ON 
 
 A FRESH REVISION 
 
 OF THE 
 
 ENGLISH NEW TESTAMENT. 
 
ON 
 
 A FRESH REVISION 
 
 OF THE 
 
 ENGLISH NEW TESTAMENT 
 
 BY THE LATE 
 
 JOSEPH BARBER LIGHTFOOT, D.D., D.C.L., LL.D., 
 
 LORD BISHOP OF DURHAM 
 
 REPRINTED 
 
 WITH AN ADDITIONAL APPENDIX ON THE 
 LAST PETITION OF THE LORD'S PRAYER 
 
 PUBLISHED BY THE TRUSTEES OF THE LIGHTFOOT FUND 
 
 Uon&on 
 MACMILLAN AND CO. 
 
 AND NEW YORK 
 1891 
 
 All Rights reserved 
 
First Edition 1871 
 Second Edition 1872 
 Third Edition 1891 
 
 CAMBRIDGE: PRINTED BY c. j. CLAY, M.A. AND SONS, 
 
 AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS. 
 
B-S 25/7 
 
 L 5-3 
 
 i *?/ 
 
 PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. 
 
 TOURING the last summer, immediately before 
 "-^ the Company appointed for the Revision of 
 the English New Testament held its first sitting, I 
 was invited to read a paper on the subject before a 
 Clerical meeting. Finding that I had already written 
 more than I could venture to read even to a very 
 patient and considerate audience, and receiving a 
 request from my hearers at the conclusion that the 
 paper should be printed, I determined to revise the 
 whole and make additions to it before publication. 
 The result is the present volume. Owing to various 
 interruptions its appearance has been delayed much 
 longer than I had anticipated. 
 
 This statement of facts was perhaps needed to 
 justify the appearance of a book, which as occupying 
 well-known ground cannot urge the plea of novelty, 
 which has many imperfections in form, and which 
 
 466 
 
VI PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. 
 
 makes no pretensions to completeness. At all events 
 it appeared necessary to be thus explicit, in order to 
 show that I alone am responsible for any expressions 
 of opinion contained in this volume, and that they 
 do not (except accidentally) represent the views of 
 the Company of which I am a member. In preparing 
 the original paper for the press, I have been careful 
 not to go beyond verbal alterations, where I was dis- 
 cussing the prospects of the new Revision or the 
 principles which in my opinion ought to guide it 
 On the other hand, I have not scrupled to develope 
 these principles freely, and to add fresh illustrations 
 from time to time: but in most cases this has been 
 done without any knowledge of the opinion of the 
 majority of the Company ; and in the comparatively 
 few instances where this opinion has become known 
 to me, I have expressed my own individual judg- 
 ment, which might or might not accord therewith. 
 
 I ought to add also that I am quite prepared to 
 find on consultation with others, that some of the 
 suggestions offered here are open to objections which 
 I had overlooked, and which might render them im- 
 practicable in a Version intended for popular use, 
 whatever value they may have from a scholar's point 
 of view. 
 
 The hopeful anticipations, which I had ventured 
 to express before the commencement of the work, 
 
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. Vll 
 
 have been more than realized hitherto in its progress. 
 On this point I have not heard a dissentient voice 
 among members of the Company. I believe that all 
 who have taken part regularly in the work will 
 thankfully acknowledge the earnestness, moderation, 
 truthfulness, and reverence, which have marked the 
 deliberations of the Company, and which seem to 
 justify the most sanguine auguries. 
 
 This feeling contrasts strangely with the outcry 
 which has been raised against the work by those who 
 have had no opportunity of witnessing its actual 
 progress, who have been disturbed by rumours of its 
 results either wholly false or only partially true, and 
 who necessarily judging on a priori grounds have 
 been ready to condemn it unheard. This panic was 
 perhaps not unnatural, and might have been antici- 
 pated. Meanwhile however other dangers from an 
 unforeseen quarter have threatened the progress of 
 the Revision; but these are now happily averted. 
 And, so far as present appearances can be trusted, 
 the momentary peril has resulted in permanent good ; 
 for the Company has been taught by the danger 
 which threatened it to feel its own strength and co- 
 herence; and there is every prospect that the work 
 will be brought happily and successfully to a con- 
 clusion. 
 
 Great misunderstanding seems to prevail as to the 
 
vili PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. 
 
 ultimate reception of the work. The alarm which 
 has been expressed in some quarters can only be 
 explained by a vague confusion of thought, as 
 though the Houses of Convocation, while solemnly 
 pledged to the furtherance of the work on definite 
 conditions, were also pledged to its ultimate recep- 
 tion whether good or bad. If the distinction had 
 been kept in view, it is difficult to believe that there 
 would have been even a momentary desire to repu- 
 diate the obligations of a definite contract. The 
 Houses of Convocation are as free, as the different 
 bodies of Nonconformists represented in the Com- 
 panies, to reject the Revised Version, when it appears, 
 if it is not satisfactory. I do not suppose that any 
 member of either Company would think of claiming 
 any other consideration for the work, when completed, 
 than that it shall be judged by its intrinsic merits; 
 but on the other hand they have a right to demand 
 that it shall be laid before the Church and the people 
 of England in its integrity, and that a verdict shall 
 be pronounced upon it as a whole. 
 
 I cannot close these remarks without expressing 
 my deep thankfulness that I have been allowed to 
 take part in this work of Revision. I have spent 
 many happy and profitable hours over it, and made 
 many friends who otherwise would probably have 
 remained unknown to me. Even though the work 
 
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. IX 
 
 should be terminated abruptly to-morrow, I for one 
 should not consider it lost labour. 
 
 In choosing my examples I have generally avoided 
 dwelling on passages which have been fully discussed 
 by others; but it was not possible to put the case 
 fairly before the public without venturing from time 
 to time on preoccupied ground, though in such in- 
 stances I have endeavoured to tread as lightly as 
 possible. 
 
 The discussion in the Appendix 1 perhaps needs 
 some apology. Though it has apparently no very 
 direct bearing on the main subject of the volume, yet 
 the investigation was undertaken in the first instance 
 with a view to my work as a reviser; and hoping 
 that the results might contribute towards permanently 
 fixing the meaning of an expression, which occurs 
 in the most familiar and most sacred of all forms of 
 words, and which nevertheless has been and still is 
 variously interpreted, I gladly seized this opportunity 
 of placing them on record. 
 
 TRINITY COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE, 
 April 3, 1871. 
 
 1 Appendix I. in the Third Edition [1891]. 
 L. R. 
 
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. 
 
 second edition is in all essential respects a 
 reprint of the first. A few errors have been corrected, 
 and one or two unimportant additions made, but the new 
 matter altogether would not occupy more than a page. 
 
 The reception accorded to this book has taken me by 
 surprise, and the early call for a new edition would have 
 prevented me from making any great changes, even if I had 
 felt any desire to do so. To my critics, whether public or 
 private, I can only return my very sincere thanks for their 
 generous welcome of a work of whose imperfections the 
 author himself must be only too conscious. 
 
 From this expression of gratitude I see no reason to 
 except the critique of Mr Earle 1 in a letter addressed to the 
 editor of the Guardian ; but I am sure that he will pardon 
 me if, while thankfully acknowledging the friendly tone of 
 his letter, I venture entirely to dissent from a principle of 
 translation to which he has lent the authority of his name. 
 
 In fact he has attacked the very position in my work, 
 which I confidently held, and still hold, to be impregnable. 
 I had laid it down as a rule (subject of course to special 
 exceptions) that, where the same word occurs in the same 
 
 1 Now Professor of Anglo-Saxon in the University of Oxford. 
 
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. XI 
 
 context in the original, it should be rendered by the same 
 equivalent in the Version (p. 36 sq.); or, as Mr Earle ex- 
 presses it, that 'a verbal repetition in English should be 
 employed to represent a verbal repetition in the Greek.' 
 Mr Earle (I will employ his own words) would reverse this, 
 and say that in many of my details he would practically 
 come to my conclusion, but that the principle itself, with 
 all the speciousness of its appearance, is essentially unsound. 
 This position he endeavours to establish by arguments, 
 which I feel bound to meet, for I consider the principle 
 which he assails to be essential to a thoroughly good 
 translation. 
 
 If, notwithstanding our opposite points of view, we had 
 arrived at the same results, or, in other words, if Mr Earle's 
 exceptions to his principle of variety were coextensive or 
 nearly coextensive with my own applications of my principle 
 of uniformity, I should have felt any discussion of his views 
 to be superfluous ; for then, so far as regards any practical 
 issues, the difference between us would have been reduced 
 to a mere battle of words. But when I find that Mr Earle 
 defends such a rendering as Matt, xviii. 33, 'Shouldest not 
 thou also have had compassion (eXe^o-at) on thy fellow- 
 servant, even as I had/#>> (qA.e>?<ra) on thee?', I feel that the 
 difference between us is irreconcilable. Indeed I had 
 vainly thought that my illustrations (with one or two doubtful 
 exceptions) would carry conviction in themselves; and I 
 confess myself a little surprised to find their cogency 
 questioned by an English scholar of Mr Earle's eminence. 
 
 But, lest I should be misunderstood, let me say at the 
 outset that I entirely agree with Mr Earle in deprecating 
 
xii PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. 
 
 the mode of procedure which would substitute ' the fidelity 
 of a lexicon' for 'the faithfulness of a translation.' I am 
 well aware that this is a real danger to careful minds trained 
 in habits of minute verbal criticism, and I always have 
 raised and shall raise my voice against any changes which 
 propose to sacrifice forcible English idiom to exact con- 
 formity of expression. For instance, it would be mere 
 pedantry to substitute 'Do not ye rather excel them?' for 
 'Are not ye much better than they ?' in Matt. vi. 26 (ov^ v/xcis 
 /mAAov Sleeper* avrwv) ; or ' The hour hath approached/ 
 for ' The hour is at hand,' in Matt. xxvi. 45 (ijyyi/cev 17 wpa). 
 But the point at issue seems to me to be wholly different, 
 I cannot for a moment regard this as a question of English 
 idiom ; and my objection to the variety of rendering which 
 Mr Earle advocates is that it does depart from ' the faithful- 
 ness of a translation' and substitutes, not indeed the fidelity 
 of a lexicon, but the caprice of a translator. 
 
 Mr Earle says ' The stronghold of the Greek (I do not 
 speak of Plato and Demosthenes, but of the New Testa- 
 ment) is in the words: the stronghold of the English 
 language is in its phraseology and variability.' This is not 
 the distinction which I should myself give between the 
 characteristics of the two languages. Even in its later 
 stages the wealth of particles, the power of inflexion and 
 composition, and the manifold possibilities of order, still 
 constitute the peculiar superiority of the Greek over the 
 English. But it matters little whether I am right or wrong 
 here, for the objections to Mr Earle's practical inferences 
 are equally strong in either case. He first of all alleges 
 examples where synonyms are coupled in English, and more 
 
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. Xlll 
 
 especially in rendering from another language, as for 
 instance in Chaucer's translation of Boethius' De Con- 
 solatione Philosophiae, where daritudo is rendered 'renoun 
 and clernesse of linage-,' and censor 'domesman or juge'; 
 and he then urges that as this method of double rendering 
 was 'manifestly inadmissible in translating scripture,' 'the 
 translators fell upon a device by which they allowed some 
 play to the natural bent of the English language; and 
 where a Greek word occurs repeatedly in a context, they 
 rather leaned to a variation of the rendering.' 
 
 Now it is one thing to give a double rendering to a 
 single word at any one occurrence ; and another to give it 
 two different renderings at two different occurrences in the 
 same context. The two principles have nothing in common. 
 In the former case the translation will at the worst be 
 clumsy; in the latter it must in many cases be absolutely 
 misleading. For by splitting up the sense of the word and 
 giving one-half to one part of the sentence and the remain- 
 ing half to the other, a disconnexion, perhaps even a con- 
 trast, is introduced, which has no place in the original. If 
 therefore the English on any occasion furnishes no exact 
 and coextensive equivalent for a given Greek word as used 
 in a given context (and this difficulty must occur again 
 and again in translation from any language to another), it 
 will generally be the less evil of the two to select the word 
 which comes nearest in meaning to the original and to 
 retain this throughout. 
 
 But the examples of capricious varieties which I had 
 chosen to illustrate this vicious principle of translation, and 
 which Mr Earle is prepared to defend, cannot in most cases 
 
 L. R. b 
 
XIV PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. 
 
 plead this justification, that a single English word does not 
 adequately represent the Greek. It would require far more 
 minute scholarship than I possess to discern any difference 
 in meaning between mos and ' son.' Yet Mr Earle stands 
 forward as the champion of the rendering in Matt. xx. 20, 
 ' Then came to him the mother of Zebedee's children (viv) 
 with her sons (won/).' The particular rendering is compara- 
 tively unimportant in itself; but as illustrating the capricious 
 license of our translators it is highly significant. It introduces 
 a variety for no reason at all : and this variety is incorrect 
 in itself; for 'the mother of Zebedee's children' is a wider 
 expression than 'the mother of Zebedee's sons,' by which 
 the Evangelist intends only to describe her as the mother of 
 James and John with whom the narrative is concerned, and 
 which neither implies nor suggests the existence of other 
 brothers and sisters. 
 
 Again, Mr Earle is satisfied and more than satisfied 
 with the rendering of Matt, xviii. 33, 'Shouldest not thou also 
 have had compassion (eXe^o-at) on thy fellow-servant, even 
 as I had//?? (iJAeqo-a) on thee ?' ' If,' he asks, ' we compare 
 our "compassion pity" with the one Greek word, what 
 loss is there in the variation? Is there not a gain in 
 breadth ? ' I answer, a very serious loss ; and I do not 
 allow that breadth (or, as I prefer to call it, looseness) is 
 any gain, where exact correspondence in the two clauses is 
 essential to the main idea of the passage. What would be 
 said, if I were to suggest such translations as ' Blessed are 
 the pitiful (eA^'/Aoves), for they shall obtain mercy (fXeqOij- 
 o-ovrat) ' in Matt. v. 7, or 'If ye forgive (a^prc) not men 
 their trespasses (TrapaTTTw/Aara), neither will your heavenly 
 
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. XV 
 
 Father remit (dtfrrjcrei) your transgressions (TrapaTrrw/taTa)' in 
 Matt. vi. 15, or 'Be ye therefore faultless (reAeioi) as your 
 Father which is in heaven is perfect (re'Aeios)' in Matt. v. 
 48 ? I do not doubt that if these passages had been so 
 translated in our Authorised Version, the variations would 
 have found admirers : but, as it is, who will question the 
 vast superiority of the existing renderings, where the 
 repetition of the English word corresponds to the repeti- 
 tion of the Greek? In all these passages the thought is 
 one and the same ; that the ideal of human conduct is the 
 exact copying of the Divine. In the other examples quoted 
 our translators have preserved this thought unimpaired by 
 repeating the same word, but in Matt, xviii. 33 it is marred 
 by the double rendering 'compassion, pity' : while the idea 
 of l fellow-te\mg\ which is implied in 'compassion' and in 
 which the chief fault lies, has no place in the original 
 
 Again, Mr Earle defends the double rendering of 
 s in i Cor. xii. 4, ' There are diversities of gifts, 
 but the same Spirit ; and there are differences of adminis- 
 trations, but the same Lord; and there are diversities of 
 operations, but it is the same God etc.,' and seems even 
 to regret the abandonment of Tyndale's triple rendering, 
 diversities, differences, divers manners. What again, I ask, 
 would be said, if I were to propose to translate 2 Cor. xi. 26 
 ' In perils of waters, in dangers from robbers, in perils by 
 mine own countrymen, in dangers from the heathen, in 
 hazards in the city, in hazards in the wilderness, etc.,' 
 thus gaining breadth by varying the rendering of /avSvVots ? 
 Happily conservative feeling in this instance is enlisted on 
 
 b2 
 
XVI PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. 
 
 the right side, and it may be presumed that no change will 
 be desired. But, so far as I can see, the two cases are exactly 
 analogous ; the effect of the sentence in each case depending 
 on the maintenance of the same word, which arrests the 
 ear and produces its effect by repetition, like the tolling of 
 a bell or the stroke on an anvil. Indeed I must conclude 
 that my mind is differently constituted from Mr Earle's, 
 when I find him defending the translation of James ii. 
 2, 3 * If there come unto your assembly a man with a gold 
 ring in goodly apparel (o> laOrfn Xa/xTrpot) and there come 
 in also a poor man in vile raiment (iaBfjri), and ye have 
 respect unto him that weareth the gay clothing (rrjv co-Orjra 
 njv Xa/x7rpav) etc.' Not only do I regard the variation here 
 as highly artificial (a sufficient condemnation in itself), but 
 it seems to me to dissipate the force of the passage, and 
 therefore I am prepared to submit to the ' cruel impoverish- 
 ment' by which the English would be made to conform to 
 the simplicity of the Greek. Nor again am I able to see 
 why in Rev. xvii. 6 c0av/Acura Gav^a /u,eya, 'I wondered 
 with great admiration' is to be preferred to the natural 
 rendering 'I wondered with great wonder] as in i Thess. 
 iii. 9 7rt TraoTy r x a p 5 x */ 30 /* 61 ' ^ VJJWLS is translated ' for 
 all the joy wherewith we/<ry for your sakes', and not 'for 
 all the gladness' In this passage from the Revelation the 
 words immediately following (ver. 7) run in the English 
 Version, 'And the angel said unto me, Wherefore didst 
 thou marvel (e'&xv/xcwras) ?', where by the introduction of a 
 third rendering a still further injury is inflicted on the 
 compactness of the passage. 
 
 So far with regard to the sense. But Mr Earle urges 
 
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. XV11 
 
 that the sound must be consulted; that the ear, for in- 
 stance, requires the variations compassion, pity, in Matt, 
 xviii. 33, and wonder, admiration (he omits to notice 
 marvel} in Rev. xvii. 6, 7 ; that generally there is this ' broad 
 modulatory distinction between the ancient tongues and 
 the great modern languages of Western Europe that the 
 former could tolerate reverberation to a degree which is in- 
 tolerable to the latter ; ' and that { perhaps there is not one of 
 them that is more sensitive in this respect than the English.' 
 In reply to this, I will ask my readers whether there is 
 anything unpleasant to the ear in the frequent repetition of 
 'perils' in the passage already quoted, 2 Cor. xi. 26, or of 
 'blessed' in the beatitudes, Matt. v. 3 n. But this last 
 reference suggests an application of the experimental test 
 on a larger scale. I should find it difficult (and I venture 
 to hope that Mr Earle will agree with me here) to point to 
 any three continuous chapters in the New Testament, which 
 are at once so vigorously and faithfully rendered, and in 
 which the rhythm and sound so entirely satisfy the ear, as 
 those which make up the Sermon on the Mount. Indeed this 
 portion of our Authorised Version deserves to be regarded as 
 a very model of successful translation. What then are the 
 facts ? In the original the reverberation is sustained through- 
 out, beginning with the beatitudes and ending with the 
 closing parable, so that there are not many verses without 
 an instance, while some contain two or three. Happily in 
 our Authorised Version this characteristic is faithfully re- 
 produced. The temptation to capricious variety to which our 
 translators elsewhere give way is here foregone ; and indeed 
 the whole number of the repetitions in the English is slightly 
 
XVlil PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. 
 
 greater than in the Greek : for though either from inadver- 
 tence or from the exigencies of translation one is dropped 
 here and there (e.g. Aa'/xTrei, Xa^drw, giveth light, shine, 
 v. 15, 16; bring, offer, Trpocr^epfls, wpoV^epe, v. 23, 24; 
 oXcXv/Jtci/^v, put away, divorced, v. 31, 32 ; 
 , opKovs, forswear, oaths, v. 33 ; a<aviovo-i, <a- 
 VOKTI, disfigure, appear, vi. 16; Grja-avpL&Tc, flrjo-avpovs, /<2j; 
 #/, treasures, vi. 19; TrcpiejSaXeTo, 7repi/3aXw/*,0a, arrayed, 
 clothed, vi. 29, 31; /Aerpw, /xerpctrc, measure, mete, (?) vii. 2; 
 wKoSo'/^o-o/, ouu'av, /7/, ^02^, vii. 24) yet on the other 
 hand the balance is more than redressed by the same ren- 
 dering of different words in other parts (e. g. light, KCUOVO-IV, 
 Aa/MTCt, <<Ss, V. 14 16; fulfil, irX^pwo-ai, yeV^rat, v. 17, 18; 
 righteousness repeated, though SiKaioo-w^ occurs only once 
 in the original, v. 20 ; whosoever, iras c c , 05 av, v. 22 ; divorce- 
 ment, divorced, dTroorao-iov, aTroXeAv/xei/^v, v. 31, 32 ; forswear, 
 swear, eTriopfoJaeis, o/xoom, v. 33, 34; reward, purQov, O.TTO- 
 Soxrfi, vi. 2, 4, 5, 6, 1 6, 1 8 ; streets, pv/xai?, 7rAaT3v, vi. 2, 5 ; 
 day, daily, o-^epov, ITTIOVCTIOV, vi. 1 1 ; /^/, Xvx vo9 > <#>wTtvov, 
 </>ws, vi. 22, 23 ; raiment, arrayed, ci/Sv/xaro?, 7repie/3aA.eTO, vi. 
 28, 29; clothe, clothed, d^iivvuvw, TreptjSaXw/Me^a, vi. 30, 31 ; 
 good, ayaflov, KaXovs, vii. 17, 18; ^^/, 7rpo(r7r(rav, Trpoo'e- 
 Kofav, vii. 25, 27). If my readers are of opinion that the 
 general method adopted by our translators in the Sermon 
 on the Mount is faulty, and that these three chapters would 
 have gained by greater breadth and variety, I have nothing 
 more to say ; but, if they are satisfied with this method, then 
 they have conceded everything for which I am arguing 1 . 
 
 1 I confess myself quite unable to follow Mr Earle's logic, when he 
 criticises what I had said of the Rheims Version. My words are (p. 49), 
 
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. XIX 
 
 But Mr Earle proceeds : ' There is no end to the curio- 
 sities of scholarship and the perilous minutiae that such a 
 principle may lead to, if it is persevered in'; and by way of 
 illustration he adds, * Dr Lightfoot seems to ignore what I 
 should have regarded as an obvious fact, that it is hardly 
 possible in modern English to make a play upon words 
 compatible with elevation of style. It was compatible with 
 solemnity in Hebrew and also in the Hebrew-tinctured Greek 
 of the New Testament ; but in English it is not. Explain 
 it as you may, the fact is palpable. Does it not tax all our 
 esteem for Shakspeare to put up with many a passage of 
 which in any other author we should not hesitate to say 
 that it was deformed and debased by a jingle of word- 
 sounds ?' 
 
 To this I answer fearlessly that I certainly do desire to 
 see the play of words retained in the English Version, 
 wherever it can be done without forcing the English. I be- 
 
 'Of all the English Versions the Rhemish alone has paid attention 
 to this point, and so far compares advantageously with the rest, to 
 which in most other respects it is confessedly inferior.' On this he 
 remarks ; ' It is certainly unfortunate for our author's position that by 
 his own showing the version which has kept to his principle should 
 nevertheless be confessedly inferior in most other respects, including, as 
 I apprehend, the highest respects that can affect our judgment of a 
 version of Holy Scripture. To put this admission with the clearness 
 due to its importance ; the Rheims Version is the best, in that it has 
 observed our author's principle : but as a rendering of Scripture it is the 
 worst.' Why unfortunate? Does experience suggest that the man 
 or the book that is right on five points out of six, must be right on 
 the sixth point also? Does it not rather lead us to expect some ele- 
 ment of right in the most wrong and some element of wrong in the 
 most right ? 
 
XX PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. 
 
 lieve that our translators acted rightly when they rendered 
 Xpw/xevoi, Karaxpw/xcvot, by use, abuse in i Cor. vii. 31;! 
 believe that they were only wrong in translating /cara-To/x^, 
 TrepiTo//^', concision, circumcision^ in Phil. iii. 2, 3, because the 
 former is hardly a recognised English word and would not 
 be generally understood. I freely confess that in many 
 cases, perhaps in most cases, the thing cannot be done ; but 
 I am sorry for it 1 . I cannot for a moment acquiesce in 
 
 1 On my suggestion that in 2 Thess. iii. 1 1 the play on epyafoptvovs, 
 irepiepyafrfjitvovs, might be preserved by the words business, busy-bodies, 
 Mr Earle remarks ; ' As a matter of history the word business has no 
 radical connection with busy: it is merely a disguised form of the 
 French besognes. This is however a secondary matter, because if the 
 word-play be desirable as a matter of English taste, these words would 
 answer the purpose just as well as if their affinity were quite esta- 
 blished.' Without hazarding any opinion on a question on which Mr 
 Earle is so much more competent to speak than myself, I would ven- 
 ture to remark : (i) That the direct derivation of business from busy is 
 maintained by no less an authority than Jacob Grimm, Deutsche Gram- 
 matik, ii. p. 237 sq. ; (2) That other authorities maintain (whether 
 rightly or wrongly I do not venture to say) the radical connexion of 
 the Teutonic words busy (Engl.), bezig (Dutch), with the Romance 
 words besogne, bisogna ; and (3) That this very play of words occurs in 
 the earliest English translations of the Scriptures, the Wycliffite Ver- 
 sions, in i Cor. vii. 32, * I wole you for to be withoute bisynesse (d/xe/>{/4- 
 wus, Vulg. sine sollicitudine). Sothli he that is withoute wyf is bysy 
 (fj.fpifotq., Vulg. sollicitus est) what thingis ben of the Lord.' 
 
 Mr Earle remarks that in 2 Thess. iii. n 'Even the Rheims Version 
 keeps clear of this (the play of words) : it has "working nothing, but 
 curiously meddling.'" The fact is that after its wont it has translated 
 the Vulgate Nihil operantes sed curiose agentes,' in which this cha- 
 racteristic of the original has disappeared. 
 
 This paronomasia is not confined to S. Paul but occurs also in Ari- 
 
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. XXI 
 
 Mr Earle's opinion, that it is incompatible with * solemnity,' 
 with * elevation of style.' Above all I repudiate the notion, 
 which seems to underlie whole paragraphs of Mr Earle's 
 critique, that it is the business of a translator, when he 
 is dealing with the Bible, to improve the style of his author, 
 having before my eyes the warning examples of the past, 
 and believing that all such attempts will end in discom- 
 fiture 1 . Is it not one great merit of our English Version, 
 
 stides II. p. 418 TttOra ef/ryao-Tcu /*&... Trepiei/rycurrcu 3 /XTjSa/tws, just as 
 the Apostle's Qpovew, ffuQpovew (Rom. xii. 3) has a parallel in a passage 
 quoted by Stobseus as from Charondas Floril. xliv. 40 Trpoo-iroielada) 
 5 &ca<rros ruv TTO\ITW crbxppoveiv fta\\ov rj <f>poveij>. 
 
 1 The anxiety to impart dignity to the language of the Apostles 
 and Evangelists reaches a climax in A Liberal Translation of the New 
 Testament, being an attempt to translate the Sacred Writings with the 
 same Freedom, Spirit and Elegance with which other English Transla- 
 tions from the Greek Classics have lately been executed : by E. Harwood, 
 London, 1 768. In this strange production the following is a sample of 
 S. Luke's narrative (xi. 40), 'Absurd and preposterous conduct ! Did not 
 the Great Being, who made the external form, create the internal intel- 
 lectual powers and will He not be more solicitous for the purity of the 
 mind than for the showy elegance of the body?' and this again of S. 
 John's (iii. 32), ' But though this exalted personage freely publishes and 
 solemnly attests those heavenly doctrines, etc.' The parable of the 
 prodigal son in the former begins (xv. 1 1), 'A gentleman of splendid 
 family and opulent fortune had two sons.' Even Dr Johnson himself, 
 the great master of grandiloquent English, could not tolerate this 
 book. * Returning through the house,' we are told, * he stepped into 
 a small study or book-room. The first book he laid his hands upon 
 was Harwood's Liberal Translation of the New Testament. The pas- 
 sage which first caught his eye was that sublime apostrophe in S. John 
 upon the raising of Lazarus Jesus wept, which Harwood had conceitedly 
 rendered And Jesus, the Saviour of the world, burst into afiood of tears. 
 
XX11 PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. 
 
 regarded as a literary work, that it has naturalised in our 
 language the magnificent Hebraisms of the original ? But 
 the case before us is even stronger than this. The paronomasia 
 is a characteristic of S. Paul's style, and should be repro- 
 duced (so far as the genius of the English language permits) 
 like any other characteristic. That it is admissible, the 
 example of Shakespeare which Mr Earle adduces, and that 
 of Tennyson, whose 'name and fame' he himself has already 
 quoted and who abounds in similar examples of alliteration 
 and assonance, not to mention other standard writers whether 
 of the Elizabethan or of the Victorian era, are sufficient 
 evidence. I am not concerned to defend Shakespeare's 
 literary reputation, which may be left to itself; and I have 
 certainly no wish to maintain that he was entirely free from 
 the affectations of his age : but I am unfeignedly surprised 
 to find plays on words condemned wholesale, as incom- 
 patible with elevation of style. Under certain circum- 
 stances, paronomasia, alliteration, and the like, are not only 
 very natural, but, as indicating intensity of feeling, may 
 produce even a tragic effect With the appreciation of a 
 
 He contemptuously threw the book aside, exclaiming " Puppy ! '" (Ap- 
 pendix to Boswell's Life of Johnson, in Croker's edition, London, 1866, 
 p. 836). Johnson's biographer, Boswell, speaks of it as ' a fantastical 
 translation of the New Testament in modern phrase' (p. 506). See also 
 Mr Matthew Arnold's opinion (quoted below p. 2 10 sq.) on a very similar 
 attempt at a revised version by Franklin. I am quite sure that Mr 
 Earle's suffrage would be on the same side ; but, when he asks that the 
 distinctive features of the sacred writers may be sacrificed to ' elevation 
 of style ' and pleads that the language may be made more ' full-bodied* 
 to suit * the public taste ' than it is in the original, is he not leading us, 
 though by a different road, to the edge of the very same precipice ? 
 
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. XX111 
 
 great genius Shakespeare himself has explained and justi- 
 fied their use under such circumstances. When John of 
 Gaunt, in his last illness, is visited by Richard, and in reply 
 to the king's enquiry keeps harping on his name, 
 Old Gaunt indeed and gaunt in being old, 
 the king asks, 
 
 Can sick men play so nicely with their names? 
 The old man's answer is, 
 
 No; misery makes sport to mock itself. 
 
 The very intensity of his grief seeks relief in this way 1 . 
 
 Again, who will question the propriety of the play on 
 words in Queen Elizabeth's outburst of anger against Glou- 
 cester after the murder of her children ? 
 
 Cousins, indeed ; and by their uncle cozen'd 
 Of comfort, kingdom, kindred, freedom, life. 
 
 The very fierceness of her wrath seeks expression in the 
 iteration of the same sounds. 
 
 And in cases where no intensity of passion exists, there 
 may be some other determining motive. Thus we find a 
 tendency in all languages to repetition of sound, where a 
 didactic purpose is served Of this motive the fondness for 
 rhyme, alliteration, and the like, in the familiar proverbs of 
 all languages, affords ample illustration, as in Waste not, 
 want not, Forewarned, forearmed, Man proposes, God disposes, 
 Compendia dispendia, TraOtj^ara fta^/xara. To this cate- 
 gory we may assign S. Paul's py i,Vep<poi/etv Trap' o Set 
 
 1 Similarly Cicero, speaking of the Sicilians playing on the name 
 of Verres, says (Verr. Act. ii. i. 46) 'etiam ridiculi inveniebantur ex 
 dolore? 
 
XXIV PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. 
 
 <J>poveiv, aAAa <poveTi> eis TO a<i)<j>poveiv (Rom. xii. 3). In- 
 deed it would not be difficult to show that in every instance 
 the Apostle had some reason for employing this figure, 
 and that he did not use it as a mere rhetorical plaything. 
 We may find ourselves unable in any individual case to 
 reproduce the same effect in English, and thus may be 
 forced to abandon the attempt in despair ; but not the less 
 earnestly shall we protest against the principle that the 
 genius of our language requires us to abstain from the 
 attempt under any circumstances, and that a form of 
 speech, which is natural in itself and common to all 
 languages, must be sacrificed to some fancied ideal of an 
 elevated style. 
 
 TRINITY COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE, 
 S.John's Day, 1871. 
 
PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION. 
 
 TO this edition has been added a reprint (p. 269 sq.) 
 of three articles which appeared in the Guardian 
 newspaper on the last petition of the Lord's Prayer. 
 Their appearance here in their existing form seems to 
 require a few words of explanation. The articles were 
 called forth by a pamphlet published by the late Canon 
 Cook 1 , criticizing the translation of this petition which 
 had been adopted in the Revised Version. The Bishop 
 intended to rewrite the articles entirely, adding further 
 evidence in support of the rendering which he maintains 
 to be correct. Thus recast, the articles were to have been 
 published together with the dissertation on eVtovVtos (p. 
 217 sq.), and dissertations (never written) upon other points 
 of critical interest in the Lord's Prayer. This design he did 
 
 1 Deliver us from Evil. A Protest against the Change in the Last 
 Petition of the Lord's Prayer adopted in the Revised Version. A 
 Letter to the Bishop of London. John Murray, 1881. Canon Cook 
 published a reply to these articles entitled Deliver us from Evil. A 
 Second Letter to the Lord Bishop of London. Johri Murray, 1882. 
 
XXVI PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION. 
 
 not live to carry out. In response therefore to numerous 
 requests to make these articles available for reference, the 
 Trustees have decided to include them in this volume; 
 and it only remains for them to express their sincere regret 
 that it has thus become necessary to perpetuate them in 
 a form which their author never intended to be more than 
 temporary. 
 
 May 25, 1891. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 I. S. JEROME'S REVISION OF THE LATIN BIBLE . i 
 II. AUTHORISED VERSION OF THE ENGLISH BIBLE . 10 
 
 III. LESSONS SUGGESTED BY THESE HISTORICAL 
 
 PARALLELS . . 14 
 
 IV. NECESSITY FOR A FRESH REVISION OF THE 
 
 AUTHORISED VERSION . . . . .19 
 
 i. False Readings . . . . . .21 
 
 2. Artificial distinctions created ... 36 
 
 3. Real distinctions obliterated ... 66 
 
 4. Faults of Grammar 89 
 
 5. Faults of Lexicography . . . .148 
 
 6. Treatment of Proper Names, Official 
 
 Titles, etc .163 
 
 7. Archaisms, Defects in the English, Errors 
 
 of the Press, etc 189 
 
 V. PROSPECTS OF THE NEW REVISION. . . 207 
 
 APPENDIX on the words riov<rios, Trepiovo-tos . . .217 
 
 APPENDIX on the last clause in the Lord's Prayer . 269 
 
 INDICES . . . . . . . . . .325 
 
A FRESH REVISION 
 
 OF THE 
 
 ENGLISH NEW TESTAMENT. 
 
 I. 
 
 MORE than two centuries had elapsed since the 
 first Latin Version of the Scriptures was made, 
 when the variations and errors of the Latin Bible 
 began to attract the attention of students and to call 
 for revision. It happened providentially, that at the 
 very moment when the need was felt, the right man 
 was forthcoming. In the first fifteen centuries of her 
 existence the Western Church produced no Biblical 
 scholar who could compare with S. Jerome in com- 
 petence for so great a task. At the suggestion of his 
 ecclesiastical superior, Damasus bishop of Rome, he 
 undertook this work, for which many years of self- 
 denying labour had eminently fitted him. 
 
 L. R. I 
 
2 s. JEROME'S REVISION. 
 
 It is no part of my design to give a detailed ac- 
 count of this undertaking. I wish only to remark 
 that when Jerome applied himself to his task, he 
 foresaw that he should expose himself to violent at- 
 tacks, and that this anticipation was not disappointed 
 by the result. ' Who/ he asks in his preface to the 
 Gospels, the first portion of the work which he com- 
 pleted, 'Who, whether learned or unlearned, when he 
 takes up the volume, and finds that what he reads 
 differs from the flavour he has once tasted, will not 
 immediately raise his voice and pronounce me guilty 
 of forgery and sacrilege, for daring to add, to change, 
 to correct anything in the ancient books 1 ?' 
 
 Again and again he defends himself against his 
 antagonists. His temper, naturally irritable, was pro- 
 voked beyond measure by these undeserved attacks, 
 and betrayed him into language which I shall not 
 attempt to defend. Thus writing to Marcella 2 he 
 mentions certain 'poor creatures (homunculos) who 
 studiously calumniate him for attempting to correct 
 some passages in the Gospels against the autho- 
 rity of the ancients and the opinion of the whole 
 world.' ' I could afford to despise them,' he says, ' if 
 I stood upon my rights, for a lyre is played in vain 
 to an ass.' ' If they do not like the water from the 
 
 1 Op. x. 660 (ed. Vallarsi). 
 
 2 Epist. 28 (I. p. 133). 
 
ITS ASSAILANTS. 3 
 
 purest fountain-head, let them drink of the muddy 
 streams.' And after more to the same effect, he 
 returns again at the close of the letter to these ' two- 
 legged donkeys (bipedes asellos),' exclaiming, * Let 
 them read, Rejoicing in hope, serving the time; let us 
 read, Rejoicing in hope, serving the Lord 1 ; let tJitm 
 consider that an accusation ought under no circum- 
 stances to be received against an elder ; let us read, 
 Against an elder receive not an accusation but before 
 two or three witnesses ; them that sin rebuke*. Let 
 them be satisfied with, It is a human saying, and 
 worthy of all acceptation : let its err with the Greeks, 
 that is with the Apostle who spoke in Greek, // is a 
 faithful saying, and worthy of all acceptation V And 
 elsewhere, referring to these same detractors, he 
 writes with a seventy which was not undeserved ; 
 ' Let them read first and despise afterward, lest they 
 appear to condemn works of which they know nothing, 
 not from deliberate judgment, but from the prejudice 
 of hatred V ' Thus much I say in reply to my tra- 
 ducers, who snap at me like dogs, maligning me in 
 public and reading me in a corner, at once my ac- 
 
 1 The reading icaipy for Kvpiy, Rom. xii. u. 
 
 2 The omission of the clause eZ /ZTJ eirl duo 77 rpiQv 
 I Tim. v. 19. 
 
 8 The reading fodpuTrivos for Trtoros, i Tim. iii. i. 
 4 Op. ix. 684. 
 
 12 
 
4 s. JEROME'S REVISION. 
 
 cusers and my defenders, seeing that they approve in 
 others what they disapprove in me V 
 
 If these attacks had been confined to personal 
 enemies like Rufinus *, who were only retaliating upon 
 Jerome the harsh treatment which they had received 
 at his hands, his complaints would not have excited 
 much sympathy. But even friends looked coldly 
 or suspiciously on his noble work. His admirer, the 
 great Augustine himself, wrote to deprecate an under- 
 taking which might be followed by such serious re- 
 sults. He illustrated his fears by reference to the 
 well-known incident to which Jerome's version of the 
 Book of Jonah had given occasion, as a sample of 
 the consequences that might be expected to ensue. 
 A certain bishop had nearly lost his flock by ven- 
 turing to substitute Jerome's rendering 'hedera' for 
 'cucurbita/ and could only win them back again by 
 reinstating the old version which he had abandoned. 
 They would not tolerate a change in an expression 
 'which had been fixed by time in the feelings and 
 memory of all and had been repeated through so 
 many ages in succession 3 .' 
 
 Of the changes which Jerome introduced into the 
 
 1 Op. ix. 1408. 
 
 2 See Hieron. Op. ir. 660, where Rufinus exclaims, 'Istud com- 
 missum die quomodo emendabitur? immo, nefas quomodo expiabitur?' 
 with more to the same effect. 
 
 8 Hieron. Epist. 104 (i. 636 sq.). 
 
ITS ASSAILANTS. 5 
 
 text of the New Testament, the passage quoted 
 above affords sufficient illustration. In the Old 
 Testament a more arduous task awaited him. The 
 Latin Version which his labours were destined to 
 supersede had been made from the Septuagint. He 
 himself undertook to revise the text in conformity 
 with the original Hebrew. It will appear strange 
 to our own age that this was the chief ground of 
 accusation against him. All the Greek and Latin 
 Churches, it was urged, had hitherto used one and 
 the same Bible ; but this bond of union would be 
 dissolved by a new version made from a different 
 
 text. Thus the utmost confusion would ensue. More- 
 
 * 
 
 over, what injury might not be done to the faith of 
 the weaker brethren by casting doubt on the state 
 of the sacred text ? What wounds might not be 
 inflicted on the pious sentiments of the believer by 
 laying sacrilegious hands on language hallowed by 
 long time and association ? 
 
 But, independently of the dangerous consequences 
 which might be expected, no words were too strong 
 to condemn the arrogance and presumption of one 
 who thus ventured to set aside the sacred text as 
 it had been used by all branches and in all ages of 
 the Church from the beginning. To this cruel taunt 
 Jerome replied nobly : ' I do not condemn, I do not 
 blame the Seventy, but I confidently prefer the 
 
6 s. JEROME'S REVISION. 
 
 Apostles to them all V ' I beseech you, reader, do not 
 regard my labours as throwing blame on the ancients. 
 Each man offers what he can for the tabernacle of 
 God 2 . Some gold and silver and precious stones : 
 others fine linen and purple and scarlet and blue: 
 I shall hold myself happy if I have offered skins 
 and goats' hair. And yet the Apostle considers 
 that the more despised members are more necessary 
 (i Cor. xii. 22) V 
 
 Moreover there was a very exaggerated estimate 
 of the amount of change which his revision would 
 introduce. Thus Augustine, when endeavouring to 
 deter him, speaks of his new translation; Jerome in 
 reply tacitly corrects his illustrious correspondent, 
 and calls the work a revision*. And throughout he 
 holds the same guarded language : he protests that 
 he has no desire to introduce change for the mere 
 sake of change, and that only such alterations will 
 be made as strict fidelity to the original demands. 
 His object is solely to place the Hebraica veritas 
 before his readers in the vernacular tongue, and to 
 this object he is stedfast. 
 
 In executing this great work, Jerome was in con- 
 
 1 Op. IX. 6. 2 Exod. xxv. i sq. 3 Op. IX. 460. 
 
 4 See Hieron. Epist. 104, 1. 637, for Augustine's letter ('Evangelium 
 ex Graeco interpretatus es'), and Epist. 112, I. 753, for Jerome's reply 
 ('in Novi Testamenti emendatione '). See Dr Westcott in Smith's 
 Dictionary of the Bible, S.V. Vulgate, II. p. 1696. 
 
HIS PERSEVERANCE. 7 
 
 stant communication with Jewish rabbis, who were 
 his Hebrew teachers and to whom he was much 
 indebted in many ways. How great a gain this 
 assistance was to his revision, and how largely after 
 ages have profited by the knowledge thus brought 
 to bear on the sacred text, I need hardly say. We 
 may suspect (though no direct notice on this point 
 is preserved) that with his contemporaries this fact 
 was prominent among the counts of the indictment 
 against him. At least it is certain that they set 
 their faces against his substitution of the Hebrew 
 text for the Septuagint version, on the ground that 
 the former had been tampered with by the malignity 
 and obduracy of the Jews. But, if this suspicion 
 wrongs them, and they did not object to his availing 
 himself of such extraneous aid, then they evinced 
 greater liberality than has always been shown by 
 the opponents of revision in later ages. 
 
 Happily Jerome felt strong in the power of truth, 
 and could resist alike the importunity of friends and 
 the assaults of foes. His sole object was to place 
 before the Latin-speaking Churches the most faithful 
 representation of the actual words of the sacred text ; 
 and the consciousness of this great purpose nerved 
 him with a strength beyond himself. The character 
 of this father will not kindle any deep affection or 
 respect. We are repelled by his coarseness and want 
 
8 S. JEROMES REVISION. 
 
 i 
 
 of refinement, by his asperity of temper, by his 
 vanity and self-assertion. We look in vain for that 
 transparent simplicity which is the true foundation of 
 the highest saintliness. But in this instance the 
 nobler instincts of the Biblical scholar triumphed over 
 the baser passions of the man; and in his lifelong 
 devotion to this one object of placing the Bible in its 
 integrity before the Western Church, his character 
 rises to true sublimity. ' I beseech you,' he writes, 
 'pour out your prayers to the Lord for me, that so 
 long as I am in this poor body I may write something 
 acceptable to you, useful to the Church, and worthy 
 of after ages. Indeed I am not moved overmuch by 
 the judgments of living men: they err on the one 
 side or on the other, through affection or through 
 hatred V ' My voice/ he says elsewhere, ' shall never 
 be silent, Christ helping me. Though my tongue be 
 cut off, it shall still stammer. Let those read who 
 will; let those who will not, reject 2 .' And, inspired 
 with a true scholar's sense of the dignity of con- 
 scientious work for its own sake irrespective of any 
 striking results, after mentioning the pains which it 
 has cost him to unravel the entanglement of names 
 in the Books of Chronicles he recalls a famous word 
 of encouragement addressed of old by Antigenidas 
 the flute-player to his pupil Ismenias, whose skill had 
 1 Op. ix. 1364. 2 Op. ix. 1526. 
 
ITS GRADUAL RECEPTION. 9 
 
 failed to catch the popular fancy : ' Play to me and 
 to the Muses/ So Jerome describes his own set 
 purpose ; ' Like Ismenias I play to myself and to 
 mine, if the ears of the rest are deaf V 
 
 Thus far I have dwelt on the opposition which 
 Jerome encountered on all hands, and the dauntless 
 resolution with which he accomplished his task. Let 
 me now say a few words on the subsequent fate of his 
 revision, for this also is an instructive page in history*. 
 When completed, it received no authoritative sanction. 
 His patron, pope Damasus, at whose instigation he 
 had undertaken the task, was dead. The successors 
 of Damasus showed no favour to Jerome or to his 
 work. The Old Latin still continued to be read in 
 churches : it was still quoted in the writings of 
 divines. Even Augustine, who after the completion 
 of the task seems to have overcome his misgivings 
 and speaks in praise of Jerome's work, remains 
 constant to the older Version. But first one writer, 
 and then another, begins to adopt the revised trans- 
 lation of Jerome. Still its recognition depends on 
 the caprice or the judgment of individual men. Even 
 the bishops of Rome had not yet discovered that 
 
 1 Op. ix. 1408, 'Mihimet ipsi et meis juxta Ismeniam canens, si 
 aures surdae sunt ceterorum.' 
 
 2 The history of the gradual reception of Jerome's Revision is traced 
 in Kaulen's Geschichte der Vulgata, p. 190 sq. (Mainz, 1868). 
 
IO S. JEROME'S REVISION. 
 
 it was 'authentic.' One pope will use the Hie- 
 ronymian Revision ; a second will retain the Old 
 Latin ; while a third will use either indifferently, and 
 a fourth will quote from the one in the Old Testa- 
 ment and from the other in the New 1 . As late as 
 two centuries after Jerome's time, Gregory the Great 
 can still write that he intends to avail himself of 
 either indifferently, as his purpose may require, since 
 ' the Apostolic See, over which by the grace of God 
 he presides, uses both 2 .' Thus slowly, but surely, 
 Jerome's revision won its way, till at length, some 
 centuries after its author's death, it drove its elder 
 rival out of the field, and became the one recognised 
 version of the Bible throughout the Latin Churches. 
 
 II. 
 
 I cannot forbear to call attention in passing to the 
 close parallel which these facts present to the history 
 of the so-called Authorised Version. This too, like 
 Jerome's revision, was undertaken amidst many mis- 
 
 1 These statements may be verified by the quotations in Kaulen's 
 work. 
 
 2 Greg. Magn. Mor. in /<?<$., Epist. ad fin. ' Novam translationem 
 dissero ; sed cum probationis causa exigit, nunc novam, nunc veterem 
 per testimonia assumo ; ut, quia sedes Apostolica cui Deo auctore 
 praesideo utraque utitur, mei quoque labor studii ex utraque fulciatur ' 
 (Op. I. p. 6, Venet. 1768). 
 
THE AUTHORISED VERSION. II 
 
 givings, and, when it appeared, was received with 
 coldness or criticized with severity. When the pro- 
 posal for a revision was first brought forward, ' my 
 Lord of London' is reported to have said that 'if 
 every man's humour should be followed, there would 
 be no end of translating.' The translators themselves, 
 when they issue their work to the public, deprecate 
 the adverse criticism which doubtless they saw very 
 good reason to apprehend. Such a work as theirs, 
 they say in the opening paragraph of the preface to 
 the reader, 'is welcomed with suspicion instead of 
 love and with emulation instead of thanks,... and if 
 there be any hole left for cavil to enter (and cavil, if 
 it do not find a hole, will make one), it is sure to be 
 misconstrued and in danger to be condemned. This 
 will easily be granted by as many as know story 
 or have any experience. For, was there ever any- 
 thing projected, that savoured any way of newness or 
 renewing, but the same endured many a storm of 
 gainsaying or opposition?' and again; 'Whosoever 
 attempteth anything for the public (especially if it 
 pertain to religion and to the opening and clearing 
 of the Word of God) the same setteth himself upon a 
 stage to be glouted upon by every evil eye, yea, he 
 casteth himself headlong upon pikes, to be gored by 
 every sharp tongue. For he that meddleth with 
 men's religion in any part, meddleth with their 
 
12 THE AUTHORISED VERSION. 
 
 custom, nay with their freehold : and though they 
 find no content in that which they have, yet they 
 cannot abide to hear of altering.' 
 
 The parallel moreover extends to the circumstances 
 of its reception. It seems now to be an established 
 fact (so far as any fact in history which involves a com- 
 prehensive negative can be regarded as established) 
 that the Revised Version never received any final 
 authorisation either from the ecclesiastical or from the 
 civil powers : that it was not sanctioned either by the 
 Houses of Parliament, or by the Houses of Convoca- 
 tion, or by the King in Council. The Bishops' Bible 
 still continued to be read in churches ; the Geneva 
 Bible was still the familiar volume of the fireside and 
 the closet 1 . Several years after the appearance of the 
 Revised Version, Bishop Andrewes, though himself 
 one of the revisers, still continues to quote from an 
 older Bible. Yet notwithstanding all adverse circum- 
 
 1 The printing of the Bishops' Bible was stopped as soon as the 
 new revision was determined upon. The last edition of the former 
 was published in 1606. The Revised Version states on its title-page 
 (1611) that it is 'Appointed to be read in Churches,' but we are not 
 told by whom or how it was appointed. As the copies of the Bishops' 
 Bible used in the churches were worn out, they would probably be 
 replaced by the Revised Version ; but this seems to have been the only 
 advantage which was accorded to it. On the other hand, the Geneva 
 Bible continued to be printed by the King's Printer some years after 
 the appearance of the Revised Version, and was still marked ' Cum 
 privilegio Regiae majestatis.' 
 
ITS RECEPTION. 13 
 
 stances it overpowered both its rivals by the force of 
 superior merit. It was found to be, as one had said 
 long before of Jerome's revision, ' et verborum tena- 
 cior et perspicuitate sententiae clarior 1 '; and this was 
 the secret of its success. * Thus,' writes Dr Westcott, 
 'at the very time when the monarchy and the Church 
 were, as it seemed, finally overthrown, the English 
 people by their silent and unanimous acceptance of 
 the new Bible gave a spontaneous testimony to the 
 principles of order and catholicity of which both were 
 an embodiment.' ' A revision, which embodied the 
 ripe fruits of nearly a century of labour, and appealed 
 to the religious instinct of a great Christian people, 
 gained by its own internal character a vital authority 
 which could never have been secured by any edict 
 of sovereign rulers 2 .' 
 
 But the parallel may be carried a step further. 
 In both these cases alike, as we have seen, God's law 
 of progressive improvement, which in animal and 
 vegetable life has been called the principle of natural 
 selection, was vindicated here, so that the inferior 
 gradually disappeared before the superior in the same 
 kind: but in both cases also the remnants of an 
 earlier Bible held and still hold their ground, as a 
 testimony to the past. As in parts of the Latin 
 
 1 Isidor. Hispal. Etym. Vi. 4; comp. de Off. Eccl. i. 12. 
 
 2 History of the English Bible, pp. 158, 160. 
 
14 THE AUTHORISED VERSION. 
 
 Service-books the Vulgate has not even yet displaced 
 the Old Latin, which is still retained either in its 
 pristine or in its partially amended form ; so also in 
 our own Book of Common Prayer an older Version 
 still maintains its place in the Psalter and in the 
 occasional sentences, as if to keep before our eyes 
 the progressive history of our English Bible. 
 
 III. 
 
 All history is a type, a parable. The hopes and 
 the misgivings, the failures and the successes, of the 
 past reproduce themselves in the present ; and it 
 appeared to me that at this crisis, when a revision 
 of our English Bible is imminent, we might with 
 advantage study the history of that revised transla- 
 tion, which alone among Biblical Versions can bear 
 comparison with our own in its circulation and in- 
 fluence. 
 
 And, first of all, in the gloomy forebodings which 
 have ushered in this scheme for a new revision, we 
 seem to hear the very echo of those warning voices, 
 which happily fell dead on the ear of the resolute 
 Jerome. The alarming consequences, which some 
 anticipate from any attempt to meddle with our 
 time-honoured Version, have their exact counterpart 
 in the apprehensions by which his contemporaries 
 
HISTORICAL PARALLELS. 15 
 
 sought to deter him. The danger of estranging 
 diverse Churches and congregations at present united 
 in the acceptance of a common Bible, and the danger 
 of perplexing the faith of individual believers by 
 suggesting to them variations of text and uncer- 
 tainties of interpretation these are now, as they 
 were then, the twin perils by which it is sought to 
 scare the advocates of revision. 
 
 Moreover there is the like exaggerated estimate 
 of the amount of change which any body of revisers 
 would probably introduce. To this we can only give 
 the same answer as Jerome. Not translation, but 
 revision, is the object of all who have promoted this 
 new movement. There is no intention of snapping 
 the thread of history by the introduction of a new 
 version. Our English Bible owes its unrivalled merits 
 to the principle of revision ; and this principle it is 
 proposed once more to invoke. ' To whom ever/ say 
 the authors of our Received Version, ' was it imputed 
 for a failing (by such as were wise) to go over that 
 which he had done and to amend it where he saw 
 cause?' 'Truly, good Christian reader, we never 
 thought from the beginning that we should need to 
 make a new translation, nor yet to make a bad one a 
 good one... but to make a good one better... that hath 
 been our endeavour, that our mark/ 
 
 Nor again will the eminence of antagonists deter 
 
1 6 HISTORICAL PARALLELS. 
 
 the promoters of this movement, if they feel that they 
 have truth on their side. Augustine was a greater 
 theologian, as well as a better man, than Jerome. But 
 in this matter he was treading on alien ground : he 
 had not earned the right to speak. On the other 
 hand, a life-long devotion to the study of the Biblical 
 text in the original languages had rilled Jerome with 
 the sense alike of the importance of the work and of 
 the responsibility of his position. He could not be 
 deterred by the fears of any adversaries, however good 
 and however able. He felt the iron hand of a strong 
 necessity laid upon him, and he could not choose but 
 open out to others the stores of Scriptural wealth 
 which he himself had been permitted to amass. 
 
 And again, we may take courage from the results 
 which followed from his design, dauntlessly and 
 persistently carried out. None of the perilous con- 
 sequences, which friend and foe alike had foreboded, 
 did really ensue. There was indeed a long interval 
 of transition, during which the rival versions contended 
 for supremacy ; but no weakening of individual faith, 
 no alienation of Churches, can be traced to this source. 
 The great schism of the Church, the severance of East 
 and West, was due to human passion and prejudice, 
 to fraud and self-will and ambition. History does 
 not mention any relaxation of the bonds of union as 
 the consequence of Jerome's work. On the contrary, 
 
HISTORICAL PARALLELS. \J 
 
 the Vulgate has been a tower of strength to the Latin 
 Churches, as Jerome foresaw that it would be. He 
 laboured for conscience sake, more than content if 
 his work proved acceptable to one or two intimate 
 friends ; he sought not the praise of men ; his own 
 generation viewed his labours with suspicion or hatred; 
 and he has been rewarded with the universal grati- 
 tude of after ages. 
 
 Nor is it uninstructive to observe that the very 
 point on which his contemporaries laid the greatest 
 stress in their charges against him, has corne to be 
 regarded by ourselves as his most signal merit. To 
 him we owe it, that in the Western Churches the 
 Hebrew original, and not the Septuagint Version, is 
 the basis of the people's Bible ; and that a broad and 
 indelible line has been drawn once for all between the 
 Canon of the Old Testament as known to the Hebrew 
 nation, and the later accretions which had gathered 
 about it in the Greek and Latin Bibles. Thus we are 
 reaping the fruits of his courage and fidelity. We are 
 the proper heirs of his labours. The Articles of the 
 Church of England still continue to quote S. Jerome's 
 authority for the distinction between the Canonical 
 and Apocryphal books, which the Council of Trent 
 did its best to obscure. 
 
 But there is yet another lesson to be learned from 
 the history of Jerome's revision. The circumstances 
 L. R. 2 
 
1 8 HISTORICAL PARALLELS. 
 
 of its reception are full of instruction and encourage- 
 ment. It owed nothing, as we have seen, to official 
 sanction ; it won its way by sterling merit. Now let 
 us suppose that the revision, which we are about to 
 undertake, is successfully accomplished. How are 
 we to deal with it ? If the work commends itself 
 at once to all or to a large majority as superior to 
 the present Version, then let it by all means be 
 substituted by some formal authorisation. But this 
 is quite too much to expect. Though S. Jerome's 
 revision was incomparably better than the Old Latin, 
 though the superiority of our received English Version 
 to its predecessors is allowed on all hands, no such 
 instantaneous welcome was accorded to either. They 
 had to run the gauntlet of adverse criticism ; they 
 fought their way to acceptance inch by inch. I 
 suppose that no one who takes part in this new 
 revision is so sanguine as to hope that his work 
 will be more tenderly treated. This being so, it 
 does not seem to be necessary, and it is perhaps 
 not even advisable, that the new Revised Version, 
 if successfully completed, should at once authori- 
 tatively displace the old. Only let it not be 
 prohibited. Give it a fair field, and a few years will 
 decide the question of superiority. I do not myself 
 consider it a great evil, that for a time two concurrent 
 Versions should be in use. This at least seems a 
 
A REVISION NEEDED. 19 
 
 simple practical solution, unless indeed there should 
 be such an immediate convergence of opinion in 
 favour of the revised Version, as past experience does 
 not encourage us to expect. 
 
 IV. 
 
