They have been. PAST PERFECT TENSE. The same in form as in the indicative mode. FUTURE TENSE. Singular. Plural. 1 I i Should )^^ ^ ^^ (Should)^ ( would S ' ' \ would S ' „, (shouldst) , ^ ^^ (should) , ^-'^^Hwouldstf^' 2-^°" ] would i^' ^ ^^ (Should ) _ o mi, (should) , 3-S« Iwould f^' ^-T^^^l would [^- FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. Singular. Plural. 1. I \ , -, (• have been, 1. We \ , , (• have been, ( would ) ( would ) ^ ^ (shouldst) , , ^ ^T (should) , 2. Thou \ 1 -, ^ r tiave been, 2. You \ , , [• have been, ( wouldst ) ( would ) ^ „ (should ) , , « n^, (should) , 3. He j \A \ ^^^^^ been, 3. They -j >• have been. Imperative Mode. PRESENT TENSE. Singular. Plural. 2. Be (thou). 2. Be (you or ye). Infinitive Mode. PRESENT TENSE. PERFECT TENSE. To be. To have been. 176 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Verbals. PRESENT. PAST. PERFECT. Participles : Being. Been. Having been. Gerunds : Being. Having been. As an auxiliary the verb he is used, in connection with the present participle, in forming the progressive forms of the tenses ; and, in connection with the past participle, in forming the tenses of transitive verbs in the passive voice. Exercise 45. — Write out the conjugation of the verb write, progressive form, hy joining the present participle to the various parts of the verb h^. 419. DO. PRESENT. PAST. PRES. PART. PAST PART. PA] RTS: Do. Did. Doing. Done. Indicative Mode. PRESENT TENSE. Singvlar. Hural. 1. I do, 1. We do. 2. Thou dost, 2. You do. 3. He does, 3. They do. PAST TENSE. Singular. Plural. 1. I did, 1. We did, 2. Thou didst, 2. You did, 3. He did, 3. They did. Do, as a notional verb, is found in all the voices, modes, and tenses. . Do, as an auxihary verb, has three uses : 1. To form, together with the present infinitive of another verb, equivalents for the indefinite present and past tenses. These equivalents are sometimes used for the sake of emphasis, in which case the stress of the voice in speaking is laid upon the auxiliary; as, I do see; He did fall; She does succeed. Frequently, however, they are used merely to improve the sound ETTMOLOOT, 177 of the sentence; as, Thou dost prefer above all temples the up- right heart and pure. 2. To form equivalents for the indefinite present and past in negative and interrogative sentences ; as, I do not hsar you. Do you Tiear me f Did he not tell you 9 3. To form emphatic imperatives ; as. Do he still. Do keep quiet. Do have patience. In all these expressions do is really a transitive verb, and its object is the verb in the infinitive mode ; but it is more con- venient to parse the auxiliary and the principal verb together as one verb. The verb after do is often omitted ; as, I can not walk as fast as you do (walk). 430. MAY. Indicative Mode. PRESENT TENSE SingtUar. Hural. 1. I may, 1. We may, 2. Thou mayst. 2. You may. 3. He may. 3. They may. Singular. PAST TENSE. Plural. 1. I might, 1. "We might. 2. Thou mightst, 2. You might. 3. He might. 3. They might. Originally I may meant I am able. Now it means I am allowed to. In this sense may is a notional verb, and the in- finitive mode by which it is followed is an adverbial modifier ; as. The Board may elect their own president and secretary. In cases, however, where may is in the subjunctive mode, especially after that and lest, the idea of permission almost disappears, and it becomes an auxiliary, forming an equivalent for the subjunctive mode of the principal verb ; as. Let him eat that he may not grow faint. Be not idle, lest ye tnay come to want. The present and past tenses of the subjunctive mode are the same as those of the indicative, except that the inflection of the second person singular is omitted. PRESENT TENSE. SingtUar. Plural. 1. I can, 1. We can, 2. Thou canst, 2. You can. 3. He can, 3. They can. 178 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Defective Verbs. 421. Several of the auxiliary verbs are defective (§ 414), as has been shown. Several notional verbs, as can^ must, ought, dare, wit, need, hight, dight, are either defective or have some peculiarity in their conjugation. 423. CAN. Indicative Mode. PAST TENSE. Singular. Plural. 1. I could, 1. We could, 2. Thou couldst, 2. You could, 3. He could, 3. They could. In the author's judgment, can is always a notional verb, and the verb following it is in the infinitive mode ; but see § 433. The I in could does not properly belong to the verb. It was inserted to make the word agree in form with would and sTwuld. Originally can meant to know; and from the idea of knowl- edge arose the idea of power. The adjective cunning was originally the present participle of this verb. 433« Must is now used only in the present tense, indicative mode. It has no variations of form. It is always notional, and is followed by a dependent infinitive ; as, He must he mistaken. 434. Ought has but one change of form ; it adds -est for the second person singular. Ought, though now generally used in the present tense, is an old form of the past tense of the verb owe. To express past time the dependent infinitive after ought must be past ; as. These tMngs ought ye to have done. 435. To wit, meaning to know, is now used only in the in- finitive mode in the sense of namely, that is to say. The forms I wot, God wot, are found in old writers. ETYMOLOGY. 179 436. For metMnkSy me UstSy see §231, and §337. 4:211 • Sight means was or is called. It has no other forms. "A most singular word," says Skeat, ** presenting the sole in- stance in English of a passive verb." 438. Needy when it means to he in want o/, is conjugated in the ordinary way. "When it conveys the sense of being under a necessityy the third person singular is He needy not He needs. The third person singular needs must not be confounded with the adverb needs; as, He needs advice. He must needs go through Sam^aria. 439# Dight, a past participle, now rarely used, is a short- ened form of dighted, meaning prepared, adornedy as in Milton's line, The clouds in thousand liveries dight. 430. Dare, meaning to have couragCy to venture, has both da/re and dares in the third person singular, present tense of the indicative mode, and a past tense durst. The Duke Bare no more stretch this finger of mine Than he dare stretch his own. — Shakespea/re. I dare do all that may become a man. Who dares do more is none. — Shakespeare. Dare, meaning to challenge, defy, has a past tense dared, and is conjugated in the regular way. 431. Quoth is used only in the first and third person singular, past tense, and means said J, saAd he. It is now rarely used. Exercise 46. — With regard to each of the finite verbs in the following sentences, tell its tense and mode and whether it is used as a notional or as an auxiliary verb: 180 EN0LI8H GRAMMAR. You may go. May you be happy ! She can sing. He willed that I should remain. He will be present. Virtue shall have its reward. Does your mother know of this? She does not know. Beware lest you should fall. She does her work ad- mirably. He did what he could. I will help you if I can. He durst not go home. He should be richer than he is. 433. To show in both voices the conjugation of a verb, it will be necessary to select a transitive verb, since both voices are found only in transitive verbs. We give, therefore, the Conjugation of the Transitive Verb See. Pein. Parts : See, Saw, PEES. PART. Seeing, PAST PABT. Seen. INDICATIVE MODE. PRESENT TENSE. ACTIVE VOICE. Singular. Plural. 1. I see, 1. We see. 2. Thou seest. 2. You see, 3. He sees, 3. They see. PASSIVE Singular. VOICE. Plural. 1. I am seen. 1. We are seen. 2. Thou art seen. 2. You are seen, 3. He is seen. 3. They are seen. PAST TENSE. ACTIVE Singular. VOICE. Plural. 1. I saw. 1. We saw, 2. Thou sawest. 2. You saw. 3. He saw. 3. They saw. PASSIVE Singular. VOICE. Plural. 1. I was seen, 1. We were seen, 2. Thou wast seen, 2. You were seen, 3. He was seen. 3. They were seen. ETYMOLOGY, 18] PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. ACTIVE VOICE. Singular. Plural. 1. I have seen, 1. We have seen, 2. Thou hast seen, 2. You have seen, 3. He has seen, 3. They have seen. PASSIVE VOICE. Singular. Plural. 1. I have been seen, 1. "We have been seen, 2. Thou hast been seen, 2. You have been seen, 3. He has been seen, 3. They have been seen. PAST PERFECT TENSE. ACTIVE VOICE. Singular. Plural. 1. I had seen, 1. We had seen, 2. Thou hadst seen, 2. You had seen, 3. He had seen, 3. They had seen. PASSIVE VOICE. [r. Plural. 1. I had been seen, 1. We had been seen, 2. Thou hadst been seen, 2. You had been seen, 3. He had been seen, 3. They had been seen. FUTURE TENSE. ACTIVE VOICE. Singular. Plural. 1. I shall or will see, 1. We shall or will see, 2. Thou shalt or wilt see, 2. You shall or will see, 3. He shall or will see, 3. They shall or will see. PASSIVE VOICE. Singular. Plural. 1. I shall or will be seen, 1. We shall or will be seen, 2. Thou shalt or wilt be seen, 2. You shall or will be seen, 3. He shall or will be seen, 3. They shall or will be seen. FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. ACTIVE VOICE. PlurcU. 1. I shall or will 1 , 1. We shall or will ^ , have have 2. Thou shalt or wilt > 2. You shall or will f 3. He shall or will J ^®®^' 3. They shall or will J ^^^* 182 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. PASSIVE VOICE. SingtUar. 1. I shall or will 1 have 2. Thou shalt or wilt > been 3. He shall or will J seen, Plural. 1. We shall or will ] have 2. You shall or will \ been 3. They shall or will J seen. SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. (Q-enerally used after if, lest, thxmgh, etc.) PRESENT TENSE. ACTIVE VOICE. Singular. Plural. 1. I see, 1. We see. 2. Thou see. 2. You see. 3. He see. 3. They see. Singular. PASSIVE VOICE. Plural. 1. I be seen, 1. We be seen. 2. Thou be seen, 2. You be seen, 3. He be seen. 3. They be seen. PAST TENSE. Singular. ACTIVE VOICE. Plural. 1. I saw. 1. We saw. 2. Thou saw. 2. You saw. 3. He saw. 3. They saw. Singular. PASSIVE VOICE. Plural. 1. I were seen, 1. We were seen. 2. Thou wert seen, 2. You were seen. 3. He were seen, 3. They were seen. Sirvgvlar. I, thou, he have seen. PBESENT PERFECT TENSE. ACTIVE VOICE. PlurcA. We, you, they have seen. Sirt^ar. I, thou, he have been seen. PASSIVE VOICE. Plural. We, you, they have been seen. ETYMOLOGY, 183 PAST PERFECT TENSE. ACTIVE VOICE. Singular. Plural. I, thou, he had seen. "We, you, they had seen. PASSIVE VOICE. Singular. Plural. I, thou, he had been seen. We, you, they had been seen. FUTURE TENSE. ACTIVE VOICE. Singular. Plural. 1. I should 1 1. We 1 should 1 2. Thou wouldst \ see, 2. You ^ or V see. 3. He would J 3. They J would J PASSIVE VOICE. Singular. Plural. 1. I should ] 1. We 1 should 1 2. Thou wouldst |^ ^ 2. You ^ or V 3. He would J ^®^^' 3. They J would J seen. FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. ACTIVE VOICE. Singular. Plural. 1. I should 1 1. We 1 should 1 2. Thou wouldst > have seen, 2. You ^ or ^ have seen. 3. He would J 3. They J would J PASSIVE VOICE. Singular. Plural. 1. I should I ^^^^ ^^^ 1. We 1 should 1 ^^^^ ^^ 2. Thou wouldst \ 2. You ^ or ^ „^^„ gggQ I I seen. 3. He would J ' 3. They J would *] IMPERATIVE MODE. PRESENT TENSE. ACTIVE VOICE. Singular. Plural. 2. See (thou). 2. See (ye or you). PASSIVE VOICE. Singular. Plural. 2. Be (thou) seen. 2. Be (ye or you) seen. 184 ENGLISH ORAMMAR. INFINITIVE MODE. ACTIVE VOICE. PASSIVE VOICE. Present Tense : To see. To be seen. Pkes. Pekf. Tense : To have seen. To have been seen. VERBALS. PARTI CI PLES. ACTIVE VOICE. PASSIVE VOICE. Present : Seeing. Being seen. Past : Seen. Perfect : Having seen. Having been seen. GERUNDS. Present: Seeing. Being seen. Perfect : Having seen Having been seen. Exercise 47. — Write the emphatic form of the present and past tenses, indicative mode, of see. Write the interrogative forms of the tenses of the indicative mode. Write the progressive forms of the tenses, both active and passive voice, wherever possible, in the interrogative and affirmative forms. Write the tenses of the indicative mode, active and passive voices, as they would be used in negative sentences. /433. Some authors use the verbs may, can, and must, together with the past tense of will and shall, as auxiharies with which to form for other verbs what is called the potential mode. For teachers that prefer to retain this so-called mode, its conjugation for the verb lie (to recline) is given below. ETYMOLOGY, 185 Potential Mode. PRESENT TENSE. Sin{pilar. Itural, 1. I may, can, must lie, 2. Thou mayst, canst, must lie, 3. He may, can, must lie. 1. We may, can, must lie, 2. You may, can, must lie, 3. They may, can, must lie. PAST TENSE. Singular. 1. I might, could, would, should lie, 2. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, shouldst lie, 3. He might, could, would, should lie. Plural. 1. We might, could, would, should lie, 2. You might, could, would, should lie, 3. They might, could, would, should he. PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 8ingiUar. 1. I may, can, must have lain, 2. Thou mayst, canst, must have lain, 3. He may, can, must have lain. 1. We may, can, must have lain, 2. You may, can, must liave lain, 3. They may, can, must have lain. PAST PERFECT TENSE. Singular. 1. I might, could, would, should have lain, 2. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, shouldst have lain, 3. He might, could, would, should have lain. Plurai. 1. We might, could, would, should have lain, 2. You might, could, would, should have lain, 3. They might, could, would, should have lain. The highest authorities on English grammar, such as Maetz- ner, Whitney, Bain, and Morris, are now agreed in rejecting 186 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. the so-called potential mode. I may go may express a state- ment of fact, in which case may is in the indicative mode ; or a condition or supposition, in which case m,ay is an auxiliary, and m,ay go may be parsed as in the subjunctive mode. 434. It has been stated (§ 400) that verbs are regular or weak, and irregular or strong. The formation of the various modes, tenses, numbers, and persons of the regular verb is very simple, but that of the irregular verb is much less so. The difficulty arises from the irregularity of the past tense, indicative mode, and the past participle. If these are known, for any verb, it is easy to inflect the verb throughout. The following list is given for reference. Verbs that are also regular are marked R. Forms little used are printed in italics. LIST OF IRREQULAR VERBS. Pres. Past. Past p. Pres. Past. Abide abode abode Bet bet, R. Am, be was been Bless blest, R. Arise arose arisen Bid bid, bade Awake awoke. R. awaked Bind bound Bake baked j baked, \haken Bite Bleed bit bled Bear Bear j bore, j hare bore, hare vborn >• borne Blow Break Breed blew j broke, [hralce bred (to carry.) Bring brought Beat beat j beaten, (beat Build Burn built, R. burnt, R. Begin began begun Burst burst Bend bent, R. bent, E,. Buy bought Bereave bereft. R. bereft, R. Can could Beseech besought besought Cast cast Past P. bet, R. blest, R. bidden, bid bound bitten, bit bled blown (■broken bred brought built, R. burnt, R. burst •bought cast ETYMOLOGY, 187 Pres. Past. Past P. Pres. Past. Past P. Catch caught caught Gird girt, R. girt, R. Chide chid j chidden, (chid Give Go gave went given gone Choose chose chosen Grave graved .graven, R. ' clove, R. cloven, J cleft Grind ground ground Cleave, ■ cleft Grow grew grown {to split.) . clave Hang hung, R. hung CUng clung clung Have had had Clothe clad, R. clad, R. Hear heard heard Come came come Heave hove, R. hove, R. Cost cost cost Hew hewed hewn, R. Creep crept crept Hide hid hidden, hid Crow crew, R. crowed Hit hit hit Cut Dare cut durst, R. cut dared Hold held (held, (holden Deal dealt dealt, R. Hurt hurt hurt Dig dug, R. dug, R. Keep kept kept Do did done Kneel knelt, R. knelt, R. Draw- drew drawn Knit knit, R. knit, R. Dream dreamt, R. dreamt, R. Know knew known Dress drest, R. drest, R. Lade laded laden, R. Drink drank j drank, ( drunk Lay Lead laid led laid led Drive drove driven Lean leant, R. leant, R. Dwell dwelt, R dwelt, R. Leap leapt, R. leapt, R. Eat ate eaten Leave left left Fall fell fallen Lend lent lent Feed fed fed Let let let Feel felt felt Lie iredine) lay lain Fight fought fought Light lit, R. lit, R. Find found found Lose lost lost Flee fled fled Make made made Fling flung flung May might Fly flew flown Mean meant meant Forsake forsook forsaken Meet met met Freeze froze frozen Mow mowed mown, R. Get got got, gotten Pay paid paid Gild gilt, R. gilt, R. 188 ENQLI8H GRAMMAR, Prea. Peat. Past P. Pres. Past. Past. P. Pen, pent, R. (to ituiUiSB,) pent, R. Sink (sank I sunk jsunk Put put put Sit sat sat Quit quit, R. quit, R. Slay- slew slain Rap rapt, R. rapt, R. Sleep slept slept Read Rend r6ad rent read rent SUde slid J slidden, (shd Rid rid rid ' Sling slung slung Ride rode ridden Slink slunk slunk Ring Rise J rang, J rung rose [rung risen SHt Smite sht smote slit, R. j smitten, \ smit Rive rived riven, R. Sow sowed sown, R. Run Saw ran sawed run sawn, R. Speak j spoke, ( spake t spoken Say said said Speed sped sped See saw seen Spend spent spent Seek sought sought Spill spilt, R. spilt, R. Seethe seethed sodden, R. Spin spun, span spun Sell sold sold Spit spit, spat spit Send sent sent Split split spht Set set set Spread spread spread Shake shook shaken Spring sprang sprung Shall should Stand stood stood Shape shaped shapen, R. Stave j staved, j stove j staved, { stove Shave shaved shaven, R. Shear sheared shorn, R. Stay J staid, ( stayed (staid, 1 stayed Shed shed shed Shine shone, R . shone, R. Steal stole stolen Shoe shod shod Stick stuck stuck Shoot shot shot Sting stung stung Show showed shown, R. Stride strode stridden, Shred Shrink shred j shrunk, \ sh/rank shred j shrunk, ( shrunken Strike struck struck, stricken String strung strung Shut shut shut Strive strove striven Sing sang, simg •sung Strew strewed strown, R ETYMOLOGY. 189 Pres. Pwt. Past P. Pres. Past, POBtP, Swear Sweat j swore, ( sware sweat ■sworn sweat, R. Thrust Tread thrust trod. thrust trodden, trod Sweep swept swept Wax waxed waxen, R. SweU swelled swollen, R. Wear wore worn Swim j swa.Tn , {swum tswunn Weave Weep wove wept woven wept Swing swung swung Wet wet, R. wet, R. Take, took taken Whet whet, R . whet, R. Teach taught taught Will would Tear tore, tare torn Win won won TeU told told Wind wound, R. wound Think thought thought Work wrought.R-wrought, R TTrri-u-*:* j thrived, { throve (•thriven, R. Wring wrung wrung XllllVtJ Write wrote written Throw threw thrown Parsing the Yerb. 435. The verb is parsed by 1. Telling whether it is regular or irregular, and why. 2. Q-iving its principal parts. 3. Telling whether it is transitive or intransitive ; and, if transitive, stating its object, and its voice. 4. Stating its mode, tense, number, and person ; and the reason in each case. Exercise 48. — Parse the verbs in the following selections : 1. The bird built its nest in an old apple tree. Model. — Built is an irregular verb, because it does not form its past tense and past participle by adding d or ed to the present. Principal parts, — present, huild; past, built; present par- ticiple, building ; past participle, built. Transitive, because it has nest for its object. 190 ENGLISH GBAMMAB, Active voice, because its subject denotes the doer of the action. Indicative mode, — it simply states a fact ; past tense, — it de- notes past action ; third person, singular number, because its sub- ject bird is third person, singular. In practice, however, it is sufficient to parse as follows : An irregular, transitive verb, active voice, indicative mode, and third person singular, because its subject bird is third person singular. 2. But a cunning man was the cobbler; He could call the birds from the trees, Charm the black snake out of the ledges. And bring back the swarming bees. — Whittier. 3. Aihe stepped up on a seat, and laid herself on the t^le, as her friend the surgeon told her ; arranged herself, gave a rapid look at James, shut her eyes, rested herself on me, and took my hand. The operation was at once begun ; it was neces- sarily slow ; and chloroform — one of God's best gifts to his suf- fering children — was then unknown. — Dr. John Brown. 4. And if we do but watch the hour. There never yet was human power That could evade, if unforgiven. The patient search and vigil long Of him that treasures up a wrong. — Byron. 5. A male bird brought to his box a large, fine goose feather, which is a great find for a sparrow, and much coveted. After he had deposited his prize and chattered his gratulations over it, he went away in quest of his mate. His next-door neighbor, a female bird, seeing her chance, quickly slipped in and seized the feather, — and here the wit of the bird came out, for instead of carrying it into her own box, she flew with it to a near tree, and hid it in a fork of the branches, then went home, and when her neighbor returned with his mate, was in- nocently employed about her own affairs. The proud male, finding his feather gone, came out of his box in a high state of excitement, and, with wrath in his manner and accusation on his tongue, rushed into the cot of the female. Not finding his goods and chattels there as he had expected, he stormed ETYMOLOGY. 191 around awhile, abusing everybody in general, and his neighbor in particular, and then went away as if to repair the loss. As soon as lie was out of sight, the shrewd thief went and brought the feather home, and lined her own domicile with it. — JoTvri Burroughs. 6. I do not know what I may appear to the world, but to myself I seem to have been only like a boy playing on the sea-shore, and diverting myself in now and then finding a smoother pebble, or a prettier shell than ordinary, while the great ocean of truth lay all undiscovered before me. — Sir Isaac Newton. THE ADVEBB. 436. Definition. — An adverb is a word used to modify the meaning of a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. (Read again paragraphs 23-27, and work Exercise 4.) Classes. 437. According to their functions in the sen- tence, adverbs are of three classes : 1. Simple ad- verbs; 2. Interrogative adverbs; 3. Conjunctive ad- verbs. 438. A simple adverb modifies the meaning of the word with which it is used ; as, But we steadfastly gazed on the face of tJie dead. And we bitterly thought of the morrow. — Wolf. Though the mills of God grind slowly Yet they grind exceeding small. — H. W. Longfellow. Extremes of fortune are true wisdom's test. And he's of men most wise who hears them, best, 439. An interrogative adverb is an adverb used to ask a question; as. 192 EWGLISH GRAMMAR, When shall we three meet again ^^Shakespeare. Where are the pure^ whom thou wouldst choose to love thee 9 — A. H. Clough. Why crisp the waters blue ? — O. W. Holmes. 440. A conjunctive adverb is an adverb that modifies the meaning of a verb, an adjective, or another adverb, in a subordinate clause, aAd also connects that clause with the principal clause. In the sentence, Spring is the time when the swallows come, when modifies the meaning of the verb come and connects an adjective clause with the noun tim^e. In the sentence, Go where glory waits thee, wMre modifies the meaning of the verb waits and connects an adverbial clause with the verb go. There is generally some demonstrative word expressed or understood that stands to a conjunctive adverb in a relation similar to that in which the antecedent stands to a relative pronoun ; as, There^ where a few torn shrubs the place dis- close; Come (then) when you are ready. The following words are conjunctive adverbs : when whence whereby whereat where why wherefore while as wherein whereon whenever 441. Adverbs may be classified according to their meanings as follows: 1. Adverbs of place, answering to the question (a) where f (6) whither ? (c) whence f as, (a) herey there, anywhere, yonder, etc. ; (6) hither, thither, backward, etc.; (c) hence, thence, etc. 2. Adverbs of time, answering to the question when f as, now, to-day, yesterday, to-w^orrovj, by and by, still, again, then, afterward, etc. ETYMOLOGY. 193 3. Adverbs of number; as, once, twice, thrice; first, secondly, thirdly, 4. Adverbs of manner; as, how, well, ill, badly, aloud, so, thus, 5. Adverbs of degree ; as, very, too, almost, quite, much, little, no, more, most, less, least, and the before an adjective in the comparative degree. 6. Adverbs of cause ; as, why, wherefore, whence, 7. Adverbs of assertion and denial ; as, yes, yea, aye, nay, no, not. The classification of adverbs according to meaning is given, not to be learned by rote, but as an aid in parsing. 443. When the is used before an adjective in the compar- ative degree, as, the more the merrier, it is not the definite article but an adverb. In this use it is derived from an Anglo- Saxon case of the demonstrative that, meaning hy so mitch, 443. Yes and 7^o, when standing alone in reply to questions, are not really adverbs. They are, in fact, the equivalents of sentences, and are more nearly akin to interjections. 444. Many adverbs are composed of two or more words ; as, from above, one by one, now and then, ever a/nd anon, and the like. These may be called phrase adverbs. 445. It can not be impressed too strongly or too frequently on the student, that the function which a word discharges in a sentence determines the part of speech to which it belongs : 1. Words that are ordinarily nov/ns are sometimes used as adverbs; as in the expressions. Stone dead. He ca/res not a cent* 194 ENGLISH GBAMMAB. 2. Words that are ordinarily adjectives sometimes become adverbs ; as, He speaks loud. He runs fast. The reason is that in olden times adverbs Vere formed from adjectives by adding e; as, bright, hrighte. In modem English the e has been dropped in these cases, and no other suffix sub- stituted. 3. Words that are usually adverbs occasionally become nouns ; as, Kow (= the present time) is the accepted time, now is the day of salvation. He came from, abroad, 4. Words that are usually adverbs become adjectives : (a) as modifiers ; (&) as predicate complements. (a) Drink no longer water, hut use a little wine, for thy stomach's sake, and thine often infirmities. — Bible. Even Homer sometimes nods. This example some grammarians would explain by supply- ing an ellipsis : Even (so careful a poet as) Homier som^etimes nods, (b) He is here. The child is away. In the last example (5) here and away are usually parsed as adverbs. But a little consideration will show that the verb to be, when it is merely a copula (see § 348), can not take a modifier. In the examples given above, the verb serves simply to assert locality. Hence, here and away may be parsed as adverbs used as predicate adjectives. 5. The word as is used as a relative pronoun, as an adverb, as a subordinate conjunction, and as a preposition. In the sentence, Su^h as I have I give, as is a relative pronoun. In the sentence, He is as clever as his brother, the first as is an adverb of degree ; the second as is a conjunctive adverb. In the sentence, As I am, your subordinate I will obey you, as (= because) is a subordinate conjunction. (See § 463.) ETYMOLOGY. 195 In the sentence, As the clergyman was retwrmng from church, he met his daughters, as is an adverb of time. In the sentence, Buskin is greatest as an art critic, as is a preposition. 446. Most adverbs of manner and degree admit of comparison: 1. Adverbs ending in ly are generally compared by pre- fixing more and most; as, Positive. Comparative. Superlative. keenly more keenly m^ost keenly beautifully more beautifully ffiost beautifully 2. Some adverbs are compared by adding the suffixes er and est; as, Positive. Comparative. Superlative. fast faster fastest soon sooner soonest often oftener oftenest 3. The following adverbs are either irregular or def< in their comparison : Positive. Comparative. Superlative. well better best ill worse worst much more most nigh (or near) nearer next forth further furthest fax farther farthest late later last (or latest) (rathe) rather Further and furthest are now generally used to express progress, advai;icement ; farther and farthest, with respect to distance in space. Bather is derived from an old adjective rathe, meaning early. Milton speaks of the rathe primrose, and Tennyson writes, TUl rathe she rose, half-cheated in the thought. 196 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, Substitutes for the Adverb. 447. Adverbial phrases or adverbial clauses may take the place of adverbs, generally with the result of making the statement more precise. A sentence containing- an adverbial clause is complex. For there, in the sentence He was seen there, we may sub- stitute the phrases, in the street, at church, on top of the house, -with the result of more exactly defining our meaning. In He is not careful enough, we may substitute a clause for the word enough, and say He is not so careful as he ought to he. Parsing. 448. An adverb is parsed by telling: 1. The verb, etc., whose meaning is modified. 2. In what way it modifies, whether as to place, time, manner, degree, etc. 8. Its degree of comparison. Exercise 49. — Pick out all the adverbs, adverbial phraseSy and adverbial clauses, in the following seleo tions, a7id tell what each modifies: 1. Out of the obliquity of the equator has come forth our civilization . — Motley. 2. Gone was the glow from his cheek and the fire from his eye. 3. Loud from its rocky caverns, the deep-voiced neighboring ocean Speaks, and in accents disconsolate answers the wail of the forest. — Longfellow. 4. Before her queenly womanhood How dared our hostess utter The paltry errand of her need To buy her fresh-churned butter '^—Whittier, ETYMOLOGY, • 197 6. By searching in the grass, the skins of grasshoppers may be occasionally found still clinging to the spears of grass where they were left when the grasshoppers shed them. — JEJ. S. Morse. 6. A great part of Holland and Flanders has been reclaimed by draining, and thus rendered not only habitable, but extremely valuable for agricultural purposes. 7. Soon a remarkable fossil, shawled to the chin and band- aged like a mummy, appeared at the door of the after deck- house, and was shot into my arms by the next lurch of the ship. 8. There is nothing so desperately monotonous as the sea; and I no longer wonder at the cruelty of pirates. Fancy an ex- istence in which the coming up of a clumsy finback whale, who says Pooh ! to you solemnly as yoa lean over the taffrail, is an event as exciting as an election on shore ! The dampness seems to strike into the wits as into the lucifer matches, so that one may scratch a thought half a dozen times and get nothing but a faint sputter, the forlorn hope of fire, which only goes far enough to leave a sense of suffocation behind it. — Lowell. THE PBEPOSITIOW. 449. Definition. — ^A preposition is a word used with a noun or its equivalent so as to form an ad- jective modifier or an adverbial modifier. (Read again paragraphs 31-33 and work Exercises 6 and 7.) 450. The noun or its equivalent that depends upon the preposition is in the objective case ; as, before me; after us; in the garden. The preposition is said to govern the noun in the objective case, and the noun is said to be the object of the preposition. 451. Generally, the preposition precedes its ob- ject. In poetry, and when the object is a relative pronoun, the preposition often follows its object. 198 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. O stream descending to the sea, Thy mossy hanks between The flowerets hlow, the grasses grow. The leafy trees are green. — A. H. Clough. Where do you com^e from? Whom are you speaking about? 