THE BLACK-BOARD. 1ERCISES AND ILLUSTRATIONS HE BLACK-BOARD; FURNISHING V* EASY AND EXPEDITIOUS METHOD GIVING INSTRUCTION. DESIGNED FOB THE USB OF COMMON SCHOOLS. BY JOHN GOLDSBURY, Author of " The Common School Grammar" and " Sequel," of " New Theortel of Grammar," and one of the Anthers of " The American Common-School - Reader and Speaker," and of the "Introduction" to fee wune. KEENE, N. H. PUBLISHED BY GEORGE TILDEN. 1847. LIBRARY THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SANTA BARBARA PRESENTED BY GEORGE COBB / BLACK-BOARD. EXERCISES AND ILLUSTRATIONS ON THE BLACK-BOARD; FURNISHING AN EASY AND EXPEDITIOUS METHOD OF .- GIVING INSTEUCTION. DESIGNED FOR THE USE OF COMMON SCHOOLS. BY JOHN GOLDSBURY, Author of " The Common School GramnJar" and " Sequel," of " New Theories of Grammar," and one of the Authors of " The American Common-School Reader and Speaker," and of the "Introduction" to the same. KEENE, N. H. PUBLISHED BY GEORGE TILDEN. 1847. PREFACE. THE various uses of the black-board are, perhaps, too well understood and appreciated in this vicinity, to need any illustration or recommenda- tion whatever. In many of our school-houses, we have black-boards of ample dimensions, and generally teachers who are competent to explain their uses. But this is not the case everywhere, nor generally throughout New England. Even in Massachusetts, there are many school-houses destitute of this necessary appendage ; and there are others, in which, though there may be a black-board, yet it is so extremely small, as to be of no use ; and there are still others, in which there is a black-board, but no teacher competent to explain its uses. Some think", that its use is restricted almost entirely to mathematical sub- jects. But this is a great mistake, as will appear from a perusal of the following pages. For the purposes of common school instruction, the black-board is worth more than all the diagrams and other apparatus that ever were invented ; for it can be made to supply the place of these. A piece of chalk or a crayon, in the magic hand of a skilful teacher, can in- stantly be made to represent any diagram which is needed for the purposes of illustration ; and, in an instant, the drawing can be made to disappear, and another to take its place. And these illustrations are visible to all the pupils at once. As illustrative of this point, take the following account, given by the Hon. Horace Mann, of the manner in which geography is taught in the Prussian schools : " The teacher," says he, " stood by the black-board with the chalk in his hand. After casting his eye over the class, to see that all were ready, he struck at the middle of the board. With a rapidity of hand which my eye could hardly follow, he made a series of those short, divergent lines, or shadings, employed by map-engravers to represent a chain of moun- tains. He had scarcely turned an angle, or shot off a spur, when the scholars began to cry out Carpathian mountains, Hungary; Black Forest mountains, Wirtemberg; Giant's mountains (Riesen-Gebirge), Silesia; Metallic mountains (Erz-Gebirge) ; Pine mountains (Fichtel- Gebirge); Central mountains. (Mittel-Gebirge), Bohemia, &c., &c." 1* b PREFACE. " In less than half a minute, the ridge of that grand central elevation which separates the waters that flow north-west into the German Ocean from those that flow north into the Baltic, and south-east into the Black Sea, was presented to view, executed almost as beautifully as an en- graving. A dozen crinkling strokes, made in the twinkling of an eye, represented the head waters of the great rivers which flow in different directions from that mountainous range ; while the children, almost as eager and excited as though they had actually seen the torrents dash- ing down the mountain sides, cried out, Danube, Elbe, Vistula, Oder, &.c. The next moment I heard a succession of smal! strokes or tops so rapid as to be almost indistinguishable ; and hardly had my eye time to discern a. large number of dots made along the margins of the rivers, when the shout of Lintz, Vienna, Prague, Dresden, Berlin, &c., struck my ear. At this point in the exercise, the spot which had been occupied on the black-board was nearly a circle, of which the starting point, or place where the teacher first began, was the centre ; but now a few additional strokes around the circumference of the incipient continent, extended the mountain ranges outward towards the plains, the children responding the names of the countries in which they respectively lay. With a few more flourishes, the rivers flowed onwards towaftls their sev- eral terminations ; and, by another succession of dots, new cities sprang up along their banks. By this time, the children had become as much excited as though they had been present at a world-making. They rose in their seats, they flung out both hands, their eyes kindled, and their voices became almost vociferous, as they cried out the names of the dif- ferent places which, under the magic of the teacher's crayon, rose into view. Within ten minutes from the commencement of the lesson, there stood upon the black-board a beautiful map of Germany, with its moun- tains, principal rivers, and cities, the coast of the German Ocean, of the Baltic and the Black Seas ; and all so accurately proportioned, that I think only slight errors would have been found, had it been subjected to the test of a scale of miles." The black-board may be used, with success, in illustrating almost any branch of science. The design of the present work is to point out some of its uses, and to aid teachers and pupils in using it. The method of illustration, here adopted, is not a mere theory, which never had an exist- ence except in the brain of its author : it is the result of practical experi- ence. It is substantially the method which the author has used for a long series of years ; and, he believes, it is substantially the method pursued by many of the most distinguished and successful teachers of the day. It is true, the work might have been somewhat varied. The author might PREFACE. 7 have pursued his subjects further, and been more particular and minute in some of his details ; he might, with equal propriety, have taken up other subjects, and given other and further illustrations ; but this would have only increased the size and expense of the work, without adding materially to its utility. The plan and execution of the work are original, though the materials have been gleaned from various sources. It is not designed to come in competition with, or to supersede, any other work. There is no work, with which the author is acquainted, which now occupies its place. For the want of such a work, our schools have long suffered. Scholars have been frequently obliged to study hour after hour upon their lessons ; and, after all, they have been able to gain only a very imperfect knowledge of them ; when, by the use of the black-board, the whole subject might have been explained in a very few minutes. The ideas which scholars obtain from their text-books are frequently faint, indistinct, and transitory. To deepen their impressions, and to render them more vivid and abiding, they want to see the subject illustrated on the black-board. Visible illus- trations will do more than page upon page of verbal explanation, because illustrations are better understood than words. To the author, it has long been a matter of surprise, that, after so much has been said upon the utility of the black-board in school, so little has been done to aid its introduction and use. Believing that such a book is needed, he has made it what it is ; and he now gives it to the public with- out further apology. JOHN GOLDSBUEY. Boston, January, 1847. DIRECTIONS. A blade-board should be, at least, three and a half feet wide, and ex- tend the whole length or breadth of the room, so that the whole class cart work upon it at the same time. It may be made of hard finish on the walls of the room, and then painted black and varnished over ; or it may be made of boards, and affixed to the walls of the room, or suspended on pulleys, so as to be raised or let down at pleasure. And it should be placed at such a height, that a pupil of ordinary size can reach the top of it without difficulty. For writing on the board, chalk or crayons are used ; and it would be well to have brass holders for these, so as to require the same position of the fingers, as in holding a pen. The holders are so made as to be easily enlarged or contracted at pleasure, and thus fitted to the chalk. The chalk and holders should be carefully preserved in a box. There should also be two or more articles for clearing the board, made of sheep-skin, tanned with the wool on, and so made as to be conveniently used in rubbing out operations on the board. Teachers may direct their pupils to commence at any part of the work which they choose. When they take up a particular subject, make them understand the whole ground they go over ; for pupils are apt to be in hurry, and are inclined to pass over the first or elementary principles superficially. The boy is anxious to study arithmetic, before he under- stands the meaning of the words in which the sums are stated. The girl wishes to study grammar, before she can read a sentence correctly. As, in the building of a house, the foundation should be first laid deep and strong ; so, in the education of children, the rudiments should be first taught, and thoroughly taught, before proceeding to higher studies. If more examples and illustrations, or different ones, are needed under any head, it will be easy for teachers to give them ; and they can pursue the subject to any extent they please. Some parts of the work are very brief. Those subjects have been dwelt upon the most, which have been the most neglected in common schools. This is the reason why arithmetic and some other studies have not received more attention in this work. THE BLACK-BOARD. ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. ANALYSIS is the dividing of a compound into its elements, or constituent parts. The ENGLISH ALPHABET consists of twenty-six letters or elements, a, b, c, d, e,f, g, h, i,J, k, I, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y, z. These are divided into vowels and consonants. The VOWELS are a, e, i, o, u, and sometimes w and y.* These are called vowels, because they have a free and uninter- rupted sound of their own, without the aid of a consonant. The CONSONANTS are b, c, d,f, g, h,j, k, I, m, n,p, q, r t s, t, v, x, z, and sometimes w and y.* These are called conso- nants, because they have no free and uninterrupted sound of their own, without the aid of a vowel. Application. What is analysis $ How many letters are there in the English language ? How are they divided ? Which are the vowels ? Why are they called vowels f Which are the consonants ? Why are they called consonants ? When are w and y conso- nants ? When are they vowels ? Let each scholar write all the vowels, and all the consonants, separately, on the black- board or slate. After this is done, let each be required to pronounce, in a clear, distinct, and forcible manner, all the vowels, and then all the consonants, and to observe what is peculiar to each class of letters. In this way, scholars will soon learn the difference between vowels and consonants. * PFand y are consonants when they begin a syllable or word, and vowels when they end one. 10 THE BLACK-BOARD. VOWELS. The different sounds of the vowels depend, not only on the length of time occupied in uttering them, but also on the manner of opening the mouth, and exerting the organs em- ployed in giving them utterance. Hence, the sounds may be long or short, broad, open, middle, or close. In uttering the broad sounds, the mouth is opened very wide, somewhat less in uttering the open, still less in uttering the middle, and nearly shut in uttering the close. TABLE OF VOWEL SOUNDS. 1234 5 6 A has six sounds, as in ale, all, arm, add, (rare, wad.) 12 34 E has four sounds, as in me, met, (there, her.) /has four sounds, as in pine, pin, (marine, sir.) has six sounds, as in no, move, nor, not, (wolf, done.) 123 466 17 has six sounds, as in tune, tub, bull, (rule, bury, busy.) 12 3 Y, when a vowel, has three sounds, as in (chyle, hymn, myrrh.) W, when a vowel, has the sound of long u, as in (new.) Application. On what do the different sounds of the vowels depend? How is a broad sound produced ? an open sound ? a mid' die sound ? a close sound ? Give examples of each. How many sounds has a ? Give examples of each, and write them on the black-board or slate. Now, pronounce them distinctly and forcibly, and notice what is peculiar to each. Pursue the same course with each of the other vowels, e, i, o, u, y and w ; and take particular notice of the examples included in paren- thetical marks, as they are not generally regarded as distinct elements. ANALYSIS. 11 DIPHTHONGS. A diphthong is the union of two vowels, uttered by a simple impulse of the voice, as ea in beat. A triphthong is the union of three vowels, uttered in like manner, as eau in beau. A proper diphthong has both of the vowels sounded. There are but four proper diphthongs, oi, oy, ou, and ow, as in voice, joy, thou, now. An improper diphthong has but one of the vowels sounded. There are twenty-six of these, aa, ae, ai, au, aw, ay, ea, ee, ei, eo, eu, ew, ey, ia, ie, io, oa, oe, oo, ou, ow, ua, ue, ui, uo, uy. There are seventeen triphthongs, awe, aye, eau, eou, ewe, eye, ieu, iew, iou, oeu, owe, uea, uee, uai, uay, uoi, uoy. Application. What is a diphthong ? What is a triphthong ? What is a proper diphthong ? What is an improper diphthong ? How many proper, and how many improper diphthongs ? Let each scholar write, on the black-board or slate, as many words as he can recollect, containing examples of each kind, and point out the difference. VOWELS, DIPHTHONGS, AND TRIPHTHONGS, CLASSIFIED. There are seventeen tonic* elements, which may be classified in the following manner : 1. A, as in ale ; ae, as in Gaelic ; ai, as in aim ; au, as in gauge ; ay, as in pay ; aye, as in aye ; ea, as in break ; ei, as in vein ; ey, as in they ; ua, as in persuade. 2 2. A, as in all ; awe, as in awe ; aw, as in law ; au, as in fraud; eo, as in George ; oa, as in broad; ou, as in bought ; 3 o, as in nor. * Producing tone. 12 THE BLACK-BOARD. 3 3. A, as in arm ; au, as in aunt ; ea, as in heart ; ua, as in guard. 4 4. A, as in add; ai, as in plaid. 5 5. A, as in rare ; aa, as in Aaron ; ai, as in/atV / ay, as in z, 3 prayer ; ea, as in joear ; ee, as in heir ; ey, as in eyry ; e, as in there. 6. JE, as in me ; ae, as in ae^'s ; ay, as in g^ay ; ea, as in ; ee, as in feel; ei, as in seize ; eo, as in people ; ey, as in key; ie, as injield; oe, as in oesophagus ; i, as in marine. 2 7. J7, as in we* ; a, as in many ; ai, as in said ; ay, as in says ; ea, as in death; ei, as in heifer ; ie, as in friend; eo, as 5 3 in leopard; oe, as in oedipus ; ue, as in guess; u, as in bury ; y, as in myrrh. 8. 75 as in ^e ; ai, as in azVe ; ei, as in height ; ey, as in ey^n$r ; eye, as in eye ; ie, as in flYe ; ui, as in grm'fe / uy, as in iwy ; ye, as in aye ; y, as in cAy/e. 2 9. ^ as in pin ; ai, as in mountain ; e, as in pretty ; ee, as in been ; ei, as in forfeit ; eo, as in pigeon ; ia, as in marriage ; ie, as in sieve ; o, as in women ; oi, as in tortoise ; ui, as in 6 2 yzw'ft ; M, as in busy ; y, as in hymn. 10. 0, as in no ; au, as in hautboy ; eau, as in beau; eo, aa in yeoman ; ew, as in strew ; oa, as in boat ; oe, as in foe ; oo, as in door ; ou, as in though ; ow, as in snow ; owe, as in owe. 2 11. 0, as in move ; ew, as in screw ; oe, as in shoe ; oeu, as in manoeuvre; oo, as in moon; ou, as in sowp/ m', as in bruit; u, as in rule. 4 6 12. 0, as in wo#; CM, as in cough; a, as in wad. ANALYSIS. 18 13. U, as in tune ; eau, as in beauty ; eu, as in feud; ew, as in new ; ewe, as in ewe ; ieu, as in adieu ; iew, as in view ; ue, as in hue ; ui, as in juice. 2 14. 17, as in tub ; eo, as in dungeon ; oe, as in does ; io, as in region ; ia, as in Britain ; oo, as in blood ; ou, as in enough ; 446 y, as in satyr; e, as in her ; ^, as in sir ; o, as in done. 3 5 15. U, as in butt ; oo, as in wool ; ou, as in could; o, as ia wolf. 32 31 16. 01, as in oil; oy, as in toy (y like e). * Proper 17. Ou, as in bound; ow, as in town (w like w). -> diphthongs. Application. Let the pupils write on the black-board, or on their slates, all the words representing ihe first class of elements, namely, ale, Gaelic, aim, guage, pay, aye, break, vein, they, persuade. Let each pupil then be required to pronounce each word distinctly and forcibly, and be made to understand, that they all belong to the same class, and contain the same compound element, the name sound of a, that is, the sound of a and e united. Then, let them write, as above directed, all the words rep- resenting the second class of elements, namely, all, awe, law, fraud, George, broad, bought, nor. Let each pupil then be required to pronounce each word distinctly and forcibly, and be made to understand, that they all belong to the same class, and contain the same simple element; which element they should be required to utter distinctly, apart from the other letters in each word. Pursue the same course with the other classes of elements. The words containing compound elements should be pro- nounced six times, loud, louder, loudest, so/I, softer, softest. The words containing simple elements should be pronounced three times only, after which the elements should be distinctly and forcibly uttered, apart from the other elements in each word. 2 14 THE BLACK-BOARD. CONSONANTS. The consonants are usually divided into mutes and semi- vowels. The mutes are b, d, p, t, k, c and g hard. They are called mutes, because they obstruct the organs of speech, and are uttered with difficulty. The semi-vowels are f, I, m, n, r, s, v, z, x, c and g soft. They are called semi-vowels, because they have an imperfect sound of their own, without the aid of a vowel. L, m, n, and r, are called liquids, because they readily unite with other consonants, and flow, as it were, into their sounds. Application. How are consonants divided ? Which are the mutes ? Why are they called mutes ? Which are the semi-vowels? Why are they called semi-vowels ? Which are the liquids f Why are they called liquids ? Let the pupils write on the black-board, or on their slates, all the mutes in regular order ; and then let them write words in which all the mutes are represented. Let them pronounce each of the words in the ordinary way, and then give their elemental sounds. Then, let them write, in like manner, all the semi-vowels, and also words in which all the semi-vowels are represented. Let them pronounce each of the words in the ordinary way, and then give their elemental sounds. Let the scholars notice particu- larly what organs are employed in giving utterance to these different elements, the teeth, the lips, the tongue, the palate, the nose. TABLE OP CONSONANT SOUNDS. B has but one sound, as in babe, barb, babble. It is some- times silent, as in lamb. G has two sounds. Before a, o, u, r, I, t, and at the end of syllables, it sounds hard like k, as in cart, cottage, cube, craft, cloth, fact, flaccid. Before e, i, and y, it sounds soft like s, as in centre, cinder, mercy. It sometimes has the sound of z, as in discern ; and it is sometimes silent, as in czar. ANALYSIS. 15 D has but one sound, as in did. It sometimes takes the sound of dj andy, as in soldier, grandeur, and sometimes of , as infixed. It is silent before g, as in judgment. F has but one sound, as in fife ; except in of, in which it has the sound of v. G has two sounds. Before a, o, u, I, r, and at the end of a word, it sounds hard, as in gave, go, gun, glory, grow, brag. Before e, i, and y, it sometimes has a soft sound, like^', as in genius, ginger, gypsy, and sometimes a. hard sound, as in get, gimlet. Before m and n it is silent, as in phlegm, consign, gnomon. H has an aspirate sound, as in lie, hall, harm, hat. It is sometimes silent, as in heir, hour, honest, rhyme. J has the sound of soft g, as in joy, judge, just ; except in hallelujah, in which it sounds like y. K has invariably a hard sound, as in king, keep, book, bulk. It is silent before n, as in knave. L has but one sound, as in lull, low, law. It is sometimes silent, as in walk. M has but one sound, as in maim, man, murmur ; except in comptroller, in which it sounds like n. Before n, at the beginning of a word, it is silent, as in mnemonic. N has two sounds ; the one pure, as in no, nine, nay ; the other a ringing sound, as in bank, think, singing. It is some- times silent, as in hymn. P has but one sound, as in pipe ; except in cupboard and clapboard, in which it sounds like b. It is sometimes silent, as in empty. Q has the sound of k, and*is always followed by u, as in quack. R has a rough sound, as in rage, run, roar ; and a smooth sound, as in her, sir, sister. S has a soft, buzzing sound, like z, as in rose, odds, dismal; a sharp, hissing sound, as in say, so, sister. Sometimes it has the sound of sh, as in censure, and of zh, as in measure. It is sometimes silent, as in isle. T has one sound, as in tent, tide, time. Sometimes it has the sound of sh, as in nation, and of tsh, as in nature. It is sometimes silent, as in listen. V has but one sound, as in value, vain, view. W, when a consonant, has but one sound, as in way, wise, world. It is sometimes silent, as in write. 16 IHE BLACK-BOAKD. X has a sharp sound, like ks, as in wax ; a Hat sound, like gz, as in exact ; and sometimes the sound of z, as in Xenophon. Y, when a consonant, has but one sound, as in you, year, yoke. Z has the sound of flat s, as in freeze, zeal, prize ; and some- tunes of zh, as in glazier, seizure. t Application. How many sounds has b ? Is it ever silent ? Give the ex- amples, and write them on the black-board. Let one scholar pronounce and spell the first example in the ordinary way, and then analyze it, by giving each elemental sound, apart from the other letters or elements in the word. Then let another scholar pronounce, spell, and analyze the second ex- ample, in the same way ; and then another scholar, the third example ; and so on, till they are all finished. Should there not be a sufficient number of examples, under each head, for the purposes of drilling, they may be increased to any extent, by selecting words, at random, in which the letter occurs. Again, how many sounds has c ? When does it sound like k ? When like s ? Has it any other sound, or exception ? Give all the examples, and write them on the black-board. Let each scholar take his turn in pronouncing, spelling, and ana- lyzing them, as above directed. Pursue the same course with all the other consonants, d,f, g, h,j, k, I, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, w, x, y, z. DOUBLE CONSONANTS. Ch sounds like tsh, as in church, like k, as in chorus, like sh, as in chaise. Sh has but one sound, as in ship. Gh sounds like/*, as in laugh, like k, as in hough, like g, as in ghost ; and it is sometimes silent, as in plough. Gn serves to lengthen the preceding vowel, as in impugn. Ph sounds like f, as in phiz, like v, as in Stephen ; and it is sometimes silent, as in phthisic. Ng has a nasal, ringing sound, as in hanging. So, before a, o, u, I, and r, sounds like sk, as in scan, score, SYLLABLES AND WORDS. 17 scud, sclerotic, scrag ; but before e, i, and y, it sounds like s, as in scene, science, Scythian. Th has two sounds ; the one vocal, as in this, thee ; the other aspirate, as in thing, thought. It has sometimes the sound of t, as in *Thomas. Note. All the double consonants are not here given. The others generally sound like their original elements. Application. How many sounds has ch ? and what are they ? "Write the examples on the black-board ; and then analyze them, by spelling them first as they are written, then by substituting the diameters which represent their elementary sounds; after which let their elementary sounds be given. Pursue a similar course with sh, gh, ph, ng, sc, and th, especially with those that have more elementary sounds than one. SYLLABLES AND WORDS. A syllable is a word or part of a word, which is pronounced by a single impulse of the voice ; as, a, dis-tinct, ar-tic-u-la-tion. A word is a syllable or a combination of syllables, used as the sign of an idea ; as, play, playful, playfulness. A word of one syllable is called a monosyllable ; a word of two syllables, a dissyllable ; a word of three syllables, a tri- syllable ; and a word of four or more syllables, a polysyllable. Every word has as many syllables as it has distinct articu- lations. The syllables are the divisions which are made in pronouncing it correctly. Application. What is a syllable? Write the examples on the black- .board, and then pronounce them so as to show that you under- stand the meaning of a syllable. What is a word ? Write the examples on the black-board, and explain the difference between a word and a syllable. What is a word of one syl- lable called ? of two syllables ? of three syllables ? of four or more syllables ? Write examples of each on the black- board. How many syllables can any word have ? 2* 18 THE BLACK-BOARD. GENERAL RULES FOR THE DIVISION OF SYLLABLES. RULE 1. A single consonant, between two vowels, must be joined to the last syllable ; as, delight, bri-rfal, re-source : except in words compounded of inseparable prepositions ; as, up-on, un-even, dis-ease, ex-ist. RULE 2. Two consonants, proper to begin a word, coming between two vowels, must not be separated ; as, fa-5fe, sti-^/fe, in-stil. But if they are not proper to begin a word, they must be separated ; as, ut-most, un-der, m-sect, er-ror, cof-fm. RULE 3. Three consonants, in the middle of a word, if they can begin a word, and the preceding vowel be pronounced long, must not be separated ; as de-^Arone, de-stroy. But if the vowel of the preceding syllable be short, one of the conso- nants usually belongs to that syllable ; as, dis-fr-act, dis-prove, distrain. RULE 4. Three or four consonants, not proper to begin a syllable, coming between two vowels, such of them as can begin a syllable, belong to the latter syllable, the rest to the former ; as, ab-stain, com-plete, em-broil) d&n-dle, dap-pie, con-strain. RULE 5. Two vowels, not being a diphthong, must be sepa- rated into two syllables ; as, crw-el, rw-m. RULE 6. Compound words m'ust be separated into simple words ; as, ice-house, glow-worm, never-the-less. RULE 7. Grammatical and other terminations are generally separated ; as, lov-est, lov-eth, lov-ing, lov-ed, lov-er, love-sick, love-tale, love-token, &c. Application. "What is the first rule for the division of syllables ? What exception to it ? Write all the examples and exceptions on the black-board, and explain the rule. What is the second rule ? Write all the examples on the black-board, and explain the rule. What is the third rule ? Write all the examples on the black-board, and explain the rule. What is the fourth rule ? Write all the examples on the black-board, and explain the rule. What is the fifth rule? Write all the examples ou the black-board, and explain the rule. What is the sixth RULES FOR SPELLING. rule ? Write all the examples on the black-board, and explain the rule. What is the seventh rule ? Write all the examples on the black-board, and explain the rule. GENERAL RULES FOR SPELLING. EULE 1. Monosyllables, ending with/, I, or s, preceded by . a single vowel, double the final consonant ; as, mill, muff, pass, sta^f, &c. The only exceptions are as, gas, has, his, if, is, of, this, thus, us, was, yes. RULE 2. Monosyllables, ending with any consonant but/, I, or s, preceded by a single vowel, do not double the final con- sonant ; as, do^, mac?, man, tub, &c. The only exceptions are add, bunn, butt, buzz, ebb, egg, inn, odd, purr. RULE 3. Monosyllables and words accented on the last syllable, ending with a single consonant, preceded by a single vowel, double that consonant when another syllable is added beginning with a vowel ; as, fog, foggy ; thin, thinnish ; wi, wifty ; begin, beginner, &c. But, if a diphthong precedes, or the accent is on the preceding syllable, the consonant remains single ; as, toil, toiling ; maid, mairfen ; offer, offering ; visit, visited, &c.. RULE 4. Words ending with any double letter but I, and taking ness, less, ly, or ful, after them, preserve the letter double ; as, stiffness, starless, carelessly, distressful, &c. But those words which end with double I, and take ness, less, ly, or ful, after them, generally omit one I; as, fulness, skifless, fully, skilful, &c. RULE 5. Ness, less, ly, and ful, added to words ending with silent e, do not cut it off; as, paleness, guileless, closely, peaceful : except in a few words ; as, duly, truly, awful, wholly, idly. RULE 6. Ment, added to words ending with silent e, gener- ally preserves the e from elision ; as, abatement, chastisement, incitement, &c. Abridgment, argument, judgment, lodgment, acknowledgment, are exceptions to the rule. Like other ter- minations, mmt changes y into i, when preceded by a conso- nant ; as, accompany, accompaniment ; merry, merriment. 