 But let it be granted that the spectres, which a 
 timid apprehension calls into being, are scared away 
 by the light of history and experience, and that the 
 dangerous consequences of revision are shown to be 
 imaginary; we have still to ask, whether there is suffi- 
 cient reason for undertaking such a work, or (in other 
 words) whether the defects of the existing Version 
 are such as to call for systematic amendment? Here 
 again we are met by the same objection, of which our 
 translators were obliged to take notice : ' Many men's 
 mouths/ they write, 'have been open a good while 
 (and yet are not stopped) with speeches about the 
 translation so long in hand... and ask what may be 
 the reason, what the necessity of the employment : 
 Hath the Church been deceived, say they, all this 
 while? Hath her sweet bread been mingled with 
 leaven, her silver with dross, her wine with water, 
 her milk with lime ?' 
 
 In addressing myself to this question, I cannot 
 attempt to give an exhaustive answer. Materials for 
 
 2 2 
 
2O A REVISION NEEDED. 
 
 such an answer will be found scattered up and down 
 biblical commentaries and other exegetical works 1 . 
 In Archbishop Trench's instructive volume On the 
 Authorized Version of the New Testament, published 
 a few years ago, they are gathered into a focus ; and 
 quite recently, in anticipation of the impending re- 
 vision, Bishop Ellicott has stated the case concisely, 
 giving examples of different classes of errors which 
 call for correction. For a fuller justification of the 
 advocates of revision I would refer to these and simi- 
 lar works, confining myself to a few more prominent 
 points, in which our Version falls behind the know- 
 ledge of the age, and offering some examples in 
 illustration of each. While doing so, I shall be led 
 necessarily to dwell almost exclusively on the defects 
 of our English Bible, and to ignore its merits. But 
 I trust it will be unnecessary for me on this account 
 to deprecate adverse criticism. No misapprehension 
 is more serious or more unjust than the assumption 
 that those who advocate revision are blind to the 
 excellence of the existing Version. It is the very 
 sense of this excellence which prompts the desire 
 to make an admirable instrument more perfect. On 
 the other hand, they cannot shut their eyes to the 
 
 1 For the literature of the subject, see Professor Plumptre's interest- 
 ing article in Smith's Dictionary of the Bible, S.V. Version, Authorized, 
 p. 1679. 
 
FALSE READINGS. 21 
 
 fact that the assiduous labours of scholars and divines 
 during two centuries and a half have not been fruit- 
 less, and they are naturally anxious to pour into the 
 treasury of the temple these accumulated gains of 
 many generations. 
 
 i- 
 
 And first of all let us boldly face the fact that 
 the most important changes, in which a revision may 
 result, will be due to the variations of reading in the 
 Greek text. It was not the fault, it was the misfor- 
 tune, of the scholars from Tyndale downward, to 
 whom we owe our English Bible, that the only text 
 accessible to them was faulty and corrupt. I need 
 not take up time in recapitulating the history of the 
 received text, which will be known to all. It is suf- 
 ficient to state that all textual critics are substantially 
 agreed on this point, though they may differ among 
 themselves as to the exact amount of change which 
 it will be necessary to introduce. 
 
 No doubt, when the subject of various readings 
 is mentioned, grave apprehensions will arise in the 
 minds of some persons. But this is just the case 
 where more light is wanted to allay the fears which 
 a vague imagination excites. The recent language 
 of alarmists on this point seems incredible to those 
 
22 ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 who have paid any attention to the subject. I can 
 only state my own conviction that a study of the 
 history and condition of the Greek text solves far 
 more difficulties than it creates. More especially it 
 brings out the, fact of the very early and wide diffu- 
 sion of the New Testament writings with a clearness 
 and a cogency which is irresistible, and thus bears 
 most important testimony to their genuineness and 
 integrity. Even the variations themselves have the 
 highest value in this respect. Thus for instance 
 when we find that soon after the middle of the second 
 century divergent readings of a striking kind occur 
 in S. John's Gospel, as for instance fjuovo^evr)^ eo? 
 and o fJLovoyvrj<; vio<s (i. 1 8), we are led to the con- 
 clusion that the text has already a history and that 
 the Gospel therefore cannot have been very recent. 
 This evidential value of textual criticism moreover 
 shows itself in other ways. I will select one instance, 
 which has always appeared to me very instructive as 
 illustrating the results of this study apparently so 
 revolutionary in its methods, and yet really so con- 
 servative in its ends. 
 
 The Epistle to the Ephesians, after having been 
 received by churches and individuals alike (so far 
 as we know) without a single exception from the 
 earliest times, as the unquestioned work of the Apostle 
 whose name it bears, has been challenged in our 
 
FALSE READINGS. 23 
 
 own generation. Now there is one formidable argu- 
 ment, and one only, against its genuineness. It is 
 urged with irresistible force that S. Paul could not 
 have written in this strain to a Church in which he 
 had resided for some three years and with which he 
 lived on the closest and most affectionate terms. So 
 far as regards reference to persons or incidents, this 
 is quite the most colourless of all S. Paul's Epistles ; 
 whereas we should expect to find it more full and 
 definite in its allusions than any other, except per- 
 haps the letters to Corinth. To this objection no 
 satisfactory answer can be given without the aid of 
 textual criticism. But from textual criticism we learn 
 that an intelligent and well-informed though hereti- 
 cal writer of the second century called it an Epistle 
 to the Laodiceans ; that in the opening verse the 
 words 'in Ephesus' are wanting in the two oldest 
 extant Greek MSS ; that the most learned of the 
 Greek fathers in the middle of the third century 
 himself a textual critic had not the words in his 
 copy or copies ; and that another learned Greek 
 father in the middle of the fourth century declares 
 them to be absent from the oldest manuscripts not 
 to mention other subsidiary notices tending in the 
 same direction. Putting these facts together, we get 
 a complete answer to the objection. The Epistle is 
 found to be a circular letter, addressed probably to 
 
24 ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 the Churches of Proconsular Asia, of which Ephesus 
 was one and Laodicea another. From Ephesus, as 
 the metropolis, it derived its usual title, because the 
 largest number of copies in circulation would be de- 
 rived from the autograph sent thither; but here and 
 there a copy was extant in early times addressed to 
 some other Church (as Laodicea, for instance); and 
 still more commonly copies existed taken from some 
 MS in which the blank for the name of the Church 
 had not been filled up. This circular character of 
 the letter fully explains the absence of personal or 
 historical allusions. Thus textual criticism in this 
 instance removes our difficulty ; but its services do 
 not end here. It furnishes a body of circumstantial 
 evidence which, I venture to think, must ultimately 
 carry irresistible conviction as to the authorship of 
 the letter, though for the present some are found to 
 hesitate. For these facts supplied by textual criticism 
 connect themselves with the mention of the letter 
 which the Colossians are charged to get from Lao- 
 dicea (Col. iv. 1 6), and this mention again combines 
 with the strong resemblances of matter and diction, 
 so as to bind these two epistles inseparably together: 
 while again the Epistle to the Colossians is linked 
 not less indissolubly with the letter to Philemon by 
 the references to person and place and circumstance. 
 Thus the three Epistles form a compact whole, to 
 
FALSE READINGS. 25 
 
 resist the assaults of adverse criticism. A striking 
 amount of undesigned coincidence is gathered to- 
 gether from the most diverse quarters, converging 
 unmistakably to one result. And the point to be 
 observed is, that many of these coincident elements 
 are not found in the Epistles themselves, but in the 
 external history of the text, a circumstance which 
 gives them a far higher evidential value. For even if 
 it were possible to imagine a forger in an uncritical 
 age at once able to devise a series of artifices so 
 subtle and so complex, as on the supposition of the 
 spuriousness of one or all of these letters we are 
 obliged to assume, and willing to defeat his own 
 purpose by tangling a skein which it would require 
 the critical education of the nineteenth century to 
 unravel; yet there would remain the still greater 
 improbability that a man in such a position could 
 have exercised an effective control over external 
 circumstances the diffusion and the subsequent 
 history of his forgeries such as this hypothesis 
 would suppose. 
 
 This instance will illustrate my meaning, when I 
 alluded to the conservative action of textual criti- 
 cism ; for such I conceive to be its general tendency. 
 But in fact the consideration of consequences ought 
 not to weigh with us, in a matter where duty is so 
 obvious. It must be our single aim to place the 
 
26 ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 Bible in its integrity before the people of Christ ; and, 
 so long as we sincerely follow the truth, we can afford 
 to leave the consequences in God's hands: and I 
 cannot too strongly urge the truism (for truism it is) 
 that the higher value we set on the Bible as being or 
 as containing the Word of God, the greater (if we 
 are faithful to our trust) will be our care to ascertain 
 the exact expressions of the original by the aid of all 
 the critical resources at our command. We have 
 seen that S. Jerome's courage was chiefly tried in the 
 substitution of a purer text, and that his fidelity 
 herein has been recognised as his greatest claim to 
 the gratitude of after ages. The work, which our 
 new revisers will be required to execute, is far less 
 revolutionary than his. Where his task required him 
 to substitute a wholly new text in the Old Testa- 
 ment, they will only be required to cancel or to 
 change a word or expression, or in rare cases a 
 verse, here and there in the New. Where he was 
 faithful in great things, we may trust that they will 
 not be faithless in small. 
 
 The question therefore is not one of policy, but 
 of truth. Yet still it is well to face the probable 
 results ; because apprehension is especially alive on 
 this point, and because only by boldly confronting 
 the spectres of a vague alarm can we hope to lay 
 them. 
 
FALSE READINGS. 27 
 
 Let us then first of all set it down as an unmixed 
 gain that we shall rid ourselves of an alliance which 
 is a constant source of weakness and perplexity to 
 us. No more serious damage can be done to a true 
 cause, than by summoning in its defence a witness 
 who is justly suspected or manifestly perjured. Yet 
 this is exactly the attitude which the verse relating 
 to the Heavenly witnesses (i John v. 7) bears towards 
 the great doctrine which it proclaims, so long as it 
 retains a place in the Bible which we put into the 
 hands of the people. Shortly after the question of 
 revision was first mooted, an article on the subject 
 appeared in a popular daily paper, in which the 
 writer, taking occasion to refer to this verse, com- 
 mitted himself to two statements respecting it : first, 
 that the passage in question had done much towards 
 promoting the belief in the doctrine which it puts 
 forward ; and secondly that the interpolator knew well 
 what he was about and used very efficient means to 
 gain his end. Now both these statements were evi- 
 dently made in good faith by the writer and would, 
 I suppose, be accepted as true by a very large 
 number of his readers. But those, who have given any 
 special attention to the subject, know that neither 
 will bear examination. The first contradicts the plain 
 facts of history; the second militates against the 
 most probable inferences of criticism. As regards 
 
28 ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 the first point, it seems unquestionable that the 
 doctrine was formally defined and firmly established 
 some time before the interpolation appeared. A 
 study of history shows that the Church arrived at 
 the Catholic statement of. the doctrine of the Trinity, 
 partly because it was indicated in other passages of 
 the New Testament (e.g. Matt, xxviii. 19, 2 Cor. xiii. 
 14), and partly because it was the only statement 
 which, recognising the fact of the Incarnation of the 
 Divine Word, was found at once to satisfy the in- 
 stincts of a devout belief and the requirements of a 
 true philosophy ; and that the text in question had 
 not, and could not have, anything to do with its 
 establishment. Indeed the very fact that it is no- 
 where quoted by the great controversial writers of the 
 fourth and fifth centuries has been truly regarded 
 as the strongest evidence against its genuineness. 
 And in more recent times, when the doctrine began 
 to be challenged, the text was challenged also ; so 
 that at this stage the doctrine did not gain, but 
 lose, by the advocacy of a witness whose questionable 
 character threw discredit upon it. Again, the second 
 statement equally breaks down when investigated. 
 Textual criticism shows that the clause containing 
 the Three Heavenly Witnesses was not in the first 
 instance a deliberate forgery, but a comparatively 
 innocent gloss, which put a directly theological in- 
 
FALSE READINGS. 29 
 
 terpretation on the three genuine witnesses of S. John 
 the spirit and the water and the blood a gloss 
 which is given substantially by S. Augustine and was 
 indicated before by Origen and Cyprian, and which 
 first thrust itself into the text in some Latin MSS, 
 where it betrays its origin, not only by its varieties of 
 form, but also by the fact that it occurs sometimes 
 before and sometimes after the mention of the three 
 genuine witnesses which it was intended to explain. 
 Thus both these statements alike break down, and we 
 see no ground for placing this memorable verse in 
 the same category with such fictions as the False 
 Decretals, whether we regard its origin or its results ; 
 for unlike them it was not a deliberate forgery, and 
 unlike them also it did not create a dogma. I only 
 quote this criticism to show how much prejudice may 
 be raised against the truth by the retention of inter- 
 polations like this ; nor can we hold ourselves free 
 from blame, if such statements are made and ac- 
 cepted, so long as we take no steps to eject from our 
 Bibles an intrusive passage, against which external 
 and internal evidence alike have pronounced a deci- 
 sive verdict. In this instance our later English Bibles 
 have retrograded from the more truthful position of 
 the earlier. In Tyndale's, Coverdale's, and the Great 
 Bibles the spurious words are placed in brackets and 
 printed in a different type, and thus attention is 
 
30 ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 directed to their suspicious character. In Luther's 
 German Translation (in its original form), as also in 
 the Zurich Latin Bible of 1543, they were omitted. 
 In the Geneva Testament first, so far as I am aware, 
 and in the Bishops' Bible after it, the example was 
 set, which the translators of our Authorised Version 
 unhappily followed, of dispensing with these marks 
 of doubtful genuineness and printing the passage 
 uniformly with the context. 
 
 In other doctrinal passages where important 
 various readings occur, the solution will not be so 
 simple; but in doubtful cases the margin may use- 
 fully be employed. Altogether the instances in which 
 doctrine is directly or indirectly involved are very 
 few ; and, though individual texts might be altered, 
 the balance of doctrinal statement would probably 
 not be disturbed by the total result, a change in one 
 direction being compensated by a change in the 
 other. Thus for instance, if the reading 'God was 
 manifest in the flesh' should have to give place to 
 'Who was manifest in the flesh' in I Tim. iii. 16, and 
 retire to the margin, yet on the other hand the 
 ' Only-begotten God ' would seem to have equal or 
 superior claims to 'the Only-begotten Son' in John 
 i. 1 8, and must either supersede it or claim a place 
 side by side with it. 
 
 The passages, which touch Christian sentiment or 
 
FALSE READINGS. 31 
 
 history or morals, and which are affected by textual 
 differences, though less rare than the former, are still 
 very few. Of these the pericope of the woman taken 
 in adultery holds the first place in importance. In 
 this case a deference to the most ancient authorities, 
 as well as a consideration of internal evidence, might 
 seem to involve immediate loss. The best solution 
 would probably be to place the passage in brackets, 
 for the purpose of showing, not indeed that it contains 
 an untrue narrative (for, whencesoever it comes, it 
 seems 'to bear on its face the highest credentials 
 of authentic history), but that evidence external and 
 internal is against its being regarded as an integral 
 portion of the original Gospel of S. John. The close 
 of S. Mark's Gospel should possibly be treated in the 
 same way. If I might venture a conjecture, I should 
 say that both the one and the other were due to that 
 knot of early disciples who gathered about S. John in 
 Asia Minor and must have preserved more than one 
 true tradition of the Lord's life and of the earliest 
 days of the Church, of which some at least had them- 
 selves been eye-witnesses 1 . 
 
 Again in S. Luke's Gospel it might be right 
 
 1 The account of the woman taken in adultery is known to have 
 been related by Papias, a disciple of this school, early in the second 
 century, who also speaks of the Gospel of S. Mark. Euseb. H. E. 
 iii. 39. 
 
32 ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 to take account of certain remarkable omissions in 
 some texts, and probably in these cases a marginal 
 note would be the best solution. Such for instance 
 are the words addressed to James and John, ix. 55, 
 ' Ye know not of what spirit ye are,' or the agony in 
 the garden, xxii. 43, 44, or the solemn words on the 
 Cross, xxiii. 34. It seems impossible to believe that 
 these incidents are other than authentic ; and as the 
 text of S. Luke's Gospel is perhaps exceptional in 
 this respect (for the omissions in S. John's Gospel 
 are of a different kind), the solution will suggest 
 itself, that the Evangelist himself may have issued 
 two separate editions. This conjecture will be con- 
 firmed by observing that in the second treatise of 
 S. Luke similar traces of two editions are seen where 
 the passages omitted in many texts, though not im- 
 portant in themselves (e.g. xxviii. 16, 29), bear equal 
 evidence of authenticity, and are entirely free from 
 suspicion on the ground that they were inserted to 
 serve any purpose devotional or doctrinal. 
 
 On the other hand some passages, where the ex- 
 ternal testimony is equivocal or adverse, are open to 
 suspicion, because the origin of or the motive for the 
 insertions or alterations lies on the surface. Thus 
 in S. Luke ii. 33 'His father' is altered into 'Joseph,' 
 and ten verses later 'Joseph and His mother* is 
 substituted for 'His parents,' evidently because the 
 
FALSE READINGS. 33 
 
 transcriber was alarmed lest the doctrine of the 
 Incarnation might be imperilled by such language 
 an alarm not entertained by the Evangelist himself, 
 whose own narrative directly precluded any false 
 inference, and who therefore could use the popular 
 language without fear of misapprehension. And 
 again the mention of 'fasting' in connexion with 
 praying in not less than four passages (Matt xvii. 21, 
 Mark ix. 29, Acts x. 30, I Cor. vii. 5), in all of 
 which it is rejected by one or more of the best 
 editors, shows an ascetic bias ; though indeed there 
 is ample sanction elsewhere in the New Testament 
 for the practice which it was thus sought to enforce 
 more strongly. Again, allowance must be made for 
 the influence of liturgical usage in such passages as 
 the doxology to the Lord's prayer, Matt. vi. 13; 
 and a similar explanation may be given of the 
 insertion of the eunuch's confession of faith pre- 
 paratory to baptism, Acts viii. 37. And again, 
 when a historical difficulty is avoided by a various 
 reading, this should be taken into account, as in 
 Mark i. I, where indeed the substitution of eV T&> 
 'H<rafa TO> TrpotpTJTrj for the common reading eV rofc 
 7rpo<f)r)Tai,s would introduce a difficulty the same in 
 kind but less in magnitude than already exists in the 
 received text of Matt, xxvii. 9. Or lastly, the desire 
 to bring out the presence of a supernatural agency 
 L. R. 3 
 
34 ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 may have had its influence in procuring the insertion 
 of the words describing the descent of the angel in 
 John v. 3, 4. On the other hand, in some cases these 
 considerations of internal probability favour the exist- 
 ing text, where external evidence taken alone might 
 lead to a different result, as in I Cor. xv. 51, where 
 the received reading Traz/Te? ov Ko^rjOrjao/jLeOa, Traz/re? 
 a, is so recommended against vrai/re? 
 , ov Trdvres Be d\\a^7]o-6^0a. 
 I believe that I have not only indicated (so far 
 as my space allows) the really important classes of 
 various readings, but given the most prominent illus- 
 trations in each instance. The whole number of 
 such readings indeed is small, and only a very few 
 remain after the examples already brought forward. 
 On the other hand, variations of a subordinate kind 
 are more numerous. These occur more frequently 
 in the Gospels than elsewhere, arising out of the 
 attempt to supplement one Evangelical narrative by 
 the insertion of a word or a clause from another, or 
 to bring the one into literal conformity with the other 
 by substitution or correction ; but no considerations 
 of moment are involved in the rectification of such 
 passages. It is very rarely indeed that a various 
 reading of this class rises to the interest of Matt. xix. 
 17 TL fj>6 epforas jrepl TOV djaOov (compared with 
 Mark x. 18, Luke xviii. 19); and for the most part 
 
FALSE READINGS. 35 
 
 they are wholly unimportant as regards any doctrinal 
 or practical bearing. 
 
 The same motive which operates so powerfully 
 in the Gospels will also influence, though in a far 
 less degree, the text of those Epistles which are 
 closely allied to each other, as for instance the 
 Romans and Galatians, or the Ephesians and Colos- 
 sians, and will be felt moreover in isolated parallel 
 passages elsewhere ; but for the most part the cor- 
 ruptions in the Epistles are due to the carelessness 
 of scribes, or to their officiousness exercised on the 
 grammar or the style. The restoration of the best 
 supported reading is in almost every instance a 
 gain, either as establishing a more satisfactory con- 
 nexion of sentences, or as substituting a more forcible 
 expression for a less forcible (e.g. irapaftoXevardfjLevos 
 for 7rapa(3ov\evcrdtJLevo<;, Phil. ii. 30), or in other ways 
 giving point to the expression and bringing out a 
 better and clearer sense (e.g. Rom. iv. 19 /carevorjcrev 
 TO eavTov o- &>//-. ..et? Be rrjv Trayye\iav rov eoy ov 
 Si6/cpL0r), for ov tcarevorjo-ev K. r. X., where the point is 
 that Abraham did fully recognise his own condition 
 and notwithstanding was not staggered ; or 2 Cor. 
 i. 2O ev avraj TO val, Bio teal Si avrov TO a/j,rjv K. T. \., 
 where val denotes the fulfilment of the promise on 
 the part of God, and a^v the recognition and thanks- 
 giving on the part of the Church, a distinction which 
 
 32 
 
36 ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 is obliterated by the received reading eV avTO) TO val 
 ical ev avTw TO dfjiijv ; or 2 Cor. xii. I Kav^da-Oat Set, 
 ov (rv}i<f)epov fjuev, l\evaon,ai Se K. T. X., where the com- 
 mon text Kdv^aaQai &rj ov av/j,(f)ep6i, JJLOI,, e\evo-ofjLai> 
 yap K. T. X. is feeble in comparison). It is this very 
 fact, that the reading of the older authorities almost 
 always exhibits some improvement in the sense (even 
 though the change may be unimportant in itself) 
 which gives us the strongest assurance of their trust- 
 worthiness as against the superior numbers of the 
 more recent copies. 
 
 Altogether it may be safely affirmed that the 
 permanent value of the new revision will depend in 
 a great degree on the courage and fidelity with which 
 it deals with questions of readings. If the signs 
 of the times may be trusted, the course which is 
 most truthful will also be most politic. To be con- 
 servative, it will be necessary to be adequate: for 
 no revision which fails to deal fairly with these 
 textual problems, can be lasting. Here also the 
 example of S. Jerome is full of encouragement. 
 
 2. 
 
 From errors in the Greek text which our transla- 
 tors used, we may pass on to faults of actual trans- 
 lation. And here I will commence with one class 
 
DISTINCTIONS CREATED. 37 
 
 which is not unimportant in itself, and which claims 
 to be considered first, because the translators have 
 dwelt at some length on the matter and attempted to 
 justify their mode of proceeding. I refer to the vari- 
 ous renderings of the same word or words, by which 
 artificial distinctions are introduced in the translation, 
 which have no place in the original. This is perhaps 
 the only point in which they proceed deliberately on 
 a wrong principle. 'We have not tied ourselves/ 
 they say in the preface. ' to an uniformity of phrasing 
 or to an identity of words.' They plead that such 
 a course would savour 'more of curiosity than wis- 
 dom,' and they allege the quaint reason, that they 
 might 'be charged (by scoffers) with some unequal 
 dealing towards a great number of English words,' 
 if they adopted one to the exclusion of another, as 
 a rendering of the same Greek equivalent. Now, if 
 they had restricted themselves within proper limits 
 in the use of this liberty, no fault could have been 
 found with this vindication. But, when the transla- 
 tion of the same word is capriciously varied in the 
 same paragraph, and even in the same verse, a false 
 effect is inevitably produced, and the connexion will 
 in some cases be severed, or the reader more or less 
 seriously misled in other ways. To what extent they 
 have thus attempted to improve upon the original by 
 introducing variety, the following examples, though 
 
38 ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 they might be multiplied many times, will suffice to 
 show. 
 
 Why, for instance, should we read in Matt, xviii. 33 
 ' Should est not thou also have had compassion (eXefjaai) 
 on thy fellow servant, even as I had pity (tfXerjcra) on 
 thee?'; or in xx. 20 'Then came to him the mother of 
 Zebedee's children (viwv) with her sons (uio5z/)'; or in 
 xxv. 32 ' He shall separate (dfopiel) them one from 
 another, as a shepherd divideth (afyopl&i) his sheep 
 from the goats'? Why in S. John xvi. i, 4, 6, should 
 Tavra \e\d\rjfca v/j,w be rendered in three different ways 
 in the same paragraph ; * These things have I spoken 
 unto you,' ' These things have I told you/ ' I have 
 said these things unto you ' ; or S. Thomas be made 
 to say, l Put my finger,' and ' Thrust my hand,' in the 
 same verse, though the same Greek word /3aXo> stands 
 for both (xx. 25)? Why again in the Acts (xxvi. 24, 
 25) should Festus cry, ' Paul, thou art beside thyself 
 (fjiaivrj, IlaOXe), and S. Paul reply, ' I am not mad, 
 most noble Festus' (ov fjaivojuu, tcpdno-Te ^^o-re)? 
 Why in the Epistle to the Romans (x. 15) should ol 
 TroSe? Ttovevayye^^o/jLevwv elprjvrjv, TV vayy6\i%ofj,eva)v 
 ra dyaQd be translated 'the feet of them tin& preach 
 the Gospel of peace, and bring glad tidings of good 
 things'? Why in the same epistle (xv. 4, 5) should 
 we read, 'That we through patience and comfort of 
 the Scriptures (Bid 7^5 fa&JWffc ical rrjs irapaK\ij crews 
 
DISTINCTIONS CREATED. 39 
 
 TOJV vpa<t><joi>) might have hope,' and in the next sen- 
 tence, 'Now the God of patience and consolation (6 
 6o? r^5 vTTOfjLovfj? KOLi T?$9 7rapaK\r]<rea)<>) grant you to 
 be likeminded/ though the words are identical in the 
 two clauses, and the repetition is obviously intended 
 by S. Paul ? And why again in the salutations at 
 the end of this epistle, as also of others, should aaird- 
 craa-Oe be translated now ' salute ' and now ' greet/ the 
 two renderings being interchanged capriciously and 
 without any law ? Again in the First Epistle to the 
 Corinthians, iii. 17, the same word fyOeipew is dif- 
 ferently translated, * If any man defile (<f)0elpei) the 
 temple of God, him shall God destroy ((f>OepeT)' though 
 the force of the passage depends on the identity of 
 the sin and the punishment. And in a later passage 
 (x. 1 6 sq.) KOivwvol TOV Ovo-iavTrjpiov is translated 'par- 
 takers of the altar/ and two verses below icoivwvol TWV 
 Saipovitov 'have fellowship with devils/ while (to com- 
 plete the confusion) in a preceding and a succeeding 
 verse the rendering ' be partakers ' is assigned to 
 ^e/, and in the same paragraph KowwvLa TOV 
 TOV <rew^aT09, is translated ' communion of the blood, of 
 the body.' The exigencies of the English might de- 
 mand some slight variation of rendering here, but this 
 utter confusion is certainly not required ; and yet this 
 passage is only a sample of what occurs in number- 
 less other places. Again in the same epistle (xii. 
 
4O ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 4 sq.) it is not easy to see why &iat,peo-i,<; 
 Siaipeaeis SICLKOVLUV, Siaipea-ei? evepyrj/j.drmv, are trans- 
 lated respectively * diversities of gifts/ ' differences of 
 administration,' 'diversities of operations/ while in 
 the same passage evepyijuaTa is rendered first 'opera- 
 tions'' and then 'working? Each time I read the 
 marvellous episode on charity in the xiiith chapter, I 
 feel with increased force the inimitable delicacy and 
 beauty and sublimity of the rendering, till I begin to 
 doubt whether the English language is not a better 
 vehicle than even the Greek for so lofty a theme ; yet 
 even here I find some blemishes of this kind. Thus 
 in the 8th verse the same English word ' fail ' is given 
 as a rendering for both eKTriTrrew and KarapyeiaOai,, 
 while conversely the same Greek word /caTapyelcrdat is 
 translated first by 'fail' and then by 'vanish away I and 
 two verses afterwards, where it occurs again, by a 
 third expression 'be done away.' This word Karap<yelv 
 is translated with the same latitude later on also (xv. 
 24, 26), ' When he shall have put down (tcaTapyijo-y) 
 all rule and all authority and power,' and immediately 
 afterwards, 'The last enemy that shall be destroyed 
 (KarapyelTcu) is death/ Let me add another instance 
 from this epistle, for it is perhaps the most character- 
 istic of all. In xv. 27, 28 the word vTrordacreiv occurs 
 six times in the same sense within two verses; in 
 the first three places it is rendered 'put under I in 
 
DISTINCTIONS CREATED. 4! 
 
 the fourth 'be subdued? in the fifth 'be subject? while in 
 the last place the translators return again to their 
 first rendering * put wider' Nay, even the simple 
 word \oyla when it occurs in successive verses (xvi. 
 i, 2) has a different rendering, first 'collection' and 
 then 'gathering! 
 
 The Second Epistle to the Corinthians is espe- 
 cially remarkable for the recurrence through whole 
 sentences or paragraphs, of the same word or words, 
 which thus strike the key-note to the passage. This 
 fact is systematically disregarded by our translators 
 who, impressed with the desire of producing what 
 they seem to have regarded as an agreeable variety, 
 failed to see that in such cases monotony is force. 
 Thus in the 1st chapter the words Trapa/cakeiv, irapd- 
 K\7)a-Ls, and 6\{j3ei,v, O'Xtyis, occur again and again. 
 In the rendering of the first our translators are 
 divided between 'comfort' and 'consolation' and of the 
 second between ' tribulation,' ' trouble? and ' affliction.' 
 Again in the opening of the second chapter, where 
 the tone is given to the paragraph by the frequent 
 repetition of \v7rrj, \vTrelv, we have three distinct 
 renderings, 'heaviness,' 'sorrow,' 'grief.' Again in the 
 third chapter several instances of this fault occur. 
 In the first verse this passion for variety is curiously 
 illustrated. They render a-varaTiicwv eVio-roXcSz/ TT/DO? 
 77 ef vfAwv avo-ranicwv by * Epistles of commenda- 
 
42 ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 tion to you, or letters of commendation from you,' 
 where even in supplying a word (which were better 
 left out altogether) they make a change, though in 
 the original the adjectives refer to the same substan- 
 tive. In this same chapter again they hover between 
 ' sufficient 1 and 'able* as a rendering of i/cavos, iicavovv, 
 iKavQ-rt]^ (w. 5, 6), while later on they interchange 
 'abolish' and 'done away' for /carapyeiaOai (vv. 7, 13, 14), 
 and fail to preserve the connexion of dvaKKa\v^eva) 
 (ver. 1 8) with KaXv^a (ver. 13 sq.) and avaica\v7rT6- 
 fj,evov (ver. 14), and of /ce/caXvp/jievov (iv. 3) with all 
 three. Again in the fifth chapter evBr^fieiv is ren- 
 dered in the same context ' to be at home ' and ' to be 
 present' (vv. 6, 8, 9), where the former rendering more- 
 over in ver. 6 obscures the direct opposition to efcSrj- 
 fjietv, this last word being rendered throughout ' to be 
 absent'-, and a little later (ver. 10) TOJ)? Travras tj/jid<; 
 4>avpa)0rjvai, K. T. X. is translated ' We must all appear 
 before the judgment seat of Christ/ where, indepen- 
 dently of the fatal objection that 'appear' gives a 
 wrong sense (for the context lays stress on the mani- 
 festation of men's true characters at the great day), 
 this rendering is still further faulty, as severing the 
 connexion with what follows immediately (ver. n), 
 ' We are made manifest (TrecfravepufjieOa) unto God, and 
 I trust also are made manifest (7r<f>avepa0ai) in your 
 consciences.' Again in vii. 7 'consolation' and 'comfort* 
 
DISTINCTIONS CREATED. 43 
 
 are once more interchanged for 7rapa/ca\e1v, 
 o-t?; in viii. 10, n, 12, TO 6e\eiv is translated 'to be for- 
 ward' and 'to will,' and TrpoOv^La 'readiness* and 'a will- 
 ing" mind' in successive verses ; in ix. 2, 3, 4, 5, 'ready* 
 and 'prepared' are both employed in rendering Trap- 
 ea/cevacTTai,, Trapecr/ceuaoy-te^ot, dTrapao-Kevdarov?, while 
 conversely the single expression 'be ready' is made to 
 represent both irapea/cevaa'Tat, and eroi^rfv elvat ; in 
 x. 13, 15, 1 6, /cavatv, after being twice translated 'rule] 
 is varied in the third passage by '//;**'; in xi. 1 6, 
 17, 1 8 the rendering of Kav^aaOai, /cav^o-i? is di- 
 versified by 'boast' and * glory ' \ and in xii. 2, 3 owe 
 oZSa, 6 Beo? oZSei/, is twice translated ' I cannot tell, God 
 knowethl while elsewhere in these same verses oZ&a is 
 rendered ' I knew I and OVK olSa, ' I cannot tell? This 
 repugnance to repeating the same word for olSa has a 
 parallel in John xvi. 30, where vvv ol'Sa/zez/ on ol$a$ 
 Trdvra is given * Ngw are we sure that thou knowest 
 all things.' 
 
 Nor is there any improvement in the later books, 
 as the following instances, taken almost at random from 
 a very large number which might have been adduced, 
 will show : Phil. ii. 13 ' It is God which worketh (tvep- 
 ywv) in you both to will and to do (eVepyea/)'; Phil. iii. 
 3 sq. ( And have no confidence (ov TreTroiflore?) in the flesh; 
 Though I might also have confidence (e^tov ireiroidrja-iv) 
 in the flesh. If any other man thinketh that he hath 
 
44 ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 whereof he might trust (5oet iretroiBevai) in the flesh, 
 I more... as touching the law (Kara vopov), a Pharisee ; 
 concerning zeal (Kara 9X09), persecuting the Church ; 
 touching the righteousness (/card Sitcaiocrvwrjv) which is 
 in the law, blameless': I Thess. ii. 4 'As we were al- 
 lowed (SeSoKijjido-fjieOa) of God... not as pleasing men, 
 but God, which trieth (So/cipd&vTi,) our hearts' : 2 Thess. 
 i. 6 ' To recompense tribulation to them that trouble 
 you ' (avraTTobovvai, rot? 6\i$Qvcriv vfj,d<; 6\L^iv) : Heb. 
 viii. 13 ' He hath made the first old (TreirdXaiw/cev TTJV 
 TrpwTTjv) ; now that which decayeth (Trakaiov^evov) and 
 waxeth old(<yr)pd<rKov) is ready to vanish away': James 
 ii. 2, 3 * If there come (elo-eXOp) unto your assembly 
 a man with a gold ring, in goodly apparel (eV ecrQrJTt, 
 \afjL7rpa), and there come in (elcreXOy) also a poor man 
 in vile raiment (eo-Orjri) ; and ye have respect to him 
 that weareth the gay clothing (rrjv ea-dfjra TTJV Xa/z- 
 Trpdv) etc.': 2 Pet. ii. I, 3 'Who privily shall bring in 
 damnable heresies (atpe<reis dira)\eia<;). . .and bring upon 
 themselves swift destruction (a7rto\etai/)...and their 
 damnation (a-TrwXeta) slumbereth not': I John v. 9, 10 
 ' This is the witness (fjiaprvpla) of God which he hath 
 testified (^e^aprvp^Kev) of his Son... He believeth not 
 the record (fjiaprvpiav) that God gave (fj,efj,apTi>pr)Kev) 
 of his Son': Rev. i. 15 'His voice ($0)1/77) as the sound 
 ($0)1/77) of many waters': iii. 17 * I am rich (-TrXouo-to?) 
 and increased with goods (TreTrXovrrj/cay : xvii. 6, ? 
 
DISTINCTIONS CREATED. 45 
 
 'And when I saw her, I wondered (iOav^iacra) with 
 great admiration (Oav/jLa) ; and the angel said unto 
 me, Wherefore didst thou marvel? (eflau/itacra?)': xviii. 
 2 ' And the hold (<fXa/ay) of every foul spirit, and 
 a cage ((frvXaicrj) of every, unclean and hateful bird.' 
 In the instances hitherto given the variation of 
 rendering is comparatively unimportant, but for this 
 very reason they serve well to illustrate the wrong 
 principle on which our translators proceeded. In 
 such cases no more serious consequences may result 
 than a loss of point and force. But elsewhere the 
 injury done to the understanding of the passage is 
 graver. Thus when the English reader finds in 
 S. Matthew xxv. 46 ' These shall go away into ever- 
 lasting (alwviov) punishment, but the righteous into 
 life eternal (altoviov)} he is led to speculate on the 
 difference of meaning between 'everlasting' and 
 ' eternal,' if he happens to have any slight acquaint- 
 ance with modern controversy, and he will most 
 probably be led to a wrong conclusion by observing 
 different epithets used, more especially as the anti- 
 thesis of the clauses helps to emphasize the difference. 
 Or take instances where the result will not be mis- 
 understanding, but non-understanding. Thus in the 
 apocalyptic passage 2 Thess. ii. 6, 7, 'And now ye 
 know what withholdeth (TO Kare^ov).,.on\y he who 
 now letteth (6 Kare^wv apri) will let,' the same word 
 
46 ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 should certainly have been repeated, that the identity 
 of the thing signified might be clear; and in the 
 doctrinal statement, Col. ii. 9, 10, 'In him dwelleth 
 all the fulness (TO TrXijpcofjLa) of the Godhead bodily, 
 and ye are complete (TreirX^pwfievoi) in him/ it was 
 still more necessary to preserve the connexion by a 
 similar rendering, for the main idea of the second 
 clause is the communication of the TrXrjpw/jia which 
 resides in Christ to the believers (comp. Ephes. i. 23). 
 Again, the word Opovo? in the Revelation is trans- 
 lated 'throne? when it refers to our Lord, but 'seat' 
 when it refers to the faithful (iv. 4, xi. I6 1 ), or when it 
 refers to Satan (ii. 13, xvi. 10). Now by this varia- 
 tion, as Archbishop Trench has pointed out 3 , two 
 great ideas which run through this Book, and indeed 
 we may say through the whole of the New Testa- 
 ment, are obliterated ; the one that the true servants 
 of Christ are crowned with Him and share His sove- 
 reignty ; the other, that the antagonism of the Prince 
 of Darkness to the Prince of Light develops itself in 
 ' the hellish parody of the heavenly kingdom.' And 
 in other passages again the connexion between dif- 
 ferent parts of the same discourse or the same nar- 
 rative is, severed. Thus in S. Luke xix. 13, 15, the 
 
 1 Rev. iv. 4 ' And round about the throne (Bpbvov) were four and 
 twenty seats (dpovoi).' 
 
 3 On the Authorized Version, p. 53 sq. 
 
DISTINCTIONS CREATED. 47 
 
 nobleman going into a far country gives charge to 
 his servants Trpa^^arevcraaOe ev &> ep^o^ai, and 
 when he returns, he summons them iva yvfi [or <yvol~] 
 r/9 TI Si7rparyfji,aTV(TavTo. If the former had been 
 translated ' Trade ye till I come,' it would then have 
 corresponded to the nobleman's subsequent demand 
 of them to 'know how much every man had gained 
 by trading! But the rendering of our translators, 
 ' Occupy till I come,' besides involving a somewhat 
 unintelligible archaism, disconnects the two, and the 
 first indication which the English reader gets that 
 the servants were expected to employ the money 
 in trade is when the master at length comes to 
 reckon with them. Another instance, where the con- 
 nexion is not indeed wholly broken (for the context 
 will not suffer this) but greatly impaired, is Matt. v. 
 15, 1 6 \afjL7ret Trdcriv T0t9 ev rfj ol/cia' OVTQX; \a}jL"fyaTw 
 TO <&)9 vfjbwv e/jLTTpoaOev TMV av6pwTrwv, which should 
 run ' It shineth upon all that are in the house: Even so 
 let your light shine before men, etc.' But in our trans- 
 lation, ' It giveth light unto all that are in the house : 
 Let your light so shine before men, that they may see 
 your good works, etc./ the two sentences are detached 
 from each other by the double error, of rendering 
 Xa/ATret, Xop^afw, by different words, and of misun- 
 derstanding o{/TG>9. I say 'misunderstanding,' because 
 the alternative that 'so' is a mere ambiguity of 
 
48 ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 expression seems to be precluded by the fact that 
 in our Communion Service the words ' Let your light 
 so .shine before men, etc./ detached from their con- 
 text, are chosen as the initial sentence at the Offer- 
 tory, where the correct meaning, 'in like manner/ 
 could not stand. 
 
 This love of variety might be still further illus- 
 trated by their treatment of the component parts of 
 words. Thus there is no reason why 7ro\vfjLpcos KOI 
 TToXur/joTTft)? in Heb. i. I should be translated 'At 
 sundry times and in divers manners/ even though for 
 want of a better word we should allow the very in- 
 adequate rendering 'times' to pass muster, where the 
 original points to the divers parts of one great com- 
 prehensive scheme. And again in Mark xii. 39 (comp. 
 Matt, xxiii. 6) it is equally difficult to see why 7rpo>- 
 TOKaOeSptas ev rat? o-vvaycayais Kal 7rpa)TOK\t,cria<; Iv 
 rot? Set7n>ot9 should be rendered ' the chief seats in 
 the synagogues, and the uppermost rooms at feasts.' 
 On the archaic rendering 'room* for the second 
 element in irpwroKkicria, I shall have something to say 
 hereafter. 
 
 These instances which have been given will suf- 
 fice. But in fact examples, illustrating this miscon- 
 ception of a translator's duty, are sown broadcast over 
 our New Testament, so that there is scarcely a page 
 without one or more. It is due to our translators 
 
DISTINCTIONS CREATED. 49 
 
 however to say, that in many cases, which I have 
 examined, they only perpetuated and did not intro- 
 duce the error, which may often be traced to Tyndale 
 himself, from whom our Version is ultimately derived : 
 and in some instances his variations are even greater 
 than theirs. Thus in a passage already quoted, 
 I Cor. xii. 4 sq., he has three different renderings of 
 SLaipeaeis in the three successive clauses, where they 
 have only two ; ' Ther are diversities of gyftes verely, 
 yet but one sprete, and ther are differences of admini- 
 stration and yet but one lorde, and ther are divers 
 maners of operacions and yet but one God'; and in 
 Rom. xvi. his interchanges of 'salute' and 'greet' are 
 still more frequent than theirs. Of all the English 
 Versions the Rhemish alone has paid attention to 
 this point, and so far compares advantageously with 
 the rest, to which in most other respects it is con- 
 fessedly inferior. And I suppose that the words of 
 our translators' preface, in which they attempt to jus- 
 tify their course, must refer indirectly to this Roman 
 Catholic Version, more especially as I find that its 
 Latinisms are censured in the same paragraph. If 
 so, it is to be regretted that prejudice should have 
 blinded them to a consideration of some importance. 
 But not only is it necessary to preserve the same 
 word in the same context and in the same book ; 
 equal care should be taken to secure uniformity, 
 L. R. 4 
 
50 ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 where it occurs in the same connexion in different 
 passages and different books. Thus, where quota- 
 tions are given once or more from the Old Testament 
 in the New, the rendering should exhibit (as far as 
 possible) the exact coincidence with or divergence 
 from the original and one another in the language. 
 Again, when the same discourses or the same inci- 
 dents are recorded by different Evangelists, it is 
 especially important to reproduce the features of the 
 original, neither obliterating nor creating differences. 
 Again, in parallel passages in allied epistles, as for 
 instance those of S. Paul to the Romans and Gala- 
 tians, or to the Colossians and Ephesians, or the Epi- 
 stle of S. Jude and the Second Epistle of S. Peter, 
 the exact amount of resemblance should be repro- 
 duced, because questions of date and authenticity 
 are affected thereby. Again, in the writings which 
 claim the same authorship, as for instance the Gospel 
 and Epistles and the Apocalypse of S. John, the simi- 
 larity of diction should be preserved. Though this 
 will be a somewhat laborious task, let us hope that 
 our new revisers will exercise constant vigilance in 
 this matter. As the authors of our Received Version 
 allowed themselves so much licence in the same 
 context, it is no surprise that they did not pay any 
 attention to these coincidences of language which 
 occur in separate parts of the New Testament, and 
 
DISTINCTIONS CREATED. 5! 
 
 which did not therefore force themselves on their 
 notice. 
 
 Of their mode of dealing with quotations from the 
 Old Testament, one or two instances will suffice by 
 way of illustration. 
 
 Deut. xxxii. 35 is twice quoted in exactly the 
 same words. In our English Version it appears in 
 these two forms. 
 
 Rom. xii. 19. Heb. x. 30. 
 
 Vengeance is mine; I will Vengeance belongeth un- 
 repay, saith the Lord. to me, I will recompense, 
 
 saith the Lord 
 
 Again, the same words Gen. xv. 6 (LXX) 
 w 49 Sifcaioa-vvrjv are given with these variations : 
 Rom. iv. 3 ' It was counted unto him for righteous- 
 ness'; Rom. iv. 22 'It was imputed to. him for right- 
 eousness'; Gal. iii. 6 ' It was accounted to him for 
 righteousness' (with a marginal note 'or imputed'} ; 
 James ii. 23 ' It was imputed unto him for righteous- 
 ness'; while in an indirect reference to it, Rom. iv. 9 
 (in the immediate context of two of these divergent 
 renderings), a still further variation is introduced, 'We 
 say that faith was reckoned to Abraham for righteous- 
 ness.' 
 
 Again, /caXv-^rei, Tr\fj0o<; apapnwv (from Prov. x. 
 12) is translated in James v. 20 'shall hide a multi- 
 
 42 
 
52 ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 tude of sins,' and in I Pet. iv. 8 ' shall cover the mul- 
 titude of sins' (with a marginal reading 'will 1 for 
 'shall'). 
 
 The variation in the last instance which I shall 
 give is still more astonishing, because the two quo- 
 tations of the same passage (Ps. xcv. n) occur in 
 the same context. 
 
 Heb. iii. n. Heb. iv. 3. 
 
 So I sware in my wrath, As I have sworn in my 
 
 They shall not enter into wrath, If they shall enter 
 
 my rest. into my rest. 
 
 Here there is absolutely no difference in the Greek 
 of the two passages ; and, as the argument is conti- 
 nuous, no justification of the various renderings can 
 be imagined. 
 
 On the parallel narratives of the different Evange- 
 lists it will not be necessary to dwell, because this 
 part of the subject has been discussed at some length 
 elsewhere 1 . I will content myself with three exam- 
 ples. The first, which affects only the diction, is a fair 
 sample of the defects of our* Version in this respect, 
 because it is in no way striking or exceptional. 
 
 1 See for instance Dean Alford's Byways of New Testament Criticism, 
 Contemporary Review, July 1868. 
 
DISTINCTIONS CREATED. 
 
 53 
 
 Matt. xvi. 26. 
 
 Mark viii. 36. 
 
 Luke ix. 25. 
 
 Tt *y a P Q)(f)6- 
 
 Tt yap d)<f)6- 
 
 Tt yap (0(j)- 
 
 \elTai dv0pa>7ros, 
 
 \rjO-et, avdpcDTrov, 
 
 XeiTai avdpct)7ros, 
 
 OLV TOV KIHT/JLOV 
 
 eav /cepBtjarrj TOV 
 
 /cepBr/aas TOV KOG- 
 
 0\OVKpBrjO-r),TVV 
 
 KOO-fJLOV 0\0l>, KCU 
 
 fiov o\ov, eavTov 
 
 Be ^v^rjv avTOv 
 
 tofua>0y Tljv tyv- 
 
 Be aVoXeVas ^ 
 
 &/jLicoefj; 
 
 %r)v avTOVj 
 
 ewut>0k; 
 
 ' For what is 
 
 'For what shall 
 
 ' For what is 
 
 a man profited, 
 
 it profit a man, 
 
 a man advan- 
 
 if he shall gain 
 
 if he shall gain 
 
 taged, if he gain 
 
 the whole world, 
 
 the whole world, 
 
 the whole world, 
 
 and lose his own 
 
 and lose his own 
 
 and lose him- 
 
 soul?' 
 
 soul ?' 
 
 self, or be cast 
 
 
 
 
 away?' 
 
 Here the coincidences and divergences of the first 
 two Evangelists are fairly preserved ; but the relations 
 of the third to either are wholly confused or obli- 
 terated. 
 
 My second example shall be of a different kind ; 
 where the variation introduced affects not the ex- 
 pression only, but the actual interpretation. 
 
 In the explanation of the parable of the sower 
 in S. Mark iv. 16 ol eVt TO. TreTpcvBrj (nreipofievoi, is 
 properly translated 'they which are sown on stony 
 ground,' and the corresponding expressions are treat- 
 ed similarly; but in S. Matthew xiii. 2O 6 eVl ra 
 <77ra/3et9 becomes, ' He that received the seed 
 
54 ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 into stony places,' where (besides minor variations) 
 the person is substituted for the seed, and the corre- 
 sponding expressions throughout the parable are 
 manipulated similarly in defiance of grammar. This 
 rendering is unhappy on many accounts. Besides 
 making the Evangelists say different things, it has 
 the still further disadvantage, that it destroys one 
 main idea in the parable, the identification (for the 
 purposes of the parable) of the seed when sown with 
 the person himself ] so that the life and growth and 
 decay of the one are coincident with the life and 
 growth and decay of the other. The form of ex- 
 pression in S. Luke (viii. 14 TO Se et9 r9 aicavQa^ 
 7ree7o> OVTOI elalv ol aKov(TavT6s) brings out this iden- 
 tity more prominently ; but it is expressed not 
 obscurely in the other Evangelists, and should not 
 have been obliterated by our translators in one of 
 them through an ungrammatical paraphrase. 
 
 My third example concerns the treatment of a 
 single word. In the account of the scenes preceding 
 the Crucifixion, mention is made of a certain building 
 which by three of the Evangelists is called Trpairw- 
 piov. In S. Matthew (xxvii. 27) it is translated 'com- 
 mon-hall,' with a marginal alternative 'governor's 
 house'; in S. John (xviii. 28, 33, xix. 9) 'hall of judg- 
 ment' and 'judgment-hall/ with a marginal alterna- 
 tive 'Pilate's house' in the first passage; while in 
 
DISTINCTIONS CREATED. 55 
 
 S. Mark (xv. 16) it is reproduced in the English as 
 ' praetorium.' It should be added that this same word 
 when it occurs in the same sense, though referring to 
 a different locality, in Acts xxiii. 35 is rendered 'judg- 
 ment-hall,' though a 'judgment-hall' would obviously 
 be an unfit place to keep a prisoner in ward ; and 
 again in Phil. i. 13 eV oX&> ra) TrpaiTcopLw (where pro- 
 bably it signifies the ' praetorian army/ but where our 
 English translators have taken it to mean another 
 such building) it appears as ' palace.' This last ren- 
 dering might very properly have been adopted in all 
 the passages in the Gospels and Acts, as adequately 
 expressing the meaning. 
 
 So also in those Epistles which are allied to each 
 other 1 , the treatment of identical words and expres- 
 sions is neither more nor less unsatisfactory than in 
 the Gospels. 
 
 In the instances already given, though there may 
 be differences of opinion as to the importance of the 
 subject, all probably will agree on the main point 
 that it is advisable to preserve uniformity of render- 
 ing. The illustration which I shall next select is 
 more open to criticism ; and, as Archbishop Trench 
 and Dean Alford and the Five Clergymen all take a 
 
 1 See Blunt's Duties of the Parish Priest, p. 71, Ellicott's Revision 
 of the English N?w Testament, p. 118. 
 
56 ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 different view from my own 1 , I can hardly hope that 
 my argument will carry general conviction. Yet the 
 case seems to be strong. I refer to the translation of 
 7rapaK\7)To<i in the Gospel and in the First Epistle 
 of S. John. In the former it is consistently trans- 
 lated 'Comforter' (xiv. 16, 26, xv. 26, xvi. 7), while in 
 the one passage where it occurs in the latter (ii. i) 
 the rendering ' Advocate ' is adopted. Is there suffi- 
 cient reason for this difference ? No one probably 
 would wish to alter the word ' Advocate ' in the 
 Epistle, for the expressions in the context, ' with the 
 Father,' ' Jesus Christ the righteous (Slxaiov),' l a pro- 
 pitiation for our sins,' fix the sense, so that the pas- 
 sage presents a sufficiently close parallel with the 
 common forensic language of S. Paul (e.g. Rom. iii. 
 24 26). But why should the same word be rendered 
 * Comforter ' in the Gospel ? Now I think it may 
 fairly be maintained first, that the word Trapa/eX^ro? 
 in itself means ' Advocate ' and cannot mean ' Com- 
 forter'; and secondly, that the former rendering is more 
 appropriate to the context in all the passages in 
 which it occurs. 
 
 1 To the same effect also writes Archdeacon Hare, Mission of the 
 Comforter, Note J, p. 523, 'At present so many sacred associations 
 have connected themselves for generation after generation with the name 
 of the Comforter, that it would seem something like an act of sacrilege 
 to change it.' Yet he agrees substantially with the view of the meaning 
 which I have maintained in the text. 
 
DISTINCTIONS CREATED. 57 
 
 On the first point the meaning of the word 
 usage appears to be decisive. It commonly signifies 
 'one who is summoned to the side of another (-Trapa- 
 /caXemu)' to aid him in a court of justice, and more 
 particularly 'an advocate' or 'a pleader,' being ap- 
 plied especially to the 'counsel for the defence 1 '] nor, 
 so far as I am aware, does it ever bear any other sense, 
 except perhaps in some later ecclesiastical writers 
 whose language has been influenced by a false inter- 
 pretation of these passages in S. John. In other 
 words TrapdtcX.'rjTos is passive, not active ; one who 
 TrapaKaXeirai,, not one who TrapaicaXel ; one who 'is 
 summoned to plead a cause,' not one who 'exhorts 
 or encourages or comforts/ Nor indeed, if we com- 
 pare the simple word /cX^ro? and the other compounds 
 
 etc., or if we observe the general rule affecting adjec- 
 tives similarly formed from transitive verbs, does it 
 seem easy to assign an active sense to Trapd/cXrjTos. 
 Yet it can hardly be doubted that the rendering 'Com- 
 forter' was reached by attributing this active force 
 to Trapd/cXrjTos, and that therefore it arises out of an 
 error; for the Holy Spirit, the Paraclete, is again 
 
 1 See Hermann, Griech. Antiq. III. 142, p. 320. The origin of 
 this sense is illustrated by such passages as yEschines c. Clesiph. 200, 
 Ka.1 rl Set ae A7j/j.off8i>T)v jrapa.Ka.Xe'iv; STO.V 5' virpTrr)8'i]<ras rrju diKaiav 
 diroXoytav 7rapa*coXgs Kaicovpyov avdpuirov Kal Tf)(v'i.TT}v \6yuv, 
 TTjv aKp6a<nv K.r.X. 
 
58 ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 and again explained by the Fathers as one who 
 Trapa/caXeZ 1 , encourages or comforts men; and the 
 fact that even Greek writers are found to explain 
 the word thus is the only substantial argument 
 (so far as I know) which has been brought against 
 the view here maintained. It is urged indeed that 
 the word 'Comforter,' being derived from the Latin 
 ' confortator/ * strengthener,' and therefore implying 
 something more than * comfort* in the restricted 
 sense of 'consolation/ adequately represents the 
 function of the Trapa/cX^ro? who thus strengthens 
 the cause and confirms the courage of the accused at 
 the bar of justice. But the history of the interpreta- 
 tion, as already given, shows that this rendering was 
 not reached in the way assumed, but was based on a 
 
 1 So Origen de Princ. ii. 7 (r. p. 93), a passage which unfortunately 
 is extant only in the Latin, but in which (if correctly represented) Origen 
 takes Trapaif\Tf]Tos both in the Gospel and in the Epistle in an active 
 sense, explaining it however consolator in the Gospel and deprecator 
 in the Epistle. See also Cyril of Jerusalem, Catech. xvi. 20 (p. 255), 
 TrapaKXTjTos 5 AcaXetrai 5i<i rb irapa.Ka.'Xeiv Kal Trapa.fJ.vdei<r0ai Kai ffvvavri- 
 \a.fj.pdve<rdai rrjs curdevfias TJ/JLUV. And many of the Greek Fathers 
 explain it similarly. The fact to be observed is, that even in the 
 Epistle, where, it manifestly has the sense ' Advocate,' they equally 
 derive it from irapaKaXelv and not 7ra/5a/KaXe?<70cu, thus giving it an 
 active force; whereas the passage quoted in the last note shows that 
 the meaning ' Advocate ' is not to be derived in this way. The Latin 
 Fathers generally follow the old Latin ' Advocatus ' ; but Hilary, though 
 most frequently giving ' Advocatus,' yet once at least renders it ' Conso- 
 lator' (in Psalm, cxxv, I. p. 461). 
 
DISTINCTIONS CREATED. 59 
 
 grammatical error; and therefore this account can 
 only be accepted as an apology after the fact and not 
 as an explanation of the fact. Moreover it is not fair 
 translating to substitute a subordinate and accidental 
 conception for the leading sense of a word. And 
 lastly, whatever may be the derivation of ' Com- 
 forter/ the word does not now suggest this idea to 
 the English reader. 
 
 But secondly ', if 'Advocate* is the only sense 
 which Trapd/cXrjTos can properly bear, it is also (as 
 I cannot but think) the sense which the context sug- 
 gests, wherever the word is used in the Gospel. In 
 other words, the idea of pleading, arguing, convincing, 
 instructing, convicting, is prominent in every instance 1 . 
 Thus in xiv. 16 sq. the Paraclete is described as 
 the 'Spirit of truth* whose reasonings fall dead on 
 the ear of the world, and are vocal only to the faithful 
 (o 6 Kocfios ov Svvarai \a/36iv...vfjLei<? ytvaxr/cere avro). 
 In xiv. 26 again the function of the Paraclete is 
 described in similar language, ' He shall teach you 
 all things and remind you of all things.' In xv. 26 
 He is once more designated the ' Spirit of truth/ and 
 here the office assigned to Him is to bear witness of 
 
 1 In xiv. 18 the English Version, ' I will not leave you comfortless, 
 lends a fictitious aid to the sense * Comforter,' to which the original oi5/c 
 d<f>r]<r(i} uyuas 6p<t>a.vobs gives no encouragement. The margin however 
 oilers the alternative ' orphans ' for 6p<pavoijs. 
 
6O ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 Christ. And lastly in xvi. 7 sq. the idea of \hzpleader 
 appears still more definitely in the context, for it is 
 there declared that ' He shall convince ' or ' convict 
 (e'Xe7f et) the world of sin and of righteousness and of 
 judgment.' And generally it may be said that the 
 Holy Spirit, the Paraclete, is represented in these 
 passages as the Advocate, the Counsel, who sug- 
 gests true reasonings to our minds and true courses 
 of action for our lives, who convicts our adversary 
 the World of wrong and pleads our cause before God 
 our Father. In short the conception (though some- 
 what more comprehensive) is substantially the same 
 as in S. Paul's language when describing the function 
 of the Holy Ghost; 'The Spirit itself beareth witness 
 with our spirit that we are children of God,' * The 
 Spirit helpeth our infirmities : for we know not what 
 we should pray for as we ought, but the Spirit itself 
 maketh intercession for us with groanings which can- 
 not be uttered (Rom. viii. 16, 26).' 
 