452. Any equivalent of a noun may be the ob- ject of a preposition. The equivalent may be : 1. A pronoun ; as, Cam^non in front of them. — Tennyson. 2. A word that is usually an adjective or an ad- verb used as a noun ; as, Step hy step lifts had to good, — Emerson. Let the great world spin for ever Down the ringing grooves of change. — Tennyson. 3. A gerund; as, By straining every nerve you may su^cceed. 4. A noun phrase ; as, None knew thee hut to love thee^ None named thee hut to praise, — Halleck. 5. A noun clause ; as. From what he said^ L gathered that hds opinion was adverse. 453. The preposition shows the relation between its object and some other word in the sentence. This other word may be a verb, an adjective, an adverb, or a noun or pronoun. (See § 33.) When a preposition shows the relation of its ob- ETYMOLOGY, IM ject to a verb, an adjective, or an adverb, it aids iu forming an adverbial phrase or clause ; to a noun or pronoun, an adjective phrase or clause. 454. Some prepositions are made up of two or three words ; as, according to, on accownt of, hy means of. These may be called phrase prepositions. 455. Some words are used both as prepositions and as adverbs; as, since, above, below, down. The use of the word must determine the part of speech. If it is used as a modifier, it is an adverb ; if to govern a noun or its equivalent, a preposition. Ahove^ below, the rose of snow, Twin'd with her blushing foe we spread, — Gray. Here, above and below are adverbs modifying the verb spread. In The church rises above the other houses, A cellar was dug below the house, above and below are prepositions. 456. Some words originally present participles are now often used with the force of prepositions; as, considering, respecting, regarding, touching. 45*7. Prepositions are sometimes used in com- position with verbs; as, to carry off the prize; to laugh at another^s mistakes. In this construction, the preposition usually fol- lows the verb. Sometimes it precedes it and is united with it; as, under-go, over-take. The effect of joining a preposition to a transitive verb is to make its meaning more exact, so that the preposition is used with a modifying or adverbial tendency. 200 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, The effect upon an intransitive verb is to make it transitive. (See §341.) Parsing. 458. In parsing a preposition it is necessary only to state its object, and the relation which the phrase of which it is a part bears to some other word in the sentence. Exercise 50. — Pick out all the prepositions in the following selections, name their objects, and tell whether the elements of the sentence they aid in forming, are adjective or adverbial phrases, or ad- jective or adverbial clauses, and why : 1. Th6 number of teeth and their form vary greatly in the different groups of animals. 2. Tears are the softening showers which cause the seed of heaven to spring up in the human heart. — Sir Walter Scott, 3. Mont Blanc is the monarch of mountains; They crowned him long ago On a throne of rocks, in a robe of clouds. With a diadem of snow. — Byron. 4. Ichabod Crane's appetite for the marvelous and his powers of digesting it were equally extraordinary, and had been in- creased by his residence in the spell-bound region of Sleepy Hollow. — Washington Irving. 5. Over the wooded northern ridge, Between its houses brown, To the dark tunnel of the bridge The street comes straggling down. — WMttier, 6. Doubtless, to think deeply and clearly in the recess of a cabinet is a fine intellectual demonstration ; but to think with equal depth and equal clearness amid bullets is the most com- plete exercise of the human faculties. — Disraeli, ETYMOLOGY, 201 7. Rats! They fought the dogs and killed the cats, And bit the babies in the cradles, And ate the cheese out of the vats, And licked the soup from the cook's own ladles, Split open the kegs of salted sprats. Made nests inside men's Sunday hats. And even spoiled the women's chats, By drowning their speaking With shrieking and squeaking In fifty different sharps and flats. — Boht. Browning. 8. It is undeniable that a person seems temporarily to change his nature when he becomes part of an excursion. Whether it is from the elation at the purchase of a day of gayety below the market price, or the escape from personal responsibility under a conductor, or the love of being conspicuous as a part of a sort of organization, the excursionist is not on his ordinary behavior.— (7. D, Warner. THE CONJUlSrCTION. 459. Definition. — A conjunction is a word used to connect words or sentences. (Read again paragraphs 34-40, and work Exercises 8 and 9.) Classes. 460. Conjunctions are divided, according to their use, into two principal classes: 1. Co-ordinate con- junctions; 2. Subordinate conjunctions, 461. A co-ordinate conjunction is a conjunction that joins (a) two independent clauses, or two co- ordinate elements of a sentence. The co-ordinate elements may be, (6) two words, (c) two phrases, or {d) two dependent clauses, having the same gram- matical relation. 202 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, (a) Knowledge comes, but wisdom lingers , and I linger on the sTwre, And the indi/vidiuil withers, and the world is more and more. — Tennyson. (b) — Not only we, that prate Of rights and wrongs, have loved the people well. And loathed to see them, overtaxed; hut She did move, and v/nderwent, and overcam^e. — Tennyson. (c) We grow ourselves Divine hy overcoming with mere hope And (with) m^ost prosaic patience. — Mrs. Browning. (d) I Tiad been content to perish, falling on the foem^an's ground. When the ranks are rolVd in vapor, and the winds are laid with sound. — Tennyson. 463. The co-ordinate conjunctions are divided as follows : (a) Copulative, denoting addition; as, both, and, also, more- over, further, etc. (6) Disjunctive, denoting choice or separation ; as, either, or, neither, nor, else, otherwise. (c) Adversative, denoting opposition of meaning ; as, hut, still, yet, notwithstanding, however. (d) Illative, denoting effect or consequence ; as, therefore, wherefore, hence, whence, consequently, accordingly, thus, so, so that, then, so then. 463. A subordinate conjunction is a conjunction that joins a subordinate clause to the principal clause of a sentence. When the subordinate clause is used as the subject or the object of a verb, it is a noun clause ; as a modifier of a noun or pronoun, an adjective clause ; as a modifier of a verb, ad- jective, or adverb, an adverbial clause. 464. Subordinate conjunctions are classified ac- cording to the various relations which they indicate : ETYMOLOGY, 203 (a) Time ; as, as, whil6y untily heforey ere, sinc6y after, as soon aSy as long as. (b) Reason or cause ; as, becausCy /or, sincey os, whereaSy in- asmuch as. (c) Supposition or condition ; as, ify provided, supposingy unlesSy excepty otherwisey thoughy notwithstanding, albeit, whether, id) End or purpose ; as, that, in order that, lest. (e) The conjunction of comparison, than. The clause intro- duced by than is often partially omitted ; as. He cam, read better than I {can read). He is taller than I {am tall), 465. The distinction between co-ordinate and subordinate conjunctions is of great importance, as upon it, in many cases, depends the distinction between compound and complex sen- tences. When two clauses are joined by a co-ordinate conjunc- tion, they form a compound sentence ; by a subordinate con- junction, a complex sentence. (See §§69-78.) The student will bear in mind, however, that dependent clauses are introduced by relative pronouns and conjunctive adverbs as well as by subordinate conjunctions. It is sometimes difficult to tell whether a connective is a conjunction, or a conjunctive adverb. The rule is: (a) If a word only joins two clauses, it is a conjunction. (&) If in addition to joining two clauses, it serves to modify the meaning of some verb, adjective, or adverb in the clause it introduces, it is a conjunctive adverb. In the sentence, He came after you had gonCy after merely serves to connect the sentences He came and You had gone. In the sentence. He came when John was herCy when connects the two sentences He cam^e and John was herCy and so far it is a conjunction. If, however, we supply the correlative then with the first sentence, it is evident that when modifies the meaning of the predicate was here: He cam,e then, when John was here. 466. Conjunctions often occur in pairs ; as. Both — and: Both JoTvn and Ja/mes are coming. Not only — but: He not only reads well but writes well. Either — or : He regarded Mm as either a knave or a fool. 204 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, Neither — nor: Neither heat nor cold could dawnt Mm. Whether — or: Whether he go or stay, is a matter of no consequence. Though — yet: Though all men deny thee, yet wUl not I. 467. Or sometimes introduces an alternative name or syn- onym ; as, The prime minister , or head of the British Cabinet. The first name is usually followed by a comma. 468. Nor is sometimes equivalent to and not; as, He su^s- pected tfiat all was not right, nor was lie deceived (and he tuas not). Parsing. 469. To parse a conjunction it is necessary to tell what elements of the sentence it connects, and the relation that exists between them. From this it may be determined whether the conjunction is co-ordinate or subordinate, and what special signification it ex- presses. Exercise 51. — Pick out the conjunctions in the fol- lowing selections^ tell what elements of the sentence each connects, and state whether it is co-ordinate or subordinate. If the conjunction is coordinate, state the relation that it denotes. If subordinate, state whether it introduces a noun clause, an adjective clause, or an adverbial clause, and why. Point out the conjunctive adverbs, and tell what hind of clause each introduces : 1. Never expect to govern others unless you have learned to govern yourself. ETYMOLOGY. 205 2. A man is shorter when he is walking than when at rest. — O. TT. Holmes. 3. What is twice read is commonly better remembered than what is transcribed. — Johnson, 4. Dreary are the years, when the eye can look no longer With delight on nature, or hope on human 'km.6.,—Bry(jmt, 5. No man was more foolish when he had not a pen in his hand, nor more wise when he had. — S. Johnson on Goldsmith. 6. One is sometimes tempted to wish that the superlative could be abolished, or its use allowed only to old experts. — O. W. Holmes. 7. This is truth the poet sings, That a sorrow's crown of sorrow is remembering happier things. — Tennyson. 8. If coal and the useful metals are found in any region, manufacturing interests will sooner or later be developed. 9. Every individual has a place to fill in the world, and is important in some respect, whether he chooses to be so or not. — Hawthorne. 10. When I had gone half a mile, my opinion of the charac- ter of the pools was unchanged ; never were there such places for trout ; but the trout were out of their places. — C. D. Warner. 11. Neither locks had they to their doors, nor bars to their windows ; But their dwellings were open as day and the hearts of the owners. — Longfellow. 12. Nature has a thousand ways and means of rising above herself ; but incomparably the noblest manifestations of her capability of color are in the sunsets among the high clouds. — Huskm. 13. I remember, I remember The house where I was bom, The little window where the sun Came peeping in at morn. — Thomas Hood. 14. On one of those sober and rather melancholy days, in the latter part of autumn, when the shadows of morning and 206 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. evening almost mingle together, and throw a gloom over the decline of the year, I passed several hours in rambling about "Westminster Abbey. There was something congenial to the season in the mournful magnificence of the old pile ; and as I passed its threshold, it seemed like stepping back into regions of antiquity, and losing myself among the shades of former ages. — WasMngton Irving, CHAPTER IV. FORMATION OF WORDS. 470. Etymology has been defined as that part of grammar which treats of the classification, inflection, and formation of words. (See §96.) 471. Words are classified, according to their uses in sentences, as nouns, pronouns, verbs, etc. 473. Words are classified, according to formation, as prime and composite. 473. Definition. — A prime word is a word that expresses a single idea and that can not be analyzed into any simpler elements ; as, /, man, long, go^ in, now, 474. Definition. — A composite word is a word that expresses more than one idea and that can be analyzed into simpler elements, as watchman^ careful, 475. In a composite word each idea is expressed by a definite part of the word, and these parts are called the component elements of the word. A composite word is said to be formed by composition. 476. The component elements of composite words FORMATION OF WORDS. 207 are of three kinds : (a) Prime words, as in rail-road, recall, kindly ; (6) prefixes, as in recall, pre-vent ; (c) suffixes, as in kind-Z^, leg-ible; {d) stems, as in ex- tract, inscribe, quadrvrped, 477. A prefix {pre = before, fix = fastened) is a significant element occurring at the beginning of a word and it is used to express a modifying idea ; as, re-call = to call back ; ex-trsbct = to draw out 478. A suffix {suf or sub = under, after, fix = fastened) is a significant element at the end of a word and it is used to express a modifying idea ; as, wood-eTZ', hate-ful The peculiar mark of a prefix or a suffix is that it can never be used except as a subordinate element in a word. Some prefixes and suffixes are of Anglo-Saxon origin, some come to us from the Latin, and some from the Greek. 479. A stem is a significant element having in composition all the properties of a word, but it is used only in composition ; as, ex-tend {tend = stretch, ex = out). Stems are so called because they are parts of words found in other languages, chiefly the Latin and the Q-reek, to which inflections were added, as branches are attached to the stem of a tree. During the last nineteen centuries they have been gradually transplanted into the English language, and may now be studied as constituent parts of oiu* e very-day speech. For- merly they were called roots, but this term is now restricted to certain forms that are supposed to be the common ancestors of similar words in most of the European, and three or four of the Asiatic, languages.* * Kennedy's " Stem Dictionary " presents a collection of the n\ost fre- quently used stems with their meanings and combinations in words. 208 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 480. In every composite word one of the ele- ments is called the base, because it is the principal part.* Its meaning is modified by one or more sub- ordinate elements, which are called adjuncts. 481. The Ijase may be a word ; as in railroad^ recall^ or it may be a stem, as in autograph (self- write), expand {spread out). 483. The adjunct may be a word, as in railroad, tea-pot ; or a prefix, as in re-call, eoo-pand; or a suf- fix, as manly (man-like), leg-4ble (read-able). When both the T^ase and the adjunct are words, the composite word is called compound ; as, NacJc- Mrd, rain-bow, house-top, walking-stich. When the compound word is an unusual one, as deerstalk- ing, loud-hellowingy the parts are usually connected in writing "by a hyphen. In commonly used compounds the hyphen is generally omitted. In conversation a compound word is generally distinguished by accenting the term that would not be accented were its parts used separately. Thus, song' -thrush, black' -bird; not, song thrush', black bird'. 483. When the base and the adjv/nct are both stems, the composite word is called a stem-compound word ; as, auto-graph (self-write), quadru-ped (four- foot). 484. When the base is a word and the adjunct is a prefix or a sufiix, the composite word is called a derivative word ; as, re-call, just-ly, 485. When the base is a stem, and the adjunct is an affix, the composite word is called a stem- FORMATION OF WORDS. 209 derivative word ; as, re-w.it (send back), faoile (ready to do). Frequently we find both a prefix and a suffix ; as, inv-port- ancCf com-posit-ion. Sometimes the base is itself a derivative word ; as, incom~ plete-^ness. Following is a list of the principal prefixes and suffixes of Anglo-Saxon (old form of English), Latin, and Greek origin, now in use in the English language : English Prefixes. 486. Those used to form nouns: JFore = before ; as, forer-father. Mis = wrong ; as, mis-deed, mis-chcmce. Tin = the opposite of ; as, urir-trufh, .un-heUef. 487. Those used to form adjectives: A = owy as, a-live, Or-beardy a-sleep. For = quite, thoroughly ; as, for-lorn. Un = not ; as, urir-true, un-wise. Mis = wrong ; as, mis-shapen. 488. Those used to form verbs: A = out, from, away, often used to intensify the meaning of the verb ; as, Or^se, a^waJce, Or-roiose. Be = by, and is used in several ways: 1. To intensify the meaning of the verb; as, he-dav^, be- smear. 2. To change intransitive verbs to transitive ones; as, h&- speak, 'be-think. 3. To form transitive verbs out of adjectives and nouns; as, her-friend, he-night, he-troth. For = through, thoroughly, used to intensify the meaning of the verb ; as, for^bid, for-give, for-get. Fore = before ; as, fore-hode, forer-teU. 210 ENOLISH ORAMMAR. Mis = wrongly ; as, mis-believe, mis-caU. Un = back ; as, un-lnnd, urirdo. With = back, against ; as, with-draw, withsta/nd, 489. Those used to form adverbs: ^ = on ; as, a-fooi, a-field. Se = on ; as, he-fore, he-sides. Exercise 52. — Form derivatives hy placing pre- fixes before the following words, and classify the derivatives as nounSy adjectives, and verbs: rest fair trust kind even dress speak call castle believe hold rise fall stand numb give speak hap conduct cloud Exercise 53. — What is the force of the prefixes in bedaub, forlorn, forewarn, misshapen, unwise, unroll, forgive. Latin" Prefixes. 490. Latin prefixes frequently vary their forms in composition, the final letter being changed to harmonize in sound with the first syllable of the base. Thus, ad becomes ac, in accede; al in allude; at in attract, and so on. This process is called as- similation of sound. 491. The following are the more commonly used prefixes of Latin origin : A^ abf dbs = from, away ; as, Or^ert, ah-jure, ahs-ent. Ad = to ; as, ad-here. By assimilation ad takes the forms a, OG, afy al, an, ap, as, and at ; as, a-spire, ao-cord, af-fect, al-lvde, an-nex, ap-peal, assume, at-tract. FORMATION OF WORDS. 211 Anib, am (from ambi) = about; as, rnnh-itiorit a/m-putate. Ante or anti = before ; as, anter-date, cmti-cipate, Sis, hi = twice ; as, hinsect. Circum = around ; as, circvmn-namgate. Com, con = together ; as, com^mand, con-vivial. This prefix assumes the forms col and cor before I and r and co before a vowel; as, col-lect, cor-rect, com-^mit, co-eval, co-worker. Contra, contro, or counter = against ; as, contrordict, contro-^ert, coumter-act. De = down, from, about ; as, descend, de-part, de-scribe, Demi = half ; as, demi-god. Dis, di, dif = apart, in two, denoting difference or nega- tion; as, dissent, di-^ision, dif-ficuUy, Eoc, e, or ef = out of, from ; as, ex-alt, e-lect, ef-face, Extra = out of, beyond ; as, extra-ordinary. In = in, into ; as, in-^ade. This prefix changes by assimilar tion into il, im, ir; as, il-lustrate, im-merse, ir-ritate. In its French form en, it is found in en-chant, ensure, etc. In = not ; by assimilation il, im, ir; as, in-cautious, U-legcd, im-piety, ir-revocahle. Inter, intro = between, within, among ; as, inter-pose, in- tro-dujce, enter-prise, Male = ill ; as, mal-treat, malevolent, Non = not ; as, nonsense. Ob = in front of, against ; by assimilation, oc, of, op ; as, oh-viate, oc-cupy, of-fend, op-pose. Pene, pen = almost ; as, pen-insula. Per = through ; by assimilation, pel and pil; as, per-cei/ve, pel-lucid, pH-grim,. Post — after ; as, post-pone, postscript. Pre = before ; as, predict, pre-cede. Preter = past, beyond ; as, preter-ite, preter-natural. Pro = forward, before ; as, pro-ceed, pro-gress. Pro is found in the forms pur and por in purchase, pursue, portray. Pro — instead of ; as, pro-nou/n. Re, red = back, again ; as, re-cede, re-adopt, redolent. Metro = backwards ; as, retro-grade, retrospect. 8e,' sed = apart, away ; as, se-cede, seddtion. 212 ENGLISH QBAMMAB. Semi = half ; as, semi-circle. Sine = without ; as, siner-cure. Stih = under, up from below ; by assimilation, before c, /, g, m, p, r, s, stoc, suf, sug, sum, sup, sur, sus; as, sub-ject, suC'-coTy suf-feVy sug-gest, sumr^mon, sup-press, sur-prise, su^- t a concrete, as well as in an abstract, sense. 2. Those used in forming diminutives: En; as, maid-en, kitUen (from cat)y Mtch-en (from cooTS), le; as, hirdAey dog-g^, AmnAe. Ing ; as, farth-ing (from fourth), tith-ing (from tenth). Kin; as, lyumnp-ki/riy lamh-kin, nap-kin. Ling; as, dar-Ung, duck-Ungy gos-ling. Ock ; as, buU-ocky hiU-ock. 214 ENGLISH ORAMMAB. 3. Miscellaneous: ^Kr, ar, or, ier, yer, denoting the agent or doer; as, pamt-er, begg-ar, sailor, cloth-ier, laio-yer. Ster (formerly a feminine suflax), denoting a female agent ; as, spinster; also an agent of either sex; as, huckster, malt- ster. It is also used as a term of depreciation ; as, gamester, yowngster. Ardf art, characterizing a person by a peculiarity; as, oovMJ/rd, d/runh-ard, brag-g-art. Le, el, denoting an instrument; as, girdAe, hand-ley shov-el, Ther, marking the agent and used in terms ot relationship ; as, for-ther, daugh-ter, mo-ther. Ther is also found in other nouns under the forms -tJier, -der, -ter; as, fea-ther, hlad-der, laugh-ter. Craft, denoting skill, a trade ; as, hook-crafty woodr^raft. Fare, denoting way, course ; as, thorough-fare, wel-fare, Mic, denoting power, dominion ; as, hishop-ric. Wright, a workman ; as, wTieel-wrighty play-wright. Monger, a dealer ; as, news-^nonger. Exercise 54. — Form nouns from the following words by adding suffixes, and classify the deriva- tives as abstract^ diminutive, and concrete common nouns : hard He steal direct fellow swim meek great martyr law revel high weigh girl book hardy draw child lance free leaf holy idle friend cat true dig sail Exercise 55.— Pomi out the force of the suffixes m the following words : kindred goodness porter freedom bullock Willie worship truth writing womanhood hireling wisdom shovel maltster teacher FORMATION' OF WORDS. 215 Exercise 56. — From what words and by the ad- dition of what suffixes are the following derived : deed seed farthing shuttle spinster hatred theft wealth gosling ^ mannikin 494. Those used in forming adjectives: Etl, il, the suffix of the past participle, is added to nouns to form adjectives ; as, wing-ed, talent-ed, bright-^ye^, golden- hair-ed. En = made of ; as, wood-en, gold-en. Fast = fast, firm ; as, stead-fast, shame-faced = shame-fast, which is the old form of the word. Fold, denoting multipUcation ; as, two-fold, mani-fold. Ful = full ; as, hate-ful, wUl-ful. Ing, the suffix of the present participle ; as, pleas-ing, an- noying, Ish = like, when added to nouns ; as, hoy-ish, gi/rl-ish ; when added to adjectives, the suffix means "somewhat," "rather"; as, lilach-ish, green-ish. Less = loose from, without ; as, fear-less, sham,e-less. This suffix has no connection with the comparative of little. Like = like ; as, cMld-Uke, war-Uke. Ly = like ; as, man-ly, sick-ly. This suffix is a softened form of the preceding. Some = like, partaking of a certain quality ; as, glad-some, loath-some. This suffix is found in a corrupt- form in huxoTU, flotsam,, and jetsam,. Teen, ty = ten ; as in the numerals. Th, ordinal ; as, flf-th, six-th. Ward — becoming, leading to ; as, south-ward, for-wa/rd. Wise = mode, way, manner ; as, like-wise, other-wise. Y, ey = of the nature of ; as, icyy, clay-ey. Exercise 57. — Form adjectives by adding suffixes to the following words, and explain the force of each suffix used: 216 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. fog hand nine dew grace wheat brother fear flax shade frolic wool like hurt tear neighbor wood woman slave red house 495. Those used in forming verbs: JEn, imparting the idea of cause, forms transitive verbs from nouns and adjectives ; as, strength-en^ black-en, fat-t-en. Er, r, is added to adjectives and verbs, and imparts to the base word a frequentative and intensive force ; as, hind-er, low-er, wand-er (from wend), glimnn-er (from gleam), Le, I, is added to nouns and verbs, and imparts to the base word the sense of frequency, or diminution ; as, nest-le, thrott-le (from throat), start-le, stradd-le (from stride). K, frequentative ; as, tal-k (from teV), har-k (from hear). Se^ to make, forms transitive verbs from adjectives ; as, clean-se. This sufRx is also found in a modified form in such words as clasp ~ elapse, grasp = grahse, and lisp = lipse. Exercise 58. — By the addition of suffixes form verbs from the following wordSj and explain ~ the force of each suffix : clean sweet knee glad height muff straight red sniff nest fresh gleam Exercise 59. — What are the bases and the suf- fixes of the following words : throttle straddle wander glimmer bluster heighten sparkle blacken fatten cleanse talk hark clasp grasp lisp FORMATION OF WORDS, 217 496. Those used to form adverbs : Es or s, the old suflfix of the possessive case ; as in needs, besides, thence, unawares. Ere, denoting place in ; as, here (related to he), there (re- lated to that), where (related to who), Ly, a softened form of like; as, only, utterly, wickedly. Ling, long, denoting direction ; as in darkrling, head-long, side-long. Ther, denoting place to ; a^, hither, thither, whither. Ward, wards, denoting direction ; as, Twmeward, backwards. Wise, mode or manner ; as, likewise, otherwise. Way, ways. In Old English the accusative (objective case) of nouns was sometimes used with the force of an adverb. Hence the adverbs airway, straight-way. The general use of the possessive suffix -es or -s to form adverbs, is accountable for the forms always, straightway s, sideways. ExEKCiSE 60. — Form adverbs from: mighty that cheery down graceful head handsome like one silly- home other Latin Suffixes. 497. The principal suffixes of Latin origin are the following: 498. Those used to form nouns: 1. Those forming abstract nouns : Age — act, condition, collection of ; as, cour-age, horn-age, foU-age. Ance, ancy, ence, or ency = state or quality of being ; as, abwruJUjmce, const-ancy, indulg-ence, consist-ency. Ice = that which ; as, just-4ce. Ment = state of being, that which ; as, exciterWient, com- mcmd^ment. It is also used to denote instrument, as in docu- ment, ornor^ment. 218 ENGLISH ORAMMAB. Mony = state of, that which ; as, acri-mony, testi-mony, Jon = the act of, state of being ; as, redempt-ion, evas-ion, act-ion. TudCf denoting condition ; as, fortir-ttide, gratirtude. Ty = state or quality of ; as, chari-ty, cruel-ty. Ure or eur = state of, that which ; as, grand-eur, creat-ure. Y, denoting condition or faculty; as, miser-y, victor-y, memor-y. 2. Those denoting simply a person, or one who performs the action signified by the base : ^in or an = connected with ; as, artis-an, chapl-ain. A.nt or ent — one who ; as, assist-ant, sticd-ent. Ary, ier, eer, or er = one who ; as, secret-ary, hrigcbdAer, engirir-eer, marinr-er. Ate = one who ; as, advoc-ate, cur-ate. In the French form 66 or e, this sufi&x denotes the object of an action ; as, legat-ee, nomir)^66y employ-6. 1st = one who practices or is devoted to ; as, evangelAst, theor-ist. Or or er = one who ; as, conspirat-or, sioccess-or, doct-or, preach-cr. TriaOf denoting a female agent ; as, execvr-trix. 3. Those forming diminutives: El or le; as, lihcl (from liher, a book), castle (from castrwm, a fort). Cle or cute; as, vesi-cley animal-cule, Ule; as, globule. Ette or let; as, ros-ette, stream-let 4. Those forming collective nouns: My; as, yeoTnan-ry. 499. Those used in forming adjectives: Aceous or actons = made of, having the quality of ; as, fa/rin-aceous, cap-ax^ious. Al = belonging to ; as, leg-al, reg-al. FORMATION OF WORDS. 219 An, ane, or ain = connected with ; as, hum-an, hum-ane^ cert-ain. Ar or er = belonging to ; as, regul-ar^ premi-er. Ary, arious = relating or belonging to ; as, station-ary, greg-arious. Able or ihle = that may be done ; as, port-able, sens-ible. Ant or ent, equivalent to the force of the present participle inflection ing; as, discord-ant, curr-ent, Escefit = becoming ; as, putr-esoent, Esque = partaking of ; as, pictur-esque. Ic = belonging to ; as, civ-ic, rust-ic. Id = having the quality of ; as, acr-id, frig-id. He, it, eelf or le = capable of being ; as, dooile, civ^l, gent- eel, ab4e. Ine = belonging to ; as, can-ine, sal-ine. Tve = inclined to ; as, plaint-ive, ahus-ive. Dry = fitted or relating to ; as, admonit-ory. Ose or ous = full of ; as, verh-ose, curi-ous, 500. Those used in forming verbs: Ate = to perform the act of, cause ; as, navigate. Fy = to make ; as,, beautify, magnify, Ish = to make • as, finish. Greek Suffixes. Ic = belonging to ; as, aromatric, graph-ie, Isk, a diminutive ; as, aster-isk, obel-isk. Ize or ise, forming verbs ; as, anglic-ize, critio-dse. St = agent ; as, bapti-st, botani-st. Y, making abstract nouns ; as, pMlosopJi-yy monarch-y, 501. As a general rule, all the parts of a deriv- ative word are of like origin. An English prefix or suffix is joined to an English base ; a Latin prefix or suffix, to a Latin base; a Greek prefix or suffix, to a Greek base. 220 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, "WORD-ANALYSIS. 503. The analysis {ly, lu = loosen, and ana = back, np) of a word is the resolution of it into its component elements. 503. In analyzing a word, the following steps should be taken: 1. Give the class name of the composite word to be analyzed 2. Name and describe the base. 3. Name and describe the adjunct or adjuncts. MODELS OP WOBD ANALYSIS. RAILROAD. RECALL. Class : Compound word. Class : Derivative word. Base : Simple word road. Base : Simple word call. Adjunct : Simple word rail. Adjunct : Prefix re = back. Meaning: A road upon which Meaning: To call back, rails are laid. autograph. expand. Class : A stem-compound word. Class : A stem-derivative word. Base : Stem graph = write. Base : Stem pand = spread. Adjunct : Stem auto = self. Adjunct : Prefix ex = out. Meaning : A signature or docu- Meaning : To spread out ment written by the party himself. MODEL. OF PROaRESSrVE AISTALYSIS. incompleteness. Class : Derivative word. Base : Derivative word incomplete. Adjunct : Suffix ness, signifying state or quality. Meaning: The state or quality of being incomplete, incomplete. Class : Derivative word. Base: Stem-derivative word complete. Adjunct : Prefix in = not. Meaning : Not complete. FORMATION OF WORDS. 221 COMPLETE. Class : Stem-derivative word. Base : Stem plet, signifying filled. Adjunct : Prefix corriy signifying together. Meaning : Filled together, hence finished. 504. In ascertaining the meaning of a word from an analysis of its component elements, it should be remembered that it may be used^ with several dif- ferent shades of meaning, and that these may all be traced back to the meanings of the component ele- ments. Exercise 61. — Analyze each of the following words, use each in a sentence^ and from its use tell the part of speech. abduct Abbreviate aberration abject ablution abnegation abnormal abominable abrupt abscond adulterate accept accident accommodate antipathy apprehend benefactor capital captive centigrade centrifugal centripetal compensate competent defend demonstrate educate encyclopaedia febrifuge fervent geography hereditary humility inaugurate indorse jurisdiction liberate motion nominate opposite paragraph quantity retard soluble Note to Teachers.