20 THE BLACK-BOARD. RULE 7. Able and ible, when united with words ending with silent e, almost always cut it off; as blanie, blamable ; cure, curable ; sense, sensible, &c. But, if c or g soft comes before e in the original word, the e is then preserved in words compounded with able ; as, change, changeable ; peace, peace- able, &c. RULE 8. When ing or ish is added to words ending with silent e, the e is usually omitted ; as, place, placing ; lodge, lodging ; slave, slavish ; prude, prudish. Words ending with ie or ye change ie and ye into y before ing ; as, die, dying ; vie, vying ; lie, lying ; eye, eying. RULE 9. Compound words are generally spelled like the simple words of which they are composed ; as, foot-ball, wind- mill, bull-dog, there-by, here-after, &c. Many words, ending with double I, are exceptions to this rule ; as, al-ready, wel-fare, wil-ful, ful-Jil, &c. RULE 10. Words ending with y, preceded by a consonant, form the plural of nouns, the persons of verbs, verbal nouns, past participles, comparatives, and superlatives, by changing y into i ,- as, spy, spies ; carry, earnest, cam'eth or cam'es ; carrier, earned ; happy, happier, happiest. The present participle in ing retains the y, that i may not be doubled ; as, carry, carrying ; buy, buying, &c. But y, preceded by a vowel, is not changed ; as, boy, boys ; cloy, cloyed, &c. ; except in lay, pay, and say. RULE 11. Words ending with y, preceded by a consonant, upon assuming an additional syllable beginning with a conso- nant, commonly change y into i ; as, happy, happily, happiness. But, when y is preceded by a vowel, it is very rarely changed ; as, coy, coyly ; boy, boyish, boyhood ; joy, joyless, joyful. Note. The foregoing ">ules are taken chiefly from Mr. Murray's Grammar. The orthography of a great number of English words is far from being uniform, even among good writers. Application. What is the first rule for spelling ? Write on the black- board all the examples given, and as many others as you can recollect, to show that you understand the rule. Then write all the exceptions by themselves, and point out the difference. What is the second rule ? Write on the black-board all RULES OF ACCENT. 21 the examples given, and as many others as you can recollect, to show that you understand the rule. Then write all the exceptions by themselves, and point out the difference. What is the third rule ? Write on the black-board all the examples given, and as many others as you can call to mind, to show your knowledge of the rule. Then write all the given exceptions, and as many others as you can think of, by themselves, and point out the difference. What is the fourth rule ? Write on the black-board all the examples given, and as many others as you can recollect, and point out the difference. What is the fifth rule ? Write on the black-board all the examples and exceptions, and explain them. What is the sixth rule ? Write on the black-board all the examples and exceptions, and explain them. What is the seventh rule ? Write on the black-board all the examples and exceptions, and explain them. What is the eighth rule ? Write on the black-board all the examples and exceptions, and explain them. What is the ninth rule ? Write on the black-board all the examples and exceptions, and explain them. What is the tenth rule ? Write on the black-board all the examples and exceptions, and explain them. What is the eleventh rule ? Write on the black-board all the examples, and explain them. BULES OP ACCENT. Accent is regulated, in a great measure, by etymology. In words of Saxon origin, the accent is generally on the root or principal part of the word. In words derived from the learned languages, it is generally on the termination, that is, on the penult or antepenult. In some words, used either as nouns or yerbs, we lay the accent on different syllables to distinguish the words apart. Thus we have the radical, the terminational, and the distinctive accent, the radical, as love, lovely, loveliness ; the terminational, as harmony, har- monious ; the distinctive, as convert, to convert. 22 THE BLACK-BOARD. DISSYLLABLES. RULE 1. Dissyllables, formed by affixing a termination, generally have the accent on the first syllable ; as, childish,* Kingdom, detest, acted, toilsome, lover, fairer, foremost, zeal- ous, fulness, meekly, artist. RULE 2. Dissyllables, formed by prefixing a syllable to the radical word, generally have the accent on the last sylla- ble ; as, beseem, bestow, return. RULE 3. In dissyllable words, which may be either nouns or verbs, the nouns generally have the accent on the first syllable, and the verbs on the last ; as, contract, to contract ; export, to export ; rebel, to rebel. Note. This rule has many exceptions. Verbs generally follow the rule, but nouns often vary from it. RULE 4. All dissyllables ending in y, or, ow, le, ish, ic, ter, age, en, et, er, have the accent on the first syllable ; as, cranny, labor, willow, battle, banish, cambric, batter, courage, fasten, quiet, canker.. Note. The exceptions, allow, avow, endow, belo'w, bestow, virtually belong to Rule 2. RULE 5. Dissyllable verbs, terminating in a consonant and e final, as, comprise, escape ; or having a diphthong in the last syllable, as, appease, reveal; or ending in two consonants, as, attend ; have the accent on the last syllable. RULE 6. Dissyllable nouns, having a diphthong in the last syllable, generally have their accent on the last syllable ; as, applause; except some words in ain ; as, certain, curtain, mountain. RULE 7. Dissyllables that have two vowels, which are separated in the pronunciation, have the accent on the first syllable ; as, Uon, riot, quiet, liar, ruin ; except create. Application. By what is accent regulated ? How are words of Saxon origin accented? How are words derived from the Latin * The mark of accent, in the following examples, is, in all cases, placed on the vowel, instead of the consonant, to which it frequently belongs. TRISYLLABLES. 23 and Greek accented ? What is distinctive accent ? Give examples of the radical, tcrminational, and distinctive accent, and write them on the black-board. What is the first rule ? Write all the examples, under the rule, on the black-board or slate ; then point out all their affixes, and put all the marks of accent in their proper places. What is the second rule ? Write all the examples on the black-board ; then point out all their prefixes, and put all the marks of accent in their proper places. What is the third rule ? Write all the examples on the black-board ; then put all the marks of accent in their proper places, and explain the difference ; also, state and ex- plain the note under the rule. What is the fourth rule? Write all the examples/- on the black-board ; then put all the marks of accent in their proper places, and state and explain the note under the rule. What is the fifth rule ? Write all the examples on the black-board ; then put all the marks of accent in their proper places, and explain the difference. What is the sixth rule ? Write all the examples on the black- board ; then put all the marks of accent in their proper places, and explain the difference. What is the sev-enth rule ? Write all the examples on the black-board ; then put all the marks of accent in their proper places, and give the exception. TRISYLLABLES. RULE 1. Trisyllables, formed by adding a termination, or prefixing a syllable, retain the accent of the radical word ; as, loveliness, tenderness, contemner, physical, bespatter, com- menting, commending, assurance, RULE 2. Trisyllables ending in ous, al, ion ; in ce, ent, ant, ate ; in y ; in re, le ; and in ude ; generally have the ac- cent on the first syllable ; as, arduous, capital, mention ; coun- tenance, armament, elegant, propagate ; liberty ; eligible, thea- tre ; plenitude. Note. Some words, derived from other words, retain the radical accent ; as, connivance, acquaintance. And some words, whose middle syllable has a vowel before two conso- nants, as, promulgate, disciple, and others, having an in- separable preposition, as, example, indenture, generally have the accent on the middle syllable. 24 THE BLACK-BOARD. RULE 3. Trisyllables ending in ator have the accent on the middle syllable ; as, spectator, creator, reldtor, &c., except orator, senator, barrator, legislator. RULE 4. Trisyllables which have a diphthong in the mid- dle syllable, as endeavor, or a vowel before two consonants, as domestic, have the accent on the middle syllable. RULE 5. Trisyllables that have their accent on the last syllable are of French origin ; as, acquiesce, repartee, maga- zine : or they are words formed by prefixing one syllable or more to a short syllable ; as, immature, overcharge. Application. What is \h& first rule for accenting words of three syllables ? "Write all the examples, under this rule, on the black-board. First, point out the radical part of all the words, with their terminations and prefixes. Then put all the marks of accent in their proper places, and explain why the radical words are differently accented. What is the second rule ? Write all the examples on the black-board ; then put all the marks of accent in their proper places, and explain the note under the rule. What is the third rule ? Write all the examples and exceptions on the black-board, and put all the marks of accent in their proper places. What is the fourth rule? Write all the examples on the black-board, and put all the marks of ac- cent in their proper places. What is the fifth rule ? Write all the examples on the black-board, and put all the marks of accent in their proper places. POLTSTLLABLES. RULE 1. Polysyllables generally follow the accent of the words from which they are derived ; as, arrogating, con- tinency, incontinently, commendable, communicableness. RULE 2. Polysyllables ending in ator generally have the accent on the penult, or last syllable but one ; as, emendd- tor, gladiator, equivocdtor, prevaricator. RULE 3. Polysyllables ending in le generally have the accent on the first syllable ; as, amiable, despicable : except DERIVATION OF WORDS. 25 when the second syllable has a vowel before two consonants ; as, combustible, condemnable. RULE 4. Polysyllables ending in ion, ous, and ty, have the accent on the antepenult, or last syllable but two ; as, salvation, victorious, activity. Note. This rule applies to words ending in ia, io, and col; as, cyclopaedia, punctilio, despotical. Application. What is the first rule for accenting words of many sylla- bles ? Write all the examples (under the rule) on the black- board, and put all the marks of accent in their proper places. What is the second rule ? Write all the examples on the black-board, and put all the marks of accent in their proper places. What is the third rule ? Write all the examples and exceptions on the black-board, and put all the marks of accent in their proper places. What is the fourth rule ? Write all the examples, including those in the note, on the black-board, and put all the marks of accent in their proper places. Note. The foregoing rules are not infallibly correct. They contain the substance of Mr. Murray's rules, which are per- haps as complete as any that have ever been given to the public. Much, however, must be learned by example and authority. DERIVATION OF WORDS. All words are either primitive or derivative, simple or com- pound. A primitive word is not derived from any other word in the language, but is the first form in which it occurs ; as, hard, soft, cold. A derivative word is derived from another word which is its primitive ; as, hardwm, softness, coldness. A simple word may be either primitive or derivative : but it is particularly opposed to a compound ; as, do, primitive ; did, derivative ; both of which are simple words. A compound word is formed by joining two or more simple words together ; as, sing-song, book-binder. Words are derived from one another in various ways, but principally in the three following : 3 26 THE BLACK-BOARD. 1 . Many words are formed by uniting together other words ; as, pen-knife, off-spring, high-ivay-man, an-other, my-self, who-so-ever, where-so-ever, not-with-stand-ing, straight-way ^ here-of, there-to, where-by, hind-most, hand-some, for-get, in- tend, over-look, up-held, under-stand, with-draw, al-ivays, al-most, al-so, &c. 2. Many words are formed by prefixing a letter, syllable, or foreign idiom at the beginning ; as, atheist, biped, compress, deduct, exact, foresee, geneaology, homogeneous, infix., juris- diction, lithography, misplace, wowentity, obtrude, postscript, repay, swJscribe, transport, undo, &c. Some of these are in- separable prepositions. Many words, in our language, with which prefixes stand connected, are never used apart from them. The number of words formed by prefixes, amounts to many thousands. 3. Many words are formed by affixing new terminations to other words, or by changing the original terminations ; as, goodness, hopeless, joyful, vigorous, answerai/e, compressible, generalize, instinctive, blackisA, healthy, manly, shorten, speak- er, priestess, drunkard, forfeiture, grandeur, foolery, perplex- ity, hillock, lambkin, duckling, \\erbtet, animalewfe, contentment, kingdom, bishopn'c, priest^ooc?, friends/jt>, hermitage, physi- cian, &c. Many words are, also, formed by adding, dropping, or substituting some letter or letters in other words ; as, high, height ; long, length ; grass, graze ; foot, feet ; mouse, mice, &c. Besides, many words are derived from the Saxon, Greek, Latin, French, and other languages ; and the only assistance which the English scholar can obtain on this subject, is from his Dictionary, and his teacher. The teacher may be assisted in the discharge of his duty, by consulting " Oswald's Ety- mological Dictionary," " Town's Analysis of Derivative Words," " McElligott's Analytical Manual," " The Scholar's Companion," and Goldsbury's " Sequel," in which he will find most of the prefixes and affixes explained. Application. How are words divided ? What is a primitive word ? Write the examples on the black-board, and then add other examples, to show that you understand the meaning of a primitive word. What is a derivative word ? Write the ex- ENGLISH OB SAXON PREFIXES. 27 amples on the black-board, and then add other examples, to show that you understand the meaning of a derivative word. What is a simple word ? Write the examples on the black- board, and then add other examples, to show that you under- stand the meaning of a simple word. What is a compound word ? Write the examples on the black-board, and then add other examples, to show that you understand the meaning of a compound word. In how many ways are words derived from one another? What is ihejirst way of forming words? Write on the black-board as many examples as you can recol- lect, and explain their formation and meaning. What is the second way of forming words ? Write on the black-board as many examples as you can recollect, and explain their forma- tion and meaning. What is the third way of forming words ? Write on the black-board as many examples as you can recol- lect, and explain their formation and meaning. Are words ever formed in any other way ? Write the examples on the black-board, and explain the difference. From what sources are words principally derived ? and what assistance can the English scholar obtain in arriving at a knowledge of them ? ENGLISH OB SAXON PREFIXES. 1. A signifies on, in, to, or at ; as, afoot, on foot ; abed, in bed ; afield, to the field ; afar, at a great distance. 2. BE is the same word as by, and signifies near, on, at, or to make ; as, becalm, to make calm ; besiege, at the seige. 3. EN or EM signifies in, into, on, or, to make ; as, enthrone, to place on a throne ; embellish, to make beautiful. 4. FOBE signifies before ; as, foresee, to see before. 5. In or IN signifies to make ; as, Embitter, to make bitter. 6. Mis signifies ill, false, or wrong ; as, misconduct, ill con- duct ; misapply, to apply wrong. 7. OUT signifies beyond ; as, outlive, to live beyond. 8. OVEB signifies above or too high ; as, overflow, to flow above ; overcharge, to charge too high. 9. UN, before a verb, signifies to take off; as, undress, to take off clothes ; wwcrown, to deprive of a crown. 10. UN, before an adjective, signifies not; as, unable, not able ; wwgraceful, not graceful. 28 THE BLACK-BOARD. 11. UNDER signifies beneath; as, underbid., to bid beneath, 12. WITH signifies from or against ; as, withdraw, to draw from ; withstand, to stand against. LATIN PREFIXES. 1. A, AB, and ABS, signify from or away; as, overt, to turn from ; a&ject, to throw away ; abstract, to draw away. 2. AD, and the forms it assumes, A, AC, AF, AG, AL, AN, AP, AR, AS, AT, signify to ; as, adhere, to stick to ; ascribe, to give to ; accede, to yield to ; a/fix, to fix to ; aggravate, to make heavy to ; alleviate, to make light to ; annihilate, to make to nothing ; append, to hang to ; arrogate, to assume to ; assimilate, to make like to ; attract, to draw to. 3. AM signifies round or about ; as, ambition, a going about. 4. ANTE signifies before ; as, antecedent, going before. 5. CIRCUM signifies about or round; as, circumvent, to come round about. 6. Cis signifies on this side ; as, cisalpine, on this side of the Alps. 7. CON (cum), and co, coa, COL, COM, COR, signify together or with ; as, conjoin, to join together ; cooperate, to work together ; connate, born together ; collect, to gather to- gether ; compress, to press together ; corroborate, to make strong together. 8. CONTRA signifies against; as, contradict, to speak against. 9. COUNTER signifies against ; as, counteract, to act against. 10. DE signifies down or from ; as, deject, to cast down. 11. Di, DIS, and DIF, signify asunder or away ; as oYlacer- ate, to tear asunder ; oYsmiss, to send away ; differ, to bear away. 12. E, EF, EX, and EC, signify out or out of; as, eject, to throw out ; e/Hux, to flow out ; exclude, to shut out ; ecstacy, a standing out of (one's mind for joy). 13. EXTRA signifies beyond; as, extraordinary, beyond ordinary. 14. IN, IL, IM, IR, before verbs, signify in or into, on or upon ; as, inject, to throw into ; iVluminate, to make light in / impart, to carry into ; irradiate, to shine upon. LATIN PREFIXES. 29 15. IN, IG, IL, m, IR, before adjectives, signify not ; as, in- finite, not finite ; ignoble, not noble ; z'Zlegal, not legal ; im- mortal, not mortal ; irrational, not rational. 1 6. INTER signifies between or among ; as, interpose, to place between. 17. INTRO signifies within ; as, introduce, to lead within. 18. JUXTA signifies wear to; as, juxtaposition, a position 19. MAX and MALE signify zTZ or bad ; as, wo/administra- tion, bad administration ; malcontent, ill content. 20. OB, OC, OF, and OP, signify in the way, against, out ; as, object, to cast in the way ; occur, to run against or to happen ; offer, to bring in the way ; oppose, to place in the way. 21. PER signifies through or by ; as, pervade, to go through. 22. POST signifies after ; as, postscript, written after. 23. PRE (prae) signifies before ; as, prefix, to fix before. 24. PRETER (praster) signifies beyond or past ; as, prefer- natural, beyond what is natural. 25. PRO signifies for, forward, or forth; as, pronoun, for a noun ; provoke, to call forth. 26. RE signifies back or again ; as, recall, to call back. 27. RETRO signifies backwards ; as, retrograde, going backwards. 28. SE signifies opart or ast'a'e ; as, seduce, to draw aside. 29. SUB, sue, SUF, SUP, SUR, and sus, signify under or after ; as, sw&scribe, to write under ; succeed, to go under or after ; suffer, to bear under ; suppose, to place under ; sur- render, to go under ; sustain, to hold under. 30. SUBTER signifies under or beneath ; as swWerfuge, a flying under or beneath (a shift). 31. SUPER signifies, above, over, or upon ; as, swperscribe, to write upon ; superadd, to add over or above. 32. SUR (Fr. cont. of super) signifies above, over, upon ; as, swrmount, to rise abov&j survive, to live after or above. 33. TRANS signifies across, over, or beyond ; as transport, to carry over or across ; tfrawsgress, to go beyond. 34. ULTRA signifies beyond; as, w&ra-religious, beyond what is religious. 3* THE BLACK-BOARD. GREEK PREFIXES. 1. A or AN signifies want of or without ; as, apathy, want of feeling ; awarchy, without government. 2. AMPHI (ambi, L.) signifies both or double ; as, amphi- bious, living both on land and in water. 3. ANA signifies back, again, or separate ; as, analyze, to resolve again or to trace back ; anatomy, to cut apart or to separate. 4. ANTI or ANT signifies against or opposed to ; as, anti- christ, against Christ ; antarctic, opposite to the arctic. 5. APO or APH signifies from or away, as, apogee, from the earth ; aphelion, away from the sun. 6. ARCH signifies chief; as, archbishop, chief bishop. 7. CATA or CAT signifies down ; as, catarrh, a flowing down ; catechize, to question down closely. 8. DIA or DI signifies through or asunder ; as, rfYometer, through the measure ; rtYaeresis, a taking asunder. 9. EN or EM signifies in or on ; as, emphasis, stress on a word. 10. EPI signifies upon ; as, epitaph, upon a tomb. 11. GE signifies the earth; as, geology, the science of the earth. 12. HEMI, DEMI, and SEMI, signify half ; as, hemisphere, half a sphere ; demigod., half a god ; semcircle, half a circle. 13. HYPER signifies over or above ; as, A^percritical, over critical. 14. HYPO signifies under ; as, hypothesis, a placing under. 15. HYDRO signifies water; as, hydrometer, a water measure. 16. META signifies beyond or change; as, metaphor, carry- ing beyond the ordinary meaning, or changing the expression by a figure. 17. PARA or PAR signifies through, against, or similar; as, paragraph, through a writing ; parody, similar to an ode. 18. PERI signifies round, about ; as, jomphrasis, talking round a subject, or circumlocution. 19. SYN, SYL, SYM, and SY, signify with or together ; as, syntax., a placing together ; salable, taking together with the lips ; sympathy, feeling with or together ; system, standing together, as a whole. AFFIXES OR SUFFIXES. 31 AFFIXES OR SUFFIXES. I. Affixes used in forming nouns to represent the doer or performer. 1. AN or IAN, ANT, AR, ARD, ART, ATE, signify one who, or the person that ; as, Christian, one who follows Christ ; pagan, one who worships idols ; assistant, one who assists ; beggar, one who begs ; drunkara', one who gets drunk ; mission- ary, one who is sent on a mission ; advocate, one who pleads a cause. 2. EE, EER, ER. ENT, signify one who, or the person that ; as, absentee, one who is absent ; mountaineer, one who dwells on a mountain ; visiter, one who visits ; patient, one who suffers. 3. IST, ITE, IVE, signify one who, or the person that ; as, theorist, one who theorizes ; favorate, one who is favored ; captive, one who is taken in war. 4. OR signifies one who, or the person that ; as, intercessor, one who intercedes ; governor, one who governs. 5. STER signifies one who ; as, songster, one who sings. II. Affixes used in forming nouns to represent being, state of being, or the place where. 1. ACT, AGE, ANCE, ANCT, ART, signify being or state of being ; as, accuracy, being accurate ; peerage, the state of being a peer ; vigilance, state of being vigilant ; occupancy, state of being occupied ; library, where books are kept. 2. ENCE, ENCT, ESCENCE, signify being, state of being, or becoming ; as. abhorrence, state of being abhorrent ; consist- ency, state of being consistent ; convalescence, state of becoming better. 3. ION signifies act of or state of being, and is equivalent to the participial termination ing, implying action or influence exerted ; as, contribution, the act of contributing ; subordi- nation, the state of being subordinate. 4. MENT and MONT signify being, state of being, act of, or the thing that ; as, abasement, being abased ; concealment, act of concealing ; refreshment, the thing that refreshes ; acri- mony, state of being sharp. 5. ORT signifies the place where or thing that ; as, depos- itory, the place where things are deposited ; memory, the thing or power that calls to mind. 32 THE BLACK-BOA1UJ. 6. TUDE or UDE, and TY, signify being or state of being , as, multitude, being many ; solicitude, state of being anxious ; brevity, being short or concise. 7. Y signifies being, state of being, or ' ing ; ' as, harmony, being harmonious ; jealousy, state of being jealous. III. Affixes used in forming nouns to represent some peculiar doctrine, condition, habit, quality, state, office, or iking. 1. CLE signifies little or small; as, canticfo, a little song. 2. DOJI signifies dominion ; as, kingdom, the dominion of a king ; freedom, the dominion of the free. 3. HOOD signifies state of; as, boyhood, the state of a. boy. 4. ICE, ics, ISM, signify the thing done, thing that, the doc- trine, art, or science of, or the state of being ; as, service, the thing served ; ethics, the doctrine of morality ; parallelism, the state of being parallel. 5. LING or LIN signifies little or young ; as, gosling, a young goose. 6. NESS signifies being or state of being, or quality of being ; as, barrenness, a being barren ; blessedness, state of being blessed; softness, the quality of being soft. 7. RY signifies a being, the art of, the place where, or prop- erty of; as, bravery, a being brave ; casuistry, the art or science of a casuist ; nursery, the place where young children or trees ar reared. 8. SHIP signifies office of, or state of; as, rectorship, office of a rector ; copartners^/), state of having equal shares. 9. URE signifies the thing, state, power, or art of; as, scrip- \ure, the thing written ; legislature, the power that makes laws ; agriculture, the art of cultivating fields. IV. Affixes used in forming adjectives to represent the quali- ties or characteristics of persons or things. 1. Ac, AL, or ICAL, signify of, belonging to, or relating to ; as, demoniac, belonging to the devil ; filial, belonging to a son ; nauti'eaZ, relating to ships or sailors. 2. ACEOUS signifies of, consisting of, or resembling ; as, corinaceows, consisting of, or resembling leather. 3. AN, AR, ARY, signify belonging, relating, or pertaining to ; as, humara, belonging to a man ; regular, relating to rule ; literary, relating to letters. AFFIXES OB SUFFIXES. 33 4. ANT and EXT signify being, or 'ing;' as, abundawf, aboundz'w^r ; coherent, sticking together. 5. ATE signifies having or being ; as, animate, having life ; adequate, being equal to. 6. BLE signifies may or can be, worthy of, fit to be ; as, portaWe, that may or can be carried ; laudaite, worthy of praise ; eligiWe, Jit to be chosen. 7. EN signifies made of; as, wooden, made of wood. 8. ESCENT signifies growing or becoming ; as, putrescent, growing rotten. 9. Fur, signifies full of; as, hopeful, full of hope. 10. Ic, ID, INE, signify of, belonging, or relating to ; as, academic, belonging to an academy ; tirmW, of or belonging to fear ; marine, of or belonging to the sea. 11. ILE and IVE signify may or can be, having power, tend- ing ; as, flex?7e, that may or can be bent ; persuasive, having power to persuade. 12. ISH signifies like or resembling, little of or somewhat ; as, childi'sA, We or resembling a child ; greemsA, Ze'ftZe q/" or somewhat green. 18. LESS signifies without or wanting ; as, artless, without art ; helpless, wanting help. 14. LIKE or LY signifies We or resembling ; as, man We, ft&e a man ; earthly, resembling the earth. 15. ORY signifies of, belonging, or relating to ; as, prefa- tory, belonging to a preface ; piscatory, relating to fish. 16. OSE signifies full of; as, verbose, full of words. 17. Ous signifies full of, having, belonging or given to ; as, dangerous, full of danger ; bilioMs, consisting of bile ; conten- tions, given to contention. 18. SOME signifies somewhat or full of; as, gladsome, some- what glad ; frolicsome, full of frolics. 19. WARD signifies in the direction of; as, homewarol, in the direction of home. 20. T signifies full of, covered with, or made of; as, knotty, full of knots ; flowery, covered with flowers ; horny, made of horns. V. Affixes used in forming verbs to represent some peculiar action or influence. 1. ATE signifies to make, to give, to put, or to take ; as, renovate, to make new again ; animate, to give life ; invigorate, to put vigor into ; exonerate, to take the burden from. 34 THE BLACK-BOARD. 2. EN signifies to make ; as, lengthen, to make long ; glad- den, to make glad. 3. FY signifies to make ; as, magni/y, to make great ; puri/y, to make pure. 4. Isn signifies to make ; as, fimsA, fo make an end ; pub- lish, to make public. 5. IZE or ISE signifies to make or to give ; as, civib'ze, to make civil ; authorize, to give authority. Note. Let the preceding Prefixes and Affixes be carefully studied and well understood, and the scholar will meet with no difficulty in understanding the etymology, or the definition, of words. Some of the Prefixes and Affixes, in certain words, retain very little of their original meaning. The following examples will serve to give some idea of the plan intended to be pursued in studying ETYMOLOGY. EXAMPLE 1. SCRIBE, (from scribo, scriptum, L.) to write; a writer; a clerk or secretary ; a doctor of the Jewish law. Scribe Ad scribe (or) Un circum scrib ei Scrib ed A scribe Scrib ing A scrib ed Con script Scrib ble A scrib ing Con script ion Scrib bl ed A scrib able Scrib bl ing A script ion De scribe Scrib bl er A script it ious De scrib ed Scrib ble ment De scrib ing Scrib at ious Anti script De scrib er Scrib bet Anti script ur al De scrib able Scrip Anti script ur ism De script ion Script Anti script ur ist De script ive Script ory De script ive ly Script ure Circum scribe De script ive ness Script ur ist Circum scrib ed In de scrib able Script ur al Circum scrib ing In de script ive Script ur al ist Circum scrib er . Un de scrib ed Script ur al ness Circum script ive Script ur ian Circum script ive ly Ex scribe Scrip page Circum script ible Ex scrib ed Scriv en er In circum script ible Ex scrib ing ETYMOLOGY. 