 Thus, whether we regard the origin of the word, 
 or whether we consider the requirements of the con- 
 text 1 , it would seem that ' Comforter ' should give 
 
 1 In a case like this we should naturally expect tradition to aid in 
 determining the correct sense, and for this purpose should apply to 
 the earliest Versions as giving it in its best authenticated form ; but in 
 the instance before us they do not render as much assistance as usual. 
 (i) The Old Latin seems certainly to have had Advocatus originally 
 in all the four passages of the Gospel, as also in the passage of the 
 
DISTINCTIONS CREATED. 6 1 
 
 way to 'Advocate/ as the interpretation 
 The word 'Comforter' does indeed express a true 
 office of the Holy Spirit, as our most heartfelt expe- 
 riences will tell us. Nor has the rendering, though 
 inadequate, been without its use in fixing this fact in 
 
 our minds ; but the function of the Paraclete, as our 
 
 f 
 Advocate, is even more important, because wider 
 
 and deeper than this. Nor will the idea of the 'Com- 
 forter ' be lost to us by the change, for the English 
 Te Deum will still remain to recal this office of the 
 
 Epistle. It is true that in the existing texts Paracletus (or Paraclitus} 
 occurs in one or more of the passages, and in some MSS in the others : 
 but the earliest quotations from Tertullian onwards must be considered 
 decisive on this point. So far therefore tradition favours the sense 
 which I am maintaining. Jerome retained the Greek word 'Paracletus' 
 in the Gospel, but gave 'Advocatus' in the Epistle. It would appear 
 however that 'Paracletus' had already displaced 'Advocatus' in some 
 passages in the Gospel in one or more of the many texts of the Old 
 Latin which were current in the fourth century. (2) In the Syriac 
 Versions the Greek word is retained. This is the case with the Cure 
 tonian in John xiv. 16 (the only passage preserved in this Version), 
 and with the Peshito throughout in both the Gospel and the Epistle. 
 (3) In the Egyptian Versions also this is generally the case. In the 
 Memphitic ira.pa.K\t]Tos appears in all the passages. In the Thebaic 
 the rendering is different in the Gospels and in the Epistle. In the 
 Epistle it is given, 'One that prayeth (entreateth) for (over) us'; but 
 in the Gospel (at least in xiv. 16, xv. 26) the Greek word is retained. 
 These parts of the Gospel in the Thebaic Version are not published, so 
 far as I am aware ; but I am enabled to state these facts from some 
 manuscript additions made by Dr Tattam in my copy of Woide which 
 was formerly in his possession. 
 
62 ERRORS AND DEFECTS 
 
 Paraclete to our remembrance ; while the restora- 
 tion of the correct rendering in the passages of 
 S. John's Gospel will be in itself an unmixed gain. 
 Moreover (and this is no unimportant fact) the lan- 
 guage of the Gospel will thus be linked in the 
 English Version, as it is in the original, with the lan- 
 guage of the Epistle. In this there will be a twofold 
 advantage. We shall see fresh force in the words 
 thus rendered, ' He will give you another Advocate,' 
 when we remember that our Lord is styled by 
 S. John our 'Advocate': the Advocacy of Christ 
 illustrating and being illustrated by the Advocacy 
 of the Spirit. At the same time we shall bring out 
 another of the many coincidences, tending to establish 
 an identity of authorship in the Gospel and Epistle, 
 and thus to make valid for the former all the evi- 
 dences external and internal which may be adduced 
 to prove the genuineness of the latter. 
 
 This connexion between the Gospel and the 
 Epistle leads me to another illustration, which links 
 the Gospel with the Apocalypse. The idea that the 
 Shechinah, the tncvjvri, the glory which betokened the 
 Divine Presence in the Holy of Holies, and which was 
 wanting to the second temple, would be restored once 
 more in Messiah's days, was a cherished hope of the 
 Jewish doctors during and after the Apostolic ages. In 
 the Apocalypse S. John more than once avails himself 
 
DISTINCTIONS CREATED. 63 
 
 of imagery derived from this expectation. Thus vii. 15 
 ' He that sitteth on the throne shall dwell among 
 them (aKi)vwa-ei eV avTovs)'; xiii. 6 'He opened his 
 mouth in blasphemy against God, to blaspheme His 
 name and His tabernacle (a-rcrjvrjv), and them that dwell 
 (TOI)? crtcTjvovvTas') in heaven'; xxi. 3 'Behold, the taber- 
 nacle (o-Kr)vrj) of God is with men, and He will dwell 
 w r ith them (cncr)V(Lo-eL yuer' avrwv)! Here it is much to 
 be regretted that the necessities of the English lan- 
 guage required our translators to render the substan- 
 tive (TKTjvT) by one word and the verb aicrjvovv by 
 another. In the first passage -the significance is 
 entirely lost by translating a-KTjvGoaei, 'shall dwell' 
 combined with the erroneous rendering of eV/: and 
 no English reader would suspect the reference to the 
 glory, the Shechinah, hovering over the mercy-seat 1 . 
 But our regret is increased when we turn to the 
 Gospel: for there also the same image reappears in 
 the Greek, but is obliterated by the English render- 
 ing ; ' The Word was made flesh, and dwelt (ea-tcijvo- 
 cev) among us, and we beheld His glory? The two 
 writings, which attribute the name of the Word of 
 God to the Incarnate Son, are the same also which 
 
 1 In 2 Cor. xii. 9 'iva. tTlfffifr&ffQ ^TT' /j. 77 diva/us rov XptoroO, 
 translated 'that the power of Christ may rest upon me,' there seems 
 to be a similar reference to the symbol of the Divine Presence in the 
 Holy of Holies. 
 
64 ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 especially connect Messiah's Advent with the restitu- 
 tion of the Shechinah, the light or glory which is the 
 visible token of God's presence among men. In this 
 instance the usage of the English language may have 
 deterred our translators. Still they would have 
 earned our gratitude, if following the precedent of 
 the Latin tabernaculavit they had anticipated later 
 scholars and introduced the verb 'to tabernacle' 
 into the English language ; or failing this, if by some 
 slight periphrasis they had endeavoured to preserve 
 the unity of idea. 
 
 In other cases where artificial distinctions are in- 
 troduced, our translators must be held blameless, 
 for the exigences of the English language left them 
 no choice. Thus in John iii. 8 TO irvev^a (the wind) 
 
 OTTOV 6e\ei Trvei (bloweth) ovrws earlv TTU? 6 <ye- 
 
 tyevvrjfievos IK TOV TlvevfjLaros (the Spirit), we must 
 patiently acquiesce in the different renderings, though 
 the comparison between the material and immaterial 
 TTvevfjLa is impaired thereby ; just as in a later passage 
 (xx. 22 eve<f)vcrr)(rev Kal Xeyet avrois, Aa/Sere Tlvevpa 
 "A.yiov) the symbolical act of breathing on the disciples 
 loses much of its force to an English reader. Again, 
 it might be necessary to vary the renderings of ^rv)(r} 
 between ' soul ' and ' life '; and of crojfe^ between ' to 
 save ' and 'to make whole.' But in case of the former 
 word such variations as we find for instance in Matt. 
 
DISTINCTIONS CREATED. 65 
 
 xvi. 25, 26, and the parallel passages, deserve to be 
 reconsidered ; and in their treatment of the latter, as 
 Dean Alford has shown 1 , our translators have diver- 
 sified the rendering capriciously. 
 
 And the same excuse also holds good with an- 
 other class of words ; where a paronomasia occurs in 
 the original, but where it is impossible in English at 
 once to preserve the similarity of sound and to give 
 the sense adequately. In Phil. iii. 2, 3 indeed our 
 translators, following some of the earlier versions, 
 have endeavoured to reproduce the paronomasia, 
 'Beware of the concision (KaraTo^v), for we are the 
 circumcision (Trepirofir))' ; but the result is not encou- 
 raging, for it may be questioned whether 'concision' 
 conveys any idea to the English reader. Again the 
 attempt is made in Rom. xii. 3 prj vTrepfypovelv Trap o 
 Bel (frpovelv, aXXtt <f>poveiv eh TO a co(f) povelv, but with no 
 great success, for in the rendering 'not to think of 
 himself more highly than he ought to think, but to 
 think soberly,' the force of the original is evaporated. 
 On the other hand the rendering of I Cor. vii. 31 ol 
 co KocrfJLW rovra) [/. TOV KOO~IJLOV\ co? fjur) /cara- 
 ,, ' they that use this world, as not abusing it,' 
 is adequate. In other passages such as Acts viii. 30 
 yivwcr/ceis a dvayivaxTfceis ' understandest thou what 
 thou readcst?', 2 Cor. iii. 2 yivcoo-KOfAevr) Kal 
 1 Contemporary Review^ July 1868, p. 323. 
 
 L. R. 5 
 
66 ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 'known and read,' 2 Cor. i. 13 a 
 fj /cal eTriyivcbo-tceTe 'what ye read or acknowledge/ 
 2 Cor. x. 12 ov TO\fJLO)fj,6V ey/cplvat, r; (rwyKplvai, eaurot? 
 'we dare not make ourselves of the number, or compare 
 ourselves,' it would be impossible to reproduce the 
 effect of the original. But in other cases such as 
 
 1 Cor. xii. 2 ct9 av T^yecr^e, aTrayofMevoi, 'carried away as 
 ye were led,' 2 Cor. iv. 8 aTropov/jLevoi, aXV ov/c e'faTro- 
 pov/jievoi, 'we are perplexed, but not in despair,' or 
 
 2 Cor. vi. IO cw? iLJ)$ev e^o^re? KOI irdvra /caT6^ovre<; 
 ' as having nothing, and yet possessing all things/ the 
 rendering might be improved. Nor is there any 
 reason why the play on eprya^o/jievovs, Trepiepya^ofjievovs, 
 in 2 Thess. iii. 1 1 should not be preserved by ' busi- 
 ness/ 'busy-bodies'; or why in Ephes. v. 15 ^77 cu? 
 aao^oL aXX' ok crofyol should not be rendered ' not as 
 unwise but as wise.' In this latter passage the word 
 aarocfros, which occurs nowhere else in the New Tes- 
 tament, has been purposely preferred to the usual 
 fjLwpos. Yet our translators have rendered aa-o<f>oi 
 'fools' here, and reserved 'unwise' for acSpoi/e? two 
 verses below, where it is not wanted. 
 
 3- 
 
 From the creation of artificial distinctions in our 
 English Version by different renderings of the same 
 
DISTINCTIONS OBLITERATED. 67 
 
 word we pass naturally to the opposite fault, the ob- 
 literation of real distinctions by the same rendering 
 of different words. The former error is easily cor- 
 rected for the most part; the latter not always so. 
 For the synonyms of one language frequently cannot 
 be reproduced in another without a harsh expression 
 or a cumbersome paraphrase. Thus olSa, yivwcrica), 
 eyvw/ca, eTTicrra/jLai, have different shades of meaning 
 in Greek, but the obvious equivalent for each in 
 English is ' I know.' Still some effort should be 
 made (though success is not always possible) to dis- 
 criminate between them, where they occur in the 
 same context, and where therefore their position 
 throws a special emphasis on the distinction. Thus 
 in Acts xix. 15 we should not acquiesce in 'Jesus I 
 know, and Paul I know/ as a rendering of rov 'Irja-ovv 
 yivaxTKQ) /cal rov HavXov ewiffrapai, though all the 
 preceding translations unite with our Authorised 
 Version in obliterating the difference. The sig- 
 nificant distinction which is made in the original 
 between the kind of recognition in the case of the 
 Divine agent and of the human instrument may 
 easily be preserved by rendering, * Jesus I acknow- 
 ledge and Paul I know* Again in such passages as 
 2 Cor. v. 1 6 drro rov vvv ovSeva oiSafnev Kara capita, 
 el Kal eyvoo/capev Kara crdptca Xpurrov, d\\a vvv ov/ceri 
 (and this is a type of a large class of 
 
 52 
 
68 ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 passages, where ol$a and <yivwcrKa> occur together) 
 some improvement should be attempted ; nor in the 
 instance given could there be any difficulty in varying 
 the rendering, though elsewhere the task might not 
 prove so easy. 
 
 From these allied words I pass on to the distinc- 
 tion between yLvuxr/ceiv and eir^ivwa-Keiv, which is both 
 clearer and more easily dealt with. Those who have 
 paid any attention to the language of S. Paul will 
 recognise the force of the substantive eTrlyvwai? as 
 denoting the advanced or perfect knowledge which is 
 the ideal state of the true Christian, and will remem- 
 ber that it appears only in his later epistles (from 
 the Romans onwards), where the more contemplative 
 aspects of the Gospel are brought into view and its 
 comprehensive and eternal relations more fully set 
 forth. But the power of the preposition appears in 
 the verb, no less than in the substantive ; and indeed 
 its significance is occasionally forced upon our 
 notice, where the simple and the compound verb 
 appear in the same context. Thus in I Cor. xiii. 12 
 apri yivooo-KO) etc fjiepovs, Tore Se eTTiyvwaofjiai, Ka0(i)<i 
 Kal eTreyvwo-Qrjv, the partial knowledge (yivwo-iceiv IK 
 /Ae/)ou9, comp. ver. cj) is contrasted with the ///// know- 
 ledge (iri<yivto<TK.iv) which shall be attained hereafter, 
 though our translators have rendered both words by 
 'know.' Yet strangely enough, where the special 
 
DISTINCTIONS OBLITERATED. 69 
 
 force of the compound was less obvious, it has not 
 escaped them ; for in 2 Cor. vi. 9 o5? dyvoovpevoi, ical 
 cTriyivwo-Kofievoi, is translated 'as unknown, and yet 
 well known! 
 
 In this particular the observance of the distinc- 
 tion between a simple word and its derivatives 
 compounded with prepositions our English Version 
 is especially faulty. The verb tcpivew and its com- 
 pounds will supply a good illustration. S. Paul 
 especially delights to accumulate these ; and thus by 
 harping upon words (if I may use the expression) to 
 emphasize great spiritual truths or important personal 
 experiences. Thus he puts together o-vy/cpivew, 
 dva/cpiveiv, I Cor. ii. 13 15 ', Kplvew, dvaicpiveiv, 
 I Cor. iv. 3, 4; tyxpivciV) <rvytcpbew, 2 Cor. x. 12; 
 /cpiveiv, Sia/cpLi>iv, I Cor. vi. I 6; Kplvew, Bia/cpiveiv, 
 , Rom. xiv. 22, 23, I Cor. xi. 29, 31, 32; 
 , KaraK piveiv, Rom. ii. I. Now it seems impos- 
 sible in most cases, without a sacrifice of English 
 which no one would be prepared to make, to reproduce 
 the similarity of sound or the identity of root; but 
 the distinction of sense should always be preserved. 
 How this is neglected in our Version, and what 
 confusion ensues from the neglect, the following 
 instances will show. In I Cor. iv. 3, 4, 5, e/iol Se els 
 e&Tiv 'iva v<$ vpaiv dvaKpi6w...aX)C ov&e 
 bv dvc,Kpivu>...6 Se dvaKpivwv yue, 
 
7O ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 &<7T fJLTJ TTpO KCtlpOV Tl Kplvere, 66)9 at/ \0r) O Kt'/3t09, 
 
 G9 Kal <j>a)Ti(Ti rd KpVTTTa rov cr/coTOU9, the word 
 dvcLKpivew is translated throughout 'judge'; while in 
 a previous passage, I Cor. ii. 14, 15, it is rendered 
 indifferently 'to discern' and 'to judge.' But dva- 
 Kpivew is neither 'to judge/ which is icplveiv, nor 'to 
 discern/ which is Siaicpivew, but ' to examine, investi- 
 gate, enquire into, question/ as it is rightly translated 
 elsewhere, e.g. I Cor. ix. 3, x. 25, 27 ; and the correct 
 understanding of the passage before us depends on 
 our retaining this sense. The avd/cpiais, it will be 
 remembered, was an Athenian law term for a pre- 
 liminary investigation (distinct from the actual Kpivis 
 or trial), in which evidence was collected and the 
 prisoner committed for trial, if a true bill was found 
 against him. It corresponded in short mutatis 
 mutandis to the part taken in English law proceedings 
 by the grand jury. And this is substantially the 
 force of the word here. The Apostle condemns all 
 these impatient human praejudicia, these unauthorised 
 dvaKpi<ris f which anticipate the final Kpl&is, reserving 
 his case for the great tribunal when at length all 
 the evidence will be forthcoming and a satisfactory 
 verdict can be given. Meanwhile this process of 
 gathering evidence has begun ; an dvaKpicns is indeed 
 being held, not however by these self-appointed ma- 
 gistrates, but by One who alone has the authority 
 
DISTINCTIONS OBLITERATED. 71 
 
 to institute the enquiry, and the ability to sift the 
 facts : 6 Se dvafcpivwv pe Kvpios ecrrw. Of this half 
 technical sense of the word the New Testament itself 
 furnishes a good example. The examination of S. 
 Paul before Festus is both in name and in fact an 
 dvd/cpicris. The Roman procurator explains to Agrippa 
 how he had directed the prisoner to be brought into 
 court (Trpotjyayov avrbv) in order that, having held 
 the preliminary enquiry usual in such cases (rrjs 
 dva/cpiaetos yevofjuevv]?), he might be able to lay the 
 case before the emperor (Acts xxv. 26). Thus S. 
 Paul's meaning here suffers very seriously by the 
 wrong turn given to dvaKpivew ; nor is this the only 
 passage where the sense is impaired thereby. In I 
 Cor. xiv. 24 l\,6y^eraL VTTO TTUVTCOV, dva/cpiverai, VTTO 
 TrdvTcov, [real ovrw] rd KpVTrrd rrjs tcapSias avrov 
 (f>avpd yLverai, the sense required is clearly 'sifting, 
 probing, revealing,' and the rendering of our translators 
 *he is judged of all' introduces an idea alien to the 
 passage. Again, only five verses lower down (xiv. 29) 
 another compound of /cptvetv occurs and is similarly 
 treated, Trpoc^^rat Be Bvo fj rpet? \a\elrwcrav /cal ol O\\OL 
 SiaKptverwo-av, 'let the prophets speak two or three, 
 and let the other judgel where it would be difficult to 
 attach any precise meaning to the English without the 
 aid of the Greek, and where certainly Sta/c 
 ought to be rendered 'discern' rather than 'judge.' 
 
72 ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 Another passage which I shall take to illustrate 
 the mode of dealing with icpivew and its compounds 
 is still more important. In I Cor. xi. 28 34, a 
 passage in which the English rendering is chargeable 
 with some serious practical consequences and where 
 a little attention to the original will correct more than 
 one erroneous inference, the rendering of icpiveiv, 
 SicLKpivew, KarcLKpiveLv, is utterly confused. The Greek 
 runs SoKi/Aa^tra) 8e civOpwiros eavrbv /cal o#Tft>? e/c rov 
 dprov ecr0iTG) /cal IK rov irorrjpLOV Trivera)' 6 yap eaOiwv 
 KOI irlvwv [apaflo?] Kpi^a eavrq) ecrQiei /cal TrtWt, fjLrj 
 TO aw/jia [rov K.vplov\...el Se eauroz)? Ste- 
 , OVK av e/cpivofieOa' /cpivopevot, Be VTTO 
 }Lvplov TraibevcfJieOa, wa JJLTJ crvv T&> Koa^a* /cara/cpi- 
 0tofjLV...eiL Tt9 Treiva, ev OIL/CM eo-Qierco, iva fjirj els icpifia 
 a-vvep^crOe^ where the words in brackets should be 
 omitted from the text. The English rendering corre- 
 sponding to this is ; ' But let a man examine himself, 
 and so let him eat of that bread, and drink of that 
 cup. For he that eateth and drinketh unworthily, 
 eateth and drinketh damnation to himself, not dis- 
 cerning' the Lord's body... For if we would jttdge 
 ourselves, we should not be judged. But when we are 
 judged, we are chastened of the Lord, that we should 
 not be condemned with the world... If any man hunger, 
 let him eat at home, that ye come not together unto 
 condemnation' Here the faults are manifold. In 
 
DISTINCTIONS OBLITERATED. 73 
 
 the first place Kp[^a is rendered by two separate 
 words 'damnation' and 'condemnation'; and, though 
 we cannot fairly charge our translators with the 
 inferences practically drawn from the first word, yet 
 this is a blemish which we would gladly remove. 
 But in fact both words are equally wrong, the correct 
 rendering 'judgment' having in either case been 
 relegated to the margin where it has lain neglected 
 and has exercised no influence at all on the popular 
 mind. And this circumstance (for it is only a sample 
 of the fate which has befallen numberless valuable 
 marginal readings elsewhere) suggests an important 
 practical consideration. If the marginal renderings 
 are intended for English-reading people (and for 
 scholars they are superfluous), they will only then 
 fulfil their purpose, when the margin is regarded as an 
 integral portion of our English Bibles, and when it is 
 ordered by authority that these alternative readings 
 shall always be printed with the text. This then is 
 the second error of our translators : tepiveiv, Kara/cpi- 
 vew, are confused, when the force of the passage 
 depends on their being kept separate; for these 
 Kpipara in the Apostle's language are temporary 
 judgments, differing so entirely from Kardicpi^a that 
 they are intended to have a chastening effect and to 
 save from condemnation, as he himself distinctly 
 states; Kpivbpevoi 8e viro Kvplov Traibevo/jLeOa, f (va /LIT} 
 
74 ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 avv TO) Kocr/JLO) icaraKpiOw /j,ev. Lastly, the Version 
 contains a third error in the confusion of icpivew and 
 biaicpiveiv ; for whereas SiaKplvovres TO o-oofia is 
 correctly translated ' discerning the body cf the Lord ' 
 at the first occurrence of SuiKpiveiv, yet when the word 
 appears again, it is rendered 'judge* to the confusion 
 of the sense ; el eavrovs SieKpivoiJLev, ovtc av e/cpwofieOa, 
 ' If we would judge ourselves, we should not be judged* 
 where it ought to stand ' If we had discerned ourselves, 
 we should not have been judged! In fact S. Paul 
 speaks of three stages, marked respectively by Sia- 
 Kplveiv, Kpivew, and Kxrafcpiveiv. The first word 
 expresses the duty of persons before and in com- 
 municating; this duty is twofold, they must discern 
 themselves and discern the Lord's body, that they 
 may understand and not violate the proper relations 
 between the one and other. The second expresses the 
 immediate consequences which ensue from the neglect 
 of this duty fat judgments which are corrective and 
 remedial, but not final. The third denotes the 'final 
 condemnation, which only then overtakes a man, when 
 the second has failed to reform his character. But 
 this sequence is wholly obliterated in our Version. 
 In Rom. xiv. 22, 23 again, where the words occur 
 together, it would have been well to have kept the 
 distinction, though here the confusion is not so fatal 
 to the meaning : ' Happy is he that condemneth not 
 
DISTINCTIONS OBLITERATED. 75 
 
 himself (6 /IT) tcpivnv eavrov) in that thing which he 
 alloweth (eV <j> Sotci/jLa^i): And he that doubteth (6 Se 
 SiaKpivofievos) is damned (tcaTaKe/cpLTai) if he eat, 
 because he eateth not of faith.' S. Paul is not satisfied 
 in this case, that a man should not condemn himself; 
 he must not even judge himself. In other words the 
 case must be so clear that he has no need to balance 
 conflicting arguments with a view to arriving at a 
 result. Otherwise he should abstain altogether, for 
 his eating is not of faith. Here our translators have 
 rendered SicucpLvbiievos rightly, but a misgiving appears 
 to have occurred to them, for in the margin they add 
 ' Or, discerneth and putteth a difference between 
 meats,' which would be the active 6 Siaicpivwv. Indeed 
 an evil destiny would seem to have pursued them 
 throughout, when dealing with compounds of Kpivew, 
 for in another passage (2 Cor. i. 9) they render diro- 
 Kpipa ' sentence/ though the correct meaning ' answer* 
 is given in the margin. 
 
 This neglect of prepositions in compound words 
 is a very frequent fault in our Version. In the 
 parable of the wheat and the tares indeed, though 
 the correct reading describes the sowing in the one 
 case by aireipeiv and in the other by eTriaireipeLv 
 (Matt. xiii. 24, 25), yet no blame can attach to our 
 translators for not observing the distinction, as they 
 had in their text the faulty reading eWape for 
 
76 ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 eTrecrTreipev. But elsewhere this excuse cannot be 
 pleaded in their behalf. Thus in the parable of 
 the wedding-feast there is a striking variation of 
 language between the commission of the master and 
 its execution by the servants, which ought not to 
 have been effaced. The order given is iropevevOe 
 eVl ra9 &i,ej;6Sovs TWV oSwv, but as regards its 
 fulfilment we read simply eeX0oWe9 eh ra? 0801)9 
 (Matt. xxii. g, 10). In this change of expression we 
 seem to see a reference to the imperfect work of 
 the human agents as contrasted with the urgent and 
 uncompromising terms of the command, which bade 
 them scour the public thoroughfares, following all their 
 outlets ; and certainly it is slovenly work to translate 
 both ra9 oVfoou9 TMV 6Bd)v and ra9 0801)9 alone by 
 the same rendering 'high-ways.' A similar defect 
 again is the obliteration of the distinction between 
 airavav and ^K^airavav in 2 Cor. xii. 1 5 ' I will very 
 gladly spend (Sajravijaa)) and be spent (e/cSaTrawrjOr}- 
 o-ofjiat,) for you,' where ' wholly spent ' would give the 
 force of the compound. But examples of this kind 
 might be multiplied. Would it not be possible, for 
 instance, to find some rendering, which without any 
 shock to good taste would yet distinguish between 
 $i\elv and Kara<f>i\.lv in such passages as Matt. xxvi. 
 48, 49 ov av (f>i\ijo-(o auro9 a~Tiv...Kal /car(f>i\rj- 
 <rev avrcv, and Luke vii. 45, 46 </>t\?7/x poi OVK 
 
DISTINCTIONS OBLITERATED. 77 
 
 , aurrj &e...ov SteXiTrev KaTa$i\ovcra, TOU? TroSa? 
 IJLOV, so as to bring out the extravagance of the 
 treachery in the one case and the depth of the 
 devotion in the other, implied in the strong compound 
 
 Hardly less considerable is the injury inflicted on 
 the sense by failing to observe the different force of 
 prepositions, when not compounded. Of this fault 
 one instance must suffice. In 2 Cor. iii. 1 1 el yap TO 
 Karapyov/JLvov Sia So 779, TroXXro /Jba\\ov TO /juevov ev 
 80^77, 'For if that which is done away was glorious, 
 much more that which remaineth is glorious! the 
 distinction of SLO, Sof/?? and ev &6%r) is obliterated, 
 though the change is significant in the original, where 
 the transitory flush and the abiding presence are 
 distinguished by the change of prepositions, and thus 
 another touch is added to the picture of the contrast 
 between the two dispensations. 
 
 Again, how much force is lost by neglecting a 
 change of gender in the English rendering of John 
 i. 1 1 ' He came to his own (et? TO, iSia) t and his own 
 (OL L&IOI) received him not.' Here the distinction 
 in the original between the neuter TO. i$ia and the 
 masculine ol ISiot, at once recalls the parable in Matt. 
 xxi. 33 sq., in which the vineyard corresponds to ra 
 TSta and the husbandmen to ol 181,01 ; but our Version 
 makes no distinction between the place and the 
 
78 ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 persons between 'His own home' and 'His own 
 people. 1 Doubtless there is a terseness and a strength 
 in the English rendering which no one would wil- 
 lingly sacrifice ; but the sense ought to be the first 
 consideration. 
 
 Let me pass to an illustration of another kind, 
 where confusion is introduced by the same render- 
 ing of different verbs: I Cor. xiv. 36 'What, came 
 the word of God out from you ? or came it unto you 
 only ? ' Here there appears to the English reader to 
 be an opposition between from and unto, and the two 
 interrogatives seem to introduce alternative proposi- 
 tions. The original however is rj afi vpwv 6 \6yos TOV 
 eov e%?)\6ev ; rj et? vfia? fjuovovs KarrjvTrjaev ; where 
 the fault of the English Version is twofold ; the same 
 word is used in rendering e%rj\6ev and KarrjvTvjo-ev, 
 and p,6vov<$ is represented by the ambiguous 'only.' 
 Thus the emphasis is removed from the pronoun you 
 in both clauses to the prepositions, and the two 
 hypotheses are made to appear mutually exclusive. 
 The translation of Tyndale, which was retained even 
 in the Bishops' Bible, though somewhat harsh, is 
 correct and forcible, ' Spronge the worde of God from 
 you ? Ether came it unto you only 1 ?' 
 
 1 A very important passage, in which the hand of the reviser is 
 needed, may perhaps be noted here. The correct Greek Text of Matt. 
 V. 32 is Tras 6 dTroXiW TT\V yvvaiKO. avrov, Trape/cros \6yov iropveias, iroiet 
 avryv /uoixei/0?}'cu, KO! 6s tdj> dTroXeXvfjLtvijv 70/070-77 /totxarat, where 
 
DISTINCTIONS OBLITERATED. 79 
 
 Much attention has been directed by recent 
 writers to the synonymes of the New Testament. 
 They have pointed out what is lost to the English 
 reader by such confusions as those of av\r) fotd and 
 iro'uLvr] flock in John x. 1 6, where in our Version the 
 same word/0/# stands for both 1 , though the point of 
 our Lord's teaching depends mainly on the distinction 
 between the many folds and the one flock ; of SovXot, 
 and Sid/covoi, in the parable of the wedding-feast 
 (Matt. xxii. I sq.), both rendered by servants, though 
 they have different functions assigned to them, and 
 though they represent two distinct classes of beings 
 the one human, the other angelic ministers 2 ; of KO- 
 
 our English Version has ' Whosoever shall put away his wife, saving for 
 the cause of fornication, causeth her to commit adultery: and whosoever 
 shall marry her that is divorced committeth adtiltery.' Here the English 
 Version casts equal blame on the woman, thus doing her an injustice, 
 for obviously she is not in the same position with the husband as regards 
 guilt; but the Greek /uoixeutf^cu (not /uoixa0-0ai), being a passive verb, 
 implies something quite different. In this instance however the fault 
 does not lie at the door of our translators, who instead of ^.otxevdTjvai 
 had the false reading /-totxcur&u ; but, the correct text being restored, 
 a corresponding change in the English rendering is necessary. Com- 
 pare also the various reading in Matt. xix. 9. 
 
 1 Tyndale and Coverdale preserve the distinction of flock and fold. 
 In the Great Bible it disappears. 
 
 2 Here again the older Versions generally preserve the distinction, 
 translating SovXoi, diaKovotby 'servants,' 'ministers,' respectively. The 
 Rheims Version has 'waiters' for diaKovoi. In this case the Geneva 
 Bible was the first to obliterate the distinction, which was preserved 
 even in the Bishops'. 
 
80 ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 and airvpi^ in the miracles of feeding the five 
 thousand and the four thousand respectively both 
 translated baskets though the words are set over 
 against each other in the evangelic narratives (Matt. 
 xvi. 9, 10, Mark viii. 19, 20), and seem to point to 
 a different nationality of the multitudes in the two 
 cases ; of %>a and dijpia in the Apocalypse, both 
 represented by beasts, though the one denotes the 
 beings who. worship before the throne of heaven, 
 and the other the monsters whose abode is the abyss 
 beneath. For other instances, and generally for an 
 adequate treatment of this branch of exegesis, I 
 shall be content to refer to the works of Archbishop 
 Trench and others ; but the following examples, out 
 of many which might be given, will serve as further 
 illustrations of the subject, which is far from being 
 exhausted. 
 
 In John xiii. 23, 25 r\v Be dvaKei^evo^ el? e/c 
 liaOrjTtoV avrov eV TO> /c6\7r&) rov 'I77<7o0. 
 eVeti/09 oi/Vft)? eVl TO (rrrjOos TOU 'I^crou Xeyet 'Now there 
 was leaning 011 Jesus' bosom one of his disciples... He 
 then lying on Jesus' breast saith,' the English Version 
 makes no distinction between the reclining position 
 of the beloved disciple throughout the meal, described 
 by az/a/ce///,ero5, and the sudden change of posture at 
 this moment, introduced by avaireo-wv. This distinc- 
 tion is further enforced in the original by a change 
 
DISTINCTIONS OBLITERATED. 8 1 
 
 in both the prepositions and the nouns, from eV 
 to eW, and from Kokiros to o-rrjOos. S. John was 
 reclining on the bosom of his Master, and he sud- 
 denly threw back his head upon His breast to ask 
 a question. Again in a later passage a reference 
 occurs not to the reclining position but to the 
 sudden movement 1 in xxi. 2O o? teal dveTreaev ev TO> 
 SeLTTvq) eTrl TO GT?)6o<$ at/rod Kol elirev, where likewise 
 it is misunderstood by our translators, 'which also 
 leaned on his. breast and said/ This is among the 
 most striking of those vivid descriptive traits which 
 distinguish the narrative of the fourth Gospel gener- 
 ally, and which are especially remarkable in these 
 last scenes of Jesus' life, where the beloved dis- 
 ciple was himself an eye-witness and an actor. It 
 is therefore to be regretted that these fine touches 
 
 1 The word cij>aTriirTu> occurs several times in the New Testament 
 and always signifies a change of position, for indeed this idea is inherent 
 in the word. It is used of a rower bending back for a fresh stroke 
 (e.g. Polyb. i. 21. 2), of a horse suddenly checked and rearing (Plat. 
 Phcedr. 254 B, E), of a guest throwing himself back on the couch or on 
 the ground preparatory to a meal (Matt. xv. 35, John xiii. 12, etc). 
 
 The received text of xiii. 25 runs, tiwre<rwi> 8e tKfwos eirl rb ffrrjdos 
 /r.T.X., but the correct reading is as given above. The substitution of 
 eTrnreffuv however does not tell in favour of our translators; for this 
 word ought to have shown, even more clearly than avatreff&v, that a 
 change of posture was intended. The OUTWS, which appears in the 
 correct text and gives an additional touch to the picture, has a parallel 
 in iv. 6 e/catfefcro ourws firl T$ ^1773. In xxi. 20 there is no various 
 reading. 
 
 L. R. 6 
 
82 ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 of the picture should be blurred in our English 
 Bibles. 
 
 Again, in I Cor. xiv. 2O /in) TraiSia <yivecr6e rais 
 (frpeplv, d\\d rfj icaKia vrjTrid^ere, much force is lost 
 by the English rendering, ' Be not children in under- 
 standing; howbeit in malice be ye children' In the 
 original S. Paul is not satisfied that his converts 
 should be merely children in vice ; they must be 
 something less than this, they must be guileless as 
 babes ; and we cannot afford to obliterate the dis- 
 tinction between TracBla and vr/Tnoi. Again in this 
 same chapter (ver. 7) o/-io>9 rd d^w^a favnv SiSovra... 
 edv $iaa-To\r)v rot? (#0770*9 fJ*rj Sa> is translated, 'Even 
 things without life giving sound... except they give 
 a distinction in the sounds* where certainly different 
 words should have been found for <a>i/r} and <t>06yyo<; ; 
 and yet our translators did not fail through poverty 
 of expression, for three verses below they have ren- 
 dered (jxaval voices and afywvov without signification. 
 In the margin they suggest tunes for fi&oyyois, and 
 this would be preferable to retaining the same word. 
 As $007709 is used especially of musical sounds, per- 
 haps notes might be adopted. This is just a case 
 where a word not elsewhere found in the English 
 Bible might be safely introduced, because there is 
 no incongruity which jars upon the ear. Again in 
 the following chapter (xv. 40) crepa pev 77 rc5z/ 
 
DISTINCTIONS OBLITERATED. 83 
 
 pavlcov Sofa, erepa Se 77 rwv emyeLwv. a\\rj Sofa q 
 Kal a\\rj Sofa 0-6X171/77?, KOI a\\rj Sofa dcrrepwv, the 
 words aXX?? and erepa are translated alike, ' The glory 
 of the celestial is one and the glory of the terrestrial 
 is another. There is one glory of the sun, and another 
 glory of the moon, and another glory of the stars.' 
 Yet it is hardly to be doubted that S. Paul purposely 
 uses erepa when he is speaking of things belonging to 
 different classes, as errovpdvia and eTriyeta, and a'XX?7 
 when he is speaking of things belonging to the same 
 class, as the sun and moon and stars ; for this is the 
 proper distinction between aXX?7 and erepa, that, 
 whereas the former denotes simply distinction of 
 individuals, the latter involves the secondary idea of 
 difference of kind. In fact the change in the form of 
 the sentence by which Sofa, Sofa, from being marked 
 out as the subjects by the definite article and distin- 
 guished by /jiev...Be in the first place, become simply 
 predicates and are connected by Kal. . ./cal in the second, 
 corresponds to the change from erepa to aXX?; in 
 passing from the one to the other. These words 
 aXXo?, ere/jo?, occur together more than once, and in 
 all cases something is lost by effacing the distinction. 
 In Gal. i. 6 6avada) ori.ovrco ra^eco? /jierarldeade... 
 et? erepov evayyeXiov, o outc eanv aXXo, translated 
 'I marvel that ye are so soon removed... unto another 
 Gospel, which is not anotherl the sense would be 
 
 62 
 
84 ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 brought out by giving each word its proper force ; 
 and again in 2 Cor. xi. 4 a\\ov 'Iij&ovv Kripvcrcrei 
 ov OVK etcrjpv^afjLev, rj 'rrvev/JLa erepov Xa/4/3az>ere o OVK 
 eXdfiere, though the loss is less considerable, the dis- 
 tinction might with advantage have been preserved. 
 In these instances however a reviser might be deterred 
 by the extreme difficulty in distinguishing the two, 
 without introducing some modernism. In the passage 
 first quoted (i Cor. xv. 40) the end might perhaps be 
 attained by simply substituting ' other ' for ' another ' 
 in rendering erepa. 
 
 Still more important is it to mark the distinction 
 between elvai a*nd ^Lveadai, where our translators have 
 not observed it. Thus our English rendering of Joh. 
 viii. 58, 'Before Abraham was, I am? loses half the 
 force of the original, irplv 'Affpaajji, yevecrOai, eya> et/u, 
 'Before Abraham was born, I am? The becoming only 
 can be rightly predicated of the patriarch ; the being 
 is reserved for the Eternal Son alone. Similar in 
 kind, though less in degree, is the loss in the render- 
 ing of Luke vi. 36 ylveo-Qe olfcrtp/jLoves, KaOci)? [ical] 6 
 7rart}p vfjLO)v ol/crtpfjiwv eVrtV, ' J3e ye merciful, as your 
 Father also is merciful.' Here also the original ex- 
 presses the distinction between the imperfect effort 
 and the eternal attribute 1 . 
 
 1 In i Pet. i. 1 6 our translators, when they gave the rendering '/?<? 
 ye holy, for I am holy,' had before them the reading crytot 
 
DISTINCTIONS OBLITERATED. 85 
 
 Illustrations of similar defects might be multiplied, 
 though in many cases it is much easier to point out 
 the fault, than to suggest the remedy. Thus such a 
 rendering as 2 Cor. vii. 10 ' For godly sorrow worketh 
 repentance (fieTavoiav) to salvation not to be repented 
 of (dfiTafjL6\r]Tov) ' belongs to this class. Here the 
 Geneva Testament has 'causeth amendment unto 
 salvation not to be repented of/ and perhaps it were 
 best in this instance to sacrifice the usual rendering of 
 fierdvoia in order to preserve the distinction (unless 
 indeed we are prepared to introduce the word 'regret' 
 for fierafieXeia), especially as /-tera/Ae'Xecr&u in the con- 
 text is consistently translated 'repent.' Again it 
 were desirable to find some better rendering of Tracra 
 Socri? uyaOrj /cal TTCLV &a>prjfjLa re\eiov in James i. 17 
 than ' every good gift and every perfect gift! since a 
 contemporary of S. James especially distinguishes 
 Soo-t?, Sofia, from Scopov, Saped etc., saying that the 
 latter are much stronger and involve the idea of mag- 
 nitude and fulness which is wanting to the former 
 (Philo Leg. All. iii. 70, p. 126 epfyacriv fieyeQovs 
 review d*ja6v StyXovow /c.T.X. ; com p. de Cherub. 25, 
 p. 154), and applying to them the very same epithet 
 'perfect' which occurs in the passage before us. And 
 yet the distinction would be dearly purchased at the 
 
 5rt yu> 07405 el fit, but the correct text is ayt-oi Zveede, on t'yi ciytos 
 (omitting ct>i). 
 
86 ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 cost of an offensive Latinism. But whatever difficulty 
 there may be in finding different renderings here, it was 
 certainly not necessary in the sentence immediately 
 preceding, 'When lust hath conceived, it bringeth forth 
 sin ; and sin, when it is finished, bringeth forth death,' 
 1} eTndvfiia crv\\a/3ov(ra rtWet afjbapriav, ?} Be apapTia 
 uTroreKecrQeicra airoicvei Odvarov, either to obliterate a 
 real distinction by giving the same rendering of TLicrei 
 and aTTo/cvei or to create an artificial distinction by 
 adopting different forms of sentences for 77 eTnOvpia 
 av\\aftov(Ta and 77 apapTia u7rore\(T0ta-a. The Eng- 
 lish might run ; ' Lust when it hath conceived bring- 
 eth forth sin, and sin when it is perfected (or 'grown') 
 gendereth death.' Again in Rom. xii. 2 ' Be not con- 
 formed to this world, but be ye transformed by the 
 renewing of your mind,' for /xr) o-vo-^rjfiarl^o-Oe raj 
 alwvi rotrrft), XXa fJiCTa/JLOp^ovaOe rfj dvaxaivtoffei 
 TOV 1/009 [vpwv], the English not only suggests an iden- 
 tity of expression which has no place in the original 
 but obliterates an important distinction between the 
 (r^fia or fas/iion and the /J<OP<J)YJ or form, between 
 the outward and transitory and the abiding and sub- 
 stantial. We might translate ^77 (Tva-^fiari^eo-Oe K.T.\. 
 ' Be ye not fashioned after this world, but be ye trans- 
 formed in the renewing, etc./ thus partially retracing 
 our steps and following on the track of Tyndale's and 
 other earlier Versions, which have ' Fashion not your- 
 
DISTINCTIONS OBLITERATED. 87 
 
 selves like unto this world/ and so preserve the distinc- 
 tion of o-^rjfjLa and popfyr} (though they are not very 
 happy in their rendering of ^erafiop^oixrOe c Be ye 
 changed in your shape'). In this instance our trans- 
 lators have followed the guidance of Wycliffe and the 
 Rheims Version, which have conformed and reformed. 
 In another passage, Phil. ii. 6 sq., where the distinction 
 of floppy} and C^/MI is still more important, it is 
 happily preserved in our Authorised Version ; ' being 
 in the form of God, 1 'took upon him the form of a 
 servant,' ' being found in fashion as a man/ 
 
 In other cases, where it is even more important for 
 the sense to observe the distinction of synonymes, we 
 seem to have no choice but to acquiesce in the con- 
 fusion. At an earlier stage of the language it might 
 have been possible to establish different renderings, 
 but now the English equivalents are so stereotyped 
 that any change seems impossible. Thus the rendering 
 of 8ta/3o\o9 and Saipoviov by the same word ' devil ' is 
 a grievous loss ; and it is much to be regretted that 
 Wycliffe's translation of ^aipoviov by ' fiend ' was not 
 adopted by Tyndale, in which case it would probably 
 have become the current rendering. Now the sense 
 of incongruity would make its adoption impossible. 
 Still greater misunderstanding arises from translating 
 Hades the place of departed spirits, and Gehenna 
 the place of fire and torment, by the same word 
 
88 ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 'hell/ and thus confusing two ideas wholly distinct. 
 In such a passage as Acts ii. 27, 31 the misconception 
 thus created is very serious. Is it possible even now 
 to naturalise the word Hades and give it a place in 
 our Version ? Or must we be satisfied with pointing 
 out in the margin in each case whether the word 
 'hell' represents Hades or Gehenna? Another, though 
 a less important instance, is the word ' temple/ which 
 represents both i/ao? the inner shrine or sanctuary, 
 and /e/>o/> the whole of the sacred precincts. Thus 
 in the English Version an utter confusion of localities 
 results from a combination of two such passages as 
 Matt, xxiii. 35 'Whom ye slew between the temple 
 (rov vaov) and the altar/ and Matt. xxi. 12 'Them 
 that sold and bought in the temple' (eV T&> lepu>). In 
 the first case for TOV vaov S. Luke (xi. 51) uses TOV 
 oitcov 'the house/ the building which is, as it were, 
 the abode of the Divine Presence ; but our English 
 translators have boldly rendered even TOV OLKOV by 
 ' the temple.' More hopeless still is it to preserve the 
 distinction between Qvcriao-Trjpiov the Jewish and /Jta/zo? 
 the Heathen altar, the latter word occurring only once 
 in the New Testament (Acts xvii. 23) and the poverty 
 of our language obliging us there to translate it by 
 the same word as Ova-iacrTrjpiov. 
 
 The contrast of Jew and Gentile involved in these 
 last words recalls another pair of synonymes, which 
 
DISTINCTIONS OBLITERATED. 89 
 
 present the same relation to each other and in which 
 the distinction is equally impracticable, Xao? used 
 especially of the chosen people and in contradistinction 
 to the Gentiles (e.g. Acts iv. 25, 27, x. 2, xxi. 28, 
 Rom. ix. 25, 26, i Pet. ii. 10, etc.), and Srjfj,o<; denoting 
 the people of a heathen city and more particularly 
 when gathered together in the popular assembly 
 (e.g. at Caesarea, Acts xii. 22 1 ; at Thessalonica, Acts 
 xvii. 5; at Ephesus, Acts xix. 30, 33). 
 
 4- 
 
 Another class of errors, far more numerous and 
 much more easily corrected than the last, is due to 
 the imperfect knowledge of Greek grammar in the 
 age in which our translators lived. And here it is 
 instructive to observe how their accuracy fails for the 
 most part just at the point where the Latin language 
 ceases to run parallel with the Greek. In two re- 
 markable instances, at all events, this is the case. 
 The Latin language has only one past tense where 
 
 1 A heathen multitude, such as would naturally be found in a city 
 which was the seat of the Roman government, is contemplated here, 
 as the whole incident shows. Hence Tyndale and the later Versions 
 rightly translate 0eoO ^WJ/TJ Kal of>< dvOpdirov (ver. 22) 'The voice of a 
 god and not of a man,' where Wycliffe has ' The voice of God and not 
 of man.' When the Jews of Caesarea are especially intended, 6 Xads is 
 used instead of 6 5^/xoj ; Acts x. 2. 
 
90 ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 the Greek has two ; a Roman was forced to translate 
 e\d\7}rra and \e\d\rjrca by the same expression 'locutus 
 sum.' Accordingly we find that our English trans- 
 lators make no difference between the aorist and the 
 perfect, apparently giving the most obvious rendering 
 on each occasion and not being guided by any 
 grammatical principle in the treatment of these tenses. 
 Again the Latin language has no definite article; 
 and correspondingly in our English Version its pre- 
 sence or absence is almost wholly disregarded. 
 Indeed it would hardly be an exaggeration to say 
 that, if the translators had been left to supply or 
 omit the definite article in every case according to 
 the probabilities of the sense or the requirements 
 of the English, without any aid from the Greek, the 
 result would have been about as accurate as it is at 
 present. 
 
 I am not bringing any charge against the ability 
 of our translators. To demand from them a know- 
 ledge of Greek Grammar which their age did not 
 possess would be to demand an impossibility. Accus- 
 tomed to write and to speak in Latin, they uncon- 
 sciously limited the range and capacity of the Greek 
 by the measure of the classical language with which 
 they were most familiarly acquainted. But our own 
 more accurate knowledge may well be brought to 
 bear to correct these deficiencies. Tyndale had said 
 
FAULTS OF GRAMMAR. 9! 
 
 truly that ' the Greek tongue agreeth more with the 
 English than the Latin'; and it should be our en- 
 deavour to avail ourselves of this agreement and so 
 to reproduce the meaning of the original with greater 
 exactness. I hope to show, before I have done, that 
 it is no mere pedanti(i affectation which would prompt 
 us to correct these faults ; but that important inter- 
 ests, sometimes doctrinal, sometimes historical, are 
 involved in their adjustment. 
 
 I. Under the head of faulty grammar, the tenses 
 deserve to be considered first. And here I will begin 
 with the defect on which I have already touched 
 the confusion of the aorist and the perfect. It is not 
 meant to assert that the aorist can always be rendered 
 by an aorist and the perfect by a perfect in English 1 . 
 No two languages coincide exactly in usage, and 
 allowance must be made for the difference. But still 
 I think it will be seen that our Version may be greatly 
 improved in this respect without violence to the 
 English idiom. 
 
 Thus in John i. 3 %pi? avrov eyevero ovBe ev o 
 yeyovcv, or in 2 Cor. xii. 17, 18 fjiij nva v dire- 
 7T/30? Vfid^, &i avrov 67r\eove/cTr)a 
 TYroi/, Kal <rvva7reo'Ti,\a TOV 
 
 1 A comparison of English with the languages of continental Europe 
 will illustrate the difference of idiom in this respect. 
 
92 ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 or in Col. i. 16, 17 ev avraj etcricOrj rd 7rdvra...rd 
 TrdvTO, &i avrou /ecu eh avrov $KTi<rTai, is there any 
 reason why the tenses should not have been pre- 
 served, so that the distinction between the historical 
 fact and the permanent result would have appeared 
 in all three cases ? Yet our translators have ren- 
 dered eyevero, yeyovev equally by 'was made' in 
 the first passage, aTre'crraX/ta, a-TrecrretXa by ' I sent ' 
 in the second, and e/crla-drj, e/cTia-Tcu by 'were created' 
 in the third. Again in I John iv. 9, IO, 14 aTrecrraA- 
 icev, aTreVretXez/, aTrearakKev, are all rendered in an 
 aoristic sense 'he sent/ though the appropriateness 
 of either tense in its own context is sufficiently 
 noticeable. On the other hand, in an exactly par- 
 allel case, I Cor. ix. 22 eyevo/Jirjv rot? daQeveaiv d<r6evr)<; 
 'iva. rot)? do-Bevels /cepSij(ra)' rot? iracnv yeyova irdvra, 
 where in like manner the aorist gives an isolated past 
 incident, and the perfect sums up the total present 
 result, the distinction of tenses is happily preserved, 
 'To the weak became I weak that I might gain the 
 weak : I am made all things to all men ' : though * I 
 am become 1 would have been preferable, as preserving 
 the same verb in both cases. But I fear that this 
 correct rendering must be ascribed to accident: for 
 the hap-hazard way in which these tenses are treated 
 will appear as well from the instances already quoted 
 as from such a passage as 2 Cor. vii. 13, 14; 'There- 
 
FAULTS OF GRAMMAR. 93 
 
 fore we were comforted (7rapaKetc\ri/j,0a) in your 
 comfort: yea, and exceedingly the more joyed we 
 (tydpij/Mv) for the joy of Titus, because his spirit 
 was refreshed (avaireiravrai) by you all. For if I 
 have boasted (KeKav-^^ai) any thing to him of you, 
 I am not ashamed (^Karrja-^vvd^v) ; but as we spake 
 (e\a\r]cra^ev) all things to you in truth, even so our 
 boasting, which I made before Titus ([?}] eVl TiVou), is 
 found (eyevrjOr)} a truth.' 
 
 Such passages as these bring out this weakness of 
 our translation the more strikingly because the tenses 
 appear in juxta-position. But it is elsewhere that the 
 most serious injury is inflicted on the sense. I will 
 give examples of the aorist first ; and I hope to make 
 it clear that more than the interests of exact scholar- 
 ship are concerned in the accurate rendering. 
 
 If I read S. Paul aright, the correct understand- 
 ing of whole paragraphs depends on the retention 
 of the aoristic sense, and the substitution of a per- 
 fect confuses his meaning, obliterating the main idea 
 and introducing other conceptions which are alien 
 to the passages. As illustrations of this, take two 
 passages, Rom. vi. I sq., Col. ii. n sq. In the first 
 passage, aireOavopev (ver. 2), e^airriaO^fiev (ver. 3), 
 rjfjiev (ver. 4), frvvea-ravptoOr} (ver. 6), a-TrtOdvo- 
 (ver. 8), VTrrj/covcrare (ver. 17), e&ovXtoOrjTe -HJ Si- 
 Kaio<Tvvr) (ver. 18), eXevOepwQevrcs UTTO 
 
 
94 ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 TOJ e&> (ver. 22), edavaTaid'rjre (vii. 4), 
 KaTr)pyt)6r)/Ji6v, aTroOavovres (ver. 6). In the second 
 passage, TrepieT/jLrjdrjre (ii. Ii), o-vvTCKJzevres, o-vvrjyep- 
 6rjT6 (ver. 12), <rvvect)07rol'r)(rv (ver. 13), eSeiyfidrKrev 
 (ver. 15), aTreOdvere (ver. 20), avvrjjepdrjre (iii. i), aTre- 
 Odvere (ver. 3). Now the consistency with which S. 
 Paul uses the aorist in these two doctrinal passages 
 which treat of the same subject (scarcely ever inter- 
 posing a perfect, and then only for exceptional rea- 
 sons which are easily intelligible) is very remarkable ; 
 'Ye died, ye were buried, ye were raised, ye were 
 made alive ' ; and the argument might be very much 
 strengthened by reference to other passages where 
 the Apostle prefers the aorist in treating of the same. 
 topics 1 . In short, S. Paul regards this change from 
 sin to righteousness, from bondage to freedom, from 
 death to life as summed up in one definite act of 
 the past; potentially to all men in our Lord's Pas- 
 sion and Resurrection, actually to each individual 
 man when he accepts Christ, is baptized into Christ. 
 Then he is made righteous by being incorporated 
 into Christ's righteousness, he dies once for all to 
 sin, he lives henceforth for ever to God. This is the 
 
 1 For instance Gal. ii. 16, 17, 18, 19, 21, iii. 3, 27, v. 13, 24 (oi rou 
 Xpiorou rip ffopKa tffTavpuxrav), Ephes. i. ii, 13, ii. 5, 6 (<rvvefuoiroli}arti>, 
 ffvvriyfipev, ffWKaj9i<Tv), 13, 14, iv. I, 4, 7, 30 (to-QpaylffdijTe), Col. i. 13 
 (fy/>i5<raTo, iJ.fT^Tr}fffv), iii. 15, 2 Tim. i. 7, 9, Tit. iii. 5 (fouacit) : see 
 also i Pet. i. 3, 18, ii. 21, iii. 9. 
 
FAULTS OF GRAMMAR. 95 
 
 ideal. Practically we know that the death to sin 
 and the life to righteousness are inchoate, imperfect, 
 gradual, meagrely realised even by the most saintly 
 of men in this life : but S. Paul sets the matter in 
 this ideal light, to force upon the consciences of his 
 hearers the fact that an entire change came over 
 them when they became Christians, that the know- 
 ledge and the grace then vouchsafed to them did 
 not leave them where they were, that they are not 
 and cannot be their former selves, and that it is a 
 contradiction of their very being to sin any more. 
 It is the definiteness, the absoluteness of this change, 
 considered as a historical crisis, which forms the cen- 
 tral idea of S. Paul's teaching, and which the aorist 
 marks. We cannot therefore afford to obscure this 
 idea by disregarding the distinctions of grammar. Yet 
 in our English Version it is a mere chance whether in 
 such cases the aorist is translated as an aorist 
 
 The misconception which arises from this neglect 
 of the aorist has vitally affected the interpretation 
 of one passage. In 2 Cor. v. 14 ' If one died for all, 
 then were d\\dead* ([et] efc virep TTCLVTWV direOavev, apa 
 ol 7raz/T9 aireOavov), our Version substitutes the state 
 of death for the fact of dying, and thus interprets the 
 death to be a death through sin instead of a death 
 to sin. The reference in the context to the old 
 things passing away, and the language of S. Paul 
 
96 ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 elsewhere, e.g. Rom. vi. 2, 8, viii. 6, Col. ii. 20, iii. 3, 
 already quoted, seem to show that the true sense 
 is what would naturally be suggested by the correct 
 rendering of the aorist ; that all men have participated 
 potentially in Christ's death, have died with Him 
 to their former selves and to sin, and are therefore 
 bound to lead a new life 1 . 
 
 Not very unlike the passages, which I have been 
 considering, is Acts xix. 2 el Trvev/jua ajiov eXa/3ere 
 Trio-rev cravres, which our translators give ' Have ye 
 received the Holy Ghost since ye believed? 1 It 
 should run 'Did ye receive the Holy Ghost, when 
 ye believed ?' for the aorist of TrurTevew is used very 
 commonly, not of the continuous state of belief, but 
 of the definite act of accepting the faith ; e.g. Acts 
 xi. 17, Rom. xiii. u, I Cor. iii. 5, xv. 2, Gal. ii. 7, etc. 
 
 The instances which have been given hitherto 
 more or less directly affect doctrine. In the two 
 next examples, which occur in quotations from the 
 Old Testament, a historical connexion is severed by 
 the mistranslation of the aorist. In Matt. ii. 15 ef 
 
 1 The only passages which would seem to favour the other interpre- 
 tation are I Cor. xv. 22 ev ry 'ASa/x, irdvrcs a.ir<ydvf)<rKov<nv and Rom. v. 
 15 el yap rip TOV evbs 7rapa7rre&/m oi iroXXol airtdavov. Yet even if 
 this interpretation were adopted, the aoristic sense of dirtOavov ought to 
 be preserved; because the potential death of all men in Adam corre- 
 sponds to the potential life of all men in Christ, and is regarded as having 
 been effected once for all in Adam's transgression, as in Rom. v. 15. 
 
FAULTS OF GRAMMAR. 97 
 
 e/cd\e<7a rbv vibv JJLOV is rendered 'Out of 
 Egypt have I called my son ' : but turning to the 
 original passage in Hosea (xi. i) we find that the 
 proper aoristic sense must be restored ; ' When Israel 
 was a child, then I loved him, and called my son 
 out of Egypt/ Again in 2 Cor. iv. 13 eiricrrevaa $10 
 \d\rja-a is given 'I believed and therefore have I 
 spoken? a rendering unsuited to its position in the 
 LXX of Ps. cxvi. 10 (cxv. i), whence it is quoted. 
 