— That more exercises are not given on this important subject, is due to the fact that every reading lesson furnishes them in abundance; and the best way to study the meaning of words through analysis is to take them as they come in reading. Analysis, however, seldom furnishes a complete guide to the meaning of a word. It should be supplemented by the method by particulars, the method by induction, and the other methods with which all good teachers are supposed to be familiar. 222 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, CHAPTER V. SYNTAX. 505. Definition. — Syntax is that part of gram- mar which treats of the way in which words are joined in sentences. (See §§98, 99.) Under the head of Syntax will be considered, (1) the elements of the sentence, (2) the classification of sentences according to the manner in which these elements are arranged, (3) the three leading principles, Concord^ Government, and Order, that deter- mine the relations of words in sentences, (4) elliptical sentences, (5) punctuation, (6) the analysis (§ 61) of sentences into their component elements. 506. A sentence is a group of words used as a statement, a question, a command, or an entreaty. (See §§1-10.) 50*7. The elements of a sentence are the parts of which it is composed. 508. Classified according to structure, the ele- ments of a sentence are words, phrases (§ 58), and clauses (§ 59). 509. Classified according to office, the elements of a sentence are as follows : (a) IN ALL J 1. Subject. SENTENCES. ( 2. Predicate. 3. Complements \ Predicate, of the verb. ( Objective. 4. Supplements of the verb. (&) NOT IN ALL . ^ . ^. , . -. „ 1 5. Adjective modifiers. SENTENCES. _ . ^^ ,. , ^.^ 6. Adverbial modifiers. 7. Independent elements. 8. Connectives. SYNTAX. 223 510. When two or more words, phrases, or clauses perform the same office in a sentence, and bear the same relation to some other word, they are said to be co-ordinate. A word, a phrase, or a clause is said to be suborditiate to the sentence of which it forms a part, and, if a modifier, to the word whose meaning is modified. The sentence is said to be principal to any of its included elements. The word whose meaning is modified is said to be principal to its modifier. Subject and Predicate. 511. Every sentence consists of two parts, the subject and the predicate. 513. The subject of a sentence denotes that about which something is said. 513. The predicate of a sentence is that which is said of the thing denoted by the subject. (See §§ 11-15, and work again Exercise 2.) 514. The subject of a sentence may be a noun or its equivalent, either with or without adjective modifiers. Mivers rv/ti into the sea. A good name is rather to he chosen than great riches, 515. The equivalents of a noun are: 1. A pronoun. He is worthy of honor. We live in North America, 2. An Infinitive or infinitive phrase. (See §58.) To he contents his natural desire. To read well reqwires much practice. 3. A gerund. (See § 373.) Hunting the hear is da/ngerous sport. Walking is a healthful exercise. 224: ENGLISH GRAMMAR,^ 4. An adjective used as a noun. The good alone are great. ' 5. A noun clause. (See §59.) What he said made us change our plans. That he suffered was evident. Whether you go or not is of no consequence. 516. Some grammarians distinguish between the gram- matical subject and the entire y or logical y subject of a sentence. By the grammatical subject is meant the noun, or its equiva- lent, that is the subject of the verb in the predicate. By the entire^ or logical y subject is meant the grammatical subject, accompanied by modifiers. In this work, the term subject is used to denote the entire, or logical, subject ; and the term sub- ject noun, pronoun, phrase, or clause, as the case may be, is used to distinguish the grammatical subject from the entire, or logical, subject. Exercise 62. — Point out all the subjects of sen- tences in the selections given in Exercise 40, and tell of what each subject consists. 517. The predicate always consists of, or contains, a finite verb. (See §358.) We eat. They are sleeping. Horses eat grass. SJie is beautiful. 518. The term predicate is used to denote both the finite verb that makes the assertion, and, if there be any, all the complements and modifiers of that verb. This is often called the entirCy or logicaly predicate. The term predicate verb is used to designate the simple verb as distinguished from the predicate, consisting of verb and modifiers. ^ Complements of the Verb. 519. Many verbs do not alone, when joined with subjects, form complete predicates. They require SYNTAX, 225 complements, that is, some word or words to fill out the meaning. Complements are of two kinds, predi- cate complements and objective complements. 530. Most intransitive verbs (§ 340) may form predicates without the aid of other words; as. They sleep. The child plays. Incomplete intransitive verbs (§§ 344-8), however, require predicate comple- ments; as, The child is asleep , The young tree be- comes stronger. The most common verbs of this class are appear, be, become, feel, look, seem., smell, and taste. 531. The predicate complement of an incomplete intransitive verb may be: 1. A noun or a pronoun. Socrates was a philosopher. TMs is he. 2. An adjective. The wall is high. They became wise. 3. A phrase. (1) Infinitive. The ship seems to sail very fast. (2) Prepositional. The hoy is in the yard. 4. A noun clause. This hook seems what I have long wanted. 533. The noun, pronoun, etc., that forms the complement of an incomplete intransitive verh is called the predicate noun, adjective, phrase, or clause, as the case may be, because it comr- pletes the predication, or assertion, made by the verb. It is really a modifier of the subject, brought into connection there- with, by the help of the verb. Hence it is called, by some grammarians, the subjective com.plem.ent; by some, the predicate nominative; and by others, the attribute. 226 EN0LI8H GRAMMAR, 533* Some verbs in the passive voice require a comple- ment; as, He was deemed wise. The hoy was nomned John, 524* Distinguish carefully between an adjective used as cmnplementy and an adverb that modifies the meaning of a verb. The flowers smell sweet (adj.). The bird sings sweetly (adv.). The child grows pretty (adj.). TJie flowers are prettily ar- ranged (adv.). When the meaning of the verb is to be modified, use an ad- verb. When the meaning of the subject is to be modified, the complement must be an adjective, or a noun or its equivalent. Exercise 63. — In the following sentences, distin- guish the cases in which the verb is accompanied by a predicate complement, and those in which it is accompanied by an adverbial modifier. 1. The water tastes warm. 2. Washington is called the Father of his country. 3. Man became a living soul. 4. He is anxious to succeed. 5. The man was considered a miser. 6. Good boys make good men. 7. Be not weary in well-doing. 8. Become a scholar worthy of your privileges. 9. Who became president? 10. The cry sounded clear and shrill. 11. His voice sounded feebly. 12. The milk turned sour. 13. Fast and furious grew the fun. 14. The dog went mad. 15. He was ordered to sit down. 16. He was found to be right. 17. This kind of life is not to be endured. 18. Who is he? 535. Transitive verbs (§339) in the active voice (§ 353) can not of themselves form a complete predi- cate. The word or words denoting that which re- ceives the action of the verb, form the complement. The complement of a transitive verb is called the object. The object may be: 1. A noun or a pronoun. Cats catch mice. We honor hinim SYNTAX. 227 2. An infinitive, or an infinitive noun phrase. Boys love to play. The gentleman told his servant to wait. They thought him {to he) their friend. 3. A gerund. (See § 373.) We enjoy sailing on the river. 4. An adjective used as a noun. Pity the poor. 5. A noun clause. (See § 59.) I Jcnow that you are to blame. Give what you have. We do not know where he is. 53 6. Many grammarians distinguish a direct object, an m- direct object , and a factitive object. Every transitive verb re- quires a direct object. Verbs of giving, promising, refusing, telling, they tell us, take both a direct and an indirect object; as, JETe gave her the book; She refused him his request. In these sentences her and him are said to be the indirect objects of gave and refused. As her and him, undoubtedly represent an old dative case, that is no longer distinguished by an inflection, there is good ground, as well as excellent authority, for taking this view of the construction. We think it, however, more in harmony with the genius of the language in its present condi- tion to regard the words as adverbial modifiers of the verb, the equivalents of adverbial phrases — {to) her, (to) him,. 537. Verbs of m^aking, creating, appointing, choosing, etc., are said to take not only direct objects, but factitive (f ac = make) objects. The factitive object is said to denote the product of the action denoted by the verb; as, We made him, president; They elected him mayor. We prefer to call the noun or the adjective that denotes the product of the action denoted by the verb, the supplement. (See § 528.) There is no objection, how- ever, to calling this noun or adjective the factitive object. Exercise 64. — Pick out all the transitive verbs in the active voice in Exercise 48, give the object of each, and tell of what it consists. 238 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. The Supplement of a Verb. 528. Some transitive verbs take not only an ob- jective complement, but a supplement; as He made the door fast. In this sentence the adjective fast modifies meaning of door, and at the same time supplements the meaning of the verb by defining the action performed on door. The meaning would be the same if we said, He fastened the door. A nomi or pronoun used in this way is said to be a supple- ment of the verb, and an appositive modifier of the object. (See §532.) Other examples are : He pamted the house red, We called him, a genius, The officer stru^ck the soldier dead, The hoys m the gallery shouted them^selves hoarse. When the verbs in such sentences are used in the passive voice, the supplement becomes a predicate complement; as. The house was painted red, He was called a genius by us, The soldier was struck dead by the officer. This construction must, however, be distinguished from that in such a sentence as. They found him dead. Here dead is an appositive adjective modifier of him, but it does not become so through the help of the verb. Hence it is not a supplement. Adjective Modifiers. 539. The meaning of a noun or its equivalent may be modified (See §§36-37) by an adjective or its equivalent. 530. The equivalents of an adjective are: 1. A noun or a pronoun in the possessive case. My bark is on the wave. The mountain's crest towered above us. 2. A noun in apposition. Longfellow, the poet, was greatly beloved. SYNTAX. > 229 3. An adjective phrase. (a) Infinitive. Tli& desire to please is praiseworthy. (b) Participial. The hoy, having finished his task, went to play. (c) Prepositional. The harp of Tara is silent. 4. An adjective clause. A man that is true to himself, will always he trice to others. The place whereon you stand, is holy ground. Several modifiers may be attached to the same nomi ; as, A wise, just, and experienced statesman. 531. For the various forms and uses of the possessive cases of nouns and pronouns, see §§ 202-208, 240-245, and 267. Preceding a gerund, a noun or a pronoun indicates the sub- ject of the action denoted by the verbal ; as, I was surprised at John^s (his, your) winning the race. In this construction it is incorrect to use the noun or pronoun in the objective case ; as, I was surprised at John (him, you) winning the race. 532. An adjective, or its equivalent, may modify the meaning of a noun in three ways : 1. As an attributive modifier; as, The brown horse, The tall cMm^ney. Here a certain quality is attributed, or attached, to the name of an object. The adjective becomes part of the description of the object. 2. As a predicate adjective. In The hrown horse is fast, the quality of fastness is predicated or asserted of the hrown horse; and hence the adjective modifies the subject noun by the help of the verb. 3. As an appositive modifier. The type of this modifier is a noun in apposition {ad = to, posit = placed). In the sentence, The aged man, stiff with rheu/matism and spent with toil, hobbled painfully along, we have in stiff and spent examples of adjective modifiers, so nearly akin to the noun in apposition, 230 . ENGLISH GRAMMAR. that they may be called appositive. The appositive is merely a looser, more indirect, relation to a noun, than that of the attributive modifier. The appositive modifier is easily changed into an adjective clause: The aged man, wTw was stiff, etc. An adjective, accompanying a pronoun, is generally used appositively : He, courted and flattered, soon lost his senses. Participles are nearly always used appositively ; and, as already explained (§528), the supplement of a transitive verb is always an appositive modifier of the object. Adverbial Modifiers. 533. The meaning of a verb, an adjective, or an adverb, may be modified by an adverb or its equiv- alent. The boat sails swiftly. The speech was higJily effective. She sang very charmingly. 534. The equivalents of an adverb are : 1. A noun in the objective case, called an adverbial objective, the equivalent of an adverbial phrase, denoting time, etc. (See § 209.) We rode ten miles. The book cost a dollar. The watch is worth fifty dollars. The sermon lasted an hour. 2. A noun or a pronoun in the objective case, representing an old dative case, and generally denoting that to or for which some- thing is done, the equivalent of an adverbial phrase. (See § 526.) He gave Jafnes a book. 8he wrote him a letter. I bought me a house. He looks like me. 3. A noun in the nominative absolute, accompanied by a participle. (See §§ 195, 200.) Spring having come, the birds bwild their nests. 4. An adverbial phrase : (a) Prepositional ; as, He rides on a bicycle. (6) Infinitive ; as. He was anxious to make a start. They came to scoff; they remained to pray. 8TNTAX. 231 5. An adverbial clause : I shall come tvhen I atn ready. He ran to the rescvs as fast as he could. 535. Two or more adverbial modifiers may be attached to the same verb, adverb, or adjective ; as. She sang gayly and with great expression. Exercise 65. — In the selections given in Uxercise 49, point out all the adverbial modifiers, tell to which class each belongs, and what word each modifies. Independent Elements. 536. Independent elements are words that have no immediate relation with other words in the sen- tence. They are: 1. A noun in the nominative case by address. (See §200.) 2. An adverb or a conjunction used to connect a sentence with a preceding sentence ; as. The messenger y however, was not sincere, 3. Interjections. (See §§41-42.) 4. Phrases used independently; as, To say the least, his conduct is very extraordinary. 5Sli. Connectives are conjunctions, conjunctive adverbs, and relative pronouns. Classification of Sentences. 538. According to their use, sentences are classified as: 1. Declarative; 2. Interrogative; 3. Imperative. (See §§ 2-10. Work again Exercise 1.) 539. According to their structure, sentences are classified as Simple, Complex, and Compound. 232 ENGLISH GBAMMAB. 540. Defhsittion. — A simple sentence is a sentence containing one subject and one predicate, either of which may be compound. 541. The simple sentence may contain any or all of the elements of a sentence except the clause./' (For various forms of the simple sentence, see §§65-68. Work again Exercise 16.) The Complex Sentence. 543. DEFiisriTioN. — A complex sentence is a sen- tence that contains one principal clause and one or more subordinate clauses. (E-ead §§69-72, and work again Exercise 17.) 543. A subordinate clause may perform in a sen- tence the function of a noun, of an adjective, or of an adverb. Hence, subordinate clauses are classified as noun clauses, adjective clauses, and adverbial clauses. When the subordinate clause is a noun clause, the principal clause is generally the entire sentence. When the subordinate clause is adjective or adverb- ial, the principal clause is generally that which con- tains the word whose meaning is modified by the subordinate clause. The Noun Clause. 544. A noun clause is a clause that performs the function of a noun. 545. A noun clause may be used : 1. As the subject of a sentence : That he is honest appears evident, WJiere he is buried has never been discovered. SYNTAX, 233 2. As the object of a verb or of a preposition: I saw that he was at home. We do not know where he is hiding. He does not know what we are doing. He was earnest in what he undertook* 3. As predicate complement after an incomplete intransitive verb: Things are not what they seem. 4. In apposition: TJie fact, that he was there, was soon known. We hod a hope that he might come. Note.— In the last sentence, some regard the clanse as the object of the action implied in the noun fiape^ equivalent to we luyped that he would come. 546. Noun clauses are introduced: 1. By the relative pronoun what; as, I know what you would say. 2. By the compound relative pronouns ; as, Whoever would he happy y must he pure amd just. 3. By the interrogative pronouns who, which, and what; as, I inquired who was there. (See § 278.) 4. By the conjunctive adverbs where, when, whence, whither, whether, etc. ; as. Thou canst not tell whence it (the wind) comes, or whither it goeth. 5. By subordinate conjunctions. (See §§463-4:.) 547. The conjunction that is sometimes omitted : I know you are to hlame = I know that you are to hlaTue, 548. Frequently a noun clause is the real subject of a verb, when it is temporarily represented by the pronoun it; as, It is evident that the Governor should sign the bill. In such cases the clause is in apposition with the pronoun. 549. In the sentence, I do not douht hut that he will suc- ceed, the hut is unnecessary, and its use is improper. 550. In the sentence. The train would have arrived on time, hut that it met with an accident, the noun clause that it met with an accident is the object of the preposition hut, and the clause and preposition together form an adverbial modifier of the verb would have arrived. 551. A short quotation, containing a subject and predicate, when dependent upon a verb, may generally be regarded as a 234 ENGLISH QMAMMAR, noun clause ; as, He sadd " I am tired." If, however, the quota- tion contains several sentences, each should be analyzed inde- pendently. Exercise 66. — Point out all the noun clauses in the following selections and give the syntax of each : 1. I dreamed that Greece might still be free. — Byron, 2. I beg to say that I have not the least belief in the Noble Savage. 3. That human hearts are good in the main, is a true statement. 4. Write it on your heart that every day is the best day in the year. — Emerson. 5. I believe with the Persians that ten measures of talk were sent down from heaven, and that the ladies took nine. 6. Polonius's advice to his son was this: ** Beware of en- trance into quarrel." 7. That imitation is the sincerest flattery, has generally been acknowledged. 8. The important question is, what sciences ought to be taught in our schools? 9. Hearing that it was better to visit the ruins by moon- light, we started about eight o'clock. 10. It is a strange thing how little, people in general know about the sky. — Buskin. 11. What can they see in the longest kingly line in Europe, save that it runs back to a successful soldier? — Scott. 12. Dr. "Watts's statement that birds in their httle nests agree, like too many others intended to form the infant mind, is very far from being true. — Lowell. 13. It would seem to have been especially ordered by Provi- dence, that the discovery of the two great divisions of the American hemisphere should fall to the two races best fitted to conquer and colonize them. — Prescott. 14. It has been estimated that the quantity of heat dis- charged over the Atlantic from the waters of the Gulf Stream, on a winter's day, would be sufficient to raise the column of the atmosphere that rests upon France and the British Isles from the freezing point to summer heat. — Mawry. 8TNTAX. 235 Adjective Clauses. 553. An adjective clause is a clause that per- forms the function of an adjective, that is, modifies the meaning of a noun or a pronoun. 553* An adjective clause may be introduced by the relative pronoun that, or by who, which, as, when used restrictively. (See § 282.) The noun or pronoun whose meaning is modified by the adjective clause is always the antecedent of the relative ; as, Did you see the tree that was blasted by lightning f I do not like such pastry as she makes. The relative pronoun is often omitted ; as, I have fov/nd the hou^e (that) I was looking for, 554. An adjective clause may be introduced by a conjv/no- tive adverb, such as where = in which place ; when = at which time; why = on account of which, and some others, the equivalents of a relative pronoun and a preposition ; as, This is the house where I was born. He called at am, hour when I could not see him,. It is easy to find reasons why other people should be patient. 555* Care must be taken to distinguish noun clauses, intro- duced by who, when, or where, from adjective clauses. Noun : I do not know when I shall start* Adjective : I do not know the time when I shall start. Adverbial Clauses. 556. An adverbial ^lause is a clause that per- forms in a sentence the function of an adverb, that is, modifies the meaning of a verb, an adjective, or an adverb. In the sentence. He was sitting by the window, when the clock struck nine, the clause when the clock struck nine, tells the time at which he was sitting by the window, and hence modi- fies the meaning of the verb. 236 ENGLISH OBAMMAB, 557. Adverbial clauses may express various rela- tions, of which the following are the most important : 1. Place : as. Wherever he went^ he was welcome. Such clauses are introduced by the conjunctive adverbs of place, where^ whither, whence, wherever, etc. In the example given above, the clause is an adverbial modifier of the predicate was welcome. 2. Time: as, While you were speaking ^ he left the room. Such clauses are introduced by the conjunctive adverbs of time, when, while, whenever, etc., and by the conjunctions of time, hefore, after, since, ere, until, as soon as, etc. 3. Manner: as. We solve these problems as we have been instrucled. Such clauses are generally introduced by the conjunctive ad- verb as. 4. Degree : The house is not so large as we thought it was. Such clauses are introduced by the conjunction than, and the conjunctive adverbs the (§ 442) and as. They are generally used to modify the meanings of adjectives and adverbs. Adverbial clauses of degree are often elliptical: There is nothi7ig so kingly as kindness (is kingly). Se is working harde/r than ever (he worked). Great care must be observed in the construction of sentences in which than or as is used as a term of comparison. We may say, She loves him, more than J, She loves him more than me: but the first means She loves Mm tnore than I love him; and the second, She loves Mm more than she loves me. As requires a correspondence, term for term, in the two clauses which it serves to unite : He is not so tall as I (am tall), not He is not so tall as me. Where both than and as [or so] are necessary to the comparison, neither of them should be omitted. He is wiser but not so old as his brother, should be, He is wiser than his brother, but not so old. 5. Cause : Because he was ambitious^ I slew him,. Such clauses are introduced by the subordinate conjunctions hecause^ as, since, for, etc. 6. Consequence : He had run so fast, that he was out of breath. SYNTAX. 237 A clause of consequence is often introduced by so that. , 7. Purpose : He studies that he may become a scholar. Such clauses are introduced by the subordinate conjunctions tTiat, in order thatj so that. 8. Condition : If he were within call, I should send him to the city. Such clauses are introduced by the subordinate conjunctions ify unless, except, etc. 9. Concession: Though we are beaten , we hxwe not lost our honor. For the use of the subjunctive mode in clauses of purpose, condition, and consequence, see § 363. For a list of subordinate conjunctions, see § 464:, and for a list of conjunctive adverbs, see §440. 558. A subordinate clause in a complex sentence may itself be complex. In the sentence, I think he will speedily recover if he is prudent, the principal clause is I think (that) he will speedily recover. That he will speedily recover is a noun clause, the object of think. If he is prudent is an adverbial clause modifying the meaning of the verb will recover. Exercise 67. — In the following complex sentences, point out the principal clauses and the subordinate clauses^ tell what hind of clause each of the latter is and what it modifies: 1. There lies a vale in Ida, lovelier Than all the valleys of Ionian hills.— Temit/sow. 2. To know That which before us lies in daily life Is the prime wisdom. — Milton. 3. Wherever English poetry is read and loved, Bryant's I)oems are known by heart. — Hillard. 4. Whene'er a noble deed is wrought. Whene'er is spoken a noble thought. Our hearts in glad surprise To higher levels rise. — Longfellow. 238 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 5. Any life that is worth living must be a struggle, a swim- ming not with, but against, the stream. — Dean Stanley. 6. When a man has not a good reason for doing a thing, he has one good reason for letting it alone. — Sir Walter Scott. 7. The generosity of a sea-sick sufferer in giving away the delicacies which seemed so desirable on starting, is not ranked very high on the books of the recording angel. — O. W. Holmes. 8. When heats as of a tropic clime Burned all our inland valleys through. Three friends, the guests of summer time. Pitched their white tent where sea-winds blew. — Whittier. 9. The metal for the Yendome Column was obtained by melting twelve hundred cannon, which had been captured from the Russians and Austrians. 10. Johnson was of the opinion that a man grows better as he grows older, and that his nature mellows with age. Compound Sentences. 559. Definition. — A compound sentence is a sen- tence containing two or more principal, or independ- ent, clauses. In the compound sentence, two or more sentences that are grammatically independent are brought together into one, to give greater unity or force to the ideas expressed, or for the sake of comparison, contrast, etc. The sentences that make up a compound sentence are called co-ordinate clauses, because, grammatically, they are of equal rank ; as, England levied taxes wajustly, and the Colonies rebelled. 560. Co-ordinate clauses are generally connected by co-ordinate conjunctions (see §§ 461-3), and com- pound sentences may be classified to correspond with the classes of co-ordinate conjunctions, as follows: 1. Copulative y in which a second clause or several clauses add something to the first without modifying its meaning. And SYNTAX. 239 is the most common connective ; as, Hanmbal crossed the Alps, and the Romans marched to meet him,. The connective is some- times omitted ; as, Tem^perance promotes health ; intem^pera/nce destroys it. Under this head must be included sentences in which the relative pronoun has a co-ordinating force, that is, in which it is equivalent to a personal pronoun and a conjunc- tion ; as, The knight threw down the glove, which (= and it) his adversary picked up. 2. Disjunctive, in which two or more clauses are so joined as to imply the notion of an alternative. The connective is or, nor* either — or, neither — nor ; as. You must pay the money, or I will bring suit against you. The public did not appreciate his speeches, nor did his speeches please the public. 3. Adversative, in which the co-ordinate clauses are in op- position to one another. The most common connective is but; as, Men may come and men may go, but I go on forever. 4. Illative, in which the second of two clauses denotes an effect or consequence of the first, or a conclusion from it ; as. He was Thonorable, therefore Tie was respected. I was too late for the train, so I returned home. The season was dry, hence the crops failed. 561. Two or more of the preceding classes of sentences may be united in the same compound sentence; as, Truth, crushed to earth, shall rise again; Th' eternal years of Q-od are hers; But Error, wounded, writhes in pain, And dies among his worshipers. — Bryant. 563« Compound sentences are sometimes formed by joining together co-ordinate clauses that are themselves compound ; as. Trust men, and they will be true to you ; treat them greatly, and they will show themselves great. — Emerson. 563. A compound sentence may have any or all of the sentences that compose it, complex; as, 1 know not where His islands lift Their fronded palms in air; I only know I can not drift Beyond His love and care. — Whdttier. 240 EJS'GLISH GRAMMAR. We have seen, § 67, that two or more simple sentences may be contracted into one simple sentence. The contraction may- result in making the subject or the predicate, or both subject and predicate, or any of the other elements of a simple sentence, compound ; as. Enemies abroad and enemies at home oppressed and plundered us. It is sometimes difficult to determine, in the case of declar- ative and interrogative sentences, whether the sentence is simple with a compound subject, or whether it is really compound. Thus, Mary swept the floor and washed the dishes, is a simple sentence with compound predicate; but, Ma/ry swept the Jlpor, and she wasJied the dishes, is a compound sentence. The general rule is that where the conjunction connects words, the connected words form a compound element ; where it connects clauses, the sentence is compound. In the case of an imperative sentence, if there are two or more verbs in the imperative mode, the sentence is compound, because the subjects of the verbs being understood, the conjunc- tion connects clauses ; if there is only one, it is simple, unless it contains a subordinate clause. In the latter case it is complex. The following examples will illustrate: Simple: Tell him to come and take my sword. Compound : Come omd see my beautiful flowers. Complex: Go wTien the morning shineth. Compound : Visit us if you can, and stay as long as you desire. Complex : Tirust Mm not, for he will never pay you. Exercise 68. — In the following sentences point out the co-ordinate clauses^ and state with regard to each whether it is simple, complex, or compound. If a clause is complex, point out the principal and the subordinate clauses, and give the syntax of each of the latter: 1. Clever men are good ; but they are not the best.— CarZ^Ze. 2. I have found you an argument; I am not obhged to find you an understanding. — Johnson. SYNTAX. 241 3. I slept and dreamed that life is Beauty; I woke and found that life is Duty. 4. A tart temper never mellows with age ; and a sharp tongue is the only edged tool that grows keener with constant use. — Irving. 5. A moral, sensible, and well-bred man Will not affront me, and no other can. — Cowper, 6. The fountain of beauty is the heart, and every generous thought illustrates the walls of your chamber. — Emerson. 