35 Ex script In scribe In scrib ed In scrib ing In scrib er In scrib able In script ive In script ion Un in scrib ed Inter scribe Inter scrib ed Inter scrib ing Manu script Mis a scribe Mis a scrib ed Mis a scrib ing Non de script Post script Post script ed Pre scribe Pre scrib ed Pre scrib ing San script Pre scrib er Pre script Sub scribe Pre script ion Sub scrib ed Pre script uni Sub scrib ing Pre script ive Sub scrib er Pre script ible Sub script Pre script ibil ity Sub script ion Im pre script ible Im pre script ibil ity Super scribe Im pre script ibly Super scrib ed Un pre scrib ed Super scrib ing Super script Pro scribe Super script ion Pro scrib ed Pro scrib ing Tran scribe Pro scrib er Tran scrib ed Pro script Tran scrib ing Pro script ive Tran scrib er Pro script ion Tran scrib blcr Tran script Re scribe Tran script ion Re scrib ed Tran script ive Re scrib ing Tran script ive ly Re script Re script ion Un script ur al Re script ive ly Un script ur al ly EXAMPLE 2. PRESS, (from premo, prcssum, L.) to squeeze or force with weight ; an instrument or machine by which any ' thing is squeezed, crushed, or forced into a more compact form; a machine for printing ; a crowd ; urgency. Press Press ed Press ing Press ing ly Press er Press ion Press ure Press ly Press ness Press it ant Press bed Press gang Press man Press money Press work Com press Com press ed Com press ing Com press ion Com press ure THE BLACK-BOARD. Com press ive Ex press ive ly Op press oi Com press ive ly Ex press ive ness Op press ion Com press ible In ex press ive Op press ive Com press ible ness In ex press ible Op press ive ly Com press ibil ity In ex press ibil ity Op press ive ness Incompressible In ex press ibly Un op press ed In com press ible ness Un ex press ed Un op press ive In com press ibil ity Un ex press ible Un com press ed Un ex press ive Over press Un com press ible Un ex press ive ly Over press ed Over press ing Counter press ure Im press Im press ed Re press De press Im press ing Re press ed De press ed Im press ure Re press ing De press ing Im press ment Re press ion De press or Im press ive Re press er De press ion Im press ive ly Re press ive De press ive Im press ive ness Re press ive ly De press ible Im press ible Ir re press ible Un de press ed Im press ibil ity Re im press Sup press Ex press Re im press ed Sup press ed Ex press ed Re im press ing Sup press ing Ex press ing Re im press ion Sup press or Ex press er Un im press ed Sup press ion Ex press ly Un im press ible Sup press ive Ex press ness Un ira press ive In sup press ive Ex press ion Un im press ive ness In sup press ion Ex press ion less In sup press ible Ex press ure Op press Un sup press ed Ex press ible Op press ed Ex press ive Op press ing Un press ed EXAMPLE 3. TRACT, (from traho, tractum, L.) to trace or draw out ; quantity of land ; a treatise ; a small book or pamphlet. Tract Tract ed Tract ing Tract or Tract ive Tract ion Tract ory Tract rix Tract ar ian Tract ate Tract ator Tract ation ETYMOLOGY. 37 Tract ile Con tract ion Ex tract ion Tract il ity Tract able Tract abil ity Tract ably Tract able ness Con tract ed ly Con tract ed ness Con tract ible Con tract ibil ity Con tract ible ness Ex tract or Ex tract ive Ex tract ible In tract ile Con tract ile In tract able Abs 'tract Abs tract ed Con tract il ity In con tract ed In tract ably In tract able ness Abs tract ing Abs tract er Pre con tract Pre con tract ed In tract abil ity Abs tract ion Abs tract ed ly Abs tract ed ness Abs tract ive Pre con tract ing De tract De tract ed Pro tract Pro tract ed Pro tract ing Pro tract er Abs tract ive ly Abs tract ly Abs tract ness De tract ing De tract ing ly De tract or Pro tract ive Pro tract ion Pro tract or At tract De tract ion De tract ious Un pro tract ed At tract ed De tract ive Re tract At tract ing At tract ing ly At tract ion At tract ic De tract er De tract ress De tract ory Re tract ed Re tract ing Re tract ion Re tract ible At tract ic al Dis tract Re tract ile At tract ile Dis tract ed Re tract ive At tract ive At tract ive ly At tract ive ness Dis tract ing Dis tract er Dis tract ion Re tract ate Re tract ation Re trax it At tract or Dis tract ive Un re tract ed At tract able Dis tract ible At tract abil ity Dis tract ile Sub tract At trah ent Un at tract ed Un at tract ive Dis tract ed ly Dis tract ed ness Un dis tract ed Sub tract ed Sub tract ing Sub tract ion Con tract tin dis tract ed ly Un dis tract ed ness Sub tract er Sub tract ive Con tract ed Sub trah end Con tract ing Con tract ive Ex tract Ex tract ed Un tract able Con tract or Ex tract ing 4 Un tract able ness 38 THE BLACK-BOARD. EXAMPLE 4. EQUAL, (from equus or ceqmis, L.) even, just, right ; one of the same rank, age, or merit ; to make equal. Equal Equal ed Equal ing Equal ly Equal ness Equal ity Equal ize Equal iz ed Equal iz ing Equal iz ation Equa ble Equa ble ness Equa bil ity Equa bly Equ angular Equ anim ity Equ anim ous Equ ant Equat ion Equat or Equat or ial Equat or ial ly Equi angl ed Equi angular Equi crur al Equi crure Equi differ ent Equi distant Equi distance Equi distant ly Equi form ity Equi later al Equi librate Equi librat ed Equi librat ing Equi librat ion Equi libri um Equi libri oug Equi libri ous ly Equi libr ist Equi libr ity Equi multi pie Equi necessar y Equi nox Equi noct ial Equi noct ial ly Equi numer ant Equi penden cy Equi poise Equi pollence Equi pollen cy Equi pollent Equi pollent ly Equi ponderate Equi ponderat ed Equi ponderat ing Equi ponder ance Equi ponder ancy Equi ponder ous Equi pondi ous Equi radic al Equi sonance Equit y Equit able Equit ably Equit able ness Equit ant Equit ancy Equit ation Equi valence Equi valency Equi valent Equi valent ly Equi valve Equi vocal Equi vocal Jy Equi vocal ness Equi vocate Equi vocat ed Equi vocat ing Equi vocat ion Equi vocat or Ad equate Ad equat ing Ad equate ly Ad equate ness Ad equat ion Ad equa cy In ad equate In ad equate ly In ad equate ness In ad equat ion In ad equa cy In equal In equal ity In equa ble In equit able In equi later al In equi librio In equi valve In iquit y In iquit ous In iqui ous Un equal Un equal ly Tin equal able Tin equa ble Un equal ed ETYMOLOGY. Un equal ness Un equit able Un equit ably EXAMPLE 5. 39 Un equi vocal Un equi vocal ly Un equi vocal ness TYPE, (from typus, L., or rvnof, Gr., or type, Fr.) a figure, an emblem, a symbol, or a sign ; a printer's letter. Type Typo lite Phono typ ic Typic Typo logy Phono typ ic al Typ ic al Phono typy Typ ic al ly Anti type Typ ic al ness Anti typ ic al Pre typi fy Typi fy Anti typ ous Pre typi fi ed Typi fi ed Pre typi fy ing Typi fy ing Arche type* Typi fi er Arche typ al Proto type Typi fie ation Arche typ ic al Type found ing Stereo type Type metal Chrono type Stereo typ ed Typo cosmy Stereo typ ing Typo graphy EC type Stereo typ er Typo graph er EC typ al Stereo typ ic Typo graph ic Stereo typo graphy Typo graph ic al Phono type Stereo typo graph er EXAMPLE 6. ORTHOGRAPHY, (from the Gr. op&oe, correct, and write,) the art of spelling words, or word-making. , to Ortho graphy Ortho dox ly Ortho graph er Ortho dox ness Ortho graph ic Ortho dox y Ortho graph ic al Un ortho dox Ortho graph ic al ly Ortho graph ist Ortho dromy Ortho drom ics Ortho dox Ortho drom ic Ortho dox al Ortho dox al ly Ortho epy *See Glossary, Ortho ep ist Ortho epic al Ortho gon Ortho gon al Ortho logy Ortho metry THE BLACK-BOARD. Ortho nyx Biblio graph ic al ly Cosmo graph er Cosmo graph ic al Ortho pedy Bio graphy Cosmo graph ic al ly Ortho ped ic Bio graph er Ortho ped ic al Bio graph ic Crypto graphy Bio graph ic al Crypto graph al Ortho pncea Bio graph ic al ly Auto bio graphy Crystallo graphy Ortho ptera Crystallo graph er Ortho pter an Brachy graphy Crystallo graph ic Ortho pter ous Brachy graph er Crystallo graph ic al Ortho style Caco graphy Dia graph Dia graph ics Graph ic Calli graphy Dia graph ic al Graph ic al Calli graph er Graph ic al ly Calli graph ic Epi graph Graph ite Calli graph ic al Epi graph ics Graph ometer Calli graph ist Ethno graphy Aero graphy Chalco graphy Ethno graph er Chalco graph er Ethno graph ic Adeno graphy Chalco graph ist Ethno graph ic al Anemo graphy Chiro graphy Geo graphy Chiro graph Geo graph er Angio graphy Chiro graph er Geo graph ic Chiro graph ic Geo graph ic al Apo graph Chiro graph ic al Geo graph ic al ly Chiro graph ist Astro graphy Glosso graphy Christiano graphy Glosso graph er Auto graphy Glosso graph ic al Auto graph Chromato graphy Auto graph al Glypho graphy Auto graph ic Chrono graphy Glypho graph er Auto graph ic al Chrono graph er Glypho graph Biblio graphy Cometo graphy Glypto graphy Biblio graph er Cometo graph er Glypto graph ic Biblio graph ic Biblio graph ic al Coiiuu graphy Hagio graphy ETYMOLOGY. 41 Hagio graph er Mimo graphy Sceno graph ic al Hagio graph Mimo graph er Hagio graph al Seleno graphy Mono graphy Seleno graph er Hiero graphy Mono graph Seleno graph ic Hiero graph er Mono graph er Seleno graph ic al Hiero graph ic Mono graph ic Seleno graph ist Hiero graph ic al Mono graph ic al Mono graph ist Stegano graphy Historic graphy Stegano graph ist Historio graph er Myo graphy Historic graph ic al Myo graphic Steno graphy Myo graph ic al Steno graph er Horo graphy Myo graph ist Steno graph ic Horo logio graphy Steno graph ic al Horo logio graph er Ourano graphy Steno graph ist Horo logio graph ic Ourano graph ist Tele graph Hydro graphy Para graph Tele graph ic Hydro graph er Para graph ic Tele graph ic al Hydro graph ic Para graph ic al Topo graphy Ichno graphy Photo graph Topo graph er Ichno graph ic al Photo graph ic Topo graph ic Photo graph y Topo graph ic al Icono graphy Topo graph ic al ly Phyto graphy Topo graph ist Lexico graphy Lexico graph er Poly graphy Typo graphy Lexico graph ic Poly graph Typo graph er Lexico graph ic al Poly graph ic Typo graph ic Poly graph ic al Typo graph ic al Litho graph Typo graph ic al ly Litho graph ing Psalmo graphy Litho graph er Psalmo graph er Xylo graphy Litho graph ic Psalmo graph ist Xylo graph er Litho graph ic al Xylo graph ic Litho graphy Pseudo graphy Pseudo graph Zoo graphy Metallo graphy Zoo graph er Sceno graphy Zoo graph ic al Micro graphy Sceno graph ic Zoo graph ist 4* 42 THE BLACK-BOARD. EXAMPLE 7. Logic, (from ^oyoj-, Gr.J reason, a word, a speech, a dis- course, science, or knowledge ; or (from logica, L.) the art of reasoning, or the right use of reason ; the laws of thought, or of argument. "Logic Ana logy Areto logy Logic al Ana loga? Logic al ly Ana logic al Astheno logy Logic ian Ana logic al ly Log arithm Ana logic al ness Astro logy Log arithm ic Ana log ism Astro logic Log arithm ic al Ana log ize Astro logic al Log arithm etic Ana log iz ed Astro logic al ly Log arithm etic al Ana log iz ing Astro log er Log arithm etic al ly Ana logue Astro logi an Logi stic Ana log ous Astro log ize Logi stic al Ana log ous ly Astro log iz ed Logo graphy Ana logon Astro log iz ing Logo griph Un ana logic al Astro theo logy Logo machy Logo mach ist Angio logy Batto logy Logo meter Batto log ist Logo metr ic Antho logy Batto log ize Logo metr ic al Antho logic al Batto log iz ed Logo thete Batto log iz ing Logo type Anti logy Anti log arithm Botano logy Aero logy Botano log ist Aero log ist Apo logy Aero logic al Apo log etic Cata logue Apo log etic al Cata logu ed Ambi logy Apo log etic al ly Cata logu ing Apo log etics Cata log ize Amphi logy Apo log ist Cata log iz ed Amphi bio logy Apo log ize Cata log iz ing Amphi bio logic al Apo log iz ed Apo log iz ing Chiro logy Amphi bo logy Apo log iz er Chiro log ist Amphi bo logic al Apo logue Amphi bo logic al ly Apo logu er Chronology ETYMOLOGY. 43 Chrono log er Doxo log ize Etymo log ist Chrono logic Doxo log iz ed Etymo log ize Chrono logic al Doxo log iz ing Etymo log iz ed Chrono log ist Etymo log iz ing Chrono logic al ly EC logue Eucho logy Concho logy Elogy Concho log ist E log ist Eu logy Concho logic al E logi um Eu logi um E loge Eu logic Cranio logy Eu logic al Cranio log ist Entero logy Eu logic al ly Cranio logic al Eu log ist Entomo logy Eu log ist ic Crypto logy Entomo logic al Eu log ist ic al Entomo Jog ist Eu log ist ic al ly Dactylo logy Eu log ize Epi logue Eu log iz ed Deca logue Epi log ize Eu log iz ing Deca log ist Epi log iz ed Epi log iz ing Genea logy Demono logy Epi log ism Genea log ist Demono log ist Epi log ist ic Genea logic al Epi logic al Genea logic al ly Dendro logy Dendro log ist Ethno logy Genethlia logy Ethno log ist i Dia log ize Ethno logic Geo logy Dia log iz ed Ethno logic al Geo log ist Dia log iz ing Geo log er Dia log ism Etho logy Geo logi an Dia log ist Etho log ist Geo logic al Dia log ist ic Etho logic al Geo logic al ly Dia log ist ic al Geo log ize Dia log ist ic al ly Etio logy Geo log iz ed Dia logue Geo log iz ing Dia logu ed Etymo logy Dia logu ing Etymo logic Gnomo logy Dia logue-writer Etymo logic al Gnomo logic Etymo logic al ly Gnomo logic al Doxo logy Etymo logic on Doxo logic al Etymo log er Helmintho logy THE BLACK-BOARD. Hiero logy Hiero log 1st Historic logy Homo logy Homo log ous Meteoro logic al Minera logy Minera log ist Minera logic Minera logic al Minera logic al ly Horo logy Mono logue Horo loge Mono log ist Horo logic al Horo logio graphy Myo logy Horo logio graph er Myo logic al Horo logio graph ic Myco logy Neo log ist ic Neo log ist ic al Neo log ize Neo log iz ed Neo log iz ing Neo log iz ation Neuro logy Neuro log ist Neuro logic al Noso logy Noso log ist Noso logic al Hydro logy Hydro log ist Hymno logy Ichthyo logy Ichthyo log ist Ichthyo logic al II logic al II logic al ly II logic al ness Macro logy Manto logy Martyro logy Martyro log ist Martyro logic al Martyro loge Meno logy Meteoro logy Meteoro log ist Meteoro logic Myco logic Myco logic al Onto logy Onto log ist Onto logic Onto logic al Onto logic al ly Mytho logy Mytho log ist Mytho log er Mytho logic Mytho logic al Mytho logic al ly Mytho log ize Mytho log iz ed Mytho log iz ing Mytho log (g)raph er Osteo logy Ornitho logy Ornitho log ist Ornitho logic Ornitho logic al Ornithichno logy Mytho logue Necro logy Necro log ist Necro logic Necro logic al Neo logy Neo logi an Neo logi an ism Neo logic Neo logic al Neo log ism Neo log ist Osteo log ist Osteo log er Osteo logic Osteo logic al Osteo logic al ly Pantheo logy Pantheo log ist Panto logy Panto log ist Panto logic al Paradoxo logy ETYMOLOGY. Para logy Physio logy Syl log iz er Para log ism Physio log ist Syl log iz ation Para log ize Physio log er Para log iz ed Physio logic Tauto logy Para log iz ing Physio logic al Tauto log ist Physio logic al ly Tauto log ous Patho logy Tauto logic Patho log ist Phyto logy Tauto logic al Patho logic Phyto log ist Tauto logic al ly Patho logic al Phyto logic al Tauto log ize Tauto log iz ed Petro logy Pneumato logy Tauto log iz ing Pneumato log ist Pharmaco logy Pneumato logic al Techno logy Pharmaco log ist Techno logic al Poly logy Philo logy Theo logy Philo log ist Pro logue Theo log ist Philo log er Pro log ize Theo log er Philo logic Pro log iz ed Theo logi an Philo logic al Pro log iz ing TheoNtogie Philo logic al ly Pro log iz er Theo logic al Philo log ize Pro syl log ism Theo logic al ly Philo log iz ed Theo log ics Philo log iz ing Pseudo logy Theo logue Pseudo log ist Theo log aster Photo logy Theo log ize Photo Iogi7 al Psycho logy Theo log iz ed Psycho log ist Theo log iz ing Phraseo logy Psycho logic Phraseo log ist Psycho logic al A theo logy Phraseo logic Psycho logic al ly A theo logi an Phraseo logic al Somato logy Typo logy Phreno logy Phreno log ist Syl log ism Zoo logy Phreno log er Syl log ist ic Zoo log ist Phreno logic Syl log ist ic al Zoo log er Phreno logic al Syl log ist ic al ly Zoo logic al Phreno logic al ly Syl log ize Zoo logic al ly Syl log iz ed Physico theo logy Syl log iz ing 46 THE BLACK-BOARD. EXERCISES FOR THE BLACK-BOARD. The following WORDS are designed as exercises in pronun- ciation, articulation, accentuation, spelling, defining, and derivation. One method of using them. Let a certain number of the words be assigned beforehand, as a lesson, for the scholars to study out in their dictionaries ; in which, if they understand the use, they will find all the necessary information. At the time appointed for the exer- cise, let the teacher put out the words in whatever order he pleases. Let him pronounce each word correctly, with a dis- tinct articulation, and a proper accent. In like manner, let all the scholars pronounce, at once, the word after him, and then write it on the black-board, or on their slates, and put the mark of accent in its proper place. After all the words in the lesson have been put out, and written down, as above directed, let each scholar, in turn, pronounce, articulate, and accentuate the words again ; and, at the same time, spell his particular word, as he has written it down, and give its definition. In spelling, each syllable should be pronounced by itself; and in defining, the definitions should be pertinent and complete. Another method of using them. As words are either primitive or derivative, simple or com- pound, each word should be examined with regard to each of these particulars. Let a certain number of the words, as be- fore directed, be assigned for a lesson ; and let each scholar be required to consult his dictionary for information, as to the etymology of the words. At the time appointed for the exer- cise, let the teacher put out the words in whatever order he pleases ; and let each scholar write them down on the black- board. Then let each word be examined with regard to its etymon or root, and also with regard to its formation. If it be a primitive word, what words are derived from it ? and how are they formed? Let the whole family of words, or as many as can be recollected, with their prefixes and affixes, be pointed out, and written on the black-board. If it be a derivative word, what is its etymon or rvor, fruiu which it is TABLE OF WORDS. 47 derived? and how is it formed'? Let the whole family of words derived from the same root, with their prefixes and affixes, be pointed out, and written on the black-board. If it be a simple word, pursue the same course as with a primi- tive word. If it be a compound word, let its component parts be pointed out, &c. ABBREVIATIONS. Arabic. Ar. or Arab. D. Dutch. Dan. Danish. Fr. French. Gr. Greek. Heb. Hebrew. Icel. Icelandic. It. Italian. L. Latin. Sax. Saxon. Sp. Spanish. Teu. Teutonic. W. Welsh. Note. A large proportion of the following words are de- rived from the Latin, Greek, and French languages. It is not always easy to determine whether a word is derived from the Latin, Greek, or French. The etymon or root is so nearly the same, that it may as well be derived from the one, as from either of the others. On this point, etymologists themselves frequently differ. Abdicate) L. -4Muce, L. Abjure, L. Abnegate, L. Abrogate, L. Abscind, L. Abs tract, L. Academy, L. Accidence, L. Ac claim, L. Accoutre, Fr. Accuhation, L. Acerbity, L. Acid ity, L. Acoustic*, Gr. Acrostic, Gr. TABLE OF WORDS. Acumen, L. Adamant, L. Adduce, L. Adhere, L. Adjoin, Fr. Ad judge, Fr. Adjure, L. Ad minister, L. Ad monish, L. Ad move, L. Advocate, L. Aff glomerate, L. Aggrandize, Fr. Aggregate, L. Agrarian, L. Affri culture, L. A la mode, Fr. ^tfchymy, Ar. Alcohol, Ar. Alcoran, Ar. -4fcove, Sp. Algebra, Ar. Allegory, Gr. -4Higate, L. Alliteration, L. Alpha bet, Gr. Amalgam ate, Fr. A-manu-ensis, L. Amatory, L. Ambi-dextr-ous, L. Ambi-gu-ity, L. 48 Ambulau'cw, L. Amenity, ~L. Amnesty, Gr. Amorous, L. Amphi-bi-ous, L. Amphi theatre, Gr. Amputate, L. Analogy, Gr. Analysis, Gr. Anarchy, Gr. -4atomy, Gr. Ancestry, L. Anglicism. Anhelose, L. Annihilate, L. Anodyne, Gr. Anomaly, Gr. Anonymous, Gr. Ante date, L. Ante penult, L. Anthology, Gr. ^4nta'dote, Gr. Antipathy, Gr. .^nta'phrasis, Gr. Antipodes, Gr. Anti thesis, Gr. Anti type, Gr. Aphorism, Gr. .^poerypha, Gr. Apostrophe, Gr. Appreciate, L. Ap proximate, L. Aquatic, L. Aqueows, L. Arable, L. Archaeology, Gr. Arche type, L. -4rcAi'tect, L. Archives, L. Arid ity, L. -4n'sfocracy, Gr. Arithmeta'c, Gr. THE BLACK-BOARD. Armi potent, L. _4rmi'stice, L. Arm ory, L. L. , . Arsenal, It. Ascetic, Gr. Asperse, L. Assiduity, L. Assimilate, L. .4sZrography, Gr. .4srology, Gr. Astronomy, Gr. A theism, Gr. Athletic, Gr. At tinge, L. Audiote, L. -4wm;ular, L. Autograph, Gr. ^itomaton, Gr. Avoir-du-pois, Fr. Axiom, Gr. Bacchanal, L. 'Bailiff', Fr. "Bale fitl, Fr. Ballad, It. Balustrade, Fr. Bank rupt, Fr. Barbamm, L. Baro meter, Gr. Barricade, Fr. Barrister. Basih's&, Gr. "Beatific, L. Belles lettres, Fr. Belli gerent, L. Bene diction, L. Bene faction, L. Be scatter. Be seem, Icel. Be speak. Be stow ment, Sax. Bi angular, L. Bibaciows, L. , Gr. l, Gr. jBicornous, L. Bi corporal, L. bigamy, L. Bin ocular, L. .Bi'ography, Gr. ^'ped, L. Bi quadrate, L. J3isect, L. Bis sextile, L. Blaspheme, Gr. Bombast, Teut. Boreas, L. Botany, Gr. BrachiaJ, L. Brevity, L. Bribery, Fr. Bronchia/, L. Brumal, L. Brunette, Fr. Brutal ize, L. Bucolic, L. Buffoon ery, Fr. Bulb ous, L. Bull finch. Bulwark, D. Buoy ant, Fr. Bureau, Fr. Burgeois, Fr. Burglar y. Burlesque, Fr. Buskin, D. Butler, Fr. Buxom. Cadaverous, L. Calcareows, L. Calcine, Fr. Cole faction, L. TABLE OF WORDS. Calend ar, L. Caliber, Fr. Caloric, L. Calumniate, L. Canine, L. Cannibal. Cannon ade, Fr. Canon ize, Fr. Canopy, Gr. Capitulate, L. Caricature, It. Carni-vor-ous, L. Castigate, L. Catacombs, Gr. Catechize, Gr. Category, Gr. Cathartic, Gr. Catholic on, Gr. Caustic, Gr. Celibacy, L. Cemetery, Gr. Cenotaph, Gr. Centenary, L. Centennial, L. Centrifugal, L. Centripetal,' L. Centurion, L. Chandelier, Fr. Chaotic, Gr. Chicanery, Fr. Chimera, L. C/rography, Gr. CAirurgeon, Gr. Chivalry, Fr. Choler ic, L. Cftronography, Gr Chromatic, Gr. Chronic, Gr. Chronology, Gr. Churl ish. Chymist ry, Gr. Circle, L. Circum ambulate, L. Contingent, L. Circum-fer-ence, L. Contradict, L. Circum scribe, L. Contravene, L. Circwmvolve, L. Contusion, L. Clandestine, L. Cbnvocate, L. Clarion, Fr. Convulse, L. Clerical, Fr. Co operate, L. Climax, Gr. Co ordinate, L. Cloister, Fr. Copulative, L. Coalesce, L. Corinth ian. CodiciY, L. Corona?, L. Co equal, L. Corpulent, L. Co eternal, L. Cor relative, L. Coeval, L. Corroborate, L. Co exist, L. Cosmetic, Gr. Cognition, L. Cosmography, Gr. Cognizance, Fr. Cosmopolitan, Gr. Co habit, L. Counter act, L. Col lapse, L. Counter march, Fr. CoHate, L. Counter mine, Fr. Col league, L. Cranium, L. Col locate, L. Crayon, Fr. CoZloquia?, L. CreduliVy, L. Colorize, L. Crystal, Gr. Com mingle. Culinary, L. Commute, L. Culminate, L. Compend, L. Culpaote, L. Complicate, L. Cumber some. Component, L. Cup board. Composite, L. Cursory, L. Com press, L. Cutaneows, L. Con catenate, L. Cyc/opaedia, Gr. Concoct, L. Cylinder, Gr. Concrete, L. Concussion, L. Dactyl ic, L. Confabulate, L. Debonair, Fr. Confiscate, L. Decagon, Gr. Con fluent, L. jDecalogue, Gr. Con glomerate, L. .Decapitate, L. Con gratulate, L. Z>ecenniaZ, L. Conjugate, L. Decimal, L. Contagious, L. De cipher, Fr. 5 50 THE BLACK-BOARD. .Decoct, L. _D/pAthong, Gr. Deducible, L. Dis able. Z^educt^ve, L. -Dts comfit, Fr. .Defalcate, L. -Di'screet, L. jDeflecte'o/i, L. Dis gorge, Fr. Defunct, L. .Dz'sjunct^ve, L. Zteism, L. Dis locate, L. Delectable, L. Dis parity, L. jDeleteriwts, L. .Dz's repute, L. jDelinquew^, L. .Dz's syllable, Gr. Delusive, L. Dis tention, L. Democracy, Gr. Diurnal, L. -Denigrate, L. .Divergent, L. Denta/, L. Docility, L. J5enude, L. Doctrine, L. De populate, L. Dogmatmw, L. Deprecate, L. Dole/M?, L. .Depredate, L. Dominate, L. _De-re-lict^0rc, L. Dormitory, L. Derision, L. Ztarology, Gr. Derogate, L. Drama, Gr. .De scribe, L. Druid. Despot ism, Gr. Dryad, L. Detergent, L. .Duodecimo, L. Detersive, L. .Duplicate, L. -De throne, L. Duplic^y, L. -Detruncate, L. Dynasty, Gr. .Devastate, L. De-vi-ous, L. ^ccentn'c, L. .De vote, L. .fifcclesiast^c, L. Dexterous, L. Eclectic, Gr. Diabolic a/, L. Eclogue, Gr. Diagonal, Gr. Edacity, L. -Diagram, Gr. Ediote, L. jDtalect, Gr. Effervesce, L. Dia meter, Gr. Effrontery, L. Diapason, Gr. Effusion, L. Diffusive, L. Egotzsm, L. -D&' lacerate, L. Ejaculate, L. Di lapidate, L. .Elaborate, L. Dilatory, L. E lapse, L. .Dji lemma, Gr. Electric^, Gr. Elegy, Gr. Elision, L. .Ellipsis, Gr. Elocution, L. Elysium, L. Em balin, Fr. Embezzle, Fr. Emblem, Gr. EmeU'e, Gr. , .Emphasis, Gr. Empm'e, Gr. .Emporium, Gr. Empyrean, Gr. Encomium, Gr. En cyclopaedia, Gr. En franchise, Fr.' En grave, D. Enigma, Gr. E nunciate, L. Epidemic, Gr. .Eplogue, Gr. Epitaph, Gr. JZpitome, Gr. Equate, L. Equi lateral, L. Equinox, L. Erratic, L. Erudite, L. .Erysipelas, Gr. Esculent, L. Escutcheon, Fr. Ethics, Gr. Etiquette, Fr. .Etymology, Gr. Etymon, Gr. -Eucharist, Gr. Eulogy, Gr. Euphony, Gr. Evangeh'c, Gr. Ex asperate, L. Ex cogitate, L. Exculpate, L. TABLE OF WORDS. 51 s, Gr. Exonerate, L. JExorcism, Gr. JExordium, L. JSxpectorate, L. JSzpedite, L. Jfizplosive, L. JSarpnlsive, L. Extant, L. Extempore, L. Extra judicial, L. Extra ordinary,^ L. .Zfortrinsic, L, Exuviae, L. Fabric, L. Fabulous, L. Facetiows, Fr. "Facility, L. Factory, L. Fallacious, L. FalliJfe, L. Fanatic, L. Fantastic, Gr. Farce, Fr. Farinaceows, L. Farraginous, L. Fastidiows, L. Feasible, Fr. Fecundity, L. Felicitous, L. Feline, L. Felon y, Fr. Femora/, L. Ferocity, L. Ferreows, L. Feudal, L. FiliaZ, L. Filtrate, L. Finance, Fr. Finesse, Fr. Fisc at, L. Flaccid, L. Flagitious, L. Flambeau, Fr. Flora/, L. Foliage, L. Folio, L. Fore cast, Dan. Fore close, L. Forgery, Fr. Fortuitous, L. Four score, Icel. Fract^o, L. Fractwre, L. Frangz'07e, L. Fraternal, L. FratrieVcfe, L. Fricassee, Fr. Frictzow, L. Frigid, L. Frondi-fer-ous, L. Fructij^, L. Frugi-fer-ous, L. Fruit^ow, L. Fugac^^y, L. Fulminate, L. Fumigate, L. Furtive, L. Fusi5?e, L. Futile, L. , Galaccy, Gr. Gamut, Sp. Gangrene, Fr. GarrulozSep#ennia/, L. Septuagint, L. Sergeant, Fr. *Sea;ennia?, L. /Sextant, L. Sieve, Sax. Silicios, L. Simony, L. , L. 56 THE BLACK-BOARD. Sirius, L. Stenography, Gr. Stiletto, It. Stereo type, Gr. Streperows, L. Sublunary, L. Suborn, L. Sub scribe, L. Succinct, L. Succumb, L. Suffuse, L. Superficies, L. Super lunar, L. Super scribe, L. Sur cingle, L. /Surreptitious, L. Suspiration, L. /Sycophant, Gr. Salable, Gr. Syllogism, Gr. /Symbol, Gr. /Symmetry, Gr. /Symphony, Gr. /Synchronism, Gr. /Synod, Gr. /Synonyme, Gr. /Synopsis, Gr. /Syntax, Gr. Syn thesis, Gr. Taciturn ity, L. Talmud, Heb. Tangent, L. Tangible, L. Tantalize, L. Tanta mount, L. & F Tapestry, Fr. Tart ness, Fr. Tautology, Gr. TaMfophony, Gr. Technical, Gr. Technology, Gr. Tegument, L. Telegraph, Gr. Tele scope, Gr. TemenYy, L. Tenable, L. Tension, L. TenmYy, L. Termagant, Sax. Terraqueous, L. Terrene, L. Theism, Gr. Theocracy, Gr. Theofoyy, Gr. Theorem, Gr. Theory, Gr. Thermo meter, Gr. Thralefom. Titillate, L. Tonswre, L. jTopography, Gr. Torrid, L. Tortuows, L. Tract able, L. Traduce, L. Tragedy, L. Tranquil lity, L. Transcend, L. Tran scribe, L. Tran script, L. Transfer, L. Trans fix, L. Trans form, L. Trans fuse, L. Transgress, L. Transit ion, L. .Translate, L. Trans lucenZ, L. Trans migrate, L. Transmit, L. Trans mute, L. Trans pierce, L. Tran spire, L. Trans place, Sax. Trans plant, L. Transport, L. Transpose, L. Transude, L. Trans verse, L. Trapezium, Gr. Trapeztno', Gr. Tri angle, L. Triennial, L. Tri lateral, L. Triphthong, Gr. Tri syllable, L. Trium-vir-ate, L. Truant, Fr. Tubercte, L. Tumulose, L. Turpitoo'e, L. Tutelage, L. Tweezers, Fr. Typo graphic al, Gr. Tyranny, L. UbiqmYy, L. Ulcer ate, L. Ultimate, L. Ultra marine, L. Ultra mundane, L. Umbrage, L. Umbrella, L. Umpire. Unction, L. fhrfecagon, L. & Gr. Under ling. Under sell. Under write. Undulate, L. Unicorn, L. Uni form ity, L. Uni verse, L. Uni vocal, L. Un kind ness. TABLE OF WORDS. 57 Uh lawful. Uh learn ed. Un manage able. Uh manner ly. Un popular ity, L. Un pre possessed. Un re cover able. Un sati&fy-ing, L. Un season able ness. Un sur mount able. Un translated, L. Un warlike. Un whole some. Up right ness. Up rising. Up side down. Uranology, Gr. Use ful ness. Use less ness. Usurp ing ly. Utter most. Uxori-ous ness, L. "Vaccine, L. Vacillate, L. Vacuum, L. Vale diction, L. Vain glorious ly. Valor ous ly, L. Value less. Van guard. Vanquish er. Vapor ish, L. Variegate, L. Vassal age, Fr. Vaticide, L. Veli-fer-ous, L. Velocity, L. Venal ity, L. Vend ible, L. Venison, Fr. Venom ous ness. Ventilate, L. Ventriloquy, L. Venture some ly. Veracity, L. Verbal ly, L. Verberote, L. Verbiage, L. Verdict, L. Veri-Ji-er, L. Veri similar, L. Verminote, L. Vermi-vor-ous, L. Vernacular, L. Versi-Ji-er, L. Verti go, L. Vestibwfe, L. Veteran, L. . Vex ing ly. Vicarious ly, L. Vicar ship, L. Vice admiral ty. Vice gerent, L. Viceroy, Fr. Vicinogre, L. Victor ess, L. Victuals, Fr. View less. Vignette, Fr. Vigor ous ness, L. "Vincible ness, L. Vindicate, L. Vintage, L/. VirihVy, L. Vitreows ness, Hi. Vitrify, L. Vituperate, L. Vivacious, L. Vocabulary, L. Vocative, L. Voci-fer-ous, L. Volubih'ty, L. Voluptuous es, L. Voracious Vouch safe. Vulgar ism, L. Vulnera^te, L. Wagon er, Sax. Wake ful ness. Walk ing staff. Wall flower. Warden ski]}, D. Wei come new. JPe# wish er. West ward ly. Wharf a^e. Where so ever. Widow hood. Wife hood. Wind bound. Wire draw ing. Wistful ly. Witch craft. With draw ing. With in side. With stand er. Wit less ly. Wit ling. Wolfish. .Xyfobalsamum, L. Xylography, Gr. Yean ling. Year ling. Tester day, Sax. Young ling. Young ster. ^bography, Gr. Zoology, Gr. Zoophyte, Gr. Zootomy, Gr. Zymology, Gr. METHOD OF TEACHING ENGLISH GRAMMAR. NOUN. Let the teacher begin with the NOUN, and repeat the defini- tion, ' A noun is the name of any person, place, thing, or idea' Let him continue repeating the definition, at intervals, while the following words are written on the black-board : Man Boy George Mother Girl Boston City Town Europe State Book Chair Knife Paper Door Virtue Love Justice Weight Whim. Then, with a rod or pointer, let him direct the attention of his pupils to each word separately. Commencing with the first, let him say, What is it ? Why a noun ? Is it the name of a person, place, thing, or idea ? Let him pursue the same course with the other words, and the definition of & noun will be fully understood. Let the teacher then say, ' There are two kinds of nouns, common and proper. A common noun is a general name. A proper noun is an individual or particular name.' Let him continue repeating these definitions, at intervals, while the following words are written on the black-board : Scholar Father Mountain Industry Teacher Sister Pleasure Gentleman River Army Woman Wisdom Carriage Book People Assembly America United States France Pompey England Massachusetts London Alps Washington Roxbury Charlestown Nancy James Africa Penelope Polk. Then, with the pointer, let him direct the attention of his pupils to each word separately, and ask, What is it ? Why a noun ? Which kind of a noun ? and why ? In this way, he will soon teach his pupils to distinguish accurately between common and proper nouns. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 59 Xet the teacher then say, 'To nouns belong number, person, gender, and case. They have two numbers, the singular and plural. The singular number means but one ; the plural, more than one' Let him continue repeating these defini- tions, while the following words are written on the black- board : Book Books Boy Boys Cloud Clouds Day Days House Houses Tree Trees Knife Knives Life Lives Lady Ladies Duty Duties Box Boxes Church Churches Man Men Ox Oxen Tooth Teeth Foot Feet Mouse Mice Louse Lice. Then, with the pointer, let him direct the attention of his pupils to each word separately, ask the appropriate questions, and give further explanations. Let the teacher then say, ' Nouns have three persons ; the first, second, and third. The first person denotes the speaker. The second person denotes the person or thing spoken to. The third person denotes the person or thing spoken of or about' Let him continue repeating these definitions, while the following examples are written on the black-board : The salutation of me, Paul, with mine own hand. I, Victoria, queen of England, command you, my officer, to commit the traitor to prison. John and Nancy, come in : I, your father, wish to hear your lesson. %ly friend, you know that a life of pleasure and dissipation is an enemy to health, fortune, and character. Then, with the pointer, let him direct the attention of his pupils to each word printed in Italics ; and ask, What person is it of? and why ? In this way, scholars will soon learn to distinguish the different persons of nouns. Let the teacher then say, ' Nouns are said to have four distinctions, with regard to gender ; the masculine, feminine, common, and neuter. The masculine gender denotes males ; the feminine gender, females ; the common gender, either males or females ; and the neuter gender, neither males nor females.' Let him continue repeating these definitions, while the following examples are written on the black- board : 60 THE BLACK-BOARD. Father Mother Parent Paper Husband Wife Friend Book Son Daughter Child Bench Brother Sister Cousin Wind Man Woman Nurse Cambridge Boy Girl Rival Mercy Lord Lady Enemy Pencil Nephew Niece Bird Lamp Uncle Aunt Guide Chair. Then, with the pointer, let him direct the attention of his pupils to each word separately ; and ask, What is its gender ? and why ? In this way, scholars will soon learn to distinguish the different genders of nouns. Let the teacher then say, ' Nouns have four cases ; the nominative, possessive, objective, and vocative. The nomina- tive case is the agent, actor, or doer, or the subject of a verb. The possessive case relates to property, possession, or author- ship. The objective case is the object of an action, or of a relation. The vocative case is used in calling a person, or in making a direct address.' Let him continue repeating these definitions, while the following examples are written on the black-board : Charles received a letter from his sister. James and John have gone to school in Boston. The school of experience teaches many useful lessons. Food, clothing, and credit, are the rewards of industry. The scholar's diligence will secure his teacher's love. A mother's tenderness and a, father's care are nature's giftt for man's advantage. My son, temper the vivacity of youth with a proper mix- ture of serious thought. Children, obey your parents in the Lord. Boys, come in ; take your seats, girls ; George, speak louder ; listen, Jane. Then, with the pointer, let him direct the attention of hia pupils to each word printed in Italics, ask the appropriate questions, and explain the subject fully. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 61 ARTICLE. Let the teacher then take the ARTICLE in connection with the noun. ' An article is a word prefixed to a noun, to point it out, and show how far its signification extends. There are two articles, a or an, and the. A or an is called the indefinite article, and agrees with a noun in the singular number only. The is called the definite article, and agrees with nouns, either in the singular or plural number.' Let him continue repeat- ing these definitions, while the following examples are written on the black-board : A man The man The men A tree The tree The trees A pen The pen The pens A dog The dog The dogs A bush The bush The bushes A horse The horse The horses An apple The apple T'Ae apples An orange The orange The oranges An hour The hour The hours ^4 honor The honor TAe honors -4 owl The owl y^e owls An idea T'Ae idea TAe ideas. Then, with the pointer, let him direct the attention of his pupils to each word printed in Italics, ask the appropriate questions, and explain the subject fully. ADJECTIVE. Let the teacher then take the ADJECTIVE in connection with the noun. 'An adjective is a word added to a noun, to describe, qualify, or limit it. Most adjectives are varied, so as to express three degrees of comparison ; the positive, com- parative, and superlative. The positive degree expresses the simple quality of an object ; the comparative degree increases or lessens it ; and the superlative degree increases or lessens it to the utmost.' Let him continue repeating these definitions, while the following examples are written on the black-board : 6 62 THE BLACK-BOARD. Long lesson Rich man Soft apple Poor hat Safe way Loud noise Good woman Bad road .Zrtftlie boy Pious man Generous man Longer lesson Richer man Softer apple Poorer hat Safer way Louder noise Setter woman JPbrse road iess boy More p^ows man Less generous man Longest lesson Richest man Softest apple Poorest hat Safest way Loudest noise One boy received /orty dollars in road Least boy Most pious man Least generous man e months. Then, with the pointer, let him direct the attention of his pupils to eocA wore? printed in Italics, ask the appropriate questions, and explain the subject fully. PRONOUN. Let the teacher then take the PRONOUN. ' A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun, to avoid the too frequent repe- tition of the same word. There are four kinds of pronouns ; the personal, relative, interrogative, and adjective. The per- sonal pronouns are used instead of persons, and invariably represent the person of the nouns for which they stand. There are Jive personal pronouns, I, thou or you, he, she, it, with their variations in declension.' Let him continue repeat- ing these definitions, while the following examples are written on the black-board: /love him and you ; but he hates me and her. You saw him and me ; but /did not see you or him. Thou canst speak to him ; but he will not speak to thec. He says, she is his friend ; and she says, he is her friend. JPe urged them to stop with us ; but they declined our invi- tation. My knowledge of your affairs induces me to say, you are wrong. They hope that their accounts will offset yours and mine. Charles lost his knife ; and John found it, and returned it. O thou, whose name alone is Jehovah ! Te men of Israel ! ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 63 Example showing the use of a Pronoun. When Washington had saved Washington's country, Wash- ington retired to Washington's plantation to spend the remain- der of Washington's life in retirement. Then, with the pointer, let him direct the attention of his pupils to each word printed in Italics, ask the appropriate questions, and explain the subject fully. Let the teacher then say, ' The relative pronoun generally relates to some word or phrase going before, which is called the antecedent. The relative pronouns are who, which, and that, and sometimes as, when it follows same or such.' Let him continue repeating this in the hearing of his pupils, while the following examples are written on the black-board : The scholar who improves his time, sets a good example. They who seek wisdom will find her. The man whom I saw yesterday, is dead. This is the tree which produces no fruit. The bird which sung so sweetly, is flown. He that acts wisely, deserves praise. Modesty is a quality that adorns a woman. . This is the man whose brother is dead. : Send him such books as will please him. Participles have the same government as their verbs have. No language is complete, whose verbs have not tenses. This is the friend whom I love. That is the vice which I hate. Then, with the pointer, let him direct the attention of his pupils to each word printed in Italics, ask the appropriate questions, and explain the subject fully. Let the teacher then say, ' The interrogative pronouns are used in asking questions. They are who, which, and what.' Let him continue repeating this in the hearing of his pupils, while the following examples are written on the black- board: Who are you ? Whose books have you ? Whom did you see ? Who wrote the letter ? What is your name ? Which is the best way ? What induced you to come ? With whom did you come ? Which color is the strongest ? Whose work is that ? What news have you ? To whom did you speak ? 64 THE BLACK-BOARD. Then, with the pointer, let him direct the attention of his pupils to each word printed in Italics, ask the appropriate questions, and explain the subject fully. Let the teacher then say, ' The adjective pronouns are of a mixed nature, having the pi*operties both of pronouns and adjectives. The adjective pronouns are divided into three classes ; the distributive, demonstrative, and indefinite. The distributive pronouns are those which denote the persons or things that make up a number, as taken separately and singly. The demonstrative pronouns are those which precisely point out the subjects to which they relate. The indefinite pro- nouns are those which express their subjects in an indefinite or general manner.' Let him continue repeating these defini- tions, and, at intervals, make his pupils repeat them after him, while the following examples are written on the black-board: Speak to each boy, to every girl, to either sex, or to neither sex. As each is accountable, let each speak for himself. Every person, in every condition in life, should do right. Either of them is good enough, but I shall accept neither. TJiis or that man is right. This is right, and that is wrong. These or those men are right. These are right, and those are wrong. Some man or men ; other man or men ; any man or men ; such man or men ; same man or men ; one or another man ; att or both men ; all time or times. Then, with the pointer, let him direct the attention of his pupils to each word printed in Italics, ask the appropriate questions, and explain the subject fully. VEEB. Let the teacher then say, ' A verb is a word which asserts or affirms something of persons or things. There are three kinds of verbs ; the active, passive, and neuter. Verbs are either regular or irregular. The active verb expresses an action which is either transitive or intransitive. It is transi- tive, when it has an object after it, either expressed or implied. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 65 It is intransitive, when it has no object after it, either ex- pressed or implied.' Let him continue repeating these defi- nitions, while the following examples are written on the black-board : Men teach boys. The child walks. Boys train dogs. Susan smiles. Dogs chase cats. John goes to school. Cats catch rats. The boy runs swiftly. Eats gnaw cheese. The sun rises and sets. Cheese breeds worms. The moon shines brightly. Worms eat animals. The birdies away. Then, with the pointer, let him direct the attention of his pupils to each word printed in Italics, ask the appropriate questions, and explain the subject fully. Let the teacher then say, 'The passive verb (sometimes called receptive) expresses the suffering or receiving of an action or influence, and asserts that the nominative case is the receiver. The passive verb is formed by adding the perfect participle to the auxiliary be or am, through all its changes of number, person, mode, and tense.' Let him continue re- peating these definitions, while the following examples are written on the black-board: Boys are taught by men. Cheese is gnawed by rats. Dogs are trained by boys. Worms are bred in cheese. Cats are chased by dogs. Animals are eaten by worms. Rats are killed by cats. John was struck by Charles. Then, with the pointer, let him direct the attention of his pupils to each word printed in Italics, ask the appropriate questions, and explain the subject fully. Let the teacher then say, ' The neuter verb expresses neither action nor the reception of an action, but being, or a state of being' Let him continue repeating this definition, while the following examples are written on the black-board : The man is dead. The world exists. He was once alive. The book lies on the desk. The warrior sleeps in the dust. The man becomes a fool. He reposes in the grave. The mountain stands. John sits still. Man's days are few. Then, with the pointer, let him direct the attention of his 6* 66 THE BLACK-BOARD. pupils to each word printed in Italics, ask the appropriate questions, and explain the subject fully. Let the teacher then say, ' To verbs belong person, number, mode, and tense. They have three persons ; the first, second, and third ; and two numbers, the singular scad. plural ; the same as their agents or nominative cases, with which they agree.' Let him continue repeating this, while the following examples are written on the black-board: I love them. We love them. John whistles. You love them. You love them. Nancy sings. He loves them. They love them. Lions roar. Then, with the pointer, let him direct the attention of his pupils to each word printed in Italics, ask the appropriate questions, and explain the subject fully. Let the teacher then say, ' Verbs have five modes ; the in- dicative, imperative, potential, subjunctive, and infinitive. The indicative mood simply indicates or declares a thing. The imperative mode is used in commanding, exhorting, or permit- ting. The potential mode implies possibility, liberty, power, will, or obligation. The subjunctive mode expresses an ac- tion in a doubtful, conditional, or supposable manner. The infinitive mode expresses an action in a general and unlimited manner, without any distinction of number or person.' Let him continue repeating these definitions, and, at intervals, make his pupils repeat them after him, while the following examples are written on the black-board: The man works; the boy plays; the dog barks; the bell tolls. Scholars learn ; girls dance ; birds sing ; the ship sails. Depart thou ; mind ye ; go in peace. Come here ; hold up your head ; speak out, and tell the truth. I may obey, I can obey, I must obey, the teacher. I might, could, should, or would, obey the teacher. If he go, acquire riches, and have money ; if I be right. If he were here ; were he good ; unless he repent, &c. Cease to do evil ; we have talents to improve ; let him go. She is eager to learn ; the question is difficult to be solved. Then, with the pointer, let him direct the attention of his pupils to each word printed in Italics, ask the appropriate questions, and explain the subject fully. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 67 Let the teacher then say, ' Verbs have six tenses ; the present, imperfect, perfect, pluperfect, first and second future. The ^present tense represents an action or event as now taking place. The imperfect tense represents what took pFace in time past, however distant. The perfect tense not only refers to what is past, but conveys an allusion to the present time. The pluperfect tense represents an action or event which took place before some other past time mentioned. The first future tense represents what will take place hereafter. The second future tense represents what will have taken place, at or before some future time mentioned.' Let him continue repeating these definitions, and, at intervals, make his pupils repeat them after him, while the following examples are written on the black-board: John reads well. Does he read well ? James spoke well. Does he speak well ? Susan has recited. Has she recited"? Nancy had gone home. Had she gone home ? I shall see them again. Shall I see them again ? We shall have dined at one o'clock. Shall we have dined ? &c. Then, with the pointer, let him direct the attention of his pupils to each word printed in Italics, ask the appropriate questions, and explain the Subject fully. Let him here ex- plain the use and nature of auxiliary verbs, and also the dif- ference between regular and irregular verbs. Let the teacher then say, ' The participle is a certain form of the verb, and has the nature of a verb, an adjective, and a noun. There are three kinds of participles ; the present, per- fect, and compound perfect.' Let him continue repeating this, while the following examples are written on the black- board : Loving, Loved, Having loved ; Being loved, Loved, Having been loved ; Having been loving. Being informed of the dangers surrounding him, he re- turned home. Having sought the truth with a loving heart, he prized it highly. Having been deceived, he lost all confidence in others. Despised and rejected by men, he sought retirement. 68 THE BLACK-BOARD. Then, -with the pointer, let him direct the attention of his pupils to each word printed in Italics, ask the appropriate questions, and explain the subject fully. ADVERB. Let the teacher then say, ' An adverb is a word used to modify the meaning of a verb, participle, adjective, preposition, or another adverb' Let him continue repeating this, while the following examples are written on the black-board : The bird sings sweetly. Henry improves rapidly. Singing sweetly and dancing elegantly, she is admired. James is very attentive. John is quite busy. The ship sailed nearly round the globe. The boys write too fast. Some read very well. Then, with the pointer, let him direct the attention of his pupils to each word printed in Italics, ask the appropriate questions, and explain the subject fully. PREPOSITION. Let the teacher then say, ' A preposition is a word which serves to connect words with one another, and to show the rela- tion between them. Prepositions generally show the relation between some preceding verb, participle, or adjective, and the noun or pronoun which they govern in the objective case.' Let him continue repeating these definitions, while the follow- ing examples are written on the black-board : John came from New York to Boston, on the rail-road, in five hours. With his friends, in a carriage drawn by four horses, he went to Salem over the turnpike through Lynn. The dog ran about the yard, around the house, over the fence, across the street, into the stable of his master. Then, with the pointer, let him direct the attention of his pupils to each word printed in Italics, ask the appropriate questions, and explain the subject fully. ENGLISH GRAMMES. 69 CONJUNCTION. Let the teacher then say, ' A conjunction is a word chiefly used to connect sentences, or members of a sentence. Some- times it connects only words. There are two kinds of con- junctions, the copulative and the disjunctive. The copulative conjunction connects and continues the sense ; but the disjunc- tive conjunction expresses opposition of meaning in difterent degrees.' Let him continue repeating these definitions, while the following examples are written on the black-board: Nancy reads well, and is a good scholar. , I will go, if you accompany me. You are happy, because you are good. Two, and three, and four, make nine. He denied that he had made the assertion. They came with her, but returned without her. He is older than she ; and he should have known better. You must do it now, or all will be lost Though he chide me, yet will I trust in him. Then, with the pointer, let him direct the attention of his pupils to each word printed in Italics, ask the appropriate questions, and explain the subject fully. INTERJECTION. Let the teacher then say, l An interjection is a word used to express the passion or emotion of the speaker or writer.' Let him continue repeating this, while the following examples are written on the black-board: Oh ! wretched state ! O death ! where is thy sting ? Alas ! I fear for life. Hush ! you will wake your father. Ah ! I am ruined. Fie ! cousin Percy. Then, with the pointer, let him direct the attention of his pupils to each word printed in Italics, ask the appropriate questions, and explain the subject fully. 70 THE BLACK-BOARD. PUNCTUATION PUNCTUATION is the art of dividing written or printed composition into sentences, or parts of sentences, by the use of points or stops. Note. As the rules for punctuation are founded on the grammatical construction of sentences, their application pre- supposes, on the part of the scholar, a knowledge of the differ- ent kinds of phrases, such as adjunct or imperfect phrases, incidental and appendant phrases ; of members and clauses ; and also of simple, compound, and complex sentences. For an explanation of these, see Goldsbury's Grammar, page 86, and Sequel to the Grammar, page 65. THE COMMA, The comma [,] represents the shortest pause in reading, and the smallest division in written or printed composition. RULE 1. A short simple sentence should not be separated by a comma ; as, ' God is love.' ' The sky is blue.' ' The sea is green.' ' The lion is bold.' ' This pleases me.' ' That pleases you.' ' Money is the root of all evil.' ' Truth is the basis of every virtue.' ' Honesty is the best policy.' Remark. This rule needs no further illustration. There are a few exceptions to it ; as, ' Boys, come in.' ' Take your seats, girls.' 'My son, give me thy heart.' 'Never, no, never, will I submit.' RULE 2. When a simple sentence is long, and the nomina- tive is accompanied with an inseparable adjunct of import- ance, it may admit a comma immediately before the verb ; as, ' The good taste of the present age, is in favor of learning.' Exercises for the Slack-board. Write and punctuate the following : ' The great end of all human industry is the attainment of happiness.' ' The inter- mixture of evil in human society serves to exercise the no- blest virtues of the human soul.' ' To be diligently employed in the performance of real duties is honorable.' ' To endeavor to work upon the vulgar with fine sense is like attempting to PUNCTUATION. 71 hew blocks with a razor.' ' One of the noblest of the Chris- tian virtues is to love our enemies.' ' To be totally indifferent to praise or censure is a real defect in character.' ' Their being singled out for excuse on the score of ignorance would imply the withholding forgiveness from others who were better informed.' RULE 3. When the connection of the different parts of a simple sentence, is interrupted by an incidental phrase of im- portance, a comma must be placed both before and after the phrase ; as, ' Truth, when reduced to practice, easily becomes subject to caprice and passion.' Exercises for the Slack-board. Write and punctuate the following : ' The king approving the plan put it into execution.' ' The travellers set out early and before the close of the day arrived at the destined place.' ' The work is in many respects very imperfect.' ' The pious man even when persecuted is a happy man.' ' The prince without further trouble succeeded.' ' Trials in this stage of our being are the lot of man.' ' Benevolence all will admit is a godlike virtue.' ' Some by being too artful forfeit the reputation of probity : others by being too open are thought to fail in prudence.' RULE 4. All incidental icords and phrases, coming between. a nominative case and its verb, and not immediately depend- ing upon the nominative, require a comma both before and after them ; as, ' Vices, like shadows, towards the evening of life, grow great and monstrous.' Exercises for the Black-board. Write and punctuate the following : ' Benjamin West once President of the Royal Academy in London a native of Spring- field Pennsylvania was an American by birth.' ' Temperance says a celebrated writer by fortifying the mind and body leads to happiness.' ' Intemperance says the same writer by ener- vating them ends generally in misery.' ' The teacher being asked among other questions what studies he thought most im- portant for young scholars answered.' ' Fine writing according to Addison who was himself a fine writer consists in the ex- pression of natural sentiments.' 72 THE BLACK-BOARD. RULE 5. All incidental words and phrases, like the follow- ing, above all, again, on the contrary, nay, in the next place, in short, once more, first, secondly, formerly, lastly, hence, &c., are generally separated from the sentence by a comma. Exercises for the Slack-board. Write and punctuate the following : ' In general his work is superior to mine.' ' I like above all things a good scholar.' ' Indeed this is most true.' ' Nay it could not be otherwise/ ' At least so it seems to me.' ' At length they took pity on him.' ' I proceed secondly to point out the difference/ ' This is perhaps one of them/ ' He was at last convinced of his error/ ' Besides it may be advantageous to you/ ' Unfor- tunately he thinks too highly of himself/ ' Nay on the con- trary he is very humble/ ' Here every thing is in stir and fluctuation/ ' There all is serene and orderly/ RULE 6. All words and phrases, repeated for the sake of emphasis, must be separated from the rest of the sentence, by a comma ; as, ' Never, no, never, will just Heaven accuse/ Exercises for the Slack-board. Write and punctuate the following : ' Turn ye turn ye/ ' I will overturn overturn overturn/ ' Woe woe woe to the in- habitants of the earth/ ' Comfort ye comfort ye my people/ 4 1 shall never submit never never never/ ' Lend lend your wings/ ' My prize my beauteous prize I will resign/ RULE 7. All words and phrases, when not standing in regu- lar prosaic order, or when placed in opposition to each other, require commas after each of them ; as, ' Then lambs, with wolves, shall graze the verdant mead ; And boys, in flowery bands, the tiger lead/ Exercises for the Black-board. Write and punctuate the following: 'Vain frivolous and irascible with little sense and with no principle he was almost universally despised/ ' Good men in this frail imperfect state are often found not only in union with but in opposition to the views and conduct of one another/ * Though deep yet clear ; though gentle yet not dull ; Strong without rage ; without o'erflowing full/ PUNCTUATION. 73 * Contrasted faults through all their manners reign ; Though poor luxurious ; though submissive vain ; Though grave yet trifling ; zealous yet untrue ; And even in penance planning sins anew.' ' Religion dwells not in the tongue but in the heart.' ' Even- ing is the time to review not only our blessings but our actions.' RULE 8. An incidental word or phrase, introduced to ex- plain another word or phrase, must have a comma both before and after it ; as, ' John, the brother of James, is dead.' Exercises for the Black-board. Write and punctuate the following : ' Paul the apostle of the Gentiles was eminent for his zeal and knowledge.' ' The island of Mona now Anglesea was the chief seat of the Dru- ids.' ' Homer the greatest poet of antiquity is said to have been blind.' ' Augustus the Roman emperor was a patron of the fine arts.' ' Constantinople the capital of Turkey is finely' situated on the Bosphorus.' ' Cicero was oppressed by a new affliction the death of his beloved Tullia.' 'The butterfly child of the summer flutters in the sun.' RULE 9. When several words of any class succeed each other, a comma should be placed after each ; as, ' William, Henry, James, and Seth, are good scholars.' ' The father, the mother, and the son, have gone down to the grave.' Exercises for the Black-board* Write and punctuate the following: 'In the least insect there are muscles nerves joints veins arteries and blood.' ' The most jpnocent pleasures are the sweetest the most ra- tional the most affecting and the most desirable.' ' We may advise exhort comfort and entreat the sinner.' ' A youth fear- ing serving and loving God will be trusted relied upon and esteemed.' 'You should seek after knowledge steadily pa- tiently and perseveringly.' ' The husband wife and children, suffered extremely.' ' They took away their furniture clothes and stock in trade.' ' He is alternately supported by his father his uncle and his elder brother.' 'Power and wisdom and goodness shine forth in the works of creation.' ' Reading writing English grammar geography and arithmetic are the 7 74 THE BLACK-BOARD. most essential branches of common school education.' ' Food clothing and credit are the rewards of industry.' RULE 10. Two or more adjectives, belonging to the same noun, should be separated by a comma ; as, ' David was a brave, wise, and pious man.' But two adjectives, immediately connected by a conjunction, should not be separated by a com- ma ; as, ' Truth is fair and artless, simple and sincere, uniform and consistent.' Exercises for the Slack-board. Write and punctuate the following : 'A woman gentle sen* sible well-educated and religious.' ' Plain honest truth wants no artificial covering.' ' Conscious guilt renders us mean- spirited timorous and base.' ' The apprentice is a very sharp active youth.' 'John is a tall muscular man.' 'A hardy honest peasantry are the glory of an agricultural country.' * Their indefatigable systematic attention to business claims our admiration and praise.' RULE 11. When a verb, or any important word necessary to the full meaning of a sentence, is omitted, a comma may supply its place ; as, ' From law arises security ; from security, curiosity ; from curiosity, knowledge.' But, in other instances, especially where it would divide the sentence too much, it is better to omit the comma ; as, ' No station is so high, no power so great, no character so unblemished, as to exempt men from the attacks of rashness, malice, and envy.' Exercises for the Black-board. Write, and punctuate when necessary, the following : ' Read- ing makes a full man ; confidence a ready man ; and writing an exact man.' ' Passion overcame shame ; boldness fear ; and madness reason.' ' Chaucer most frequently describes things as they are ; Spenser as he wished them to be ; Shakspeare as they would be ; and Milton as they ought to be.' ' Semiramis built Babylon ; Dido Carthage ; and Romulus Rome.' ' The Gre- cians excel in precepts ; the Romans in examples.' ' To mourn without measure is folly ; not to mourn at all insensi- bility.' ' Strength and energy distinguish the characters of Homer and Michael Angelo ; beauty and propriety those of Virgil and Raphael.' ' The minor longs to be of age, then to PUNCTUATION. 