 Such examples as these however are very far from 
 exhausting the subject. In one passage the aorist 
 KTTJaacrdat, is treated as if /ce/crrjcrQai, and rendered 
 ' possess ' instead of ' acquire/ in defiance of a distinc- 
 tion which it does not require the erudition of Lord 
 Macaulay's schoolboy to appreciate: Luke xxi. IQ iv 
 rfj vTrofjLovfj v/j,(t)V KTijaaarOe [1. KTT/crecr^e] r9 ^v^a? 
 vp&v, ' In your patience possess ye your souls/ Errors 
 however occur also in this same word in I Thess. iv. 
 4 where the present is similarly treated, el&evai /ca- 
 GTOV V/JLWV TO eavTov crKvos KTaadat ev ayiaa/jLO) /cal 
 rifjifj, 'that every one of you should know how to pos- 
 sess his vessel in sanctification and honour'; and again 
 in Luke xviii. 12 where oaa KTwpai is translated 'all 
 that I possess ' : and thus it seems probable that the 
 mistake first arose from a misapprehension of the 
 meaning of KracrOai rather than from a direct confu- 
 sion of tenses. Yet even so this very misapprehen- 
 L. R. 7 
 
98 ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 sion must have been owing to the inability to see 
 how the sense ' possess ' is derived from the proper 
 force of the perfect 1 . 
 
 The treatment of the perfect is almost equally 
 faulty with the treatment of the aorist. Thus in 
 I Cor. xv. 4 sq. S. Paul lays the stress of his argument 
 on the fact that Christ is risen. This perfect eyrfyep- 
 Tai is repeated six times within a few verses (vv. 4, 12, 
 13, 14, 1 6, 17, 20), while the aorist TJyepBrj is not once 
 used. The point is not that Christ once rose from the 
 grave, but that having risen He lives for ever, as a 
 first-fruit or earnest of the resurrection. Indeed the 
 contrast between the tenses ort erd^ij KOI on 777- 
 yeprai (ver. 4) throws out this idea in still stronger 
 relief. In the I3th and following verses this con- 
 ception becomes so patent on the face of S. Paul's 
 language that our translators could not fail to see it, 
 and accordingly from this point onward the perfect 
 is correctly translated : but the fact that in the two 
 earliest instances where it occurs (vv. 4, 12) eyrjyeprcu 
 
 1 In Matt. x. 9 /J.TJ KTJ<rr)<rde xpu0-di>, t^ e older Versions generally 
 render KT-fia-rjadc by ' possess,' for which the A. V. substitutes ' pro- 
 vide,' with the marginal alternative 'get'; and in Acts i. 18 e/crTjcraro 
 Xuptov the oldest Versions have ' hath possessed,' for which the A. V. 
 (after the Bishops' and Geneva Bibles) substitutes ' purchased.' These 
 facts seem to show that the proper distinction between KTaadat and 
 KeKTrjadai (which latter does not occur in the New Testament) was 
 beginning to dawn upon Biblical scholars. 
 
FAULTS OF GRAMMAR. 99 
 
 is treated as an aorist, ' he rose,' shows that they did 
 not regard the rules of grammar, but were guided 
 only by the apparent demands of the sense. Another 
 example, closely allied to the last, occurs in Heb. vii. 
 14, 22. The context lays stress on the unchangeable 
 priesthood ; ' Thou art a priest for ever,' ' He con- 
 tinueth ever' (vv. 21, 24). Hence in ver. 14 the writer 
 says 7rp6$r)\ov on ef 'lovSa dvareraX/cev 6 Ki?/uo? 
 tffj,Q}v, and in ver. 22 Kara TOGOVTO KOI Kpeirrovos Bta- 
 6riK7)<s yeyovev eyyvos 'Irjaovs. But these references to 
 present existence are obliterated in the A. V., which 
 substitutes aorists in both cases, ' Our Lord sprang 
 out of Juda,' ' was Jesus made a surety.' 
 
 These instances have a more or less direct doc- 
 trinal bearing. The examples, which shall be given 
 next, are important in a historical aspect. In the 
 passage (2 Cor. xii. 2 sq.), in which S. Paul describes 
 the visions vouchsafed to one ' caught up to the third 
 heaven,' it can hardly be doubted that he refers to 
 himself. This appears not only from the connexion 
 of the context, but also (in the original) from the 
 mode of expression, olSa civOpwirov, olSa TOV TOLOVTOV 
 avOpuTTov. I have already pointed out (p. 43) the 
 capricious variations in the renderings of olSa, olB'ev, in 
 the context of this passage. But in these two clauses 
 our translators are not only capricious but absolutely 
 wrong, for they give to olSa an aoristic sense which 
 
 72 
 
ICO ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 it cannot possibly have, * I knew a man,' ' I knew such 
 a man f ; thus disconnecting the actual speaker from 
 the object of the vision, and suggesting to the 
 English reader the idea that the Apostle is speaking 
 of some past acquaintance. 
 
 Again S. Matthew in three several passages (i. 22, 
 xxi. 4, xxvi. 56) introduces a reference to prophecies 
 in the Old Testament, which have had their fulfilment 
 in incidents of the Gospel history, by the words rovro 
 Se [oXoz/] yeyovev iva TrXypwQfi (or 'iva ir\r]pw6(Tiv) 
 K.T.\. In all three passages, it will be observed, the 
 Evangelist has the perfect yeyovev f is come to pass ' ; 
 and in all three our English Version gives it as an 
 aorist t ivas done.' Now it cannot be urged (as it 
 might with some plausibility in the case of the Apo- 
 calypse) that S. Matthew is careless about the use of 
 the aorist and the perfect, or that he has any special 
 fondness for yeyovev. On the contrary, though the 
 aorist (eyevero, yeveaOai, etc.) frequently occurs in this 
 Gospel, there are not many examples of the perfect 
 yeyovev ; and in almost every instance our Version is 
 faulty. In xix. 8 anr dp^rj? ov yeyovev oi/ro>9 the 
 aoristic rendering ' From the beginning it was not so ' 
 entirely misleads the English reader as to the sense ; 
 in xxiv. 2 1 oia ov yeyovev air dpxfjs, ' Such as hath not 
 been from the beginning/ would (I suppose) be uni- 
 versally accepted as an improvement on the present 
 
FAULTS OF GRAMMAR. IOI 
 
 translation 'Such as was not from the beginning'; 
 and lastly in xxv. 6 Kpavyrj yeyovev, the startling 
 effect of the sudden surprise is expressed by the 
 change of tense from the aorist, ' a cry is raised' and 
 ought not to be neglected. When therefore this 
 Evangelist in three distinct places introduces the 
 fulfilment of a prophecy by yiyovev, the fact cannot 
 be without meaning. In two of these passages editors 
 sometimes attach the TOVTO Se o\ov yeyovev to the words 
 of the previous speaker of the angel in i. 22 and of 
 our Lord in xxvi. 56 in order to explain the perfect. 
 But this connexion is very awkward even in these two 
 cases, and wholly out of the question in the remaining 
 instance (xxi. 4). Is not the true solution this ; that 
 these tenses preserve the freshness of the earliest 
 catechetical narrative of the Gospel history, when the 
 narrator was not so far removed from the fact that it 
 was unnatural for him to say 'This is come to pass'? 
 I find this hypothesis confirmed when I turn to the 
 Gospel of S. John. He too adopts a nearly identical 
 form of words on one occasion to introduce a prophecy, 
 but with a significant change of tense; xix. 36 eyevero 
 yap ravra f iva TJ ypafyrj Tr\r)pw9f). To one writing at 
 the close of the century, the events of the Lord's life 
 would appear as a historic past ; and so the yeyovev 
 of the earlier Evangelist is exchanged for the eyevero 
 of the later. 
 
IO2 ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 An able American writer on the English language, 
 criticizing a previous effort at revision, remarks some- 
 what satirically that, judging from this revised version, 
 the tenses 'are coming to have in England a force 
 which they have not now in America 1 .' Now I have 
 already conceded that allowance must be made from 
 time to time for difference of idiom in rendering 
 aorists and perfects : and I do not know to what 
 passages in the revision issued by the Five Clergy- 
 men this criticism is intended to apply. But it is 
 important that our new revisers should not defer 
 hastily to such authority, and close too eagerly with 
 a license which may be abused. The fact is, that 
 our judgment in this matter is apt to be misled by 
 two disturbing influences : we must be on our guard 
 alike against the idola fort and against the idola 
 specus. 
 
 First, the language of the Authorised Version 
 is so wrought into the fabric of our minds by long 
 habit, that the corresponding conception is firmly 
 lodged there also. Thus it happens that when a 
 change of words is offered to us, we unconsciously 
 apply the new words to the old conception and are 
 
 1 Marsh's Lectures on the English Language no. xxviii. p. 633, 
 speaking of the translation of S. John by the Five Clergymen. The 
 passage is quoted by Bp. Ellicott (Revision of the English New Testament 
 p. 13), who seems half disposed to acquiesce in the justice of the 
 criticism. 
 
FAULTS OF GRAMMAR. 1 03 
 
 dissatisfied with them because they seem incongru- 
 ous ; and perhaps we conclude that English idiom is 
 violated because they do not mean what we expect 
 them to mean, not being prepared to make the 
 necessary effort required to master the new concep- 
 tion involved in them. Ido la fort omnium molestissima 
 sunt quae ex foedere verborum et nominum se insinua- 
 runt in intellect inn. 
 
 But secondly, the idols of our cave are scarcely 
 less misleading than the idols of the market-place. 
 Living in the middle of the nineteenth century, we 
 cannot without an effort transfer ourselves to the 
 modes of thought and of language, which were com- 
 mon in the first. The mistranslation from which 
 this digression started affords a good instance of 
 this source of misapprehension. We should not our- 
 selves say ' This is come to pass,' in referring to facts 
 which happened more than eighteen centuries ago, 
 and therefore we oblige the eye-witnesses to hold 
 our own language and say 'This came to pass.' 
 
 From the perfect tense I pass on to the present. 
 And here I find a still better illustration of the errors 
 into which we are led by following the idola specus. 
 In the Epistle to the Hebrews the sacred writer, 
 when speaking of the temple services and the Mosaic 
 ritual, habitually uses the present tense : e.g. ix. 6, 7, 
 9 eiariaaiv ol iepels, irpocr^epei, inrep eavrov, Swpd 
 
IO4 ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 re teal Ova-Lai, TrpocrfyepovTat,, x. I Overlap a? 
 (frepovcriv. Now I do not say that this is absolutely 
 conclusive as showing that the Epistle was written 
 before the destruction of Jerusalem, but it is certainly 
 a valuable indication of an early date and should 
 not have been obliterated. Yet our translators in 
 such cases almost invariably substitute a past tense, 
 as in the passages just quoted, * the priests went in/ 
 ' he offered for himself,' * were offered both gifts and 
 sacrifices/ ' sacrifices which they offered! And simi- 
 larly in ix. 1 8 they render eyKe/calvio-rai, 'was dedi- 
 cated/ and in ix. 9 TOV icaipov TOV eveo-rr)KOTa ' the 
 time then present/ Only in very rare instances do 
 they allow the present to stand, and for the most 
 part in such cases alone where it has no direct his- 
 torical bearing. The temple worship was a thing 
 of the remote past to themselves in the seventeenth 
 century, and they forced the writer of the Epistle to 
 speak their own language. 
 
 Another and a more important example of the 
 present tense is the rendering of ol crw^ofjievot,. In 
 the language of the New Testament salvation is 
 a thing of the past, a thing of the present, and a 
 thing of the future. S. Paul says sometimes ' Ye (or 
 we) were saved' (Rom. viii. 24), or 'Ye have been 
 saved' (Ephes. ii. 5, 8), sometimes 'Ye are being 
 saved' (i Cor. xv. 2), and sometimes 'Ye shall be 
 
FAULTS OF GRAMMAR. 105 
 
 saved' (Rom. x. 9, 13). It is important to observe 
 this, because we are thus taught that crwrypla involves 
 a moral condition which must have begun already, 
 though it will receive its final accomplishment here- 
 after. Godliness, righteousness, is life, is salvation. 
 And it is hardly necessary to say that the divorce 
 of morality and religion must be fostered and en- 
 couraged by failing to note this and so laying the 
 whole stress either on the past or on the future on 
 the first call or on the final change. It is there- 
 fore important that the idea of salvation as a rescue 
 from sin through the knowledge of God in Christ, 
 and therefore a progressive condition, a present state, 
 should not be obscured ; and we cannot but regret 
 such a translation as Acts ii. 47 'The Lord added 
 to the Church daily such as should be savedl where 
 the Greek 7-01)5 aw*oiievovs implies a different idea. 
 In other passages, Luke xiii. 23, I Cor. i. 18, 2 Cor. 
 ii. 15, Rev. xxi. 24 (omitted in some texts), where ol 
 crw^ofjievoL occurs, the renderings ' be saved, are saved' 
 may perhaps be excused by the requirements of the 
 English language, though these again suggest rather 
 a complete act than a continuous and progressive 
 state. 
 
 In other cases the substitution of a past tense 
 inflicts a slighter, but still a perceptible injury. It 
 obscures the vividness of the narrative or destroys 
 
106 ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 the relation of the sentences. Thus in Matt. iii. I, 
 13, the appearing of John the Baptist and of our 
 Lord is introduced in the same language: ev feu? 
 ripepais eiceivai,? tr a p ay iv er a i *\(odvvr)<s 6 /SaTTTKTT?/?, 
 and Tore irapaylverai, 6 'Irjcrovs. It is a misfortune 
 that we are obliged to translate the expression Trapa- 
 ryiveTat, by the very ordinary word 'come': but the 
 English Version by rendering the first sentence ' In 
 those days came John/ while it gives the second 
 correctly 'Then cometh Jesus,' quite unnecessarily 
 impairs both the vigour and the parallelism of the 
 narrative. Exactly similar to this last instance is 
 another in S. Luke vii. 33, 34, e\rj\.v6ev jap *lwdvvr)<; 
 6 f3a7m<rTri<;...e\r)\v0ev 6 wo<? TOV dvdpwirov, where 
 again the first e\r)\v0ev is translated came, the second 
 is come. 
 
 In rendering imperfect tenses, it is for the most 
 part impossible to give the full sense without encum- 
 bering the English idiom unpleasantly. But in ex- 
 ceptional usages, as for instance where the imperfect 
 has the inchoate, tentative force, its meaning can be 
 preserved without any such sacrifice, and ought not 
 to be obliterated. Thus in Luke i. 59 eicd\ovv avro 
 Zaxapiav is not ' They called it (the child) Zacharias,' 
 but 'They were for calling it,' 'They would have 
 called it' Closely allied to this is the conditional 
 sense of the imperfect, which again our English 
 
FAULTS OF GRAMMAR. 1 07 
 
 
 
 translators have rendered inadequately or not at all. 
 Thus in Gal. iv. 20 rjdeXov Be Trapelvai Trpo? v/j,ds apri 
 is not ' I desire to be present with you now,' as our 
 translators have it, but ' I could have desired,' and in 
 Matt. iii. 14 6 'Icodvvrjs Sie/ccoXvev avrov is not 'John 
 forbade him/ but * John would have hindered him.' 
 Again in Rom. ix. 3 rjv^ojjirjv yap dvdOe/jia elvat, avros 
 eyco diro rov Xptcrroi) the moral difficulty disappears, 
 when the words are correctly translated, not as the 
 English Version ' I could wish that myself were 
 accursed for Christ,' but ' I could have wished/ etc. ; 
 because the imperfect itself implies that it is im- 
 possible to entertain such a wish, things being what 
 they are. Again in Acts xxv. 22 e/3ov\6/jLrjv teal 
 CWTO? rov dvOpwirov aicovcrai, the language of Agrip- 
 pa is much more courteous and delicate than our 
 English Version represents it. He does not say * I 
 would also hear the man myself/ but ' I myself also 
 could have wisJied to hear the man/ if the favour had 
 not been too great to ask. Elsewhere our Version is 
 more accurate, e.g. Acts vii. 26 crvvri\\a<T(Tev avrovs 
 et? elprjvrjv ' would have set them at one again 1 .' 
 
 2. If the rendering of the tenses affords wide 
 scope for improvement, this is equally the case with 
 the treatment of the definite article. And here again 
 
 1 Here however our translators appear to have read <rvrf\a.<rv, so 
 that their accuracy is purely accidental. 
 
IOS ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 
 
 I think it will be seen that theology is almost as 
 deeply concerned as scholarship in the correction of 
 errors. In illustration let me refer to the passage 
 which the great authority of Bentley brought into 
 prominence, and which has often been adduced since 
 his time. In Rom. v. 15 19 there is a sustained 
 contrast between ' the one (6 el?)' and ' tlie many 
 (ot TToXXoi),' but in the English Version the definite 
 article is systematically omitted : ' If through the 
 offence of one many be dead/ and so throughout 
 the passage, closing with, ' For as by one mans 
 disobedience many were made sinners, so by the 
 obedience of one shall many be made righteous.' 
 In place of any comment of my own, I will quote 
 Bentley 's words. Pleading for the correct rendering 
 he says ; ' By this accurate version some hurtful 
 mistakes about partial redemption and absolute re- 
 probation had been happily prevented. Our English 
 readers had then seen, what several of the fathers 
 saw and testified, that 01 TroXXot the many, in an 
 antithesis to the one, are equivalent to Trai/re? all in 
 ver. 12 and comprehend the whole multitude, the 
 entire species of mankind, exclusive only of the one 1 ' 
 In other words the benefits of Christ's obedience 
 extend to all men potentially. It is only human 
 self-will which places limits to its operation. 
 
 1 Bentley's Works III. p. 244 (cd. Dycc). 
 
FAULTS OF GRAMMAR. IOQ 
 
 Taken in connexion with a previous illustration 
 (p. 93 sq.), this second example from the Epistle to 
 the Romans will enable us to estimate the amount 
 of injury which is inflicted on S. Paul's argument 
 by grammatical inaccuracies. Both the two great 
 lines of doctrinal teaching respecting the Redemption, 
 which run through this Epistle the one relating to the 
 mode of its operation, the other to the extent of its appli- 
 cation are more or less misrepresented in our English 
 Version owing to this cause. The former is obscured, 
 as we saw, by a confusion of tenses ; while the latter 
 is distorted by a disregard of the definite article. 
 
 This however is the usual manner of treating 
 the article when connected with TroXXol and similar 
 words; e.g. Matt. xxiv. 12 'The love of many shall 
 wax cold,' where the picture in the original is much 
 darker, rwv 7ro\\d)v 'the many/ the vast majority 
 of the disciples ; or again Phil. i. 14 ' And many of the 
 brethren in the Lord waxing confident/ where the 
 error is even greater, for S. Paul distinctly writes 
 TOI)? TrXetoua? 'the greater part.' Similarly also it 
 is neglected before XCHTTO? : e.g. Luke xxiv. 10 'And 
 other women that were with them' (al \onral crvv 
 aurat?) ; I Cor. ix. 5 * To lead about a sister, a wife, 
 as well as other apostles' (eo? KOL ol Xeuvrot aTrooroXot) ; 
 2 Cor. xii. 13 'Ye were inferior to other churches' 
 (ra? X(H7r9 efctc\r)<rias)', in all which passages historical 
 
HO ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 facts are obscured or perverted by the neglect of the 
 article. And again in 2 Cor. ii. 6, where 77 eVm/u'a 
 wuTt] r) VTTO rouv iT\ei6v(ov is rendered ' this punishment 
 which was inflicted of manyl the conception of a 
 regular judicial assembly, in which the penalty is 
 decided by the vote of the majority, disappears. 
 
 Nor is the passage quoted by Bentley the only 
 example in which the broad features of S. Paul's 
 teaching suffer from an indifference to the presence 
 or the absence of the definite article. The distinc- 
 tion between i/o/^o? and 6 1/0/^09 is very commonly 
 disregarded, and yet it is full of significance. Be- 
 hind the concrete representation the Mosaic law 
 itself S. Paul sees an imperious principle, an over- 
 whelming presence, antagonistic to grace, to liberty, 
 to spirit, and (in some aspects) even to life abstract 
 law, which, though the Mosaic ordinances are its 
 most signal and complete embodiment, nevertheless 
 is not exhausted therein, but exerts its crushing 
 power over the conscience in diverse manifestations. 
 The one the concrete and special is 6 z/o/ito? ; the 
 other the abstract and universal is vopos. To the 
 full understanding of such passages as Rom. ii. 12 sq., 
 iii. 19 sq., iv. 13 sq., vii. I sq., Gal. iii. 10 sq., and in- 
 deed to an adequate conception of the leading idea 
 of S. Paul's doctrine of law and grace, this distinc- 
 tion is indispensable. 
 
FAULTS OF GRAMMAR. I 1 1 
 
 The Gospels again will furnish illustrations of a 
 somewhat different kind. To us ' Christ ' has become 
 a proper name, and, as such, rejects the definite 
 article. But in the Gospel narratives, if we except 
 the headings or prefaces and the after-comments 
 of the Evangelists themselves (e.g. Matt. i. i, Mark 
 i. i, John i. 17), no instance of this usage can be 
 found. In the body of the narratives we read only 
 of 6 Xpio-Tos, the Christ, the Messiah, whom the 
 Jews had long expected, and who might or might 
 not be identified with the person 'Jesus,' accord- 
 ing to the spiritual discernment of the individual. 
 X/3tc7T09 is nowhere connected with 'Irjcrovs in the 
 Gospels with the exception of John xvii. 3, where 
 it occurs in a prophetic declaration of our Lord iva 
 <yLvwcTKwariv TOV JJLOVOV d\rjdivov eoz> KOI ov aTretrretXa? 
 '1*70-01)1; Xpia-rov ; nor is it used without the de- 
 finite article in more than four passages, Mark ix. 41 
 ez> ovofjiari on XpiaTov eVre, Luke ii. 1 1 arwrrjp os e<rriv 
 XpWTo? Kupto?, xxiii. 2 \eyovra eavrov XpiaTov, John 
 ix. 22 avrov 6/j,o\oyr)(rrj ~Kpia-r6v, where the very ex- 
 ceptions strengthen the rule. The turning-point is 
 the Resurrection : then and not till th&n we hear of 
 ' Jesus Christ ' from the lips of contemporary speakers 
 (Acts ii. 38, iii. 6), and from that time forward Christ 
 begins to be used as a proper name, with or with- 
 out the article. This fact points to a rule which 
 
I I 2 ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 should be strictly observed in translation. In the 
 Gospel narratives 6 Xpio-ros should always be ren- 
 dered * the Christ,' and never 'Christ' simply. In 
 some places our translators have observed this (e.g. 
 Matt. xxvi. 63, Mark viii. 29), and occasionally they 
 have even overdone the translation, rendering 6 
 Xptcrro9 by l that Christ* John i. 25, [vi. 69], or * tlie 
 very Christ ' John vii. 26 ; but elsewhere under exactly 
 the same conditions the article is omitted, e.g. Matt, 
 xvi. 1 6, xxiv. 5, Luke xxiii. 35, 39, etc. Yet the ad- 
 vantage of recognising its presence even in extreme 
 cases, where at first sight it seems intrusive, would 
 be great. In such an instance as that of Herod's 
 enquiry, Matt. ii. 4 TTOV 6 X/otoTo? yevvarai, ' Where 
 Christ should be born,' probably all would acknow- 
 ledge the advantage of substituting ' the Christ ' ; but 
 would not the true significance of other passages, where 
 the meaning is less obvious, be restored by the 
 change ? Thus in Matt. xi. 2 6 Be ^\u>dvwri<$ aKovaras eV 
 TO) e<7/zo>T77jCHft> TO, pya TOV XpicrTov, the Evangelist's 
 meaning is not that the Baptist heard what Jesus 
 was doing, but that he was informed of one per- 
 forming those works of mercy and power which the 
 Evangelic prophet had foretold as the special func- 
 tion of the Messiah 1 . I have studiously confined 
 
 1 I find that the view, which is here maintained, of the use of 
 Xpi<7Tos and 6 X/>WT6$ is different alike from that of Middleton (Greek 
 
FAULTS OF GRAMMAR. 113 
 
 the rigid application of this rule to the historical 
 portions of the Gospels and excepted the Evange- 
 lists' own prefaces and comments : but even in these 
 latter a passage is occasionally brought out with much 
 greater force by understanding rov ^Kpiarov to apply 
 to the ofnce rather than the individual, and translat- 
 ing it 'the Christ/ In the genealogy of S. Matthew 
 for instance, where the generations are divided sym- 
 metrically into three sets of fourteen, the Evangelist 
 seems to connect the last of each set with a critical 
 epoch in the history of Israel ; the first reaching from 
 the origin of the race to the commencement of the 
 monarchy (ver. 6 * David the king') ; the second from 
 the commencement of the monarchy to the captivity 
 in Babylon ; the third and last from the captivity 
 to the coming of the Messiah, the Christ (eo>9 TOV 
 XpicrTov). Connected with the title of the Messiah is 
 that of the prophet who occupied a large space in the 
 Messianic horizon of the Jews the prophet whom 
 Moses had foretold, conceived by some to be the 
 Messiah himself, by others an attendant in his train. 
 In one passage only (John vii. 40) is 6 TT/JO^TT??, so 
 used, rightly given in our Version. In the rest (John 
 
 Article on Mark ix. 41) and from those of others whom he criticizes. I 
 should add that I wrote all these paragraphs relating to the definite 
 article without consulting Middleton, and without conscious reminiscence 
 of his views on any of the points discussed. 
 
 L. R. 8 
 
114 ERRORS AND DEFECTS; 
 
 i. 21, 25, vi. 14) its force is weakened by the exag- 
 gerated rendering ' that prophet'; while in the margin 
 of i. 21 (as if to show how little they understood the 
 exigencies of the article) our translators have offered 
 an alternative, 'Art thou a prophet ?' 
 
 As relating to the Person and Office of Christ 
 another very important illustration presents itself. 
 In Col. i. 19 S. Paul declares that ev avr<p evSotcrjo-ev 
 irav TO 7r\ripa)/jLa /caToitcfjacu, which is rendered 'For 
 it pleased the Father that in him should all fulness 
 dwell.' Here an important theological term is sup- 
 pressed by the omission of the article ; for TO TrX?;- 
 pwfjLa is ' the fulness/ ' the plenitude,' pleroma being a 
 recognised expression to denote the totality of the 
 Divine powers and attributes (John i. 16, Eph. i. 23, 
 iii. 19, iv. 13, Col. ii. 9), and one which afterwards 
 became notorious in the speculative systems of the 
 Gnostic sects. And with this fact before us, it is 
 a question whether we should not treat TO irKt'jp^^a 
 as a quasi-personality and translate * In Him all the 
 Fulness was pleased to dwell,' thus getting rid of the 
 ellipsis which our translators have supplied by the 
 Father in italics; but at all events the article must 
 be preserved. 
 
 Again, more remotely connected with our Lord's 
 office is another error of omission. It is true of 
 Christianity, as it is true of no other religious system, 
 
FAULTS OF GRAMMAR. 115 
 
 that the religion is identified with, is absorbed in, the 
 Person of its founder. The Gospel is Christ and 
 Christ only. This fact finds expression in many 
 ways : but more especially in the application of the 
 same language to the one and to the other. In most 
 cases this identity of terms is equally apparent in the 
 English and in the Greek. But in one instance it is 
 obliterated by a mistranslation of the definite article. 
 Our Lord in S. John's Gospel, in answer to the dis- 
 ciple's question ' How can we know the wayT answers 
 'I am the way* (xiv. 5, 6). Corresponding to this we 
 ought to find that in no less than four places in the 
 Acts of the Apostles the Gospel is called ' the way' 
 absolutely; ix. 2 ' If he found any that were of the 
 way (lav TWCLS evprj 7779 6&ov of/ra?)'; xix. 9 'Divers 
 believed not, but spake evil of the way'] xix. 23 
 ( There arose no small stir about the way'] xxiv. 22 
 'Having more perfect knowledge of the way'] but in 
 all these passages the fact disappears in the English 
 Version, which varies the rendering between * this 
 way' and * that way,' but never once translates ryv 
 6S6v 'the way.' 
 
 But more especially are these omissions of the 
 article frequent in those passages which relate to 
 the Second Advent and its accompanying terrors or 
 glories. The imagery of this great crisis was defi-. 
 nitely conceived, and as such the Apostles refer to it. 
 
 82 
 
I 1 6 ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 In the Epistles to the Thessalonians more especially 
 S. Paul mentions having repeatedly dwelt on these 
 topics to his converts ; ' Remember ye not, that, when 
 I was yet with you, I told you these things ?' (2 Thess. 
 ii. 5). Accordingly, he appeals to incidents connected 
 with the Second Advent, as known facts : eav JJLT) e\6r) 
 r) diroGTacria trpwrov /cal dTrotcaXvfyBfi o avOpwiros T^9 
 a/jLaprla? \v. L afo/z/a?] ' Except the falling away come 
 first and the man of sin be revealed,' where our Version 
 makes the Apostle say, ' a falling away/ 'that man of 
 sin/ just as a little lower down it translates o avo^o^ 
 ' that wicked/ instead of ' the lawless one.' Similarly 
 in the Epistle to the Hebrews (xi. 10) it is said of 
 Abraham in the original that ' He looked for the 
 city which hath the foundations (efeSe^ero rrjv rou? 
 0[jL\iovs e^ovaav iro\iv}! A definite image here 
 rises before the sacred writer's mind of the new 
 Jerusalem such as it is described in the Apocalypse, 
 ' The wall of the city had twelve foundations, and in 
 them the names of the twelve Apostles of the Lamb' 
 (xxi. 14), ' The foundations of the wall of the city were 
 garnished with all manner of precious stones, etc.' (xxi. 
 19 sq.) 1 . But in our Version the words are robbed of 
 their meaning, and Abraham is made to look for l a 
 city which hath foundations ' a senseless expression, 
 for no city is without them. Again, in the Apoca- 
 
 1 See Abp. Trench's Authorised Version, p. 86. 
 
FAULTS OF GRAMMAR. 1 1/ 
 
 lypse the definite article is more than once disregarded 
 under similar circumstances. Take for instance vii. 
 13, 14 'What are these which are arrayed in white 
 robes (ra? o-roXa? ra? Xeu/ca?)?' with the reply, * These 
 are they which came out of great tribulation (etc r^? 
 0XA/reo>9 T^? /JLeydXrjs)' ; xvii. I 'That sitteth upon 
 many waters' (eVl r&v vSdrwv rwv TTO\\WV, for this 
 was the reading in their text). And another instance, 
 not very dissimilar, occurs in the Gospels. The same 
 expression is used six times in S. Matthew (viii. 12, 
 xiii. 42, 50, xxii. 13, xxiv. 51, xxv. 30) and once in 
 S. Luke (xiii. 28) to describe the despair and misery 
 of the condemned : e/cel co-rat, 6 K\av0^o<i Kal 6 
 Ppvy/jLos TWV 686vT(0v, where the rendering should be 
 corrected into 'There shall be the wailing and tJte 
 gnashing of teeth.' 
 
 The last instance which I shall take connected 
 with this group of facts and ideas relating to the 
 end of the world is more subtle, but not on that 
 account less important. I refer to the peculiar sense 
 of 77 opyr), as occurring in a passage which has been 
 variously explained, but which seems to admit only 
 of one probable interpretation, Rom. xii. 19/477 eavrovs 
 K$i,tcovvTes, dyaTrrjTol, d\\a Sore TOTTOV rfj opyfj' ye- 
 ypairrai yap 'E//,ol e/cSl/crja-is, eyca avTaTroSwaa), \eyt 
 Kvpios. With this compare Rom. v. 9 crwOrjao^eda 
 $C avrov diro 777? opyfjs, which is rendered ' We shall 
 
Il8 ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 be saved from wrath through him,' and more especially 
 
 I Thess. ii. 16 <f>Oaa-V (efydaicev) e eV avrovs 77 opyrj 
 
 
 et<? re'Xo?, where the definite article is correctly repro- 
 
 duced in our Version, 'For the wrath is come upon 
 them to the uttermost.' From these passages it 
 appears that r} cpyrj, 'the wrath,' used absolutely, 
 signifies the Divine retribution ; and the force of S. 
 Paul's injunction in Rom. xii. 19 Bore TOTTOV rfj opyfj 
 is this : * Do not avenge yourselves : do not anticipate 
 the Divine retribution ; do not thrust yourselves into 
 God's place, but leave room for His judgments' a 
 sense which the English rendering * rather give place 
 unto wrath ' does not suggest, and probably was not 
 intended to represent. In the same way TO Oe\rjfjLa 
 is the Divine Will (Rom. ii. 18 ryLVtocnceis TO 6e\rjfj.a l ) 
 
 1 This word 04\rifj.a came to be so appropriated to the Divine Will, 
 that it is sometimes used in this sense even without the definite article ; 
 e.g. Ignat. Rom. i edvirep 6t\ir)fj.a $ TOV d^twdrjvaL fj.e (the correct 
 text), Ephes. 20 lav pe /caTait&<r?j 'lyffous X/HO-TOS kv rrj irpoffevxy v/j.wv 
 leal 0t\T)/j.a 17, Smyni. i viov 0eoG /card, 6^\tifj.a. KO.I dvvafjuv [GeoD] (where 
 GeoO is doubtful), ii Kara 64\t)/m KaTrjt-uLBtjv. 
 
 These passages point to the true interpretation of i Cor. xvi. 12 OVK 
 TIV 6{\i]fj.a. 'iva vvv 2\0ri, t\cv<rcTai 5^ 8rav evKaip^ffrj which is (I believe) 
 universally interpreted as in our English Version 'his will was not to 
 come,' but which ought to be explained 'It was not God's will that he 
 should come.' 
 
 They also indicate, as I believe, the true reading in Rom. xv. 32 tva. 
 kv x<W ^0w "7>te {,/jas i<i 0eXiJ/iaros, where various additions appear 
 in the MSS, 0eoy in AC, Kvpiov 'Irjffov in B, 'lijirov XpiaroO in N, 
 X/3tTToG 'Irjffov in DFG, but where 0\i]tJ.a appears to be used absolutely. 
 
FAULTS OF GRAMMAR. 119 
 
 and TO ovofjua the Divine name (Phil. ii. 9 TO ovopa TO 
 virep Trav ovofia). In the last passage however it is 
 unfair to charge our translators with an inaccurate 
 rendering ' gave Him a name,' for their incorrect text 
 omitted the article ; but TO ovopa is the true reading, 
 and it is superfluous to remark how much is gained 
 thereby. 
 
 In other passages, where no doctrinal considera- 
 tions are involved, a historical incident is misrepre- 
 sented or the meaning of a passage is perverted by 
 the neglect or the mistranslation of the article. Thus 
 in two several passages S. Paul's euphemism of TO 
 Trpaypa, when speaking of sins of the flesh, is effaced, 
 and he is made to say something else : in I Thess. iv. 
 6 ' That no man go beyond and defraud his brother 
 in any matter (eV T&> TT pay part),' where the sin of dis- 
 honest gain is substituted for the sin of unbridled 
 sensuality by the mistranslation ; and in 2 Cor. vii. 1 1 
 'Ye have approved yourselves to be clear in this 
 matter (eV TW TrpdjfWTi)' where, though the perversion 
 is much less considerable, a slightly different turn is 
 given to the Apostle's meaning by substituting ' this ' 
 for 'the. 1 Again, in I Cor. v. 9, where S. Paul is made 
 to say, * I wrote unto you in an Epistle ' (instead of 
 * my Epistle ' or ' letter '), the mistranslation of ev rfj 
 e7U(TTo\f] has an important bearing on the interpre- 
 tation of his allusion. Again in 2 Cor. xii. 18 'I 
 
I2O ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 desired Titus, and with him I sent a brother (TOV 
 aSeX<oy)/ the error adds to the difficulty in discerning 
 the movements of S. Paul's delegates previous to the 
 writing of the letter. And in such renderings as John 
 iii. IO av el 6 SiSaa-^aXo? TOV *\apar]\ ; ' Art thou a 
 master of Israel ?', and Rev. iii. 17 <n) el 6 raXatVajpo? 
 KOI [6] eXeetyo? 'Thou art wretched and miserable,' 
 though there is no actual misleading, the passages 
 lose half their force by the omission. 
 
 In another class of passages some fact of geo- 
 graphy or archaeology lurks under the definite article, 
 such as could proceed only from the pen of an eye- 
 witness or at least of one intimately acquainted with 
 the circumstances. In almost every instance of this 
 kind the article is neglected in our Version, though it 
 is obviously important at a time when the evidences 
 of Christianity are so narrowly scanned, that these 
 more minute traits of special knowledge should be 
 kept in mind. Thus for instance in John xii. 13, 
 'They took branches of palm-trees/ the original 
 has TO, fiata TOJV fyoivUwv ' the branches of tlie palm- 
 trees' the trees with which the Evangelist himself 
 was so familiar, which clothed the eastern slopes of 
 the Mount of Olives and gave its name to the village 
 of Bethany ' the house of dates/ Thus again in the 
 Acts (ix. 35) the words translated ' Lydda and 
 Saron ' are AvBBa ical TOV ^apwva, ' Lydda and the 
 
FAULTS OF GRAMMAR. 121 
 
 Sharon 1 / the former being the town, the latter the 
 district in the neighbourhood, and therefore having 
 the definite article in this the only passage in which it 
 occurs in the New Testament, as it always has in the 
 Old Testament, Hash-sharon, 'the Sharon,' the woody 
 plain, just as we talk of 'the Weald,' 'the Downs/ 
 etc. 2 Again there is mention of '//^pinnacle (TO 
 irrepvyiov) of the temple' in the record of the tempta- 
 tion (Matt. iv. 5, Luke iv. 9) the same expression 
 likewise being used by the Jewish Christian historian 
 Hegesippus in the second century, when describing 
 the martyrdom of James the Lord's brother, who is 
 thrown down from ' the TTTepvyiov' 3 ; so that (what- 
 ever may be the exact meaning of the word translated 
 ' pinnacle ') some one definite place is meant, and the 
 impression conveyed to the English reader by 'a 
 pinnacle' is radically wrong. Again in the history 
 
 1 The reading fodpuva or ao-ffdpwva, which is found in some few 
 second-rate authorities, is a reproduction of the Hebrew, founded perhaps 
 on the note of Origen (?) rtvts d acrffdpuva (ftaaiv, oti"xl ffapuva, oirep 
 Kpeirrov (see Tisch. Nov. Test. Grcec.ed. 8, II. p. 80). In direct contrast 
 to this unconscious reduplication of the article stands the reading of K 
 (corrected however by a later hand) which omits the TO'V, from not 
 understanding the presence of the article. 
 
 2 The illustration is Mr Grove's in Smith's Dictionary of the Bible 
 s. v. Saron. 
 
 3 In Euseb. H.E. ii. 23 ffrrjdt oftv M rb irrepvyiov Tovlepov...t<mr)o-av 
 o$v ol Trpoeipr)[j.froi ypaniMreis Kal Qapurouoi TOV 
 
122 ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 of the cleansing of the temple the reference to the 
 seats of them that sold 'the doves' (ra? Trepto-repa?) 
 in two Evangelists (Matt. xxi. 12, Mark xi. 15) 
 indicates the pen of a narrator, who was accustomed 
 to the sight of the doves which might be purchased 
 within the sacred precincts by worshippers intending 
 to offer the purificatory offerings enjoined by the 
 Mosaic law (Luke ii. 24). In. like manner 'the bushel' 
 and 'the candlestick' in the Sermon on the Mount 
 (Matt. v. 15; comp. Mark iv. 21, Luke xi. 33) point 
 to the simple and indispensable furniture in every 
 homely Jewish household. And elsewhere casual 
 allusions to * the cross-way ' (Mark xi. 4), ' the steep ' 
 (Mark v. 13, 'a steep place,' A. V.), 'the synagogue' 
 or 'our synagogue' (Luke vii. 5, ' He hath built us a 
 synagogue,' A. V. 1 ) and the like which are not un- 
 frequent all have their value, and ought not to be 
 obscured. 
 
 But there are two remarkable instances of the 
 persistent presence of the definite article both con- 
 nected with the Lake of Galilee which deserve 
 special attention, but which nevertheless do not ap- 
 pear at all to the English reader. 
 
 1 In Acts xvii. i also, where the A. V. has ' Thessalonica where was 
 a synagogue of the Jews,' our translators certainly read 6Vou rp ij 
 cwayuyri, though the article must be omitted in the Greek, if a strong 
 combination of the oldest authorities is to have weight. 
 
FAULTS OF GRAMMAR. 123 
 
 Most students of the New Testament have had 
 their attention called to the fact that our Lord, before 
 delivering the discourse which we call 'the Sermon 
 on the Mount/ is recorded to have gone up not ' into 
 a mountain ' but ' into the mountain (TO 0/005),' Matt, 
 v. i 1 ; and they have been taught to observe also 
 that S. Luke (vi. 17) in describing the locality where 
 a discourse very similar to S. Matthew's Sermon on 
 the Mount is held says, ' He came down with them 
 and stood,' not (as our English Version makes him 
 say) 'in the plain' (as if eV r<w TreStV) but ' on a level 
 place (eVl TOTTOU ireSivov),' where the very expression 
 suggests that the spot was situated in the midst of 
 a hilly country. Thus, by respecting the presence of 
 the article in the one Evangelist and its absence in 
 the other, the two accounts are so far brought into 
 
 1 Dean Stanley (Sinai and Palestine, p. 361), supporting the tra- 
 ditional site of the 'Mount of Beatitudes,' writes: 'None of the other 
 mountains in the neighbourhood could answer equally well to this de- 
 scription, inasmuch as they are merged into the uniform barrier of hills 
 round the lake; whereas this stands separate "the mountain," which 
 alone could lay claim to a distinct name, with the one exception of 
 Tabor which is too distant to answer the requirement.' If the view 
 which I have taken in the text be correct, this ' uniform barrier of hills' 
 would itself be rb 6pos : at all events the fact that rb 6pos is the common 
 expression in the Evangelists shows that the definite article does not 
 distinguish the locality of the Sermon on the Mount from those of 
 several other incidents in this neighbourhood ; though possibly the in- 
 dependent reasons in favour of the traditional site may be sufficient 
 without this aid. 
 
124 ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 accordance that the description of the localities at 
 all events offers no impediment to our identifying 
 the discourses. 
 
 But it is important to observe in addition, that 
 whenever the Evangelists speak of incidents occurring 
 above the shores of the Lake of Galilee, they invari- 
 ably use TO o/jo? 1 and never 0/009 or ra 0/977, either of 
 which at first sight would have seemed more natural. 
 The probable explanation of this fact is that TO opos 
 stands for the mountain district the hills as opposed 
 to the level shores more especially as the corre- 
 sponding Hebrew ^HD is frequently so used, and in 
 such cases is translated TO o/oo? in the LXX : e.g. ' the 
 mountain of Judah,' ' the mountain of Ephraim,' Josh, 
 xvii. 15, xix. 50, xx. 7, etc. 2 But, whatever may 
 be the explanation, the article ought to be retained 
 throughout. 
 
 Only less persistent 3 is the presence of the article 
 
 1 The only exceptions, I believe, to the insertion of the definite article, 
 are in the cases of the temptation (Matt. iv. 8, [Luke iv. 5]), and of the 
 transfiguration (Matt. xvii. i, Mark ix. 2), in all which passages the 
 expression is es opos ty-rjKbv \\Lav~\. 
 
 2 It is no objection to this interpretation that S. Luke twice uses the 
 more classical expression ij dpeivrj in speaking of the hill-country of 
 Judaea: i. 39, 65. Wherever he treads on the same ground with 
 S. Matthew and S. Mark he has rb 6pos. The portion of his narrative 
 in which i] dpeiv^ occurs is derived from some wholly independent 
 source. 
 
 3 The common text however inserts the article in a few passages 
 
FAULTS OF GRAMMAR. 125 
 
 in 'the ship* (TO ir\olov) in connexion with the navi- 
 gation of the Sea of Galilee. Whatever may be the 
 significance of this fact whether it simply bears 
 testimony to the vividness with which each scene 
 in succession presented itself to the first narrator or 
 narrators, or whether some one well-known boat was 
 intended (as the narrative of John vi. 22 sq. might 
 suggest) the article ought to have been preserved 
 in the English Version ; whereas in this case, as in 
 the last, the translators have been guided not by 
 grammar but by 'common sense/ for the most part 
 translating TO cpo?, TO TrXoiov, on each occasion where 
 they appear first in connexion with a fresh incident, 
 by ' a mountain,' ' a ship/ and afterwards by ' the 
 mountain/ ' the ship.' 
 
 Yet on the other hand, where this phenomenon ap- 
 pears in the original Greek, that is, where an object is 
 indefinite when first introduced and becomes definite 
 after its first mention, our translators have frequently 
 disregarded this 'common sense' rule and departed 
 from the Greek. Thus in the account of S. Peter's 
 
 where it is absent from one or more of the best MSS (e.g. Matt. viii. 
 23, ix. i, xiii. 2, xiv. 22, Mark iv. i, vi. 45). In Matt. xiv. 13 tv 
 ir\oi(f is read by all the ancient authorities which have the words at all. 
 In cases where the MSS differ it is not easy to see whether or not the 
 omission of the article was a scribe's correction. Generally it may be 
 said that the article with TrXotoi' is more persistent in the other Evange- 
 lists than in S. Matthew. 
 
126 ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 three denials in Mark xiv. 66, we are told that ' one 
 of the maidservants (jiia TWV TrcuSicrfCtov) of the high- 
 priest ' questioned him and elicited his first denial ; 
 then ?; TraiSicr/crj l&ovcra CLVTGV iraXiv rjp^aro \eyeiv, 
 1 The maidservant seeing him again began to say'; 
 but our translators in the second passage render it 
 c a maidservant/ thus making two distinct persons. 
 The object was doubtless to bring the narrative into 
 strict conformity with Matt. xxvi. 69, 71 (jiia TTCU&IO-KT) 
 ...a\\7j)', but, though there might seem to be an 
 immediate gain here, this disregard of grammar is 
 really a hindrance to any satisfactory solution, where 
 an exact agreement in details is unimportant, and 
 where strict harmony if attainable must depend on 
 the tumultuous character of the scene, in which more 
 than one interrogator would speak at the same time 1 . 
 Our translators however were at fault not through any 
 want of honesty but from their imperfect knowledge 
 of grammar, for they repeatedly err in the same way 
 where no purpose is served; e.g. Mark ii. 15, 16, 
 'Many publicans and sinners (?roXXol Te\wvai ical 
 a/jLapTO)\o[) sat also together with Jesus... and when 
 the scribes and Pharisees saw him eat with publicans 
 and sinners (/JLCTO, TWV rekwvwv KOI a f /za/>TG>X<wi/)...How 
 is it that he eateth and drinketh with publicans and 
 sinners (yu,era r < v reXcovvv /cal dfj,apTco\tov) ? ' I Joh. v. 6 
 1 See the solution in Westcott's Introduction to the Gospels > p. 280. 
 
FAULTS OF GRAMMAR. 
 
 'This is he that came by water and blood (Si 
 KOI aJ/iaro?), even Jesus Christ ; not by water (eV TO> 
 only, but by water (eV TO> vSari) and blood (TW 
 '; Rev. xi. 9, 1 1 'Shall see their dead bodies 
 three days and an half (^epa? r/oefc /cat ^cr 
 after three days and an half (yuera ras rpri? jj 
 /cat Tjfjburv) etc.' Omissions of this class are very 
 numerous. 
 
 The error of inserting the article where it is 
 absent is less frequent than that of omitting it where 
 it is present, but not less injurious to the sense. Thus 
 in I Tim. iii. 1 1 yvvai/cas ooo-avrcos aeiivas would hardly 
 have been rendered ' Even so must their wives be 
 grave,' if the theory of the definite article had been 
 understood ; for our translators would have seen that 
 the reference is to 'yvvalicas Bia/covovs, 'women-deacons' 
 or 'deaconesses/ and not to the wives of the deacons 1 . 
 Again, in John iv. 27 eOav/jua^ov ori fiera fyvvaiicos 
 e\d\i, the English Version ' They marvelled that He 
 talked with the woman' implies that the disciples 
 
 1 The office of deaconess is mentioned only in one other passage in 
 the New Testament (Rom. xvi. i) ; and there also it is obliterated in the 
 English Version by the substitution of the vague expression ' which is a 
 servant ' for the more definite oftaav diaKovov. If the testimony borne in 
 these two passages to a ministry of women in the Apostolic times had 
 not been thus blotted out of our English Bibles, attention would proba- 
 bly have been directed to the subject at an earlier date, and our English 
 Church would not have remained so long maimed in- one of her hands. 
 
128 ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 knew her shameful history a highly improbable sup- 
 position, since she is obviously a stranger whose 
 character our Lord reads through His divine intui- 
 tion alone ; whereas the true rendering, * He talked 
 with a woman,' which indeed alone explains the em- 
 phatic position of <y V vaiKQ<>, points to their surprise that 
 He should break through the conventional restraints 
 imposed by rabbinical authority and be seen speaking 
 to one of the other sex in public 1 . Again in Luke 
 vi. 1 6 09 [/cal] eyevero TrpoBoTrjs ought not to be trans- 
 lated ' Which also was the traitor/ because the sub- 
 sequent history of Judas is not assumed to be known 
 to S. Luke's readers, but ' Who also became a traitor/ 
 Again it is important for geographical reasons that 
 in Acts viii. 5 Philip should not be represented as 
 going down 'to the city of Samaria' (et9 iroXiv rrjs 
 Sa/zape/a?), if the reading which our translators had 
 before them be correct 2 , because the rendering may 
 lead to a wrong identification of the place. And lastly, 
 Kara eoprrjv, which means simply 'at festival-time/ 
 should not be translated 'at the feast' (Luke xxiii. 17), 
 still less 'at that feast' (Matt, xxvii. 15, Mark xv. 6), 
 because these renderings seem to limit the custom to 
 the feast of the Passover a limitation which is not 
 
 1 A rabbinical precept was, * Let no one talk with a woman in the 
 street, no not with his own wife': see Lightfoot's Works, u. p. 543. 
 
 2 ds Tty irb\iv however ought almost certainly to be read. 
 
FAULTS OF GRAMMAR. 1 29 
 
 implied in the original expression and certainly is not 
 required by the parallel passage in S. John (xviil 39). 
 Happily in another passage (John v. I //.era ravra TJV 
 eop-rrj TWV 'lovSatW), which is important in its bearing 
 on the chronology of our Lord's life, our translators 
 have respected the omission of the article before 
 eoprtj ; but that their accuracy in this instance was 
 purely accidental appears from the fact that a chapter 
 later (vi. 4) TO Traaya $ eoprr) T&V 'lovSaitov is rendered 
 ' the Passover, a feast of the Jews.' 
 
 But if, after the examples already given, any 
 doubt could still remain that the theory of the 
 definite article was wholly unknown to our trans- 
 lators, the following passages, in which almost every 
 conceivable rule is broken, must be regarded as con- 
 clusive : Matt. iii. 4 avros Se 6 '\wdvvr]<s el^ev TO evovpa 
 ' And the same John had his raiment ' (where the true 
 rendering ' But John himself involves an antithesis 
 of the prophetic announcement and the actual appear- 
 ance of the Baptist); John iv. 37 ev TOVTO* 6 \6yos 
 ecrrlv 6 d\r)0ivo<; 'Herein is that saying true'; ib. 
 v. 44 rrjv Bo^av rrjv Trapd rov JAOVOV eoO * The honour 
 that cometh from God only* ; Acts xi. 17 TTJV 
 ftwpeav eScofcev avTols 6 eo? oj? Kal r^iiv 
 cTrl rov Kvpiov ' God gave them the like gift as He did 
 unto us who believed on the Lord'; I Cor. viii. 10, 12 
 77 (rvvelorja-is avrov do-6evov<$ ovTo<s...'rvirTov'res avrwv 
 L R. 9 
 
I3O ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 rrjv crvveiSrja-w daOevovcrav 'The conscience of him 
 which is weak... wound their weak conscience'; 2 Cor. 
 viii. 19 7rpc9 TYJV avrov TOV TLvpiov 6%av 'To the glory of 
 the same Lord ' ; I Tim .vi. 2 TUG-TOI elaw /cal dyaTrrjrol 
 ol r?79 evepyeaias avTiKa^^avo^voi ' They are faithful 
 and beloved, partakers of the benefit ' ; ib. vi. 5 VO/JLL- 
 ZOVTWV TropKTjJLov elvat, TTJV ev<re/3eiav l Supposing that 
 gain is godliness'; 2 Tim. ii. 19 6 ^kvroi crrepeo? 
 #e//,eXto9 TOV 0eoO ea-rrjKev ' Nevertheless the founda- 
 tion of God standeth sure'; Heb. vi. 8 /c(f>epovo-a 
 Se aicavOas Kal T/H/SoXou? d&o/cifjios ' But that whicJi 
 beareth thorns and briers is rejected ' ; ib. vi. 16 iracr^ 
 airrols dvnXoylas Trepa? et? fiefiaiciMTiv 6 o/3/co? 'An 
 oath for confirmation is to them an end of all strife ' ; 
 ib. ix. I TO re ayiov Koa/jLi/cov'And a worldly sanctuary'; 
 ib. x. I rat? aiJrafc Qvalais a? irpovfyepovcnv l With 
 those sacrifices which they offered ' ; Rev. xix. 9 ovrot, 
 ol \6yoi, aXyOivol elcri TOV 6eoO 'These are the true 
 sayings of God.' 
 
 There is however one passage, in which this fault 
 is committed and on which it may be worth while to 
 dwell at greater length, because it does not appear 
 to have been properly understood. In John v. 35 the 
 words eicelvo<; r\v o Xi^z/o? 6 Kaioiievos Kal (fraivwvj in 
 which our Lord describes the Baptist, are translated 
 in our Version ' He was a burning and a shining 
 light.' Thus rendered, the expression appears as in- 
 
FAULTS OF GRAMMAR. 131 
 
 tended simply to glorify John. But this is not the 
 sense which the context requires, and it is only at- 
 tained by a flagrant disregard of the articles. Com- 
 mentators have correctly pointed out that John is 
 here called 6 \v^vo<; ' the lamp ' ; he was not TO <f> o>? 
 'the light' (i. 8) 1 ; for Christ Himself and Christ only 
 is ' the light' (i. 9, iii. 19, ix. 5, etc.). Thus the ren- 
 dering of 6 \vxyos is vitally wrong, as probably few 
 would deny. But it has not been perceived how 
 much the contrast between the Baptist and the Sa- 
 viour is strengthened by a proper appreciation of the 
 remaining words 6 KOLLO^VO^ teal (fratvcov. The word 
 is 'to burn, to kindle,' as in Matt. v. 15 ovSe 
 \v%vov ' Neither do men light a candle ' : 
 so too Luke xii. 35 ol \v^yoi KaLofievoi, Rev. iv. 5, 
 viii. 10. Thus it implies that the light is not in- 
 herent, but borrowed ; and the force of the expression 
 will be, ' He is the lamp that is kindled and so 
 shineth.' Christ Himself is the centre and source of 
 light ; the Baptist has no light of his own, but draws 
 all his illumination from this greater One. He is 
 only as the light of the candle, for whose rays indeed 
 men are grateful, but which is pale, flickering, trans- 
 itory, compared with the glories of the Eternal flame 
 from which itself is kindled. 
 
 1 Here again (i. 8) much is lost in the English Version by rendering 
 O$K T]V tKelvo? rb <p<2s 'He was not that light.' 
 
 92 
 
132 ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 3. After the tenses and the definite article, the 
 prepositions deserve to be considered : for here also 
 there is much room for improvement. 
 
 Of these &a holds the first place in importance : 
 yet in dealing with this preposition we are met with 
 a difficulty. The misunderstandings which arise in 
 the mind of an English reader are due in most pas- 
 sages rather to the archaisms than to the errors of 
 our translators : and archaisms are very intractable. 
 Where in common language we now say 'by' and 
 'through' (i.e. 'by means of) respectively, our trans- 
 lators, following the diction of their age, generally 
 use 'of and 'by' respectively 'of denoting the 
 agent (VTTO), and ' by ' the instrument or means (JBick). 
 This however is not universally the case, but VTTO is 
 sometimes translated 'by' (e.g. Luke ii. 18) and Sea 
 sometimes 'through' (e.g. John i. 7). Such excep- 
 tions seem to show that the language was already in 
 a state of transition : and this supposition is confirmed 
 by observing that in the first passage Tyndale and the 
 earlier Versions render T&V \a\rj6evrwv avrois i>7rb TWV 
 TTo^ltevtov ' those things which were told them of the 
 shepherds' a rendering still retained even in the 
 Bishops' and Geneva Bibles, and first altered ap- 
 parently by King James's revisers. 
 
 From these archaisms great ambiguity arises. 
 When we hear ' It was said of him,' we understand 
 
FAULTS OF GRAMMAR. 133 
 
 at once l about or concerning him,' but this is not the 
 meaning which this preposition bears in our New 
 Testament. And again, when we read ' It was sent 
 by me,' we understand ' I sent it,' but neither again 
 is this the meaning intended. In the modern lan- 
 guage 'by' represents the sender (UTTO), whereas in the 
 old it denotes the bearer (&a) of the letter or parcel. 
 We do not venture to use l by' meaning the inter- 
 mediate agency or instrument, except in cases where 
 the form or the matter of the sentence shows dis- 
 tinctly that the primary agent is not intended, so 
 that no confusion is possible, as * I sent it by him/ ' I 
 was informed by telegraph.' Otherwise misunder- 
 standing is inevitable. Thus in Acts xii. 9 ' He wist 
 not that it was true which was done by the angel ' (TO 
 yivoiievov Sia rov dyyeXov), or in Acts ii. 43 'Many 
 wonders and signs were done by the Apostles' (Sta T&V 
 aTTocrroXo)!/ cyiveTo), no English reader would suspect 
 that the angel and the Apostles respectively are re- 
 presented as the doers only in the sense in which a 
 chisel may be said to carve a piece of wood, as instru- 
 ments in the hands of an initiative power. In the 
 same way Acts ii. 23 ' Ye have taken, and by wicked 
 hands have crucified and slain' is, I fancy, wholly 
 misunderstood : nor indeed would it be. easy without 
 a knowledge of the Greek, Sia xeipwv avo^wv^, to dis- 
 1 I have taken xfipuv as the reading which our translators had before 
 
134 ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 cover that by the * wicked hands/ or rather * lawless 
 hands/ is meant the instrumentality of the avofioi, the 
 heathen Romans, whom the Jews addressed by S. 
 Peter had used as their tools to compass our Lord's 
 death. And again, such renderings as Gal. iii. 19 
 'ordained by angels* (Siarayek Si dyye\cov), and 
 Eph. iii. 10 'might be known by the Church (yvcopi- 
 aQfi Bid T?;? eKKXycrias, i.e. might be made known 
 through the Church) the manifold wisdom of God/ 
 are quite misleading. It was not however for the 
 sake of such isolated examples as these that I 
 entered upon this discussion. There are two very 
 important classes of passages, in which the distinc- 
 tion between VTTO (djro) and Bid is very important, 
 and in which therefore this ambiguity is much to be 
 regretted. 
 