7. Years steal Fire from the mind, as vigor from the limb; And life's enchanted cup but sparkles near the brim. — Byron. 8. The hearts of men are their books; events are their tutors ; great actions are their eloquence. — Macaulay. 9. All actual heroes are essential men; And all men, possible heroes. — Mrs. Browning. 10. Attack is the reaction; I never think I have hit hard unless it rebounds. — Johnson. 11. The boat reappeared, but brother and sister had gone down in an embrace never to be parted, living through again, in one supreme moment, the days when they had clasped their little hands in love and roamed the daisied fields together. — George Eliot. 12. Night's silvery veil hung low On Jordan's bosom, and the eddies curled Their glassy rings beneath it, like the still. Unbroken beating of the sleeper's ^\x\sq.^- Willis. 13. Here was the doom fixed : here is marked the date When the New World awoke to man's estate. — Lowell. 14. The growing good of the world is partly dependent on unhistoric acts; and that things are not so ill with you and me as they might have been is half owing to the number who lived faithfully a hidden life, and who rest in unvisited tombs. — George Eliot. 242 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, CONCOBD. 564. The three principles that regulate the gram- matical union of words in sentences are Concord, Government, and Order. 565. Definition. — Concord is the agreement in case, gender, number, person, mode, or tense, of two connected words. Concord of Subject and Predicate. 566. A finite verb agrees with its subject in num- ber and person ; and the subject of a finite verb, when a noun or a pronoun, is always in the nom- inative case. The meaning of the first part of this rule is that a finite verb must have that grammatical form which shows that it is of the same person and number as its subject; as, All men admire courage. A man admires courage. Thou admirest all beautiful things. I am to blame. They are to blame. The following special cases under this general rule require attention : 1. When a noun in the plural is used to denote a whole, a unit of some sort, as the title of a book, a sum of money, etc., the verb may be in the singular; as, Plutarch's Lives is a good book. Five hundred dollars was spent. 2. When a singular noun is modified by two adjectives, so as to mean two distinct things, the verb is in the plural ; as. Moral and physical education are both necessary. Here educor- tion must be regarded as understood after moral. 3. A collective noun, denoting a group of objects regarded as one whole, takes a verb in the singular ; but when the noun denotes a group regarded as individuals, it takes a verb in the plural ; as. The government has begun to turn its attention. — Sidney Smith. The assembly of the wicked have inclosed me. — Bible. 4. FeWf many, most, some, several, the rest, etc., take a verb SYNTAX, 243 t in the plural ; as, Few of the men were there. Ma/ny of the sailors were shipwrecked. None should alwa ys take a verb in the singular ; as, None of our party was sick. 5. When the subject consists of two or more nouns connected by the conjunction andy the verb must be in the plural ; as, The evening and the morning were the first day. To this rule there are several exceptions : (1) If the nouns are names for the same person or thing, the verb is in the singular ; as, A laggard in love and a das- tard in war was to wed the fair Ellen of brave Lochinvar. — Scott. (2) If the nouns are names of things that may be considered as forming one whole, the verb is in the singular ; as, Wherei/n doth sit the dread and fear of kings. — Shakespeare. The wheel and axle was out of repair. (3) When the predicate verb is made to agree with the sub- ject next to it, being mentally supplied with the others, two or more nouns or pronouns connected by and often take a verb in the singular. This may happen in the following cases : (a) When it is desired to make one of the subjects emphatic , as. Both death and I am fownd eternal. — Milton. To rive what Goth and Turk and Time hath spared. — Byron. (6) When the subject nouns are preceded by ea^h, every, or no; as, Each hook and each paper was found in its place. Every hour and every minute is important. No hslp and no hope conies to the drowning man. (c) When a verb separates its subjects, it agrees with the first ; as, T/^e leader of the hand was slain, and all his men. If the first noun is plural, the verb is plural; as, The men were slain and their leader also. id) When the verb is placed before its subject, and the latter is represented by there, such, etc.; as, Upon tJiis there was a fearful cry from heaven, and (there were) great claps of thAinder. — Washington Irving. Such was the intelligence, the gravity, and the self-command of CromwelVs warriors. — Macaulay. The pronoun it, having a forward reference (§ 239), has a verb in the singular even when the complement is plural ; Q;&,Itis tliey. It was the, governor and his brother who were here. 244 ENOLISH GRAMMAR. I 6. When the subject consists of two or more singular nouns, or equivalents of nouns, joined by or, either — oVy neither — nor, the verb must be singular. The reason of this rule is that, with or, either — or, the pred- icate is affirmed of only one of the subjects ; as, Either Jones or Smith starts for Europe to-morrow. With nor, or neither — nor, the predicate is denied of each of the subjects separately ; as, WTiere neither moth nor rust doth corrupt. — Bible. Nor man nor fiend hath fallen so far. — Bykon. Good writers, however, occasionally use a plural verb after nouns connected by neither — nor, if the predicate is regarded as denied of both together ; as. Nor heaven nor earth have been at peace to-night. — Shakespeare. Neither the king nor either of his two sons are permitted to leave the island. When two or more subjects connected by or or nor differ in person, the rule is usually given that the verb must agree with the subject next to it ; as. Either you or I atn to go. Either he or you are to go. Either you or he is to go. It is better to avoid this construction — either complete the predicate with the first subject, "Either you are to go, or I am," or change the form of the sentence. Cautions. 1. Do not use a plural verb after a singular subject modi- fied by an adjective phrase that is introduced by with. We should say. The rebel chief, with all his attendants, was (not were) captured, 2. When two subject nouns are connected by the conjunction as well as, the verb agrees in person and number with the first. We say. The hoy, as well as his sister, deserves com^mendation ; meaning. The hoy deserves com^mendation, as well as his sister (deserves commendation). 3. Never use a singular verb after you or they. Do not say. You was there, or Was you there f or They was. 4. Do not mistake a noun in a modifying phrase for the subject of the verb. Gibbon writes. The richness of her arms and apparel were (should be was) conspicuous in the foremost ranks. The omission of unnecessary adjectives add (should be adds) to clearness of discourse. SYNTAX, 245 5. When the subject is a relative pronoun, the number and person of the verb are the same as the number and person of the antecedent of the relative. We say, This is the only one of the books that is worth reading, because the antecedent of tliat is one; but, This is one of the best books that have appeared this year, because the antecedent of that is books. 6. Beware of incorrect contractions of verbs with the adverb not. Do not use He don't. It don't, for He does not, or He doesn't, etc. Do not use Tou da'sn't. He da'sn% for You dare not, etc. We may say I don't, We don't. Avoid can't, aren't, weren't, and won't. The use of such expressions as Tiadn't ought to, and didn't ought to, is wholly wrong. Concord of Adjective and Noun. 567. Every adjective, or its equivalent, modifies the meaning of a noun expressed or understood ; but as the demonstrative adjectives this and that are the only adjectives inflected, the only rule for the con- cord of adjectives is : 568. This and that are used with nouns in the singular; these and those, with nouns in the plural; as, This kind of apple. These kinds of apples. An apparent exception to this rule occurs in the common expressions, this twenty years, this many summers; but they are defensible on the ground that we are thinking of a period of time, and hence that the idea is singular. 569. The indefinite pronouns eox^h, every, either, and neither, when used as adjectives, are invariably joined to singular nouns, and hence, if the noun is in the nominative case, the predicate verb must be singular; as. Every tree is known by its fruits. Dr. Bain quotes, from Thackeray, two examples of a common error : Neither of the sisters were very much deceived. Neither of my brothers do anything to make this place amusing. 246 ENGLISH ORAMMAR. Concord of Pronoun and Antecedent. 570. A pronoun agrees with its antecedent (§ 232) in gender, number, and person ; as, / have found a coin ; it is a silver dollar. The young lady addressed the meeting ; she made a fine speech. I have been talking with a man whom I admire greatly. I lost an umbrella, which cost me ten dollars. For the forms, inflections, and uses of the personal pronouns, see §§ 324-250. Work again Exercises 30 and 31. For the forms, inflections, and uses of the relative pronouns, see §§261-282. Work again Exercise 32. 571. When the antecedent is a noun or a pronoun in the singular, that implies both the masculine and the feminine gender. Dr. Bain states that it is allowable to use a plural pro- noun. Among other examples, he quotes the following from standard writers : Every one must judge of their own feelings — Byron. Had the doctor been contented to take my dining tahleSy as anybody in their senses would have done. — Miss Austen. If the fool, or the pig, are of a different opinion, it is because they only know their own side of the question. — J. S. Mill. Strict compliance with the rule requires the use in such cases of both the masculine and the feminine pronoun; as, Everybody believes his or her own opinion to be correct. Such constructions, particularly in long sentences, are to be avoided. 51I2* Great care must be taken in determining the ante- cedent of a relative pronoun in the nominative case, because the verb of which the pronoun is the subject takes its number and person from the antecedent. Following are some examples of peculiar cases : 1. We should say. One of the most valvxible books that ha/ve (not that has) appea/red in any language. 8YNTAX. 247 2. When the antecedent of a relative pronoun is a clause (see § 280), the pronoun is neuter ; as, He lives for others, which (the living for others) is to he commended. 3. A relative pronoun is sometimes made to agree in person with a subject pronoun rather than with a predicate noun or pronoun that is the real antecedent ; as, I am, a plain blunt m,an that love my /Wend.— Shakespeake. 4. Use tlwse who, this or that which, in preference to they or them, who, it which. 5. A relative pronoun should not refer to a noun or a pro- noun in the possessive case. The little boy's father that is study- ing Latin, helps him in his lessons, is ambiguous. As it is the son and not the father who is studying; Latin, we should say, The father of the little boy that, etc. Concord of Cases. 573. The subject and the complement of an in- transitive verb or of a verb in the passive voice, of incomplete predication, agree in case. (See §§ 344-8.) Two cases must be distinguished under this rule: 1. V^hen the verb is .in one of the finite modes (see §358), the complement, if a noun or a pronoun, is in the nominative case, because the subject is in the nominative case ; as, I am, he. He was elected President. 2. When the verb is in the infinitive mode the complement is in the objective case, because the subject is in the objective case; as, We thought it to be him. They desired him to be- come their leader. An apparent exception occurs when a noun or a pronoun in the possessive case serves as a complement ; as, The earth is the Lord's. That book is mine. In the first of these sentences the word earth may be regarded as understood after Lord's, For the explanation of the second, see § 242. 574. When a noun or a pronoun explains the meaning of another noun or pronoun, the explaining 248 ENOLISH GRAMMAR. noun agrees in case, or is in apposition, with the noun explained. See §310. As: Nominative : This gentleman, the prince's near ally^ My very friend, hath got his mortal hurt. Possessive: Jack the giant-killer's wonderful exploits. Objective: The children love their uncle, Mr. Harris, When two nouns in the possessive case are in apposition, the second alone takes the inflection. (See §§ 204-208.) A noun and a noun clause are sometimes in apposition ; as. The Jwpe that he would succeed, gave him courage. I count this thing to be grandly true, that a noble deed is a step toward God. A noun is sometimes in apposition with a noun implied in a preceding clause; as, He is said to have deserted — a crime punishable by death = He was charged with desertion — a crime, etc. Examples of pronouns in apposition with nouns, are : Icha- bod Crane, he of the hooked nose and shambling gait, was the schoolmaster of Sleepy Hollow. He himself will be the judge. Concord of Tenses. 575. Verbs in subordinate clauses, as well as in- finitives and gerunds, must take the form required by the tense of the principal verb. 576. When the infinitive refers to a time coincident with, or after, that of the principal verb, the present (simple form) should be used ; as, I intended to go (not to have gone). It was their duty to prevent this outrage (not to have prevented). He would have found it difficult to do this (not to have done this). 577. When the reference is to a time prior to that in- dicated by the principal verb (or its attendant words), the per- fect infinitive is used ; as. He is reported to have rescued the man from, drowning. He is believed to have lived in the third century. SYNTAX. 249 But ought, must, need, and some other verbs that have no distinctive form for the past tense, take the present or the past infinitive, according to the sense : He ought to go (now). He ought to have gone yesterday. He must he weary. He must have teen weary. He need not go away. He need not have gone away. SUS. The gerund follows the same law as the infinitive; as, He had no intention of doing wrong. He is not conscious of having done wrong. 579. The tense of a verb in a subordinate clause must not conflict with the tense of the verb in the principal clause. I shall go if you desire it. I should go if you desired it. I should have gone if you had desired it. If I can arrange my affairs I will go to Europe. If I could ar-^ range my affairs I would go to Europe. If I could have arranged my affairs I would have gone to Europe. If I have the hook I will send it. If I had the hook I would send it. If I had had the hook I would have sent it. In sentences expressing a condition and a consequence, the clause expressing the condition is called a conditional clause, and the clause expressing the consequence is called the conse- quent clause. 580. An apparent exception to the last rule occurs in the case of a statement true for all time, which is put in the pres- ent tense even when the principal verb is in a past tense ; as, It was as true as that any two sides of a triangle are together greater than the third side. 581. Co-ordinate conjunctions join verbs in the same modes and tenses. If thou bring thy gift to the altar, and there reniemberesi that thy hrother hath aught against thee, involves a mistake in mode, because hring is in the subjunctive mode, and rememher- est in the indicative. It should be either, If thou hring .... rememher; or, If thou hringest .... rememherest. 250 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. I am sure that he has been there^ and did what tuas re- qwired of hirriy shows a lack of agreement in tenses. We should say, I am sure that he has been there and has done what was required of him;^ or, was there and did; or, t?iat he has been there, and that he did. In the last form the difficulty is ob- viated by making the conjunction connect two clauses, not two verbs. Hence the caution: When in the same sentence it is. necessary to change the tense, repeat the subject. 583. When two or more auxiliaries are used in reference to one principal verb, care should be taken that the form of the principal verb is suited to each of the auxiliaries. In the sentence, This preface will answer for any hook, that has, or shall be, published, has does not make sense in con- nection with published. We should say, that has been, or shall be, published. In the sentence, I advise others to taTce the same course that I have, have refers to the verb take, which is absurd. We should say, have taken. Concord of Prepositions. 583. When a prepositional phrase is joined to a derivative word (§§ 484-5), the preposition and the prefix of the derivative word should, as a general rule, agree in meaning; as, ad-apt to, af-fix to, di- vert from, ex-pel from or out of An exception occurs when the meaning of the stem, rather than that of the prefix, determines the preposition ; as when we speak of our abhorrence of or for a thing, and not of abhorrence from* 584. Our language being nearly destitute of inflections, the relations of words are largely shown by means of preposi- tions. Great care should be exercised in their selection, so that the exact idea intended shall be conveyed. Among' those that are often misused are the following : Of, SYNTAX. 251 to, for, from, hy, withy in, into, at, on, v/nto, wntil, off, upon, between, among, without (for except). 7w, an, at, by, generally imply rest. He lives in the city. He is at the fair. The mat lies by the door. The dock stands on the stairs. To, into, unto, toward, towards, from, imply motion with direction. He went to the city. He came into the house. The man is driving towards the river. He comes from the city every day. They got into the carriage and rode in it. Between is used of two objects. Among (or amongst), amid (amidst), of a greater number. There was a generous rivalry between the two boys. Four bays came forward ; he divided the peaches among them. Referring to places, we say, In New York (city or large town), at Lyons FaUs (hamlet or railway station), in Europe, in the State of New York, tmiched at Dover, arrived at Liverpool (of a vessel on a voyage), boards at the Astor House, he lives on Greene Ave., at No. 1076, or, at 1076 Greene Ave., in San Francisco. Of is sometimes ambiguous after nouns derived from transitive verbs ; as, The love of our neighbor may mean our love for him, or his love for us. So in the following : / was greatly interested in reading about the discovery of Livingstone. Does this mean Stanley's discovering Livingstone, or a dis- covery that Livingstone made ? Everybody approved of the choice of the presi- dent. Did the president choose, or did some one choose him? In all such cases the ambiguity may be avoided by substituting a participial phrase, or a possessive case : Tlie discovery made by Livingstone ; The presidenVs choice. Beside is now used chiefly with the sense of by the side of. Besides means in addition to. He sits beside the well. Have you any money besides this? Upon should rarely be used except with the accompanying sense of height. We may say. Upon the top of a building, but on the ground, on a table. Upon is also used in the sense of after ; as, Upon heanng the news, we sent you word. Cff of is extremely inelegant. We should say. He fell off the roof, not off of. Concord of Conjunctions. 585. Certain adjectives and adverbs, as well as conjunctions, take after them special conjunctions. For example : Such (implying comparison) requires as: This is not such a book as I want. Such (cause and effect) takes that : My income is not such that I can afford it. Both requires and. So (\^^th a negative) takes as : He is not so tall as I. As (affirmative) takes as: He is as tall as his brother. For other examples of conjunctions used in pairs, see § 460. 252 ENGLISH QBAMMAR, 586. Caution. — lAke is not a conjunction, and must not be used for as or as though. He looks like he had been sick (as though). He is a soldier like his father was (as). GOVERNMENT. 587. Definition. — Government is the power that a word has to determine the case of a noun or a pro- noun ; as when a pronoun, following a preposition, takes the objective form ; as, Behind him, before me. 588. Transitive verbs, and their participles and gerunds, as well as prepositions, govern the objective cases of nouns and pronouns. Nouns and pronouns that are the objects of transitive verbs must be carefully distinguished from nouns and pronouns that modify the meanings of verbs as to extent, direction, time, etc. The latter are either the equivalents of adverbs, or they are abridged adverbial phrases. See §209. 589. The following errors are frequently made in the ap- plication of the rule given in § 588 : 1. "When the object is separated by a clause from the gov- erning word, the nominative case is liable to be used for the objective case ; as, Se that is suspicious of others^ we are apt to suspect. He should be him, because it is the object of suspect. 2. The nominative case is sometimes used in interrogative sentences, instead of the objective, and vice versa. Instead of Who do you suppose I met on the street f we should say whom,, because it is the object of m,et. Instead of Whom, do men say that I am., we should say, who, because it is the predicate com^ plement of am. 3. After certain verbs. Let you and I go, should be Let you cmd me go. He took John and I fishing, should be John and me. 4. After prepositions. Between you and I, should be Between you and me. Instead of I do not know who to give it to, we should say whom, because it is the object of the preposition to. SYNTAX, 253 Exercise 69. — Correct the etrors in the concord of subject and verb in the following sentences^ and give a reason for each change : 1. It don't seem possible that our country is so young I 2. Every one of the passengers tell the same story. 3. Care thou for me? 4. John don't understand this rule in grammar. 5. Thomas or I were going to call for you. 6. The bones forming an open cage, commonly known as the chest, is scientifically called the thorax. 7. In expiration, the diaphragm and the muscles that raise the ribs, relaxes. 8. All work and no play make Jack a dull boy. 9. If five yards of muslin costs fifty cents, what does three yards cost ? 10. It don't seem possible that it is ten years since I saw you. 11. The jury has disagreed. 12. The crowd are becoming uncontrollable. 13. The collection from the scholars are to be given to a G. A. E.. Post. 14. The class have been unruly. 15. The Society of Friends were founded by Q-eorge Fox. Exercise 70. — Correct the errors in the concord of subject and complement in the following sentences, and give a reason for ea^h change: 1. I proved it to be he who was to blame for the accident. 2. Who did you take my brother to be?. 3. I think it was her who helped me. 4. I think it to be she who helped me. 5. I do not know whether the Macdonalds are Scotch or Irish ; but I thought the Scotch family alluded to might be them. 6. The mischievous boys you speak of could not have been us, for we were at home. Exercise 71. — Correct the errors i/n the concord of pronoun and antecedent, and of subject and verb, in the following sen- tences, and give a reason for each change : 1. A good education is that which gives to the body and to the soul all the beauty and all the perfection of which it is capable. 2. It is letters, however, which opens the intelligence to the light of reason. 3. Each of the boys have their own bicycle. 4. Neither Charles nor his brother ate their breakfast this morning. 5. One of the most splendid comets that has ever been seen, appeared in 1744. V 254 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 6. One of the greatest sovereigns that has ruled over Austria, was Maria Theresa. 7. The hen gathered its brood under her wing. 8. The committee handed in their unanimous report. 9. If any one wishes to see me, let them call after three o'clock. 10. Has each scholar handed in their composition? Exercise 72. — Correct the errors in the concord or use of mode in the following sentences, and give a reason for each change : 1. If an animal of any kind was kept shut up in a box, it would surely die. 2. If my sister goel^ which I think is doubtful, she will call for you. 3. I wish I ''9^ in Europe. 4. If I was wealthy, I should build a hospital for the poor. 5. Unless he takeSi better care of his health, he will have a short life. 6. I shall insist that he obeys you. 7. Whether he goes or not, it is your duty to be present. 8. Was I Brutus, and Brutus, Antony, I would put a tongue in every wound of Caesar. 9. Though he censures me, yet I respect him. 10. Unless he refuses to see you, do not give up hope. Exercise 73. — Correct the errors in the concord of tenses i/n the following sentences, and give a reason for each change : 1. I had hoped to have met you at church. 2. Where did you say Yellowstone Park was? 3. Is he very lame? I should say he was. » 4. What factory was that I passed coming here? 5. The foot-note explained that HgO meant that water was composed of two parts of hydrogen to one of oxygen." 6. It was my desire to have invited my class-mates to visit me in the country. 7. I neglected to have mentioned the fact. 8. He expected to have seen you to-morrow. 9. Washington is supposed to have many marvelous escapes from death. 10. The general intended to have examined the ground before the battle, but the advance of the enemy prevented him. 11. The lawyer expected to have won the suit, and was astonished to hear the judge's decision. Exercise 74. — Correct the errors in the concord or use of ad- jectives in the following sentences, and give a reason for each change : 1. There £ire two teachers, prosperity and adversity; the former is great, but the latter is the greatest. 8TNTAX, ' 255 2. Washington, Jefferson, Adams, and Madison were all great men; but Washington is considered the greater. 3. John is the shortest of her two brothers. 4. Mary is the most forgiving of the two. 5. This is more preferable than the other. 6. I never saw a more perfect specimen. 7. Liouis xrv. reigned longer than all the other kings of France. 8. New York is larger than any city in America. 9. Diamonds are more valuable than all the precious stones. 10. Shakespeare was greater than any Enghsh dramatist. 11. Of all other animals, the horse and the dog are certainly the most sagacious. 12. The Falls of Niagara are known to be the grandest of any other in the United States. 13. San Francisco has the largest Chinese population of any other city in America. 14. What species of a cactus is this one ? 15. A shamrock is the emblem of Ireland. 16. My teacher suffers a great deal with the neuralgia. 17. The boy's composition on that stubborn animal, a donkey, was highly appreciated by the class. 18. You do not deserve the title of a Christian when you act so un- charitably. 19. Daniel Webster was elected a Senator. 20. It is a historical fact that Columbus discovered America in 1492. 21. Brutus was a honorable man. 22. I have just bought an hoe. 23. These sort of people are always disgusting. 24. This kinds of stories entertains me. 25. He always carries a three-feet measure in his overcoat pocket. 26. The pond is forty foot deep. Exercise 75. — Correct the errors in the concord or use of adverts in the following sentences, and give a reason for each change : 1. There is no blessing equal to that of perfect health : you ought to value yours higher. 2. Write slow and careful. 3. The republic of the United States is not near as old as the kingdom of Spain. 4. Isabel looks real well in her new hat. 5. His teacher spoke cold and scornful to him after she fotmd he had acted dishonorable. 6. We are near through our term's work. 7. Few countries have such a hot climate as tropical Africa. 8. Such a high authority in science as Tyndall, is generally believed. 256 EN0LI8H OBAMMAB. Exercise 76. — Correct the errors in the concord or use of prepositions in the following sentences, and give a reason for each change: 1. He has moved ^to New York, into an elegant mansion. 2. The paper is cut in small strips. 3. I am packing my clothes into my trunk. 4. The boys are standing on to the landing. 5. We went onto the roof of the house to view the eclipse. 6. The blast blew the rock in fragments. 7. He went in the cabin through the large doorway. 8. He is down to the village. 9. The oldest mint in the United States is at Philadelphia, 10. I do not know what is the matter of her. 11. We shall have a holiday upon Washington's Birthday, 12. Ex-President Q-rant died with a cancer. 13. I stayed to a large hotel, when I was in Home. 14. He is living into a frame house at Boston. 15. Her unladylike behavior gave occasion to many unpleasant remarks. 16. That ugly worm will change to a butterfly. 17. I shall be thankful when I arrive to my journey's end. 18. She lives at Greene avenue, in No. 1050. Exercise 77. — Correct the errors in the concord or use of conjunctions and adverbs in the following sentences, and give a reason for eaxih change: 1. GTen. Sheridan was not as tall as G^n. Sherman. 2. England is not-%s large as Russia. f 3. If Latin had been so difficult for the Romans to leam as it is for us, Rome never could have found time to conquer the world and master her language. ^ 4. Sheridan was not^ great a dramatist as Shakespeare. 5. He is fond of reading life his mother was when she was his age. 6. He likes me like a fly likes vinegar. 7. The woodchuck looks as a gray hermit. 8. The sun was as a snow-bound traveler sinking out of sight from ex- haustion. 9. Our tunnel through the snow looked like we imagined Aladdin's cave did. 10. You can not go except your mother accompany you. 11. Two of the States can not be joined into one without their State legislatures and Congress both agree to it. 12. Except you study you will not be promoted. 13. He can not enter the regiment before he is of age unless by his guardian's consent. SYNTAX. 257 Exercise 78. — Correct the errors in the use of the possessive case in the following sentences : 1. I bought this dress at Arnold's and Constable's store on Broadway. 2. We have both Stormonth and Webster's dictionary in our class-room. 3. McClintock's and Strong's Cyclopaedia is devoted to Biblical and theological subjects. 4. I received a package containing all of Thackeray and Dicken's works. 5. Neither Brooklyn nor Chicago's population equals that of New York. 6. My brother-in-law's, sister's, servant's ears have been frozen. 7. I do not like him appearing in public so young. 8. She was very much pleased at the Queen ordering flowers from her. Exercise 79. — Correct the errors in government in the follotu- ing sentences, and give a reason for each change : 1. Mr. Bamum gave John and I tickets for the circus. 2. They that obey me, I will reward. 3. He saw who he wanted. 4. Who do you think I met in Paris? 5. I do not know who to inquire for. 6. Let you and I look at these things. 7. Stay, I will not kill ye. 8. To send me away, and for a whole year, too — T, who had never crept from under the parental wing— was a startling idea. 9. It is in this that the great difference lies between the laborer who moves to Yorkshire and he who moves to Canada. 10. He hath given away about half his fortune to no one knows who. Order of Words. 