75 be a man of business, then to make up an estate, then to arrive at honors, then to retire.' RULE 12. When two words of the same sort, are connected by a conjunction expressed, they must not be separated ; as, ' Study expands and elevates the mind.' When words are connected in pairs, the pairs only should be separated ; as, ' There is a natural difference between merit and demerit, virtue and vice, wisdom and folly.' Exercises for the Black-board. Write, and punctuate when necessary, the following: 'Homer and Virgil were excellent poets.' ' Wise and good men are gen- erally respected.' ' The study of history informs and enlarges the mind.' ' Admired and applauded he became vain.' ' Cicero spoke forcibly and fluently.' ' Is it fancy or fact ? ' ' Hope and fear pleasure and pain diversify our lives.' ' A wise man observes and listens reads and reflects.' ' Friendship is cool and deliberate sedate and temperate steady and discreet.' 1 Interest and ambition honor and shame friendship and enmity gratitude and revenge are the prime movers in public trans- actions.' ' The avaricious man contrives or labors praises or depreciates misleads or overreaches just as his present interest dictates.' RULE 13. The vocative or independent case, the case abso- lute, and the infinitive mode absolute, should be separated from the rest of the sentence, by a comma ; as, 'My son, give me thy heart.' 'ffis father dying, he succeeded to the estate.' 'To confess the truth, I was in fault.' Exercises for the Blade-board. Write and punctuate the following : ' I thank you madam.' ' I am obliged to you ladies.' ' I remain sir your obedient servant.' ' Continue my dear James to make virtue your principal study.' i Yours is the time my young friends for acquiring virtuous habits.' ' Be seated gentlemen.' ' Acquire my children the habit of doing every thing well.' 'John come here.' ' Virtue triumphing man may rejoice.' ' Peace of mind being secured we may smile at misfortunes.' ' Charles having been deprived of the help of his tutors his studies be- came totally neglected.' < Virtue abandoned and conscience 76 THE BLACK-BOARD. reproaching us we become terrified with imaginary evils.' * To say the least they have betrayed great want of prudence.' ' To enjoy present pleasure he sacrificed his future ease and reputation.' ' To prevent further altercation I submit to the terms proposed.' RULE 14. Comparative or complex sentences, whose mem- bers are short, and sentences connected by relative pronouns, the meaning of whose antecedents is limited to a particular sense, should not be separated by a comma ; as, ' Wisdom is better than riches.' ' Give it to the man whom you most esteem.' But when the complex sentence is long, or when the antecedent of the relative is used in a general sense, a comma should be placed before the than, in the one instance, and before the relative, in the other ; as, ' Better is a dinner of herbs with love, than a stalled ox and hatred with it.' ' There is no charm in the female sex, which can supply the place of virtue.' ^Exercises for the Black-board. Write, and punctuate when necessary, the following : ' He acted more from caprice than reason.' ' What is sweeter than honey stronger than a lion or hotter than fire ? ' ' Expect no more from the world than it is able to afford you.' ' The friend- ships of the world can subsist no longer than interest cements them.' ' Nothing is more opposed to true enjoyment than indo- lence.' * The more a man speaks of himself the less he likes to hear another spoken of.' ' As virtue is its own reward so vice is its own punishment.' ' As the heart panteth after the water- brooks so doth my soul pant after thee.' ' Self-denial is the sacrifice which virtue must make.' ' The rewards which were promised shall be given.' ' There are witnesses of the fact which I have mentioned.' 'The man who is faithfully at- tached to religion may be relied on with confidence.' ' Be- hold the emblem of thy state in flowers which bloom and die.' * No man ever attained lasting fame who did not contradict the prejudices of popular applause.' ' No man continues long to respect his benefactors who allows himself freely to talk of their faults.' Note. The foregoing rules and exercises are sufficient, perhaps, to suggest to the learner, in ordinary cases, the proper place for inserting the comma. The two following remarks^ PUNCTUATION. 77 however, accompanied by examples and exercises, may throw some further light upon the subject. Remark 1. When a sentence consists of two parts, one de- pending on the other for sense, a comma should be placed between them ; as, * People are unpolite, because they are ig- norant.' ' If you would be revenged on your enemies, let your life be blameless.' Remark 2. Consecutive phrases and clauses, similarly con- structed in the same sentence, should be separated from each other by commas ; as, ' No station is so high, no power so great, no character so unblemished, as to exempt men from the attacks of malice or envy.' JSxercises for the Slack-board. Write and punctuate the following : ' By the faults of others wise men correct their own.' ' Neither flatter yourselves nor permit others to flatter you.' ' Shame being lost all virtue is lost.' ' If we would die well we must live well.' ' While the bridegroom tarried they all slumbered and slept.' ' The good which men do is not lost though often disregarded.' ' Be- cause they are regular the pleasures of the temperate man are durable.' ' Unless it blossom in the spring the tree will not bear fruit in autumn.' ' To be wise in our own eyes to be wise in the opinion of the world and to be wise in the sight of our Creator seldom coincide.' 'Human society requires distinc- tions of property diversity of conditions subordination of ranks and a multiplicity of occupations.' ' Friendship eases and unloads the mind clears and improves the understanding ani- mates virtue and good resolutions and finds employment for our most vacant hours.' ' The astonishing multiplicity of created beings the wonderful laws of nature the beautiful ar- rangement of the heavenly bodies the elegance of the vegeta- ble world the operations of animal life and the amazing har- mony of the whole creation loudly proclaim the wisdom of the Deity.' THE SEMICOLON. The semicolon [ ; ] is used to separate the parts of a sen- tence, somewhat less closely connected than those which are separated by a comma. 7* 78 THE BLACK-BOARD. RULE 1 . When the preceding member of the sentence does not of itself give complete sense, but depends on the following clause, and sometimes when the sense of that member would be complete without the concluding one, the semicolon is used ; as, ' The wise man is happy, when he gains his own approba- tion ; the fool, when he gains the applause of those around him.' Exercises for ilie Black-board. Write and punctuate the following : ' Do not think yourself perfect for imperfection is natural to humanity.' ' Genius breaks from the fetters of criticism but its wanderings are sanctioned by its majesty and wisdom.' ' Modesty is one of the chief ornaments of youth and it has ever been esteemed a presage of rising merit.' ' Straws swim on the surface but pearls lie at the bottom.' ' This is not what religion requires nor does it enjoin any such observance.' ' Bryant's poems are beautifully composed and I have read them with much pleasure.' RULE 2. "When an example is introduced to illustrate a rule or proposition, the semicolon may be used before the con- junction as : thus, ' Prepositions govern the objective case ; as, She gave the book to him.' JExercises for the Black-board. Write and punctuate the following : ' A noun is the name of Borne person or thing as, man.' ' Adjectives qualify nouns as, good man.' ' Pronouns are used instead of nouns as, he did it.' ' A verb asserts or affirms something as, the bell tolls.' * The nominative case governs the verb hi number and person as, thou art the man.' Remark. Short sentences slightly connected, and a series of clauses having a common difference, are frequently sepa- rated by semicolons; as, 'Every thing grows old; every thing passes away ; every thing disappears.' ' Philosophers assert, that nature is unlimited in her operations ; that she has inexhaustible treasures in reserve ; that knowledge will always be progressive ; and that all future generations will continue to make discoveries, of which we have not the slightest idea,' PUNCTUATION. 79 Exercises for the Black-board. Write and punctuate the following : ' The epic poem recites the exploits of a hero tragedy represents a disastrous event comedy ridicules the vices and follies of mankind pastoral poetry describes rural life and elegy displays the tender emo- tions of the heart.' ' The pride of wealth is contemptible the pride of learning is pitiable the pride of dignity is ridiculous and the pride of bigotry is insupportable.' ' The world is still renewed with fresh life and beauty with a constant succession of trees and plants with a new race of animals with a new generation of men.' ' But who the melodies of morn can tell ? The wild brook, babbling down the mountain's side The lowing herd the sheepfold's simple bell The pipe of early shepherd, dim descried In the lone valley echoing far and wide, The clamorous horn along the cliffs above The hollow murmur of the ocean tide The hum of bees the linnet's lay of love And the full choir that wakes the universal grove.' THE COLON. The colon [ : ] is used to divide a sentence into two or more parts less connected than those which are separated by a semi- colon, but not so independent as separate, distinct sentences. RULE 1. When a member of a sentence is complete in it- self, but followed by some supplemental remark, or farther illustration of the subject, the colon may be properly employed ; as, ' Nature felt her inability to extricate herself from the con- sequences of guilt : the gospel revealed the plan of divine interposition and aid.' Exercises for the Slack-board. Write and punctuate the following : ' Study to acquire the habit of thinking no study is more important.' ' Endeavor to excel much may be accomplished by perseverance.' ' There is no mortal truly wise and restless at the same tune wisdom 80 THE BLACK-BOARD. is the repose of the mind.' ' Virtue is too lovely and useful to be immured in a cell the world is the sphere of her action.' ' A friend exaggerates a man's virtues an enemy inflames his crimes.' ' Harbor no malice in thy heart it will be a viper in thy bosom.' ' Do not insult a poor man his miseries entitle him to pity.' ' Do not despise human life it is the gift of God.' ' Be upon thy guard against flattery it is an insidious poison.' RULE 2. When a semicolon has preceded, or more than one, and a still greater pause is necessary, in order to mark the connecting or concluding sentiment, the colon should be applied ; as, ' A Divine Legislator, uttering his voice from heaven ; an Almighty Governor, stretching forth his arm to punish or reward; informing us of perpetual rest prepared for the righteous hereafter, and of indignation and wrath awaiting the wicked : these are considerations which overawe the world, which support integrity, and check guilt.' Exercises for the Slack-board. Write and punctuate the following : ' By doing our duty to God and man by acquiring an humble trust in the mercy and favor of God by cultivating our minds, and properly em- ploying our time and thoughts by correcting all our unreason- able expectations, and in the midst of worldly business, habit- uating ourselves to calm retreat and serious recollection by such means as these, it may be hoped, that, through the Di- vine blessing, our days shall flow in a stream as unruffled as the human state admits.' ' Oh ! how canst thou renounce the boundless store Of charms that Nature to her votary yields ! The warbling woodlands, the resounding shore, The pomp of groves, the garniture of fields All that the genial ray of morning gilds, And all that echoes to the song of even All that the mountain's sheltering bosom shields, And all the dread magnificence of heaven Oh ! how canst thou renounce and hope to be forgiven ! ' Remark. Dr. "Webster seems to be opposed to the use of the colon. He says, ' The colon is of little use ; the differ- ence between the colon and semicolon is so small, that the two pauses are frequently confounded, as may be seen in our pres- PUNCTUATION. 81 ent version of the Proverbs. It is said that a colon should be placed before a quotation ; but I consider the use of the semicolon preferable. I conceive the colon might be rejected without injury to the perspicuity of sentences, and punctua- tion very much simplified by substituting the semicolon and the full point.' THE PERIOD. The period [ . ] serves to indicate the end of a sentence which is assertive in ita nature, and independent of any following sentence. RULE 1. When a sentence is complete, and so independent as not to be connected with the one which follows it, a period should be inserted at its close ; as, ' Fear God.' ' Honor the patriot.' Exercises for the Black-board. Write and punctuate the following : ' Truth is the basis of every virtue It is the voice of reason Let its precepts be religiously obeyed Never transgress its limits Every devia- tion from truth is criminal Abhor a falsehood Let your words be ingenuous Sincerity possesses the most powerful charm It acquires the veneration of mankind Its path is security and peace It is acceptable to God.' RULE 2. The period should follow every abbreviated word ; as, ' Viz., Mass., Col., Va., Mr., U. S. A., Jos.' Exercises for the Slack-board. Write and punctuate the following : ' The accident happened at half past nine, A M ; and the person died at ten o'clock, P M.' ' The Capt , Col , and Gen , were there.' ' The degrees of A B , A M , M D , LL B , D D , and LL D , were conferred without much discrimination.' ' Geo , Wm , Chas , Eben , Josh , Tim , and Jas , spoke at the exhibition.' ' I have travelled through the States of Mass , Me , Vt , N H , NY, and S C.' ' The Gov , Lieut Gov , the U S A offi- cers, and many members of the Sen and House of Rep , were in the procession.' 82 THE BLACK-BOARD. THE INTERROGATION. The note of interrogation [ ? ~\ shows, that a question is asked by the words to which it is affixed ; as, ' How old are you?' Remark. The interrogative mark should not be used, when the expression denoting inquiry is put in any other form than that of a direct question ; as, ' He asked me, why I wept.' Exercises for the Black-board. Write and punctuate the following : ' What i3 civilization "Where is it What does it consist in By what is it excluded Where does it commence Where does it end By what sign is it known How is it defined In short, what does it mean ' ' What is it Why an adjective What belong to adjectives Can you vary it Is it regularly or irregularly varied What degree is it Why positive, comparative, or superlative With what does it agree and what is the rule ' ' I met a man who inquired the way to Boston He wanted to know how many roads there were leading to the city and which was the near- est way ' THE EXCLAMATION. The note of exclamation [ ! ] expresses admiration, wonder, joy, grief, &c., and is also used after invocations and addresses ; as, ' My friend ! this conduct amazes me ! ' ' Oh ! how happy we shall be ! ' Exercises for the Black-board. Write and punctuate the following : ' Fathers senators of Rome the arbiters of nations to you I fly for refuge.' ' Alas poor Yorick.' ' Hear me, O Lord for thy loving kindness is great.' ' Eternity thou pleasing, dreadful thought ' ' A horse a horse my kingdom for a horse ' ' What a piece of work is man How noble in reason how infinite in faculties in form and moving, how express and admirable in action, how like an angel in apprehension, how like a god ' ' Woe to the trai- tor, woe ' ' Up comrades, up ' ' Awake arise or be for ever fallen ' ' Step softly speak low make no noise ' ' Oh bless the Lord, my soul ' ' God my heavenly Father ' PUNCTUATION. 83 Remark. The interjection is properly prefixed to an expression in a direct address or vocative case ; but the interjection oh ought never to be so employed. should be used without the mark of exclamation immediately after it ; but oh, sometimes with, and sometimes without it, according to the construction and sense of the passage in which it occurs ; as, ' O God ! ' ' Oh ! what a glorious day ! ' 'Oh that I knew my fate ! ' THE DASH. The dash [ J is a straight line, and is used for the pur- poses specified in the following rules. RULE 1. The dash may be used with propriety, where the sentence breaks off abruptly ; where a significant pause is required ; or where there is an unexpected turn in the senti- ment; as, ' Here lies the great False marble ! where ? Nothing but sordid dust lies here.' .Exercises for the Black-board. Write and punctuate the following : ' Was there ever a bolder captain of a more valiant band ? Was there ever but I scorn to boast.' ' If you will give your attention, I will show you but stop ! I do not know that you wish to see.' ' Then the eye of a child who can look unmoved into that ' well undefiled,' in which heaven itself seems to be reflected ? ' ' He sometimes counsel takes and sometimes snuff.' ' There was silence not a word was said their meal was before them God had been thanked, and they began to eat.' ' When the poor victims were bayoneted, clinging round the knees of the soldiers, would my friend but I can not pursue the strain of my interrogation.' ' He was too weak, however, to talk he could only look his thanks.' ' The four greatest names in English poetry are almost the first four we come to Chaucer, Spenser, Shakspeare, and Milton.' ' Shall I, who was born, and brought up, in the tent of my father, that most excellent general shall I, the conqueror of Spain and Gaul, and not only of the Alpine nations, but of the Alps themselves shall I compare myself with this half-year captain ? ' 84 THE BLACK-BOARD. RULE 2. The dash may be used after a comma or semi- colon, between the several clauses of a long sentence, when they constitute a series ; as, ' If acting conformably to the will of our Creator ; if promoting the welfare of mankind around us; if securing our own happiness; are objects of the highest moment : then are we loudly called upon to cultivate and extend the great interests of religion and virtue.' Exercises for the Black-board. Write and punctuate the following : ' The noble indignation with which Emmett repelled the charge of treason against his country the eloquent vindication of his name and his pathetic appeal to posterity, in the hopeless hour of condemnation all these entered deeply into every generous bosom, and even his enemies lamented the stern policy that dictated his execution.' ' The poor child of nature beholds God in the star that sinks in beauty behind his lonely dwelling in the sacred orb that flames on him from his midway throne in the flower that snaps in the morning breeze in the lofty pine that defies a thousand whirlwinds in the timid warbler that never leaves his native grove in the fearless eagle whose untired pinion ia wet in clouds in the worm that crawls at his feet and in his own matchless form glowing with a spark of that light to whose mysterious source he bends in humble, though blind adoration.' Remark. Some writers use the dash instead of the paren- thetical marks; as, 'Every star if we may judge by analo- gy is a sun to a system of planets.' Others use it, where there happens to be an ellipsis of words or phrases ; as- ' What ! is it only in dreams, that beauty and loveliness have beamed on me from the human countenance, that I have heard tones of kindness, which have thrilled through my heart, that I have found sympathy in suffering, and a sacred joy in friendship ? ' Others, again, use it variously, without regard to any rule or principle. THE HYPHEN. The hyphen [-] is used at the end of a line to unite syl- lables of the same word, when part is written in one line and part in the next. It is also used to join two words so as to PUNCTUATION. 85 make one ; as, ' church-yard ;' and also to keep distinct what should be separate syllables ; as, ' Zo-ology/ Remark. The scholar should be very careful to use the hyphen properly. At the end of a line, he should never split or divide a syllable ; and, in forming compound words, he should never use the hyphen where ' good usage ' has made the words to coalesce. THE PARENTHESIS. The parenthetical marks () are two curved lines, which include a part of a sentence containing some necessary infor- mation, or useful remark, but which may be omitted without destroying the sense ; as, ' Know, then, this truth, (enough for man to know,) Virtue alone is happiness below.' Exercises for the Black-board. Write and punctuate the following : ' Every planet as the Creator has made nothing in vain is most probably inhabited.' ' If we exercise upright principles and we cannot have them unless we exercise them, they must be perpetually on the increase.' ' Left now to himself malice could not wish him a worse adviser, he resolves on a desperate project.' ' The badness of the times as the vulgar phrase expresses a scene of distress frequently depends more on those who govern the ship, than on the weather.' ' As in riper years all unreason- able returns to the levity of youth ought to be avoided an admonition which equally belongs to both the sexes, still more are we to guard against those intemperate indulgences of pleasure to which the young are unhappily prone.' ' I would not enter on my list of friends Though graced with polished manners and fine sense, Yet wanting sensibility, the man Who needlessly sets foot upon a worm.' ' Let us since life can little more supply Than just to look about us, and to die Expatiate free o'er all this scene of man ; A mighty maze ! but not without a plan.' 86 THE BLACK-BOARD. THE BRACKET. Brackets or crotchets [ ], like parenthetical marks, generally include explanatory remarks which do not necessarily belong to the subject, though they may be necessary to a right under- standing of it ; as, ' It was resolved, that we [the captain and myself] should set out the next morning.' THE APOSTROPHE. The apostrophe [ ' ] is distinguished from the comma only by being placed above the line ; but its uses are altogether different. It is used to abbreviate or shorten a word ; as, ' E'er; ne'er, 't was.' It is also used to mark the possessive case of nouns ; as, ' The people's rights.' Exercises for the Black-board. Write and punctuate the following : ' Lets go in, gentlemen.' ' Thourt a good boy.' ' Thats my teacher.' ' Tis so.' ' 111 do it.' ' Ive lost a day.' ' Im here.' ' Id share it with thee.' ' Theres a mistake about it.' ' Hes always so positive.' ' Twill please me much.' ' Far oer the mountain.' ' Mongsfc horrid shapes.' ' Whereer the rude and moss-grown beech oercanopies the glade.' ' Moses laws were admirably adapted to the condition of the Jews.' ' Jesus instructions are adapted to all times and conditions.' ' I have been to visit Mr. Jacobs school, in which Sophocles Grammar is used.' ' Blest be the day I scaped the wrangling crew, from Pyrrhos maze and Epicurus sty.' Remark. These last examples suppose the scholar to be acquainted with the grammatical use of the possessive case, and the manner of applying the sign. THE CARET. The caret [A] is used to show where some word or words-, letter or letters, which have been left out by mistake, should her p be inserted ; as, ' Jane loves studies.' ' Disapointments and are A trials often blessings in disguise. PUNCTUATION. 87 THE QUOTATION. Double commas [" "], and sometimes single commas [' '], are used as signs of quotation. These marks include words and passages taken from some other author in his own words ; as, " The proper study of mankind is man." Lord Bacon says, that ' knowledge is power.' Exercises for the Black-board, Write and punctuate the following : A powerful and un- bridled imagination, says Sir Walter Scott, is the author and architect of its own disappointment. Coleridge speaks of imagination as the power which first unsensualizes the mind ; and Cecil declares it to be the grand organ whereby truth can make successful approaches to the mind. In the New Testament, we learn that Jesus said to the Jews, Is it not written in your law, I said, Ye are gods ? Godwin says, that men should not come too near each other, or touch in too many points. Excessive familiarity is the bane of social happiness. At my coming in, he said, You and the physician are come too late. Remark. The quotation marks, being placed above the line, are easily distinguished from commas ; those preceding a quotation are inverted. A quotation contained within another is generally marked by two single commas. THE INDEX. The index or hand [^iP] points to some remarkable pas- sage ; as, ' gap" All orders promptly attended to.' THE PARAGRAPH. The paragraph \\\ denotes the beginning of a new subject, or a sentence not connected with the foregoing. It is seldom used, except in the Scriptures and some old books. It is, also, occasionally employed as a reference. 88 THE BLACK-BOARD. THE SECTION. The section [] is used, as in Locke's Essay on the Human Understanding, and in law books, to mark the division of a subject or chapter, into less parts or portions. THE ELLIPSIS, OR BLANK. The ellipsis, or blank, is generally intimated by a succession of asterisks or stars [***], or by a long line or dash [ ]. It is used when some letters in a word, or some words in a verse or sentence, are omitted ; as, ' The k g is a most con- summate ****.' THE DLERESIS. The diaeresis [ ] consists of two points placed over the latter of two vowels which would otherwise make a diphthong, and parts them into two syllables ; as, ' Orthoepy.' THE BRACE. The brace [,~<^] is used in poetry, at the end of a triplet, or three lines which have the same rhyme ; and also to connect a number of words with one common term ; as, 1 The asterisk *, dagger f, "j Double dagger i, , - . , f Pa 11 1 1' II f are u marginal references. Figures and letters, From ostentation as from weakness free, It stands like the cerulean arch we see, Majestic in its own simplicity. USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS. RULE. Every sentence should begin with a capital letter ; also every line of poetry ; all appellations of the Deity ; proper names of persons, places, streets, mountains, rivers, lakes, CAPITAL LETTERS. 89 ships, &c. ; all adjectives derived from proper names ; the first word of every direct quotation ; the titles of books ; the pro- noun I, and the interjection 0. Exercises for the Black-board. Write the following examples correctly, according to the preceding rule : ' in the flourishing periods of athens and rome, eloquence was power, it was at once the instrument and the spur to ambition, the talent of public speaking was the key to the highest dignities ; the passport to the supreme dominion of the state, the rod of hermes was the sceptre of empire ; the voice of oratory was the thunder of Jupiter.' ' no eye beheld when william plunged young edmund in the stream ; no human ear, but william's, heard young edmund's drowning scream/ { pope, in his universal prayer, calls the lord god almighty, "jehovah, jove, or lord." ' we generally speak of the supreme being as the creator, the governor, the preserver, and the father of mankind.' ' it is difficult to distinguish between a native american and a wellbred englishman.' 'new england and old england are very much alike.' 'among the countries in europe, france and england take the lead, their capitals, pai'is and london, are two of the finest cities on the other side of the atlantic.' ' were i to travel in europe, i should wish to understand the french, the german, the Spanish, and the Italian languages.' ' i have seen so much, in books, of paternoster row, of lincoln's inn, of high street, and read so much in geogra- phy, about the red sea, the british channel, the frith of forth, the lake of geneva, the thames, the alps, &c., and heard so much about their victoria ships and iron steamers, that, in my own imagination, i have formed a pretty good opinion how all these things look.' ' i have read shakspeare's plays, goldsmith's history, and sheridan knowles' tragedy, virginius.' ' oh ! for a closer walk with god ! ' ' o thou that rollest above, round as the shield of my fathers ! whence are thy beams, o sun ! thy everlasting light ? ' Remark. It was formerly customary to use capital letters with greater frequency, and with less discrimination, than it is at the present day. And, even now, ' good usage' is some- 8* 90 THE BLACK-BOAKD. what divided. Titles of honor and respect, words personi- fied, or of primary importance, are generally begun with capitals; 'His Excellency,' 'His Honor;' 'The Rebellion,' < The Revolution ;' ' Better to sit in Freedom's hall.' VERSIFICATION. There are various kinds of poetry which come under the head of Versification ; such as the Epic, the Lyric, the Dra- matic, &c. These cannot always be easily distinguished. They run into each other, precisely like colors : in their strong tints, they are easily distinguished ; but are susceptible of so much variety, and of so many different forms, that we cannot always say where one species ends and another begins. Epic poetry usually comprises narrations of past scenes and actions. When it describes the exploits of a hero, as noble, brave, and magnanimous, it is called heroic poetry.* When it describes the scenes and incidents of rural or country life, it is called pastoral poetry. When it is used for the purpose of teach- ing, and giving moral instruction, it is called didactic poetry. Lyric poetry is adapted to musical instruments, such as the lyre or harp. When fitted to be sung, and employed for devotional purposes, it is called sacred poetry. When it con- sists of plaintive or mournful strains, calculated to produce sorrow, it is called elegiac poetry. Dramatic poetry consists of a historic poem or play, adapted to scenic representation. When fitted to produce mirth- ful jollity or merriment, it is called comic poetry. When it terminates in a disastrous or mournful event, it is called tragic poetry. When made up of merry and serious events, it is called tragi-comic poetry. Application. What are the principal kinds of poetry ? Can they always be easily distinguished ? Why not ? What is epic poetry ? * Blank-verse is generally heroic verse of five feet, but always without rhyme. VERSIFICATION. 