 The first of these has reference to Inspiration. 
 Wherever the sacred writers have occasion to quote 
 or to refer to the Old Testament, they invariably 
 apply the preposition Bid, as denoting instrumentality, 
 to the lawgiver or the prophet or the psalmist, while 
 they reserve VTTO, as signifying the primary motive 
 agency, to God Himself. This rule is, I believe, 
 universal. Some few exceptions, it is true, occur in 
 the received text; but all these vanish, when the 
 
 them. But the correct text is unquestionably Sid. x l P^ o-vb/j-wv 'by the 
 hand of lawless men,' which brings out the sense still more clearly. 
 
FAULTS OF GRAMMAR. 135 
 
 readings of the older authorities are adopted 1 : and 
 this very fact is significant, because it points to a con- 
 trast between the persistent idea of the sacred writers 
 themselves and the comparative indifference of their 
 later transcribers. Sometimes Sia occurs alone, e.g. 
 Matt. xxi. 4 TO /3?70ei> Sia TOV TrpocfrrjTov, xxiv. 15 TO 
 pyOev &ia &avt,r)\, etc. ; sometimes in close connexion 
 with VTTO, e.g. Matt. i. 22 TO prjOev VTTO K.vpiov St,a 
 rov Trpo^Tov (comp. ii. 15). It is used moreover not 
 only when the word is mentioned as spoken, but also 
 when it is mentioned as written ; e.g. Matt. ii. 5 
 jap ryeypaTTTat, Si a TOV trpocfrrjTOV, Luke xviii. 31 
 ra yeypafji/jieva Sia TWV TrpotyrjTwv. Yet this signi- 
 ficant fact is wholly lost to the English reader. 
 
 The other class of passages has a still more im- 
 portant theological bearing, having reference to the 
 Person of Christ. The preposition, it is well known, 
 which is especially applied to the Office of the Divine 
 
 1 In Matt. ii. 17, iii. 3, the readings of the received text are faro 
 'lepefdov, virb 'Rffaiov respectively, but all the best critical editions read 
 Sid. in both places, following the preponderance of ancient authority. 
 In Matt, xxvii. 35, Mark xiii. 14, the clauses containing virb in this 
 connexion are interpolations, and are struck out in the best editions. 
 
 In all these four passages our A.V. has 'by,' though the transla- 
 tors had virb in their text and (following their ordinary practice) should 
 have rendered it 'of.' Tyndale, who led the way, probably having 
 no distinct grammatical conception of the difference of virb and 5, 
 followed his theological instinct herein and thus extracted the right 
 sense out of the false reading. 
 
136 ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 Word, is Bid', e.g. John i. 3, 10 irdvra Si avrov eyevero 
 ...6 Acoo>io9 Si avrov eyevero, I Cor. viii. 6 el? Kvpios 
 
 IrjO-OVS X/9i<JTC9 $1 OV TO. TTaVTO, KCU T/yLtefr Si aVTOV, 
 
 Col. i. 1 6 rd Trdvra Si avrov Kal et9 avrov e/cno-Tai, 
 Heb. i. 2 &' o^ /cat eTroirjo-ev TOV$ ateo^a?, ii. IO St' ov rd 
 irdvTa /cal 8t' ov rd irdvra. In all such passages the 
 ambiguous 'by' is a serious obstacle to the under- 
 standing of the English reader. In the Nicene Creed 
 itself the expression ' By whom (Si ov) all things were 
 made/ even when it is seen that the relative refers not 
 to the Father but to the Son (and the accidental 
 circumstance that the Father is mentioned just before 
 misleads many persons on this point), yet fails to 
 suggest any idea different from the other expression 
 in the Creed ' Maker of Heaven and Earth,' which had 
 before been applied to the Father. The perplexity 
 and confusion are still further increased by the in- 
 distinct rendering, * God of God, Light of Light/ etc. 
 for eo9 ex OeoO, <&>9 etc <&>ro9, K.T.\. words which in 
 themselves represent the doctrine of God the Word 
 as taught by S. John, but whose meaning is veiled 
 by the English preposition of. Thus the Nicene 
 doctrine is obscured in the Nicene formula itself as 
 represented to the English ear ; and the prejudice 
 against it, which is necessarily excited by misunder- 
 standing, ensues. The same misconception must 
 attend the corresponding passages in the New Tes- 
 
FAULTS OF GRAMMAR. 137 
 
 tament; e.g. John i. 3, lO'All things were made by 
 Him,' ' The world was made by Him.' In this case 
 it is much easier to point out the defect than to sup- 
 ply the remedy : but surely the English Version in 
 this context is capricious in rendering Si avrov in the 
 two passages already quoted ' by Him,' and yet in an 
 intermediate verse (7) translating Traz/re? mo-rev o-cocriv 
 $i avrov ' all men through him might believe/ and 
 then again returning to by in ver. 17 6 vofjuos Bia 
 Mft)i;<7ft)9 &60rf, T) ^cipi^ Kal T) aXrfBeia Sia 'I^o-ou 
 X/3t<7ToO eyevero, 'The law was given by Moses, but 
 grace and truth came by Jesus Christ.' If prescription 
 is too powerful to admit the rendering 'through' for 
 Bi,a throughout the passage, some degree of consis- 
 tency at least might be attained, so that mvrevcraMTiv 
 &i avrov and Sia Mcovcrew ISoOi) should be translated 
 the same way. 
 
 But, though in the renderings of Sid with the 
 genitive we are confronted by archaisms rather than 
 by errors, and it might be difficult and perhaps not 
 advisable in many cases to meddle with them, the 
 same apology and the same impediment do not 
 apply to this preposition as used with the accusative. 
 Here our translators are absolutely wrong, and a 
 correction is imperative. Though they do not ever 
 (so far as I have noticed) translate Sia with a genitive 
 as though it had an accusative, they are frequently 
 
138 ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 guilty of the converse error, and render it with an 
 accusative as though it had a genitive. Thus Matt, 
 xv. 3, 6 ' Why do ye transgress the commandment of 
 God?... ye have made the commandment of God of 
 none effect by your tradition (Ibia T^V TrapdSoa-iv 
 vfiwv! i.e. ' for the sake of your tradition/ or, as it is 
 expressed in the parallel passage Mark vii. 9, f iva Trjv 
 TapdSoo-w vfLwv TrjprjarjTe [crTrjarjTe]) ; John xv. 3 
 ' Now ye are clean through the word (Sid rov \6yovy 
 Rom. ii. 24 ' The name of God is blasphemed among 
 the Gentiles through you (Si vfjids)' ; 2 Cor. iv. 15 
 1 That the abundant grace might through the thanks- 
 giving of many redound to the glory of God (a/a 77 
 TrXeo^aoraera Bid rwv ir\ibvc>)v Trjv ev^apicrrLav 
 vo-r) et? Trjv Sofaz/ rov oi))/ where it is per- 
 haps best to govern TT)V zvyapiaTiav by irepicraevcrr) 
 taken as a transitive, but where the English Version 
 at all events has three positive errors, (i) translating 
 77 %apt? 7r\ovd<Tacra as if 77 TrXeovacraaa %/H9, (2) 
 rendering roov TrXeiovcov as if TroXXwv, (3) giving the 
 wrong sense to Sia with the accusative ; Heb. vi. 7 
 ' Bringeth forth herbs meet for them by whom it is 
 dressed (81 oO? ryecopyelrat).' Yet in Rom. viii. 1 1, 
 * He shall also quicken your mortal bodies by his 
 Spirit that dwelleth in you,' our translators were 
 apparently alive to the difference of signification in 
 the various readings Six TOV evoiKovvTO$...7rvi>fJLaTo<i 
 
FAULTS OF GRAMMAR. 139 
 
 and Btd TO ei'OiKovv...iTvevfjLa, for they add in the 
 margin ' Or, because of his Spirit.' 
 
 In translating the other prepositions also there is 
 occasional laxity. Thus eVl rv vefyeK&v is rendered 
 ' in the clouds ' (Matt. xxiv. 30, xxvi. 64), though the 
 imagery is marred thereby, and though the mention 
 of ' Him that sat on the cloud (eVl TTJS z/e^eX?;?)' in the 
 Apocalypse (xiv. 15, 16) ought to have ensured the 
 correct translation. And similarly in Matt. iv. 6, 
 Luke iv. 10, the English rendering 'In their hands 
 they shall bear thee up' presents a different picture 
 from the eVt xeipwv of the original 1 . Again the proper 
 force of 619 is often sacrificed, where the loss is not 
 inappreciable. Thus in 2 Cor. xi. 3, ovrco <t>6ap7J rd 
 vorjfjLara V[JL>V djro r/J? aTrXor^ro? r^? els TOV Xpio~TOv 
 is rendered 'So your minds should be corrupted from 
 
 1 In Mark xii. 26 OVK &vyvi)Te tv rfj /3i'/3Ay Mwi/Wws eirl TOV ^Sarou, 
 TTO?S direv avry 6 0e6s ' Have ye not read in the book of Moses how in 
 the bush God spake unto him?' the wrong idea conveyed in the English 
 Version arises more from neglect of the order than from mistranslation 
 of the preposition. If the order of the original had been trusted, our 
 translators would have seen that eirl TOV /Sarou must mean 'in the pas- 
 sage relating to the Bush,' 'in the passage called the Bush' (comp. ev 
 'HXip Rom. xi. 2, 'in the history of Elijah,' where again our A. V. has 
 the wrong rendering * of Elias'). Strangely enough Wycliffe alone of 
 our English translators gives the right meaning, 'Han ye not rad in 
 the book of Moises on the bousche, how God seide to him?' In the 
 parallel passage Luke xx. 37 the rendering of our Authorised Version 
 ' at the bush ' is at all events an improvement on the preceding transla- 
 tions ' besides the bush.' 
 
I4O ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 the simplicity that is in Christ/ where the true idea is 
 'sincerity or fidelity towards Christ/ in accordance 
 with the image in the context, ' That I may present 
 you as a chaste virgin to Christ/ Even more serious 
 is the injury done to the sense in I Cor. viii. 6, a\X' 
 TJ/jbiv efc 0609 6 Trarrjp ef ov ra iravra fcal r^els et? 
 avrov, KOL 6t9 'Kvptos 'I?;<joC9 X/3to~T09 SL ov rd irdvra 
 Kal tj/jieis Si avrov, where the studiously careful dis- 
 tribution of the prepositions in the original is entirely 
 deranged by rendering 6/9 avrov ' in him ' instead of 
 1 unto him/ though here a marginal alternative 'for 
 him' is given. 
 
 Again a common form of error is the mistrans- 
 lation of fiaTTTL&iv et9, as in I Cor. i. 1 3 ' Or were ye 
 baptized in the name of Paul (et9 TO ovofjLa Tlav\ov) ?' 
 So again Matt, xxviii. 19, Acts viii. 16. In Acts 
 xix. 3, 5, after being twice given correctly ' Unto 
 what then were ye baptized ? And they said Unto 
 John's baptism/ nevertheless when it occurs a third 
 time it is wrongly translated, 'When they heard this, 
 they were baptized in the name (et9 TO OVO/JLO) of the 
 Lord Jesus.' On the other hand in Rom. vi. 3, I Cor. 
 x. 2, xii. 13, Gal. iii. 27, the preposition is duly re- 
 spected. 
 
 Again, though the influence of the Hebrew and 
 Aramaic has affected the use of eV, so that it cannot 
 be measured by a strictly classical standard, still the 
 
FAULTS OF GRAMMAR. 141 
 
 license which our Version occasionally takes is quite 
 unjustifiable. In such passages as Rom. xiv. 14 ol$a 
 teal TreTreio-fiai ev "Kvpltp 'Irjcrov ' I know and am per- 
 suaded by the Lord Jesus/ I Cor. xii. 13 KOI yap ev 
 evl Tlvevfiart rffieis Travres et? e*> aw^a e/3a7TTio-0i]fjiv 
 ' For by one Spirit are we all baptized into one body/ 
 the Hebraic or instrumental sense of ev is indefensible. 
 Lastly, even prepositions with such well-defined 
 meanings as CUTTO and virip are not always respected ; 
 as for example in 2 Thess. ii. I, 2 'Now we beseech 
 you, brethren, by (vTrep) the coming of our Lord 
 Jesus Christ, and by our gathering together unto him, 
 that ye be not soon shaken in mind (OTTO TOV 7/009)'; 
 while elsewhere vrapa is similarly illtreated, I Pet. 
 ii. 4 ' Disallowed indeed of men (I/TTO av0pa>7ra)v), but 
 chosen of God (irapa ec3 
 
 Under these three heads the most numerous 
 grammatical errors of our Version fall. But other in- 
 accuracies of diverse kinds confront us from time to 
 time, and some of these are of real importance. Any- 
 one who attempts to frame a system of the chronology 
 of our Lord's life by a comparison of the Gospel-nar- 
 ratives with one another and with contemporary Jewish 
 history, will know how perplexing is the statement in 
 our English Version of Luke iii. 23 that Jesus after 
 His baptism l began to be about thirty years of age.' 
 
142 ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 But the original need not and (in fact) cannot mean 
 this ; for r^v ap^o^evo^ coo-el ertov rpidfcovra must be 
 translated 'was about thirty years old, when he began' 
 (i.e. at the commencement of His public life, His minis- 
 try) ; where caael is sufficiently elastic to allow a year 
 or two or even more either under or over the thirty 
 years : and in fact the notices of Herod's life in Jose- 
 phus compared with S. Matthew's narrative seem to 
 require that our Lord should have been somewhat 
 more than thirty years old at the time. Again such a 
 translation as Phil. iv. 3 ow\afjfldvov avrals amz>e?... 
 (Tvvr]6\'r](Tav fjLoi, 'Help those women which laboured 
 with me/ is impossible ; and, going hand in hand 
 with an error in the preceding verse by which a man 
 ' Euodias ' is substituted for a woman ' Euodia 1 / calls 
 for correction. Again in 2 Pet. iii. 12 the rendering 
 of airevSovras rrjv Trapovaiav rry? rov 0eoO ^yttepa? 
 ' hasting unto the coming of the day of God ' cannot 
 stand, and the alternative suggested in the margin 
 ' hasting the coming ' should be placed in the text ; 
 for the words obviously imply that the zeal and 
 steadfastness of the faithful will be instrumental in 
 
 1 The Versions of Tyndale and Coverdale, the Great Bible, and 
 the Bishops' Bible, treat both as men's names, Euodias and Syntiches 
 (Syntyches or Sintiches) ; the Geneva Testament (1557) gives both cor- 
 rectly; but the Geneva Bible takes up the intermediate position, and is 
 followed by our A. V. All alike are wrong in the translation of 
 atfrcus al'rtj'es. 
 
FAULTS OF GRAMMAR. 143 
 
 speeding the final crisis. Again the substitution of 
 an interrogative for a relative in Matt. xxvi. 50 eralpe, 
 e</>' o irdpei, ' Friend, wherefore art thou come ?' is not 
 warranted by New Testament usage, though here 
 our translators are supported by many modern com- 
 mentators ; and the expression must be treated as 
 an aposiopesis, ' Friend, do that for which thou art 
 come 1 .' Again our translators have on more than 
 one occasion indulged in the grammatical fiction 
 of Hypallage, rendering 717)09 ol/co$ofj,r]v r^ 
 ' for the use of edifying ' in Eph. iv. 29, and d 
 TOV T/J? dpx*! 1 * ToO XpiGTov \6yov (Heb. vi. i) 'leaving 
 the principles of the 'doctrine of Christ' In both of 
 these passages however there is a marginal note, 
 though in the first the alternative offered 'to edify 
 profitably ' slurs over the difficulty. Such grammatical 
 deformities as these should be swept away. Neither 
 again should we tolerate such a rendering as I Cor. 
 xii. 28 azmA^/n/ret?, /cv/Bepvija-eis, 'helps in govern- 
 ments 2 ,' where the original contemplates two distinct 
 functions, of which ai/rA^/i^ret? would apply mainly 
 to the diaconate and Kv^epvrja-ei^ to the presbytery, 
 
 1 Thus it may be compared with John xiii. 27 6 rotets, 
 raxtov. 
 
 2 This is the rendering in the edition of 1611 ; but the preposition 
 was struck out in the Cambridge edition of 1637 (and possibly earlier), 
 and the text is commonly printed 'helps, governments,' but without 
 any authority. 
 
144 ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 but where our translators have had recourse to 
 the grammatical fiction of Hendiadys. A somewhat 
 similar instance to the last, where two detached words 
 are combined in defiance of the sense, is I Cor. xvi. 
 22 ' Let him be Anathema Maranatha,' where doubt- 
 less the words should be separated ; rJTco dvdOe^a' 
 M.apav a6d y 'Let him be anathema. Maran Atha' 
 (i.e. ' The Lord cometh,' or ' is come '). 
 
 Isolated examples of grammatical inaccuracy 
 such as these might be multiplied ; but I will close 
 with one illustration, drawn from the treatment of 
 the word fyalvew. The distinction between fyalvew 
 ' to shine ' and fyaivecrOat, ' to appear ' is based on an 
 elementary principle of grammar. It is therefore 
 surprising that our translators should not have ob- 
 served the difference. And yet, though the context 
 in most cases leads them right, the errors of which 
 they are guilty in particular passages show that they 
 proceeded on no fixed principle. Thus we have in 
 Acts xxvii. 2O wre avrpwv eirifyaivovTw ITTL Tr\eiovas 
 rjnepas 'Nor stars in many days appeared} and con- 
 versely in Matt. xxiv. 27 /cal fyalverai eW 8vcrfj.wv 
 1 And shineth even unto the west,' and in Phil. ii. 1 5 
 eV ot9 <f)alve<T0 <9 (frcoo-Tfjpes ev tc6<Tfj,<p ' Among whom 
 ye shine as lights in the world' (where the marginal 
 alternative of an imperative ' shine ye ' is given, but 
 no misgiving seems to have been suggested to our 
 
FAULTS OF GRAMMAR. 145 
 
 translators by the voice of c^alveade 1 ). When they have 
 gone so far wrong in a simple matter of inflexion, it 
 is not surprising that syntactic considerations should 
 have been overlooked, and that they should not have 
 recognised the proper distinction between ^>aivo^ai 
 elvai ' I appear to be,' and fyaivoiiai wv ' I am seen to 
 be.' Of this error they are guilty in Matt. vi. 16, 
 1 8, O7r&)<? (pavwcrw rot? dvOpooTTOLS vijo-revovTes, OTTO)? 
 /LIT) (fravfjs TO?? avQptoTrois vrjarevwv, * That they may 
 appear unto men to fast,' ' That thou appear not unto 
 men to fast ' ; though the sense is correctly given by 
 Tyndale (with whom most of the older Versions 
 agree substantially), ' That they might be seen of 
 men how they fast/ ' That it appear not unto men 
 how that thou fastest.' 
 
 The directly opposite fault to that which has just 
 been discussed also deserves notice, and may perhaps 
 be considered here. If hitherto attention has been 
 directed to the ignorance or disregard of Greek 
 
 1 Again in Rev. xviii. 23 0w$ \byy v v A"7 <t> av fl '" ff <- Z 
 word was accentuated as a passive (^avf;) in the text used by our trans- 
 lators, as was probably the case, they have rendered it incorrectly 'The 
 light of a candle shall shine no more in thee'; but here Lachmann 
 and others read the active (jxiv-g. In Rev. viii. 12 they read Qaivr) and 
 rightly translated it 'shone' : but modern critical editors substitute <t>ou>y 
 or Qavrj. In Acts xxi. 3 'When we had discovered Cyprus,' the correct 
 text is probably dva<pav^vres 5t TT^V Ktiirpov, but 'discovered' seems 
 to be intended as a translation oi" the other reading a.va.<paj>a.vTts. 
 L. R. 10 
 
146 ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 grammar in our translators, it may be well to point 
 out instances in which they have attempted to im- 
 prove the original, where the connexion is loose or 
 the structure ungrammatical. This happens most 
 frequently where past and present tenses are inter- 
 mingled in the original ; e.g. Matt. iii. 15, 16 6 ' 
 TT/>O<? avT6v...r6re dfyirjGLV avr6v...Kal 
 6 'fycroO? due/By, where for the sake of sym- 
 metry d<j>r}(riv is translated suffered \ or Mark xiv. 
 53, 54 Kai dTrrjyayov rov 'Irjcrovv...^!, ffwep^ov- 
 rat, avro) 7rdvre<;...ical 6 TLerpos djro naicpoQev rj/co- 
 \ov0r)<rv avro), where for the same reason o-vvep- 
 yovrai is given were assembled. In all such cases 
 there is no good reason for departing from the 
 original. This is not a question of the idiom in 
 different languages, but of the style of a particular 
 author; and peculiarities of style should, as far as 
 possible, be reproduced. Moreover our translators 
 themselves have not ventured always to reduce the 
 tenses to uniformity, so that the licence they have 
 taken results in capricious alterations here and there, 
 which serve no worthy purpose. 
 
 These however are nothing more than loose- 
 nesses of style. But even grammatical inaccuracies 
 ought to be preserved, as far as possible; for it will 
 generally be found that in such cases the grammar 
 is sacrificed to some higher end either greater force 
 
FAULTS OF GRAMMAR. 147 
 
 of expression or greater clearness of meaning. More 
 than one instance of this occurs in the Apocalypse. 
 In the letters to the Seven Churches the messages 
 close with words of encouragement to the victor in 
 the struggle. In the last four of these the words 
 6 vi/coiJv are flung out at the beginning of the sen- 
 tence without any regard to the subsequent con- 
 struction, which in three out of the four is changed 
 so that the nominative stands alone without any 
 government: ii. 26 KOI 6 viKwv...^ora> avru> eov<7iav, 
 iii. 12 6 VLK&V, Troitjao) avrov arv\ov, iii. 21 6 VIKWV, 
 Swaco avrw KadLcai. In the first instance only have 
 our translators had the courage to retain the broken 
 grammar of the original, 'And /&? that overcometh... 
 to him will I give/ acting thus boldly perhaps because 
 the intervening words partly obscure the irregularity. 
 In the other two cases they have set the grammar 
 straight; 'Him that overcometh will I make a 
 pillar/ 'To him that overcometh will I grant to sit.' 
 Yet there was no sufficient reason for making a 
 difference, and in all alike the English should have 
 commenced as the Greek commences, ' He that over- 
 cometh.' 
 
 Would it be thought overbold if I were to counsel 
 the same scrupulous adherence to the form of the 
 original in a still more important passage ? In Rev. 
 i. 4 %pfc9 Vfuv /cal eiprjvrj OTTO [roO] 6 wv Kal o rjv KOI 6 
 
 10 2 
 
148 ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 , the defiance of grammar is even more 
 startling. It may be true that a cultivated Athenian 
 could hardly have brought himself to write thus ; but 
 certainly the fisherman of Galilee did not so express 
 himself from mere ignorance of Greek, for such ig- 
 norance as this supposition would assume must have 
 prevented his writing the Apocalypse at all. In this 
 instance at least, where the Apostle is dealing with the 
 Name of names, the motive which would lead him to 
 isolate the words from their context is plain enough. 
 And should not this remarkable feature be preserved 
 in our English Bible ? If in Exod. iii. 14 the words 
 run ' I AM hath sent me unto you/ may we not 
 also be allowed to read here, 'from HE THAT IS AND 
 THAT WAS AND THAT IS TO COME'? Certainly the 
 violation of grammar would not be greater in the 
 English than it is in the Greek. 
 
 5. . , , - 
 
 If the errors of grammar in our English Version 
 are very numerous, those of lexicography are not so 
 frequent. Yet even here several indisputable errors 
 need correction ; not a few doubtful interpretations 
 may be improved ; and many vague renderings will 
 gain by being made sharper and clearer. 
 
 Instances of impossible renderings occur from time 
 
FAULTS OF LEXICOGRAPHY. 149 
 
 to time, though the whole number of these is not 
 great. By impossible renderings I mean those cases 
 in which our translators have assigned to a word 
 a signification which it never bears elsewhere, and 
 which therefore we must at once discard without 
 considering whether it docs or does not harmonize 
 with the context. 
 
 Such for instance is the treatment of the par- 
 ticles eri and rjSrj in occasional passages, where their 
 meaning is interchanged in our Version ; as in Mark 
 xiii. 28 orav avrrjs rjBrj 6 icXdSos aVaXo? yevrjrai, K.T.\. 
 1 When her branch is yet tender/ for ' As soon as its 
 branch is tender' (the sign of approaching summer), 
 and 2 Cor. i. 23 ovtceri rj\6ov et? KopwOov, * I came not 
 as yet unto Corinth,' for 'I came no more unto Corinth' 
 (I paid no fresh visit): or the rendering of cnra% in 
 Heb. xii. 26 en aira^ eyw <mo>, 'Yet once more I 
 shake' : or of /cal jap in Matt. xv. 27 val Kvpie, KOI 
 yap rd /cvvdpia eadiet,, ' Truth, Lord, yet the dogs eat.' 
 And, when we turn from particles to nouns and 
 verbs, examples will not fail us. Such are the ren- 
 derings of dvetyios in Col. iv. 10 ' Marcus, sisters son 
 to Barnabas' (6 az/e\^o? Bapvufia) for 'cousin': of <j>6i- 
 voTrcopivos in Jude 12 'Trees whose fruit withereth, 
 without fruit (BevSpa (frOivoTrcopivd a/capTra), twice 
 dead, plucked up by the roots,' for ' autumn trees 
 without fruit, etc.,' where there appears to be a refer- 
 
I5O ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 ence to the parable of the barren fig-tree (Luke xiii. 
 6), and where at all events the mention of the season 
 when fruit might be expected is significant 1 , while 
 under any circumstances the awkward contradiction 
 of terms in our English Version should have sug- 
 gested some misgiving : of OpiajM/Beveiv in 2 Cor. ii. 14 
 ' God which always canseth tis to triumph (TO> irav- 
 Tore BpianftevovTi rjfias) in Christ,' for ' leadeth us in 
 triumph/ where the image of the believer made cap- 
 tive and chained to the car of Christ is most expres- 
 sive, while the paradox of the Apostle's thanksgiving 
 over his own spiritual defeat and thraldom is at once 
 forcible and characteristic: and of Trapecns in Rom. iii. 
 25 'To declare his righteousness for the remission of 
 
 1 Strange to say, the earliest Versions all rendered Qdivoirwpiva 
 correctly. Tyndale's instinct led him to give what I cannot but think 
 the right turn to the expression; 'Trees with out frute at gadringe 
 [gathering] time,' i.e. at the season when fruit was looked for; I cannot 
 agree with Abp. Trench (p. 125), who maintains that 'Tyndale was 
 feeling after, though he has not grasped, the right translation,' and 
 himself explains ipffivoirupivd, aKapira, as 'mutually completing one 
 another,' without leaves, without fruit. Tyndale was followed by Cover- 
 dale and the Great Bible. Similarly Wycliffe has 'hervest trees without 
 fruyt,' and the Rheims Version 'Trees of Autumne, unfruiteful.' The 
 earliest offender is the Geneva Testament which gives 'corrupt trees 
 and without frute, ' a rendering adopted also in the Geneva Bible. The 
 Bishops' Bible strangely combines both renderings, 'trees withered 
 [<t>0lveu>] at fruite geathering [6ir6pa] and without fruite'; wh'ch is 
 explained in the margin ' Trees withered in Autumne when the fruite 
 harvest is, and so the Greke woord importeth,' while at the same time 
 other alternative interpretations are given. 
 
FAULTS OF LEXICOGRAPHY. 151 
 
 sins that are past (Sia r^v irdpeaw rwv Trpojeyovurcov 
 dfjLapTrjpaTcov),' for ' by reason of the passing over of the 
 former sins,' where the double error of mistranslating 
 Bta and of giving irdpecr^ the sense of afyecns has 
 entirely shattered the meaning, and where the context 
 implies that this signal manifestation of God's right- 
 eousness was vouchsafed, not because the sins were 
 forgiven, but because they were only overlooked for 
 the time without being forgiven 1 . Other examples 
 again are <rv\ayo)yeiv in Col. ii. 8 firj rt9 vpas co-rat, 6 
 a-vXaycoyoov ' Lest any man spoil you,' for * make spoil 
 of you,' 'carry you off as plunder' : Trpo/Stfjd^ew in 
 Matt. xiv. 8 irpopipaadelaa VTTO rfjs /jLrjrpcx; aur/y?, 
 'Being before instructed of her mother,' for 'being 
 put forward, urged, by her mother/ for there is no 
 instance of the temporal sense of the preposition in 
 this compound: e-rrcpcorrjina in I Pet. iii. 21 'The 
 answer of a good conscience toward God,' for 'the 
 question? where the word may mean a petition but 
 certainly cannot mean an answer: ^LKaiwfiara in 
 Rom. ii. 26 ' If the uncircumcision keep the right- 
 eousness of the law/ for ' the ordinances of the law' : 
 Traypovv, Trewpoxm, in the Epistles (Rom. xi. 7, 25, 
 2 Cor. iii. 14, Eph. iv. 18), where they are always 
 
 1 An alternative sense of irdpeffiv is given in the margin, 'or passing 
 over'; but this is not sufficient to elicit the right meaning without also 
 correcting the rendering of dta. 
 
152 ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 rendered ' blind, blindness,' though correctly trans- 
 lated in the Gospels (Mark iii. 5, vi. 52, John xii. 40) 
 ' harden, hardness V 
 
 In some cases the wrong rendering of our trans- 
 lators arose from a false derivation, which was gener- 
 ally accepted in their age. Thus d/cepaios is rendered 
 'harmless' (from /cepas, Kpata)) Matt. x. 16, Phil. 
 ii. 15, instead of 'simple, pure, sincere' (from icepdv- 
 VV/JLI, 'to mix, adulterate'), though in Rom. xvi. 19 
 it is correctly given' 2 . So also epLOeia is taken to 
 mean 'strife, contention' (Rom. ii. 8, 2 Cor. xii. 20, 
 Gal. v. 20, Phil. i. 17, ii. 3, James iii. 14, 16) from its 
 supposed connexion with epis ; whereas its true de- 
 rivation is from epiOos 'a hired partisan,' so that it 
 denotes 'party-spirit.' And again in Jude 12 OVTOU 
 elcnv v rat? d^anra^ vp&v a-TTtAaSe? ' These are spots 
 in your feasts of charity,' 0-TrtXaSe? 'rocks' is trans- 
 lated as if cr7rt\ot ' spots' 3 ; our translators having 
 
 1 This illustrates the incongruity which results from assigning different 
 parts of the New Testament to different persons. In the instance before 
 us however a compromise is effected by marginal alternatives. In Mark 
 iii. 5 the margin has l or blindness'; in Rom. xi. 7, 25, Eph. iv. 18, 
 'or hardened,' 'or hardness.' In the other passages there is no margin 
 in the edition of 1611. 
 
 2 In Matt. x. 1 6 however the margin has 'or simple,' and in Phil. ii. 
 15 'or sincere.' 
 
 * At least this is the view taken by modern commentators almost 
 universally; but it does not seem to me certain that <T7rt\d5ej here 
 cannot mean 'spots'; for (i) All the early Versions connect it with 
 
FAULTS OF LEXICOGRAPHY. 153 
 
 doubtless been influenced by the parallel passage 
 2 Pet. ii. 13 <nrl\oi KOI JAGO/AOI evrpvfywvres ev rat? 
 avrarat? avrwv, ' Spots are they and blemishes, sport- 
 ing themselves with their own deceivings 1 .' The last 
 example of this class of errors, which I shall take, 
 is the surname of Simon the Apostle, ' the Canaanite.' 
 The correct form of the word is Kami/cuo?, not Kai/a- 
 tfrijs, in both passages where it occurs (Matt. x. 4, 
 Mark iii. 18); but the latter stood in the text which our 
 translators had before them. Yet this false reading 
 certainly should not have misled them ; for 
 
 this root, translating it either as a substantive 'stains,' or as an adjective 
 ' polluted. ' This is the case with the Old and the Revised Latin, with 
 both the Egyptian Versions, and with the Philoxenian Syriac, nor have 
 I noticed a single one which renders it 'rocks.' (2) As 0-TrtXoj (or 
 <77rtXos), which generally signifies a 'spot* or 'stain,' sometimes has the 
 sense 'a rock,' so conversely it is quite possible that ffirtXas 'a rock' 
 should occasionally exchange its ordinary meaning for that of <riri\os. 
 (3) In one of the Orphic poems, Lith. 614 KardariKTov airiXddeaffi irvp- 
 afj<ru> Xeu/ccus re fj.eXcui'Ofj.frais xXoepous re, it has this sense; and, though 
 this poem was apparently not written till the fourth century, still it 
 seems highly improbable that the writer should have derived this sense 
 of the word solely from S. Jude. If he did so, it only shows how 
 fixed this interpretation had become before his time. (4) The extreme 
 violence of the metaphor 'rocks in your feasts of charity' is certainly not 
 favourable to the interpretation which it is proposed to substitute. And 
 (5) though this argument must not be pressed, yet the occurrence 
 of cnriXoi Kai yuw^toi in the parallel passage (2 Pet. ii. 13) must be allowed 
 some weight in determining the sense of <rirt,\d8es here. 
 
 1 I have quoted the passage as it stands in the received text iv rats 
 (wroTcus, but iv rats dyzirais is read by Lachmann and Tregelles, as in 
 Jude 12. 
 
154 ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 the word for the Canaanite in the LXX and in Matt. 
 xv. 22, is even farther from Kavavlrrjs than from Kava- 
 valos. The parallel passages in S. Luke (Luke vi. 15? 
 Acts i. 13) point to the fact that this surname is the 
 Aramaic word Kanan, j&Op, corresponding to the 
 Greek JfyXwnfc 'the Zealot 1 '; and this being so, it is 
 somewhat strange that our translators should have 
 gone astray on the word, seeing that the Greek form 
 for *W13 'Canaanite' is invariably spelt correctly with 
 a X corresponding to Caph, and not with a K corre- 
 sponding to Koph. The earlier Versions however all 
 suppose the word to involve the name of a place, 
 though they do not all render it alike. Tyndale, 
 Coverdale, and the Great Bible have ' Simon of Cane' 
 or 'Cana'; the Geneva Testament (1557) has 'of 
 
 1 See Evvald Gesch. des V. Isr. V. p. 322, Derembourg UHistoire de 
 la Palestine p. 238. This is a common termination of names of sects 
 
 when Grecized ; e.g. 'A<r<rt5cuoj, 3 > a/>i<7cuos, 2a85ovKa:os, 'Ecrcrcuos 
 (Hegesipp. in Euseb. H. E. iv. 23). This fact seems to have escaped 
 Meyer when he points to the termination as showing that Kavavcuos 
 denotes the name of a place and thus exhibits a false tradition, while 
 the true account is preserved in the fT/Xwrrjs of S. Luke. Indeed the 
 formation of Kavavalos from Kanan is exactly analogous to that of 
 4>a/oto-a?os from Pharish or 'Acr<n5cuoj from Hhasid. Meyer confesses 
 himself at a loss to name any place to which he can refer JLavavatos. 
 
 In the Peshito, Kavavcuos is translated rtlxULo, but Xavaceuos 
 r<*ilSlV where the difference of the initial letter and the insertion 
 of the 2k. in the latter word show that in this Version the forms were 
 not confounded. 
 
FAULTS OF LEXICOGRAPHY. 155 
 
 % 
 
 Canan' in the one place, and 'of Cane* in the other; 
 the Geneva Bible 'Cananite' in both. The Bishops' 
 Bible, so far as I have observed, first prints the word 
 with a double a (Matt. x. 4), thus fixing the reference 
 to Canaan 1 . 
 
 There are other passages where, though the word 
 itself will admit the meaning assigned to it in our 
 Version, and so this meaning cannot be called im- 
 possible, yet the context more or less decidedly 
 
 1 To this list of false derivations some would add Kardw^a in Rom. 
 xi. 8, where irveO/wt /caravi^ews is rendered 'the spirit of slumber J 
 though with the marginal alternative remorse; but I doubt whether 
 Abp. Trench is right in saying (p. 118) that 'our translators must have 
 derived KaTou>vis from vvvTaffiv, as many others have done.' The fact 
 is that Karavfoaetv, Karavv^, are frequently used in the LXX to 
 translate words denoting heavy sleep, silence, amazement, and the like, 
 e.g. Levit. x. 3, Ps. iv. 5, xxx. 12, xxxv. 15, Is. vi. 5, Dan. x. 9; and 
 in the very passage to which S. Paul here refers, Is. xxix. 10, Karairvfa 
 represents the Hebrew HDlin 'deep sleep.' The idea of numbness is 
 the connecting link between pricking, wounding, and stttpor, heavy sleep. 
 Fritzsche (Rom. II. p. 558 sq.) has an important excursus on the w,ord, 
 but is not always happy in his explanation of the LXX renderings. The 
 earlier English Versions generally adopted the more literal meaning of 
 Aorcu'vts. Thus Wycliffe and the Rheims Version have 'compunction* 
 after the Vulgate; Tyndale, Coverdale, and the Great Bible 'unquiet- 
 ness'; the Bishops' Bible 'remorse,' with the marginal note 'That is, 
 pricking and unquietnesse of conscience.' The Geneva Testament (1557) 
 is as usual the innovator, rendering the word ' heavy sleep.' For this 
 the Geneva Bible substitutes 'slumber, 'but with a margin 'or pricking.* 
 
 The reasons why I do not class ejrtotfcnos among these words, in 
 which a mistaken derivation has led to a wrong translation, will be given 
 in the Appendix. 
 
156 ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 favours another sense. Examples belonging to this 
 class are James iii. 5 l&oi) o\i<yov [/. rj\l/cov] irvp ^\i/crjv 
 v\7jv dvaTTTei, ' Behold how great a matter a little fire 
 kindleth,' where the literal meaning of v\rj is cer- 
 tainly to be preferred to the philosophical, and where 
 it is most strange that our translators having the 
 correct word 'wood' present to their minds should 
 have banished it to the margin : Matt. xxvi. 15 ecrrrj- 
 aav avra) Tpid/tovra dpyupia, 'They covenanted with him 
 for thirty pieces of silver,' where the passage in Zech- 
 ariah (xi. 1 2 ' They weighed for my price thirty pieces 
 of silver/ LXX ecrr^craz/) to which the Evangelist 
 alludes ought to have led to the proper rendering of 
 the same word here, 'weighed unto him' : Heb. ii. 16 
 ov ydp SIJTTOV dyyeXcov lirCKa^av^Tai aXXa crTrep/xaro? 
 'A/3paa/j, e7ri\afjL/3dv6Tat,, * He took not on him the 
 nature of angels, but lie took on him the seed of 
 Abraham,' where the context suggests the more 
 natural meaning of iirCKa^av^aQai ' To take hold of 
 for the purpose of supporting or assisting' (comp. 
 ver. 1 8 /3o77#>/<7cu); Mark iv. 29 orav irapa^ol 6 KapTros, 
 'When the fruit is brought forth} where the right 
 meaning ripe is given in the margin : Acts ii. 3 St,a- 
 fjLpi^6fjLvai y\<t)(7a'ai, oocrel Trvpos, 'Cloven tongues like 
 as of fire,' where the imagery and the symbolism, not 
 less than the tense, suggest a different rendering of 
 &{,ajj,epi6fjLevai,, parting asunder : 2 Cor. iv. 4 eh TO prj 
 
FAULTS OF LEXICOGRAPHY. 
 
 avydcrat, [avrois] TOP <f>(0Tio-/j,ov rov vayye\iov, * Lest 
 the light of the Gospel... should shine unto them,' 
 where indeed the fault was not with the translators 
 but with the reading, since having ai/rot? in their text 
 they had no choice but to translate the words so; 
 but when avrois is struck out (as it should be), a 
 different sense ought perhaps to be given to aLjdcrai, 
 1 That they might not be/told the light,' etc. Another 
 and a very important example of this class of errors 
 is the rendering of Trat? in Acts iii. 13, 26, iv. 27, 30, 
 where it is translated 'son' or 'child' in place of 
 'servant,' thus obliterating the connexion with the 
 prophetic announcement of the ' servant of the Lord ' 
 in Isaiah 1 . It is not here, as elsewhere, the Sonship, 
 but the ministry, on which the Apostles dwell. In 
 Matt. xii. 18, where the prophecy itself (Isai. xlii. i) is 
 quoted and applied to our Lord, the words are rightly 
 translated, . * Behold I send my servant' ; and indeed 
 when confronted with the original no one would think 
 of rendering it otherwise. Other instances again are 
 the rendering ofaLpeiv in John i. 29 6 aipwv rrjv d/napriav 
 rov KCHT/JLOV, ' Which taketh away the sin of the world,' 
 where the marginal reading beareth should probably 
 be substituted in the text ; and similarly of dvevey- 
 lv in Heb. ix. 28, I Pet. ii. 24 dvevey/cew d 
 
 1 See especially Trench, Authorized Version, p. 69. 
 
158 ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 * To bear the 'sins,' where the true idea is not that of 
 sustaining a burden, but of raising upon the cross. 
 So again TreTfXrjpofyoprjfjievwv in Luke i. I probably 
 means 'fulfilled 'rather than 'most surely believed,' as 
 in the latter sense the passive is used only of the per- 
 sons convinced and not of the things credited. On 
 the other hand, it is not certain whether paara&w 
 means 'to carry off, to steal' in John xii. 6 ra /3aX- 
 \6fjieva eftao-Ta^ev, or whether the English Version 
 'bare what was put therein' should stand. 
 
 In another class of words the English rendering, 
 while it cannot be called incorrect, is vague or in- 
 adequate, so that the exact idea of the original is not 
 represented or the sharpness of outline is blurred. 
 This defect will be most obvious in metaphors. For 
 instance in Rom. vi. 13, where oir\a d&t/cias is ren- 
 dered ' instruments of unrighteousness,' instead of 
 arms or weapons (which however is given as an alter- 
 native in the margin), we fail to recognise the image 
 of military service rendered to Sin, as a great king 
 (ver. 12 fjurj fiaai\veTci)) who enforces obedience (vira- 
 Koveiv) and pays his soldiery in the coin of death 
 (ver. 23 rdo-^roovia rrjs a pa p-r Las 6dvaros\ Again the 
 rendering of Col. ii. 5 i/*a>v rrjv TCL%IV /cal TO crrepewfjia 
 T??? 6t? XPKTTOV TTfVreft)? i'fjiwv, 'Your order and the 
 stedfastness of your faith in Christ,' fails to suggest 
 the idea of the close phalanx arrayed for battle, which 
 
FAULTS OF LEXICOGRAPHY. 159 
 
 is involved in the original * : and similarly in 2 Cor. 
 x. 5 irav v^jrcof^a 7raip6fj,evov Kara TT?? 7^0)0-60)? roD 
 eoO our translators in rendering the words 'Every 
 high thing that exalteth itself against the knowledge 
 of God,' appear not to have seen that this expression 
 continues the metaphor of the campaign (o-rparevo- 
 fjieOa) and the fortresses (o^vpwfjLara) in the context, 
 and that the reference is to the siege works thrown 
 up for the purpose of attacking the faith. Again 
 the metaphor of KaravapKav is very inadequately 
 given in 2 Cor. xi. 9 ' I was chargeable to no man/ 
 and in xii. 13, 14 'I was not, I will not be, burden- 
 some to you ' : and the * thorn in the flesh ' in the 
 English Version of 2 Cor. xii. 7 has suggested inter- 
 pretations of S. Paul's malady, which the original 
 <TKo\o"fy ' a stake* does not countenance, and is almost 
 as wide of the mark as the Latin stimulus carnis 
 which also has led to much misunderstanding. These 
 are a few instances out of many, which might be 
 given, where a metaphor has suffered from inade- 
 quate rendering. 
 
 Other examples also, where no metaphor is in- 
 volved, might be multiplied. Thus in Matt. ix. 16, 
 Mark ii. 21, it is difficult to see why our translators 
 should have abandoned the natural expression 'un- 
 
 1 i Mace. ix. 14 elSev 'lotfSciy 8n Ba/cx'ST?? Kal r6 <rre/>^w/ia T^S 
 iv ro?$ eto?s. 
 
160 ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 dressed cloth,' which occurs in the Geneva Testa- 
 ment, as a rendering of pd/cos ayvafov, for 'new 
 cloth/ contenting themselves with putting 'raw or 
 unwrought' in the margin. In Matt. xxvi. 36, Mark 
 xiv. 32, we read in the English Version of ' a place 
 called Gethsemane' ; the Greek however is not %c/x>9 
 but xwptov, not a place but ' a parcel of ground' (as 
 it is rendered in John iv. 5), an enclosure, a field or 
 garden, and thus corresponds more closely to /ayTro? 
 by which S. John describes the same locality though 
 without mentioning the name (xviii. i). In Acts 
 i. 3 oTTTavofievos avTois should not have been trans- 
 lated 'being seen of them/ for the emphatic word 
 oirrdveadai, which does not occur elsewhere in the 
 New Testament, expresses much more than this, and 
 ' showing himself unto them' would be a better though 
 still an inadequate rendering. In Rom. ii. 22 6 /3Se- 
 Auoxroftez/o? ra e!'S&>Xa tepo<rtA,e?9 the inconsistency of 
 the man who plunders a Jteathen temple while pro- 
 fessing to loathe an idol, is lost by the rendering 
 ' dost thou commit sacrilege* ; and indeed it may be 
 suspected that our translators misapprehended the 
 force of iepoo-vXels, more especially as in most of the 
 earlier Versions it was translated * robbest God of 
 his honour.' In Acts xiv. 13 'Then the priest of 
 Jupiter, which was before their city, brought oxen and 
 garlands unto the gates/ the English reader inevit-: 
 
FAULTS OF LEXICOGRAPHY. l6l 
 
 ably thinks of the city-gates ; but as the Greek has 
 trvXwvas, not TruXa?, the portal or gateway or vestibule 
 of the temple is clearly meant. This was seen by 
 Tyndale, who quaintly translates it 'the church-porch.' 
 In Acts xvii. 29, S. Paul addressing an audience of 
 heathen philosophers condescends to adopt the lan- 
 guage familiar to them, and speaks of TO Oelov an 
 expression which does not occur elsewhere in the 
 New Testament ; but in the English rendering ' God- 
 head ' this vague philosophical term becomes con- 
 crete and precise, as though it had been Oeorrj^ in 
 the original. In the Acts xiii. 50 and elsewhere ol 
 aefiofievoi, at cre/3oyu,ez/at, by which S. Luke always 
 means ' proselytes, worshippers of the one God/ are 
 translated 'devout'; and hence the strange statement 
 (which must perplex many an English reader) that 
 'the Jews stirred up the devout and honourable 
 women... and raised persecution against Paul and 
 Barnabas.' In 2 Cor. xiii. n Karapr^eo-de is ren- 
 dered 'be perfect^ an d in the Qth verse rrjv V/JLWV 
 KarapTiGw ' your perfection! but the context shows 
 that in these parting injunctions S. Paul reiterates 
 the leading thought of the Epistles, exhorting the 
 Corinthians to compose their differences: and this is 
 the meaning of I Cor. i. 10 rjre Se /caTrjpTio-pevot, 
 ev T$ aura) vot t where it is better rendered ' that ye be 
 perfectly joined together, etc/ Lastly, in I Tim. iii. 3, 
 L. R. II 
 
1 62 ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 Tit. i. 7, pr) irdpoivov is translated 'not given to wine'; 
 but in the first passage this idea is already expressed 
 by vr}cf)d\Lov, and natural as the more obvious ren- 
 dering might seem, the usage of irdpoivos elsewhere 
 shows that it denotes 'a brawler,' 'a quarrelsome 
 person' (which is the alternative meaning offered in 
 the margin). 
 
 I will close this section with an illustration, of 
 which it is difficult to say whether we should more 
 properly class it under the head of lexicography or 
 of grammar. a/3/3ara is the Aramaic form of the 
 Hebrew word for 'a sabbath' written out in Greek 
 letters. Appearing in this form, it is naturally de- 
 clined as a plural era/SySara, o-afiffdrfov, but never- 
 theless retains its proper meaning as a singular. 
 How widely this form was known, and how strictly 
 it preserved its force as a singular, will appear from 
 Horace's ' Hodie tricesima sabbata.' In our Version 
 of the New Testament, whenever the meaning is un- 
 mistakable it is translated as a singular (e.g. Matt. 
 xii. I, II, Mark i. 21, ii. 23, iii. 2, Acts xiii. 14); 
 but where the sense is doubtful a plural rendering 
 is mostly preferred (e.g. Matt. xii. 5, 10, 12, Mark 
 iii. 4). In all these cases however it is much better 
 treated as a singular, in accordance with the sense 
 which it beats in the same contexts ; and in such a 
 passage as Col. ii. 16 eV pepei eoprfjs fj 
 
PROPER NAMES. 163 
 
 > 
 
 , the plural ' sabbath-days ' is obviously out 
 of place, as co-ordinated with two singular nouns. 
 The only passage in the New Testament where 
 o-dfi/Bara is distinctly plural is Acts xvii. 2 eVl 
 
 rpta, where it is defined by the numeral. 
 
 Over and above the ordinary questions of trans- 
 lation, there is a particular class of words which 
 presents special difficulties and needs special atten- 
 tion. Proper names, official titles, technical terms, 
 which, as belonging to one language and one nation, 
 have no direct equivalents in another, must obviously 
 be treated in an exceptional way. Are they to 
 be reproduced as they stand in the original, or is 
 the translator to give the terms most nearly cor- 
 responding to them in the language of his version? 
 Is he to adopt the policy of despair, or the policy 
 of compromise ? Or may he invoke either principle 
 according to the exigencies of the case ? and, if so, 
 what laws can be laid down to regulate his practice 
 and to prevent caprice ? 
 
 Of this class of words, proper names are the least 
 difficult to deal with ; and yet even these occasion- 
 ally offer perplexing problems. 
 
 The general principles, on which our translators 
 
 II 2 
 
1 64 ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 proceeded in this matter, are twofold. First ; where 
 no familiar English form of a name existed, they 
 retained the form substantially as they found it. In 
 other words they reproduced the Hebrew or Chaldee 
 form in the Old Testament, and the Greek in the 
 New. Secondly; where a proper name had been 
 adopted into the English language and become natu- 
 ralised there with some modification of form, or where 
 the person or place was commonly known in English 
 by a name derived from some other language, they 
 adopted this English equivalent, however originated. 
 Instances of English equivalents arrived at by the 
 one process are, Eve, Herod, James, John, Jude, 
 Luke, Magdalene, Mary, Peter, Pilate, Saul, Stephen, 
 Zebedee, Italy, Rome, etc.: of the other, Assyria, 
 Ethiopia, Euphrates, Idumea, Mesopotamia, Persia, 
 Syria, etc., Artaxerxes, Cyrus, Darius, etc., for Asshur, 
 Cush, Phrath, Edom, Aram-Naharaim, Pharas, Aram, 
 etc., Arta-chshashta, Coresh, Daryavesh, etc.. in the 
 Old Testament 1 , the more familiar classical forms 
 being substituted for the less familiar Hebrew; and 
 of Diana, Jupiter, Mercurius, for Artemis, Zeus, 
 Hermes, in the New the more familiar Latin being 
 
 1 In this however there is great inconsistency. Thus we have Cush 
 in Is. xi. n, but Ethiopia in xviii. i, etc. ; Edom in Is. xi. 14, Ixiii. i, 
 but Idumea in xxxiv. 5,6; Asshur in Hos. xiv. 3, but Assyria elsewhere 
 in this same prophet; Javan in Is. Ixvi. 19, but Greece or Grecia in 
 the other prophets ; and so with other words. 
 
PROPER NAMES. 165 
 
 substituted for the less familiar Greek : while in some 
 few cases, e.g. Egypt, Tyre 1 , etc., both modifying 
 influences have been at work ; the Hebrew has been 
 replaced by the Greek, and this again has been 
 Anglicised in form. In the instructions given to our 
 translators it was so ordered : ' The names of the 
 prophets and the holy writers with the other names 
 of the text to be retained as nigh as may be, 
 according as they were vulgarly used.' 
 
 With these principles no fault can be found ; 
 but the result of their application is not always 
 satisfactory. Our translators are not uniformly con- 
 sistent with themselves ; and moreover time has very 
 considerably altered the conditions of the problem 
 as it presents itself now. 
 
 (i) The first of these principles, though it com- 
 mends itself to our own age, was not allowed to pass 
 unquestioned, when first asserted. At the era of 
 the Reformation, the persons mentioned in the Old 
 Testament were commonly known (so far as they were 
 known at all) through the Septuagint and Vulgate 
 forms. Thus Ochosias stood for Ahaziah, Achab for 
 Ahab, Sobna for Shebnah, Elias for Elijah, Eliseus 
 for Elisha, Roboam for Rehoboam, Josaphat for 
 Jehoshaphat, Abdias for Obadiah, and the like. In 
 
 1 Yet 'Tyre' and 'Tyrus' are employed indifferently, and without 
 any rule, in the Old Testament. 
 
1 66 ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 Coverdale's Bible these forms are generally retained ; 
 but in the later English Versions there is a tendency 
 to substitute the Hebrew forms, or forms more nearly 
 approaching to them. 
 
 In the two Versions, which held the ground when 
 our Authorised Version was set on foot the Bishops' 
 Bible and the Geneva Bible this tendency had 
 reached the utmost limit which the English language 
 seemed to allow. In Miinster's Latin Bible indeed 
 an attempt had been made to reproduce the Hebrew 
 forms with exactness ; and accordingly the names 
 of Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel there appear as 
 Jesahiahu, Irmeiahu, and lechezchel. This extreme 
 point however was never reached by any of our 
 English translators; but still in the Geneva Bible 
 the names of the patriarchs are written Izhak and 
 laakob, and in the Bishops' Bible we meet with such 
 forms as Amariahu, Zachariahu. 
 
 This tendency was not left unassailed. Gregory 
 Martin in his attack on the 'English Bibles used 
 and authorised since the time of the schism/ published 
 at Rheims in 1582, writes as follows : 
 
 Of one thing we can by no means excuse you, but it must 
 savour vanity or novelty or both. As when you affect new 
 strange words which the people are not acquainted withal, but 
 it is rather Hebrew to them than English : fia\a o-e/twus oi/ojza- 
 Covrts, as Demosthenes speaketh, uttering with great counte- 
 nance and majesty. 'Against him came up Nabuchadnezzar, 
 
PROPER NAMES. 167 
 
 King of Babel/ 2 Par. xxxvi. 6, for ' Nabuchodonosor king of 
 Babylon'; 'Saneherib' for ' Sennacherib'; * Michaiah's pro- 
 phecy' for 'Michaea's' ; 'Jehoshaphat's prayer' for 'Josaphat's': 
 'Uzza slain' for 'Oza'; 'when Zerubbabel went about to build 
 the temple' for 'Zorobabel'; 'remember what the Lord did to 
 Miriam' for 'Marie,' Deut. xxxiv ; and in your first 1 translation 
 'Elisa' for 'Elisaeus'; 'Pekahia' and 'Pekah' for 'Phaceia' and 
 'Phacee'; 'Uziahu' for 'Ozias'; 'Thiglath-peleser' for 'Teglath- 
 phalasar'; 'Ahaziahu' for 'Ochozias'; 'Peka son of Remaliahu' 
 for 'Phacee son of Romelia.' And why say you not as well 
 'Shelomoh' for 'Salomon,' and 'Coresh' for 'Cyrus,' and so 
 alter every word from the known sound and pronunciation 
 thereof? Is this to teach the people, when you speak Hebrew, 
 rather than English? Were it goodly hearing (think you) to 
 say for 'Jesus' 'Jeshuah' ; and for 'Marie' his mother ' Miriam'; 
 and for 'Messias' 'Messiach'; and 'John' 'Jachannan'; and 
 such-like monstrous novelties? which you might as well do, 
 and the people would understand you as well, as when your 
 preachers say, ' Nabucadnezer King of Babel.' 
 
 To these charges Fulke gives this brief and sen- 
 sible reply : 
 
 Seeing the most of the proper names of the Old Testament 
 were unknown to the people before the Scriptures were read in 
 English, it was best to utter them according to the truth of their 
 pronunciation in Hebrew, rather than after the common corrup- 
 tion which they had received in the Greek and Latin tongues. 
 But as for those names which were known to the people out of 
 the New Testament, as Jesus, John, Mary, etc., it had been folly 
 
 1 i.e. the Great Bible, which was the first Bible in use after ' the 
 schism'; the edition to which Martin refers is that of 1562. The two 
 Bibles, to which Martin's strictures mostly apply, are the Genevan 
 and the Bishops', as being most commonly used when he wrote. See 
 Fulke's Defence, etc. p. 67 sq. 
 
1 68 ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 to have taught men to sound them otherwise than after the 
 Greek declination, in which we find them 1 . 
 
 The attack however was so far successful, that the 
 revisers who produced our Authorised Translation 
 seem to have adopted in each case from the current 
 Versions those forms which least offended the English 
 eye or ear, even though farther removed from the 
 Hebrew. Thus in the examples already given, they 
 write Isaac, Jacob, in preference to Izhak, laakob 
 of the Geneva Bible, and Amariah, Zachariah in 
 preference to Amariahu, Zachariahu of the Bishops'. 
 
 With the general treatment of the Old Testament 
 names I have no desire to find fault: perhaps the 
 forms in our English Bible approach as nearly to the 
 Hebrew as is desirable. But, when we compare the 
 New Testament with the Old, some important ques- 
 tions arise. 
 
 In favour of retaining the old Septuagint and 
 Vulgate forms in preference to introducing the 
 Hebrew, there was this strong argument ; that the 
 same person thus appeared under the same name in 
 the New Testament as in the Old. The English 
 reader did not need to be informed that Eliseus was 
 the same as Elisha, Ozias as Uzziah, Salathiel as 
 Shealtiel, etc. Now he has not this advantage. Even 
 
 1 Fulke's Defence of the English Translations of the Bible, p. 588 sq. 
 (Parker Society's edition). 
 
PROPER NAMES. 169 
 
 supposing that the identity of persons is recognised, 
 much unconscious misconception still remains in 
 particular cases. It is very difficult for instance for 
 an English reader, who has not read or thought on 
 the subject, to realise the fact that the Elias, whom 
 the Jews expected to appear in Messiah's days, was 
 not some weird mythical being, or some merely sym- 
 bolical person, but the veritable Elijah who lived on 
 earth, in flesh and blood, in the days of Ahab. * Let 
 us just seek to realize to ourselves/ says Archbishop 
 Trench, ' the difference in the amount of awakened 
 attention among a country congregation, which Matt, 
 xvii. 10 would create, if it were read thus: "And his 
 disciples asked him, saying, Why then say the scribes 
 that Elijah must first come ?" as compared with what 
 it now is likely to create.' And this argument 
 applies, though in a less degree, to the scene of the 
 transfiguration. It is most important, as the same 
 writer has observed, to 'keep vivid and strong the 
 relations between the Old and New Testament in 
 the minds of the great body of English hearers and 
 readers of Scripture 1 .' 
 