590. Since, in English, there are few inflections, or changes in the form of a word to denote various relations, the order of words is often of importance in determining the sense. 591. The following principles, laid down by Dr. Bain, lie at the foundation of all the rules governing the arrangement of words in sentences: 1. What is to be thought of first should be men- tioned first 258 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 2. Things to be thought of together should he placed in close connection. 593. In what may be called the usual order of words in a sentence, the subject (including modifiers) precedes the predicate (the verb and its modifiers) ; because the subject of a sentence is generally thought of before the predicate. The rules that follow present the usual order in detail. De- viations from the usual order are generally made for the sake either of emphasis or of sound. Inversions for the sake of sound are very common in poetry. The places for emphatic words are the beginning and the end of a sentence. If a word, for instance, that would, in the usual order, come at the end of a sentence, is transferred to the begin- ning, it at once becomes emphatic. Great is Diana of the Ephe- sians is much more forcible than Diana of the Ephesians is great. Hence, it is well, for the most part, to avoid ending a sen- tence with a weak word, such as a preposition, an adverb, or a pronou/n. Rules of Order. 593. The subject noun or pronoun generally pre- cedes the verb ; as, Time flies. Lions are found in Africa. The following exceptions should be noted : 1. In an interrogative sentence whose subject is not an in- terrogative pronoun, the subject follows the verb or comes be- tween the auxiliary and the principal verb; as. Are you a pupil ? Will nothing move you ? 2. When the verb is in the subjunctive mode and the intro- ductory conjunction is omitted, the subject follows the verb or comes between the auxiliary and the verb ; as, ITad he lived till now, etc. Were you my son, etc. 3. After neither or nor, signifying and not, the subject fol- lows the verb ; as. Nor is this mibch to he regretted. SYNTAX, 259 4. With the imperative mode, the subject follows the verb ; as, Praise ye the Lord. 5. In introducing a broken quotation, the subject often follows the verb ; as. Said he. Thought I. 6. After the words there and here used to introduce a sen- tence, the subject follows the verb ; as, There was a king in Thule. Here followed a long list of studies. 7. When the writer or speaker desires us to think of the action, or of some circumstance respecting the action, before thinking of the principal subject, the verb is placed before the subject ; as, Wherever flagged Ms own, or failed the opposing force^ glittered his white robe^ and rose Ms bloody battle- aoce, — Lytton. The unusual position of the subject noun and predicate verb, renders each very emphatic. Such inversions of the usual order of words are frequent in poetry. 594. The predicate complement follows an in- complete intransitive verb ; as, Cotton is king. The stars shine bright. For the sake of emphasis the' predicate complement, when an adjective or a pronoun, may precede the verb ; as, Great is Diana of the Ephesians. He it is to whcrni I refer. 595. The object follows a transitive verb ; as, He loves truth. The following exceptions should be noted : 1. A relative pronoun as object of a verb always precedes the verb that governs it ; as. This is the man whom I saw. The hook that you gave me is here. 2. For the sake of emphasis the object stands before the verb ; as. Honey from out the gnarled hive Til bring, — Keats. This construction is frequent in poetry. 3. An object noun is sometimes placed before the verb for the purpose of bringing the sentence in which it occurs into closer relation with the preceding sentence; as, He sa/ys, ** The supreme excellence in writing is simplicity" This simplicity he steadily cultivated. It is better to avoid placing the object, when a noun, before 260 ENGLISH OBAMMAR. the verb, as this order often leads to ambiguity. Thus, from the sentence, The son the father addressed, it is impossible to tell whether the son addressed the father, or the father the son. With the usual order, however, there can be no mistake : The son addressed the father. When the subject or the object is a pronoun that shows its case by its form, there is less dan- ger of confusion, and a pronoun used as object is freely placed before the verb for the sake of emphasis; as, Sim the Almighty Power JECurled headlong flaming from, the ethereal sky. — Milton. 596, An adjective modifier should be placed as near as possible to the word whose meaning it mod- ifies. 1. A single adjective or a series of adjectives precedes the noun whose meaning is modified ; as, A wise son maketh a glad father. Many heautiful, fragrant flowers were hloomr- ing. In poetry, for the sake of ^the rim^e or the rhythm (see § 643), and also for the sake of emphasis, the adjective is often placed after the noun ; as, We sat within the farm-house old Whose windows looking o'er the hay. Gave to the sea-breeze, damp and cold^ An easy entrance night and day. 2. When the adjective is accompanied by modifiers of its own, it usually follows the noun ; as, A man wise in his own conceit. 3. When two numerals modify the meaning of one noun, the ordinal adjective generally stands first, and the cardinal second ; as, The last three chapters cff the book. The first two items of the account. 4. A participle or a participial phrase is usually placed im- mediately after the noun whose meaning it modifies ; as. The hoy, having learned his lesson, went out to play. The participial phrase may, however, come first, when there is no doubt as to the noun to which it belongs ; as, Having crossed the Alps, Ocesar came into Italy. SYNTAX. , 261 5. A prepositional adjective phrase or an adjective clause should immediately follow the word whose meaning is modified ; as, Venus is the star of the morning* I that denied thee goldf will give my heart. Cautions. 1. Mistakes are frequently made through placing an adjec- tive beside a noun to which it does not belong, as. The Moor, seizing a holster, full of rage and jealousy, smothers her. 2. Carelessness in the use of a participle or a participial phrase often leaves the participle without a noun or pronoun to modify, which makes not only nonsense but bad grammar. Thus, in the sentence, Being exceedingly fond of birds, an avi- ary is always to he found in his grounds, there is no noun or pronoun whose meaning is modified by the participial phrase being fond. The sentence might be corrected by changing the phrase to a clause. Since he is exceedingly fond, etc., or by re- casting the principal clause. He always has an aviary, etc. 3. Ridiculous blunders are made by the misplacing of adjec- tive phrases and clauses ; as, A piano for sale by a lady about to cross the Channel, in an oak case, with carved legs. 597. An adverbial modifier should generally be placed as near as possible to the word whose mean- ing it modifies. 1. An adverb modifying the meaning of an intransitive verb, generally follows the verb ; as, -He walks rapidly, A few ad- verbs, such as ever, never, often, seldom, generally precede the verb ; as. We often go to the city, hut we seldom stay long, and never remain there over night. 2. An adverb modifying the meaning of a transitive verb, generally precedes it, on account of the object following ; but, in compound tenses, the adverb comes after the first auxiliary if the verb is in the active voice, and next to the principal verb if it is in the passive voice ; as. The troops bravely stormed the fortress. Learning has always elicited respect. He will cer^ tainly have finished before you arrive. The problem, can be easily solved. When the object of a transitive verb is short, 262 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. the adverb is sometimes placed after the object ; as, I wrote my composition yesterday. "When the meaning of the object is modified by a phrase or a clause, an adverbial modifier is placed immediately after the verb ; as. He read with great care the hook that I gave him. 3. When an adverb of time and an adverb of manner mod- ify the meaning of the same verb, the adverb of time precedes the verb, and that of manner follows it; as, We never suffer willingly. 4. Adverbial phrases follow the same rules as adverbs with regard to position. 5. Adverbial clauses of time, place, or condition, may pre- cede or follow the verb in the principal clause ; but, as a general rule, they should precede ; as, JVhen summer comes, the days are longer. If you wish it, I will accompany you. 6. Adverbial clauses of manner are generally placed before the principal clause, when the correlatives as — so are both ex- pressed ; but when so is omitted, the principal clause comes first ; as, As the sun breaks through the darkest clouds, so honor peereth through the Tneanest hahit. Honor peereth through the meanest habit, as the sun breaks through the darkest clouds. 7. Two or more phrases or clauses modifying the meaning of the same verb, may be placed, one before, the other after, the verb ; as, After a little practice he will speak with greater ease. If you will allow me, I shall assist you when I have finished my lesson. Cautions. 1. Care should be taken to place the adverb only immedi- ately before the word whose meaning it modifies. Also solely, equally, at least, at any rate. By the insertion of only the sen- tence, I spoke a few words, may be made to give three different meanings : (a) Only I spoke a few words. I spoke ; no one else did. (&) I only spoke a few words. I spoke ; I did nothing else. (c) I spoke only a few words. My speech was brief At the end of a sentence only has a disparaging meaning ; as, He gave a dime only. SYNTAX. 263 With a noun or a pronoun it is often advisable to use alone instead of only ; as, He alone saw us. If alone followed us, the meaning would be that he saw us and no others. 2. The negative adverb not may, if wrongly placed, impart to a sentence a meaning quite diffeorent from that intended. For Lady Clare was not happy because she was beloved, but be- cause, etc., we should read, was happy, not because. 3. The adverbs ever, never, scarcely ever, etc., are often misplaced ; as. We never remember to have seen a more beauti- ful spot. We should say, We can not remem^ber to have ever seen, etc. 4. Where there are two or more verbs in a sentence, special care should be taken to place adverbial phrases and clauses close to the words whose meanings they modify. He blew out his brains after bidding his wife goodbye with a gun. Read, After bidding his wife good-bye, he blew, etc. You may read through the book I bought yesterday in half an hour. Place in half an hour before through, or before you. 5. It is common, particularly in newspaper writing, to in- sert an adverb between to and the infinitive ; as. To bravely die. This construction is contrary to the best usage, and is objection- able because of the identity in sound between to bravely and too bravely. 598. The preposition generally precedes its ob- ject ; as, Have a place for everything. The preposition, however, is often separated from a relative pronoun which it governs, and is then thrown to the end of the clause or sentence. Many modern grammarians forbid this con- struction, but it is common with the best writers ; as, The world is too well bred to shock authors with a truth, which generally their booksellers are the first that inform them o/.— Pope. For I must use the freedom I was born with. — Massinger. The preposition is sometimes separated from its object, in order to connect another preposition with the same noun ; as, He voted first with, and afterward against, the majority. This construction, while not wrong, is to be avoided. 264 ENGLISH OBAMMAB. 599. When two words are used correlatively, each member of the pair should come before the same part of speech. The following are the most im- portant : Not .... lyut. The wise teacher should not aim to repress^ hut to encourage, his pupils. Read, aim not to repress. Not .... hut only. He did not strive for fame, hut only for the right. Read, He strove not for fame, etc. Not only .... hut also. They not only chose him secretary, hut also president. Place not only before secretary. Not only .... hut. The Bom^an nohles not only were ohliged to learn the Greek language, hut to speak it. Not only should come before to learn. Not merely . .• . . hut. They will not merely interest children hut grown-up people. Not merely should precede children. Not more .... than. They seem to me necessary not more to the accuracy of the eoctracts than of the portrait I seek to give of the writer. Not m,ore should follow accuracy. Both .... and. The clergyman hoth spoke eloquently and sincerely. Read, hoth eloquently aud sincerely. Hither . ... or. The rules are too vague either for discussion or practical use. Read, for either discussion, etc. Neither .... nor. Her success is neither the result of system, nor of strategy. Read, neither of system nor, etc. 600. According to the order in which the ele- ments of a sentence are arranged, sentences are periodic or loose. SYNTAX. 265 601. In a periodic sentence modifying elements, particularly adjective and conditional clauses, are placed before the principal subject and predicate. In other words, the sense is suspended, or is not complete, until the close. The following are examples of periodic sen- tences : If the telegramns are correct, the loss by fire will he very great. When the Governor entered, he bowed to the assembly. Deep in the shady sadness of a vale Far sunken from the healthy breath of morn. Far from tJie fiery noon and Eve's one star Sat gray-haired Saturn, quiet as a stone. — Keats. 603, In a loose sentence modifying elements are placed after the principal subject and predicate ; as, We came to our journey's end, \ at last, \ with no small dif- ficulty, I after much fatigue, \ through deep roads and bad weather. This sentence might have been brought to a close at any of the places marked by the upright bars, and it would still have made complete sense. Changed to the periodic style, the sen- tence would read: *'At last, with no small difficulty, after much fatigue, through deep roads and bad weather, we came to our journey's end." Herbert Spencer suggests the following as the best arrangement of this sentence: *'At last, with no small difficulty and after much fatigue, we came, through deep roads and bad weather, to our journey's end." Thus, while the periodic structure is preserved, the modifying elements are dis- posed in a much more pleasing way before and after the predi- cate verb. Exercise 80. — In the following sentences point out the de- partures from, the usual order. State the subject, predicate verb, and object or complement of each sentence, and give reasons why each inversion is made: 1. So persecuted they the prophets which were before you. 2. Then burst his mighty heart. 266 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 3. From x>eak to peak, the rattling crags among, Leaps the live thunder. 4. To confirm his words out fly millions of flaming swords. 5. Down the street with laughter and shout, Glad in the freedom of school let out. Come the boys. 6. From the ale-house and the inn Opening on the narrow street, • Came the loud convivial din, Singing, and applause of feet. 7. Her wing shall the eagle flap O'er the false-hearted. 8. Silently, one by one, in the infinite meadows of heaven. Blossomed the lovely stars, the forget-me-nots of the angels. 9. To seek thee did I often rove Through woods and on the green. 10. In the court-yard of the castle, bound with many an iron band, Stands the mighty linden planted by Queen Kunigunde's hand. 11. Pleasant it was, when woods were green. And winds were soft and low. To lie amid some sylvan scene. Where, the long drooping boughs between. Shadows dark and sunlight sheen Alternate come and go. 12. Near to the bank of the river . . . Stood, secluded and still, the house of the herdsman. 13. Into the valley of death rode the six hundred. 14. Some he imprisoned, others he put to death. 15. Full many a gem of purest ray serene The dark unf athomed caves of ocean bear. 16. There dwelt a miller, hale and bold. Beside the River Dee. 17. Rare aJmost as great poets, are consummate men of business. Exercise 81. — Correct the errors of arrangement in the fol- loiuing sentenceSy and give a reason for each change : Adjective Modifiers Misplaced. 1. A woman was noticed loitering about the place where the child was seen carrying the child. 2. There are boats and lawn tennis and no mosquitoes to amuse the boarders. SYNTAX. 267 3. If we are to believe the story, our hero was the guide, philosopher, and friend of Dr. Andrew Thomson when only a lad of thirteen. 4. Nor, indeed, can tjtiose habits be formed with certainty which are to continue during life in a shorter space. 5. A dish has been preserved in the treasury belonging to the ca- thedral, supposed to be made of einerald, for upward of six hundred years. 6. We have two rooms, suflaciently large to accommodate two hundred pupils, one above the other. Adverbial Modifiers Misplaced. 1. Several men died in the ship of fever. 2. The witness was ordered to withdraw in consequence of being in- toxicated by order of the court. 3. A clever magistrate would see whether a witness was deliberately lying a great deal better than a stupid jury. 4. So correct is their ear that they can reproduce an air after once hearing it with the most perfect exactness. 5. We complimented them upon discussing matters which were in some countries found irritating in so calm a way. 6. It troubles the brains of children to be suddenly roused in a morn- ing, and to be snatched away from sleep, wherein they are much deeper plunged than men, with haste and violence. 7. The carriage stopped at the small gate which led by a short gravel walk to the house amidst the nods and smiles of the whole party. 8. He always read Lord Byron's writings as soon as they were pub- lished with great avidity. 9. They followed the advance of the courageous party step by step through telescopes. 10. The convict-ship was bearing him to expiate his crimes against the laws of his country in another hemisphere. 11. I found what a poor superficial creature I was afterward. 12. He was driving away from the church where he had been married in a coach and six. 13. Fights frequently ensue in consequence, but are generally put a stop to before any material damage is done by the interference of friends. 14. Nobler and loftier emotions lit up the hearts of men who had only sacrifices te make with a generous enthusiasm. 15. People ceased to wonder by degrees. 16. One day the sparrow did not perform certain tricks which he had taught it to his satisfaction. 17. Few people learn any thing that is worth learning easily. 18. I never remember to have felt an event more deeply than his death. 19. I have only written three lines. 268 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Correlatives Misplaced. 1. Homer was not only the maker of a nation, but of a language and a religion. 2. Every composition is fairly liable to criticism both in regard to its design and to its execution. 3. I am neither acquainted with the writer or his works. 4. He is neither disposed to sanction bloodshed nor deceit. 5. I know not what better description I could give you either of a great captain or a great orator. 6. He not only visited Paris, but Berlin, Vienna, and St. Petersburg. Exercise 82. — Cliange the following sentences from the loose construction to tJie periodic : 1. The deepest snow hangs from peak to peak in unbroken and sweep- ing festoons, on the Alps. 2. The lines by which rocks are terminated are always steei)er as we approach the summit of the mountain. 3. He will take false interest in what is great, who will take no interest in what is small. 4. Water is the most wonderful of all inorganic substances, acting in their own proper nature, and without assistance or combination. 5. The people have porches at their doors, where they sit, in cities where the evenings are generally hot. 6. One may realize how closely he is shut up, once in a while, even in our Northern cities, at noon, in a very hot summer's day. 7. You will get an image of a dull speaker and a lively listener, if you ever saw a crow with a king-bird after him. 8. Society draws the virtue out of what is best worth reading, as hot water draws the strength of tea-leaves. 9. I shall have to read something to you out of the book of this keen and witty scholar, if you think I have used rather strong language. 10. I wrote some sadly desponding poems and an essay which took a very melancholy view of creation, while I was suffering from indigestion. Ellipsis. 603. Ellipsis is the omission from a sentence of some word or words necessary to the grammatical construction. Ellipsis is permissible only when the omission does not ob- scure the sense ; or, in other words, when the mind of the reader or the hearer easily supplies the omitted word. SYNTAX. 269 604. The following cases of ellipsis are found: 1. A noun whose meaning is modified by a noun in the pos- sessive case ; as, Who built St. PauVs (Cathedral) ? 2. The subject of a verb in the imperative mode ; as. Lay (you) not up for yourselves treasures, 3. The participle in the absolute construction ; as, His heart and pocket (being) light, he sleeps secure. 4. The relative pronoun used as subject of a verb; as, 'Tis distance (that) lends enchantment to the view. 5. The relative pronoun used as the object of a verb or of a preposition ; as. The anxiety (that) I underwent was extreme. This is the house (that) I live in. 6. A phrase consisting of a relative pronoun governed by a preposition; as, This is the way (by which) I ca/me. He left tJie day (on which) I arrived. The omitted phrase is generally equivalent to when or where, 7. A personal or demonstrative pronoun used as the ante- cedent of a relative pronoun ; as, (He) wh^ steals my purse, steals trash. I shall follow (him or her) whom I please (to follow). 8. A subject noun or pronoun ; as, (I) thanJc you. 9. A predicate verb; as. Whose (is) tMs image and super- 10. A verb in the infinitive mode ; as. Will you sing f I shall try (to sing). 11. The subject, or the verb, or both, in adverbial clauses ; as. The river is smooth where (it is) deep. He is as tall as you (are tall). He is larger than (he was large) a year ago. 12. The verb in one of the members of a compound sen- tence ; as, Though all men forsake thee, yet will not I (forsake thee). 13. A conditional clause ; as, I should he glad to see you (if you would come). 14. That, introducing a clause ; as. He says (that) he will not come. 15. The object of a verb ; as, I knew him weU, and every trua/nt knew (him). 16. A preposition ; as. He departed (from) this Ufe, He left (on) this morning. 270 EN0LI8H OBAMMAB. ExEECiSE 83. — Supply the ellipses in the following sentences, and state the offices performed by the omitted words: 1. Bring me my books. 2. I was at my brother's yesterday. 3. Who did it? I. 4. She loved me for the dangers I had passed. 5. The property I possess is but small. 6. This done, proceed with your story. 7. This truth is better expressed by Solomon than him. 8. Better be with the dead. 9. He entered, hat in hand, and sat down. 10. It is strange you did not discover it. 11. 'Tis the sunset of life gives me mystical lore. 12. Is this the kind of book you want? 13. No man I know would suit you better. 14. The moment I saw him I recognized him. 15. Off with the traitor's head, and rear it in the place your father stands. 16. Whom he would he chose for his counselors. 17. He was busy while here. 18. I get as much work as I want. 19. They are as cunning as fierce. 20. He works as diligently as if he had to earn his bread. 21. Come what may, I will not submit. 22. I would accept such an offer. PUNCTUATION. 605. Punctuation is the method of indicating to the eye by means of points: (1) The conclusion of a sentence ; (2) The elements of a sentence to be joined in meaning ; (3) Pauses required in reading. 606. The points that mark the conclusion of a sentence are : 1. Period (.) ; 2. Note of interrogation (?) ; 3. Note of ex- clamation ( ! ). These are sometimes called term^inal points. 607. The period marks the end of a declarative or an imperative sentence, whether simple, complex, or compound. The period is also used to mark ahbreviations, as of names, titles, and dates ; as, Little^ Brown^ & Co.^ Tfie Rev. John Sinclair^ D.D.^ LL.D.; John Alden^ M.A., Ph.D.; Henry VIII., Mr., Mrs., Esq. But when an ellipsis of letters occurs in the beginning, or the middle, of a word, an apostrophe is used to mark the omission ; as, "'tis, o''er, don't. SYNTAX. 271 608. The note of interrogation marks the end of an inter- rogative sentence ; as, .... Where a/re they f And where art thou. My cowntry ^— Byron. "When a question forms part of a larger sentence, the question is marked by the note of interrogation ; as, They asked^ ''''What do you propose to do?'''' in a most insolent manner. 609. The note of exclamation marks the end of a sentence that expresses strong feeling (See § 7) ; as Charge y Chester ^ charge t After the nominative of address when strong feeling is indicated, and after interjections or words used with the force of interjections, the note of exclamation is used within a sentence ; as. Earth! render back from out thy breast A remnant of our Spartan dead /— Bybon. V Oh! why has worth so short a date? "When is used before the nominative of address, the ( ! ) follows the noun; as, Scotia! my dear., my native «oi^/— Burns. 610. The points used within a sentence are the comma (,), the semicolon (;), the colon (:), the dash ( — ^), quotation-marks (" "), the parenthesis [( )]. Punctuation of the Simple Sentence. 611. The following are the principal rules for punctuating the simple sentence: 1. A very long subject is separated from the predicate by a 'comma; as, The fa^ct of the teacher's having overlooked the faulty made the pupil more careless than before. A comma is inserted here to show that not the noun immediately preceding the verb, but the whole of the preceding expression is the sub- ject of the verb. When no ambiguity can arise, however, a point should not be placed between the subject and the verb ; as, To honor father amd mother is tTie duty of every child. 272 ENGLISH OBAMMAB. 2. Three or more words in the same grammatical relation, following one another, must be separated by commas ; and the last word, if a subject noun, must also be separated from the verb by a comma. Poetry^ ^nusic, cmd painting ^ are fine arts. David was a brave, wise, and pious prince, Happy is the child who obeys, loves, and honors his parents. You should seek after knowledge steadily, patiently, and persevere ingly. 3. When two words of the same part of speech are con- nected by a conjunction, a comma is not inserted ; as, His fatJier and mother are in the country. Religion purifies and elevates tJie mind. When the conjimction is omitted, a comma should be inserted between the words ; as, Heason, passion answer one great aim. When the first of two adjectives modifies not the mean- ing of the noun, but the idea expressed by the noun and the second adjective, a comma is not inserted ; as, A dark yellow color. When words connected by a conjunction follow in successive pairs, a comma should be inserted after each pair ; as, Interest and ambition, honor and shame, friendship and enmity, all influence men. 4. A noun in apposition, especially if accompanied by modi- fying words, is preceded and followed by a comma ; as, JPaul, the Apostle of the Gentiles, was noted for zeal and knowledge. *If the two nouns are closely connected, the comma is omitted ; as, Paul the Apostle preached at Athens. The river Jordan flows into the Dead Sea. 5. An appositive (§ 532) adjective or adjective phrase, if it occurs at the beginning of a sentence, is followed by a comma ; if it occurs in the course of a sentence, it is preceded and fol- lowed by a comma ; as, Encouraged by his first success, he redoubled his efforts. General Wolfe, wounded and dying, learned of his great victory. 6. An adverbial phrase preceding the verb and its subject, is usually followed by a comma ; as, To be brief, there are but two courses open to us. The colonel having fallen, the major took command. SYNTAX. 273 An adverbial phrase coming between the subject and the verb, or between the parts of the predicate, is set off by commas ; as. The soldier, from force of liabit, obeys. His story is, in several ways, improbable. 7. The following adverbs, particularly when they begin a sentence, are usually separated from the context by the comma : Again First Lastly Moreover Now Besides Secondly Finally Namely Indeed However Thirdly, etc. Hence Nay Thus The reason is that these adverbs generally modify the mean- ing not of single words, but of entire sentences ; as. Nay, you deceive me. She, indeed, never said so. When an adverb or an adverbial phrase follows its verb a comma is not needed ; as. His strength returned gradually. He spoke with authority, 8. The name of a person addressed is set off by the comma ; as, O Cassins, you are yoked with a lamb. Come, Anthony ^ and young Octavius, come. 9. When the same object follows two or more prepositions, a comma is inserted after each preposition (see § 598) ; as, He was sent by, and he acted for, the people of the village. Exercise 84. — Punctuate the following simple sentences: I. To be totally indifferent .to praise or censure is a real defect of character. Ov 2. Eriends Bomans countrymen lend me your ears. 3. At length, their service performed and their race well run they left the world in peace. 4. The workmen anxious to do what was right proposed arbitration. 5. Augustus the Boman emperor he who succeeded Juhus Caesar Is variously described. 6. Admired and applauded he became vain. 7. The brief haughty gratification of revenge is often purchased at the cost of a lasting humiliating remorse. ^ 8. Truth is fair and artless simple and sincere uniform and consistent. 9. They are sometimes in harmony with and sometimes in opposition to the views of each other. 10. fey threads innumerable our interests are interwoven. II. In all pursuits attention is of primary importance. 274 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 12; They set out early and before the close of day reached their destination. 13. Temperance and abstinence faith and devotion are in themselves perhaps as laudable as any other virtues. 14. Divines jurists statesmen nobles princes swelled the triumph. 15. For by the old law of England two witnesses are necessary to establish a charge of treason. Punctuation of the Complex Sentence. 613. The following are the principal rules for punctuating the complex sentence : 1. The rules governing the use of the comma in simple sen- tences, hold equally good for the clauses of complex sentences. 2. A noun clause used as the subject of a verb, should be followed by a comma ; as, That gymnastic training is good for hoys, is clear. When a noun clause, in apposition with a subject pronoim., follows the principal clause, the two clauses are not separated by a comma ; as. It is dear that gymnastic training is good for hoys. When a noun clause is in apposition with a preceding noun, the noun and the clause are separated by a comma ; as, WTio does not know the well-known saying, that seeing is helieving ? A noun clause used as the object of a verb, is preceded by a comma only when it is of great length ; as, George Macdonald told fids audience, that, for making a man accv/rate, there is nothing like having to teach what he possesses. 