91 When is it called hero ic ? When pastoral ? When didactic? What is lyric poetry ? When is it called sacred ? When elegiac ? What is dramatic poetry ? When is it called comic ? When tragic ? When tragi-comic ? SCANNING. Scanning is the division of verses into a certain number of feet. All poetic feet consist of two or three syllables, either accented or unaccented. The breve (") denotes a short quan- tity, and the hyphen (~ ) a long one. The feet most commonly used in English are the Trochee, the Iambus, and the Ana- past. The other kinds of feet are occasionally introduced for the sake of variety. OETIC FEET. Dissyllable. Trisyllable. A Trochee, w A Dactyle, - w An Iambus, - An Amphibrach, - w A Spondee, - - An Anapaest, w w - A Pyrrhic, w A Tribrach, w w w A METBICAL GAMUT FOE THE TBOCHEE. Tumty | tumty | tumty | turn, Tumty j tumty j tumty | turn, Tumty j tumty | tumty j turn, Tumty J tumtjr | tumty j turn. EXAMPLE OF THE TROCHEE. Safely J through an | other | week God has | brought us j on Sur | way ; Let us | now S, | blessing | seek, Waiting | *in his | courts t5 | day, Day Sf | all the | week the | best, Emblem | *8f e | ternal | rest. * Pyrrhic feet. 92 THE BLACK-BOARD. While we | seek sup | plies of | grace, Through the | dear Re | deemer's | name, Show thy | recon | clling | face, Take a j way our | sin and j shame ; From <5ur | worldly | cares set | free, May w | rest this | day in j thee. Here we | come thy | name to | praise ; Let us j feel thy | presence | near ; May thy | glory | meet our | eyes, While we | in thy | house ap | pear ; Here af | ford us, | Lord, a | taste *0f 8ur | ever [ lasting | feast. May the | gospel's | joyful | sound Conquer | sinners, | comfort j saints, Make the | fruits of | grace \ bound, Bring re | lief from | all com | plaints : Thus let | all our | sabbaths | prove, Till we | join the J church a | bove. Newton. A METRICAL GAMUT FOE THE IAMBUS. Titum I titum | titum | titum, Titum j titum j titum ; Titum j titum j titum | titum, Titum titum titum. EXAMPLE OF THE IAMBUS. When all | thy mer | cies, O | m^ God, Mjr ris ] ing soul | surveys, Transport | ed with | the view | I 'm lost In won j der, love, | and praise. tJnnum | bered com | fSrts on | my soul Thy ten | der care | bestowed, Before | m^ In | f ant heart | conceived Fr(5m whom I th5se com I fSrts flowed. VERSIFICATION. 93 Ten thou | s&nd thou | sand prec | lous gifts My dai | If thanks | employ; Nor is | the least | a cheer | ful heart, That tastes | those gifts | with joy. ThrQugh ev' | rj pe . | rlod 6T | my life, Thy good | ness I '11 | pursue ; And af | ter death, | In dis | tant worlds, The glo | rious theme | renew. Addison. A METRICAL GAMUT FOR THE ANAP^ST. Tititum | tititum | tititum | tititum, Tititum | tititum | tititum; Tititum I tititum | tititum | tititum, Tititum j tititum j tititum. EXAMPLE OF THE ANAPJSST. *The rose | had been washed, | *just washed | in a shower, * Which Ma | ry to An [ na conveyed ; *The plen | tlful moist J ure encum | bered the flower, *And weighed | down Its beau | tlful head. *The cup | was all filled, | and the leaves | were all wet, And It seemed, | to a fan | ciful view, *To weep | f8r the buds | It had left | with regret, On the flour | ishlng bush | where It grew. *I hast | ily seized | It, unfit | as it was For a nose | gay, s8 drip j ping and drowned ; *And swing | Ing it rude | ly, too rude | ly, alas ! I snapped | It it fell | t8 the ground. *And such, | I gxclaimed, | is the pit | iless part, *Some act | by the del | Icate mind, * Regard | less 5f wring | Ing and break | Ing S, heart, *Alread | y" t6 sor |-r5w resigned. * Iambic feet. 94 THE BLACK-BOARD. *This el | cgSnt rose, | had I shak | en it less, Might have bloomed | with its own | er awhile ; And the tear | that is wiped | with a lit | tie address, May be fol | l<5wed, perhaps, | by a smile. Cowper. Application. What is scanning 1 } How many syllables are there in a foot ? How many kinds of feet ? and what are they called ? Will you describe them? Write on the black-board the Metrical gamut for the Trochee; and let all the scholars prac- tise upon it, by repeating it in concert, till they learn the dif- ference between a long and a short quantity, an accented and an unaccented syllable. Then write on the black-board the Example of the Trochee ; and let them practise in like manner, upon that. Pursue the same course with the Iambus and the Anapaest. Then take other pieces of poetry, and let the scholars practise upon them. By a little attention to the subject of scanning, the other varieties of feet and measure may be easily taught. For rules determining the quantity of syllables, see Goldsbury's ' Sequel,' page 63. ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. The analysis of a sentence consists in dividing it into the several parts of which it is composed, and pointing' out their mutual relations. For an explanation of phrases and sen- tences, see Goldsbury's ' Grammar,' page 86, and ' Sequel' to the same, page 65. Every sentence has, at least, one subject and one predicate. The subject is that of which something is affirmed. The predicate affirms something of its subject ; as, ' Good scholars learn their lessons well.' Here, ' good scholars ' is the sub- ject, and ( learn their lessons well' is the predicate. SUBJECT. The subject of every sentence is either grammatical or logical The grammatical subject is either some noun, or ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 95 some word or phrase used instead of a noun. The logical subject consists of the grammatical subject, with its various modifications ; as, 'Scholars of industrious habits become wise.' Here, ' scholars ' is the grammatical, and ' scholars of indus- trious habits,' the logical subject. The subject of a sentence is either simple or compound. A simple subject is a single noun, or a word standing for a noun, either alone or variously modified; as, ' Life is short;' 'The longest life of man is short.' A compound subject consists of two or more simple sub- jects, to which one predicate belongs ; as, ' The girls and boys have recited.' Note. It is proper to remark, that words are said to modify or limit others, when they serve to explain, describe, enlarge, restrict, or otherwise qualify their meaning ; and also, that, if the grammatical subject is not modified, it is the same as the logical subject. PREDICATE. The predicate, like the subject, is either grammatical or logical. The grammatical predicate is the verb which asserts or affirms something of its subject. The logical predicate consists of the grammatical predicate with its various modifi- cations ; as, ' The Legislature have elected Daniel Webster to the Senate of the United States.' Here, ' have elected ' is the grammatical, and ' have elected Daniel Webster to the Senate of the United States,' the logical predicate. The predicate also, like the subject, is either simple or compound. A simple predicate is one which contains a single finite verb ; as, ' The scholar studies.' A compound predicate consists of two or more simple pre- dicates belonging to the same subject ; as, ' The scholar studies and learns.' Note. When the grammatical predicate is not modified, it is the same as the logical predicate. SIMPLE SENTENCE. In analyzing a simple sentence, the first thing to be done is to divide it into its logical subject and predicate. 96 THE BLACK-BOARD. In analyzing the logical subject, the grammatical subject should first be pointed out, then the words which modify or limit it, and then the words which modify or limit them, and so on, till the logical subject is exhausted. In analyzing the logical predicate, the grammatical predi- cate should first be pointed out, then the words which modify or limit it, and then the words which modify or limit them, and so on, till the logical predicate is exhausted. COMPOUND SENTENCE. In analyzing a compound sentence, it should first be re- solved into the simple sentences of which it is composed. It should then be analyzed in the manner above described ; and the rules for the agreement and government of words should be given. Example 1. The analysis of a simple sentence. ' A plain understand- ing is often joined with great worth.' Here, ' a plain under- standing ' is the logical subject ; and ' is often joined with great worth,' is the logical predicate. The grammatical subject is ' understanding.' This is modi- fied by ' plain,' and limited by ' a.' The grammatical predicate is ' is joined.' This is modified by * often,' and limited by the phrase ' with great worth.' ' With ' shows the relation between ' is joined ' and ' worth.' * Great ' describes ' worth ; ' and ' worth ' is governed by ' with.' Example 2. The analysis of a compound sentence. ' Men of learning are almost always poor, because they do not set their hearts upon riches.' This sentence is thus resolved into simple sen- tences. Primary sentence : * Men of learning are almost always poor.' Secondary sentence : ' They do not set their hearts upon riches.' The latter sentence depends upon the former ; and ' because ' is the connective. In the primary sentence, ' men of learning ' is the logical subject ; and ' are almost always poor,' the logical predicate. The grammatical subject is ' men.' This is limited by the phrase 'of learning.' ' Of shows the relation between 'men' and ' learning ;' and ' learning ' is governed by ' of.' The grammatical predicate is 'are.' 'Almost' modifies ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 97 'always;' 'always' modifies 'poor;' and 'poor' describes * men.' In the secondary sentence, ' they ' is both the logical and the grammatical subject ; and ' do not set their hearts upon riches/ is the logical predicate. The grammatical predicate is ' do set.' This is modified by ' not,' and limited by ' their hearts,' and by the phrase ' upon riches.' ' Their ' is governed by ' hearts,' and relates to ' men.' ' Hearts ' is governed by ' do set.' ' Upon' shows the relation between ' do set ' and ' riches ;' and ' riches ' is governed by * upon.' Miscellaneous Examples for Practice on the Black-board or Slate. The school of experience teaches many useful lessons. A great portion of human evils, is created by ourselves. Compassion prompts us to relieve the wants of others. In youth, the habits of industry are most easily acquired. The spirit of true religion is social, kind, and cheerful. The contented mind spreads ease and cheerfulness around it. Opportunities occur daily for strengthening the habits of virtue. The day was calm, and the scene delightful. William was respected, because he was upright and obliging. If greatness flatters our vanity, it multiplies our dangers. I will submit, for submission brings peace. The doctor arrived, but he came too late. Piety and virtue are very becoming in the young. The fool hath said in his heart, that there is no God. "When a person is idle, he is almost always tempted to do wrong. Note. Those who wish to pursue the subject further, are referred to a work, now in press, by Mr. S. S. Greene, a teacher in one of the Boston schools. Not having seen the whole work, I know comparatively little about it, except that it will contain about one hundred and fifty pages, and be ac- companied with a chart ; but, from my knowledge of its author, I have formed high expectations of it. 9 METHODS OF TEACHING ARITHMETIC. THERE are two methods of teaching Arithmetic, tie analytic and the synthetic. The analytic method consists in resolving a compound into its several parts or first principles. It goes into an examina- tion of particulars ; and, by a direct application of first prin- ciples, it leads to the most important results. This method is sometimes called induction. The honor of first introducing it into this country, is due to Warren Colburn, the author of the ' First Lessons.' The synthetic method consists in uniting sundered parts into one whole. It lays down general principles or rules, explains their use, and requires the scholar to follow them implicitly. This method is used for imparting knowledge ; the analytic method, for acquiring it. Both may be used in the same pro- cess, to great advantage. One great error in teaching Arithmetic, has been, and still is, to allow scholars to begin at the wrong place. Instead of requiring them to begin at numeration, or even at addition, they have frequently been permitted to pass over these first and fundamental principles, and to begin at multiplication. The numeration and addition tables have been almost entirely displaced by the multiplication table. Whereas, scholars should always begin at numeration, and be made so thoroughly acquainted withi the simple and local value of numbers, as to be able to read any number of figures at first sight. They should then be so thoroughly drilled in the addition and com- bination of numbers, as to be able to add up a column of fig- ures with as much ease and readiness, as they can read a line across a page, in plain English. They will then be prepared for the succeeding rules. Every rule, and the reasons on which it is founded, should be thoroughly understood, before proceeding to other rules. In this way, they will become in- terested in the study, and be prepared to exercise their reason in solving the most difficult questions. ARITHMETIC. 99 ' Application. What two methods are there in teaching arithmetic ? What is the analytic method ? How does it accomplish its object? What is it sometimes catted'? Who first introduced it into this country ? What is the synthetic method ? How does it uccuiuplish its object ? May these two methods be united in the same process ? What has been an error in teaching arithmetic ? Where have scholars commenced the study ? Where should they begin ? To what extent should they be drilled in numeration ? in addition ? For what will they then be prepared ? Must every rule be understood ? How are scholars to become interested in the study ? NUMEKATION. Numeration teaches how to express the value of numbers by certain characters or figures. All numbers are expressed by the ten following Arabic characters or figures : 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. Any significant figure placed to the left of another, expresses ten times the quantity that it would express, if it occupied the place of the latter. Hense arises the dis- tinction between the simple and local value of figures. NUMERATION OF WHOLE NUMBERS. ! i i 1: 1 I i f ! i i tSO) 3 ^ 3 "t5 'O *^ O r * 1 1 4 1" i 4'~J 1 I p ., t> ft fc a., S | |s| |cg| |o| I'Sl s'se a^g s-sis 111 111 ill II HKPI HtdH HWO 1 HSQ? HWtB HMM HMO 789, 123. 456. 789. 128. 456. 789. 123. 456. 789. 123 Application. Write the table of decimals on the black-board, and, for convenience, point them off into periods of three figures each, commencing at the right hand, to express the numerator of the fraction. Then, with the pointer, teach the pupils to enu- merate the decimals both ways, first decimally, from left to right ; and then, as in whole numbers, from right to left. Then teach them to read them, like whole numbers, pronouncing the name of the last denomination mentioned in the decimal enu- meration, for the denominator of the fraction; and, at the same time, explain to them what the denominator of a deci- mal fraction is, and must always be. ADDITION. Take the nine digits, and write them on the black-board in an inverse order, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, so as to have the smallest figure come on the right, with which to begin the operation. Under each of the nine digits, write the figure 2, ARITHMETIC. 101 and draw a line underneath. Let the figure 2 be now added and re-added, both ways, to each of the nine digits, till their simple combinations are perfectly learned. Do the same thing with the figure 3, the figure 4, the figure 5, and so on, till all the figures have been added and re-added to every other figure, and their simple combinations are perfectly understood. Examples. 1. 2. 987654321 987654321 222222222 333333333 3. 4. 987654321 987654321 444444444 555555555 5. 6. 987654321 987654321 666666666 777777777 7. 8. 987654321 987654321 888888888 999999999 The facility with which these combinations are learned, will depend very much upon the skill of the teacher. In the foregoing examples, the figures increase regularly from right to left, and diminish in the same manner from left to right. Next, without regard to order, from right to left, and vice versa from left to right, let the teacher select any two num- bers, and require the pupil to give the amount ; and so pro- ceed through all the above examples. Let other examples be given. Let the figures be selected without regard to order, and placed in any order which the teacher chooses. 9 102 THE BLACK-BOARD. Examples. 1. 2. 987654321 945876352 584397854 763985497 When scholars have taken this first step, and learned well all the simple combinations, they will be prepared to take another. Let them next be required to write simple and combined numbers over each other on the black-board. Take, for example, 4 and 5, 14 and 5, 24 and 5, 34 and 5, and so on, to any extent which the teacher chooses. Example. 55555555555 104 94 84 74 64 54 44 34 24 14 4 Let the teacher then direct the attention of his pupils to the right-hand figures, and say, how many are 4 and 5 ? Ans. 9, (a simple combination.) How many are 14 and 5 ? Ans. 19 ; because 4 and 5 are 9, and 10 units added, make 19. How many are 24 and 5 ? Ans. 29, because 4 and 5 are 9, and 20 units added, make 29. How many are 34 and 5 ? Ans. 39, because 4 and 5 are 9, and 30 units added, make 39. Pursue the same course with the remaining figures, till their combination is perfectly understood. Then take two other figures, and pursue the same course ; and then two others, and so on, till the combination of all the figures is well understood. Great care should be taken to make scholars thoroughly understand the combination of figures, that any two figures being added to a third, always produce a certain result, which may be known by referring to the simple combination. Explanation of the Rule. The rule of addition is founded on the axiom, that ' the whole is equal to the sum of all its parts.' To explain this, let the numbers 675, 325, 246, 156, be decomposed, and their several parts be added. ARITHMETIC. 103 The first is The second is The third is The fourth is Operation. 600+ 70-j- 5= 675 300-j- 20+ 5= 325 200+ 40+ 6^ 246 100 50 6= 156 The wJtole is 1200+180+22:^1402 Here it will be seen, that the column of units amounts to 22 units. The column of tens amounts to 180 units, or 18 tens. The column of hundreds amounts to 1200 units, 120 tens, or 12 hundreds. But to save the trouble of setting down and adding up so many separate amounts, the left hand figure is carried on, and united immediately with the next column. One method of proving Addition. Set the excess of nines, in each row of figures, to the right of its row ; and if the excess of nines in the sum's result, and the column made by setting out the several excesses, are alike, the work is right. Example. 678967896789 456789456789 123456123456 918273645578 2177487122612 Note. The figure 9 has a peculiar property, which, except 3, belongs to no other figure, viz. that any number divided by 9, will leave the same remainder as the sum of its figures divided by 9. Let the following sums be now written on the black-board, and added aloud without the assistance of the teacher ; and let the reason of carrying for tens be further explained. 104 THE BLACK-BOARD. 2. 123456789 789789789 234567891 897897897 345678912 978978978 456789123 456456456 567891234 564564564 678912345 645645645 789123456 128456789 891234567 987654321 912345678 123456789 SUBTRACTION. First, let the pupils be exercised in the simple difference of numbers. For this purpose, write the following examples on the black-board. 1. 2. 9876543 987654 2222222 333333 3. 5. 6. 98765 9876 987 98 44444 5555 666 77 Let the teacher then direct their attention to each figure in the lower line, in each of the examples, and ask the differ- ence between it and the figure above it. Let the questions be asked, first from right to left, and then from left to right. Then take the nine digits, and write them on the black- board in an inverse order, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, so as to have the smallest figure come on the right, with which to begin the operation. Under each of the nine digits, write the figure 2, and draw a line underneath ; then the figure 3, and draw a line underneath j and so on, till the examples are completed. ARITHMETIC. 105 Examples. 1. 2. 987654321 987654321 222222222 333333333 3. 4. 987654321 987654321 444444444 555555555 5. 6. 987654321 987654321 666666666 777777777 7 8. 987654321 987654321 888888888 99999999 Let the teacher then direct the attention of his pupils to each figure in the lower line, in each of the examples, ask the appropriate questions, and explain the reason of borrow- ing 10, and carrying 1 to pay the debt. Explanation of the Rude. The rule of Subtraction is founded on the axiom, that ' the sum of the differences of all the similar parts, is equal to the differences of the whole.' To illustrate this, let the numbers 54326 and 23437 be decomposed, and their several parta be subtracted. Operation. The first is 50000+4000+300+20+6=54326 The second is 20000+3000+400+30+7=23437 The difference is 30000+0000+800+80+9=30889 106 THE BLACK-BOARD. Here it will be seen, that borrowing from a preceding place to increase an upper place, when its correspondent lower place is the largest, is only resolving the upper number into such parts as are each greater than, or equal to, the similar parts of the less number. We begin at the right hand, and finding that we can not take 7 from 6, we borrow 10 from 20, and add it to 6, which make 16. From 16 we take 7, and set down 9. As 10 are borrowed from 20, there are 10 left. We can not take 30 from 10 ; we therefore borrow 100 from 300, and add it to 10, making 110, from which we take 30, and set down 80; and so on through the whole. In borrowing to add to an upper figure or place, instead of considering the next upper figure or place diminished, it has been found convenient to increase the next lower figure or place, which produces the same result. One method of proving Subtraction. Cast out the nines from the minuend, and place the excess at the right hand. Then cast out the nines from the sub- trahend and remainder, and add their excesses together ; and, if the work be right, the excess of the nines in their sum will be the same as the excess of the nines in the minuend. Example. 87654893214567 3, excess. 49321987654321 .... 1, } >- excesses. 38332905560246 .... 2,) sum 3, excess. MULTIPLICATION. The rule of Multiplication is founded on the principle, tha't ' the multiplicand is taken as many times as there are units in the multiplier.' Either of the two numbers may be made the multiplier or multiplicand, and the product will be the same. ARITHMETIC; 107 To illustrate this principle, let the two numbers 432 and 375 be decomposed, and multiplied together. Operation. Multiplicand 400-j- 30+ 2 = 432 Multiplier 300-f- 70-f- 5 = 375 2000+150-j-lO = 2160 280004-2100-J-140 3024 120000-f 9000-}- 600 1296 1 20000-{-37000-f-4700-f-290-{-10=l 62000 Here it will be seen, that we multiplied through, first by 5 units, then by 7 tens, or 70, and then by 300, placing the several products underneath, and adding them up, making the whole product 162000. Note. Multiplication may be proved by casting out the nines ; and ' the work will always prove right when it is so ; but it will not always be right when it proves so.' Short methods of Multiplying. 1. When the multiplier is any number of nines, annex as many ciphers to the right of the multiplicand as there are nines in the multiplier ; under this new multiplicand write the old one, units under units, and tens under tens, &c. ; and then subtract, and the difference is the true answer. Example. Multiply 456789 by 99999. 45678900000 456789 45678443211 Ans. 2. When the multiplier is 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, place the multiplier at the right of the multiplicand, with the sign of multiplication between them ; multiply the multiplicand by the unit figure of the multiplier, removing the product one place to the right of the multiplicand ; this product and the multiplicand make the total product. 108 THE BLACK-BOARD. Example. -76548932456789X13 229646797370367 995136121938257 Ans. 3. When the multiplier is 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, multiply by the unit figure of the multiplier, and remove the product two places to the right of the multi- plicand j and add them together for the product. Example. 123456789123456789X101 123456789123456789 12469135701469135689 Ans. 4. When the multiplier is 21, 31, 41, &c., to 91, multiply by the ten's figure only, of the multiplier, and set the unit figure of the product under the place of the tens, and so on ; then add them all together, and their sum is the total product. Example. 98765431987654321X21 197530863975308642 2074074071740740741 Ans. METHOD OF TEACHING THE MULTIPLICATION TABLE. The following is an easy and expeditious method of teach- ing the multiplication table, and a very successful one to secure the attention of pupils. Let the pupils be placed on opposite sides of the room, facing each other. Let the teacher give out a certain figure, (included in the lesson which they have been required to study,) 4 for instance ; and let him direct his pupils on one side to say, in concert, ' 4 times 1 ;' to which the pupils on the opposite side should be taught to reply, ' are 4 ;' and then immediately to put back to the opposite division ' 4 times 2 ;' to which they should be made to reply ' are 8 ;' and then immediately to ARITHMETIC. 109 put back to the other division ' 4 times 3 ;' to which they should reply 'are 12 ;' and so on, till the lesson is completed. If, in any instance, a wrong answer be given, the true answer should be given by the opposite side, before another figure is given out. It will be well sometimes to vary this method, by requiring the pupils to put out the figures, while the teacher answers them ; and the teacher should frequently answer them wrong, and require his pupils to correct him. This method will be sure to secure attention. DIVISION. Division is the reverse of multiplication ; and it may be proved by it. To illustrate the principle on which the rule is founded, let the dividend 6868, and the divisor 34, be separated into parts, as follows : Operation. 30+4)6000+800-|-60-|-8(200+2=202 Ans. 6000+800 60+8 50+8 Here it will be seen, that 30 is contained in 6000, 200 times. We then multiply the whole divisor 30+4 by 200, which makes 6000+800. These we subtract from the first two terms of the dividend, and nothing remains. We then bring down the other two terms, and proceed in the same manner as before. ABBREVIATION OP ARITHMETICAL OPERATIONS. All proportional questions, performed by multiplication and division, such as the rules of Three, single and double, direct and inverse ; Interest, Discount, Barter, Loss and Gain, Ex- change, Reduction, Multiplication and Division of Fractions, &c., may be abbreviated, and the operation very much short- ened. 10 110 THE BLACK-BOARD. I. To abbreviate operations in multiplication and division, draw a perpendicular line, placing the numbers to be mul- tiplied on the right, and the numbers by which you are to divide, on the left. If there be two equal numbers on each side of the line, cross them out, and omit them in the operation. If a number on one side of the line divide a number on the other side, without a remainder, erase both numbers, and substitute, for the larger, the number of times it contains the smaller. Then multiply the remainders together, on the right, for a dividend ; and the remainders, on the left, for a divisor. Example. Multiply 24 by 12, and divide by 24; then multiply the quotient by 9, and divide the product by 6. 18 Ans. II. To abbreviate operations in fractions, draw a perpen- dicular line, placing all those figures which are to be mul- tiplied together for a numerator or dividend, on the right of the line, and those figures which are to be multiplied together for a denominator or divisor, on the left of the line ; also, the numerators of fractions, by which a division is to be made, on the left. jExamples. 1. Multiply J, , |, f, , f, together. 1 Ans. Here it will be seen, that equals on each side of the line are crossed out. When no two numbers remain, one on each side of the line, capable of being divided by any one figure, ARITHMETIC. Ill multiply the figures on the right of the line for a numerator or dividend, and those on the left for a denominator or divisor, and the result will be the answer in the lowest terms of the fraction. 2. Divide of f of g of f , by f. 5 2 5 2 f Ans. III. To abbreviate the operation of all proportional ques- tions, draw a perpendicular line, placing the sign of the answer on the left, at the top of the line, and that number which is of the kind with the answer on the right, at the bottom ; and as this number is greater or less than the answer sought, place the greater-or less of the two remaining numbers on ^e right, and the other on the left, and proceed in all respects as required in Direct or Inverse Proportion ; but, if it be a question in Double Proportion, place any two of the same kind, of the i-emaining numbers, one on the right and the other on the left ; according to directions for Direct or Inverse Proportion. Examples. 