 I imagine that few would deny the advantage of 
 substituting the more familiar Old Testament names 
 in such cases for the less familiar Septuagint forms 
 preserved in the New ; but many more may question 
 
 1 Trench Authorized Version, p. 41. 
 
I 70 ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 whether such a substitution is legitimate, and I ven- 
 ture therefore to add a few words in defence of this 
 reform which I should wish to see introduced. 
 
 If at this point we were to invoke the second 
 principle (which has been mentioned above and will 
 be considered presently), that whenever a familiar 
 English form of a name occurs, this shall be substi- 
 tuted for the original, e.g. John for loannes, James 
 for lacobos, Mary for Mariam, this principle alone 
 would justify the change which I am advocating. For, 
 to our generation at least, the familiar English names 
 of the Old Testament personages are Elijah, Elisha, 
 Isaiah, etc. ; and therefore on this ground alone the 
 Greek forms Elias, Eliseus, Esaias, should give place 
 to them. In the i6th and I7th centuries it might be 
 a question between Esay, Esaie, Esaias, Isaiah; be- 
 tween Abdy, Abdias, Obadiah; between Jeremy, Jere- 
 mias, Jeremiah ; between Osee, Oseas, Osea, Hosea 
 (or Hoshea); between Sophony, Sophonia, Sophonias, 
 Zephaniah ; between Aggeus, Haggeus, Haggai ; and 
 the like: but now long familiarity has decided irre- 
 vocably in favour of the last forms in each case, and 
 there is every reason why the less familiar modes of 
 representing the names should give place to the more 
 familiar. But, quite independently of this considera- 
 tion of familiarity, we should merely be exercising 
 the legitimate functions of translators, if in most 
 
PROPER NAMES. 
 
 cases we were to return to the Old Testament forms. 
 For (with very few exceptions) the Greek forms repre- 
 sent the original names as nearly as the vocables 
 and the genius of the Greek language permit ; and 
 in translating it is surely allowable to neglect the 
 purely Greek features in the words. This applies 
 especially to terminations, such as Jeremias, Jonas, 
 Manasses, for Jeremiah, Jonah, Manasseh ; and in fact 
 the name Elias itself is nothing more than 'Elijah' 
 similarly formed, for the Hebrew word could not 
 have been written otherwise in Greek. It applies also 
 to the change of certain consonants. Thus a Greek 
 had no choice but to represent the sh sound by a sim- 
 ple s. Like the men of Ephraim, the Greeks could 
 not frame to pronounce the word Shibboleth right ; 
 and it is curious to observe to what straits the Alex- 
 andrian translator of the narrative in the book of 
 Judges (xii. 5, 6) is driven in his attempt to render 
 the incident into this language 1 . Remembering this, 
 we shall at once replace Cis (Acts xiii. 21) by Kish 2 , 
 and Aser (Luke ii. 36, Rev. vii. 6) by Asher ; while the 
 English reader will at length discover that the un- 
 familiar Saron, connected with the history of ^Eneas 
 
 1 He can only say flirbv 817 ffrdxy* [A has etirare Sr/ fffod-rjfj.a] Kal 06 
 KaTi>0vve [A Kal KaTrjvdvvav] rou XaX^at oCrws. 
 
 2 It is not easy to see why our translators should have written Cis, 
 Core, rather than Kis, Kore. 
 
172 ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 (Acts ix. 35), is the well-known Sharon of Old Testa- 
 ment history. Combining this principle of change 
 with the foregoing, we should restore Elisha in place 
 of Eliseus. For the Hebrew gutturals again the Greeks 
 had no equivalent, and were obliged either to omit 
 them or to substitute the nearest sound which their 
 language afforded. On this'principle they frequently 
 represented the final PI by an e 1 ; and hence the forms 
 Con?, No*?, which therefore we should without scruple 
 replace by the more familiar Korah, Noah. In the 
 middle of a word it was often represented by a %, 
 while our Old Testament translators in this and other 
 positions give an h ; and thus there is no reason why 
 Ra^ab, Ac/iaz, should stand in the New Testament 
 for Ra/zab, A/zaz in the Old. Again, the fact that 
 the aspirate, though pronounced, was never written in 
 Greek should be taken into account ; and any diverg- 
 ence from the Hebrew form which can be traced 
 to this cause might be neglected ; thus Agar, Eze- 
 kias would be replaced by Hagar, Hezekiah, and 
 Josaphat, Roboam, by Jehoshaphat, Rehoboam 2 . By 
 
 1 The genealogies at the beginning of the Books of Chronicles in the 
 LXX offer very many instances of this change. Sometimes this final e 
 represents an V or a 11. 
 
 2 For'Pcta (Heb. xi. 31, James ii. 25) our translators have boldly 
 written 'Rahab.'. While speaking of aspirates, it may be mentioned 
 that in the edition of 161 1 the normal spelling in the New Testament is 
 'Hierusalem'; the only exceptions which I have noticed being i Cor. 
 
PROPER NAMES. 173 
 
 adopting this principle of neglecting mere peculiari- 
 ties and imperfections of the Greek in the repre- 
 sentation of the Hebrew names, and thus endea- 
 vouring to reproduce the original form which has 
 undergone the modification, we should in almost 
 every important instance bring the names in the Old 
 and New Testament into conformity with each other. 
 A very few comparatively trifling exceptions would 
 still remain, where the Greek form cannot be so ex- 
 plained. These might be allowed to stand ; or if the 
 identity of the person signified was beyond question 
 (e.g. Aram and Ram), the Old Testament form might 
 be replaced in the text, and the Greek form given 
 in the margin. 
 
 (2) The second of the two principles, which were 
 enunciated above as guiding our English translators, 
 also requires some consideration. 
 
 Under this head the inconsistency of our Author- 
 ised Version will need correction, for it is incapable 
 of defence. If the prophet was to be called Osee 1 
 
 xvi. 3, Gal. i. 17, 18, ii. i, iv. 25, 26, Heb. xii. 22, and the headings of 
 some chapters (e.g. Acts xxi, Rev. xxi), where 'Jerusalem' appears. 
 On the other hand in the Old Testament it is 'Jerusalem,' though 
 'Hierusalem' occurs in the heading of 2 Sam. xiv. 
 
 1 It may be questioned whether this word should be pronounced as a 
 dissyllable, the double e being regarded as an English termination as in 
 Zebedee, Pharisee, etc., or as a trisyllable, the word being considered 
 as a reproduction of the Greek 'fl<r?^. 
 
 On the other hand there can, I think, be no doubt that the modern 
 
174 ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 in the New Testament (Rom. ix. 25), there is no 
 reason why he should have remained Hosea in the 
 Old. If the country appears as Greece in Zechariah 
 (ix. 13) and in the Acts (xx. 2), why should it be 
 named Grecia in the book of Daniel (viii. 21, x. 20, 
 xi. 2) ? If the inhabitants of this country are Greeks 
 in the New Testament, why should they be Grecians 
 in the Old (Joel iii. 6) 1 ? If Mark is substituted for 
 Marcus in some passages (Acts xii. 12, 25, xv. 39, 
 
 fashion of pronouncing the final e of Magdalene, as though it represented 
 the 77 of the original, is erroneous. The word is far older than the 
 translations made from the Greek in the i6th and i7th centuries, and 
 came from the Latin. Though in the A. V. (1611) the spelling is 
 always ' Magdalene,' yet in the earlier Versions it is indifferently 
 Magdalen and Magdalene. Wycliffe writes it ' Mawdeleyn' a pronun- 
 ciation which has survived in the names of our Colleges and in the 
 adjective 'maudlin.' There is no more reason for sounding the last 
 letter in Magdalene, than in Urbane (Rom. xvi. 9). 
 
 This last word is printed ' Urbane,' in all the early editions of the 
 A.V. which I have consulted (1611, 1612, 1617, 1629, 1630, 1637). 
 On the other hand the earlier Versions without exception, so far as I 
 have noticed, have ' Urban ' or ' Urbanus.' In the Authorised Version 
 (1611) these final ^'s were common; thus we find Hebrewe, Jewe, 
 Marke, Romane, Samaritane, etc. 
 
 1 In the New Testament 'Grecian' is reserved for'EXXijvur-nJj, while 
 'Greek' represents "EXX^. This distinction is good, as far as it goes ; 
 but in order to convey any idea to an English reader 'EXX^taT^s should 
 be translated by ' Grecian Jew ' or by some similar phrase. 
 
 As"EXX^ is translated 'Gentile' without hesitation elsewhere (e.g. 
 I Cor. x. 32, xii. 13), it is strange that this rendering is not adopted 
 for 'EXXrjj'fc, where it would have avoided an apparent contradiction, 
 Mark vii. 26 'A Greek, a Syrophenician by nation.' 
 
PROPER NAMES. 1/5 
 
 2 Tim. iv. 1 1), why should Marcus have been allowed to 
 stand in others (Col. iv. 10, Philem. 24, I Pet. v. 13)? 
 Nay, so far does this inconsistency go, that Jeremy 
 and Jeremias occur in the same Gospel (Matt. ii. 17, 
 xvi. 14) : Luke and Lucas in two companion Epistles 
 sent at the same time, from the same place, arid to 
 the same destination (Col. iv. 14, Philem. 24); and 
 Timothy and Timotheus in the same chapter of the 
 same Epistle (2 Cor. i. i, 19). In all these cases the 
 form which is now the most familiar should be 
 consistently adopted. This rule would substitute 
 Jeremiah for Jeremy, but on the other hand it would 
 prefer Mark to Marcus. At the same time both 
 Cretes (Acts ii. ii) and Cretians (Tit. i. 12) would 
 disappear, and Cretans take their place. 
 
 This principle, if consistently carried out, would 
 rule one very important example. Familiar usage, 
 which requires that the name JESUS should be re- 
 tained when it designates the most sacred Person of 
 all, no less imperatively demands that Joshua shall 
 be substituted when the great captain of Israel and 
 conqueror of Palestine is intended. For the same 
 reason we speak of the Patriarch as Jacob and the 
 Apostle as James ; of the sister of Moses as Miriam, 
 and the mother of the Lord as Mary. It so happens 
 that both the passages in which the name Jesus de- 
 signates the Israelite captain (Acts vii. 45, Heb. iv. 8) 
 
176 ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 are more or less 'obscure either from difficulties in 
 the context or from defects of translation ; and the 
 endless confusion, which is created in the minds of 
 the uneducated by the retention of this form, is a 
 matter of everyday experience. 
 
 This last example leads me to speak of another 
 point. There can be little doubt that, when the same 
 person is intended, the same form should be adopted 
 throughout. But what should be done, when the 
 name which has a familiar English form applies to 
 unfamiliar persons ? Thus the English John corre- 
 sponds to the Greek 'Icoavr)? or 'Ia>dvvTjs, and to the 
 Hebrew Jehohanan or Johanan (pnirV or pPlV). 
 Are we then in every case to substitute John, where 
 either the Greek or the Hebrew form occurs ? No 
 one would think of displacing John the Baptist, or 
 John the son of Zebedee, or John surnamed Mark. 
 But what are we to do with the Old Testament per- 
 sonages bearing this name ? What with those who 
 are mentioned in S. Luke's genealogy, where appa- 
 rently the name occurs more than once in forms more 
 or less disguised (iii. 24 (?), 27, 30)? What with 
 John i. 42, xxi. 15, 16, 17, where our English Version 
 gives ' Simon son of Jona/ but where the true reading 
 in the original is doubtless 'ladvov ? I do not know 
 that any universal rule can be laid down ; but pro- 
 bably the practice, adopted by our translators, of 
 
PROPER NAMES. 177 
 
 reproducing the name when it occurs in the Hebrew 
 form, and translating it when in the Greek, would be 
 generally approved. Yet perhaps an exception might 
 be made of John i. 42, xxi. 15, 16, 17, where it is 
 advisable either in the text or in the margin to show 
 the connexion of form with the JSapiayva of Matt 
 xvi. 17*. Again, in the English Version there is the 
 
 1 This form 'Iowa may represent two distinct Hebrew names: (i) !"I3V 
 'A dove,' the prophet's name, Jonah: (2) pill* 'The grace of Jehovah,' 
 Johanan or John. This last is generally written 'luavdv or 'ludvrjs (the 
 form 'ludwrjs with the double v has inferior support). Contracted it 
 becomes 'Iwvav or 'Iwra, the first a being liable to be slurred over in 
 pronunciation, because the Hebrew accent falls on the last syllable. 
 For 'Iwvdv see i Chron. xii. 12 (A, Iwav K), xxvi. 3 (A), Neh. vi. 18 
 (B), Ezra x. 6 (X corr. from Iwavav), i Esdr. ix. i (B), Luke iii. 27 
 (v. 1.), iii. 30 (v. 1.); for 'Iwra, i Kings xxv. 23 (B), Luke iii. 30 (v. 1.). 
 Thus the vios 'Iwavov of S. John is equivalent to the Bapiwj/a of S. 
 Matthew. The longer form of the name of S. Peter's father was pre- 
 served also in the Gospel of the Hebrews, as we learn from a marginal 
 note in an early cursive MS (see Tischendorf, Notit. Cod. Sin. p. 58) 
 on Matt. xvi. 17, 'Bapiwva TO 'lovdauov vlt 'Iwdvvov; and in an extant 
 fragment inserted in the Latin translation of Origen in Matt. xix. 19 
 (ill. p. 671 sq., ed. Delarue), but omitted in the Greek, we read 
 * Simon fili Joanne, facilius est camelum etc.' From not understanding 
 that the two are forms of the same name, some harmonizer devised the 
 statement which we find in a list of Apostles preserved in the Paris 
 MSS Reg. 1789, 1026 (quoted by Cotelier, Pair. Apost. I. p. 275), Ilefi-pos 
 K(d 'AvSptas d5e\(poi, K Trarpbs 'luvd, /j.i)Tp<!)s 'Itaavva, or as it is otherwise 
 read CK irarpos 'ludvvov, nijrpbs 'lavas. Our Lord seems to allude to 
 the meaning of the word in Matt. xvi. 17 'Blessed art thou, Simon 
 Bar Jona (Son of the Grace of God), for flesh and blood did not reveal 
 it unto thee, but my Father which is in heaven.' There is probably a 
 similar allusion in all the passages in S. John. 
 
 L. R. 12 
 
Ij ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 greatest confusion in the forms of another name, Ju- 
 dah, Judas, Juda, Jude. Thus the patriarch is called 
 both Juda and Judah in the same context (Heb. vii. 
 14, viii. 8), and Judas and Juda in parallel narratives 
 (Matt. i. 2, 3, Luke iii. 33) : and again, the brother of 
 Jesus is called Judas in one Evangelist (Matt xiii. 
 55) and Juda in another (Mark vi. 3). The principle 
 of familiarity suggests Jude for the writer of the 
 Epistle; Judah for the patriarch and the tribe and 
 country named from him ; and Judas for Iscariot and 
 for the other less known persons bearing the name; 
 while Juda, which occurs for the patriarch or tribe 
 (Luke iii. 33, Heb. vii. 14, Rev. v. 5, vii. 5) and the 
 country (Matt. ii. 6, Luke i. 39), as well as for other 
 unknown persons (Luke iii. 26 (?), 30), ought to dis- 
 appear wholly. And so far as regards Judah and Judas, 
 it would be well to follow this principle ; but, when 
 the name is used of the author of the Epistle, though 
 Jude might (if it were thought fit) be retained in the 
 title, yet Judas should be substituted for Jude in the 
 opening verse, so as not to preclude the identification 
 of this person with the Lord's brother (which is highly 
 probable), or again with his namesake in S. Luke's 
 lists of the Apostles (which has commended itself to 
 many). 
 
 An error greater than any hitherto mentioned is 
 the rendering of the female name Euodia (Evo&uav 
 
PROPER NAMES. 179 
 
 Phil. iv. 2) by the masculine Euodias 1 ; while con- 
 versely it seems probable that we should render the 
 name *lovvlav, one of S. Paul's kinsfolk, who was 
 ' noted among the Apostles' (Rom. xvi. 7), by Junias 
 (i.e. Junianus), not Junia. 
 
 Whether in certain cases a name should be re- 
 tained or translated, will be a matter of question ; 
 but no defence can be offered for the inconsistency of 
 retaining ' Areopagus' in Acts xvii. 19 and rendering 
 it ' Mars-hill' three verses below. Nor again is there 
 any reason why /cpavlov TOTTO? should be translated 
 ' A (or the) place of a skull' in three Gospels (Matt, 
 xxvii. 33, Mark xv. 22, John xix. 17), and 6 TOTTO? 
 6 Ka\ovfjievo<; icpaviov ' The place which is called Cal- 
 vary* in the fourth (Luke xxiii. 33) 2 . In all places 
 where it is possible, the practice of rendering seems to 
 be preferable; and by the * Three Taverns' a fresh 
 touch is added to the picture of S. Paul's journey 
 (Acts xxviii. 15), which' would have been yet more 
 vivid if consistently therewith our translators had 
 rendered 'ATTTT/OU 3>6pov ' The Market of Appius/ as 
 it stands in the Geneva Version 3 . / 
 
 1 See above, p. 142. 
 
 2 The word 'Jewry' which was common in the older Versions for 
 Judah or Judaea, has almost disappeared in the Authorised Version of 
 the New Testament, but still remains in two passages (Luke xxiii. 5, 
 John vii. i). In Dan. v. 13 'The children of the captivity of Judah, 
 whom the king my father brought out of Jewry,' the same word in the 
 original is rendered both 'Judah' and 'Jewry.' 
 
 3 Another fault is the rendering both Qoivil;, the haven of Crete 
 
 12 2 
 
l8o ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 The question between reproduction and transla- 
 tion becomes more important when we turn from 
 proper names to official titles and technical terms, 
 such as weights, measures, and the like. In the Old 
 Testament our translators have frequently adopted 
 the former principle, e.g. bath, cor, ephah, etc. : in the 
 New, they almost universally adhere to the latter. 
 
 In a Version which aims at being popular rather 
 than literary, the latter course seems to be amply 
 justified 1 . Yet, when the principle is conceded, the 
 application is full of difficulty. The choice very 
 often lies between giving a general expression which 
 
 (Acts xxvii. 12), and ^oivlmj, the country of Phoenicia (Acts xi. 19, 
 xv. 3), by the same word 'Phenice' (after the Bishops' and Geneva 
 Bibles); while conversely $oivtKr) has two different renderings, 'Phenice' 
 (xi. 19, xv. 3), and 'Phenicia' (xxi. 2). The older Versions generally, 
 as late as the Great Bible, have 'Phenices' or 'Phenyces' for both words. 
 Did our translators intend the final e of 'Phenice,' when it represents 
 Phtenix, to be mute, on the analogy of Beatrix, Beatrice ? 
 
 1 At all events, whichever course is adopted, it should be carried out 
 consistently. Thus there is no reason why 'Papfil should be sometimes 
 reproduced in the English Version (Matt, xxiii. 7, 8, John i. 38, 49, 
 iii. 2, 26, vi. 25) and sometimes rendered 'Master' (Matt. xxvi. 25, 49, 
 Mark ix. 5, xi. 21, xiv. 45, John iv. 31, ix. 2, xi. 8), or in like manner 
 why 'Papfiovvl, which only occurs twice, should be once translated 
 'Lord' (Mark x. 51) and once retained (John xx. 16). 
 
 In the same way the word 7rdcr%a, which is generally rendered 'Pass- 
 over,' is represented once and only once by 'Easter.' (Acts xii. 4). 
 This is a remnant of the earlier Versions in which iraaxa. is commonly 
 translated so, even in such passages as Luke xxii. i ^ eoprr) TUV atf/Aw 
 77 \eyo/j.tvij TrctVxa 'which is called Easter,' where however the Geneva 
 and Bishops' Bibles substitute * Passover.' 
 
OFFICIAL TITLES. iSl 
 
 conveys no very definite idea, and adopting some 
 technical term which is precise enough to the English 
 ear but suggests a conception more or less at variance 
 with the original. 
 
 How, for instance, are we to treat dvOvTraros ? 
 Wycliffe reproduced the Latin ' proconsul.' The 
 earlier Versions of the Reformed Church generally 
 give * ruler of the country/ ' ruler.' The Authorised 
 Version adopts the rendering of the Geneva and 
 Bishops' Bibles, 'deputy of the country/ * deputy.' 
 This last has now nothing to recommend it. In the 
 1 6th century, when the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland was 
 styled Deputy, the word would convey a sufficiently 
 precise idea; but now it suggests a wrong conception, 
 if it suggests any at all. What sense, for instance, 
 can an English reader attach to the words * The law 
 is open, and there are deputies' (Acts xix. 38), which 
 in the Authorised Version are given as the rendering 
 of dyopaioi dyovrai, 1 KOI dvOvTraroi ela-w? The term 
 which in the iQth century corresponds most nearly 
 to the deputy of the i6th is lieutenant-governor, and 
 indeed the Geneva Testament did in one passage 
 
 1 Why the slovenly translation 'the law is open' should have been 
 allowed to remain it is difficult to see. In the margin our translators 
 suggest 'the court days are kept.' They would have earned our 
 gratitude if in this and other cases they had acted with more boldness 
 and placed in the text the more correct renderings which they have been 
 content to suggest in the margin. 
 
1 82 ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 (Acts xviii. 12) translate avdviraTos by 'lieutenant of 
 the country/ but this rendering was dropped in the 
 Geneva Bible, and not taken up again. To this pre- 
 cise language however exception might be taken ; 
 and if so, we should be obliged to fall back on some 
 general term, such as ' governor,' 'chief-magistrate/ 
 or the like. With the rendering of 7/)a/z//,areu9, ' town- 
 clerk/ in Acts xix. 35, I should not be disposed to 
 find fault, for it is difficult to suggest a more exact 
 equivalent. In the context of the same passage how- 
 ever (ver. 31) an English reader would not understand 
 that the 'rulers of Asia' were officers appointed to 
 preside at the festivals, and perhaps 'presidents of 
 Asia' might be substituted with advantage (for the 
 word occurs in the English Bible), though it is im- 
 possible entirely to remove an obscurity which exists 
 also in the Greek 'Acrta/)^?. In Rom. xvi. 23 the 
 substitution of 'treasurer' for 'chamberlain' in the 
 rendering of 6 oi/covofjios rrjs TroXew? would be an im- 
 provement 1 ; for ' treasurer ' again is a good Biblical 
 word, and we do not use 'chamberlain' to describe 
 such an officer as is here intended 2 . 
 
 On the whole however the rendering of official 
 titles in our Version is fairly adequate and cannot be 
 
 1 Wycliffe has 'treasurer,' the Rheims Version 'cofferer': while 
 the Versions of the Reformed Church render it ' chamberlain. ' 
 
 3 Perhaps I ought to except the Chamberlain of the Gty of London. 
 
OFFICIAL TITLES. 183 
 
 much improved. If there is occasionally some incon- 
 sistency and want of method, as for instance when 
 is translated ' chief-captain' and e/caTovrap- 
 reproduced as 'centurion' in the same context 1 
 (Acts xxi. 31, 32, xxii. 24 26, xxiii. 17 23), still 
 these renderings have established a prescriptive right, 
 and an adequate reason must be shown for disturbing 
 them. In Acts xvi. 35, 38 paftSovxot, 'lictors' is well 
 rendered 'sergeants'; and in xxviii. 16 the translation 
 of o-TpaT07reBdp%7js, the praefectus praetorio^ as 'captain 
 of the guard' is a great improvement on the less 
 precise renderings of the earlier Versions ; ' chief- 
 captain of the host' (Tyndale, Great Bible, Bishops'), 
 'chief-captain' (Coverdale), 'general captain' (Geneva); 
 and with the addition of one word might very well 
 stand, ' chief-captain (or captain-general) of the guard.' 
 On the other hand in Mark vi. 27 GTretcovXaTcop, which 
 signifies ' a soldier of the guard,' should not have been 
 rendered 'executioner' (in the earlier Versions it is 
 ' hangman'), for this term describes a mere accident of 
 
 his office. 
 * 
 
 But if official titles are on the whole fairly ren- 
 dered, this is not the case with another class of 
 technical terms, denoting coins, weights, and measures. 
 
 As regards coins, the smaller pieces are more 
 
 1 Some of the older Versions translate the words * upper ' or ' high 
 captain,' and 'under captain,' respectively. 
 
184 ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 adequately translated than the larger. No better 
 rendering than 'mite' is possible for XeTrroV, or than 
 * farthing' for KO^PCLVT^ 'quadrans'; and the relation 
 of the two coins is thus preserved (Mark xii. 42 Xe-Trra 
 &vo, o eariv /coSpdvTrjs). But from this point the inade- 
 quacy and inconsistency begin. Why dao-dpiov, the 
 late Greek diminutive used for the as, of which there- 
 fore the KoSpdvTT]? is a fourth part, should still be 
 translated a farthing*- (which elsewhere represents 
 Ko^pdvnr]^) rather than a penny, it is difficult to see 
 (Matt. x. 29, Luke xii. 6). And, as we advance in 
 the scale, the disproportion between the value of the 
 original coin and the English substitute increases. 
 Thus the denarius, a silver piece of the value origi- 
 nally of ten and afterwards of sixteen asses, is always 
 rendered a penny. Its absolute value, as so much 
 weight in metal, is as nearly as possible the same as 
 the French franc. Its relative value, as a purchasing 
 power, in an age and a country where provisions were 
 much cheaper, was considerably more. Now, it so 
 happens that in almost every case where the word 
 &7)vdpi,ov occurs in the New Testament it is connected 
 with the idea of a liberal or large amount ; and yet 
 in these passages the English rendering names a sum 
 
 1 In Matth. x. 29 the Geneva Testament (1557) had rendered 
 dwapiov by a half-penny (as Wycliffe), and similarly 5vo aVad/ata in 
 Luke xii. 6 by a penny. The rest give it ' a farthing,' as in the A. V. 
 
COINS, WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 185 
 
 which is absurdly small. Thus the Good Samaritan, 
 whose generosity is intended to appear throughout, 
 on leaving takes out 'two pence' and gives them to 
 the innkeeper to supply the further wants of the 
 wounded man. Thus again the owner of the vine- 
 yard, whose liberality is contrasted with the niggardly 
 envious spirit, the * evil eye' of others, gives, as a 
 day's wages, a penny to each man. It is unnecessary 
 to ask what impression the mention of this sum will 
 leave on the minds of an uneducated peasant or shop- 
 keeper of the present day. Even at the time when 
 our Version was made and when wages were lower, 
 it must have seemed wholly inadequate 1 . The in- 
 adequacy again appears, though not so prominently, 
 in the two hundred pence, the sum named as insuf- 
 ficient to supply bread to the five thousand (Mark vi. 
 37, John vi. 7), and similarly in other cases (e.g. 
 Mark xiv. 5, John xii. 5, Luke vii. 41). Lastly, 
 in the Book of the Revelation (vi. 6) the announce- 
 ment, which in the original implies famine prices, 
 
 1 The rendering 'a penny* was probably handed down in this familiar 
 parable from the time when this sum would be no inadequate remunera- 
 tion for a day's labour ; but long before the Versions of the Reformed 
 Church were made this had ceased to be the case. Even in Henry 
 the VIHth's reign a labourer earned from sixpence to eightpence a 
 day (Froude I. p. 29 sq.) ; though after the Restoration the rate of 
 wages does not seem to have advanced much upon this amount (see 
 Macaulay I. p. 413). 
 
1 86 ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 is rendered in our English Version, 'A measure of 
 wheat for a penny, and three measures of barley 
 for a penny.' The fact is that the word ^olvi^, 
 here translated 'measure/ falls below the amount 
 of a quart, while the word Syvdpiov, here trans- 
 lated 'a penny,' approaches towards the value of 
 a shilling. To the English reader the words must 
 convey the idea of enormous plenty 1 . Another word 
 drachma occurs in the parable of the lost money in 
 S. Luke xv. 8, 9, where it is translated piece of silver. 
 Yet the Greek drachma is so nearly equal in value 
 to the Roman denarius, that it may be questioned 
 whether the same coin is not meant by both terms 2 ; 
 and, if piece of silver or silver-piece is a reasonable 
 translation of drachma, it might very well be em- 
 ployed to render denarius. Again, in the incident 
 relating to the tribute-money (Matt. xvii. 24 sq.) 
 mention is made of two different coins or sums of 
 money, the didrachma and the stater, the latter being 
 
 1 A * measure ' in some parts of England is or was equivalent to a 
 Winchester bushel. At all events it would suggest a large rather than 
 a small quantity. 
 
 2 See Plin. N.H. xxi. 109 'Drachma Attica denarii argentei habet 
 pondus.' This parable does not occur in S. Matthew and S. Mark, 
 and must have been derived by S. Luke from some independent 
 source. Hence, as addressing Greek readers chiefly, he would not 
 unnaturally name a Greek coin in preference. Similarly it was seen 
 above (p. 1 24) that 6piv^ is confined to S. Luke in that portion of his 
 narrative which does not run parallel with the other two Evangelists. 
 
COINS, WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 187 
 
 double of the former; and this relation of value is 
 important, and should have been preserved if possible, 
 because it explains our Lord's words, 'Take it (the 
 stater) and give unto them for me and for thee! In 
 our Version however didrachma is rendered ' tribute- 
 money, tribute/ and stater 'a piece of money.' Of 
 larger amounts mina (fjLva) is translated a 'pound' 
 in one parable (Luke xix. 13)*; while in two others 
 (Matt, xviii. 24 sq., xxv. 14 sq.) talent is allowed 
 to stand. From the latter of these comes the second- 
 ary metaphorical sense of the word ' talent/ which has 
 entirely superseded the literal meaning in common 
 language. 
 
 The treatment of measures again is extremely 
 loose. The ^erp^r^ indeed is fairly rendered ' firkin* 
 in John ii. 6; and the modius appears as 'bushel' (Matt. 
 v. 15, Mark iv. 21, Luke xi. 33), where the English 
 measure, though greatly in excess of the Latin, which 
 is about a peck, may nevertheless remain undisturbed, 
 since nothing depends on exactness. With these ex- 
 ceptions, the one word ' measure' is made to do duty 
 for all the terms which occur in the original. Thus 
 in Rev. vi. 6, already quoted, it stands for a 
 
 1 The Wycliffite Versions have 'besaunt* for (tva here ; but the care- 
 lessness with which the word is used appears from the fact that they 
 employ it also to render drachma on the one hand (Luke xv. 8) and 
 lalcntum on the other (Matt, xviii. 24 (v. 1.), xxv. 16). 
 
1 88 ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 something under a quart; and in other passages it 
 represents not less than three Hebrew measures, the 
 o-arov or seah (Matt. xiii. 33, Luke xiii. 21), the /Saro?, 
 the bath or ephah, and the /copos, the cor or homer 
 (both in Luke xvi. 6, 7), though the seah is one-third 
 of the bath, and the bath one-tenth of the cor. In the 
 former of these two passages from the Gospels accu- 
 racy is unimportant, for the ' three measures of meal' 
 in the parable will tell their tale equally, whatever 
 may be the contents of the measure : though even 
 here we may regret that our translators deserted the 
 more precise ' peck,' which they found in some of the 
 older Versions. But in Luke xvi. 6, 7, where the 
 bath and the cor are mentioned in the same context, 
 they should certainly be distinguished. The icopot, 
 alrov might very well be rendered 'quarters of wheat* 
 with Tyndale and several of the older Versions. 
 For the fta-roi ekaLov it is more difficult to find an 
 equivalent : Wycliffe renders /Sarou? by ' barrels'; the 
 Rheims Version by 'pipes.' In Rev. vi. 6 it is still 
 more important to aim at precision, because the ex- 
 tremity of the famine only appears when the proper 
 relation between the measure and the price is pre- 
 served. Here %otwf might very well be translated 
 <a quart.' 
 
ARCHAISMS. 1 89 
 
 This discussion has been occupied hitherto with 
 questions affecting the correctness of our Version, as 
 representing the Greek. It remains to consider the 
 English in itself, as a literary production rather than 
 as a translation, and to ask how far it is capable of 
 amendment from this point of view. 
 
 And here I certainly am not disposed to dissent 
 from the universal verdict, in which those least dis- 
 posed to stubborn conservatism have most heartily 
 concurred, and which has been reasserted only the 
 more emphatically since the question of revision was 
 started. But those who have studied our English 
 Version most carefully, and therefore have entered 
 most fully into its singular merits, will be the least 
 disposed to deny that here and there the reviser's 
 hand may be employed with advantage. 
 
 Under this head the archaisms demand to be 
 considered first. Whatever may have been the feel- 
 ing in generations past, there is no disposition in the 
 present age to alter the character of our Version. 
 The stately rhythm and the archaic colouring are 
 alike sacred in the eyes of all English-speaking peo- 
 ples. On the other hand it must be borne in mind 
 that our Version addresses itself not to archaeolo- 
 gists and critics, but to plain folk. And these two 
 
ERRORS AND DEFECTS 
 
 considerations combined should guide the pen of the 
 reviser. So long as an archaism is intelligible, let it 
 by all means be retained. If it is misleading or am- 
 biguous or inarticulate, the time for removing it has 
 come. 
 
 As examples of innocent archaisms we might 
 quote 'bewray,' 'despite/ 'list,' 'strait,' 'travail,' 
 'twain/ and hundreds of others. Whether it would 
 be necessary to wring the heart of the archaeologist 
 by removing 'all to brake' and 'earing/ we need 
 not stop to consider, as they do not occur in the 
 New Testament. 
 
 If on the other hand I were asked to point out a 
 guilty archaism, I should lay my finger at once on 
 the translation of iiepipvav in Matt. vi. 25, 31, 34, fj,ij 
 /jLpi/j,vaT6 ry Tjrv%y vfjLoov TI <f)aryr)T6 ' Take no thought 
 for your life, what ye shall eat/ ^ /j,epi/j,vr)(7r)Te \eyov- 
 T69 rl (frcvycojjLev f Take no thought saying What shall 
 we eat ?', /JLIJ {jLepi/jLvrjo-fiTe els rrjv avpiov ' Take no 
 thought for the morrow.' I have heard of a political 
 economist alleging this passage as an objection to 
 the moral teaching of the Sermon on the Mount on 
 the ground that it encouraged, nay commanded, a 
 reckless neglect of the future. I have known of 
 cases in which scrupulous consciences have been 
 troubled by language seeming to condemn their 
 most reasonable acts of care and forethought ; of 
 
ARCHAISMS. IQI 
 
 others in which religious persons have been misled by 
 this paramount authority (as it seemed to be) into a 
 systematic improvidence. A knowledge of the Greek 
 would have shown that it is not reasonable fore- 
 thought but distress and anxiety about the future 
 which our Lord forbids; for this, and not less than 
 this, is the force of pepLiiva, as may be seen from 
 such passages as I Pet. v. 7 iraaav rrjv fj,epi,fjivav vputv 
 liriptyavres ITT CIVTOV, on avra> fjie\6i> irepl VJJLCOV, 
 where the distinction of fj,epifj,va and /xeXetz/ is signi- 
 ficant, though effaced in our English Version, * Cast- 
 ing all your care upon Him, for He careth for you.' 
 A study of English archaisms again would have 
 taught that our translators did not intend what 
 they seem to say, for to 'take thought' in the old 
 language meant to distress or trouble oneself 1 . But 
 the great mass of people have neither the time nor 
 the opportunity, even if they had the capacity, for 
 such investigations. This archaism therefore is one 
 which at all hazards should disappear in any revision 
 of the English Bible. For 'take no thought' some 
 have suggested ' be not careful.' But this, though an 
 improvement, is very far from adequate. For careful- 
 
 1 *.. i Sam. ix. 5, 'Come, and let us return, lest my father.. .ta&r 
 thought for us,' where the Hebrew verb is JN1, which Gesenius renders 
 sollicilus fuit, anxie timuit. 'To die of thought' in the old language 
 was to die heart-broken. On this archaism see Trench Authorized 
 Version p. 14, Wright Bible Word- Book s. v. 
 
I Q2 ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 ness, though in the i6th and i/th centuries it might 
 be a term of reproof 1 , in the modern language almost 
 always implies commendation. In fact it is an archa- 
 ism open to the same misapprehension, though not 
 to the same degree, as ' take no thought.' ' Be not 
 anxious' or 'be not troubled' would adequately ex- 
 press the original. The word 'anxious/ it is true, 
 does not occur in our English Bible, but this is one 
 of those rare instances where our new revisers might 
 well assume the liberty, which the authors of the 
 Received Version certainly claimed and exercised 
 before them, of introducing a new word, where the 
 language has shifted and no old word conveys the 
 exact meaning. 
 
 But though ' take no thought' is the worst offender 
 of all, yet other archaisms might with advantage be 
 removed. We may suspect that many an English- 
 man, when he hears of Zacharias ' asking for a writing 
 table (Luke i. 63),' conceives a notion very different 
 from the Evangelist's own meaning. We have heard 
 how the enquiring school-boy has been perplexed at 
 
 1 In fact it is used more than once to translate this very word ptpi/jLva, 
 e.g. i Cor. vii. 32 *I would have you without carefulness,' i.e. anxiety 
 (0Au> u/uas a/j.epi(jLt>ov$ etvai) ; Phil. iv. 6 'Be careful for nothing' (/ji.r)dev 
 
 Latimer Serni. p. 400 (quoted in Wright's Bible Word-Book s. v.) 
 speaks of ' this wicked carefulness,' an expression which in the modern 
 language would be a contradiction in terms. 
 
ARCHAISMS. 193 
 
 reading that S. Paul and his companions 'fetched a 
 compass' when they set sail from Syracuse (Acts 
 xxviii. 13), not being able to reconcile this statement 
 with the date given for the invention of this instru- 
 ment. We can well imagine that not a few members 
 of an average congregation, when the incident in the 
 synagogue at Nazareth is read and they hear that 
 the book, when closed, is handed 'to the minister 9 
 (Luke iv. 20), do not carry away quite the correct 
 idea of the person intended by this expression. We 
 must have misgivings whether our Lord's injunction 
 to the disciples to 'take no scrip' with them, or 
 S. Luke's statement that the Apostle's company 
 ' took up their carriages and went up to Jerusalem ' 
 (Acts xxi. 15), are universally understood. We may 
 feel quite certain that the great majority of readers 
 do not realise the fact (for how should they?) that 
 by the highest and the lowest rooms in the parable 
 are meant merely the places or seats 1 at the top or 
 bottom of the same table, and that therefore the invi- 
 tation to ' go up higher ' does not imply mounting a 
 staircase to a more dignified reception-room in the 
 upper storey. We find that even a scholarly divine" 
 
 1 Again in i Cor. xiv. 16 ' He that occupieth the room of the un- 
 learned,' a double archaism obscures the sense of the original 6 
 avatrX-rjpwv TOV rbirov * He that fillet h the place? 
 
 2 Blunt Church of the First Three Centuries p. 27 'She was to have 
 
 L. R. 13 
 
194 ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 seems to infer from S. Paul's language (i Tim. v. 4) 
 the duty incumbent not only on children but even on 
 nephews of providing for their aged relations ; and 
 finding this we can hardly expect illiterate persons 
 to know that in the old language nepJuw signifies 
 grandchild. 
 
 Among these misleading archaisms the word coast 
 for ' border ' or ' region ' is perhaps the most frequent. 
 It would be unreasonable to expect the English 
 reader to understand that when S. Paul passes 
 * through the upper coasts ' (ra dvcorepi/ca pep'n) on his 
 way to Ephesus (Acts xix. i ), he does in fact traverse 
 the high land which lies in the interior of Asia Minor. 
 Again in the Gospels, when he reads of our Lord 
 visiting * the coasts of Tyre and Sidon ' (Matt. xv. 21, 
 Mark vii. 31), he naturally thinks of the sea-board, 
 knowing these to be maritime cities, whereas the 
 word in one passage stands for pepy 'parts,' and in 
 the other for opua ' borders,' and the circumstances 
 suggest rather the eastern than the western frontier 
 of the region. And perhaps also his notions of the 
 geography of Palestine may be utterly confused by 
 reading that Capernaum is situated 'upon the sea- 
 coast' (Matt. iv. 13). 
 
 Then again, how is such a person to know that 
 
 none of those children able to minister to her nor yet nephews'; see 
 Trench's Authorized Version p. [8. 
 
ARCHAISMS. 195 
 
 when S. Paul condemns ' debate ' together with envy, 
 wrath, murder, and the like (Rom. i. 29, 2 Cor. xii. 
 20), he denounces not discussion, but contention, strife 
 (e/o*?); or that when he says, 'If any man have a 
 quarrel against any' (Col. iii. 13), he means a com- 
 plaint (querela), the original being exy pop$r)v ; or 
 that, when S. James writes ' Grudge not one against 
 another' (v. 9), the word signifies 'murmur' or 'be- 
 moan ' (o-rei/afere) ? Even if he is aware that ' wicked 
 lewdness* (Acts xviii. 14) does not signify gross sen- 
 suality, will he also know conversely that by ' the 
 hidden things of dishonesty ' (2 Cor. iv. 2) the Apostle 
 means not fraudulence, want of probity, but 'secret 
 deeds of shame* (alaxvvTjs) ? If context and common 
 sense alike teach him that the ' highmindedness' which 
 S. Paul more than once condemns (y"fyr)\o$poveiv, 
 Rom. xi. 20, I Tim. vi. 17; rerv^wfievoi, 2 Tim. iii. 4) 
 is not what we commonly understand by the term, 
 will he also perceive that the ' maliciousness' which 
 is denounced alike by S. Paul (Rom. i. 29 ' filled with 
 maliciousness') and S. Peter (i Pet. ii. 16 'not using 
 your liberty for a cloak of maliciousness') does not 
 denote one special form of evil, but the vicious cha- 
 racter generally (/caicla) ? 
 
 Again, the expressions instantly and by and by 
 may be taken in connexion, as being nearly allied. 
 Yet in Biblical language neither signifies what it 
 
 132 
 
196 ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 would signify to ourselves. Instantly has not a tem- 
 poral sense at all, but means 'urgently,' as in Luke vii. 
 4, 'They besought him instantly (o-7rou&u&)<?)': while 
 on the other hand by and by, having a temporal sense, 
 denotes not deferred but immediate action, standing 
 most frequently for evQvs or evOecos and therefore cor- 
 responding to the modern sense of instantly. Thus 
 in the Greek of the parable of the sower the instan- 
 taneous welcome of the word has its counterpart in 
 the instantaneous apostasy under persecution (Matt, 
 xiii. 2O, 2l) evQvs pera xapa? \a^avwv avrov, ev6i><? 
 cr/cav$akieTai, ; but in the English Version this ap- 
 pears, ' Anon with joy receiveth it/ * By and by he is 
 offended ' ; where partly through the archaisms and 
 partly through the change of words the expressiveness 
 of the original is seriously blunted. 
 
 The passage last quoted contains another archa- 
 ism, which is a type of a whole class. Words derived 
 from the Latin and other foreign languages being 
 comparatively recent had very frequently not arrived 
 at their ultimate sense when our Version was made, 
 and were more liable to shift their meaning than 
 others. We have witnessed this phenomenon in 
 instantly, and the same was also the case with offend, 
 offence. ' If thy right eye offend thee,' ' Woe unto him 
 through whom the offences come,' do not convey to 
 any but the educated reader the idea which they 
 
ARCHAISMS. 197 
 
 were intended to express. By substituting ' cause to 
 offend ' (or perhaps ' cause to stumble ' or * to fall ') for 
 4 offend,' we may in passages where the verb occurs 
 bring out the idea more clearly; but in the case of 
 the substantive the right of prescription and the diffi- 
 culty of finding an equivalent may plead for the re- 
 tention of the word. But where other Latinisms are 
 concerned, no such excuse can be pleaded. Thus, 
 ' Occupy till I come ' (Trpay^arevaacrde, Luke xix. 
 13) is quite indefensible. Wycliffe has marchaundise-. 
 Purvey chaffer \ Tyndale buy and sell \ and it is diffi- 
 cult to see why a word should have been substituted 
 in the later Bibles, which must (one would think) 
 have appeared novel and affected at the time, and 
 which has changed its meaning since. I have sug- 
 gested ' Trade ye ' above (p. 47). Another example 
 is * O generation (yevvij/jLara) of vipers/ which the 
 English reader inevitably takes to be a parallel ex- 
 pression to ' a wicked and adulterous generation 
 (yeved),' though the Greek words are quite different, 
 and generation in the first passage signifies ' offspring' 
 or ' brood ' two good old English words, either of 
 which might advantageously be substituted for it. 
 Another is the rendering of Acts xvii. 23, 'As I passed 
 by and beheld your devotions ' (cre/Sacr/tara), where 
 ' your devotions ' is not a misrendering but an ar- 
 chaism, signifying 'the objects of your worship/ 'your 
 
198 ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 gods or idols/ Other instances again are I Tim. iii. 
 13, 'They that have used the office of a deacon well, 
 purchase ('jrepiTroiovvTcu) to themselves a good degree/ 
 where the idea of traffic suggested by the modern 
 use of the word is alien to the passage; and Matt. xviL 
 25, 'When he was come into the house, Jesus pre- 
 vented (TTpotyOacrev) him, saying, What thinkest thou, 
 Simon ?', in which passage at all events the original 
 meaning of ' prevent' would not suggest itself to the 
 English reader. In both cases we might with advan- 
 tage recur to the renderings of Tyndale, 'get' for 
 * purchase/ and ' spake first ' for ' prevented/ 
 
 From the word last mentioned we pass not un- 
 naturally to the verb which it has supplanted. To 
 prevent has taken the place of to let, meaning to check, 
 to hinder, while this latter verb has become obsolete 
 in this sense. Unnecessary and unadvisable as it 
 would be to alter this archaism in such phrases as 
 ' Sore let and hindered in running the race that is 
 set before us/ where it cannot mislead, its occur- 
 rence in the New Testament is not always free from 
 objection. In 2 Thess. ii. 7, for instance a passage 
 difficult enough without any artificial obscurities 'He 
 who now letteth will let? should not be allowed to 
 stand. 
 
 Not very dissimilar to the last instance is the 
 ambiguity of 'go about/ used in our Version as a 
 
AMBIGUITIES. 199 
 
 common rendering of grjTeiv. In such passages as 
 John vii. 19, 20, 'Why go ye about to kill me ?' 'Who 
 goeth about to kill thee?', Acts xxi. 31 'As they went 
 about to kill him/ it can hardly occur to the English 
 reader that nothing more is meant than * seek to kill,' 
 as the same phrase fyrelv aTTOKrelvai is translated 
 elsewhere, and even in the very context of the first 
 passage (John vii. 25). In Acts xxiv. 5, 6, again the 
 misunderstanding is rendered almost inevitable by 
 the context, ' A mover of sedition among all the Jews 
 throughout the world... who also hath gone about to 
 profane the temple' ; where the expression represents 
 another verb similar to frjreiv in meaning, TO lepov 
 
 After disposing of the archaisms, little remains to 
 be said about the English of our Version. There are 
 however some ambiguities of translation which arise 
 from other causes. Thus Ephes. vi. 1 2 ' Against spi- 
 ritual wickedness in high places* (TT/JO? ra Trvev/jLaTitcaTrjs 
 Trovrjplas ev rot? &irovpavtoi$), where the English reader 
 is led to think of vice in persons of rank and station ; 
 Phil. iii. 14 ' The prize of your high calling' (rr;? dva) 
 /cX^creo)?), where the English epithet rather suggests 
 quality than locality as the original requires ; Col. iii. 
 8 * But now you also/;// offz\\ these ' (vvvl Se diroOevOe 
 KOI v/Meis TO, TrdvTa), where the sentence appears to be 
 indicative instead of imperative; I Tim. iii. 16 'And 
 
2OO ERRORS 'AND DEFECTS. 
 
 without controversy (6jjio\oyov/jLevci)<;) great is the mys- 
 tery of godliness/ where the meaning of 'controversy' 
 is ambiguous, and where the older Versions translated 
 6fJio\o<yov/jLeva)<; 'without nay' or 'without doubt'; 
 Heb. v. 2 ' On the ignorant and on them that are out of 
 theway' (ro?9 dyvoovcn KOI TrXayeoyu-ei/ot?), where the repe- 
 tition of the preposition leads the English reader still 
 further away from the proper sense of TrXavapevois ; 
 Heb. v. 12 'For when for the time ye ought to be 
 teachers ' (KCLI yap o<f>i\ovT6<> elvcn, SiBda/caXot, Sid TOV 
 Xpovov), where without the Greek no one would ima- 
 gine that 'for the time' means 'by reason of the long 
 period of your training ' ; Apoc. iv. 1 1 ' For thy plea- 
 sure they are, and were created (etVl KOI eKrio-Bfjaav 1 )^ 
 where are reads as an auxiliary. In all such cases 
 (and many other examples might be given) the 
 remedy is easy. 
 
 The great merit of our Version is its truly English 
 character the strength and the homeliness of its lan- 
 guage. Its authors were fully alive to the importance 
 of preserving this feature, as impressed upon the Eng- 
 lish Bible by Tyndale, and set their faces resolutely 
 against the Latinisms to which the Rheims Version 
 had attempted to give currency' 2 . In this they were 
 
 1 So the received text: but the correct reading is rfffav for et<rl. 
 
 2 In this Version I open a chapter accidentally (Ephes. iv) and find 
 'donation of Christ,' 'interior parts,' 'doctors,' 'circumvention of 
 
FAULTS OF EXPRESSION. 2OI 
 
 eminently successful, as a rule ; and it is only to be 
 regretted that they allowed themselves occasionally 
 to depart from their principle where there was no 
 adequate need. The word occupy, which I have al- 
 ready considered from a different point of view, is 
 an illustration. Another is addict in I Cor. xvi. 15. 
 ' They have addicted themselves (era^av eaurou?) to 
 the ministry of the saints/ which rendering seems to 
 have been introduced first in the Bishops' Bible, and 
 cannot be considered an improvement on the Geneva 
 Version, 'They have given themselves to minister 
 unto the saints.' A more flagrant instance is 2 Cor. 
 ix. 13, where a concurrence of Latinisms obscures the 
 sense and mars the English, 'By the experiment of 
 this ministration they glorify God for your professed 
 subjection unto the Gospel of Christ/ where ' experi- 
 ment ' and ' professed ' ought at all events to be al- 
 tered as they have shifted their meaning, and where 
 for once the Rheims Version gives purer English, 
 ' By the proof of this ministry glorifying God in the 
 obedience of your confession unto the Gospel of 
 Christ' (Siarrj? Bo/ci/Ar)? rrjs Sia/covias ravTTjs Sofafoz/re? 
 rov eoz> eVl r/7 vTrorayfj T^? 6{ioXoyias VJJLWV et? TO 
 vayye\iov rov 
 
 errour,' 'juncture of subministration,' 'vanity of their sense,' 'impu- 
 dicity,' 'contristate.' Yet it was published nearly thirty years before the 
 Authorised Version. 
 
2O2 ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 A fault of another kind is translating o$e\ov ' I 
 would to God' (i Cor. iv. 8), though the earlier Ver- 
 sions all give it so, with the exception of Wycliffe 
 whose simpler rendering ' I would ' might be adopted 
 with advantage. In this case the introduction of the 
 Divine name is hardly defensible. In the case of yu?) 
 yevoiro ' God forbid/ the difficulty of finding another 
 idiomatic rendering may possibly excuse it. Yet 
 even here we cannot but regret a rendering which in- 
 terferes so seriously with the argument, as it presents 
 itself to the English reader, in such passages as 
 Rom. iii. 4, 6, ' God forbid ; yea, let God be true (/AT) 
 yevoiro, yw<r&oo 8e 6 eo? a\7)dr)<s)? ' God forbid ; for 
 then how shall God judge the world (fir) yevoiro, eVet 
 
 7T059 KplVel 6 60? TOV KOCTfJiOv) ? ' 
 
 I shall pass over instances of careless grammar 
 in the English, because these are not numerous and 
 have been dealt with elsewhere. But it may be worth 
 while to point out inadvertences of another kind ; 
 where the same word is twice rendered in the English 
 Version, or where conversely the same English 
 word is made to do duty for two Greek words. Of 
 the latter, examples occur in John xi. 14 ' Then (rore 
 ovv) said Jesus unto them plainly/ where ' then ' 
 stands for two words, ' then ' local and ' then ' argu- 
 mentative ; or Rom. vi. 2 1 ' What fruit had ye then 
 (riva ovv icapTrbv e^ere Tore) in those things whereof 
 
ERRORS OF THE PRESS. 2O3 
 
 ye are now ashamed ?', where exactly the same error 
 is committed. Of the converse error the double ren- 
 dering of the same word we have an instance in 
 James v. 16, TTO\V lo-^vei Se?;cn9 Si/caiov evepyov^evrj, 
 'The effectual fervent prayer of a righteous man 
 availeth much,' where the word ' effectual ' is worse 
 than superfluous. This last rendering I am disposed 
 to ascribe to carelessness in correcting the copy for 
 the press. The word would be written down on the 
 copy of the Bishops' Bible which the revisers used, 
 either as a tentative correction or an accidental gloss ; 
 and, not having been erased before the copy was sent 
 to the press, would appear in the text 1 . 
 
 To the same cause also we may perhaps ascribe 
 the rendering of I Cor. xiv. 23, eav ovv crvve\6r) 77 
 eKic\T]a-ia o\rj eVt TO avro. In the Bishops' Bible this 
 stands, ' If therefore all the Church be come together 
 into one place/ but in the Authorised, ' If therefore 
 the whole Church be come together into some place.' 
 I presume that the revisers intended to alter 'one' 
 
 1 In the Bishops' Bible, which the translators had before them, the 
 passage runs 'the fervent prayer of a righteous man availeth much.' 
 The only fact connected with previous Versions which I can discover as 
 throwing any light on the insertion of this word 'effectual' is a marginal 
 note in Tomson's New Testament, printed with the Geneva Bible ; 
 'He commendeth prayers by the effects that come of them, that all men 
 may understand that there is nothing more effectual than they are, so 
 that they proceed from a pure mind.' 
 
2O4 ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 into ' the same,' but that this correction was indis- 
 tinctly made, and being confused with the other cor- 
 rection in the same clause which required a trans- 
 position of ' the,' led to the error which stands in our 
 text. What misconception may arise from a mere 
 error of the press appears from the often discussed 
 phrase, ' Strain &t a gnat' ; where unquestionably our 
 translators intended to retain the rendering of the 
 earlier Versions, ' Strain out a gnat,' and the existing 
 text can only be explained as a misprint. Indeed 
 the printing of the edition of 1611 is very far from 
 correct ; and if our present Bibles for the most part 
 deserve praise for great accuracy, we owe this to the 
 fact that the text of this first edition was not regarded 
 as sacred or authoritative, but corrections were freely 
 introduced afterwards wherever a plain error was de- 
 tected. Thus in Exod. xxxviii. 1 1 ' Hoopes of the 
 pillars' has been altered into 'hooks of the pillars '; in 
 Isaiah xlix. 20 'The place is too straight' into 'The 
 place is too strait* '; in Hos. vi. 5 'Shelved them by 
 the prophets' (where the word 'shewed' was evi- 
 dently introduced by an ingenious compositor who 
 did not understand the correct text) into 'Hewed 
 them by the prophets'; in Ecclus. xliv. 5 'Rejected 
 verses' into ' recited verses '; and the like. In the 
 headings of the chapters too some curious errors in 
 the edition of 1611 were afterwards corrected; e.g. 
 
ERRORS OF THE PRESS. 2O5 
 
 2 Sam. xxiv. ' eleven thousand ' into ' thirteen hundred 
 thousand,' I Cor. v. 'shamed' into 'shunned 1 .' Nay, 
 in some passages the changes made in later editions 
 are even bolder than this; as for instance in I Tim. i. 4, 
 ol/coSofjilav [the correct reading is oltcovofjbtav] eo> TTJV 
 eV Trio-ret ' Edifying which is in faith/ the word 0eo{) 
 by some inadvertence was untranslated in the edition 
 of 1611, and so it remained for many years after- 
 wards, until in the Cambridge edition of 1638 'godly' 
 was inserted after the earlier Versions, and this has 
 held its ground ever since 2 . As this wise liberty was 
 so freely exercised in other cases, it is strange that 
 the obvious misprint 'strain at' should have survived 
 the successive revisions of two centuries and a half. 
 
 While speaking of errors and corrections of the 
 press, it may be worth while in passing to observe 
 
 1 The corrections in Ecclus. xliv. 5, 2 Sam. xxiv, were made in 1612: 
 those in Exod. xxxviii. n, Is. xlix. 20, Hos. vi. 5, i Cor. v, in 1613. 
 A number of errors however still remained, which were removed from 
 time to time in later editions. The edition of 1613, though it corrected 
 some blunders, was grossly inaccurate, as may be seen from the colla- 
 tion with the edition of 1611, prefixed to the Oxford reprint of the 
 latter (1833). 
 
 2 I owe this fact, which has probably been noticed elsewhere, to 
 some valuable MS notes of the late Prof. Grote on the printing of the 
 English Bible. The error may be explained by supposing that the word 
 'godly' was struck out in the copy of the Bishops' Bible altered for the 
 press, while the proposed substitution was omitted to be made or was 
 made in such a way that it escaped the eye of the compositor. 
 
2O6 ERRORS AND DEFECTS. 
 
 how this license of change has affected the ortho- 
 graphy. It would be a surprise to an English reader 
 now to find in his Bible such words as aliant, causey, 
 charet, cise, crudle, damosell, fauchion, fet, fift, flixe, 
 iland, mids, moe, monethes, neesing, oweth (Lev. xiv. 
 35 for 'owneth'), price (Phil. iii. 14 for 'prize'), re- 
 nowme, etc. While these have been altered into 
 alien, causeway, chariot, size, curdle, damsel, falchion, 
 fetched, fifth, flux, island, midst, more, months, sneez- 
 ing, owneth, prize, renown, respectively, a capricious 
 conservatism has retained the archaic spelling in 
 other cases, such as fat, fetches, graff, hoise, pilled, 
 strawed, throughly, for vat, vetches, graft, hoist, peeled, 
 strewed, thoroughly. In some cases this caprice ap- 
 pears in the same word ; thus neesings is retained in 
 Job xli. 1 8, while sneezed is substituted for neesed in 
 2 Kings iv. 35. This license has had its disadvan- 
 tages as well as its advantages ; if the substitution of 
 'its' for 'it' (Lev. xxv. 5, 'it owne accord' i6ii l ) was 
 imperatively demanded by the change in the lan- 
 guage, the alteration of ' shamefast, shamefastness' 
 into 'shamefaced, shamefacedness' is unfortunate, as 
 suggesting a wrong derivation and an inadequate 
 meaning. Amidst all these changes it is a happy 
 accident that the genuine form of the name of Phile- 
 mon's wife has survived, though the precedent of the 
 
 1 See Wright's Bible Word-Book, s. v. //. 
 
CHANGES OF SPELLING. 2OJ 
 
 older Versions and the authority of modern commen- 
 tators alike would have led to the substitution of the 
 Latin name 'Appia' for the Phrygian 'ApphiaV 
 
 V. 
 