3. A relative clause, when co-ordinate, is sepaxated by a comma from the noun whose meaning it modifies ; but when it is restrictive, the comma is omitted ; as. Co-ordinate — I will tell it to my father, who is waiting to hear it. Restrictive — I will tell it to the man that is at the gate. (See 266.) A restrictive clause, when it is long, is followed by a comma ; as, TThose who a/re accustomed to pass their lives am^idst the din and hustle of a great city, sometim^es lose their relish for the solitary heauty of the country. 4. When an adverbial clause precedes the principal clause, the former is followed by a comma; as. If he come soon, I shall he glad. SYNTAX, 275 When an adverbial clause is introduced within a principal clause, or within a subordinate clause, it is preceded and followed by commas ; as, The man is, as I suppose, your friend. It was said that, when the Capitol was built, a hwman head was dis- covered in the excavation. 5. Several co-ordinate dependent clauses, if their statements are not closely connected, or if their parts are set off by commas, are separated by semicolons ; as. Still more su/rprised were they to learn that, in order to have bread, wheat had to be sown in the grou/nd; that grass was necessary for the production of milk; and that wine did not flow out of casks on turning the key. 6. A formal quotation is inclosed in quotation marks, and, if introduced by a special word, is preceded by a colon ; as, Emerson says this: '* The pest of society is egotists.'' When the quotation is closely connected with the thought expressed by the introductory words, it may be preceded by a comma; as. Beware of the man who says, "J a/m on the eve of a discovery." When the quotation precedes the clause on which it depends, it is followed by a comma ; as, * ' ^ boy is better vm^born them untaught,'' said Gascoigne. When a quotation depends upon a clause inserted parenthetic- ally, the parenthesis is set off by commas; as, *'J have suf- fered m^ore," says Landor, ''from my bad dancing, than from all the misfortunes and miseries of my life put together." When a quotation or an illustration is introduced by as, or namely, a semicolon should be placed before the introductory word ; and a comma, after it. An indirect quotation is not inclosed in quotation marks. ExEKCiSE 85. — Pvm^tuxjbte the following complex sentences, and gi/ve a reason for the insertion of each point : 1. A few eminent men that belonged to an earlier and better age were exempt from the general contagion. 2. If this were so the assassin must have afterward bitterly execrated his own wickedness and folly. 3. The scheme that he proposed showed considerable ingenuity. 4. What mean said I those great flights of birds that are perpetually hovering about the bridge and settling upon it from time to time. 276 ENGLISH ORAMMAB. 5. These said the genius are envy avarice superstition despair love with the like cares and passions that infest human life. . 6. I observe that men run away to other countries because they are not good in their own and run back to their own because they pass for nothing in the new place. 7. And I think it the part of good sense to provide every fine soul with such culture that it shall not at thirty or forty years have to say This which I might do is made hopeless through my want of weapons. 8. Boys and girls who have been brought up with well-informed and superior people show in their manners an inestimable grace. 9. Whilst we want cities as the centers where the best things are found cities degrade us by magnifying trifles. 10. And a tender boy who wears his rusty cap and outgrown coat that he may secure the coveted place in college and the right in the library is educated to some purpose. Punctuation of the Compound Sentence. 613. The following are the principal rules for the punctuation of the compound sentence: 1. The clauses in a compound sentence are subject to the rules of punctuation that have been given for the simple sen- tence and the complex sentence. 2. Independent clauses, when they are not themselves sub- divided by commas, and are related in meaning, are separated by commas ; as, On they go, and still more springs come, and the rivers grow larger and larger. But when they are not closely connected in meaning, a semicolon is used ; as, The wise man's eyes are in his head ; hut the fool walketh in darkness. 3. The clauses of a compound sentence, when they are theni:- selves subdivided by commas, are separated by semicolons ; as. Having detained you so long already, I shall not trespass longer upon your patience; hut, hefore concluding, I wish you to ohserve this truth. 4. When a member of a sentence, so complete in itself that a period might be used, is followed by another member or by other members, containing some additional observation or illus- tration, a colon should be inserted before the latter; as, Study to acquire a hahit of thinking : no study is more important. The discourse consisted of two parts : in the first was shown trie neces- 8TNTAX, 277 sity of exercise; in the second y the advantages that ivould result from it. A group of clauses of like construction, divided by semico- lons, is separated from another clause, or from another group of clauses, by a colon ; as, The wise will determine from the grav- ity of the case; the irritable y from sensibility to oppression; the higJwmindedy from disdain and indignation at abusive power in unworthy hands; the brave and bold, from, the love of honorable danger in a generous cause: but, with or without right, a re/vo- lution will be the very last resource of the thinking and the good. 5. When the predicate 'verb is omitted from the second, or any subsequent member, and must be supplied from the pre- ceding member, the omission is indicated by a comma; as. To err is hu/man; to forgive, divine. ^ Exercise SQ.— Punctuate the following compound sentences, a/nd gi/ve a reason for the insertion of each point : 1. T have heard that throughout this country a certain respect is paid to good broad-cloth but dress makes a little restraint men will not commit themselves. 2. To a man at work the frost is but a color the rain the wind lie for- got them when he came in. 3. Reading makes a full man conversation a ready man and writing an exact man. 4. From law arises security from security curiosity from curiosity knowledge. 5. Straws swim upon the surface but pearls lie at the bottom. 6. Stones grow vegetables grow and live animals grow live and feel. 7. Manners are very communicable men catch them from one another. 8. An eye can threaten like a loaded and leveled gun or can insult like hissing or kicking or in its altered mood by beams of kindness it can make the heart dance with joy. 9. What is done for effect is seen to be done for effect what is done for love is felt to be done for love. 10. Novels are the journal or record of manners and the* new impor- tance of these books is derived from the fact that the novelist begins to penetrate the surface and treat this part of life more worthily. 614. The dash is used (1) to mark an abrupt turn in a sentence ; (2) to mark words in apposition ; (3) to inclose an ex- planatory parenthetic clause ; (4) to mark a significant pause that should be made in reading. 278 ENGLISH ORAMMAM (1) His children— but here my heart began to bleed— and I was forced to go on with another part of the portrait. (2) Then suddenly would come a dream of far different character— a tumultuous dream — commencing with a music such as now I often heard in sleep— music of preparation and of awakening suspense. (3) In truth, the character of the great chief was depicted two thousand five hundred years before his birth, and depicted— such is the power of genius— in colors which wiU be fresh as many years after his death. (4) Nature instantly ebbed again— the film returned to its place — the pulse fluttered — stopped — went on — throbbed — stopped again — moved— stopped. 615 • The parentheses are used to inclose a remark that might be omitted without destroying the sense of the sentence ; as, Krvow then this truth {enough for man to know)^ Virtue alone is happiness below. 616. The use of quotation marks has been ah^eady ex- plained. When a quotation occurs within a quotation, the former should be inclosed within single inverted commas, the latter within double inverted commas; as, Emerson says: ''A great part of courage is the courage of having done the thing tefore. And, in all human action, those faculties will he strong which are used. Bolert Owen said, * Give me a tiger, and I will educate him,.' " Some writers prefer to place the exterior quotation within single, and the interior within double, quotation marks. When a quotation embraces several paragraphs, the intro- ductory quotation marks should be placed at the beginning of each paragraph. PABSING. 617. To parse a word is to state the part of speech *to which it belongs, its properties, and its syntax. Following is the method of parsing each of the parts of speech : I. Noun:— 1. Class; 2. Gender, number, and person; 3. Case; 4. Syntax, or the reason for its case; telling: If nominative, of what finite verb it is the subject or predi- SYNTAX. 279 cate complement, or that it is nominative by address, or nomi- native absolute. If objective, of what verb or preposition it is the object, or of what infinitive it is the subject or complement, or, if used adverbially, what verb or adjective it modifies. If possessive, what noun it modifies. If in apposition, what noun it explains. II. Pronoun : — Parsed in the same manner as the noun, except that the noun for which the pronoun stands (the ante- cedent) should, when it is possible, be stated. III. Adjective : — 1. Class ; 2. Degree of comparison ; 3. Syntax — the noun or pronoun whose meaning is modified. lY. Verb : — 1. Conjugation — regular or irregular, and prin- cipal parts ; 2. Class — transitive or intransitive ; and, if transi- tive, its voice and the reason therefor ; 3. Mode and tense, and the reason in each case ; 4. Person and number, and the syntax, or reason for person and number. Y. Participle :— 1. From what verb derived ; 2. Tense ; 3. Transitive or intransitive ; and, if transitive, its voice and the reason therefor; 4. Syntax — modifying the meaning of what noun or pronoun. YI. Gerund : — 1. From what verb derived ; 2. Tense ; 3. Tran- sitive or intransitive ; and, if transitive, its voice and the rea- son therefor; 4. Syntax — case, and reason for case. YII. Adverb: — 1. Class; 2. Degree of comparison; 3. Syn- tax — modifying a verb, adjective, or other adverb. YIII. Preposition : — Syntax — its object and the relation that the phrase of which it is a part bears to some other word in the sentence. IX. Conjunction:—!. Class; 2. Syntax — words, phrases, or clauses connected. 618. To give the syntax of a word is to explain its relation, in accordance with the rules of concord, government, and order, to some other word or words in the sentence. When the syntax of a word is asked, only what is indicated under that head in the foregoing scheme need be given. 280 ENGLISH OBAMMAB, Analysis. 619. Analysis in grammar is the process of sep- arating a sentence into parts, according to their use. (See §§ 60-G1.) 620. The following directions apply to the anal- ysis of aU sentences, whether simple, complex, or compound : 1. See that the elements of the sentence are arranged in proper order. 2. See that the rules of syntax are not violated. 3. See that the sentence is properly pimctnated, and, when necessary, be prepared to give the rule for each point inserted. 4. Supply all the ellipses. 5. State whether the sentence is simple, complex, or com- pound ; declarative, interrogative, or imperative. 6. Point out the entire subject and the entire predicate. This may be conveniently done by drawing a single line under all the words that belong to the subject, and two hnes under all the words that belong to the predicate. 7. The simple negatit^e may be regarded as part of the predicate verb. 8. Interrogative adverbs may be regarded as adverbial mod- ifiers of the meaning of the predicate verb. Analysis of Simple Sentences. 621. The following directions apply to the anal- ysis of simple sentences : 1. Point out the subject noun, pronoun, or phrase. 2. Point out the adjectives, or the equivalents of adjectives, that modify the meaning of the subject. 3. Point out the predicate verb. 4. Point out the modifiers of the meaning of the predicate verb. 8TNTAX. 281 5 If the verb is transitive and in the active voice, point out the object; and, if there is a supplement, point it out also. 6. If the verb is an incomplete intransitive verb, point out the predicate complement — noun, adjective, or phrase. 7. If there is an object, {Kiint out the modifiers of the mean- ing of the object. 8. If there is a predicate complement, jKiint out the modifiers of its meaning. 9. A phrase, whether prepositional, infinitive, or participial, with all the words that depend upon, or modify, the principal word, may be regarded as a unit ; that is, as the equivalent of a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. When a detailed analysis is required, phrases may be analyzed in accordance with the models given in the following examples : Examples. Might stop a hole to keep the wind away. A Simple Declakativi: Sentence. Suloeei ncfun^ ** Caesar.'^ L "imperial"; mrMMtkoe adieeOM, 2. ""dead"^; apptxtmBe aaiee»t>e. Mo^Mn, ' 3. **ttirned to clay''; appo&Uive partMpkU phrase; the participle modified by the adverbial phrase, " to clay," PreduioU vert ►, ••might stop." Modifier, jikrase; terb, oloeet, and admrtki mod^kr. OHettnom, -hole." MoAM. "a." XoT».— 3J'otice that, in this scheme of analysis, modifying words oro I^aced immediately after the element whoee meaning they modify. 2. It is useles s to assume airs of superiority. A Simple Declarative Sentence. 3ta^ea pnmmn, -It,** amUeipaaw, IkxHJkr^ **to aannne airs of superiority '"; i^/btUtm wmm pkrme^ in tsppoeition with '' U," composed ai ^0MUt 9 e **to 282 ENOLISH GRAMMAR. assume" and object noun "airs" modiiied by ad- jective phrase "of superiority." Predicate verb, "is." Predicate complemeni, " useless " ; adjective. Or we may call it the anticipative subject, and to assume airs of superiority the real subject. 3. Let us go home . A Simple Imperative Sentence. Subject pronoun, ^'■you,^^ understood. Predicate verb, "let." Object phrase, " us (to) go home " ; nmin phrase, composed of infinitive (to) "go," subject "us," and adverbial modifier "home." 4. They made Claudius emperor. A Simple Declarative Sentence. Svitject pronoun, " They." Predicate verb, " made." Object noun, "Claudius." Supplement of predicate, "emperor," which is also an appositive modifier of the object. 5. He painted the house red. A Simple Declarative Sentence. Subject pronoun, "He." Predicate verb, " painted." Object noun, " house." Modifier, " the." Supplement of predicate, "red," which is also an appositive modiller of. the object. 6. They asked him his business. A Simple Declarative Sentence. Subject pronoun, " They." Predicate verb, " asked." Modifier, "business," adverbial objective modified by "his." Object pronoun, " him. " 7. He was asked his business. A Simple Declarative Sentence. Sulyect prormm, " He." Predicate verb, "was asked." Modifier, "business," adverbial otoective modified by "his." SYNTAX, 283 8. They found him dead. A Simple Declarative Sentence. Suloect pronoun^ " They." Predicate verby "found." Oiiject pronoun, * * him. ■• ' Modifier, "dead," appositive (Khedive. 9. We are sometimes required to lay our natural affections on the altar. A Simple Declarative Sentence. ; pronoun, " We." P}'edicate verb, "are required." ^ f 1. "sometimes." 2. "to lay our natural affections on the altar," infinitive adverbial phrase, composed of infinitive "to lay," modified by prepositional adverbial phrase, " on the I altar," and having for object " affections," modified I by "our" and "natural." 10. Their task being done, they went ayay. A Simple Declarative Sentence. Suldect pronoun, " they." Predicate verb, " went." • 1. " away." 2. " Their task being done," participial adverbial phrase, composed of participle and noim in the nominative case independent. 11. For us to do so , would be wrong. A Simple Declarative Sentence. Sutdect phrase, " !For us to do so " ; infinitive nxmn phrase, introduced by preposition "for," composed of infinitive "to do," modified by "so," and having "us" for subject. Predicate verb, " would be." Predicate complement, "wrongs" adjective. 12. She gave me an apple to eat. A Simple Declarative Sentence. Subject pronoun, * ' She. " Predicate verb^ " gave." 284 ENGLI8H GRAMMAR. j " me " = (to) me, adverbial phrase. 1"t 'to eat," infinitive used adverbially, Oltject mmn^ "apple." Modifier., " an." 13. There is gold here. A Simple Declarative Sentence. Introductory partide^ " There." Subject noun^ " gold." Predicate verb^ "is." Predicate complement^ " here," adverb used as adjective. 14. Why did you not give him the book? A Simple Interrogative Sentence. Subject pronoun^ " you." Predicate verb^ " did not give." Modifiers, \ ^- ^^"^^ "1^^'" adverUaZ phrase, < 2. " "Why," interrogative adverb. " book." 15. It is time for the work to be finished. A Simple Declarative Sentence. Stdffect pronoun, "It." Predicate verb, "is." Predicate cmnplement, " time," noun. Modifier, " for the work to he finished," an adjective phrase, com- posed of preposition "for" and infinitive noun phrase, consisting of infinitive "to be finished," which has "the work" for subject. For the method of analyzing simple sentences by means of diagrams, and for the analysis of simple sentences with com- pound elements, see § 79. 623. When the sentence is long, and a detailed analysis is not called for, the following method, or that shown in § 79, may be employed : But me, scarce hoping to attain that rest, Always from port withheld, always distressed, — The howling winds drive devious, — tempest-tossed, Sails rent, seams opening wide, and compass lost. SYNTAX, 285 Predicate Predicate Subject. Predicate verb. Obiject. Comple- ment. Supple- ment. PRINCIPAL ELEMENTS. Winds. drive. me. devious. Modifiers. howling. (1) sails rent. (2) seams open- ing wide. (3) compass lost. [Nominatives absolute.'] (1) scarce hop- ing to attain that rest. (2) always from port with- held, (3) always dis- tressed. (4) tempest- tossed. Exercise 87. — Analyze the following sentences in accordance with the preceding models, and parse each word printed in italics : I. Pleasantly rose, next morn, the sun, on the village of Orand Pre. 2. His withered cheek and tresses gray- Seemed to have known a better day. 3. We considered Mm to be too young for the situation. 4. We heard the thunder roll, and saw the lightning flash along the sky. 5. Now is the winter of our discontent Made glorious summer by the son of York. 6. Now fades the glimmering landscape on the sight. 7. My high-blown pride At length Itroke under me. 8. Slow rises worth by poverty depressed. 9. One touch of nature makes the whole world km. 10. I will make assurance doubly sure. II. Louis of France was elected chief of the expedition. 12. Perseverance keeps honor bright. 286 BN0LI8H GRAMMAR, 13. A sable cloud Turns forth her silver lining on the night. 14. At thirty, man suspects himself a fool. 15. We found her in her answers to have an eloquent tongue. 16. I know that virtue to be in you, Brutus. 17. All men think all men mortal, hut themselves. 18. All our knowledge is ourselves to know. 19. To spend too much time in studies is sloth. 20. To be dull is construed to be good. 21. To gild refined gold is wasteful excess. 22. It is cruelty to beat a cripple with his own crutches. 23. *Tis phrase absurd to call a villain great. 24. Our humbler province is to tend the fair. 25. That same prayer doth teach us all to render the deeds of mercy. 26. It is not for your health thus to commit Your weak condition to the raw, cold morning. 27. Borrowing dulls the edge of husbandry. 28. The falling out of faithful friends Renewing is of love. 29. Of making many books there is no end. 30. You have condemned and noted Lucius Pella for taking bribes here of the Sardians. 31. Teaching is the best way of learning. 32. The poet's eye, in a fine frenzy rolling, Doth glance from heaven to earth. 33. Envy is that dark shadow ever waiting upon a shining merit. 34. Wandering o'er the earth, By falsities and lies, the greatest part Of mankind they corrupted. 35. The quality of mercy is not strained. 36. Here, under leave of Brutus and the rest, Come I to speak in Caesar's funeral. 37. Thy wish was father to that thought. 38. His scepter shows the force of temporal power. The attribute to awe and majesty. SYNTAX. 287 39. Men are but children of a larger growth. 40. This was the noblest Roman of them all. 41. I come not to steal away your hearts. Analysis of Complex Sentences. 623. The following directions apply to the anal- ysis of complex sentences (see § 543) : 1. Conduct the analysis as if for every subordinate clause (see § 543) we had some single word ; that is, as if a noun stood in place of a noun clause ; an adjective, in place of an adjective clause ; and an adverb, in place of an adverbial clause. 2. When this has been done, if a detailed analysis is re- quired, proceed to analyze each subordinate clause in the same way a simple sentence is analyzed. 3. If two or more subordinate clauses are co-ordinate (see § 510), analyze each separately. 4. If a clause is complex (see § 558), conduct the analysis as if the contained clause were a single word, and then analyze the contained clause after the manner of a simple sentence. 5. As a general rule, it may be said that each sentence has as many clauses as it has finite verbs. The only exception is when the predicate of a clause is compound ; that is, when it is composed of two finite verbs, connected by a co-ordinate con- junction. 6. When a clause is long, it is sufficient in writing to give its opening and closing words, and to represent the omitted words by asterisks. Examples. 1. That he came, is certain. (A) Complex Declara- tive Sentence. (B) NoTJN Clause. Subject^ Predicate verb, . Predicate camplemerU^ pronoun^ Predicate verb. " That he came," noun douse (B). "is." "certain," adjective. " That." "he." " came." ^88 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 2. The opinion of the judge was th at the prisoner was guilty. (A) Complex Declaba- TivE Sentence. noun, opinion." (1. "The." (2. "of Predicate verb, . Predicate complement, the judge," adjective phrase. was." that the prisoner was guilty," noun clause (B). that." prisoner." the." was." guilty," adjective. 3. Tell me what you bought at the fair. (B) INouN Clause. Subject noun, ' Modifier, Predicate verb, ^ Predicate complement. (A) f Subject pronmtn^ Complex Impera- J Pi'edicate verb, TIVE Sentence. Modifier, I Object clause. (B) Noun Clause. f Subject pronoun. Predicate verb, I Modifier, I Olject pronoun. (you), understood. "teU." (to) " me," adverbial phrase. " what you bought at the fair" (B). " you." " bought." " at the fair," adverbial phrase. '• what " (interrogative). 4. (a) I told him that he was mistaken, (b) I convinced him that he was mistaken. In the first sentence, (to) " him" is an adverbial phrase modifying " told," xind the olject is the noun clause, " that he was mistaken." In the second, ** him " is the object, and " that he was mistaken " is a noun clause used as an adverbial objective. (See § 534.) 5. The report, that the general was dead, spread over the fie ld. " That the general was dead " is a noun clause in apposition with " report." 6. Who can want the thought, how monstrous it was for Malcolm and Donalbain to kill their gracious father? (A) Complex Interrogativb Sentence. " Subject pronoun. Predicate verb. Modifier, Modifier of " thought,'' "who," interrogative. " can." * "want the thought," infinitive adverb- ial phrase, infinitive and object. "how monstrous * * * father," noun clause in apposition with thought (B). * Those who believe in retaining the so-called "potential mode" (§ 433), will regard " can want " as the predicate verb. Similarly, m^y and must. SYNTAX, 289 (B) r StUoect pronouriy **it," anticlpative. Modifier of subject. "for * * * father," infinitive noun N Clause. - Predicate verb. phrase, in apposition with, "it." *' was." Pf^edicate^ c(miplement. " monstrous." adjective. L Modifier, "how," adverb. 7. To know how ignorant we are, is the first step toward knowledg e. The sulject of the sentence is the expression, " to know how ignorant we are," composed of the infinitive "to know" and its object, the noun clause^ " how ignorant we are." 8. I have sinned in that I have betrayed the innocent blood. The words "in * * * blood " constitute an adverbial modifier of " have sinned," which is composed of the preposition " in " and its otoect^ the noun dame, "that * * * blood." 9. The cohort that had already crossed the river, quickly came to blows with the enemy. (A) Complex Declarative Sentence. (B) Adjective Clause. noun^ Modifiers of subject. Predicate verb. Modifiers^ Subject pronoun. Predicate verb. Modifier, Object noun, ^ Modifier, cohort." r 1. " The." 2. "that had already crossed the river," adjective clause (B). " came." r 1. " quickly," adverb. \ 2. "to blows," adverbial phrase. t 3. "with the enemy," adverbial phra^, "that," relative. "had crossed." "already," adverb, " river." " the." 10. I know the place where he was born. (A) Complex Declarative Sentence. pronoun, Predicate verb. , Mod^fiers^ "I." "know." " place." f 1. " the." 2. "where he was bom," elective clause (B). 290 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (B) Adjective Clause. ■ Connective^ Subject pronoun^ , Predicate verb^ 'where," conjunctive adverb, 'he." 'was born.*' L Where thou dwellest, I will dwell. (A) Complex Declarative Sentence. (B) Adverblax Clause. -j Predicate verb, [ Modifier^ ( Connective^ \ Sutoect pronoun^ [ Predicate verb^ ' will dwell." 'where thou dwellest," adverbial clause of place. 'where," conjunctive adverb. 'thOTl." ' dwellest. 12. He ran so fast, that he was quite weary. (A) Complex Declarative Sentence. (B) Adverbial Clause. ' Subject pronoun^ Predicate verb^ Modifier^ Co-ordinate modifiers of ''fast;' pronoun^ Predicate verb^ Predicate complement^ Modifier^ " He." "ran." "fast," adverb. 1. " so," adverb. 2. " that he was quite weary," ad- verbial clause (B). "that," subordinate conjunction. "he." ' weary,' ■' quite,'* adverb. Some authorities would make the adverbial clause, in a sentence like the above, modify the adverb "so." Others, again, would make it modify the idea expressed by so fast. 13. He spoke loud, that I might hear him. The adverb " loud " and the adverbial clause., " that I might hear him," Pure co-ordinate adverbial modifiers of the predicate verb spoke. Or the clause may be said to modify the idea expressed by spoke loud. 14. The flinty couch we now must share, Shall seem with down of eider piled, If thy protection hover near. (The following is a tabular form of analysis for complex sentences. It will be noticed that the modifiers of each of the principal elements are placed directly under the word modified, except in the case of a modifier of the predicate when the latter is composed of an incomplete intransitive verb and a predicate complement.) SYNTAX, 291 Mnd. Connective. Sul^ect. Predicate verb. Object. Predicate complement. Modifiers of predicate. (A) Complex Declaba- TIVE Sentence. couch. 1. The 2. flinty 3. we— share (B.) Adjective clause. shall seem piled with down of eider. Adverbial phrase. if— near, Adverbial davse (C). (B) Adjective Clause. contained in relat. pronoun under- stood. we must (to) share (which), infln. adv. phrase. (C) Adverbial Clause. if protectwn thy hmer near. For the method of analyzing complex sentences by means of diagrams, see § 80. Exercise 88. — Analyze the following complex sen- tences^ and parse the words printed in italics : 1. But when he once attains the upmost round. He then unto the ladder turns his back. 2. No man can wade deep in learning, without discovering that he knows nothing thoroughly. 3 . The opinion of all men was that the undertaking was doubtful. 4. To the noble mind Rich gifts wax poor, when givers prove unkind. • — ■ "g . As the tree falls, so it will lie. 6. Although we seldom follow advice, we are all ready enough to ask it. 7. Some maintain that to this day she is a living child; 8. Consider this, That, in the course of justice, none of us Should see salvation. — Shakespeare, 292 ENGLISH ORAMMAR. 9. The heart distrusting asks, if this he joy. • ■ ■ 10 . He jests at scars, that never felt a wound. 11. Uneasy Hes the head that wears a crown. — Shakespeare. 12. The play is the thing Wherein 111 catch the conscience of the king. — Shakespeare. 13. Thou art the ruins of the noblest man That ever lived in the tide of times. — Shakespeare. 14. Ill fares the land, to hastening ills a prey, * Where wealth accumulates and men decay. — Goldsmith. 15. Let all the ends thou aim'st at he thy country's, Thy God's, and Truth's. — Shakespeare. 16. The vile strength man wields For earth's destruction, thou dost all despise, Hurling him from thy bosom to the skies. 17. Who was to represent the Queen of Beauty and of Love, on the present occasion, no one was prepared to guess. — Scott. 18. I thought ten thousand swords must have leaped from their scabbards to avenge even a look that threatened her with insult. — Burke. 19. I can't forget that I'm bereft Of all the pleasant sights they see, Which the Piper also promised me. — Bohert Brownmg. 20. The part of the mill she liked best was the topmost story, where were the great heaps of grain, which she could sit on and slide down continually. — George Eliot. 21. Him thought^ he by the brook of Cherith stood And saw the ravens with their horny beaks Food to Elijah bringing even and morn. — Milton. 22. She had told Tom that she should like him to put the worms on the hook for her, although she accepted his word when he assured her, that worms couldn't feel. — George Eliot. 23. Use can make sweet the peach's shady side, That only by reflection tastes of sun. — LowelL * See § 337. SYNTAX. 29a Analysis of Compound Sentences. 634. The following directions apply to the anal- ysis of compound sentences (§ 559) : 1. Separate the sentence into its several co-ordinate clauses. (See § 550.) 2. State the connectives and the kind of co-ordination. (See §560.) 3. If a co-ordinate clause is a simple sentence, analyze it as such ; if it is a complex sentence, analyze it as such. 635. The only compound sentences that present difficulties not found in the analysis of simple and complex sentences, are those in which the relative pronoun has a co-ordinative or CA)n- tinuative force. Mr. Mason gives the following examples : 1. At last it chaunced this proud Sarazin To meete me wand'ring ; who perforce me led With him away but never yet could win. Co-ordinate Clauses. (1.) At last it chaunced this proud Sarazin to meete rae wand'ring. (2.) Who perforce me led with him away. (3.) [Who] never yet could win [me]. Analysis of (1). Svbject prommn^ " it," anticipative. Modifier of subject^ " to meete me wand'ring," rumn phrase in apposition. Predicate verb, " chaunced." j 1. " at last," adverb. •^ ' 1 2. (to) " this proud Sarazin," adverbial phrase. Clauses (1) and (2) are co-ordinate with (A), wha being equivalent to arui he. The co-ordination is, therefore, copulative. 