1. If 5 men can build a wall in 24 days, in how many days can 15 men build the same ? Days. & men. 4 days. 8 8 days. Ans. 2. If 4 men can build 400 rods of wall in 36 days, how many rods can 1 2 men build in 48 days ? Rods. X.% men. 4$ X& 4 400 rods. 1600 rods. Ans. 112 THE BLACK-BOARD. Note, This method of abbreviating or cancelling pro- portional terms, has many advantages, and should be well understood, both by teachers and pupils. CLASSIFICATION IN ARITHMETIC. In every large district school, there will necessarily be a great variety of studies, and most of the teacher's time will be consumed in listening to the different recitations of his pupils ; so that he will have but little time left to give positive, direct instruction, or to do justice to any subject which he pretends to teach. In cases of this kind, and they are very numerous, the following method may be adopted to advantage. Method. Let all the pupils studying arithmetic be formed into classes, according to their ages, attainments, and abilities; for, un- less they are classified in some way, they can not recei\^sys- tematic instruction. Suppose them to be divided wl^lwee classes, one in Seduction, one in Fractions, and one in Interest. Let each class have a certain amount of lesson assigned beforehand, to be thoroughly studied, and to be ready at a given time. At the time appointed, let the three classes be called out at once, and, if practicable, placed on different seats, one class in front of the teacher, one on his right, and one on his left ; each pupil being provided with his arith- metic, slate, and pencil. Let the teacher begin with one of the classes, the class in Interest, for instance ; and, after questioning them on the principles involved hi their lesson, and explaining them fully, let him give them a sum to do, either on their slates, or on the black-board. Then let the teacher turn to the class in Fractions ; and, after questioning them, in the same way, on their lesson, and explaining the principles fully, let him give them a sum to do, either on their slates, or on the black-board. Then let the teacher turn to the class in Reduction ; and, after questioning them, as above directed, on their lesson, and explaining all the principles involved in it, let him give them a sum to do, either on their slates, or on the black-board. ARITHMETIC. 113 By this time, the first division the class in Interest have probably performed their sum. Let the teacher now say to this division, All who have done the sum, show their dates. At this command, the whole division, if they have performed the operation, will turn their slates about, and pre- sent them to the teacher, with a certain inclination favorable for him to see whether the operation is right or wrong. By glancing his eye along the line of slates, he will readily detect an error in the operation, and challenge the individual whose work is supposed to be wrong, requiring him to explain the sum, or tell how he did it. As soon as the challenge is ac- cepted, and there is no declining it, every slate is recov- ered to its former position, and every other scholar in the division is busily engaged in looking after the individual who is attempting to demonstrate the sum. As soon as any one discovers a mistake or a difference in the operation, he raises his hand, and the demonstration is stopped till the point at issue is settled. As soon as this is done, the demonstration proceeds, and, in this way, is carried on to its completion, when the teacher gives out another sum to the division. Then let the teacher direct his attention to the second division, the class in Fractions, and repeat the same words as before, All who have done the sum, show their slates. The slates being reversed and presented in the manner already described, the teacher glances his eye along over the slates, and then challenges some one, whose work he suspects to be wrong, to demonstrate or explain the sum. As soon as the slates are recovered to their former position, the demonstration proceeds ; and every other scholar in the division is watching the operation to detect the errors, if there be any. The ques- tion being explained to the satisfaction of all, the teacher gives out another sum to the division. Then let the teacher direct his attention to the third divis- ion, the class in Reduction, and proceed, in all respects, as above directed. Let this course be pursued with the three divisions, till their lessons are completed. One division, each time, if it be the pleasure of the teacher, may perform the sums on the black-board. This method of procedure will not only save much of the teacher's tune, but excite a deeper interest in the minds of his pupils. 10* 114 THE BLACK-BOARD. MATHEMATICAL DEFINITIONS. 1. A unit is a single or individual thing, without regard to its parts. 2. An integer is either a unit or a number of units. 3. A fraction is any part or parts of a unit. 4. Factors are those numbers from the multiplication of which another number is produced. 5. A product is that number which is produced by the multiplication of two or more factors. 6. A multiple of a number is the product of that number by some integral factor. 7. A common multiple is a number which can be measured by two or more numbers. 8. An even number is that which can be divided by 2, with- out a remainder. 9. An odd number is that which can not be divided by 2, without a remainder. 10. A measure of a number is one which Avill divide another number, without a remainder. 11. A common measure is a number which will divide two or more numbers, without a remainder. 12. A composite number is one produced by the multipli- cation of two or more numbers. ., 13. A prime number is that which can be measured only by itself or by unity; as, 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, &c. Two or more numbers having no common divisor or measure greater than unity, are prime to each other; as, 8, 9, 11, 13, 17, &c. 14. The aliquot parts of a number are the parts by which it is measured, or into which it can be divided. 15. A square number is the product of a number multiplied by itself. 16. The square root is the number which, being multiplied by itself, produces the square number. 17. A cube is the product of a number twice multiplied by itself. 18. The cube root is the number which, being twice multi- plied by itself, produces the cube. 19. Commensurable numbers are such as have each the same common divisor. ARITHMETIC. 115 20. Incommensurable numbers are such as have no com- mon divisor. 21. The nth power of a number is the product of n equal factors, n representing any integral number whatever. 22. The exponent, or index of a power, is that number by which the power is expressed. 23. The root of a power is that number, from the continued multiplication of which a certain number of times into itself, the power is produced. 24. A perfect number is that which is equal to all its aliquot parts, divisions, or factors, unity being included. PROPERTIES OF .NUMBERS. 1. The product of an even and an odd number, or of two even numbers, is even. 2. The product of any two odd numbers, is an odd number. 3. The product of any number of odd numbers, is odd. 4. An odd number cannot be divided by an even number, without a remainder. 5. If an odd number measure an even number, it will also measure the half of it. 6. A- square number, or a cube number, arising from an even root, is even. 7. If a square number be either multiplied or divided by a number that is not a square, the product or quotient is not a square. 8. If a square number be either multiplied or divided by a square, the product or quotient is a square. 9. The difference between an integral cube and its root, is always divisible by 6. 10. The product, arising from two different prime numbers, can not be a square. 11. The product of no two different numbers, prime to each other, can make a square, unless each of those numbers be a square. 12. Every prime number above 2, is either one greater or one less than some multiple of 4. 13. Every prime number above 3, is either one greater or one less than some multiple of 6. 116 THE BLACK-BOARD. 14. Two quantities respectively equal to a third, are equal to each other. 15. The equal powers or roots of equal quantities, are equal. 16. If equal quantities be added to, subtracted from, multi- plied or divided by equal quantities, the sums, remainders, products, and quotients, will be respectively equal. 17. The sum or the difference of any two even numbers, is an even number. 18. The sum or difference of two odd numbers, is even. 19. The sum of an even number of odd numbers, is even. 20. The sum or the difference of an even number and an odd number, is odd. Application. What is a unit ? What is an integer ? Is there any dif- ference between them ? Illustrate the subject on the black- board. What is a fraction ? What is the difference between an integer and a fraction? Illustrate the subject on the black-board. What are factors ? Illustrate the subject on the black-board. Pursue the same course with the other ' mathematical definitions,' and also with ' the properties of numbers,' till the whole subject is thoroughly understood. ARITHMETICAL SIGNS. 1. Two horizontal lines = signify 'are equal to ; ' as 100 cents = 1 dollar. 2. A cross -j-> niade by a horizontal and a perpendicular line crossing each other at right angles, signifies ' added to ; ' as 7-{-o=l2. 3. A horizontal line signifies ' subtracted from,' and shows that the figure following it is subtracted from the figure before it ; as, 14 68. 4. An inclined cross X, resembling the letter X, signifies ' multiplied by ; ' as, 4X5=20. 5. A horizontal line -r-, with a point above and another below it, signifies ' divided by,' and shows that the figure be- fore it is divided by the figure after it; as, 9-^-3=6. 6. Dots placed in the following order : : : : signify pro- portion ; as, 2 : 4 : : 8 : 16. METHOD OF TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. THE most important part of geography is topography, or the relative situation of places. It is in vain to think of learn- ing history or historical geography, without first acquiring a knowledge of topography. This can be best acquired by the use' of ' Mitchell's Outline Maps ;' but it may be learned from the common Atlas, in connection with the slate and the black- board, .1. Map of the World. Let the teacher direct the attention of his pupils to the map of the world ; and, to illustrate the spherical form of the map, let him take an apple, divide it into two equal parts, present the convex surface of both parts to his pupils, and thus show them, that both sides of a globe or sphere can be represented by hemispheres. Let him then direct their attention to the grand divisions of the globe, land and water. Let him carefully and slowly point out the limits of these grand divisions, the limits of the continents, oceans, and countries ; and, while doing this, let him give their different names, requiring his pupils to repeat them after him, first in concert, and then individually. Let him then direct their attention to some of the geo- graphical definitions, and point out the subjects on the map. The cardinal points, the circles dividing the earth into polar hemispheres and zones, and the lines of latitude and longitude, should be distinctly pointed out^and their names given and explained. These names and explanations should be repeated by the pupils, first in concert, and then individually. 2. Map of North America. Let the teacher direct the attention of his pupils to the map of North America ; first give its name, and require them to repeat it after him ; then its boundaries, and require them to do the same. Let him then direct their attention to the capes, bays, gulfs, mountains, lakes, principal rivers, and political divisions ; each of which should be distinctly pointed out, and minutely described. Their names should then be given, and their positions described, by the pupils, first in concert, and then individually. 118 THE BLACK-BOARD. 3. Map of the United States. Let the teacher direct the attention of his pupils to the map of the United States ; first give its name, and require them to repeat it after him ; then its boundaries, and require them to do the same. Let him then direct their attention to the capes, lays, gulfs, mountains, lakes, principal rivers, and the several States and territories ; each of which should be distinctly pointed out, and minutely described. Their names should then be given, and their positions described, by the pupils, first in concert, and then individually. Let this method of instruction be pursued upon each of the OTHER MAPS, in their order, till the pupils have been over them all. But let it not be supposed, even then, that they have acquired a perfect knowledge of topography. Something more is necessary for this purpose. They must be required to review these maps, and try their skill at drawing on the slate or black-board. This exercise is the best and most suc- cessful method of communicating instruction in this interesting study. Having previously studied the maps thoroughly, let them now try their skill at drawing. Let the teacher hang up before them the map of the State in which the school is kept, and where the pupils reside. In an instant, every slate is drawn, and every eye is directed to the map. Now commences an interesting exercise. Each pupil sketches upon his slate, first the boundaries, next the mountains, then the rivers, and other landmarks, upon as large a scale as the slate will admit. When he has located the capital and chief towns, and given names to the mountains and rivers, he has finished his exercise. All the slates are then examined, and each performance is criticised. Pursue the same course with the maps of other States, and of other countries, till the pupils have been over the whole globe, and become acquainted with the topography and geog- raphy of the earth. These exercises should be reviewed, at stated periods, by drawings upon the black-board. Those pupils who think they have the topography of the country to be described, so clearly in their mind, as to be able to present a drawing of it upon the black-board, should be requested to do it, without the use of the map. Their drawings should then be criticised by the whole class, without the aid of the map. METHOD OF TEACHING WHITING. WHITING is an important branch of common school educa- tion. It is important to every person in every station and pursuit. Without it, the great business of life could not well be carried on. It opens a channel of communication between different individuals and different nations, connects the human family together, and, in its effects, encircles the globe. Some have supposed, that a peculiar talent is requisite to become a proficient in the art of writing. But it is believed that every person of common abilities, with proper instruc- tion, may become a good writer. To attain to considerable skill in this art, a thorough knowledge of the form and pro- portion of the letters must be distinctly impressed upon the mind, and the power of executing these letters with facility must be acquired. To write well, the pupil must have dis- tinctly painted on his mind the characters which he intends to place on paper; and to execute well, lie must acquire the habit of forming his letters nicely and gracefully. But it is a great mistake to let pupils write whenever, they please, and just as they please. They will never become good writers in this way. The same order should be observed in this exer- cise, as in every other. There should be method, there should be system; and the pupils should be governed and guided by it. At present, there is no uniform system ; and, as the teachers in our common schools are continually chang- ing, the system of instruction, whatever it may be, changes also. The consequence is, that but few pupils become good writers. Good writing must be legible; it must also have some degree of proportion, regularity, and neatness. Mr. GEORGE W. WINCHESTER, of Hartford, Conn., has published a system of teaching the art of writing on the black-board, which, for economy, simplicity, and beauty, is perhaps unequalled. By it, even an ordinary teacher can im- part uniform and scientific instruction with ease, and in the most thorough manner, to a large number of pupils at the same time, by placing himself in such a position as to be seen by them all. Besides, his system will produce perfect uni- 120 THE BLACK-BOARD. formity in all the schools where it is used ; and a change of teachers will not affect the style of writing or the method of instruction. Until this system, or some other like it, shall be generally introduced, the best recommendation that can be given to teachers, is to exercise their pupils more upon the black-board. This exercise will give them what is so essential to good writing the free movement of the arm, the fore-arm, and the fingers. It will increase their skill in the form and propor- tion of letters, and enable them to execute accurately and promptly the examples which are given them to imitate. Whether they are to have good or bad examples, well or ill arranged, whether they are to consist of coarse hand or fine, capital letters or figures, must be left to the skill and taste of their teachers. Nothing more can be reasonably expected of the pupils, than to imitate well the examples which are set them. MB. WINCHESTER'S METHOD OF TEACHING PENMANSHIP. Method of Sitting, and of Holding Paper. The left side should slightly incline to the desk, but never touch it. The left arm should rest on the desk, seven or eight inches from the front edge, and parallel with it, with the fingers on the paper. Care should be taken that the learner does not lean forward while writing, as this position is an obstacle to success, and is highly injurious to the health. The feet should be placed firmly upon the floor, and in the same direction with the slope of the writing. The weight of the body should be supported upon the feet and left arm, and the right one should rest lightly on the desk at least half way to the elbow, and be kept three or four inches from the body. This position gives the writer the perfect command of his right arm. Some teachers permit the learner to incline the right side to the desk, and lean upon the right arm. This position should never be allowed. The book should be placed in front of the right arm, and parallel with the edge of the desk. It should be kept so far from the lower edge of the desk, that the arm will always remain on it half way to the elbow while writing. WRITING. 121 Pen-holding. The next thing that requires attention, is the method of hold- ing the pen. It should be held loosely between the thumb and the first and second fingers, about three fourths of an inch from the point. The thumb should be placed on the pen nearly op- posite the lower joint on the forefinger. The upper end of the pen-holder should be placed a little forward of the upper joint on the forefinger, and, when properly held, point to the right shoulder. The little finger and the one next it should bend under about an inch, or sufficiently far to permit the hand to be supported on the end of the nails of these two fingers.* Method of giving Instruction. A teacher may give instruction to a large number at the same time, by placing himself in such a position that he may be seen by every member of the class. He should then hold the pen as above directed, requiring them to imitate him. This exercise should be continued until every individual can hold the pen correctly. There are three movements in writing : First, the movement of the arm ; second, that of the fore-arm ; and third, that of the fingers and their combinations. These movements should be learned while passing through the ex- ercises upon the Muscular Disciplinarian, which is next in order. This is a card with the various movements engraved upon it, over which the learner should pass his pen-holder firmly. This exercise will establish a correct method of hold- ing and using the pen. It will also strengthen the muscles of the hand and arm, and enable the learner to use the pen with the utmost freedom. The use of the Disciplinarian will supersede the necessity of very large writing for beginners. As it is used for an exercise in pen-holding, and learning the various movements, the mind is confined to the exercise until the pen is held correctly, and the various movements become somewhat familiar before it is called to the formation of letters and words. It partially serves the purpose of instructing the mind in the formation of letters, while the hand is receiving the proper discipline, in connection with the exercise upon the chart, which will be alluded to in the proper place. The exercise upon the Disciplinarian should become a daily practice, a few minutes previous to every writing lesson, until the learner has acquired a perfect command of the hand, and can write with the greatest facility. 11 122 6 o GQ QQ 123 124 THE BLACK-BOARD. At times, the whole school may receive instruction in the method of sitting, pen-holding, use of Disciplinarian, and form of letters ; but, in order to teach a class successfully, those of nearly the same attainments should form the class. Scholars should be classed as carefully in writing as in any other branch of education. It will not be taught with entire success until this be done. After the class have been properly seated, and provided with the Disciplinarian, they should pass the pen-holder firmly across the horizontal exercise marked a. (See specimen, pages 122, 123.) This is a lateral movement of the arm. The arm should slide lightly across this exercise, from left to right ; and the hand be supported upon the nails of the little finger, and the one next it. The teacher should pass over each exercise first himself, holding the Disciplinarian in such a position that the class may see it. When the next exercise is to be given, the teacher may call the attention of the class to him by striking the bell, or by such other means as he may choose. He will then give the next exercise, marked b. This is a horizontal oval movement, and brings the muscles of the arm into active ex- ercise. The class continue this movement until c is given. This is an oval oblique movement, designed to bring the mus- cles of the fore-arm, wrist, and fingers, into active exercise. During this exercise, the arm should rest lightly on the desk near the elbow, and the pen-holder be passed briskly over the oval in the same manner that we should form the capital 0. d is similar to the last, only larger, and is used in the same manner, e is a straight line in the middle of the oval marked d ; the holder should be passed briskly over it, from the top to the bottom, with the arm stationary upon the desk, f and g are movements of the arm and fingers. The under fingers should slip across the paper as a movable support ; and this movement of the arm forms the hair-line which connects the parts of the m and M, while the fingers form the upright parts of the letter. By using the under fingers as a movable support, and sliding them along while writing, the fingers which hold the pen are always opposite the letter we are forming ; con- sequently, the slopes of the letters -will be alike. After the exercise has been continued about ten minutes upon the Dis- ciplinarian, it may be laid aside until the next lesson, when the writing exercise should be given. WRITING. 125 The Primary, and Nos. 1 and 2 of the series of books, are designed for theoretical instruction, accompanying which, is a Chart for every school. This Chart is a fac-simile of the different pages of the Primary and First and Second Books; and it should be suspended before the school in such a situation that every scholar can see it. After the preceding exercise has been discontinued for that lesson, the word or letter that is to be written by the class should be written on the Chart by the teacher, and the method of writing it be clearly ex- plained; after which the copy should be written. The class should proceed with the lesson no faster than it is written upon the Chart; consequently, the whole school are writing the same word at the same time. The class may be called to the rsL-xt word by striking the bell, or by any other means, when the attention of the school is called to the Chart ; at which time the teacher should write the next copy on it. All cor- rections should be made on the Chart ; and it would be well for the teacher to write the words incorrectly, and require the class to make the correction. It will be seen that two objects are gained, while the scholars are passing through the above exercises. While the class are learning to form the letters and words upon the theoretical books, the hand is receiving a daily exercise upon the Disciplinarian, that will fit it for the lessons in practical penmanship in the third and fourth books. By referring to the first two books, which are to be used for the lessons described above, it will be seen that there are always two copies alike. The first has dots under it, to be written on, that will give the learner the proper slope, and the place where the turns should be made. The second copy is like the first; but there are no dots to guide the learner, and he is left to try his powers of imitation. The copy should always be written first on the dots half down the page, in columns ; then it should be written in the same manner in the blank space, leaving the lower half of the book blank. (See specimen, page 126.) After the upper half of the book is written, the class should turn to the first page, and write the lower half in the same manner, and with great care. The exercise upon the Disciplinarian should never be omitted at the commencement of each lesson, as it is believed to be the only plan that will successfully prepare the hand for business writing, while the mind is at the same time receiving the requisite instruction in the formation of letters. 11* 126 THE BLACK-BOARD. V / Half a r#ge of Book 1, as an illustration. I WRITING. 127 After the exercises have been correctly written on the first and second books, and the proper method of holding and" using the pen has been acquired, the learner is prepared for prac- tical penmanship, which is learned by practice upon the third and fourth books. It will be seen that the method of teaching proposed, enables the teacher to instruct a large number in one class, with a certainty of success. It is not only believed, but positively known, that all the requisites of a good penman may be attained by this method of instruction, in a short time compared with the method of teaching pursued in most schools. The strength which the exercise upon the Disciplinarian im- parts to the muscles of the hand and arm, enables one to exe- cute with great ease and rapidity. The plan will produce ]<.'