 I have attempted to show in what directions our 
 English Version is capable of improvement. It will 
 be necessary to substitute an amended for a faulty 
 text ; to remove artificial distinctions which do not 
 
 1 In Philem. 2 the reading is unquestionably 'A7r0ig, though some 
 uncial MSS (of little value on a point of orthography) have a00a, a 
 legitimate form, or dfjufriq., a manifest corruption: the authority for 
 'ATTTria is absolutely worthless. The fact is that this word has no con- 
 nexion (except in sound) with the Roman Appia, but represents a native 
 Phrygian name, which with various modifications appears again and 
 again in the Phrygian inscriptions: e.g. Boeckh Corp. Inscr. 3814 
 Xei'/ccu/Spos /cat 'A00a yvvrj avrov, 3826 Hpurbpaxos 'A0[0]ta ywatKi, 
 3932 m rfjyvvaiid avrov 'A[7r]0i'p, 3962 'A7r0i'a eyu /ret/icu, 3827 1 (Appx.) 
 'A00ia 'Mevai'Spov, 3846 z (Appx.) BwXas 'A00i'a ffwftltp. Frequently 
 also we meet with the diminutive air<f>i.ov, &(p<f>ioi', or &<j.ov, as a female 
 name; e.g. 3849, 3891, 3899, 3902 m, 3846 z (Appx.). The form 
 "ATTTTT; however sometimes occurs. This word may be compared with 
 other common Phrygian names, Ammia, Nania, Tatia, and the mascu- 
 line Pappias or Papias. 
 
 Not observing the Phrygian origin of the name, the commentators 
 speak as though it were the feminine corresponding to the masculine in 
 Acts xxviii. 15 'Aiririov <j>bpov, and call attention to the difference in 
 form, ?T0 for TTTT. All the older translations, so far as I have observed, 
 print it Appia, so that the Authorised Version stands alone in its cor- 
 rectness. 
 
208 PROSPECTS OF REVISION. 
 
 exist in the Greek ; to restore real distinctions which 
 existing there were overlooked by our translators ; to 
 correct errors of grammar and errors of lexicography; 
 to revise the treatment of proper names and technical 
 terms ; and to remove a few archaisms, ambiguities, 
 and faults of expression, besides inaccuracies of editor- 
 ship, in the English. All this may be done without 
 altering the character of the Version. 
 
 In this review of the question I have done nothing 
 more than give examples of the different classes of 
 errors. An exhaustive treatment of the subject was 
 impossible; and the case therefore is much stronger 
 than it is here made to appear. If for instance any 
 one will take the trouble to go through some one 
 book of the New Testament, as the Epistle to the 
 Hebrews, referring to any recent critical edition of 
 the Greek text and comparing it carefully with the 
 English, he will see that the faults of our Version are 
 very far from being few and slight or imaginary. But 
 if a fair case for revision has been made out, it still re- 
 mains to ask whether there is any reasonable prospect 
 of success, if the attempt be made at the present time. 
 
 Now in one important point perhaps the most 
 important of all the answer must, I think, be favour- 
 able. Greek scholarship has never stood higher in 
 England than it does at the present moment. There 
 is not only a sufficient body of scholars capable of 
 
IMAGINARY DANGERS. 209 
 
 undertaking the work, but there is also (and this is a 
 most important element in the consideration) a very 
 large number besides fully competent to submit the 
 work of the revisers, when completed, to a minute and 
 searching criticism. And, though we may trust that 
 anyone who is called to take his share in the work 
 will do so with a deep sense of the responsibility 
 of the task assigned to him, still it will be a great 
 stimulus to feel that he is surrounded by competent 
 critics on all sides, and a great support to be able 
 to gather opinions freely from without. But I would 
 venture to go a step beyond this. I should be glad to 
 think my apprehensions groundless, but there is at 
 least some reason to forbode that Greek scholarship 
 has reached its height in England, and that hence- 
 forth it may be expected to decline 1 . The clamours 
 of other branches of learning more especially of 
 scientific studies for a recognised place in general 
 education are growing louder and louder, and must 
 make themselves heard ; and, if so, the almost ex- 
 
 1 Mr Marsh (Lectures on the English Language, xxviii, p. 639) says 
 * There is no sufficient reason to doubt that at the end of this century 
 the knowledge of biblical Greek and Hebrew will be as much in 
 advance of the present standard, as that standard is before the sacred 
 philology of the beginning of this century.' I wish I could take this 
 very sanguine view of the probable future of the Greek language in 
 England : as regards Hebrew, I have abstained from expressing an 
 opinion. 
 
 L. R. 14 
 
210 PROSPECTS OF REVISION. 
 
 elusive dominion of the Classical languages is past. 
 I need not here enter into the question whether 
 these languages have or have not been overrated as 
 an instrument of education. It is sufficient to call 
 attention to the fact that, whether rightly or wrongly, 
 public opinion is changing in this respect, and to 
 prepare for the consequences. 
 
 And, if we turn from the Greek language to the 
 English, the present moment seems not unfavourable 
 for the undertaking. Many grave apprehensions 
 have been expressed on this point, and alarming pic- 
 tures are drawn of the fatal results which will follow 
 from any attempt to meddle with the pure idiom of 
 our English Bible. Of the infusion of Latinisms and 
 Gallicisms, with which we are threatened, I myself 
 have no fear. In the last century, or in the beginning 
 of the present, the danger would have been real. 
 The objections urged against the language of our 
 English Bible by those who then advocated revision 
 are now almost incredible. The specimens which 
 they offered of an improved diction of the modern 
 type would appear simply ludicrous to us, if the 
 subject, on which the experiment was tried, had been 
 less grave 1 . The very words which these critics 
 
 1 See examples in Trench's Authorized Version, p. 23 sq., and Prof. 
 Plumptre's article in Smith's Dictionary of the Bible, s. v. Version, Autho- 
 rised. ' I remember the relief,' writes Mr Matthew Arnold (Culture and 
 
IMAGINARY DANGERS. 2 I I 
 
 would have ejected from our English Bibles, as bar- 
 barous or uncouth or obsolete, have again taken their 
 place in our highest poetry, and even in our popular 
 language. And though it is impossible that the 
 nineteenth century should ever speak the language of 
 the sixteenth or seventeenth, still a genuine appre- 
 ciation and careful study of the Authorised Version 
 and of the older translations will (we may reasonably 
 hope) enable the present revisers, in the corrections 
 which they may introduce, to avoid any anachronisms 
 of diction which would offend the taste or jar upon 
 the ear. There is all this difference between the pre- 
 sent advocates of revision and the former, that now 
 we reverence the language and idiom of our English 
 Bibles, whereas they regarded it as the crowning 
 offence which seemed most to call for amendment. 
 In several instances the end may be attained by 
 returning to the renderings of the earlier Versions > 
 which the revisers of 1611 abandoned. In almost 
 every other case the words and even the expressions 
 
 Anarchy, p. 44), 'with which after long feeling the sway of Franklin's 
 imperturbable good sense, I came upon a project of his for a new 
 version of the Book of Job to replace the old version, the style of which, 
 says Franklin, has become obsolete and thence less agreeable. "I 
 give," he continues, "a few verses which may serve as a sample of the 
 kind of version I would recommend."...! well remember how wheA 
 first I read that, I drew a deep breath of relief and said to myself: 
 After all, there is a stretch of humanity beyond Franklin's victorious 
 good sense.' 
 
 142 
 
212 PROSPECTS OF REVISION. 
 
 which the correction requires will be supplied from 
 some other part of the Authorised Version itself. 
 Very rare indeed are the exceptions where this assis- 
 tance will fail and where it may be necessary to in- 
 troduce a word for which there is no authority in the 
 English Bibles. In these cases care must be taken 
 that the word so introduced shall be in harmony with 
 the general character of our biblical diction. So 
 much license the new revisers may reasonably claim 
 for themselves, as it was certainly claimed by the 
 revisers of 1611. If these cautions are observed the 
 Bible will still remain to future generations what it 
 has been to past not only the store-house of the 
 highest truth, but also the purest well of their native 
 English. Indeed we may take courage from the fact, 
 that the language of our English Bible is not the 
 language of the age in which the translators lived, 
 but in its grand simplicity stands out in contrast to 
 the ornate and often affected diction of the literature 
 of that time 1 . For if the retention of an older and 
 better model was possible in the seventeenth century, 
 it is quite as possible in the nineteenth. 
 
 Nor again can there be any reasonable ground 
 for apprehension as to the extent and character of 
 the changes which may be introduced. The regula- 
 tions under which the new company of revisers will 
 
 1 See Marsh's Lectures, p. 621 sq. 
 
IMAGINARY DANGERS. 213 
 
 act are a sufficient guarantee against hasty and capri- 
 cious change. The language which public speakers 
 and newspaper critics have held on this point would 
 only then have force, if absolute power were given 
 to each individual reviser to introduce all his favourite 
 crotchets. But anyone, who has acted in concert with 
 a large number of independent men, trained apart 
 and under separate influences, will know how very 
 difficult it is to secure the consent of two-thirds of the 
 whole body to any change which is not a manifest 
 improvement, and how wholly impossible it would be 
 to obtain the suffrages of this number for a novel and 
 questionable rendering, however important it might 
 seem to its proposer. It is very possible that several 
 corrections which I have suggested here may appear 
 to others in this unfavourable light. Indeed it is 
 hardly probable that in all cases they should escape 
 being condemned ; for anyone, interested in such a 
 subject, is naturally led to give prominence to those 
 views on which he lays stress himself, just because 
 they appear to him not to have received proper 
 attention from others. But if so, it is morally certain 
 that they will be treated as they deserve, and not 
 suffered to disfigure the Revised Version as it will 
 appear before the public. Indeed if there be any 
 reasonable grounds for apprehension, the danger is 
 rather that the changes introduced will be too slight 
 
214 PROSPECTS OF REVISION. 
 
 to satisfy the legitimate demands of theology and 
 scholarship, than that they will be so sweeping as to 
 affect the character of our English Bible. 
 
 Lastly ; in one respect at least the present Revi- 
 sion is commenced under very auspicious circum- 
 stances. There has been great liberality in inviting 
 the cooperation of those Biblical scholars who are not 
 members of the Anglican communion, and they on 
 their part have accorded a prompt and cheerful wel- 
 come to this invitation. This is a matter for great 
 thankfulness. It may be accepted as a guarantee 
 that the work is undertaken not with any narrow 
 sectarian aim, but in the broad interests of truth ; 
 while also it is an earnest that, if the revision when 
 completed recommends itself by its intrinsic merits 
 (and if it does not, the sooner it is forgotten the 
 better), then no unworthy jealousy will stand in the 
 way of its general reception 1 . And meanwhile may 
 we not cherish a loftier hope ? Now for the first time 
 the bishops of our Church and the representatives of 
 
 1 'At this day,' wrote Mr Marsh in 1859, 'there could be no har- 
 mony of action on this subject between difterent churches... So long as 
 this sectarian feeling for it can be appropriately designated by no other 
 term prevails on either side, there can be no union upon conditions 
 compatible with the self-respect of the parties ' (p. 641 sq.). This pre- 
 liminary difficulty at least has been overcome ; the 'better counsels,' of 
 which this able writer seems to have despaired, have prevailed ; no 
 wound has been inflicted on self-respect ; and entire harmony 01 action 
 has been attained. 
 
FAVOURABLE CIRCUMSTANCES. 215 
 
 our Convocation will meet at the same table with 
 Nonconformist divines, and will engage in a common 
 work of a most sacred kind the interpretation of 
 those Writings which all alike reverence 'as the source 
 of their truest inspiration here and the foundation of 
 their highest hopes hereafter. Is it too much to 
 anticipate that by the experience of this united work 
 the Christian communities in England may be drawn 
 more closely together, and that, whether it succeed or 
 fail in its immediate object, it may at least dissipate 
 many prejudices and jealousies, may promote a 
 better mutual understanding, and thus by fostering 
 inward sympathy may lead the way to greater out- 
 ward harmony among themselves, and a more intimate 
 union with the Divine Head 1 ? 
 
 1 It will be remembered that this hope was expressed before the 
 Revision Company had met. If I felt at liberty to modify the expres- 
 sion by the light of subsequent experience, I should speak even more 
 strongly. 
 
APPENDIX I. 
 On the Words ITTLOVCTLOS, 
 I. 
 
 r I ^HE former of these two words, found only in 
 * a petition of the Lord's Prayer, as given both 
 by S. Matthew (vi. 1 1 TOV aprov TJJJLWV TOV ejriova-iov 
 809 rjplv <rr}/jipov) and by S. Luke (xi. 3 TOV aprov 
 TIH&V rov ITTLOVCTIOV SiSov ^yCiv TO KOU& y/jiepav), is 
 a well-known difficulty in Biblical interpretation; 
 and it is certainly a remarkable fact that so much 
 diversity of opinion should be possible regarding an 
 expression which occurs in this most familiar and 
 oftenest repeated passage of the Gospels. 
 
 Origen tells us (de Orat. 27, I. p. 245 Delarue) 
 that the word iiriovaiov does not once occur in Greek 
 literature and that it is not current in the colloquial 
 language (Trapa ovSevl TWV 'EXX^z/wi/ ot/re TCOV aocpoov 
 <ov6fJia(7Tai, ovre ev Ty TWV IBicoTaiv (rvvrjOeia Te 
 
2l8 APPENDIX I. 
 
 * It seems,' he adds, ' to have been coined 
 by the Evangelists. Matthew and Luke agree in 
 using it without any difference. The same course 
 has been taken in other cases also by persons trans- 
 lating from the Hebrew. For what Greek ever used 
 either of the expressions eixorigov or dicovrla-BrjTL^... 
 A similar expression to eiriovaiov occurs in Moses, 
 being uttered by God, But ye shall be to me a people 
 irepiovcnos. And it seems to me that both words 
 are formed from ova-la? 
 
 This statement is important, because it shows 
 that the Greek Fathers derived no assistance in the 
 interpretation of the word from the spoken or written 
 language; and thus their views are not entitled to 
 the deference which we should elsewhere accord to 
 them, as interpreters of a living language of which 
 we only possess the fragmentary remains. In this 
 particular instance they cease to be authorities. The 
 same data, which were open to them, are open to us 
 also ; and from these we are free to draw our con- 
 clusions independently. 
 
 These data are threefold: (i) The etymological 
 form ; (2) The requirements of the sense ; (3) The 
 tenor of tradition. 
 
 This last element seems to me to be especially 
 important in the present case. The Lord's Prayer 
 was doubtless used from very early times in private 
 
APPENDIX I. 219 
 
 devotion. It certainly formed a part of the public 
 services of the Church, in which (to mention no other 
 use) it was repeated at the celebration of the Holy 
 Eucharist 1 . The traditional sense therefore which 
 was commonly attached to a word occurring in it 
 must have a high value. 
 
 It was chiefly the conviction that justice had not 
 been done to this consideration, which led me to 
 institute the investigation afresh 2 . Previous writers 
 have laid stress on the scholastic interpretation of 
 Origen and his successors, as though this were the 
 best authenticated tradition ; when they ought rather 
 to have sought for the common sense of the Church 
 in the primitive versions, which are both earlier in 
 date than Origen, and cover a much wider area. I 
 hope to make the force of the distinction between 
 the scholastic and traditional interpretations clearer 
 in the sequel. 
 
 The different explanations which have been given 
 to the word fall into two classes ; (i) Those which 
 
 1 Of the use of the Lord's Prayer in the early Church, see Bingham's 
 Antiquities, xill. vii. i sq., and Probst Liiurgie der drei ersten Christ- 
 lichen Jahrhunderte, index s. v. Vater zmser. 
 
 2 The fullest recent investigation of the meaning of eirtovfftos, with 
 which I am acquainted, is in Tholuck's Exposition of the Sermon on the 
 Mount, II. p. 172 sq. (Eng. trans.), where he arrives at conclusions 
 different from my own. He gives a list of previous treatises on the sub- 
 ject. Among the more important are those of Pfeiffer and Stolberg in 
 the Thesaur. Theol. PhiloL II. pp. 116 sq., 123 sq. (Amstel. 1702). 
 
22O APPENDIX I. 
 
 connect it with levai, deriving it from eirieveu through 
 eirutiv or eTriovaa, and (2) Those which connect it 
 with elvcu, as a compound from eVl and ovcria. Each 
 class includes various explanations; but the one is 
 distinguished from the other by a simple criterion. 
 The meanings belonging to the one class are tem- 
 poral ; to the other, qualitative. 
 
 In the first class we find the following : (i) to- 
 morrow's, derived directly from eTnovva 'the coming- 
 day,' or 'the morrow' : (ii) coming, either taken from 
 eirtovaa and meaning the same as the last, but more 
 vaguely expressed ; or derived directly from vmkvai, 
 ennwv (without the intervention of the feminine e?rt- 
 ovaa) : (iii) daily, which seems to be got from the 
 first sense, 'for the coming day' : (iv) continual, 
 which is probably a paraphrastic mode of expressing 
 (i) or (iii): (v) future, 'yet to come,' from eViwi/; in 
 which case the expression is most often applied in a 
 spiritual sense to Christ the Bread of Life, Who shall 
 come hereafter. 
 
 Under the second head also various explanations 
 are comprised ; (i) for our sustenance, and so 'neces- 
 sary,' ovcria being referred to physical subsistence; 
 (ii) for our essential life, and so 'spiritual, eternal,' 
 ova-ia signifying the absolute or higher being; (iii) 
 preeminent, excellent, surpassing, as being 'above all 
 overlap and so nearly equivalent to Trepiova-io? ; (iv) 
 
APPENDIX I. 221 
 
 abundant, a meaning akin to the last, and apparently 
 reached by giving the same sense 'above' to eW; 
 (v) consubstantial, a sense which is attained by forcing 
 the meaning of the preposition in another direction 1 . 
 
 In this list I have enumerated only those mean- 
 ings which were given to the word during the first 
 five centuries. More recent writers have added to the 
 number ; but their interpretations, when not deduced 
 directly from one or other of the senses already 
 given, are so far-fetched and so unnatural, that they 
 do not deserve to be seriously considered. 
 
 Again, I have confined myself to direct interpreta- 
 tions of eVtouo-io?, not regarding such variations of 
 meaning as arise from different senses attached to 
 the substantive apros. Thus for, instance 'our daily 
 bread' might be either the daily sustenance for the 
 body or the daily sustenance for the soul. But 
 though these two senses are widely divergent, their 
 divergence is not due to any difference of interpreta- 
 tion affecting eVtoi/trto?, with which word alone I am 
 concerned. 
 
 I shall now consider the two classes of meanings 
 which are distinguished above, testing them by the 
 considerations already enumerated, (i) the etymology 
 of the word, (2) the requirements of the sense, (3) the 
 tenor of tradition. 
 
 1 See the passage from Victorinus quoted below on p. 245. 
 
222 APPENDIX I. 
 
 i. The etymology of the word. 
 
 'H eVtoOo-a is commonly used for 'the coming 
 day/ 'the morrow.' In this sense it occurs frequently 
 without the substantive rjnepa both in Biblical Greek 
 (Prov. xxvii. I ov */ap yivwcr/ceis TI regerai 77 eTriovcra, 
 Acts xvi. II, xx. 15, xxi. 18) and elsewhere (e.g. Polyb. 
 ii. 25. n, Pausan. iv. 22. 3, Plut. Mor. 205 E, 838 D, 
 etc.). See also the references in Lobeck Phryn. p. 464. 
 From this word, which had become practically a sub- 
 stantive, the adjective eVtouc-jo? would be formed in 
 the usual way. 
 
 It is urged indeed (see Suicer Thes. s. v. eVtov- 
 <o?), that the analogy of SevrcpaLos, Tpiratos, etc., 
 would require eiriovvalos. In replying to this objec- 
 tion we need not (I venture to think) acquiesce in 
 the negative answer that such adjectives are not 
 valid to disprove the existence of a different form 
 in -to9. Whether we regard the etymology or the 
 meaning, the analogy seems to be false. The termi- 
 nation -ato? in all these adjectives is suggested by 
 the long a or 77 of the feminines from which they 
 are derived, Sevrepa, rpiTij, etc. 1 ; and the short ending 
 
 1 It is not meant to assert that forms in cuos cannot be derived from 
 other words than feminines in d or 17 ; but as a rule they are derived in 
 this way, though some exceptions occur : see Buttmann Ausf. Gramm. 
 II. p. 446. 
 
APPENDIX i. 
 
 223 
 
 of eiriovcra is not a parallel case. Moreover the 
 meaning is not the same ; for the adjectives in -ato? 
 fix a date, e.g. rerapralo^ rf\dev 'he came on the 
 fourth day] whereas the sense which we require here 
 is much more general, implying simply possession or 
 connexion. 
 
 Or again, the word might be derived from the 
 masculine participle ITTLMV, as e/cova-ios from e/ccov, e'0e- 
 Xouo-to? from e#e\o>z/, ryepovcrios from yepwv, Trvyovcrio? 
 from TTVJWV, 'Axepova-ios (or ' A^epoz/rto?) from ' A^epwz/, 
 etc. : see Lobeck Phryn. p. 4. To this derivation 
 there is no grammatical objection. Only it may be 
 pleaded that no motive existed for introducing an 
 adjective by the side of eiriwv, sufficiently powerful 
 to produce the result in an advanced stage of the 
 language, when the fertility of creating new forms 
 had been greatly impaired. 
 
 On the other hand the derivation of eiriovcios 
 from eTrl and ovaia, if not impossible, is at least more 
 difficult. Two objections have been taken to this 
 etymology; the one, as it seems to me, futile the 
 other really formidable, if not insuperable, (i) It 
 is alleged that an adjective in -ovcrios would not be 
 formed from the substantive ovaia. To this it is 
 sufficient to reply, that from this very word ov&ia we 
 find the compounds dvova-ios (Clem. Alex. Exc. Theod. 
 p. 970, ed. Potter: Pseudo- Justin Conf. dogm. Arist* 
 
224 APPENDIX I. 
 
 50, p. 145 ; ib. Quaest. Christ, ad Gent. p. 185 B), 
 eVovo-to? (Victorin. c. Arium ii. i, Synes. Hymn. 2, 
 p. 318, Cyril. Alex, in Joann. v. 5, p. 527), efouo-to? 
 (Philo in Place. 10, II. p. 528 Mang.), ere/jouorto? (ere- 
 Porphyr. in Stob. Eel. Phys. 41, n. p. 822), 
 , opoofoios, vTrep overtop (Victorin. 1. c., Synes. 
 1. c.), Trpoavovo-ios (Synes. Hymn. 1. c., and Hymn. 3, p. 
 322), etc. : and from egova-ia the compounds auref ov- 
 er to? (frequently, e.g. Diod. xiv. 105) and vTrefouo-to? 
 <see Steph. Thes. s. v., ed. Dindorf & Hase). (2) On 
 the other hand, to the objection that the form should 
 .be eVotKrto?, not eVtouo-to?, I do not see what valid 
 .answer can be given. It has been thought sufficient 
 to adduce in reply such words as eiriavSdvto, eTriovpa, 
 .eirioa'crofjLai, which however are confined to poetry ; 
 and again eirieiicfa eirloptcos 1 , which occur also in 
 prose. To this list other words might be added, such 
 as eVteXTTTO?, e7rtez>z/i//u, farfajpa, eTriijpavos, eTruBfjLtov, 
 eiruffTwp. But the maintainers of this view have never 
 enquired why the i of eW, which elsewhere is elided, 
 has been exceptionally retained in such instances. 
 The real fact is, that all these words without ex- 
 ception were originally written with the digamma, 
 eVtFaz>Sai>o>, eirifeucrj?, eViFeXTrro?, eV/Fop/eo?, etc., so 
 that elision was out of the question ; and even when 
 
 1 tiribySoos is also adduced ; but in the only passage quoted for this 
 form, Plat. Tim. 36 A, B, the best editions have the usual form ei 
 
APPENDIX I. 225 
 
 the digamma disappeared in pronunciation or was 
 replaced by a simple aspirate, the old forms main- 
 tained their ground. 
 
 In the present instance no such reason can be 
 pleaded to justify the retention of the i. The deriva- 
 tion of eiriovcrios from eiri, ovcrta, can only be main- 
 tained on the hypothesis that its form was determined 
 by false analogies, with a view to exhibiting its com- 
 ponent parts more clearly. But this hypothesis is 
 not permissible if any other satisfactory explanation 
 of the word can be given ; for eVtouo-to? would then 
 be the single exception to the rule which determines 
 compounds of eVt. In fact, the compound eVouo-tey&j?? 
 is found occasionally, thus showing that the final 
 vowel of the preposition is naturally elided before 
 ov<ria. 
 
 2. The requirements of the sense. 
 
 It has been shown that etymological considera- 
 tions favour the root Ikvai as against eivai. It will 
 be necessary in the next place to ask whether the 
 exigencies of the sense require us to reverse the 
 decision to which etymology has led us. Is there 
 really any solid objection to our taking TOV dpTov 
 rjfiwv TOV 7rt,ov<ri,ov to mean ' our bread for the coming 
 day'? 
 
 L. R. 15 
 
226 APPENDIX I. 
 
 One objection, and one only, is urged repeatedly 
 against this explanation. The petition so explained, 
 it is thought, would be a direct violation of the 
 precept which our Lord gives at the close of the 
 chapter, vi. 34 p,r) ovv /jLepi/jLvijeijTe et<? rrjv avpiov 1 . 
 To this I would reply first; that though eTriovcra is 
 most frequently a synonym for 77 avpiov, yet the 
 words are not coextensive in meaning. If the prayer 
 were said in the evening, no doubt rj eTriovaa would 
 be ' the following day, the morrow ' ; but supposing it 
 to be used at or before dawn, the word would designate 
 the day then breaking. Thus in the Ecclesiazusae 
 of Aristophanes one of the speakers, after describing 
 the time (ver. 20) xaiToi 777)09 opdpovy' e&riv ''tis close 
 on daybreak,' exclaims (ver. 105) ^77 TTJV itriovcrav 
 rjfjbipav, where rrjv avpiov would be quite out of place. 
 This instance shows the different power of the two 
 words, which in some aspects may be said to contrast 
 with each other ; for the one implies time approaching 
 and the other time deferred. But secondly (and this 
 seems to be a complete answer to the objection), this 
 argument, if it proves anything, proves too much. If 
 
 1 It is astonishing to see with what persistence this worthless argu- 
 ment is repeated. I find it for instance in two of the most recent Theo- 
 logical books which have come into my hands, written from directly 
 opposite points of view, Delitzsch Brief an die Romer in das Hebraische 
 iibersetzt p. 27 (1870) and Keim Geschichte Jesu von Nazara n. p. 279 
 (1871). 
 

 APPENDIX I. 227 
 
 the command /-wj fiepipvdv is tantamount to a prohibi- 
 tion against prayer for the object about which we are 
 forbidden to be anxious, then not only must we not 
 pray for to-morrow's food, but we must not pray for 
 food at all. For He, who says (ver. 34) fj,rj ^epi^vrj- 
 t? TYJV avpiov, says also (ver. 25) fj,rj ^epi^vare rfj 
 vpa>v TI <f>dyr)T6 ; and on this showing, whatever 
 interpretation we put upon eVtoucrioi/, a precept will 
 be violated. The fact is, that, as fiepi/juva means 
 anxiety, undue thought or care (see above, p. 190 sq.), 
 prayer to God is not only consistent with the absence 
 of /jLepifiva, but is a means of driving it away. One 
 Apostle tells us (i Pet. v. 7) to 'cast all our anxiety 
 (pepiiiva) on God, for He careth (auro> /-teXet) for us.' 
 Another directs us 'not to be anxious about any 
 matter (/juij^ev ^epi^vare) but in every thing with 
 prayer and supplication joined with thanksgiving to 
 make our desires known unto God (Phil. iv. 6).' These 
 injunctions we fulfil when we use the petition in the 
 Lord's Prayer in a proper spirit. At the same time, 
 even in our prayers we are directed specially to the 
 needs of ' the coming day,' for in the very act of asking 
 for distant material blessings there is danger of exciting 
 in ourselves this ^epi^va which it is our duty to crush 1 . 
 
 1 The moral bearing of this petition is well put by S. Basil (Reg. 
 brev. tract, cclii, II. p. 500), though he wrongly interprets the word 
 itself; 6 epyafo/uevos fAvrj/jLovevuv TOV Kvpiov X^-yojros MTJ iJ.epifj.va.Te rrj 
 
 IS 2 
 
228 APPENDIX I. 
 
 On the other hand, if eiriovcnov be derived from 
 ITTL, ova-la, we have the choice between the two senses 
 of ovala, (i) 'subsistence,' and (2) 'essence, being.' 
 Of these the latter must be rejected at once. It 
 is highly improbable that a term of transcendental 
 philosophy should have been chosen, and a strange 
 compound invented for insertion in a prayer intended 
 for everyday use. Indeed nothing could well be con- 
 ceived more alien to the simplicity of the Gospel- 
 teaching, than such an expression as eVtouo^o?, meaning 
 'suited to' or 'conducive to the ova-la, the essential 
 being.' If therefore this derivation from ova- la is ten- 
 able at all, we must be prepared to assign to it the 
 more homely meaning, ' subsistence,' so that eTrtova-ios 
 will be ' sufficient to sustain us/ ' enough for our 
 absolute wants, but not enough for luxury.' Such a 
 sense in itself would meet the requirements of the 
 passage. Only it does not seem likely that a strange 
 word, which arrives at this meaning in an indirect way, 
 should have been invented to express a very simple 
 idea for which the Greek language had already more 
 than one equivalent. Nor indeed is it a natural sense 
 for the word to bear. In Porphyr. Isag. 16, and 
 elsewhere, eirova-Lw^ is used to signify accidental^ 
 
 ri <j)ayijT $ rl TrLijT..,T6v tirtotiffiov dprov, 
 rrjv <j>i?)iJ.epov faty rrj ovalq. y/J-uv xp^Mei'OJ'Ta, ovx eavry 
 dXXd T( 0e< ^rvyxdvei Trepl TOVTOV, K.T.\. 
 
APPENDIX I. 229 
 
 as opposed to essential, denoting what is superadded 
 to the ovcrta-, and if such a compound as eVtouoYo? 
 (from ova- la) were possible, it ought to have a similar 
 meaning. 
 
 3. TJte tenor of tradition. 
 
 Hitherto we have seen no sufficient reason for 
 abandoning the derivation from Uvai, while on the 
 other hand serious difficulties are encountered by 
 adopting the alternative and deriving the word from 
 dvai. It remains to enquire how far this result is 
 borne out by tradition. 
 
 Tholuck, discussing the two derivations of eVtou- 
 o-fco?, from elvat, and Ikvai respectively, states, 'The 
 oldest and most widely spread is the former': and 
 Suicer, mentioning the derivation from f) eTnovcra, 
 adds, 'Nemo ex veteribus ita explicat.' I hope to 
 show that such statements are the very reverse of 
 the truth; that, so far as our evidence goes, the 
 derivation from levat is decidedly the more ancient; 
 and that, though the other prevailed widely among 
 Greek interpreters after Origen, yet it never covered 
 so wide an area as its elder rival. I shall take the 
 great divisions of the Church as distinguished by their 
 several languages, and investigate the traditional sense 
 assigned to the word in each. 
 
230 APPENDIX I. 
 
 I. In the Greek Church the first testimony is 
 that of ORIGEN (de Orat. 27, 1. c.). He himself derives 
 the word from ovo-ta, adducing Trepiovcrios as an 
 analogy. This analogy, as we have already seen, is 
 false : for, whereas eVl loses the final vowel in com- 
 position, Trepl retains it; so that while the one com- 
 pound would be Trepiovcrios, the other would be 
 eVouo-to?. Thus derived, the word signifies according 
 to Origen TOV et? rrjv ovo-lav ijfjLwv a-v/jLf3a\\6/jLevov 
 apTov. It is the spiritual bread which nourishes the 
 spiritual being, 6 Ty (jtvaei, TTJ \oyi/cfj /caTa\\7]\6raro^ 
 KOI Ty ovaia avTy (rvyyevrjs /e.r.X. This view Origen 
 supports by quoting other passages where the heavenly 
 bread is mentioned, and at the close of the discussion 
 he adds (p. 249 c) ; ' Some one will say that eiriovo-iov 
 is formed [1. KaTecr^fjiaTiaOai] from linevai ; so that 
 we are bidden to ask for the bread which belongs to 
 the future life (TOV olnelov TOV yaeXXo^ro? alwvos), that 
 God may anticipate and give it to us even now, so 
 that what shall be given as it were to-morrow 
 may be given us to-day (OOCTTC TO olovel avpiov 
 SoOrjcrofjievov vrjuepov rifilv SoOfjvcu) ; the future life 
 being represented by to-morrow^ and the present by 
 to-day: but the former acceptation is better in my 
 judgment, etc.' Thus the earliest notice among Greek- 
 speaking Christians reveals a conflict between the two 
 derivations. It is true that in either case Origen 
 
APPENDIX I. 231 
 
 contemplates a spiritual rather than a literal interpre- 
 tation of the bread, but this fact accords with the 
 general principles of the Alexandrian school from 
 which the notice emanates ; for this school is given to 
 importing a mystical sense into the simple language 
 of the Gospel. This ulterior question does not affect 
 the derivation of the word. 
 
 So far as I am acquainted with the language of 
 Origen elsewhere, his mode of speaking here is quite 
 consistent with the supposition that he himself first 
 started the derivation from elvai, ovaia. At all events 
 this supposition accords with his fondness for im- 
 porting a reference to ' absolute being ' into the lan- 
 guage of the Apostles and Evangelists elsewhere, as 
 for instance when he interprets TO<? dyiois TO?? ovcriv 
 (omitting the words ev 'E$eVa>) in Ephes. i. i, and iva 
 ra OVTCL /carapyrjo-rj in I Cor. i. 28, in this sense (see 
 Cramer's Catena on Ephes. 1. c.). A derivation which 
 transferred the word fVtouo-to? at once from the 
 domain of the material to the domain of the supra- 
 sensual would have a strong attraction for Origen's 
 mind. Still it must remain a pure hypothesis that he 
 himself invented this derivation. He may have got it 
 from one of his predecessors, Pantaenus or Clement : 
 but at all events it bears the impress of the Alexan- 
 drian school. On the other hand his own language 
 shows that the other etymology (from eirievai) had its 
 
232 APPENDIX I. 
 
 supporters. How few or how numerous they were, 
 the vagueness of his expression will not allow us to 
 speculate. It is only when we come to the Versions 
 that we find solid ground for assuming that in the 
 earliest age this was the prevailing view. 
 
 The next Greek writer whose opinion is known 
 was also an Alexandrian. The great ATHANASIUS 
 (de Incarn. 16, I. p. 706) derives the word from 
 7rievat y but gives it a theological meaning : ' Elsewhere 
 He calls the Holy Spirit heavenly bread, saying, Give 
 us this day TOP aprov *5//,&>z/ TOV eiriova-Lov 1 , for He 
 taught us in His prayer to ask in the present life for 
 TOV eTriovo-lov aprov, that is the future, whereof we 
 have the first-fruits in the present life, partaking of it 
 through 2 the flesh of the Lord, as He Himself said, 
 The bread, which I shall give, is My flesh, etc.' This is 
 exactly the account of the word which Origen rejects. 
 
 To those however, who have studied the early his- 
 tory of Biblical interpretation, it will be no surprise to 
 find that Origen's explanation of this word exerted 
 a very wide and lasting influence. It is a common 
 
 1 The Benedictine editor translates tiriovo-iov here by supersubstan- 
 tialem after Jerome, though the context of S. Athanasius is directly 
 against this. At the same time Athanasius arrives at the same mystical 
 meaning of rbv aprov rbv tiriovviov as Jerome, though through a different 
 derivation. 
 
 ' 2 5i<i is absent from some texts but seems to be correct. If it is 
 omitted the sense will be 'partaking of the flesh.' 
 
APPENDIX I. 233 
 
 phenomenon to find nearly all the Greek expositors 
 following him, even in cases where his interpretation 
 is almost demonstrably wrong. If his explanations 
 had the good fortune to be adopted by the Antiochene 
 school, as was frequently the case, they passed un- 
 challenged and established themselves in the Church 
 at large. In this particular instance the procedure of 
 the Antiochene school would appear to have been 
 characteristic, both in its agreement with and in its 
 departure from Origen. While accepting his deri- 
 vation, they seem to have substituted a realistic for 
 his mystical sense of dpros eVtouo-to?. The adjective 
 thus explained becomes ' for our material subsistence/ 
 and not ' for our spiritual being/ 
 
 The views of the earliest representatives of the 
 Antiochene school on this point are not recorded. 
 But they may perhaps be assumed not only from 
 the general tenor of later interpretations in this 
 school (from Chrysostom downward) but also from 
 the opinions of the Cappadocian fathers. 
 
 In the treatise of GREGORY NYSSEN, de Orat. 
 Domin. iv, I. p. 745, this view is stated very expli- 
 citly : ' We are ordered,' he says, ' to ask for what 
 is sufficient for the preservation of our bodily sub- 
 sistence (TO 7T/309 TT)V o-vvrijprjcriv 7-779 (TOt/tarifttyf 
 ov<r t a?).' The same interpretation is adopted by 
 his brother BASIL (Reg. brev. tract, cclii, II. p. 500), 
 
234 APPENDIX I. 
 
 who explains rov emovcriov aprov as that 'which is 
 serviceable for our daily life for our subsistence (rov 
 777305 rrjv <f)r)ppov farjv rfi over la tf/jiwv xprjatpevovra).' 
 The same derivation, though not quite the same 
 meaning, is assigned to it also by CYRIL OF JERU- 
 SALEM, Catech. xxiii (Mystag. v). 15, p. 329; 'This 
 holy bread is eVioucrio?, being appointed for the sub- 
 sistence (or substance) of the soul (eVt rrjv ovo-lav 
 rfjs ifrvxr)? tcararao-cro/jLevos). This bread does not go 
 into the belly nor is it cast out into the draught, 
 but is distributed into the whole of thy complex 
 frame (efc rrda-av aov rrjv avcrracriv dvaBloorai) for the 
 benefit of body and soul'; where an application chiefly 
 though not exclusively spiritual is given to ovo-ia. 
 Again, S. CHRYSOSTOM, de Aug. Port. etc. 5*, III. 
 p. 35, interprets eTriovaiov 'which passes to the sub- 
 stance of the body (eVt rrjv ova" lav rov crew'/taro? 
 SiajBaivovTa) and is able to compact (<rv<yKpoTrj<rai) 
 this'; but elsewhere, in his Homily on S. John (xliii. 
 2, VIII. p. 257) he explains TOV aprov rov eTriovcriov, 
 rovreo-n, rov icaOr) pep LVOV ; while on S. Matthew, 
 where the passage itself occurs, he expresses himself 
 in such a vague way, as if he were purposely evading 
 a difficulty (xix. 5, VII. p. 25 1 sq.), rl ecm rov aprov 
 rov emoixriov ; rov ^>rifj.epov...Olrat, \rj <f>vo-is] rpo(f>r)<; 
 
 1 It is right to mention that the authorship of this Homily has been 
 questioned ; see the preface in Montfaucon's edition. 
 
APPENDIX I. 235 
 
 7779 dvaytcaias...v7Tp aprov /JLOVOV Ke\ev<re TTJV 
 7roiio~0at,, teal vTrep aprov TOV e^rjpepov, ware fir) virep 
 T^9 avpiov fiepi/JLvdv Sia TOVTO Trpoo-edrj/ce, TOV apTov 
 TOV eiriova-tov, TOVTZQ-TI,, TOV <j)rjfju6pov' ical ovoe TOVTW 
 rfpfcea-Orj TO> prjfjiaTt, d\\d /cal T6pov /JLCTO, TOVTO jrpocr- 
 
 60rjKV, eiTTCOV, So? TJIUV (TTJfiepOV' (WC7T6 fJLr) 7T6paiTepa> 
 
 crvvTpijBeiv eaurou? Trj (frpovTiSi, r^? eTriovcrr)? ^/i-epa?, 
 where he shelters himself under the vagueness of 
 efyrifiepos without explaining how he arrives at this 
 meaning, and where the somewhat ambiguous words 
 ' not to afflict ourselves further with the thought of 
 the coming (eVtouo-???) day ' seem to allow, if not to 
 suggest, the derivation from eVtoucra. In a later 
 passage of the same Homilies (Iv. 5, p. 562) and in 
 his Exposition of Psalm cxxvii (V. p. 364) he again 
 quotes this petition, but avoids an explanation; in 
 his Homilies on Genesis (liv. 5, IV. p. 530 sq.) he 
 adduces it as setting the proper limits to our desire 
 for temporal goods, TOI^ apTov rj^wv TOV eTnovcriov So? 
 THUV crrifj(,pov, OLVT\ TOV, TT}V TT?? tfflipOS Tpocfrrjv ; while 
 on Philippians iv. 19 {Horn. xv. 4, XL p. 316), com- 
 menting on the words 7r\r)poocrt, Tracrav ^peiav V/JLWV, 
 he adds ' so as not to be in want but to have what 
 is needful (rd TT/JO? ^peiav\ for Christ also put this 
 in His prayer, when teaching us, TOV dprov jfjuwv 
 TOV 67TLou(7Lov So? ^fjilv (rrjfjLepov.' Thus he seems 
 throughout to be wavering between the meanings 
 
236 APPENDIX I. 
 
 daily and necessary, i.e. between the derivations from 
 levai and elvau, though he tends towards the latter. 
 Again THEODORET on Phil. iv. 19, following Chry- 
 sostom, quotes this petition as warranting S. Paul in 
 asking for his converts rrjv Kara rov irapovra ftlov 
 
 Somewhat later CYRIL OF ALEXANDRIA on Luke 
 xi. 3 (Mat, II. p. 266) thus comments on eTnovai,ov\ 
 1 Some say that it is that which shall come and shall 
 be given in the future life; ...... but if this were 
 
 true ...... why do they add, Give us day by dayl For 
 
 one may see likewise by these words that they 
 make their petition for daily food ; and we must 
 understand by eTnovcnov what is sufficient (rov av- 
 rapKrf) etc. 1 ' 
 
 Later Greek writers contented themselves with 
 repeating one or more of the interpretations given by 
 their predecessors. Thus DAMASCENE (Orthod. Fid. 
 iv. 13, I. p. 272 Lequien) says, ovros 6 apros eo-rlv 
 7? dTrap'xfi rov /zeXXoz/ro? aprov, 05 ecrriv 6 CTriovcrios' 
 TO jap eiriovo-iov 8r)\ot fj rov fj,e\\ovra, rovrean, rov 
 rov /xeXXoz/T09 alcovos, rj rov TT/OO? avvr^prjo-Lv rrjs 
 ova-las THIWV \a/jL/3av6/j,evov ; and THEOPHYLACT (on 
 Luke xi. 3) explains it rov eVt rfj ovcria rjfMwv KOLI rfj 
 Gv<rrao-ei rfjs f&)^5 a-viiftaXkofJLevov, ov rov ireptrrov 
 
 1 In Glaphyr. in Exod. ii, I. p. 286, ed. Auberti, he explains this 
 petition as equivalent to asking for rd eJs 
 
APPENDIX I. 237 
 
 d\\d TOV dvay/calov (see also on Matt. vi. 
 
 2. From the Aramaic Christians, the testimony 
 in favour of the derivation from eirievat, is stronger. 
 
 We learn from S. Jerome (in Matth. vi. n, VII. 
 p. 34), that in the GOSPEL ACCORDING TO THE 
 HEBREWS the word eTriova-iov, which he translated 
 ' supersubstantialem,' was rendered by Mahar (1H23), 
 * quod dicitur crastinum, ut sit sensus, Panem nostrum 
 crastinum, id est futurum, da nobis hodie? 
 
 Whatever view be adopted of the origin of this 
 Apocryphal Gospel, its evidence has the highest value 
 in this particular instance. Of its great antiquity no 
 question can be entertained. It can hardly have 
 been written much later than the close of the first 
 century. It was regarded as an authoritative docu- 
 ment by the Judaizing Christians of Palestine. It 
 adhered very closely to the Gospel of S. Matthew, 
 and was even thought by some to be the Hebrew 
 (i.e. Aramaic) original of this Gospel; though the 
 variations are too considerable to admit this simple 
 solution. On the whole we may conclude with 
 high probability that its traditions were not derived 
 through the Greek but came from some Aramaic 
 source or sources whether from an oral Gospel, or 
 
 1 A number of different interpretations are huddled together by an 
 anonymous writer in Origen, Op. I. p. 910 (ed. Delarue). 
 
238 APPENDIX I. 
 
 from written notes put together for catechetical pur- 
 poses, or from the Aramaic copy of S. Matthew's 
 Gospel altered to suit the purposes of the writer. 
 But even if it were derived from our Greek Gospels, 
 its interpretation of etrwvo-iov would still have the 
 greatest weight as proceeding from Palestine at this 
 very early date. In a familiar expression in the 
 most familiar of all the Evangelical records it is 
 not unreasonable to assume that the tradition would 
 be preserved at the close of the Apostolic age un- 
 impaired in the vernacular language of our Lord and 
 His disciples 1 . 
 
 From the Gospel according to the Hebrews, we 
 turn to another Aramaic source, emanating from a 
 different quarter, the CURETONIAN SYRIAC Version 
 of the New Testament. 
 
 In Matt. vi. n, this version has: 
 
 .sen ndsacun 
 
 ' And-our-bread continual of-the-day give-to-us.' 
 In Luke xi. 3 : 
 
 .-ncul^.i rdA-i^K' r<J*gi.u\ ^X .acnet 
 ' And-give to-us the-bread continual of-e very-day.* 
 
 1 It is unnecessary here to discuss the question to what extent Greek 
 was spoken in Palestine at the Christian era. Even if with Dr. Roberts, 
 in his instructive work Discussions on the Gospels, we take the view 
 that the Palestinian Jews were bi- lingual, the argument in the text will 
 still hold good. 
 
APPENDIX I. 239 
 
 Here the temporal sense 'continual,' given to 
 , connects it with eTrievcu, whether through 
 eTriovaa, 'for the coming day/ and so 'daily, con- 
 stant/ or more directly, ' ever coming/ and so ' per- 
 petual' 1 . 
 
 When however we turn from the Curetonian to 
 the later revision, the PESHITO SYRIAC, we find that 
 the influence of the Greek interpreters has been at 
 work meanwhile. The word 'necessary' is substituted 
 for 'constant/ the qualitative sense for the temporal, 
 i. e. the derivation from elvat, for the derivation from 
 
 In Matt. vi. n of this Version, the petition runs, 
 .KLlSftCU {JLnJCUto.i r^*giu\ ^ .acn 
 
 ' Give to-us the-bread of-our-necessity this-day.' 
 In Luke xi. 3 : 
 
 .^ucul^ ^LoJCUto.i ndsajjA ^ .=>cn 
 ' Give to-us the-bread of-our-necessity every-day.' 
 
 This is only one of the many instances where the 
 Peshito betrays the influences of the fourth century 
 whether in the text or in the interpretation 2 . 
 
 1 Cureton compares Num. iv. 7 TDnn DH7, translated in the 
 Syriac ta r^LlASfc K* T<L**1u.V His own speculations respect- 
 ing the original reading in S. Matthew seem both unnecessary and 
 untenable. 
 
 2 Prof. Wright informs me that he has not found any variation in 
 
240 APPENDIX I. 
 
 In the still later HARCLEAN VERSION (A.D. 6 1 6) 
 again this same interpretation is adopted in both 
 passages, though slightly varied in form. 
 
 In Matt. vi. 1 1 : 
 
 ocn 
 
 'The-bread of- us that necessary give to-us this-day.' 
 In Luke xi. 3 : 
 
 ' The-bread of-necessity of-us give to-us this-day : ' 
 with a v. 1. KLsaa* A^ra.t ocn (i.e. TO KCL& rjpepav) 
 for KliSWCU ((rrjfj,pov). 
 
 Again, the JERUSALEM SYRIAC, which was per- 
 haps translated from a Greek Lectionary, and can 
 hardly be earlier than the 5th century, also appears 
 to derive eTrioixrios from elvai, ova-ia, but gives it a 
 different sense, apparently confusing it with 
 
 , as S. Jerome does. 
 
 In Matt. vi. 1 1 it has, 
 
 'Our-bread of-opulence (or 'abundance') give to-us 
 this-day,' (l. p. 234, ed. Miniscalchi-Erizzo). The 
 corresponding passage in S. Luke is not extant 
 in this Version. 
 
 the earliest MSS of the Peshito in the British Museum, belonging to 
 the 5th, 6th, and yth centuries. 
 
APPENDIX I. 241 
 
 Thus among the Aramaic Christians the earliest 
 tradition, which has reached us by two distinct 
 channels, connects the word with iinkvai : while in the 
 later Versions, after the influence of the Greek inter- 
 preters had made itself felt, this traditional sense has 
 been displaced by the derivation from ova La. 
 
 It will be seen hereafter how the later rendering 
 substituted by S. Jerome failed to suppress the tra- 
 ditional quotidianum o*f the Old Latin. In the same 
 way the r^ii *9ir^ of the Old (Curetonian) Syriac, 
 though it does not show equal vitality, occurs occa- 
 sionally and still survives long after the later Revi- 
 sion of the New Testament, which we call the Peshito, 
 had superseded the earlier Version or Versions. Thus 
 in the Syriac recension of the Acts of Thomas which 
 must be a very ancient work, for it has a distinctly 
 Gnostic character the Lord's Prayer is quoted to- 
 wards the end, and the petition in question runs 
 
 closely following this Version 1 . Again, in one of the 
 poems of Jacob of Sarug, who died A.D. 521 (Zin- 
 gerle's Monumenta Syriaca p. 31, Innsbruck 1869), it 
 
 1 These Acts are found in a British Museum MS, Add. 14, 645, and 
 have been recently edited by Prof. Wright, in his Apocryphal Acts of 
 the Apostles, 1871. The text of the Lord's Prayer in these Acts agrees 
 generally with the Curetonian Version as against the Peshito. 
 
 L. R. 16 
 
242 APPENDIX I. 
 
 is said of the patriarch Jacob (see Gen. xxviii. 20) 
 that he 'prayed the prayer which our Lord taught. 
 
 ..A .= 00 KLsaCU.I KllA^rt K* KlSa-uA 
 
 The-bread continual of-the-day give to-me.' 
 And lower down he again repeats the characteristic 
 words: 
 
 This rendering of TOV dprov rov eTriovcrtov is found 
 also in an Exposition of the Lord's Prayer by the 
 same writer, preserved in the MS Brit. Mus. Add. 17, 
 157 (dated A.G. 876 = A.D. 565), in which the expres- 
 sion is repeated not less than three times, fol. 48 a, 
 49 a\ 
 
 1 This passage was pointed out to me by Mr Bensly of the Cambridge 
 University Library. I had also hoped that I might find this petition 
 quoted in the works of one of the earlier Syriac writers, Aphraates 
 or Ephrem, but my search has not been attended with success. An 
 indirect reference in Ephrem (Op. vi. p. 642) omits the word in question. 
 
 vvA 
 
 ' The bread of the day shall suffice thee, as thou hast learnt in the 
 Prayer.' At the same time Ephrem agrees with the Curetonian against 
 the Peshito in f^^CVflj so that it seems probable he used the Cure- 
 tonian Version. Prof. Wright at my request examined several Syriac 
 Service-books in the British Museum Library. He reports that all the 
 volumes which he examined are Jacobite, and that ' the reading invari- 
 ably agrees with the Peshito text of Matt. vi. n. They belong to 
 the Qth, loth, and nth centuries.' 
 
 2 These references were communicated to me by Prof. Wright. 
 
APPENDIX I. 243 
 
 3. The testimony of the Egyptian Versions again 
 is highly valuable, both as preserving a very ancient 
 tradition (for it would seem that they must both be 
 assigned to the close of the second or beginning of 
 the third century), and as representing a distinct and 
 isolated section of the Church. 
 
 The MEMPHITIC, the version of Lower Egypt, and 
 the THEBAIC, the version of Upper Egypt, agree in 
 the derivation from Ikvai ; and their agreement is the 
 more valuable, inasmuch as their general character 
 shows them to be independent the one of the other. 
 The Memphitic Version has: 
 In Matt. vi. 1 1 : 
 
 neNooiK NTepACTi MHiq NAN M(t>ooY. 
 'Our bread of-to-morrow give-it to-us to-day/ 
 In Luke xi. 3 : 
 
 neNooiK e6NHOY MHiq NAN MMHNI. 
 'Our bread that-cometh give-it to-us daily/ 
 The Thebaic Version : 
 In Matt. vi. 1 1 : 
 
 neNoeiK GTNHY Npri MMoq NAN Mrrooy. 
 'Our bread that-cometh give-thou it to us to-day/ 
 The corresponding passage of S. Luke in this Version 
 is not preserved. 
 
 Here we have a choice of two translations, both 
 founded on the same derivation, the one through 
 , the other directly from eirievai. 
 
 162 
 
244 APPENDIX I. 
 
 In all the Coptic (i.e. Memphitic) Service-books 
 which I have seen, the rendering of eiriova-iov is NirepACTi, 
 'of to-morrow/ 
 
 4. The Latin Churches preserve a still more an- 
 cient tradition. The OLD LATIN Version, which 
 dates certainly from the second century, and not 
 improbably, so far as regards the Gospels, from the 
 first half of the century, renders liriovaiov by quoti- 
 dianum in both Evangelists. Of this rendering there 
 can be no doubt. It is found in the extant manu- 
 scripts of the Old Latin Version in both places. It is 
 quoted moreover by the early Latin Fathers, Ter- 
 tullian (de Orat. 6) and Cyprian (de Orat. p. 104, 
 Fell). Though both these fathers are commenting 
 especially on the Lord's Prayer, and both adopt a 
 spiritual sense of the petition, as referring to Christ 
 the living bread and to the eucharistic feast, yet they 
 comment on 'quotidianum' from this point of view, 
 and seem to be unaware that any other rendering is 
 possible. 
 
 At length in the fourth century the influence of 
 the scholastic interpretation, put forward by Origen 
 and the Greek Fathers, makes itself felt in Latin 
 writers. The first semblance of any such influence 
 is found in Juvencus, the Latin poet, who wrote a 
 metrical history of the Gospel about A.D. 330 335. 
 He renders the words 
 

 APPENDIX I. 245 
 
 Vitalisque hodie sancti substantia panis 
 Proveniat nobis. 
 
 Evang. Hist. i. 631. 
 
 Here however, though the coincidence is curious, 
 no inference can safely be drawn from the occurrence 
 of 'substantia' ; since Juvencus elsewhere uses the 
 word with a genitive as a convenient periphrasis to 
 eke out his metre, without any special significance; 
 e.g. i. 415, 'substantia panis' (Matt. iv. 4); i. 510, 
 'salis substantia' (Matt. v. 13); ii. 420, 'vocis sub- 
 stantia' (Matt. ix. 32); ii. 524, 'animae substantia' 
 (Matt. xi. 5); ii. 677, 'credendi substantia' (John v. 
 38) ; iii. 668, 'arboris substantia' (Matt. xxi. 21). 
 
 In VlCTORINUS the Rhetorician, who was ac- 
 quainted with the Greek commentators, the first dis- 
 tinct traces of this interpretation in the Latin Church 
 are found. In his treatise against Arius, completed 
 about the year 365, he writes (i. 31, Bibl. Vet. Patr. 
 VIII. p. 163, ed. Galland.): 'Unde deductum eTriova-iov 
 quam a substantia. ? Da panem nobis ITTIOIXTLOV hodi- 
 ernum. Quoniam Jesus vita est, et corpus ipsius vita 
 est, corpus autem panis... Significat eTriovcriov ex ipsa 
 aut in ipsa substantia, hoc est, vitae panem/ And 
 again (ii. 8, ib. p. 177): ' liriovaiov aprov, ex eadem 
 ova-la panem, id est, de vita Dei, consubstantialem 
 vitam...Graecum igitur Evangelium habet eTriovcriov, 
 quod denominatum est a substantia, et utique Dei 
 
246 APPENDIX I. 
 
 substantial hoc Latini vel non intelligentes vel non 
 valentes exprimere non potuerunt dicere, et tantum- 
 modo quotidianum posuerunt, non eTriovcnov.' Setting 
 himself to defend the O/MOOVO-IOV of the Nicene creed 
 against the charge of novelty, Victorinus seizes with 
 avidity a derivation of eTriova-iov which furnishes him 
 with a sort of precedent. 
 
 Again, in S. AMBROSE we find distinct references 
 to this derivation. In a treatise ascribed to this 
 father (de Sacram. v. 4. 24, II. p. 378) we read, 
 'Quare ergo in oratione dominica, quae postea sequi- 
 tur, ait Panem nostrum ? Paaem quidem sed einov- 
 (7iov, hoc est, super sub stantialem. Non iste panis est 
 qui vadit in corpus ; sed ille panis vitae aeternae qui 
 animae nostrae substantiam fulcit. Ideo Graece CTTIOV- 
 aws dicitur : Latinus autem hunc panem quotidianum 
 dixit [quern Graeci dicunt advenientem~\ l ; quia Graeci 
 dicunt rrjv ITTIOVGCLV rjfjuepav advenientem diem. Ergo 
 quod Latinus dixit et quod Graecus, utrumque utile 
 videtur. Graecus utrumque uno sermone significavit, 
 Latinus quotidianum dixit. Si quotidianus est panis, 
 cur post annum ilium sumis, quemadmodum Graeci 
 in oriente facere consuerunt ? Accipe quotidie, quod 
 quotidie tibi prosit etc.' The writer seems here to 
 combine the two derivations of eTTLovcriov, as though 
 
 1 The words in brackets are omitted in many MSS, and seem to be 
 out of place. 
 
APPENDIX I. 247 
 
 the word could have a double etymology. At least 
 I cannot interpret 'Graecus utrumque uno sermone 
 significavit' in any other way 1 . The authorship of the 
 treatise however is open to question, as it contains 
 some suspicious statements and expressions. But 
 whoever may have been the writer, the work appears 
 to be early. If he owed the expression super sub- 
 stantialis to S. Jerome's revision, as was probably 
 the case, even this is consistent with the Ambrosian 
 authorship, as several of this father's works were 
 written after S. Jerome had completed the Gospels. 
 