2. This is now our doom, which if we can sustain and bear,, our supreme foe in time may much remit his anger. Co-ordinate Clauses. (1.) "This is now our doom. (2.) Which if we can sustain and bear, our supreme foe in time may much remit his anger." 294 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Analysis of (2). PBENCIPAIi Clause. Subject noun^ Modifiers, Predicate verb. Modifiers of predicate. Object noun, . Modifi^^ \i: foe." our," pronoun in possessive case. 2. "supreme," adjective. " may remit," in subjunctive mode. 1. "much," adverb. 2. " in time," adverbial phrase. 3. "which— and bear," adverbial clause of condition (A), "anger." " his," pronoun in j Advebblal Clause. Analysis of (A). "if," subordinate conjunctive, pronoun, "we." Predicate verb, " can." Modifiers, " sustain and hear," inf pronoun, "which," co-ordinating relative. Exercise 89. — Analyze the following compound sen- tences, and parse the words printed in italics : 1. E'en from the tomb the voice of Nature cries, i E'en in our ashes live their wonted fires. — Gray. *'*^. Great Nature spoke ; observant man obeyed ; Cities were formed ; societies were made. 3. Thus to relieve the wretched was his pride, And e'en his failings leaned to virtue's side. — Goldsmith. 4. His face Deep scars of thunder had intrenched ; and care Sat on his faded cheek. ^ 5. Caesar was an able commander, or Gaul would not have been conquered. 6. It is an honor for a man to cease from strife ; but e very- fool will be meddling. 7. The wise man's eyes are in his head ; but the fool walk- eth in darkness. 8. We are commanded to forgive our enemies ; but we are nowhere commanded to forgive our friends. 9. Through faith we understand that the worlds were framed SYNTAX. 295 by the word of God, so that things which are seen are not made of things which do appear. — Bible. 10. This is the Arsenal ; from floor to ceiling. Like a huge organ, rise the burnished arms ; Biit from their silent pipes no anthem pealing Startles the villages with strange alarms. — Longfellow. 11. Peace I and no longer from its brazen portals The blast of War's great organ shakes the skies I But beautiful as songs of the immortals, The holy melodies of love arise. — Longfellow. 12. The quality of mercy is not strain'd, It droppeth as the gentle rain from heaven Upon the place beneath: it is twice bless'd; It blesseth him that gives, and him that takes: 'Tis mightiest in the mightiest ; it becomes The throned monarch better than his crown. Exercise 90. — Analyze the following sentences, and parse the words printed in italics : 1. The flora and fauna of a country as seen from railroad trains and car- riages, are not likely to be very accurately or exhaustively stvidied.—HblTnes. 2. You will find as you look back upon your life that the moments that stand out, the moments when you have really lived, are the moments when you have done things in a spirit of love.— Renry Drummovd. 3. To be hurried away by every event is to have no political system at aJl.—I^apoleon. 4. To be conscious of a need or a deficiency is to be far on the way whereby we shall at last overcome it.— Greeley. 5. In regard to language itself, the habit of reading pure English, and of employing it every day, is the best drill for a talker.— if. W. Beecher. 6. To marshal one's verbal battalions in such order that they may b^ar at once upon all quarters of a subject is certainly a great art.— -fi^. P. Whipple. 7. Whenever you attempt a good work you will find other men doing tjie same kind of work, and probably doing it better.— flenry Drummond. 8. After you have been kind, after Love has stolen forth into the world and done its beautiful work, go back into the shade again and say nothing about it.— Henry Drummond. 9. Carlyie said of Robert Bums, that there was no truer gentleman in Europe than the ploughman-poet.— ^e/oe. " Robinson Crusoe " abounds in sentences of this kind, which present admirable material for exercises in style. 630. Be careful to observe the rules for the repetition of the article. (See §§ 316-321.) ^ ExEECiSE 97. — In the following sentences, insert the article where necessary : 1. A cotton and silk umbrella were found in the depot. 2. She has two brothers, a tall and short one. 3. The dog and cat are lying in front of the stove. 4. Which is the larger, the box or trunk? 5. Some think Napoleon was a better general than an emperor, 6. The carriage was broken ; but neither the driver nor horse was injiired. 7. Both the house and stable are for sale. 8. Lincoln was both an honest and conscientious man. 9. Lincoln was an honest and a conscientious man. 10. Neither the first nor second chapter is interesting. 631. Economy of attention requires the avoidance of pleo- nasm, or the expression of some part of the meaning more than once. The most frequent pleonasms are the following : 1. The use of a noun and a pronoun to indicate the same person or thing ; as, My haniks, they are furnished with bees. This construction is, however, sometimes used in poetry to lend force to the expression ; as, The deck, it was their field of fame. 2. Double negation. Two negatives destroy each other, or are equivalent to an affirmative ; as, Nor did they not perceive him,. = They did perceive him,. I can not drink no more. He will never be no taller. ECONOMY OF ATTENTION. 303 3. Tautology y the unnecessary repetition of the same word, or the repetition of the same meaning in different words ; • as, It was founded mainly on the entire monopoly of the whole trade with the colonies. Exercise 98. — Correct the errors in the following sentences: 1. He doesn't know nothing about the matter. 2. You don't know hardly anything about him. 3. I can not scarcely comprehend the enormity of the oiTense. 4. She hasn't learned her lessons yet, I don't think. 5. If you want to vote, you had better hurry, for you have not scarcely a moment left. 6. Neither his father nor his mother knew nothing about it. 7. I have received no information on the subject, neither from him, nor from his friend. 8. I am resolved not to comply with the proposal, neither at present nor at any other time. 9. I can not by no means permit you to do it. 10. Charles hasn't got any money. 11. The friends separated and walked in two opposite directions. 12. The English, they won the battle of Waterloo. • 13. General Sheridan, the officer of whom we were speaking, he was not a tall man. 14. At the Liliputian Bazaar, ready-made clothing can be bought for small boys and children. 15. The troops which the chiefs commanded, were divided into three divisions. 16. In a few weeks he was at the head of 1500 troops, chiefly horse- men, at the head of which he entered Jassy. 17. To it alone I shall confine myself. 18. It was almost intolerable to be borne. 19. It was want of imagination I suppose that failed them. 633« The direct form of quotation gives the words of a speaker or writer exactly as they were spoken or written ; the indirect form gives them as reported by another; as, Direct. — *^ I toUl arise and go to my fatTier,'*'* he said. Indirect.— fie said he would arise and go to his father. Use the direct form when you wish to impart Hveliness to the narrative, or when it is necessary to prevent ambiguity in the use of he or she or it. In She told her teacher that she did not Tcnow what she was doing, it is difficult to tell whether the pupil Is making an impudent remark or confessing her ignorance. 304 ENGLISH GRAMMAB. The ambiguity is removed by using the direct form, She said to her teacher y " I do not know what I am doing.'' 633. The principal changes from the direct to the indirect form of quotation are these : 1. The first and second persons are changed to the third ; as, Stay with me = They should stay with him, 2. A present tense is changed to its corresponding past ; as, I can not remain = He could not remain. 3. The imperative mode is changed to the future subjunctive, or must followed by an infinitive ; as, Let them, go = They should (or must) allow them to go. Exercise 99. — Change the following passages from, the indi- rect form to the direct : 1. He said he had often left his childish sports to ramble alone in the woods. 2. Lord Chatham observed that the people whom they at first despised as rebels, but whom they now acknowledged as enemies, were abetted against them, supplied with every military store, had their interests con- sulted and their ambassadors entertained by their inveterate enemy— and ministers did not, dared not, interpose with dignity and effect. 3. Robert Emmet said that no man must dare when he was dead to charge him with dishonor ; that no man must attaint his memory by be- lieving that he could have engaged in any cause but that of his country's liberty and independence ; or that he could have become the pliant minion of power in the oppression or the miseries of his countrymen. 4. Webster said they consecrated their work to the spirit of national independence, and that they wished that the light of peace might rest upon it forever. They came, as Americans, to mark a spot, which must forever be dear to them and their posterity. 5. Henry Clay said they were fighting a great moral battle, for the benefit, not only of their country, but of all mankind. The eyes of the whole world were in fixed attention upon them. 634. Economy of attention is secured by arranging words, phrases, or clauses, bearing upon the same thought in such a way that each succeeding term shall be stronger or more ex- pressive than that which precedes. This is called climax. "What a piece of work is man 1 how noble in reason 1 how infinite in faculty ! in form and moving, how express and admirable ! in action, how like an angel 1 in apprehension, how like a god \— Shakespeare. ECONOMY OF ATTENTION. 305 The reason is that, after receiving a brilliant or terrible thought, the mind can not appreciate a weaker one ; just as the eyes after looking at the sun can not perceive the light of a fire. Whereas, if the weaker be presented first, and the stronger after- ward, both will be understood. 635. As economy of attention requires that the mind should be brought to a thought in the shortest and easiest possible way, a decided gain is often effected by putting a part for the whole. Thus, a fleet of ten sail presents a more easily grasped picture of vessels at sea than a fleet of ten ships. Bringing gray hair» with sorrow to the grave, and employing a hundred hdndSf are other examples. This is called synecdoche. 636. A thought is often more easily understood by com- paring one thing with another which it resembles in some re- spect ; as. The Assyrian came down like a wolf on the fold. This is called simile. The words like or as are generally used to ex- press the comparison. A simile, when fully expressed, contains- four terms which may be treated as a proportion : A : B : : C : D. Thus, As the wolf comes down on a fold, so the Assyriath came down on the city. Exercise 100. — Express fully the following sim^iles : 1. We all do fade as a leaf. 2. Their ranks are breaking like thin clouds before a Biscay gale. 3. !Fragrance, pure as light, floats all around. 4. Black were her eyes as the berry that grows by the wayside. 5. The gates once opened, our men poured into the town like a flood. 6. The righteous shall flourish as the palm-tree. 7. Many a flower, radiant as dew, glances on every spray. 637. When the comparison between two things which re- semble each other is made still more vivid by the omission of words denoting comparison, such as like or as, we have what is called metaphor ; as. The ship ploughs the sea. This, when fully expressed, becomes a simile : As the plough cleaves the land, so the ship cleaves the sea. 306 ENGLI8H GRAMMAR. Exercise 101. — Expand the following metaphors into similes, and state each simile fully : 1. The atmosphere rises above us with its cathedral dome. 2. The cold weather sheds its snow feathers on the earth. 3. Man ! thou pendulum betwixt a smile and tear. 4. Thy word is a lamp to my feet, and a light to my path. 6. I will be unto her a wall of fire round about. 6. The prophet ascended, and left the mantle of his inspiration to his successor. 7. One burnished sheet of living gold, Loch Katrine lay beneath him rolled. 8. In peace, thou art the gale of spring ; in war, the mountain storm. 9. There is a blush on the cheek of night. 10. I speared him with a jest. Exercise 102. — Com^press the sim^iles in Exercise 100 into metaphors. CHAPTER VII. PROSODY. 638. Prosody is that part of grammar whicli treats of the rules that govern verse. (See §§ 100, lOl.) 639. Verse, as distinguished from prose, is the name given to the pecuUar structure of language employed in poetry. The word verse is derived from the stem 'vers = turn, and is so called "because when the writer has written a certain number of syllahles he turns, as it were, and commences a new line. Originally, the word was applied only to a line of poetry. It is now, however, nsed to designate the general structure of poetry, as well as a group of lines of poetry, and even one of the subdivisions of a chapter in the Bible. 640. The chief distinction between verse and prose is that the former is marked by the recurrence, at regular intervals, of syllables that must be accented by the voice in reading. This regular recurrence of accent is called rhythm. The word rhythm comes from a Greek word, meaning measured motion. PBOSODT, 307 641. A foot is a group of two or three syllables upon one of which the accent, or stress of the voice, falls in reading. 643. Meter, or measure, is determined by the nimiber and kind of feet in a line. Thus ; I sprang I to the stir | rup, and J6 I ris and h.6, I gal I loped, Dirck gal | loped, we g41 1 loped all tlir6e.— ^. Brouming. 643. Rhythm is essential to verse. Rime, on the other hand, is not essential, but is very generally used as an addi- tional ornament. jRijne is usually spelled rhyme^ but the older spelling (rime)^ " which is etymologically preferable, is coming into use again."— "Webster's Interna- tional Dictionary, 1890. 644. Rime consists in the similarity of sound in the final syllable or syllables of two or more words. Three things are essential to a perfect rime: 1. The vowel sounds of the riming syllables, and, if the vowels are followed by consonants, the consonant sounds, must be the same ; as, try and cry, light and sprite. Identity of sound, not of letters, is required. Lose and close do not rime. 2. The consonant sounds preceding the vowels must be dif- ferent ; as, way and la% sour and power, 3. Similarity of accent ; as, sing and fling. Singing and fling do not rime. 645. In single rimes , one syllable rimes with another; as, Jiand and band. In double rimes, two syllables rime with two other syllables ; as, crying and trying. In triple rimes, three syllables rime with three other syllables. In double and triple rimes, the first riming syllables must conform to the rules for single rimes ; the other syllables should be identical in sound. 646. Riming syllables usually occur at the ends of lines; the last syllable of a line may, however, be made to rime with one in the middle of the line ; as, Ho, trumpets, sound a war-note I Ho, lictors, clear the ivay! The knights will ride, in all their pride^ Along the streets to-day.— MacaiUay. 308 EN0LI8H GRAMMAR. 647. Lines whose final syllables rime should have the same indentation; that is, should be commenced, in writing or print- ing, at an equal distance from the margin. Thus : Ring out the old, ring in the new, Bing, happy bells, across the snow: The year is going, let him go; Ring out the false, ring in the tmie.— Tennyson. 648. A couplet is composed of two consecutive lines, the final syllables of which rime. A triplet is composed of three such lines. 649. In blank verse there is rhythm, but not rime ; as, Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste Brought Death into the world, and all our woe. With loss of Eden, till one greater Man Restore us, and regain the blissful seat, Sing, heav'nly Muse. 650. A stanza is a regularly recurring group of lines. For examples of stanzas, see Longfellow's "Psalm of Life" and ** Village Blacksmith." 651. To scan a line is to mark the feet and tell what kind they are. Kinds of Feet* 653. Feet (see §641) are divided into dissyllabic and tri- syllabic. 653. The dissyllabic feet are the iambus and the trochee. In classical poetry a third dissyllabic foot, called the spondee, consisting of two long syllables, is used. 654. An iambus is a dissyllabic foot accented on the second syllable ; as, adore. Some prefer to use the technical terms of classical poetry and to speak of an unaccented syllable as short [marked thus (■<^)], and of an accented syllable as long [marked thus (— )]. 655. A trochee is a dissyllabic foot accented on the first syllable ; as, rosy (— ^). The word comes from the Greek trochos, a running, and is so called from the tripping, sprightly movement it imparts to the verse. PROSODY. 309 656. The trisyllabic feet are the anapest, the dactyl, and the amphibrach. 657. The anapest is a trisyllabic foot, accented on the third syllable ; as, intercede (^ ^ — ). The anapest (ana = back, and paistos = struck) is so called because it is the reverse of the dactyl. 658. The dactyl is a trisyllabic foot accented on the first syllable ; as, holiness (— ^ ^). The dactyl (G-reek daktylos^ a finger) is so called, because, like a finger, it has one long joint and two short joints. 659. The amphibrach is a trisyllabic foot, having the ac- cent on the middle syllable ; as, coeval (^ — ^). The amphibrach {amphi = on both sides, and brachys = short) is so called because there is an unaccented syllable on each side of an accented syllable. 660. Verses are classified according to the kind of foot, and the number of feet occurring in each line. According to the kind of foot, verse may be iambic, trochaic, anapestic, dactyliCy or amphibrachic. According to the number of feet a verse is monometer, if of one foot ; dimeter, if of two feet ; tri- meter , if of three feet ; tetrameter, if of four feet ; pentameter, if of five feet ; and hexameter, if of six feet. 661. If a verse has a syllable more than the regular measure, it is called hypermeter ; if a syllable Jess, catalectic. Dissyllabic Verse. Iambic Measures. 663. In iam^bic measures the accents generally fall on the even syllables, the second, fourth, etc. (a) Lines in Lambio Monometer are rarely found. (b) Lajvibic Dimeter. With r4v I ished 6ars The m6n | arch li^aTS.—Dryden, (c) Iambic Trimeter. A16ft I in aw I ful st4te The g6d | like h6 | ro s&t.—Dryden, 310 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Iambic Trimeter Hypermetkb. In r6 I ses Cu | pid pe6p | ing Distiirbed j a be6 | a sle6p | ing. (d) Iambic Tetrameter. A p§r I feet w6 I man, n6 | bly planned To warn, | to c6in | fort, ^nd | command ; And yet a spirit still and bright With, something of an angel Ught.— Wordsworth, This is the measure in which most of Sir Walter Scott's longer poems are written. He often varies it by introducing triplets, and dimeters or trimeters. (e) Iambic Pentameter. Achll I les' wrath, | to G-re^ce | the dire [ ful spring Of woes I unmim | bered, heav'n 1 ly g6d | dess, sing.— Pope. This is what is generally called Heroic Measure. Unrimed iambic pentameters constitute the most common form of blank verse. Milton's ''Paradise Lost" and most of Shakespeare's plays are written in penta/meter blank verse, though many of the lines are either hypermeter or catalectic. The elegiac stanza is a variety of this measure. It consists of four heroic lines, riming alternately ; as, The curfew tolls the knell of parting day, The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea, The plowman homeward plods his weary way. And leaves the world to darkness and to me. — Gray. The Spenserian Stanza, in which Spenser's ''The Faerie Queene" and Byron's "Childe Harold" are written, consists of eight heroic hues, followed by an Alexandrine. The riming lines are the first and third ; the second, fourth, fifth, and seventh; and the sixth, eighth, and ninth. (f) Iambic Hexameter. A needless Alexandrine ends the song. Which like, | a woiind | ed snake | drags its | slow length 1 al6ng.—Pope. This measure is what is called Alexandrine. (g) Iambic Heptameter. Now gl6 I ry t6 I the Lord | of hosts, | from wh6m [ all gl6 | ries ar§ ! And glory to our Sovereign Xilege, King Henry of Navarre l—Macaulay. PROSODY. 311 This measure is often called Service, Ballad, or Common Meter. It is very generally used for hymns and ballads, and is often written in lines of four and three feet alternately, the latter being the only ones that rime ; as, "With slow and steady step there came A lady through the hall, And breathless silence chained the lips And touched the hearts of all.— iff. G. Bell. Trochaic Measures. 663c In trochaic measures the accents usually fall on the odd syllables ; as, the first, third, etc. (a) Trochaic Dimeter. B,ich the | treasure, Sw6et the | pleasure.— -Or^tfen. (b) Trochaic Trimeter. Wh6n a I roiind thee | ly'ing, Ailtunin I leaves are | dy'ing. Trochaic Trimeter Hypermeter. C6nie, and | trip it, | as you I go. On the I light fan | t4s tic | toe.— MUton. This is the most commonly used trochaic measure. (c) Trochaic Tetrameter. With a I full but | s6ft e | m6tion, Liike the | sw611 of | siimmer's | dcean.— Byron. (d) Trochaic Pentameter. Ij6w vo I Mptuous I miisic | winding | tr^xxibled.— Tennyson. (e) Trochaic Hexameter. Holy ! Holy I Holy I all the saints adore Tliee.—Heber. (f) Trochaic Heptameter. Lieaflets on the hollow oak still as greenly quiver.— Zy^tow. Trisyllabic Verse. Anapestic Measures. 664. In anapestic measures the accent, as a rule, falls on every third syllable. (a) Anapestic Monometer. As ye 8we6p Through the de6p.— Campbell. 312 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. * (b) Anapestic Dimeter. In my rage | shall be se6n The revenge | of a o^Q^n.— Addison, (c) Anapestic Trimeter. I am m6ii | arch of all 1 1 survey.— Cbw;!)er. (d) Anapestic Tetrameter. 'Tis the voice | of the sliig | gard, I h6ard | him compl4in. In anapestic measures, lines are frequently hypermetrical, and an iambus is sometimes substituted for an anapest, as in the following : 'Tis the last | rose of siim | mer Left bloom | ing a 16ne ; All her love | ly compan 1 ions Are fa | ded and gone.— Jfoore. Dactylic Measures. 665. In dactylic measures the accent, as a rule, falls upon the first, fourth, seventh, and tenth syllables. (a) Dactylic Monometer. Merrily, Cheerily. (b) Dactylic Dimeter. Touch her not | scornfully. Think of her 1 mournfully.— Zfooe?. (c) Dactylic Trimeter Hypermeter. Merrily, | merrily, | shall I live | now Under the 1 bl6ssom that | hangs on the | \iQix\.^.~Shalcesfpeare. (d) Dactylic Hexameter. This measure, which is borrowed from Greek and Latin poetry, is used by Longfellow in ''Evangeline" and "Miles Standish." It consists of six feet. The last foot is either a spondee or a trochee ; and the foot preceding the last is invari- ably a dactyl. The other four feet are generally dactyls, though a trochee is occasionally introduced -, as, ¥6 who be | lieve in af | faction that | hopes, and en | diires and is | patient. Y6 who be | li^ve in the | beauty and | strength of | w6man's de | votion. Another way of scanning dactylic lines, is to read the first two syllables as a trochee, and to consider the remainder of the line amphibrachic. PROSODY. 313 Amphibrachic Measures. 666. In amphibrachic measures the accent, as a rule, falls upon the second, fifth, eighth, and eleventh syllables. Amphibrachiq Tetrameter. There c6.me to | tlie be^ch a | poor 6xile | of Erin, The d6w on | his thin robe | was he&vy | and chi^—CampbeU. Another way of scanning this measure is to read the first two syllables as an iambus, and to consider the remainder of the line anapestic. Mixed Meter. 667. Poets frequently vary the structure of their verse "by introducing a variety of feet, as in the following : Th6re be | n6ne of I Beauty's | daughters "With a mk \ gic hke th6e : And like | miisic | 6n the j waters Is thy I sweet voice | to m6. "With regard to some poems, such as Coleridge's "Christober* and Byron's " Siege of Corinth," we can say only that there is a uniform number of accents in each line. Alliteration. 668. Alliteration consists in the repetition of a letter at the beginning of two or more words in close proximity. The effect, when skillfully managed, is pleasing to the ear; as, Oiir «incerest laughter With some pain is fraught ; Our sweetest 5ongs are those that tell of maddest thought. Shakespeare burlesques its excessive use in the lines : Whereat, with Wade, with Woody Waineful ftlade, He firavely ftroached his foiling Woody breast. Exercise 10^.— Select a poem for examination and determine tTie following : 1. The number of fines in a stanza, if the poem is written in stanzas. 2. Where rimes occur and, consequently, what lines should be indented. 3. The number of accented syllables in each line and the number of unaccented syllables before or after each accented syllable. 4. From the data thus secured determine the name of the meter, and be prepared to point out lines that are hypermeter or eatalectic and any variations from the prevailing foot. 314 ENGLISH QEAMMAB. CHAPTER VIM. HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE ENGLISH LAN- GUAGE. 669. Languages are arranged in families accord- ing to resemblances in words and in the grammatical forms used to combine words into sentences. 670. The English language belongs to the most important of these famines, called the Indo-European, because it comprises the ^ most important languages that are or have been spoken from India to the western coast of Europe. It is also called the Aryan, from an ancient Asiatic race of that name. The Indo-European family has two great di\'isions : a. Asi- atic ; h. European. Under each of these divisions are several distinct groups of languages. a. Asiatic Divisioit. 1. The Indian languages, including the Sanskrit (a language now no longer spoken), the modern Indian dialects of Hindostan, and the G-ypsy dialect. 2. The Persian languages, including the Zend (the ancient language of Persia), and modem Persian. b. European Division. 1. The HelleniG languages, including the various dialects of ancient Q-reek, and the various dialects of modem Grreek. 2. The Latin languages, including ancient Latin and the several Ro- mance languages to which the Latin has given rise : (a) Italian ; (6) Erench ; (c) Spanish ; {d) Portuguese ; {e) Boumanch or Romanese, spoken in south- em Switzerland; (/) "Wallachian, spoken in Wallachia and Moldavia. 3. The TeuUmic languages, comprising: {a) The Low G-erman dialects, spoken originally by the tribes li^ang on the northern shores and lowlands of G-ermany— now represented by Frisian, Dutch, Plemish, and English. (6) High G-erman, formerly the language of the south-east of Germany, Ba- varia, and Austria, now the literary dialect of Germany, (c) Scandinavian, including Icelandic, Norwegian, Swedish, and Danish. 4. The Celtic languages, divided into : (a) the Cymric branch, including Welsh, Cornish, and Armorican of Brittany ; (&) the Gadic branch, compris- ing the Irish or Erse, the Scottish Gaelic, and the Manx of the Isle of Man. 5. Sclavonic, including Bussian, Lettish, Lithuanian, Polish, etc. HISTOBIGAL SKETCH OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE, 315 The English language, then, is a member of the Indo-Euro- pean family ; it belongs to the Teutonic group, and it is a Low German dialect. It was brought to America from England. It was brought to England, where it developed into its present form, from northern Germany about the middle of the fifth century after Christ. Up to that time, the country now called England had been known as Britannia or Britain. 671. The chief historical events that should be borne in mind in tracing the development of the English language are the following: The island of Britain was originally peopled by a Celtic race wlio spoke a Celtic language. Britain was invaded by a Roman army under Julius Caesar in 55 b.c. It was afterward conquered by Rome in a.d. 43, and it was held as a Roman province until a.d. 426. On the retirement of the Romans, the country was invaded by three Ix)W-Qerman tribes— Jutes, Saxons, and Angles. These Teutonic invaders took complete possession of the country, driving the native population, except a few who were kept as slaves, to Cornwall, Wales, and Strathclyde, a region bordering the Solway Firth. The Jutes settled in Kent ; the Saxons, in the southern part of the island ; and the Angles, in the center and north of England and the southern half of Scotland. From the Angles, who were the most numerous, the country was called Angle- or Engla-land or England, "the land of the Angles." Toward the close of the ninth century the various Teutonic tribes became united politically under a single king. They spoke several Ijow German dialects, which are now included under the general term Anglo-Saxon. About the year 596 the English were converted to Christianity by missionaries from Rome. Toward the end of the eighth century the Northmen of Scandinavia (Denmark, Norway, and Sweden), generally called Danes, ravaged the east coast of England. In the ninth century they gained possession of a large part of the east coast, and in the eleventh century Danish sovereigns sat on the throne of England for nearly thirty years. In 1066 the Normans— Northmen who had settled in France and who had acquired the French language— under Duke William, invaded England. The English army under King Harold was defeated at Hastings. William became king and made his followers the nobles, the bishops, and the land- lords of the country. French became the language of the law courts, the churches, and the schools, and was generally spoken by the Normans; while the Teutonic folk, though they no longer, except in rare cases, owned the land, stubbornly asserted their rights and clung tenaciously to their own language. 316 ENGLISH OBAMMAB, Q-radually, the conquering Normans and the conquered Saxons coalesced and became one people. After a struggle of 300 years the English lan- guage won at last and became the language of the country. In 1349 boys at school began to translate their Latin into English instead of into French. In 1362 English was made the language of the courts of law. e'J'S. The language brought by the Angles, Saxons, etc., was an unmixed language ; that is, it contained few or no words that were not Low German. 673. English is now a mixed or composite language, because, while the framework is English, it has absorbed many thousands of foreign words. The following are the principal foreign elements in English : I. The Celtic Element.— A. few Celtic words that have come down to us from the early inhabitants of Britain, or through the Norman French, are still retained ; as, breeches^ basket^ clout^ crocks cradle^ kiln^ mattock^ mop^ pot. n. TJie Scandinavian Mement.— The Danes, or Northmen, spoke a lan- guage very much akin to the Anglo-Saxon. Hence it is difl3.cult to distin- guish words of purely Danish origin. Names of places ending in by (town), fell (hill), beck (stream), shaw (wood), garth (inclosure), are of Danish origin. m. TTie Latin Element.— 'By far the largest foreign element in Enghsh is the Datin. Words derived from the Latin were introduced at four dis- tinct periods. 1. Latin of the First Period. — The Roman occupation of Britain gave us a few names of places, as Chester^ Gloucester^ Dorchester^ from castra^ a camp, because the Homans had fortified towns at these places ; Lincoln, from colonia^ a colony ; and Portsmouth, from portus, a harhor. The Latin strata became street, the Romans being great roadmakers. 