! feet uniformity in all the schools where it is used, and a change of teachers will not affect the style of writing or the method of instruction. A change of teachers, heretofore, has produced a change in the method of instruction and style of writing; consequently, the improvement from one year to another has been hardly perceptible. Sentences have been introduced into. Nos. 3 and 4 of the series of books, that contain several lines across the page, in- stead of a single one. The advantage of this plan is, that it enables the learner, while in school, to write a handsome let- ter, or a bill in a business style, which the former practice of repeating a single line failed to do. There are three essential qualities requisite in business penmanship: legibility, elegance, and expedition. It has been ascertained, by numerous ex- periments, that eveiy quality of a good penman may be ac- quired by this method of instruction ; that it accomplishes much more by supplying the important requisites heretofore alluded to ; and that it effects what the prevalent methods of teaching can not do. The plan of presenting to the mind of the pupil the exact method of making the letter and connect- ing the words through the medium of the Chart, while at the same time the power of rapid execution is being acquired by training the muscles upon the Disciplinarian, is invaluable. This practice enables the learner to acquire & habit of holding and carrying the pen across the paper correctly and expedi- tiously, and to keep the hand in the same position in all parts of the word and line. By this process, the hand is kept in an upright position, and the under fingers are used as a mova- ble support, and a habit of holding and carrying the pen 128 THE BLACK-BOARD. across the paper correctly will be permanently established. When the fingers are used, they should not execute the whole of the writing; but it should be done by the movements of the arm, fore-arm, hand, and fingers. The fingers should form the upward and downward strokes of the letters, while the hair- lines connecting them should be formed by the lateral move- ment of the arm or fore-arm. The wrist should never touch the desk while executing business writing, and the under fin- gers should glide along from one letter to another. It has always been noticed, that every expert penman uses the arm and fore-arm as much and as readily as he does the fingers ; and that the more rapid the execution, the greater is the use made of the arm. The reason of this is obvious. The mus- cles of the arm, being much stronger than those of the fingers and thumb, are not so soon wearied, and the movement which is the least fatiguing is readily adopted by those who are in constant practice of the art. The pen should never be lifted in any single word in business writing. The proper position of the body, hand, and pen, are of the utmost importance, and should receive much attention. By pursuing the course indi- cated, the practice of frequently lifting the pen will be avoided, and strength of muscle with steadiness of hand permanently acquired. The fault of turning the hand to the right is avoided ; and freedom, uniformity, and rapidity, are obtained. The arm glides over the paper with little effort, the hand is not soon wearied, and the fingers act with great steadiness and precis- ion. The idea frequently advanced, that writing is merely a mechanical exercise, and requires no effort of the mind, arises from a want of investigation. Handsome letters can never be made on paper until they are formed in the mind ; hence it will be seen, that, although the execution of writing is a me- chanical exercise, the conception and design is a mental one. Teachers should pay much attention to the early cultivation of taste in writing ; and it can commence at no point with greater propriety than where proportion, regularity, and neatness are presented to the eye, and where the mind is at the same time interested in the production of beautiful char- acters. The examples for imitation should be correctly formed, and free from every stiff appearance. It would be as incon- sistent to place imperfect copies before the learner, as it would be to give the student in grammar ungrammatical sentences from which to form his style of composition. METHOD OF TEACHING DRAWING. THE importance of ' industry ' in the school-room cannot be too strongly recommended to every teacher. This habit insures success in the formation of character, and should therefore be early inculcated. It is a ' panacea ' for the evil propensities of the mind, as it puts in motion the physical machinery of man. In the District school, the youngest scholars are usually required to sit ' prim ' three fourths of their time, with body erect, hands clasped, or arms folded, and too often upon the ' fair side of a slab,' with no support for their backs or limbs. I will not name the amount of time occupied by the teacher in holding these little creatures mentally and physically in ' durance,' in opposition to the laws of nature and common sense. This practice leads to sluggishness of thought, and indolence of action, unless indeed nature stimulates the child to ' break jail ' and parry consequences, by his ingenuity to ' out-general' his keeper, or by false representations to deceive his judge. All this sacrifice of moral principle, of time and expense, of teacher and scholar, may be avoided by putting these scholars ' into business.' I know of no employment in the school-room, so well adapted to the eye, the mind, and the hand, as that of DKAWING ; and for this purpose the slate, the black-board, and suitable patterns, are an invaluable acquisition. Choice of figures diagrams or objects to be drawn is a desideratum. Simplicity, usefulness, and adaptation, should be the aim of every elementary work. To draw right lines, then to form them into angles, squares, pentagons, hexagons, octagons, &c. and to draw the circle, the cone, the pyramid, with specimens of nature and art, are labors, not only delight- ful, but instructive. All the ' prim ' time may be thus em- ployed by the scholars, forming habits of industry, improving their powers of imitation, and storing their minds with the principles of natural and mathematical science, principles of which, for want of this mode of instruction, it is to be 130 THE BLACK-BOARD. J[f r^^M CO I* s 8P feared, too many possess only a superficial knowledge. By this method of training, much is gained and nothing lost. A remark in point I quote from a distinguished educational gentleman in the city of New York : ' Drawing is extensively taught ; and the children, so far from being impeded in their regular book exercises, have improved at least fifty per cent, faster in those exercises than they did previously ; so that draw- ing upon slates and black-boards, instead of retarding, greatly DRAWING. 131 enhances, the progress of pupils in all their studies.' The preceding plan is recommended to teach children the first lessons in Drawing previous to their using a Drawing Book. The cut is a specimen of Josiah Holbrook's Chiltfs First Book one of a series of Drawing Books for children pub- lished by J. H. Mather & Co., of Hartford, Connecticut. The first exercises are very plain, and are peculiarly adapted to the black-board. The teacher should draw one of the exercises on the black-board, and then permit the children to copy it upon their slates until it can be correctly drawn. I should commence with the parallel lines, and pro- ceed no faster than the figures can be correctly drawn. This exercise will require but little time of the teacher, and be of great benefit to the children. It will enable him to keep them pleasantly employed, and greatly assist him in gov- erning his school. The exercises should be drawn so large upon the black-board, that they may be seen in all parts of the school-room. The following engraving exhibits the method of holding the pen. It will also furnish an example for drawing. METHOD OF TEACHING READING. THAT reading has not hitherto been correctly taught in common schools, is evident from the fact, that most scholars read very badly, without appearing to understand the meaning of any thing which they read. This is owing to the want of correct instruction, to the formation of bad habits, contracted in early life, and to the want of adequate rules, clearly explained, and made intelligible to the minds of the young. The most ready way to overcome this defect, is to begin with children at a very early period, and to make them read what they do read well, to make them understand and feel what they read. They should not be allowed to read any piece which they do not understand. It would b better, far better, to drill them for a whole week on one piece, than to have them read many without understanding them. For it is not how much, but how well, they read, which should be the object of instruction. Easy and familiar lessons only should be read, till they can read them well, and give the proper expression. The true expression is the object aimed at. As the scholar can have no just idea of the nameless and ever- varying shades of expression, which give life and force to good reading, so it will often be necessary for the teacher and scholar to read over alternately the same piece or paragraph, perhaps, a number of times, till the scholar fully understands its meaning and feels its force. But, as the great mass of teachers have never studied the art of reading as a science, and know nothing of the principles on which it is founded, how can they be expected to teach correctly ? It would be just as reasonable to expect them to teach English grammar without rules, or without a suffi- cient knowledge of the subject, as correct reading. Skill and success, in both cases, depend on systematic training, founded upon correct rules. Not only are rules essential for the guidance and assistance of teachers and scholars ; but acute penetration and judgment, to discover the nice READING. 133 shades of meaning, as well as taste and feeling to embody and express it. For a complete system of rules for correct reading and speaking, see Russell and Goldsbury's series of reading books, especially the ' American School Reader/ and ' the Introduction.' OBJECTS OF BEADING. The objects of reading are twofold : 1. To gain informa- tion ; and, 2. To communicate it to others. The Jtrst object may be attained by reading silently to one's self, withfbt using the organs of speech at all ; and the best direction that can be given to the silent reader, is to be careful to understand what he reads. If there be any thing which he does not fully comprehend, he should ask some per- son to explain it to him. If he do not know the meaning of the words, he should consult a dictionary. The second object of reading can be attained only by read- ing aloud and intelligibly. The object here is to make others understand what is read. And that reading is probably the best, and certainly the most effective, which best enables others, without a book, by the mere hearing of the ear, to understand what is read, and to feel its force. Still it is proper to remark, that there are two kinds of audible reading, the grammatical and the rhetorical. Grammatical reading, like that of reading to one's self, regards the sense only of what is read. It merely requires the scholar to read correctly, according to the rules of gram- mar, but without any emotion or feeling. All he is required to do, is to 'call' his words right, and to read just as he would read a bill of sale, an invoice of goods, a deed of land, or any other legal instrument. Rhetorical reading has a higher object, and calls into action higher powers. It is not applicable to a composition destitute of emotion, for it supposes feeling. It does not barely express the thoughts of an author, but it expresses them with the force, variety, and beauty, which feeling demands. 12 134 THE BLACK-BOARD. ARTICULATION. No person can become a good reader or speaker, without first acquiring a clear and distinct articulation. This is a subject of primary importance ; and it should be strictly attended to in all our schools. A clear and distinct articula- tion is always listened to with pleasure ; but a mumbling, mouthy, or imperfect utterance is always disagreeable, if not disgusting. KULE. Articulate with due force, slowness, and exact- ness ; so that every sound of the voice may be fully and correctly formed, distinctly heard, and perfectly understood. All, ball, fall. *4rm, harm, charm. An, and, as. Rare, dare, fare. Ere, erst, earn. JSnd, ebb, ell. Jh, if, is. Eve, eel, heed. Or, orb, cord. On, off, odd. Up, hut, tuh. Ooze, moon, pool. Look, took, boot. -41e, pave, lace. .Zee, p^ne, fire. Old, foal, sowl. Owr, owt, ounce. Oil, boy, join. Use, tune, fume. Lull, loll, pull. Maim, mime, mum. Nun, nine, woun. JExercises in Articulation. 7?ap, ran, rag. Tar, tear, slur. Sing, hang, rung. Babe, babble, bubble. Did, died, dared. Valve, revolve, vivid. .Zone, zany, zest. Azure, seizure, measure. Ye, you, yet. Woe, way, war. Then, thine, than. Thin, thick, thank. Pipe, pope, peep. Tent, taught,, total. Cake, clock, click. Fife, fade, fast. Cease, cess, assists. He, Aail, Aave. fush, hush, rash. Church, cAain, cAoose. The foregoing exercises may be introduced upon the black- board, or used in any other way which the teacher chooses. It will be well to distinguish carefully between simple and BEADING. 135 compound elements, and also between subtonic and attonic elements. The terms, subtonic and attonic, nearly correspond with semivowels and mutes. COMBINATION OF CONSONANTS. J5Zame, ^ame, cfear, glow, play, sleep, spleen ; 5rave, creep, drive, free, grow, pray, spread, trust,, strike, sAroud ; small, snow, spar, stay. Hold, elf, bulk, helm, sca^p, hills, else, fault, twelve ; aim'd, huwzs, end, vans, ink, dance, ant ; bar5, herd, farm, turn, verse, wars, a,rt, curve, curb'd, lurk'd, arm'd, warm'e?, nrst, carv'd; chasm, ris'n, asp, mus, hiss'c?, stocks, act, ra&'d, waft, quajf 'd, apt, pip'd, op'n, tak'n, gard'n, riv'n, lighfn ; whi/s<, cam's, cansZ, wouldst, hearrf's^, a.rm'dst, turn'dst; aMe, maple, idle, hurl, dis- &bl'd, brid'ld, rippl'd, vforld. PRONUNCIATION. That pronunciation is correct which is sanctioned by good usage, or custom. Good usage may be regarded as a law. When it varies, as it does in some cases, we are at liberty to follow our own choice. But, when men of learning and taste agree, they establish a rule which is of binding authority. As a standard authority, perhaps we have none better than Mr. Worcester's late ' Critical Dictionary.' Common Errors in Pronunciation. The following errors should be carefully studied and cor- rected. The best method, perhaps, of correcting an error, when it has once become a habit, is to require pupils to repeat, in quick succession, first the error, and then the cor- rection, till they are made sensible of the error, and are able to correct it. Alwuz, for always ; oall, for all ; arm, for arm ; are, for are ; again, agan, agin, for again (agen) ; range, for range ; angels, for angela^Snt, for aunt ; bade, for bade ; charms, for charms ; daunt, for daunt ; kerry, for carry ; meddle, for medal ; ruther, 136 THE BLACK-BOARD. for rather ; sheer, for share ; wrop, for wr&p ; warter and woter, for water ; wawmer, for warmer ; airliest. for earliest ; airth, for earth ; idee, for idea ; haunts, for haunts ; pass, for pass. Aig, for egg ; laig, for leg ; faish and feesh, for fish ; ware, for were ; ben, for been (bin) ; noar, for nor ; lost, for lost ; onder, for under ; aice, for ice ; h<5m, for home ; sorce, for source ; ile and oayl, for Oil. Git, for get ; jine, for join ; jinte, for joint ; instid, for instead ; gether, for gather ; gineral, for general ; ginuine, for genuine ; gloris and glorus, for glorious ; hed, for had ; heerd, for heard ; hurth, for hearth ; hostile, for hostile ; holler, for hollow ; histed, for hoisted. Favorites, for favorites ; feater, for feature ; futer, for future ; furful, for fearful ; foller, for follow ; forgit, for forget ; fortin, for fortune ; feller, for fellow ; feels, for fields ; furrers, for fur- rows ; frinds, for friends ; faller, for fallow ; fopunce, for four- pence ; edercate, for educate ; entud, for entered ; exelunt, for excellent ; evry, for every. Cawn, for corn ; chist, for chest ; covnunt, for covenant ; destrict, for district ; disceit, for deceit ; deciples, for disciples ; cunfined, for confined ; cunnected, for connected ; cavuns, for caverns ; comfut, for comfort ; creater, for creature ; sullers, for cellars. Gurus, for curious ; crederlous, for credulous ; churful, for cheerful ; culter, for culture ; centry, for century ; ketch, for catch ; bile, for boil ; beyend, for beyond ; buddy, for body ; beller, for bellow ; bunnets, for bonnets ; bruthren, for breth- ren ; bawn, for born ; borrer, for borrow ; arrer, for arrow ; actooal, for actual ; annooal, for annual ; ameble, for amiable ; after, for after. Kittles, for kettles ; lecter, for lecture ; mixter, for mixture ; medders, for meadows ; momunt, for moment ; monemunt, for monument ; meller, for mellow ; nater, for nature ; natteral and natooral, for natural ; native, for native ; narrer, for narrow. Othuz, for others ; onwud, for onward ; pint, for point ; picter, for picture ; pison, for poison ; perpettual and perpetooal, for perpetual ; pered, for period ; poperlar, for popular ; posters, for postures ; paster, for pasture ; pumitted, for permitted ; piller, for pillow ; rupter, for rupture ; rapter, for rapture. Spere, for sphere ; sut, for soot ; shelter, for shutter ; swaller, for swallow ; skerce, for scarce j stawms, for storms ; sorrera, READING. 137 for sorrows ; shaller, for shallow ; stiddy, for steady ; spile, for spoil ; sarch, for search ; salitary, for salutary ; shet, for shut ; sperit, for spirit ; sitooated, for situated ; sech, for such ; shawtly, for shortly ; supprise, for surprise ; sussiety, for so- ciety; slippry, for slippery; sheppud, for shepherd; shad- ders, for shadows. Tribit, for tribute; talunts, for talents; tremenduous, for tremendous ; toomultoous, for tumultuous ; turberlunt, for tur- bulent ; travler, for traveller ; torter, for torture. Valuble, for valuable ; voilent, for violent ; verder, for ver- dure ; varus, for various ; venter, for venture ; victry, for vic- tory ; virtoos, for virtues ; vess'l, for vessel. Wuth, for worth ; winder, for window ; widder, for widow ; wawble, for warble ; wilely, for wildly ; yaller, for yellow ; taken, for tak'n ; broken, for brok'n; spoken, for spok'n; open, for op'n. Acs, for acts ; accoss, for accosts ; bustin, for bursting ; ble- vin, for believing ; bouns, for bounds ; bease, for beasts ; close, for clothes ; clus, for close ; comprehens, for comprehends ; direcly, for directly ; driffs, for drifts ; consiss, for consists ; cosly, for costly ; contrass, for contrasts. Exiss, for exists ; elemense, for elements ; exussise, for exercise ; foress, for forests ; fust, for first ; follorn, for forlorn ; feass, for feasts ; forrard, for forward ; groun, for ground ; guess, for guests ; gose, for ghosts ; bosses, for horses ; hans, for hands ; husban, for husband. Jest and just, for just ; kep, for kept ; lugsury, for luxury ; lisless, for listless ; leff, for left ; lifFs, for lifts ; mothuz, for mothers ; munz, for months ; mose, for most ; miss, for mists ; perfecly, for perfectly ; presenly, for presently ; preese, for priests ; pose, for posts ; pouns, for pounds ; prospecks, for prospects ; respecks, for respects. Sawr, for saw ; stockins, for stockings ; soffly, for softly ; sixc, for sixth ; tempess, for tempests ; thousn, for thousand ; tracks, for tracts ; thusty, for thirsty ; wishin, for wishing ; wins, for winds. The preceding are but specimens of the numerous errors which daily occur in common school reading. To avoid these and similar errors, the elementary sounds, simple and com- pound, and their combinations in syllables and words, should be frequently and carefully repeated. Let the teacher make 12* 138 THE BLACK-BOARD. such a use of the foregoing examples as, in his judgment, will secure a correct pronunciation of words. It would be well, also, to require scholars to read a few lines of every lesson back- wards, so as to prevent rapidity of utterance, and to secure attention to exactness in the formation of sounds. EXERCISES ON FORCE. Half whisper. ' Step softly ! All 's hushed as midnight, yet.' Subdued force. ' Pale mourned the lily, when the rose had died.' Gentle force. ' Give me a calm, a thankful heart, From every murmur free ! ' Moderate force. ' The acquiring of knowledge is one of the highest privi- leges, as well as one of the most important duties, of the young.' Bold force. ' Sink or swim, live or die, survive or perish, I give my hand and my heart to this vote. Independence now, and independence for ever ! ' Shouting. ' Liberty ! Freedom ! Tyranny is dead ! ' EXERCISES ON PITCH. Lowest pitch. Silence how dead ! and darkness how profound ! ' Low pitch. ' How dead the vegetable kingdom lies ! HQW dumb the tuneful ! ' READING. 133 Middle pitch. ' A tranquil mind, like the smooth lake, reflects all things in their true forms.' High pitch. ' Up ! let us to the fields away, And breathe the fresh and balmy air ! ' Very high pitch. ' Joy, joy for ever ! my task is done ; The gates are passed, and heaven is won ! ' EXERCISES ON MOVEMENT. Slowest movement. ' Creation sleeps. 'T is as the general pulse Of life stood still, and nature made a pause, An awful pause, prophetic of her end ! ' Slow movement. ' How sweet and solemn is this midnight scene ! ' Moderate movement. 1 Nothing affords so sure a support to the mind, as a firm reliance on the goodness of God.' Lively movement. 'Is this a time to be gloomy and sad, When our mother Nature laughs around ? ' Rapid movement. 1 Haste thee, nymph, and bring with thee Mirth and youthful jollity, Quips and cranks and wanton wiles, Nods and becks and wreathed smiles ! ' 140 THE BLACK-BOARD. EMPHASIS. Emphasis is a peculiar stress of the voice laid on some word or words in a sentence, in order to distinguish them from others, or to enforce their meaning. Every sentence has, at least, one emphatic word ; some sentences have more. If, in any instance, we lay the emphasis on a wrong word, or on a different word, we alter the meaning entirely. This may be illustrated by the following example : ' Shall you ride to town to-day ? ' If we lay the emphasis on shall, as 'Shall you ride to town to- day ? ' the answer may be ' Yes,' or 'No ; ' if on you, as ' Shall you ride to town to-day ? ' the answer rnay be, 'No, but my friend will;' if on ride, as ' Shall you ride to town to- day?' the answer may be, 'No, but I shall go on foot ;' if on town, as ' Shall you ride to town to-day ? ' the answer may be, 'No, but I shall go into the country ;' if on day, as ' Shall you ride to town to-day ? ' the answer may be, 'No, but I shall to-morrow.' Similar remarks may be applied to the following line of Shakspeare : 'But Brutus says he was ambitious ;' which occurs several times in Antony's oration over the dead body of Caesar. In every instance in which the line occurs, the emphasis should be varied according to the sense. Let every reader, then, be careful to give the right em- phasis. He should endeavour, not only to emphasize the right words, but to give each word its due amount of em- phasis. Too much or too little will injure the sense as effect- ually, as laying it on a wrong word, or as using no emphasis at all. Note. Appropriate pauses, correct inflections, just stress, and natural and expressive tones, are each essential to good reading. These can be acquired only by study and practice. But we have not room to treat of them here. For a knowledge of these topics, see 'The American Common-School Reader and Speaker,' by Russell and Goldsbury ; in which work will be found all the rules for correct reading and speaking. METHOD OF TEACHING COMPOSITION. LET all the pupils of suitable age and attainments be formed into a class, for the purpose of writing composition on the black-board, or on their slates. Let as many as can be conveniently accommodated at the black-board, have a- portion of the board divided off, by a chalk line, by itself; and let the remainder write on their slates. Let the pupils now be informed, that the art of composition consists in thinking accurately upon a given subject, and writing down one's thoughts. To illustrate the truth of this remark, let the teacher select some subject, or request one of the pupils to select one, on which to write. As soon as the subject is selected, the exercise begins. The teacher then directs his pupils to write down the sub- ject on the black-board, or on their slates. He then dictates what is to be written ; and they write down whatever he dic- tates. He proceeds slowly, giving out one sentence at a time, and repeating it, so as to give all an opportunity and sufficient time to write it down. ^He then gives out another sentence, and repeats it, then another, and so on, till the writing is completed. Thus far his pupils have been left free to exer- cise their own judgment with regard to the execution the spelling of the words, the use of capital letters, the punctua- tion, &c. Public criticisms are then made on each perform- ance ; all the errors are pointed out, and the rules of grammar applied. In this way, pupils will soon learn to execute correctly whatever the teacher dictates. And this is by no means a small attainment. There are comparatively few who com- plete their education at our common schools, able to write even a common letter correctly, and give it form, proportion, and beauty. Let the next exercise on the black-board be a letter ad- dressed to a friend of either sex, and the subject be ' Our school and studies.' The teacher then directs his pupils to date the letter, and explains to them what he means by it ; that he wishes them to write down, in a proper manner, on the black-board, the name of the place, the month, the day of the month, and the year. As soon as they have done this, he criticises each per- 142 THE BLACK-BOARD. formance. He then directs them to rub it out, and write it anew, in its proper place. As soon as the date is completed, he directs them to write the address in its proper place. This may be somewhat variously written, and each mode be right. Still there is a right and a wrong way, as well as a right and a wrong place, of writing the address. Having examined each performance, and determined what the address should be, and where it should be written, he proceeds to dictate what they are to write down. He gives out one sentence at a time, and repeats it, then another, and repeats it, and so on, till the writing is completed. The pupils, as in the former example, have been left free to exercise their own judgment with regard to the execution the spelling of the words, the use of capital letters, the punctuation, &c. Public criticisms are then made on each performance ; all the errors are pointed out, and the rules of grammar applied. Let the next exercise on the black-board be a farmer's till, the next, a merchant's bill, the next, a polite billet of invitation to a party. Perhaps, there is no class of composi- tions so generally incorrect as these. In each of these exer- cises, the pupils should be required to design and compose them for themselves. This will teach them to think, as well as to execute. The teacher should then criticise each per- formance, point out all the errors, and apply the rules of grammar. Let the same course of instruction be pursued, till pupils become qualified to write upon easy and familiar subjects, without the supervision of the teacher. Let them then have a subject given them to write upon ; and, at a given time, let them hand in their compositions. Every experienced teacher must have noticed what a variety of mistakes are usually made by pupils in their first attempts at this exercise. There will be errors in orthography, ety- mology, syntax, and prosody. The same pupil who, in a class of spellers, would spell every word right, will, in writing com- position, spell many of them wrong. Besides, capital letters will be out of place, the punctuation improperly used, sen- tences wrongly constructed, and the Queen's English, if not absolutely murdered, will be very much maimed and dismem- bered. To obviate all these difficulties, correct all these errors, and save much of the teacher's time, the black-board may be used to great advantage. GLOSSARY. Explanation of a few foreign words, not included among the prefixes, but which are extensively used in the formation of English words. Adeno signifies gland. Aero, air. Anemo, wind. Angio, vessel. Antho, flower. Anthropo, man. Arche, beginning. Areto, virtue. Armi, arms. Astheno, sick. Astro, star. Auto, self. Baro, weight. Belli, war. Bene, well. B5, bis, bin, two. Biblio, book. Bio, life. Botano, plant. Brachy, short. Caco, bad. Calli, beauty. Carni, flesh. Chalco, brass. Chiro, hand. Chromato, color. Chrono, time. Centu, centi, cent, hundred. Choro, place. Concho, shell. Cosmo, world. Cranio, skull. Crypto, secret. Dactylo signifies finger. Deca, ten. Demono, demon. Dendro, tree. Doxo, opinion. Duo, du, two. Entero, bowels. Entomo, insect. Equi, equal. Etio, cause. Ethno, people. Etho, ethic. Etymo, root. Eucho, prayer. Eu, well. Fratri, brother. Genia, race. Genethlia, natal. Geo, earth. Glosso, tongue. Glypho, engraving. Glypto, gem. Gnomo, maxim. Hagio, holy. Helio, sun. Hepta, seven. Hexa, hex, six. Helmintho, worm. Hetero, another. Hiero, sacred. Homo, similar. Horo, hour. Horti, garden. 144 THE BLACK-BOARD. Ichno signifies- -footstep. Icono, image. Ichthyo, fish. Infra, below. Juris, legal. Lexico, dictionary. Litho, stone. Loco, place. Logo, word. Macro, long. Manto, robe. Manu, hand. Matri, mother. Meno, month. Micro, small. Mille, thousand. Mimo, mimic. Mono, one. Myco, fungus. Myo, muscle. Mytho, fable. Multi, many. Necro, dead. Neo, new. Neuro, nerve. Noct, night. Non, ne, not. Noso, disease. Nulli, none, no. Octa, octo, oct, eight. Omni, all. Onto, being. Ornitho, fowl. Ortho, right. Osteo, ossi, bone. Ourano, heaven. Pan, panto, all. Pantheo, all the gods. Paradox,- -against opinion. Patho, suffering. Patri, parri, father. Penta, five. Petro * V signifies stone. Pharmaco, medicine. Philo, phil, love. Phraseo, phrase. Phreno, mind. Phono, sound. Photo, light. Physico, physio, natural. Phyto, plant. Pleni, full. Pneumato, fluid. Poly, many. Proto, first. Pseudo, false. Psycho, soul. Pyro, fire. Quad, four. Recti, right. Regi, king. Satis, enough. Sceno, scene. Seleno, moon. Septem, sept, seven. Sex, six. Sine, without. Somato, body. Soli, one. Stegano, secret. Steno, short. Stereo, solid. Tauto, same. Techno, art. Tele, end. Tetra, four. Theo, God. Topo, place. Tri, tres, three. Typo, letter. Uni, one. Veri, true. Xylo, wood. Zoo, animal. m THE LIBRARY UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA Santa Barbara THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE STAMPED BELOW. VALUABLE SCHOOL BOOKS, PUBLISHED BY GEORGE TILBEBf, KEENE, KT. H. AND FOR SALE BY ALL THE BOOKSELLERS. NORTH AMERICAN SPELLING BOOK: Conformed to Worcester's Dictionary. By the Author of the ' Sequel to Easy Lessons.' Revised and Enlarged Edition. From Hon. J. Parker, Judge of the Superior Court of New Ham): I have examined the North American Spelling Book, by Rev. L. W. Leonard, and commend it to the favorable notice of parents and instructors. The arrangement of the lessons will, in my opinion, make the progress of the pupil much more easy, and must render the work a valuable acquisition. This little work is somewhat beyond the range of our accustomed studies. But we cannot deny ourselves the satisfaction of saying, that as far as we are able to form an idea of what a spelling book should be, this is precisely that thing. North America it Ilevietc, Jan. 1837. We consider it better adapted to small children than any spelling book which has ever fallen into our hands ; and our experience in these books has been considerable. Its author and publisher deserve well of commu- nity for its existence ; for the spelling book is the ' king bee ' in all our com- mon schools, and he who excels in furnishing the best, does a great good to millions. Courier and Enquirer. SEQUEL TO EASY LESSONS: A Selection of Reading Lessons, for Common Schools ; de- signed to be used after Easy Lessons, American Popular Lessons, Boston Reading Lessons, &c. By Rev. LEVI W. LEONARD, Author of the Literary and Scientific Class Book. KP" The first edition of four thousand copies was all sold in seven months. The selections are such as will highly interest the scholar, and, with few exceptions, are not found in other school bdoks. From Rev. Z. S. Barstow, of Keene. It is such a book as was much needed, being adapted to the und ing of the young, and suited to convey, in an easy and interesting manner, interesting information, and to promote the love of literature. From Rev. A. A. Livermore, of Keene. The work is fitted to interest the feelings and refine the taste and morals of the young. It is a little pot of honey, for their mental appetite. The : ions are made from the best writers for juvenile readers, on both sides of the water, and are abridged and arranged by one whose sound judgment in relation to schools and school books is unimpeachable.