2. Latin of the Second Period.— The introduction of Christianity brought many terms connected with the Church and its services, as chalice (calix), cloister (claustrum), deacon (diaconus), derk (clericus), etc. 3. Latin of the Third Period.— The Norman conquerors spoke the French language. As the French is derived from the Latin, several thousands of Latin words were introduced through this medium. They were religious, philosophical, and poetic terms, used by English writers who translated religious books, poems, and romances from French into English; law terms, words pertaining to the chase, to war, and to chivalry. 4. Latin of the Fourth Period.— Ahout the beginning of the sixteenth century occurred what is called the revival of learning. More profound study than- ever before was given to the literatures of ancient Greece and Rome. From this time down to the present many words have been taken directly from the Latin. rV, The Greek ^em€w^.— Philosophical and scientific words are generally HISTORICAL SKETCH OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE, 317 derived from the Q-reek, though the Greek element is only about one- eighth as large as the Latin ; as, logic^ physic^ philosophy^ wtronomy^ geography^ problem^ diagram. V. Words of Miscellaneous Origin.— ThvoMgh. commercial and social inter- course with every part of the known world, the English vocabulary has been enriched with words relating to natural productions, works of art, or social institutions. Thus the word taboo comes from the Sandwich Islands ; the word tea is Chinese ; and algebra^ almanac^ and alcdhol are Arabic. 6T4. There are about 100,000 words in the Eng- lish language. Words of classical origin are about twice as numerous as pure English words; but, as the English words are much more frequently used than the classical, the English element greatly pre- ponderates not only in our talk but in the pages of our great writers. Words from all sources other than English, Latin, and Greek, do not exceed one- twentieth of the entire vocabulary. 675. The following classes of words are of English, or Low German, origin : 1. Demonstrative adjectives; pronouns; numerals. 2. Auxiliary and defective verbs. 3. Prepositions and conjunctions. 4. Nouns forming their plurals by change of vowel. 5. "Verbs forming their past tense by change of vowel. 6. Adjectives forming their degrees of comparison irregularly. 7. Most words of one syllable and many of two syllables. 8. Words relating to common natural objects, to home life, to agricul- tiire, to the simpler feelings of the mind, and to common trades and pro- On the other hand, most words of three or more syllables, and many words of two syllables, words relating to rehgion, law, government, and war, to the higher processes of the mind, to art, science, and philosophy, are of Latin origin. In the following passage from "Washington Irving's "West- minster Abbey," the words of foreign origin are printed in itaHcs : "It was the torrtib of a crusader; of one of those military enthusiasts, who so strangely mingled religion and romance^ and whose exploits form the connect- 318 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, ing link between fact and fiction^ between tbe history and the fairy tale. There is something extremely Mcturesque in the tombs of these adventurers^ decorated as they are with rude armorial bearings and Gothic sculpture.'''' 676. In many cases we find an English and a Romance word used to express the same thing with shghtly different shades of meaning ; as, feeling y sentiment ; work, labor ; hloam, flower. In this way, many so-called synonyms have been de- veloped. &n. The significant parts of Latin and Greek words, that have been introduced into the English language, are called stems. 678. Each stem, by the addition of prefixes and suflixes (see Chapter on Word Formation), may give rise to many words, often several hmidred. The following list* of stems should be carefully studied : Ag, act = do, drive, act; as a^ent, coun- teract. ALT=h.ig]i ; as aZfttnde, a^iar. ANiM=iniiid; as Tinanimotis, animosity. ANN=year; as aw/ials, biewwial. Apt = fit, join ; as sAapt. Bas=1ow ; as deftose. BEEV=sliort ; as ab&r^viate. Cad, CAS=fall ; as cac^ence, casual, ac- cic^ent. Cap, cAPT=:take, hold ; as capable, cop^ ive. CABN=flesh; as carnivorous (vor= de- vour). Cbd, CESS=go, yield ; as acctfcie, access. CENT=hundred ; as centuTj. CiNG, ciNCT=bind ; as SMrcingle, cinct- ure, succiw^. CLrN=lean, bend; as decline. Cob, ooRD=lieart; as accord. Cub = care; as accurate . CuBB, CUBS = run ; as current, cursory. DiCT= speak, say; as contrac^ec^. DiGN= worthy ; as dignity^ disdain. Duo, DUCT = lead, bring; as induce, con- duct. Equ= equal; as cg'wanimity (anim= mind). Fa= speak; as af/able. Fac, FACT=niake, form, do; as/acile, /action. Feeb scarry, bear, bring ; as /pal. Sec, sect = cut ; as secant, hisect. Sen = old ; as senior. SERv=keep; as conserve. SisT=to place, stand ; as assist. Son = sound ; as consonant. Sort = lot, kind; as assort. SpEci=kind ; as species. Stant= standing ; as constant. STELL=star ; cons^e/^ation. String, strict = draw tight, bind ; as stringent. Su=follow; as pur*we. SuAD, suAS= persuade; as dis^wotfe, per- *Ma*ion. Surg, suRRECT=rise ; as inst^rg'ent, in- surrection. TAiLL=cut; as taUor. Tang = touch ; as tangent. Teg, TECT=cover ; as tegument, detect. TEMPOR=time ; as temporary. Tend, TENT=stretch, reach; contend, content. Test = witness ; as attest. Tort = twist, wring ; as contort. Tract = draw; as attract. TRiT=rub ; as at^niion. Trud, TRus=thrust ; as intrude^ ab- struse. UND=wave, flow ; as inundate. Vad, vAs=go; as evade. VAL=be strong ; as valid. Ven, VENT=coine; as convene^ con- vention. Vert, vers = turn ; as pervert, version, Vi, viA=way, road; as viadnct (duct= lead, bring), do'wious. Vic=a change, turn ; as vicar. VoLv, voLU, voLUT=roll ; as circum- volve^ voluble^ revolution. VoT=vow ; as w^ive. ■ 680. Besides the introduction of foreign words, the English language has undergone another great change since the days of pure Anglo-Saxon, namely, in its grammar. The Anglo-Saxon was a highly inflected language. " Nouns had five cases, and there were different declensions (as in Latin) ; adjectives were declined, and had three genders ; pronouns had more forms, and some had a dual number as well as a singular and plural ; the verbs had more variety in their personal ter- minations." All that remains of grammatical inflection in Eng- lish is of Anglo-Saxon origin ; but most of the Anglo-Saxon inflections have been dropped, and their places have been sup- plied by prepositions and auxiliary verbs. This change had commenced even before the Norman Conquest, particularly in those parts of the country affected by Danish incui'sions, but it 322 ENGLISH QBAMMAB. was accelerated by the presence of the Norman-French, possibly because the Saxons and Normans had enough to do in learning the two vocabularies without acquiring a cumbrous system of inflections. Professor Lounsbury divides the historical development of the English language into four periods: I,— The Anglo-Saxon period, from the first coming of Saxons and Angles to the year 1150. Toward the end of this i)eriod inflections began, to drop ojl. H.— The Early English period, from 1150 to 1350 ; sometimes subdivided into semi-Saxon from 1150 to 1250, and Old English, from 1250 to 1350. During this period the language was steadily losing inflections and incorporating French words. Toward the end of this period three dialects of equal rank were marked : 1. The Northern dialect, spoken from the Humber to the Pirth of Forth. This developed into Liowland Scotch. 2. The Southern dialect, spoken south of the Thames. 3. The Midland dialect, spoken in the intervening districts. TU..— Middle English, from 1350 to 1550. During this period inflections were reduced almost to their present number ; foreign words were freely introduced from the Italian as well as from the Datin and the French ; and the Midland dialect, because Chaucer, the first great EngUsh poet, wrote in it, became the hterary language of England. JV.— Modem English^ from 1550 to the present time. INDEX, The references are to the paragraph numbers, and not to the pages, except where the latter are specified. A, in " a-going," " a-milking," 376. as a prefix, 488. Sounds of, 111. —071, how used, 314-319. before A, 315. Repetition of, 317, 319. Abstract noun, defined, 153. nouns formed from adjectives, verbs, concrete common nouns, 154-157, 493 (1), 498 (1). nouns have no plural, 180. Accent, defined, 124. in compound words, 482. in verse, 641. Active (voice), 353. Forms of tenses in, 391-396. Adjectives, 19, 20, 308-335. defined, 20, 308. Abstract nouns formed from, 154. as predicate complement, 49, 521, 532. as modifier, 53. Classes of, 310. Demonstrative, 313. Comparison of, 322-329. Phrase adjectives, many o, a lit- tle, 312 (2). "Words, phrases, and clauses, used as, 529, 530. afi attributive and appositive modifier, 532. Concord of adjective and noun, 567-569. Adjectives, position in sentence, 596. Adjunct, of a composite word, 480- 482. See "Word-Analysis," 503. Adverbial objective, 209, 534. Adverbs, 23-28, 436-448. defined, 28, 436. as modifier, 57. Classes of, 437-441. composed of two or more words, 444. Conjunctive, 440, 465. Comparison of, 446. Phrases and clauses used for, 447. Noun or pronoun as adverbial modifier, "The book cost a dollar,'''' "He looks like me," 534. used to introduce noun clause, 546 (4). used to introduce adjective clause, 554. used to introduce adverbial clause, 557 (1-4). Concord of, 585. Position of, in sentence, 597. Agreement of a verb with its sub- ject, 409, 566. of a pronoun with antecedent, 570-572. of subject and predicate com- plement, 573. of nouns in apjKJsition, 574, (323) 324 INDEX, Alexandrine (in verse), 662. Alliteration, defined, use of, 668. Alphabet, Derivation of, 104. Letters of, 105. Sounds of, 106-118. Amphibrach foot in verse, 659. Amphibrachic verse, 666. • Analysis, explained, 60. defined, 61, 619. of sentences, 79-81, 619-625. by means of diagrams, 79-81. of simple sentences, 79, 621, 632. of complex sentences, 80, 623. of compound sentences, 81, 624, 625. of words, 502-504. Anapest, foot in verse, 657. Anapestic verse, 664. Another, distinguished from "the other," 301. Antecedent, defined, 222. omitted, 277. may be phrase or claiise, 280. Concord of pronoun and, 570- 572. Any, Meaning of, 295. Apposition, Noun in the same case by, 210, 574. Appositive modifier, 532 (3). Article, "an," "the," 313-321. As, relative pronoun, 274. Uses of, 445 (5). subordinate conjunction, 464 (a). conjunctive adverb, 557 (3) (4). Aspirate, 115. Assimilation of sound, 490. Attention, Economy of, 626-637. "defined, 626. Attributive modifier, 532. Attribute, another name for predi- cate complement. 522. Aught, 296. Author, not authoress, 194. See Gender, 184-194. Auxiliary (verbs), 415. Conjugation of, 416-420. Balanced sentence, 627 (footnote). Base, of a composite word, 480, 481. may be a word, 484. may be a stem, 485. Be, verb. Conjugation of, 418. Principal parts, 434. as a prefix, 488. Blank verse, 649. Both— and, 466, 585. Position of, 599. But, co-ordinate conjunction, 462 (c). Improper use of, 549. as a preposition, 550. that. Wrong use of, 549. By, Wrong use of, 584. C, Sounds of, 118 (1). Can, a notional verb, meaning, 422. Conjugation of, 422. Principal parts, 434. Capitals, Rules for, 119. Small and large, 120. Case, 195. defined, 197. Nominative, 199, 200. Possessive, 201-208. Objective, 209. Concord of cases, 573, 574, Catalectic, in verse, 661. Clause, modifier, 56. defined, 59. Relative, distinguished, 282. Co-ordinate and subordinate, 510. Noun clause as object of tran- sitive verb, 525 (5). Noun clause, 544-551. »- Adjective clause, 552-555. Adverbial clause, 534 (5), 556- 558. Position of, 596 (5), 597 (5-7). Mode and tense of verbs in sub- ordinate, 575-582. Conditional, 579. Consequent, 579. INDEX. 325 Clause, Ellipsis of, 604 (13). Punctuation of, 612. Climax, defined, use of, 634. Collective (noun), defined, 150, 151. Concord of verb with, 409 (4), 566 (3). Colon, 610. See Punctuation. Comma, 610. See Punctuation. Common noun, defined, 145. how used, 146, 147. Comparative degree, 325, 331, 446. Thing compared excluded from class, 332. double, 329. Comparison of adjectives, 322-334. positive degree, 324. comparative degree, 325, 331. superlative degree, 326, 333. Rules for forming, 327. of adverbs, 446. Complement of a verb, 46-52. defined, 48. of a transitive verb and of an intransitive verb, 519. Predicate, 521. of a passive verb, 523. in the nominative case, 573 (1). in the objective case, 573 (2). Complex clause, 558. sentences, 69-73, 542-558. Definition of, 73, 542. sentences. Analysis of, 80, 623. sentences changed to simple and compound, 627. sentences. Punctuation of, 612. subordinate clause, 558. Composite word, defined, 474. Adjunct of, 480-482. words analyzed, 503. Compound, subject, predicate, and object, in simple sentences, 67, 621. sentence. Definition of, 78, 559. sentences. Analysis of, 81, 624, 625. sentences changed to simple and complex, 627. Comi)ound sentences, Nature of clauses in, 560-563. sentences distinguished from simple and complex, 563. sentences. Punctuation of, 613. words, 94, 482. words. Accent of, 482. words, analyzed, 503. nouns. Plurals of, 182. nouns. Possessive cases of, 206. Concord, 564-585. defined, 565. of subject and predicate, 409, 566. of adjective and noun, 567-569. of pronoun and antecedent, 570-572. of cases, 573, 574. of tenses, 575-582. of prepositions, 583, 584. of conjunctions, 585, 586. of adverbs, 585, 586. Concrete (noun), defined, 148, 151. Conditional clause, 579. Consequent clause, 579. Conjugation of the verb, 412-433. of transitive verb see^ 432. Conjunctions, 34-40, 459-469. defined, 40, 459. Classes of, 460-464. Co-ordinate and subordinate, distinguished, 465. Concord of, 585, 586. Conjunctive adverb, 440. distinguished from subordinate conjunction, 465. used to introduce noun clause, 546 (4). used to introduce adjective clause, 554. used to introduce adverbial clause, 557 (1-4). Connectives may be conjunctions, conjunctive adverbs, and re- relative pronouns, 537. Consonant, 112-118. sounds, 112. 326 INDEX, Consonants divided into mutes, spi- rants, and nasals, 113, 114. Table of consonant sounds, 117. Bedundant, 106, 118. Co-ordinate conjunctions, 461, 462. words, phrases, and clauses, 510. clauses connected by co-ordinate conjunctions, 560. relative, distinguished from ad- jective relative, clauses, 282. Copula, 348. Couplet (in verse), 638. Dactyl, foot in verse, 658. Dactylic verse, 665. Dare, verb, irregularities in conju- gation, 430. Principal parts, 434. Dash, Use of, 614. Dative case, remnant of Anglo-Saxon inflection, 231. Declarative sentence, 4, 538. Declension of nouns, 211. of personal pronoun of first person, 230. of personal pronoun of second person, 235. of personal pronoun of third person, 238. of wfio and which^ 264. of whosoever^ 275. Defective (verbs), 414. notional verbs, 421-431. Degree, Clause of, elliptical, 557 (4). Demonstrative pronouns, 284-287. Use of, 287. Ellipsis of, 604 (7). adjectives, 313. Dentals, 115. See Table of Consonant Sounds, 117. Derivative word defined, 474. words analyzed, 503. Diacritical marks. 111. Diagram, Use of, in analysis, 79-81. Dight, past participle, 429. Dimeter verse, 660. Diminutives, how formed, 493 (2), 498 (3). Diphthong, how formed, 110. Direct object, 526. Dissyllable, 122. Distributive pronouns, 297. Do, Conjugation of, as a notional verb, 419. uses as an auxiliary verb, 419, (1, 2, 3). principal parts, 434. "Don't," 566, Caution (6). Double comparative, 329. negative, 631 (2). rimes, 645. E E, Jinal^ omitted, 131. retained, 132. Sounds of, 111. Each, distinguished from "every," 297. "other," 298. joined to singular noun, 569. Economy of Attention, 626-637. defined, 626. Either, indefinite pronoun, 302, 303. Concord of, 569. Either-or, 466, 566 (6), 599. Elder— eldest, distinguished from older, 329. Elements of a sentence 43-59, 507. classified, 508, 509. Ellipsis defined, 603. Cases of, 604 (1-16). Emphatic (forms of the verb), 398. use of pronoun, 248-250. Enghsh grammar, 16. prefixes, 486-489. suffixes, 493-496. Etymology defined, derivation of word, 96. INDEX. 327 Etymology, Systematic treatmtent of, 136-504. Every, indefinite pronoun, 569. Every other, 298. Exclamatory sentence, 7. Punctuation of, 609. Factitive object, 527. Ealse syntax, Examples of, pp. 253- 257. iFarther, Comparison of, 329. Meaning of, 446 (3). Pew, distinguished from "a few," 312. takes plural verb, 566 (4). Finite, forms of verb, 358. Foot, in verse, defined, 641. Kinds of feet, 652-659. For, subordinate conjunction, 464 (b). as a prefix, 488. Further, Comparison of, 329. Meaning of, 446 (3). Future indefinite tense, 395, 403. perfect tense, 396, 403. G«nder defined, 185. three kinds, 186-192. in nouns, how indicated, 193, 194. Gtenind, 371-379. defined, 372. Uses of, 373-377. distinguished from participle and abstract common noun, 378, 379, 381. object of preposition, 452 (3). subject of verb, 515 (3). object of transitive verb, 525 (3). Possessive cases of nouns and pronouns before, 531. takes the form required by the tense of the principal verb, 575-578. when transitive, governs the ob- jective case, 588. Government, 587-589. defined, 587. Errors in, 589. Grammar defined, 16. Divisions of, 82, 83. Greek nouns, 171. prefixes, 492. suffixes, 500. Gutturals, 115. See Table of Consonant Sounds, 117. H Have, Conjugation of, 417. Meaning as a notional verb and uses as an auxiliary, 417. Principal parts, 434. He, pronoun, 229. Her, pronoun, 241. Here, adverb of place, 441 (1). used to introduce a sentence, 593 (6). Heroic measure, 662. Hers, possessive form, 242. Hexameter verse, 660. Dactylic, 665 (d). Hight, a passive verb, 427. Hypermeter, in verse, 661. Hyphen, 123. I I, personal pronoun, 230-233^ Iambus, foot in verse, 654. Iambic verse, 662. If, subordinate conjunction, 464 (c). Imperative (mode) defined, 360. subject follows the verb, 593 (4). sentence, 6. Analysis of imperative sentence, 621 (3). Impersonal verb, 337. In, Proper use of, 584. Into, Proper use of, 584. Incomplete intransitive verbs, 344- 348, 520-524. Indefinite pronoun, 288-307. Uses of, 290. as antecedent of personal pro* noim, 671. 328 INDEX, Indentation of verse, 647. Independent (words or phrases), 536. Indicative (mode) defined, 359. distinguished from subjunctive, 364. Indirect object, 526. Infinitive (mode), 365-369. defined, 365. Use of to explained, 366. Uses of, 368. has two forms, 369. noun phrases, 515 (2), 525, (2). adjective phrases, 521 (3), 530, (3). adverbial phrases, 534 (4). takes the form required by the tense of the principal verb, 575-577. Ellipsis of, 604 (10). Inflection defined, 89. made in four ways, 90. Interjection, 41, 43. defined, 42. Punctuation after, 609. Interrogative sentence, 5. Punctuation of, 608. pronouns, 252-260. and relative pronouns distin- guished, 278. Intransitive (verbs) defined, 340. become transitive, 341. may form predicates, 343, 520. Incomplete verbs, 344-348, 520- 524. Irregular (or weak verbs), 400. List of, 434. It, inflection, 238. Backward and forward refer- ence of, 239. Its, History of, 240. Italics, how used, 120. Ijabials, 115. See Table of Consonant Sounds, 117. Language defined, 1. Language, See *' Economy of Atten- tion," 626-637. Liatin, plui'als of nouns, 171. prefixes, 490, 491. suffixes, 497-500. Lay, irregular verb, 434. Least, Comparison of, 329. Less, Comparison of, 329. Lest, subordinate conjunction, 464 (d). Let, irregular verb, 434. Analysis of sentence introduced by, 621 (3). Let, "Let you and me go," 589 (3). Letters, 103-106. divided into vowels and conso- nants, 107. Silent, 110. Lie, irregular verb, 434. (to recline),conjugated in poten- tial mode, 433. Like, not a conjunction, 586. Linguals, 115. See Table of Consonant Sounds, 117. Lists, Impersonal verb, 337. Little, Comparison of, 32. Loose sentence. Structure of, 602. M Many, adjective, 312 (2). "Full many a flower," 312 (2). Comparison of, 329. Marks, Diacritical, 111. May, Meaning of, uses, conjugation, 420. Principal parts, 434. Mesdames, plural of Mrs., 173. Messieurs, plural of Mr., 172. Metaphor, defined, use of, expanded into simile, 637. Meter (in verse), 642. Service, ballad, or common, 662. Mixed meter, 667. Methinks, 231, 337. Mine, Use of, 242, 244, 245. INDEX, 329 Mine, Parsing of, 243. Mode, 357-369. defined, 357. Four modes, 358. See Indicative, etc., 359. of verbs in subordinate clauses, 575-582. Modifier, explained and defined, 26, 27. Correct and incorrect phrase- ology regarding, p. 16. Note. Adjective, 53-56, 529-532. Adverbial, 57-59, 533-535. Appositive, attributive, and predicate, 532. Monometer verse, 660. Monosyllable, 122. Must, defective verb, 423. Mutes, 113. See Table of Consonant Sounds, 117. Myself, pronoun, 225 (2). Reflexive and emphatic use of, 249. N Nasals, 114. See Table of Consonant Sounds, 117. Naught, 296. Need, verb, 428. Needs, adverb, 428. Negative, Double, 631 (2). Neither, indefinite pronoun, 302, 303. —nor, 466. Concord of nouns connected by, 566 (6). Position of subject after, 593 (3). Position of, 599. Never, Error in use of, 597 (cau- • tion 3). No, not an adverb, 443. "other," 298. Nominative case of nouns, 199. by address, 200. absolute, 200. absolute, as adverbial modifier, 534 (3). Nominative, Do not use the nomina- tive case for the objective, 589. None, derivation, use, 293. always takes a singular verb, 566 (4). Nor, conjunction, 462. equivalent to "and not," 468. Concord of nouns connected by 566 (6). Position of subject after, 593 (3). Position of, 599. Not, adverb, 441 (7). Position of, 597 (caution 2). only 466 ; Position of, 599. Error in use of, 597 (caution 2). Notional (verb), 415. words, 138. Noun, 17, 18, 140-218. defined, 18, 140. Predicate, 49, 522. Subject, 516. Classes of, 141-157. Proper, 143, 144. Common, 145. Concrete, 148. Collective, 150. Abstract, 153-157. Infiection of, 158-216. Parsing, 218, 617 (1). Substitutes for, 217. Verbal, 371. Concord of noun and verb, 566 ; of adjective and noun, 567- 569 ; of noun and pronoun, 570-572. in apposition, 210, 574. as adverbial modifier, 534. used to explain another, 210, 574. Ellipsis of, 604 (1) (2). Now, adverb, 441. used as a noun, 446 (3). Number of nouns, defined, 159. Singular, 161. Plural, 162. Plural, how formed, 163-183. 330 INDEX, Number, Agreeing in, 409, 566. Inflections of verbs to denote, 410. Object, of a transitive verb, 50, 51, 339, 525-527, 588. Noun or pronoun in objective case, 209, 339. of preposition, 450-453, 588. Order of verb and, 595. Order of preposition and, 598. Direct, indirect, factitive, 526, 527. Ellipsis of, 604 (15). Objective (case), 209, 588. Adverbial, 209, 534 (1, 2). 01der~-01dest compared with elder, 329. One, XJse of, 291, 292. another, 298. Only, adverb, Proper use of, 597 (cautions 1, 2). Or, ; as modifier^ 530 (3). Adverbial^ 57; as substitute for adverb, 447; as modifier, 534 (4). when co-ordinate and when sub- ordinate, 510. Position of adjective, 596. Position of adverbial, 597. Punctuation of, 611 (6). Pleonasm defined, 631. Plural, See "Number." of nouns imported from foreign languages, 171, 172. Poetry written in verse, 639. Polysyllable, 122. Positive degree, 324, 446. Possessive (case) of nouns, inflection and uses, 201-208. Uses and parsing of possessive forms of personal pronouns, 241-243. As adjective modifier, 335 (1), 530 (1). before a gerund, 531. Noun in apposition after, 574. Potential (mode), 433. Predicate, 11-15. defined, 15, 513. must be, or contain, a verb, 517, 518. Concord of subject and, 566. omitted, 604 (9). complement, 519-524. nominative, another name for complement, 522. Prefixes, Meaning and use of, 477. English, 486-489. Latin, 490, 491. Greek, 492. Preposition, 31-33, 449-458. Preposition, defined, 33, 449. The object of, 450-453. made up of two or three words, 454. joined to a verb, 457. joined to a derivative word, 583, 584. Concord of, 583, 584. Proper use of, 584. governs the objective case, 588. Position of, 598. _ Ellipsis of, 604 (16). Present indefinite tense, 391, 399. Prime word, 94. defined, 473. Principal elements of a sentence, 510. Pronoun, 29, 30. defined, 30, 219. Predicate, 49. Classes and inflections, 223-307. Personal, 224-251. Interrogative, 252-360^ Relative, 261-283. Demonstrative, 284-287. Indefinite, 288-307. as adverbial modifier, 534 (2). Concord of pronoun and its antecedent, 570-572. Ellipsis of, 604 (2, 4, 5, 7, 8, 15). Proper noun, 143, 144. Prosody, defined, 101. Systematic treatment of, 638- 668. Punctuation, 605-616. defined, 605. Marks of, 606-610. of simple sentence, 611. of complex sentence, 612. of compound sentence, 613. Quah'ty, Adjectives of, 310 (I). Quantity, Adjectives of, 310 (II). Quotation, Direct and indirect, how introduced in the sentence, 012 (6). 332 INDEX. Quotation, Marks of, 616. direct form preferred, 632. Change from direct to indirect, 633. Quoth, verb, Use of, 431. Rather, comparative of ratTw, 446 (3). Bedundant (verb), 414. letters, 106, 118. Reflexive use of pronoun, 248, 249. Regular (verbs), 400, 434. Relative pronoun, 261-283. how first used, 263. declined, 264. as used in restrictive and co- ordinate clauses, 266. How to parse, 283. Concord of verb with, 566 (caution 5). Concord with antecedent, 572. EUipsis of, 604 (4), (5). clause, Punctuation of, 612 (3). and interrogative pronouns dis- tinguished, 278. Rime defined, 644. Three things necessary to, 644 (1), (2), (3). Rhythm in verse, 643. Scan (to scan in poetry), 651. See, transitive verb, conjugated, 432. Sentence, defined, 3, 506 used in three ways, 2. Declarative, 4. Interrogative, 5. Imperative, 6. Exclamatory, 7. consists of two parts, 43, 511. Simple, 65-68, 79, 540, 541. Complex, 69-74, 80, 542, 543. Compound, 75-78, 81, 559-563. Balanced, 627 (footnote). ending with preposition, ad- verb, or pronoun, 592. Periodic, 601. Sentence, Loose, 602. Punctuation of, 605-616. Analysis of, 60, 61, 79-81, 619- 625. Construction of, 63-78, 626- 637. Shall, distinguished from will^ 404. Conjugation of, 416. Principal parts, 434. Silent letters, 110. Simile, defined, how used, 636. compressed into a metaphor, 637. Simple sentences, Elements of, 66, 67, 541. Analysis of, 79, 621, 622. Punctuation of, 611. Single rimes, 645. Singular number of nouns, 161. See "Number," 159-183. So, used for such, 307. followed by "as" in negative sentences, 585. Some, as pronoun, as adjective, 294. takes a plural verb, 566 (4). Sounds, 103. Vowel, 108, 109, 111. Diphthong, 110. Consonant, 112, 118. Spelling defined, how best learned, 127. Rules for, 128-135. Spirants, 113. Stanza (in verse), 650. Elegiac, 662. Spenserian, 662. Stems," parts of words found in other languages, 479. Stem-compound, 483. Stem-derivative, 485. See " Word- Analysis," 503. Strong (verbs), 400, 434. Subject, 11-14. defined, 14. Different forms of, 43-45, 515. INDEX, 333 Subject, Difference between the grammatical and the entire, or logical, 616. Concord of subject and predi- cate, 566. repeated, 581. Subjective complement, another name for predicate comple- ment, 522. Subjunctive (mode), 301-364. defined, 361. introduced by (/", though^ unless^ except^ lest^ that^ 362. what it expresses, 363. distinguished from indicative, 364. Subordinate conjunctions, 464. elements in a sentence, 510. clauses, 543. Such, as adjective, as pronoun, 306. followed by certain conjunc- tions, 585. Suffixes, Meaning and use of, 478. English, 493-496. Latin, 497-500. Greek, 500. Superlative degree, 326-331. thing compared included in class, 333. Supplement of a verb, 528. Syllable defined, 121. Monosyllable, 122. Dissyllable, 122. Trisyllable, 122. Polysyllable, 122. how divided, 123. Synecdoche, defined. Use of, 635. Syntax, 98, 505-625. defined, 98, 505. To give the syntax of a word, 618. Synthesis explained, 60. defined, 62. Tautology, 631 (3) Tenses, 386-408. Tenses, defined, 386. Three principal, 387. Table of tense forms, 389. Primary, how used, 390-39a Secondary, 397. Complex forms of, 398. Fonnation of, in indicative mode, 399-403. of the subjunctive mode, 405. of the infinitive mode, 406. of the imperative mode, 407. of the passive voice, 408. Concord of, 575-582. Tetrameter verse, 660. Than, after comparative degree, 332. conjunction, Use of, 464 (e). Mistakes after, 557 (4). That, relative pronoun, when pre- ferred to who and which, 266. demonstrative pronoun, 284- 287. demonstrative adjective, 310- 313. subordinate conjunction, 464 (d). introduces a noun clause, 545. In order that, so that, 557 (7). used with nouns in the singu- lar, 568. ElUpsis of, 547, 604 (14). The (article). Use of, 320, 321. as an adverb, 442. Theirs, Use of, and parsing, 242, 243. There, adverb, used to introduce a sentence, 593 (6). Thine, Use of, 242, 244, 245. This, demonstrative pronoun, 284- 287. demonstrative adjective, 310- 313. used with nouns in the singu- lar, 568. Thou, Use of, 236. Though, subordinate conjunction, 464 (c). —yet, 466. 334 INDEX. To, preposition, Use of, 366. To wit. Use of, 425. Transitive (verbs), defined, 339. have voice, 352-354. when in active voice can not make complete predicate, 525. govern the objective case, 588. Trimeter verse, 660. Trisyllable, 122. Trochee, foot in verse, 655. Verb, 21, 22, 336. Personal and impersonal, 337. Transitive and intransitive, 338- 348. Active and passive voice of, 351-356. Modes of, 357-369. Verbals, 370-385. Tenses of, 386-408. Regular and irregular, 400. Strong and weak, 400. Number and person, 409-411. Conjugation of, 412^32. Defective, 414. Notional, 415. Auxiliary, 415-420, 582. List of irregular, 434. Complements of, 519-527. Supplement of, 528. Concord of, 409, 566. in subordinate clauses, 575. Ellipsis of, 604 (11, 12). Verse, defined, 639. distinguished from prose, 640. Blank, 649. classified, 660, 661. Dissyllabic, 662, 663. Trisyllabic, 664-666. Voice, 351-356. Active, 353. Passive, 354. Vowel, 107-111. W "We, pronoun, 225. Special uses of, 234. Weak (verbs), 400, 434. What, as interrogative pronoun, 258. to introduce exclamation, 259. equivalent to that ivhich^ 272. as an adjective, 273. to introduce a noun clause, 282 (3), 546 (1). When, adverb, 554. Where, adverb, 554. Wherever, conjunctive adverb, 557. Whether, as pronoun, 260. subordinate conjunction, 464 (c). —or, 466. Which, as interrogative pronoun, 256, 257. as relative pronoun, 262, 263. Inflection of, 264. distinguished from "who" and "that," 265, 266. old use, 268. as an adjective, 269. While, conjunctive adverb, 557 (2). Who, interrogative pronoun, 254. as relative pronoun, 262, 263. declined, 264. Uses of, 265, 266. Whose, Use of, 267. Whosoever declined, 275. Why, adverb, 554. Words, 2. classified according to use, 17- 42, 137. classified according to meaning, 138, 139. classified according to forma- tion, 472-474, 482-485. analyzed, 503. Y, final, 129, 130, 167. Te, Use of, 237. Yes, not an adverb, 443. Yet, 462 (c), 466. You, pronoun, 235, 236. with plural verb, 566, Caution a Yours, Use of, and parsing, 242, 243. 14 DAY USE RETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED LOAN DEPT. This book is due on the last date stamped below, or on the date to which renewed. Renewed books are subject to immediate recall. FEB 3l95a<^ Rr.C U- '-'•'' JAN 2 5 1958 / ?.5Ian'B2JW FFB 27l9o^ 1 L.U (j 4 lv^W»« 1 1 1 General Library LD 21A-50m-8,'57 University of California (C8481sl0)476B Berkeley YB 01716 ^ UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY .< \ ^ -i'y'/