 Again, in an unquestioned treatise of S. Ambrose 
 (de Fide iii. 15. 127, n. p. 519) written in the years 
 377, 378, this father, defending the word OJJLOOVO-LOV 
 against the Arians, uses the same argument as Victo- 
 rinus: 'An negare possunt ova-Lav lectam, cum et 
 panem ITTLOVCTLOV Dominus dixerit et Moyses scrip- 
 serit vjJLeis eaeade /JLOI, \aos irepiovcnos ? Aut quid est 
 ova-la, vel unde dicta, nisi ovo~a aet, quod semper 
 maneat ? Qui enim est, et est semper, Deus est ; et 
 ideo manens semper ovaa dicitur divina substantia. 
 Propterea eVtovcrto? panis, quod ex verbi substantia 
 substantiam virtutis manentis cordi et animae sub- 
 ministret ; scriptum est enim, Et panis confirmat cor 
 
 1 Pfeiffer in the Thesaur. Theol. Philol. II. p. 117 (Amstel. 1702) 
 explains 'utrumque uno sermone significavit' by 'crastinum scil. di- 
 cendo, hodiernum includens diem,' which seems to me meaningless. 
 
248 APPENDIX I. 
 
 hominis (Ps. ciii. 15).' The etymological views of a 
 writer who derives ova-La from ovo-a del can have no 
 value in themselves. The notice is only important 
 as showing that the derivation from ova-la was gaining 
 ground. At the same time, like the passage of Victo- 
 rinus, it suggests a motive which would induce many 
 to accept the etymology offered, as furnishing a ready 
 answer to an Arian objection. 
 
 When S. JEROME (about A.D. 383) revised the 
 Latin of the New Testament, he substituted super- 
 substantialem for quotidianum in the text of S. 
 Matthew ; but, either prevented by scruples from 
 erasing a cherished expression from the Latin Bibles, 
 or feeling some misgiving about the correctness of his 
 own rendering, he allowed quotidianum to stand in 
 S. Luke. Altogether his language is vague and un- 
 decided, whenever he has occasion to mention the 
 word. In his Commentary on the Epistle to Titus 
 (Op. VII. p. 726), written about A.D. 387, he thus ex- 
 presses himself: 'Unde et illud, quod in evangelio 
 secundum Latinos interpretes scriptum est Panem 
 nostrum quotidianum da nobis hodie> melius in Graeco 
 habetur Panem nostrum eTriovaiov, id est praecipuum^ 
 egregium, peculiarem 1 , eum videlicet qui de caelo de- 
 
 1 It thus appears that the sense which S. Jerome himself attaches 
 to his rendering supersubstantiakm is different from that which some 
 theologians have assigned to it. 
 
APPENDIX I. 249 
 
 scendens ait (Job. vi. 51), Ego sum panis qui de caelo 
 descendi. Absit quippe ut nos, qui in crastinum cogi- 
 tare prohibemur, de pane isto qui post paululum con- 
 coquendus et abjiciendus est in secessum in prece 
 dominica rogare jubeamur. Nee multum differt inter 
 iiriovviov et Trepiovcriov, praepositio enim tantummodo 
 est mutata, non verbum. Quidam eTrtovaiov existi- 
 mant in oratione dominica panem dictum, quod 
 super omnes ova-las sit, hoc est super universas sub- 
 stantias. Quod si accipitur, non multum ab eo sensu 
 differt quern exposuimus. Quidquid enim egregium 
 est et praecipuum, extra omnia est et super omnia.' 
 And similarly in his Commentary on S. Matthew 
 (Op. VII. p. 34), written a few years afterwards (A.D. 
 398) : 'Quod nos super sub stantialem expressimus, in 
 Graeco habetur eTriovo-iov, quod verbum Septuaginta 
 interpretes Trepiov<riov frequentissime transferunt...... 
 
 Possumus supersubstantialem panem et aliter intel- 
 legere, qui super omnes substantias sit et universas 
 superet creaturas. Alii simpliciter putant, secundum 
 Apostoli sermonem dicentis Habentes victum et ve- 
 stitum his contenti simus, de praesenti tantum cibo 
 sanctos curam agere.' Hitherto he is apparently 
 consistent with himself in connecting the word with 
 ovcria ; but in a later work, the Commentary on 
 Ezekiel (Op. V. p. 209), written from A.D. 411414, 
 he says, ' Melius est ut intelligamus panem justi eum 
 
250 APPENDIX I. 
 
 esse qui dicit, Ego sum panis mvus qui de caelo de- 
 scendi, et quern in Oratione nobis tribui deprecamur, 
 Panem nostrum substantivum, sive superventurum, da 
 nobis, ut quern postea semper accepturi sumus, in prae- 
 senti saeculo quotidie mereamur accipere.' And in a 
 still later work against the Pelagians, written about 
 A.D. 415, he speaks with the same uncertainty (iii. 15, 
 II. p. 800) ; ' Sic docuit Apostolos suos ut quotidie in 
 corporis illius sacrificio credentes audeant loqui Pater 
 noster, etc.... Panem quotidianum, sive super omnes sub- 
 stantias, venturum Apostoli deprecantur ut digni sint 
 assumtione corporis Christi.' In one point only is he 
 consistent throughout. He insists on a spiritual, as 
 opposed to a literal, interpretation of the bread. 
 
 The indecision or the scruple or the carelessness, 
 which led Jerome to retain quotidianum in one Evan- 
 gelist while he removed it from another, bore strange 
 fruit. Jerome's revised Latin Version became the 
 Bible of the Western Churches. The knowledge of 
 the Greek tongue died out. The fact that the same 
 word iTTLova-iov occurs in both Gospels passed out 
 of memory. The difference which was found in the 
 Latin Vulgate came to be regarded as a difference in 
 the language of the Evangelists themselves. As such it 
 is commented upon by the most learned Latin writers 
 in successive ages. So it is treated even by his own 
 younger contemporary Cassianus who, though him- 
 
APPENDIX I. 251 
 
 self not ignorant of Greek, yet in a treatise written 
 soon after the death of S. Jerome writes (Collat. 
 ix. 21), ' Panem nostrum CTTIOVO-IOV, id est, super- 
 substantialem, da nobis hodie : quod alius evangelista 
 quoiidianum! So again it is taken by Anselm in the 
 nth or 1 2th century (Comm. in Matth^by Nicolas 
 of Lyra in the I4th (Comm. in Mattk.), and by Diony- 
 sius Carthusianus in the I5th (Enarr. in Mattk.) 1 \ 
 all of whom remark on the different epithets used by 
 S. Matthew and S. Luke. 
 
 But the most remarkable instance of this blunder 
 is furnished by a controversy between the two fore- 
 most men of their time, S. Bernard and Abelard. 
 The Abbot of Clairvaux, having occasion to visit the 
 convent of the Paraclete of which Heloise was abbess, 
 observed that in repeating the Lord's Prayer at the 
 daily hours a change was made in the usual form, the 
 word 'supersubstantialem' being substituted for 'quo- 
 tidianum.' As Heloise had made this change under the 
 direction of Abelard, she communicated the complaint 
 to him. Upon this he wrote a letter of defence to S. 
 Bernard, which is extant (P. Abaelardi Opera I. p. 618, 
 ed. Cousin). He pleads that the form in S. Matthew 
 must be more authentic than the form in S. Luke 
 the former having been an Apostle and heard the 
 words as uttered, the latter having derived his infor- 
 
 1 See Pfeiffer 1. c. p. 119 sq. 
 
252 APPENDIX I. 
 
 mation at second hand 'de ipso fonte Matthaeus, 
 de rivulo fontis Lucas est potatus.' Hence S. Mat- 
 thew's form is more complete and contains seven 
 petitions, while S. Luke's has only five. For this 
 reason the Church in her offices has rightly preferred 
 S. Matthew's form to S. Luke's. 'What may have 
 been the reason therefore,' he proceeds, 'that while 
 we retain the rest of S. Matthew's words, we change 
 one only, saying quotidianutn for supersubstantialem\ 
 
 1 We may pardon the mistake of Abelard more readily, when we find 
 that a learned modern historian, commenting on the incident, is guilty 
 of a still greater error. Milman (History of Latin Christianity ill. 
 p. 262, ed. 2) remarks on this dispute: 'The question was the clause in 
 the Lord's prayer our daily bread or our bread day by day.' Here two 
 wholly different things are confused together, (i) S. Matthew and 
 S. Luke alike have tmov<riov. This was rendered quotidianum in both 
 Evangelists in the Old Latin, as it is rendered daily in both in our 
 English Version. But Jerome by substituting supersubstantialem in 
 S. Matthew and retaining quotidianum in S. Luke made an artificial 
 variation, which misled Abelard. Meanwhile the quotidianum of the 
 Old Latin in S. Matthew maintained its place in the Service-books, 
 and puzzled Abelard by its presence. Abelard's remarks are confined 
 solely to the epithet attached to dprov. (2) There is a real difference 
 between S. Matthew and S. Luke in another part of the sentence, the 
 former having a-fj/j.epov this day, the latter r6 /ca0' rtptpav day by day. 
 This distinction was obliterated by the Old Latin, which took the 
 false reading a-fiimepov in S. Luke and so gave hodie in both Evangelists. 
 It reappears again in the original Vulgate of Jerome, which has hodie 
 in S. Matthew and cotidie in S. Luke (though once more obliterated in 
 the Clementine recension). Of this difference Dean Milman seems to 
 have had some not very clear idea and to have confused it with the 
 dispute about tiriovviov, but Abelard does not mention it at all. 
 
APPENDIX I. 253 
 
 let him state who can, if indeed it is sufficient to 
 state it. For the word qtwtidianum does not seem 
 to express the excellence of this bread, like super- 
 sub stantialem ; and it seems to be an act of no slight 
 presumption to correct the words of an Apostle, and 
 to make up one prayer out of two Evangelists, in 
 such a manner that neither seems to be sufficient in 
 respect of it (the prayer), and to recite it in a form 
 in which it was neither spoken by the Lord nor 
 written by any of the Evangelists. Especially when 
 in all other portions of their writings which are read 
 in Church, their words are kept separate, however 
 much they may differ in respect of completeness or 
 incompleteness (impermixta sunt verba eorum, qua- 
 cunque perfectione vel imperfectione discrepent). 
 Therefore, if any one blames me for innovating in 
 this matter, let him consider whether blame is not 
 rather due to the person who presumed out of two 
 prayers written in old times to make up one new 
 prayer, which deserves rather to be called his own 
 than an Evangelist's (non tarn evangelicam quam 
 suam dicendam). Lastly, the discernment of the 
 Greeks, whose authority (as S. Ambrose saith) is 
 greater, hath, owing to the aforesaid reasons, as I 
 suppose, brought the prayer of S. Matthew alone into 
 common use, saying, rbv aprov rj/Aoov rov eTriova-iov, 
 which is translated Panem nostrtim supersubstantialc.m! 
 
254 APPENDIX I. 
 
 Strange it is, that, though quoting the Greek words 
 of S. Matthew (apparently however at second hand), 
 Abelard did not take the trouble to consult the ori- 
 ginal of S. Luke, but here, as elsewhere 1 , allowed 
 himself to follow the Vulgate implicitly. Strange too, 
 but less strange, that he should not have recognised in 
 the quotidianum of the Church Services the remnant 
 of an older Version, which in this instance Jerome's 
 Revision had been powerless to displace. We do not 
 hear that S. Bernard refuted his pertinacious adver- 
 sary by exposing his error. It is improbable that 
 he possessed the learning necessary for this purpose, 
 for in learning at least he was no match for his 
 brilliant opponent. He probably fell back on the 
 usage of the Church, and refused to cross weapons 
 with so formidable an adversary. 
 
 Yet, notwithstanding such notices as these, the 
 marvel is that Jerome's super sub stantialis took so little 
 hold upon the Latin Church at large. When after 
 
 1 Abelard uses similar language elsewhere, In Dieb. Rogat. Serm. 
 Op. I. p. 471; 'Non sine admiratione videtur accipiendum quod apud 
 nos in consuetudinem ecclesiae venerit ut quum orationem dominicam 
 in verbis Matthaei frequentemus, qui earn, ut dictum est, perfectius 
 scripserit, unum ejus verbum caeteris omnibus retentis commutemus, 
 pro supersubstantialem scilicet, quod ipse posuit, dicentes quotidianum, 
 sicut Lucas ait, etc.' On the other hand in the Expositio Orationis 
 Dominicae (i. p. 599 sq.) he comments on quotidianum and does not 
 even mention supersubstantialem. 
 
APPENDIX I. 255 
 
 some generations his revised Vulgate superseded 
 the Old Latin, the word confronted students of the 
 Bible in S. Matthew, and in this position it was com- 
 mented upon and discussed. But here its influence 
 ended. S. Augustine on the morrow of Jerome's 
 Revision still continues to quote and to explain the 
 petition with the word quotidianum, as S. Hilary 1 had 
 quoted and explained it on the eve. Despite the great 
 name of Jerome, whose authority reigned paramount 
 in Western Christendom for many centuries in all 
 matters of Scriptural interpretation, quotidianum was 
 never displaced in the Lord's Prayer as used in the 
 offices of the Church. Roman, Gallican, Ambrosian, 
 and Mozarabic Liturgies, all retained it. The word 
 supersubstantialem is not, so far as I can learn, once 
 substituted for quotidianum in any public services of 
 the Latin Church 2 . The use which Abelard intro- 
 duced at the Paraclete was obviously isolated and 
 exceptional and appears to have been promptly sup- 
 pressed. The devotional instinct of the Church would 
 seem to have been repelled by a scholastic term so 
 little in harmony with our Lord's mode of speaking 
 and so ill adapted to religious worship. Even in the 
 
 1 Fragm. Op. n. p. 714. 
 
 3 It has been pointed out to me that the words 'panem nostrum 
 quotidianum supersubstantialem' occur in the Breviary in the Oratio- 
 num Actio post Missam, the two epithets being combined ; but this is 
 only an indirect reference to the Lord's Prayer. 
 
256 APPENDIX I. 
 
 Catechismus ad Parochos, issued by the Council of 
 Trent as a manual for the guidance of the Roman 
 Clergy and containing a very 'full exposition of the 
 Lord's Prayer, the word quotidianum is retained, while 
 the alternative supersubstantialem is not once men- 
 tioned, though an eucharistic application is given to 
 the petition, and the epithet quotidianum explained 
 in accordance therewith 1 . 
 
 The pre-reformation versions of the Lord's Prayer 
 in the languages of Western Europe, being derived 
 from the Latin, naturally follow the rendering which 
 the translator in each case had before him. If taken 
 from the Old Latin or from the Service-books, they 
 give daily, if from the Vulgate, super substantial. 
 Among a large number of versions and paraphrases 
 of the Lord's Prayer in the various Teutonic dialects 2 
 the latter rendering occurs very rarely, and then (for 
 the most part) only in situ in the Gospel of S. Mat- 
 
 1 It is worthy of notice, as showing how little favour this rendering 
 found, that a Roman Catholic commentator of the 1 6th century, 
 Maldonatus (on Matth. vi. n), supposes that Jerome never intended to 
 place supersubstantialem in the text, and that it got there by careless- 
 ness : ' Hieronymus supersubstantialem vertit, quamquam in eo veterem 
 versionem noluit corrigere. Itaque incaute quidam nostro tempore in 
 vulgata editione pro quotidiano supersubstantialem posuerunt.' This 
 view is quite groundless. 
 
 2 See the collection in Marsh's Origin and History of the English 
 Language^ p. 76 sq. : and also The Gospel of S. Matthew in Anglo- 
 Saxon and Northumbrian Versions (Cambr. 1858). 
 
APPENDIX I. 257 
 
 thew, as e.g. ' ofer-wistlic ' in the Lindisfarne Gospels 
 and ' over other substaunce ' in Wycliffe. 
 
 The early reformers also for the most part adopted 
 the familiar rendering. In Luther's Version it is in- 
 terpreted ' unser taglich brodt,' and Calvin also advo- 
 cates the derivation from eViez/at. So too it is taken in 
 the Latin of Leo Juda. Our own Tyndale rendered it 
 in the same way, and in all the subsequent English 
 Versions of the reformed Church this rendering is 
 retained. On the other hand, the derivation from 
 ova-la was adopted by Beza 1 , whose interpretation 
 however in this particular instance does not appear 
 to have influenced the reformed Versions 2 . 
 
 To sum up the results of this investigation into 
 the testimony of the most ancient Versions. The 
 Syrian, the Egyptian, the Latin Churches, are dis- 
 tinct from one another. Yet all alike bear witness in 
 the earliest forms of the Lord's Prayer to the one 
 derivation of eTriovcriov as against the other. In the 
 Syrian Churches we have testimony from two distinct 
 
 1 Indeed he himself, though he explains the word ' qui nostris viribus 
 sustentandis sufficiat,' yet retains quotidianum in the text, saying 'Mihi 
 religio fuit quicquam immutare in hac precationis formula in ecclesia 
 Dei tanto jam tempore usurpata.' 
 
 2 In Tomson's Version of the N. T. however, which is attached to 
 the Geneva Bible, though it is rendered 'dayly,' a marginal note is 
 added 'That that is meete for our nature for our dayly foode, or such 
 as may suffice our nature and complexion.' 
 
 L. R. 17 
 
258 APPENDIX I. 
 
 sources. The Egyptian Churches likewise tell the 
 same tale with a twofold utterance. All may be re- 
 garded as prior to Origen, the first Greek father who 
 discusses the meaning of the word. In the Syrian 
 and the Latin Churches we have seen how at a later 
 date the scholastic interpretation was superposed upon 
 the traditional, but with different success. In the 
 former it ultimately prevailed ; in the latter it never 
 obtained more than a precarious footing. The Egyp- 
 tian Churches, being more effectually isolated from 
 Greek influences, preserved the traditional sense to 
 the end. 
 
 These Versions alone have any traditional value. 
 But others, which were made in the fourth century 
 and later, are not without their importance, as show- 
 ing how widely the older interpretation still prevailed 
 in the Greek Church, notwithstanding the tendency 
 in the Greek fathers towards the derivation adopted 
 or invented by Origen. It is a remarkable fact that 
 all the remaining Versions which can with probability 
 be assigned to the fourth or fifth centuries give the 
 temporal sense to eTnova-iov, or (in other words) derive 
 it from eTrievai. In the GOTHIC, whose date is about 
 the middle of the fourth century, it is rendered by. 
 sinteinan, 'continual'; in the ARMENIAN, which was 
 made some time before the middle of the fifth, being 
 begun from the Syriac and afterwards revised and 
 
APPENDIX I. 259 
 
 completed from the Greek, it is likewise translated 
 'continual, daily'; and similarly in the ^THIOPIC, 
 whose date is somewhat uncertain, it is given ' of 
 each day' in both S. Matthew and S. Luke. 
 
 Thus, tradition is not only not adverse to the deri- 
 vation which etymological considerations seem to re- 
 quire, but favours it very decidedly. With this strong 
 confirmation, we need not hesitate to adopt it. On 
 the other hand, it is only fair to notice that, though 
 tradition is in accordance with itself and with ety- 
 mology so far as regards the derivation from eirievai, 
 yet the same degree of coincidence cannot be claimed 
 on behalf of the derivation from the feminine eTriovcra 
 and the more precise meaning for the coming day thus 
 obtained. Yet this meaning seems to be supported 
 by the oldest tradition, and to offer a better justifica- 
 tion of the coinage of a new word. At the same 
 time, when the word was once in use, it would require 
 a conscious effort of the mind to separate two ety- 
 mologies so intimately connected, and the close 
 alliance of meaning, for the coming day and for tJte 
 coming time, would encourage a certain vagueness of 
 conception within these narrow limits. It was only 
 when the meaning was stereotyped by translation 
 into another language, that it would assume definitely 
 the one or the other of these two allied senses. 
 
 Thus the familiar rendering 'daily/ which has 
 
 172 
 
26O APPENDIX I. 
 
 prevailed uninterruptedly in the Western Church 
 from the beginning, is a fairly adequate representa- 
 tion of the original ; nor indeed does the English 
 language furnish any one word which would answer 
 the purpose so well. 
 
 II. 
 
 The word einovo-ios was connected, as we have 
 seen, by several of the fathers with irepLova-io^. I 
 hope that sufficient reasons have been given already 
 for rejecting this connexion as based on a false ana- 
 logy. But still the word Trepiovcno? is important in 
 itself, and (as its meaning has been somewhat misun- 
 derstood by modern as well as by ancient commen- 
 tators) I take this opportunity of explaining what 
 seems to be its proper force. 
 
 Origen (de Orat. 27, i. p. 246), in the passage of 
 which I have already quoted the context (p. 217 sq.), 
 distinguishes these two words eTriova-ios, Treptovcrto?, as 
 follows : TI fjiev rov et9 rrjv ovcriav crvfji/3a\\6fjLvov aprov 
 $rj\ovcra, y Se rov rrepl rrjv ovo~lav /carayivopevov \aov 
 KOI KOIVCOVOVVTO, avra). With this brief account of the 
 word he contents himself. Apparently he understands 
 Trepiovvios to mean * connected with and participating 
 in absolute being,' thus assigning to it a sense closely 
 
APPENDIX I. 26l 
 
 allied to that which he has given to eVtoucrto?. This 
 meaning may be dismissed at once. It does not 
 correspond with the original Hebrew, and it is an 
 impossible sense to attach to the word itself. Never- 
 theless it is taken up by Victorinus, who writes (c. 
 Arium i. 31, Bibl. Vet. Pair. VIII. p. 163 ed. Galland.) 
 ' Sic rursus et Paullus in Epistola ad Titum populum 
 Trepiovo-lov, circa substantiam, hoc est circa vitam 
 consistentem populum'; and again (ii. 8, ib. p. 177), 
 * Latinus cum non intelligent irepiovo-iov ox\ov, Trepi- 
 ovciov, TOV TrepiovTCL [read Trepl ovra ?] id est, circa 
 vitam quam Christus et habet et dat, posuit populum 
 abundantem! And Cyril of Alexandria on S. Luke 
 (Mai, II. p. 266), in the context of a passage already 
 quoted (p. 236), likewise connects it with eV^ovcrto?, 
 giving it an equally impossible sense, dvrl TOV eV*- 
 ovcrlov TOV TrepioixTiov elTratv, TOVT(TTI TOV dp/covvTa KOL 
 TOV TeX,to)5 e%eti/ ou% yTTw/Aevov. 
 
 On the other hand, Jerome (on Tit. ii. 14, VII. 
 p. 725 sq.) says that, having thought much over the 
 word irepLovo-Lov and consulted 'the wise of this world' 
 whether they had met with it elsewhere, without get- 
 ting any satisfaction, he betook him to the passages 
 in the Old Testament where it occurs, and by a com- 
 parison of these arrived at the meaning egregium, 
 praecipuum, peculiarem, a sense which (as we have 
 seen) he gives to eVtouo-toi/ also. Though wholly 
 
262 APPENDIX I. 
 
 wrong as applied to eTriovcriov, this meaning is fairly 
 adequate to represent 7repiov<riov ; but it is clear from 
 the context that Jerome does not seize the exact 
 force of the word, which appears also to have escaped 
 later commentators. 
 
 We may reasonably infer from the notices of 
 Origen and Jerome that this word was unknown out 
 of Biblical Greek : and we have therefore no choice 
 but to follow the method of the latter, and investigate 
 the passages of the Old Testament where it occurs. 
 
 The expression Xao? irepiovcrios is found four times 
 in the LXX ; Exod. xix. 5, Deut. vii. 6, xiv. 2, 
 xxvi. 1 8. In the first passage it is a rendering of 
 the single word irpJD, in the three last of iT?JD Dtf. 
 Moreover in Ps. cxxxiv (cxxxv). 4 ift^lp^ is trans- 
 lated 6/9 irepiovaiaa'^bv eaurep. In all these passages 
 the reference is to the Israelites as the peculiar 
 people of God. Once more, in Eccles. ii. 8 we have 
 <7vvr)yay6v poi fcaiye dpyvpiov /caiye ^pvo-lov ical irepi- 
 /3acri\ea)v /cal TWV ^a>pc5z/, where again 
 represents n?3p, but in this instance 
 without any reference to the chosen people. These 
 appear to be the only passages in the LXX where 
 Trepiovffios, Trepiovo-iao-fio^, occur. But H x^D is found 
 besides in two other places: in Mai. iii. 17, where 
 again it refers to the chosen people and where it is 
 
APPENDIX I. 263 
 
 rendered et? irepiiroiricrw, and in I Chron. xxix. 3, 
 where Solomon says ' I have a Pi ?3D [translated in 
 our Version ' of mine own proper good '] gold and 
 silver which I have given to the house of my God, 
 over and above all that I have prepared for the holy 
 house,' rendered by the LXX e'er poi o irepLTreTroir^jLat, 
 Xpva-Lov Kal dpyvpiov K.T.\. 
 
 Of these two renderings which the LXX offers 
 for n?3p, the one is adopted by S. Paul, Tit. ii. 14 
 Xao? irepiovvw, the other by S. Peter, I Pet. ii. 9 
 Xao? et? Trepmolria-iv. The reference in S. Peter is to 
 Exod. xix. 5, where however the rendering irepLova-ios 
 is found in the LXX. 
 
 The Hebrew root 7-HD, from which H /3D comes, is 
 not found in the Bible. But the senses of kindred 
 roots in Hebrew, such as *)3D, and of other derivatives 
 of this same root in the allied languages, point to its 
 meaning. It signifies ' to surround on all sides/ and 
 so to ' gather together, set apart, reserve, appro- 
 priate.' 
 
 In grammar the Rabbinical expression for a proper 
 name is PPUD Dt^. In logic the predicable proprium 
 is designated P1/Y3D by them. 
 
 Applied to property, the word JlSHD would denote 
 the private treasure which a person acquires for 
 himself or possesses by himself alone, as distinguished 
 
264 APPENDIX I. 
 
 from that which he shares with others. Of a king, 
 we might say that it was the * fiscus ' as distinguished 
 from the 'aerarium/ the privy purse as opposed to 
 the public treasury. It is something reserved for 
 his private uses. In two of the passages where it 
 occurs, Eccles. ii. 8, I Chron. xxix. 3, it refers to 
 kings ; and in the latter it seems to be carefully dis- 
 tinguished from the money which would naturally be 
 devoted to expenditure on public works. 
 
 Thus there is no great difficulty about the original 
 Hebrew word. On the other hand it is less easy to 
 see how the same idea can be represented by the 
 Greek Trepiovcnos. Jerome speaks as though the 
 leading notion of the word were ' superiority,' derived 
 from TrepLeivai, in the sense 'to excel.' Obviously this 
 meaning would not correspond to the original. 
 
 We arrive at a more just conception of its force 
 by considering a synonyme which Jerome himself 
 points out This same Hebrew word, which in the 
 LXX is given Treptovo-iov^ was rendered by Symma- 
 chus egaiperov (Hieron. Op. VI. pp. 34, 726). Jerome 
 indeed is satisfied with translating egalperov by prae- 
 cipuum or egregium ; but its meaning is much more 
 precise and forcible. It was used especially of the 
 portion which was set apart as the share of the king 
 or general, before the rest of the spoils were distributed 
 by lot or otherwise to the soldiers of the victorious 
 
APPENDIX I. 265 
 
 army. The exemption from the common mode of 
 apportionment in favour of rank or virtue is the lead- 
 ing idea of the word. Thus in Plutarch, Vit. Cor. 10, 
 we are told that when Coriolanus, as a reward for his 
 bravery, was asked to select from the spoils ten of 
 every kind before the distribution to the rest (efeXe- 
 (rdai Se/ca iravra TT/OO rov vepew rofc aXXot?), he declined 
 to do so, saying that he would take his chance with 
 the others, but he added, e^alperov piav aiTov^ai^dpiv, 
 1 1 have one favour to ask, as an exceptional boon' In 
 the triumphant anticipation of Sisera's mother, ' Have 
 they not divided the prey ? to every man [lit. to the 
 head of a man] a damsel or two, to Sisera a prey of 
 divers colours, etc./ we have the idea which a Greek 
 poet might express by egalperov Sewp^a (e.g. ^Esch. 
 Bum. 380, comp. Agam. 927), the special treasure as- 
 signed to the captain over and above the distribution 
 which was made to the rest counted by heads. This 
 sense of l^alperov is too common to need further illus- 
 tration ; and I cannot doubt that Symmachus selected 
 it on this account as an appropriate word to express 
 the idea of the original. The leading idea is not 
 superiority, as Jerome seems to imagine, but exception. 
 'Egregium,' strictly interpreted, might represent it, 
 but not ' praecipuum.' It is the 'exsortem ducere 
 honorem ' of Virgil. This idea fitly expresses the 
 relations of Jehovah to Israel, whom in the language 
 
266 APPENDIX I. 
 
 of the Old Testament elsewhere He retained under 
 His special care (see the notes on Clem. Rom. 29). 
 
 The same conception seems to be involved in 
 Treptovaios. This word may have been invented by 
 the LXX translators, or it may have had some local 
 currency in their age : but, if the latter was the case, 
 the fact was unknown to Origen and Jerome, for 
 they speak of irepiovcrios as not occurring out of the 
 Bible. In either case, it might be derived from 
 TrepLtov, on the analogy of e/covo-tos, eQeXovcrios, etc., 
 or from ov&la, like evovaios, dvoixnos, etc. (see above, 
 p. 222, 223). Thus its meaning would be either 'exist- 
 ing over and above/ or * possessed over and above'; 
 and the same idea of exception from the common 
 laws of distribution would be involved as in egaiperos. 
 
 S. Jerome mentions also 1 that in another passage 
 Symmachus had adopted the Latin word peculiarem, 
 as a rendering of PP3D. He doubtless ventured on 
 this bold expedient because the Greek language did 
 
 1 Hieron. Op. vi. p. 34 'licet in quodam loco peculiare interpretatus 
 sit'; ib. vi. p. 726 'in alio volumine Latino sermone utens peculiarem 
 interpretatus est.' Different interpretations of this second passage have 
 been given; but, compared with the first, it can only mean that 'in 
 another book of Scripture Symmachus adopted a Latin expression, 
 translating the word by peculiarem ' ; just in the same way as Ignatius 
 writing in Greek uses deytprup, 5e7r6<rira, afc/ceTrra (Polyc. 6), because 
 the Greek language did not supply such convenient terms to express 
 his meaning. It is extremely improbable that Symmachus wrote any 
 work in Latin as some have supposed. 
 
APPENDIX I. 267 
 
 not furnish so exact an equivalent as peculium : for 
 egaiperov, adequate as it is in some respects, intro- 
 duces the new idea of division of spoils, which is want- 
 ing in the original. On the other hand the Latin 
 peculium, being used to denote the private purse which 
 a member of the family, whether slave or free, was 
 allowed in particular cases to possess and accumulate 
 for his own use, distinct from the property which the 
 paterfamilias administered for the good of the whole, 
 approached very closely to the meaning of the He- 
 brew: and moreover there was a convenient adjective 
 peculiaris derived therefrom. Impressed, it would ap- 
 pear, with the value of the word which he had thus 
 learnt from Symmachus, Jerome himself has almost 
 universally adopted peculium, peculiaris, as a rendering 
 of H^D in the Old Testament; e.g. Exod. xix. 5 
 ' Eritis mihi in peculium de cunctis populis,' I Chron. 
 xxix. 3 ' Quae obtuli in domum Dei mei de peculio} 
 Deut. xxvi. 1 8 (comp. vii. 6, xiv. 2) 'Elegit te hodie 
 ut sis ei populus peculiaris,' etc. 1 
 
 Our English translators in adopting this word 
 ' peculiar ' after the Vulgate were obviously aware of 
 its appropriate technical sense. This appears from 
 the mode in which they use it ; e.g. Ps. cxxxv. 4 
 
 1 The normal rendering in the Old Latin (which was translated from 
 the LXX) was abundans: see e. g. Exod. xix. 5, Tit. ii. 14, and the quo- 
 tation of Victorinus given above (p. 245 sq.). This would be a very natural 
 interpretation of Tre/uotfcrios to any one unacquainted with the Hebrew. 
 
268 APPENDIX I. 
 
 'The Lord hath chosen Jacob unto himself and Israel 
 for his peculiar treasure ' (comp. Exod. xix. 5, Eccles. 
 ii. 8, in both which passages the word 'treasure' is 
 added). Twice only have they departed from the 
 word 'peculiar' in rendering PPUD ; in Deut. vii. 6, 
 where it is translated ' a special people,' and in Mai. 
 iii. 17, where it is represented by 'jewels' but with a 
 marginal alternative, * special treasure.' In this last 
 passage the rendering should probably be, ' And they 
 shall be to me, saith the Lord of Hosts, in the day 
 which I appoint, for a peculiar treasure,' and not as 
 our Version has it, 'And they shall be mine, saith 
 the Lord of Hosts, in that day when I make up my 
 jewels.' In Tit. ii. 14 \ao<; irepiovcrios, and I Pet. ii. g 
 Xao? efc Trepnrolrjcriv, where (as I have already observed) 
 we have two distinct Greek renderings of the same 
 Hebrew, the expressions are once more united in our 
 Version, which, following Tyndale, translates both by 
 'a peculiar people.' Strangely enough S. Jerome, 
 who introduces peculium, peculiaris, in the Old Testa- 
 ment, has other and diverse renderings in both these 
 passages of the New ; populus acceptabilis in the one 
 case, and populus adquisitionis in the other. His New 
 Testament was executed before his Old : and it would 
 appear that in the interval he had recognised the 
 value of the rendering suggested by Symmachus, and 
 adopted it accordingly. 
 
APPENDIX II. 
 The Last Petition of the Lord's Prayer. 
 
 (Reprinted from the 'Guardian' of Sept. lth t i^th, and list, 1881.) 
 
 THE Revisers of the English Version of the New 
 Testament have no reason to complain of the recep- 
 tion which has been accorded to their work. Re- 
 membering the storm of criticism which burst upon 
 the revision of King James, they were prepared for 
 censure and rebuke. The present 'Authorised ' Version, 
 when it appeared, was fiercely assailed. It was con- 
 victed (in the opinion of its censors) of faults of all 
 kinds of bad scholarship, bad theology, bad faith, 
 even bad English. The Victorian Revisers had no 
 right to expect a better fate. Speaking for myself, 
 I freely confess that I have been surprised, not at the 
 severity, but at the gentleness, of the criticisms which 
 our work has called forth. I thankfully acknowledge 
 the frank welcome which it has received in many 
 quarters ; while I was more than prepared for the 
 
270 APPENDIX II. 
 
 stern condemnation which has been pronounced up- 
 on it in some others. Considering the facilities for 
 fragmentary criticism, often anonymous, which are 
 afforded by the newspapers and periodicals of the 
 present day, the Revisers may well congratulate 
 themselves that the scourge has fallen so lightly 
 upon them. 
 
 Of all the alterations which the Revisers have 
 felt themselves constrained to make, none has at- 
 tracted more attention, or provoked more censure, 
 than the change in the last petition of the Lord's 
 Prayer. This adverse criticism has been gathered up 
 in 'A Protest' from the pen of Canon Cook, of Exeter, 
 addressed to the Bishop of London, which (it may be 
 presumed) states with sufficient fulness the case of the 
 complainants, and to which therefore I shall make 
 frequent allusion in the following pages. 
 
 But let me first clear the ground. This is strictly 
 a question of fidelity. Canon Cook, at the outset, 
 speaks of the 'extreme surprise and grief which the 
 rendering of the Revisers has caused to himself. He 
 feels certain that no change likely to have been 
 adopted by them, 'could be proposed which would 
 produce a more general and lively feeling of astonish- 
 ment and pain' (p. i) 1 . He returns again to the 
 
 1 1 have quoted throughout from the second edition of Canon Cook's 
 pamphlet. 
 
APPENDIX II. 271 
 
 subject towards the close of his pamphlet (p. 17), 
 and characterises the rendering as 'one which will 
 excite feelings of pain and repugnance in millions of 
 devout and trustful hearts.' Now, I trust that the 
 Revisers have not been callous or indifferent to the 
 feelings of the general reader ; but there was a cause 
 which they held more sacred even than the sentiments 
 of their fellow-Christians. This was the cause of 
 truth. We should have failed in our first duty before 
 God and man, if from any regard for men's feelings 
 we had withheld a rendering which, using the best 
 reason that God has given us, we believed in our 
 heart of hearts to be decidedly the most probable 
 rendering. If translators are not truthful, they are 
 nothing at all. I am surprised therefore, in the 
 adverse criticisms which this rendering has called 
 forth, to find that so much stress is laid on the shock 
 which it will cause to the feelings of the Christian 
 reader. Nor can I believe this shock to be so great 
 as our censors suppose. We have not imported any 
 new doctrine into the Lord's Prayer, but that which 
 we have received from the beginning. Were we not 
 taught as children in our Catechism that in this 
 petition we desire the Lord God our heavenly Father 
 'that He will keep us' not only 'from all sin and 
 wickedness/ but also 'from our ghostly enemy'? 
 But ' it is not necessary.' No, it is not necessary 
 
272 APPENDIX II. 
 
 in the sense in which a mathematical truth is neces- 
 sary. No result of criticism, and (I may add) no 
 inference in morals, is necessary in this sense. If 
 we were to wait for this kind of certainty before 
 accepting the inferences of reason and experience, 
 no progress would be possible. Mankind would never 
 have emerged from barbarism, had this principle 
 prevailed. If however it appeared to the Revisers, 
 exercising their faculties to the best of their ability, 
 that there was a decided preponderance of argument 
 in favour of this particular rendering, then I say, as 
 honest and truthful men, they had no choice but to 
 give it the precedence and place it in the text. I 
 shall endeavour in the following pages to give the 
 reasons which influenced one of their number. At 
 the same time I wish it to be understood that I am 
 speaking only for myself, and that I have neither 
 right nor desire to stand forward as the representative 
 of my colleagues. It is clear however from the result, 
 that two-thirds of those present arrived at the same 
 goal, whether they reached it by the same or by a 
 different route. 
 
 Having said thus much by way of preface, I will 
 proceed at once to the discussion of the text itself: 
 
 Matt. vi. 13, prj ela-evey/cys ^a? et's Tret/oao-^oi/, 
 a\\a pvaai rfpas a?ro rov Trovrjpov. 
 
 The arguments which deserve to be considered in 
 
APPENDIX II. 273 
 
 deciding between the masculine and neuter rendering 
 of rov Trovrjpov, may be ranged under four heads: 
 (i) The diction of the clause itself; (2) The require- 
 ments of the context ; (3) Early exegesis ; (4) Theo- 
 logical propriety. 
 
 i. THE DICTION. 
 
 Under this head Canon Cook spends some time 
 in showing that both the preposition (OTTO) and the 
 verb (pveo-Oai) are consistent with the neuter rendering. 
 I agree with him. 
 
 As regards the preposition, the most that can be 
 urged is that airo more naturally suggests a person ; 
 but the argument is too slender to carry any weight. 
 On the difference between etc and diro, as used with 
 this same verb pvea-Oai, Canon Cook says truly, 'There 
 appears to be a real distinction, e/c implying that the 
 petitioner is actually under the power of an enemy or 
 principle ' (p. 4). I shall have occasion to advert to 
 this distinction at a later stage, as Canon Cook him- 
 self appears to have overlooked it in his subsequent 
 remarks. 
 
 Of the verb pveaOai he writes, 
 
 ' This is a point of considerable importance, since, as it is 
 said, the alteration of the Revisers is defended to a considerable 
 extent on the ground that pvaai necessarily implies deliverance 
 from a person.' 
 
 L. R. 18 
 
274 APPENDIX II. 
 
 I do not know to what he alludes. My memory 
 is treacherous, but I cannot recall any incident which 
 supports this view of the considerations which influ- 
 enced the Revisers. Certainly I myself should not 
 think of urging such an argument in favour of the 
 masculine rendering. 
 
 The stress of the argument from diction rests on 
 the use of 6 irovrjpo^ and TO irovrjpov ; and under this 
 head the itsage of the New Testament writers them- 
 selves must hold the foremost place. What this usage 
 is will be seen from the following passages. 
 
 (i) Passages where it is certainly, or almost cer- 
 tainly, masculine, signifying 'the Evil One:' 
 
 Matt. xiii. 19 e/>%erai 6 irovqpb^ KOI dpird^et TO 
 
 O"7TapfJLVOV. 
 
 Matt. xiii. 38, 39 ra e fy%dvid elaiv ol viol TOV 
 trovrjpov, 6 be e^pos 6 aTrelpas avrd eo~Tt,v 6 SidftoXos. 
 
 Ephes. vi. 16 irdvra rd j3e\r) TOV Trovrjpov [ra] 
 TreTTVpa/jLeva aftkcrai. 
 
 I John ii. 13, 14 <m vevitctj/care TOV Trovrjpov . . /cal 
 vevucrj/caTe TOV irovrjpov. 
 
 I John iii. 12 ov tcaBco^ Katz/ IK TOV Trovrjpov rjv. 
 
 I John v. 1 8 6 7rovr)po<$ ov% aTrrerai avTOV. 
 
 I John V. 19 6 KOCTfJLOS 0\05 6V TO) TTOVTJpq) KlTai. 
 
 (ii) Passages where it is neuter : 
 Luke vi. 45 o dyaOos dv6pa)7ro<; e/c TOV dyaOov 
 Oijo-avpov TTJS tcapSlas avTov Trpo^epet, TO djadov, teal 
 
APPENDIX II. 275 
 
 o Trowrjpos \av6ptoTro<i\ c/c rov Trovrjpov [Orjcavpov rfj? 
 ttapSlas avrov] Trpotyepei, TO Trovrjpov. 
 
 Rom. xii. 9 diroo-Twyovvres TO Trovrjpov. 
 
 (iii) Passages where the meaning is doubtful or 
 doubted : 
 
 Matt. v. 37 TO &e TTpia-o~ov TOVTCOV IK rov Trovrjpov 
 
 Matt. v. 39 eyco Se \eyco vfitv /IT) dvTKnfjvai TW 
 
 (T6 
 
 John xvii. 15 OVK epcoTw iva aprj<s avrovs e/c TOU 
 KOO-/JLOV a\X' iva T^prjar)^ avrov? etc rov Trovrjpov. 
 2 Thess. iii. 2, 3 /a pva-Ow/juev a?ro rwv droirayv /cal 
 
 dv0pa)7TQ)V, . . TTiO-TO? 6 ea-TLV 6 Ku/3i09, 05 
 
 vfjids KOI <f>v\dj;ei OTTO ToO Trovrjpov. 
 
 A few remarks on each of these lists will be 
 necessary. 
 
 (i) In the first list I have included Matthew xiii. 
 38, because, notwithstanding Canon Cook's comments, 
 I cannot consider the interpretation really doubtful. 
 He himself says : 
 
 ' It is perhaps unnecessary to question the propriety of this 
 rendering [' the Evil One '] in which the Revisers accept the old 
 Version ['the Wicked One'] with a slight modification. The 
 use of the masculine is justified, and will probably commend 
 itself to most readers, as it is accepted by the generality of 
 commentators, ancient and modern (p. 7).' 
 
 It is always dangerous to risk a sweeping negative ; 
 but I do not remember a single Greek commentator 
 
 18 2 
 
276 APPENDIX II. 
 
 who takes it otherwise than masculine. On the other 
 hand, in some revisions of the Old Latin Version, as 
 Canon Cook has pointed out, we have filii nequitiae 
 &s\&filii nequam ; but this is probably not the original 
 form of this version, as I hope to show lower down. 
 However this may be, there is a serious linguistic 
 objection to the neuter here. We can understand ol 
 viol T?9 Trovqpias, but is ol viol rov Trowrjpov possible ? 
 Canon Cook, writing of the LXX, says (p. 8), ' TO 
 TTovypov, in the sense of evil, moral and spiritual evil, 
 is one of the commonest forms. It occurs, e.g., eight 
 times in Deuteronomy, and repeatedly in the historical 
 books.' Yes ; but though the occurrence of TO irovrjpov 
 is so frequent in the LXX, it is not once used as an 
 equivalent to q Trovrjpla. It never denotes the abstract 
 quality, but always the concrete embodiment, 'the 
 deed or thing which is evil.' This sense, I need not 
 say, is quite out of place in the expression ol viol TOV 
 Trovrjpov. 
 
 One other passage in this list is disputed by 
 Canon Cook. He considers that in I John v. 19, 
 6 #607^09 0X09 eV TO> Trovijpw fceiTcu, the neuter is 
 preferable. I cannot agree with him. In the first 
 place, the masculine is distinctly suggested by the 
 previous 6 Trovypos ov% aTTTerai avTov. Secondly, the 
 masculine is required in eV TV Trovrjpa) /celrai,, as the 
 proper antithesis to eV/iei/ eV rw akyOww, ez> TO> vla> 
 
APPENDIX II. 277 
 
 avrov 'Irjo-ov Xpicrra), in the following verse. Thirdly, 
 this interpretation is in entire accordance with the 
 language and teaching of S. John elsewhere, where 
 'the world' is regarded as the domain of the Evil 
 One. Fourthly, Canon Cook's interpretation would 
 seem to require rfj Trovypia rather than rw Trovijpa). 
 Lastly, the traditional exegesis favours the masculine. 
 Here again I doubt whether a single Greek Father 
 can be produced who adopts the neuter rendering, 
 for in the passage of Dionysius of Alexandria (ed. 
 Migne, pp. 1594, 1599), to which Canon Cook refers 
 (p. 8) as favouring his view, the frequent reference to 
 the Evil One (6 77-01/77/90$) in the context seems clearly 
 to show that this Father adopted the masculine ren- 
 dering here also. Nor again is he justified in saying 
 that * the neuter is certainly supported by ' the Mem- 
 phitic version, pi-pet-hoou. The expression is ambi- 
 guous in itself (as I shall have occasion to show 
 presently), being both masculine and neuter; and 
 the fact that in the previous verse (o TTOZ/^O? ov% 
 uTnerai avrov) the translator has adopted the Greek 
 word itself, piponeros, proves nothing. Such variations 
 between the native Egyptian and the naturalised 
 Greek word in rendering the same original even in 
 the same context are not uncommon in this version, 
 (ii) As regards the second list, I need only 
 remark that I Thess. v. 22, airb iravros et'Sov? Trovrjpov 
 
278 APPENDIX II. 
 
 , is not included, because the difficulty of 
 treating Trowrjpov as a substantive is great. 
 
 (iii) (a) Of the doubtful passages, Matt. v. 39, 
 /j,r) dvTUTTrjvcu ro5 Trovrjpa) a\X* ocrrt? ere pairL^ei /e.r.X, 
 may conveniently be taken first. Here r&> vrovypw 
 should probably be rendered ' the evil man/ as in the 
 Revised Version, since this is suggested by the words 
 following, a\V ocms K.T.\. If so, this passage should 
 be eliminated altogether from the list. 
 
 (b) In Matt. v. 37, TO Se Trepio-aov TOVTCDV etc TOV 
 Trovrjpov ea-riv, the Revisers have adopted the mas- 
 culine rendering 'the Evil One' in the text, giving 
 the neuter 'evil' in the margin. They have done 
 rightly in my opinion. The masculine rendering is 
 suggested by I John iii. 12, Kalv ex TOV irovypov ?jv, 
 where it is certainly masculine, not to mention the 
 analogous phrase e/c TOV SiafioXov elvai (John viii. 44, 
 I John iii. 8). Moreover here also (though in this 
 case the argument is not so strong) we should have 
 expected T^? Trowrjpias, rather than TOV irovypov, if 
 1 evil ' had been meant. To the masculine rendering 
 however Canon Cook has a theological objection, 
 which he expresses as follows (p. 6): 
 
 * The statement that every oath, especially every oath used 
 to confirm an asseveration, owes its existence to moral evil in 
 man, is in full accordance with our experience and with the 
 teaching of Holy Scripture. But for the mutual distrust be- 
 tween man and man it would never have been thought of ; and 
 
APPENDIX II. 279 
 
 when employed needlessly, lightly, irreverently, it involves 
 serious guiltiness. But on solemn occasions, when it would 
 otherwise be impossible to distinguish between thoughtless 
 utterances and serious declarations, or when needed to convey 
 full assurance to a timid conscience or distrustful heart, an 
 oath is more than justifiable ; it comes not from the Evil One 
 but from the goodness of the utterer.' 
 
 The answer to this is twofold. 
 
 First. If any act or thing ' owes its existence to 
 moral evil in man,' it may be said to owe its existence 
 to the author of evil. 
 
 Secondly. Such oaths as are lawful lie altogether 
 outside the letter of this passage. It is prefaced with 
 the injunction, ' Swear not at all.' Clearly therefore 
 the passage, however we may interpret it, refers to 
 oaths which are forbidden, and does not contemplate 
 such cases as Canon Cook adduces. The injunction, 
 'Let your speech be Yea, yea, Nay, nay/ and the 
 reason assigned, ' Whatsoever is more than these/ etc., 
 must be coextensive with the prohibition, ' Swear not 
 at all.' Wrong swearing therefore is intended ; and 
 wrong swearing is confessedly the prompting of the 
 Evil One. 
 
 (c) In John xvii. 15, OVK ep(oru> iva apy? CLVTOVS IK 
 TOV ic6(r/j,ov a\V 'iva TT)pi]a"r)$ avTOvs e/e TOV Trovrjpov, 
 I cannot myself doubt that TOV Trovrjpov is ' the Evil 
 One,' though I have placed the passage in the doubt- 
 ful list. The remark which has been made already 
 
280 APPENDIX II. 
 
 with respect to the Epistles of S. John holds good of 
 his Gospel. The World and the Gospel are antago- 
 nistic the one to the other. Satan is 'the prince of 
 this world.' In this particular case therefore, where 
 the disciples are contemplated as remaining in the 
 world, we naturally expect that the prayer should 
 take the form of exemption from the power of the 
 tyrant who claims the world for his principality. 
 This interpretation becomes the more probable when 
 we remember that, whereas TO Trovypov, 'the evil 
 thing/' is never found in S. John's writings, 6 TTO^/JO?, 
 ' the Evil One,' occurs many times. 
 
 (d) The only remaining passage, 2 Thess. iii. 3, 
 <f\afet diro rov irovrjpov, may be placed in the same 
 category with the last petition of the Lord's Prayer, 
 to which it is closely allied. Being open to the same 
 ambiguity, it contributes nothing to the solution of the 
 question. 
 
 Thus then it appears that 6 Trovypos, 'the Evil 
 One,' is a common expression in the New Testament, 
 and that it occurs three or four times as often as TO 
 irovrjpov ' the evil thing.' 
 
 As an evidence of the hold which this term had 
 taken on the Christian mind in the first ages of the 
 Church, we find it in the Epistle of Barnabas (c. 2, Iva 
 fj,rj 6 Trovrjpos 7rapela"Bvaiv 7r\dvrjs Tro^cra? eV TIJMV 
 K.T.X.), which, though most probably not the work of 
 
APPENDIX II. 28l 
 
 the Apostle whose name it bears, is one of the earliest, 
 perhaps the very earliest, of patristic writings. 
 
 Where the usage of the New Testament writers 
 is thus explicit, it would seem superfluous to seek any 
 justification of this sense from without. Canon Cook 
 however thinks otherwise. * He turns to the Septua- 
 gint and to the Targums for a response to the question 
 how the expression could naturally be understood by 
 our Lord's hearers, and this is his inference (p. 8) : 
 
 'The answer given by the Septuagint is clear; and, as in 
 other cases of doubtful interpretation, I hold that it should be 
 regarded as conclusive. 
 
 The italics are my own. After a brief statement 
 of some facts relating to the use of the neuter in the 
 LXX, he continues : 
 
 'The masculine o jrovrjpos is used, as is also its Hebrew 
 equivalent, to designate a wicked man, when an individual is 
 pointed out; but it is never used in the Septuagint to designate 
 the ' Evil One.' It certainly would not occur to any one fami- 
 liar with the language of the Septuagint, to interpret the word 
 as equivalent to Satan; nor is it at all probable that in a 
 Gospel written specially for the use of Hebrew Christians 
 the words roG Trovrjpov would be employed in any other sense 
 than that generally, I may say universally, accepted by readers 
 of that Version.' 
 
 To these inferences I can only reply by an appeal 
 to facts. It certainly did occur to the Greek Fathers, 
 who before all others were ' familiar with the language 
 
282 APPENDIX II. 
 
 of the Septuagint/ to interpret the words in this way. 
 Indeed there is not, so far as I am aware, any evidence 
 to show that a single Greek Father, for many centuries 
 after the words were spoken by our Lord and recorded 
 by the Evangelist, interpreted them otherwise. Again, 
 with regard to the improbability that the words TOV 
 TTovrjpov should be used of Satan in a Gospel written 
 specially for Hebrew Christians, I must reply that 
 the general consensus of interpreters and theologians, 
 ancient and modern, agrees in assuming that it is so 
 used in another passage (Matt. xiii. 38 ol viol TOV 
 Trovrjpov), and I am unable to understand wherein 
 lies the a priori improbability in the genitive occur- 
 ring in this sense, when the nominative certainly is 
 so used (Matt. xiii. 19, ep^erai, 6 770^77/905). 
 
 But when Canon Cook regards the ' answer given 
 by the Septuagint ' as ' conclusive/ has he considered 
 the conditions of the problem ? Has he taken into 
 account the date of the Septuagint ? Has he further 
 asked what opportunity the Septuagint translators 
 had for introducing 6 irowrjpos in this sense ? 
 
 The Septuagint Version of the Old Testament 
 was made two or three centuries before the Gospels 
 were written. This interval was a period of constant 
 and rapid development. Theological nomenclature 
 moved forward with the movement of the ages. 
 Terms wholly unknown at the beginning of this 
 
APPENDIX II. 283 
 
 period were in everybody's mouth at the end. A 
 modern parallel may help us to appreciate the force 
 of this consideration. Who would attempt to restrict 
 the interpretation of philosophical and scientific terms 
 current in the Victorian era by the diction of the 
 Elizabethan ? The fact therefore if fact it were 
 that this designation of Satan was unknown to the 
 Jews in the age of the earlier Ptolemies, would not 
 afford even a presumption that it was still unfamiliar 
 to them in the age of Augustus and Tiberius. 
 
 But what grounds have we for assuming it to be a 
 fact ? What reason is there for the expectation that 
 the translators, if they had been ever so familiar with 
 the term, would have introduced it into their version ? 
 How often is Satan mentioned in the Old Testament? 
 Only in three passages, though more than once in 
 two out of three (Job i. 6 12, ii. 2 7 ; Zech. iii. i, 2 ; 
 I Chron. xxi. i). In all of these he is designated 
 * Satan'; in all the translators render the word, as 
 became faithful translators, by the corresponding 
 Greek term Sta/3o\o9. Why should they have gone 
 out of their way to substitute 'the Evil One' for 
 ' the Accuser ' or ' the Adversary,' more especially as 
 in all these passages the leading idea of the narrative 
 in the context is that which is conveyed by ' Satan ' 
 or Sm/3oXo9, but not by Trovrjpos ? 
 
 'Not less decisive (continues Canon Cook, p. 9) is the 
 
284 APPENDIX II. 
 
 usage of the Targums, which undoubtedly represent the form 
 in which Lessons from the Bible were publicly read or ex- 
 pounded to the contemporaries of our Lord.' .... 
 
 * Thus, as respects the Targums, I have but to repeat, and 
 urge not less strongly, the argument drawn from the use of the 
 Septuagint.' 
 
 My answer applies to the Targums not less than 
 to the Septuagint. The older Targums, to which 
 alone his language will apply, are strictly interpre- 
 tations. Where the original writer put Satan, 'the 
 Adversary,' why should we expect the interpreter to 
 go out of his way and substitute 'the Evil One'? 
 As a matter of fact, the Targums commonly retain 
 the same word 'Satan' as they find it. The only 
 exception which I have noticed is Zech. iii. i, 2, 
 where a Chaldee word equivalent in meaning to 
 Satan is substituted. 
 
 If this reply holds good in the case of the Tar- 
 gums, is it a fortiori valid as an answer to the argument 
 of Canon Cook that 'the Syriac of the Old Testament' 
 never uses the expression 'the Evil One' for Satan. 
 What reason is there to expect that it would use this 
 term, however common the use of it may have been 
 at the time ? 
 
 But the objection from the absence of this desig- 
 nation in the Talmudical and early Rabbinical writings 
 still remains to be dealt with. What shall we say 
 to this? 
 
APPENDIX II. 285 
 
 It is answered by an appeal to these writings 
 themselves. I do not profess to be a Rabbinical 
 scholar myself; but this sweeping assertion seemed 
 to me to court inquiry, and I therefore applied to my 
 learned friend, the Rabbi Dr Schiller-Szinessy, of 
 Cambridge, for information on the subject. He has 
 supplied me with the following passages. I have no 
 reason to think that he has exhausted all the examples. 
 He has doubtless given those instances which occurred 
 to him. 
 
 (a) Midrash Shemoth Rabbah c. 21. The autho- 
 rity quoted is Rab Ghana ben Chanina, who gives the 
 explanation in the name of his father: "Thus, when 
 Israel went out from Egypt, there stood up Samael 
 the Angel to oppose them. He said before the Holy 
 One blessed be He 'Lord of the Universe, hitherto 
 these [the Israelites] have been idolaters, and wilt 
 Thou divide the sea for them ?' What did the Holy 
 One blessed be He do ? He surrendered to him 
 [Satan] Job, who had been one of the councillors of 
 Pharaoh, and concerning whom it is written, A man 
 perfect and just [Job i. I, 8, ii. 3]. He said to him, 
 Behold he is in thy hand [Job ii. 6], The Holy One 
 blessed be He said, ' Whilst he [Satan] is engaged 
 [grapples] with Job, the Israelites pass safely the sea, 
 and afterwards I will save Job.' This is what Job 
 means when he says [Job xvi. 12], 7 was at ease, but 
 
286 APPENDIX II. 
 
 he hath broken me asunder .... and it is also written 
 [xvi. 1 1], God hath delivered me over to the wicked one 
 i.e., He hath put me into the hand of Satan," with 
 more to the same effect. 
 
 (b) Midrash Debarim Rabbah c. 1 1. " The Angel 
 Samael, the Wicked One, the head of all Satanim 
 [prince of the devils], was counting the death of 
 Moses, and saying, 'When will come the end [the 
 appointed time] or minute in which Moses shall die, 
 that I should go down and take his soul from him?' 
 For concerning him David says [Ps. xxxvii. 32], The 
 wicked one watchethfor the righteous one, and seeketh to 
 slay him. [Now] there is none so wicked among all 
 
 the Satanim altogether as Samael Thus also did 
 
 Samael the Wicked One watch for the soul of Moses 
 and say, c When will Michael be weeping and I fill 
 my mouth with laughter?' till Michael said to him, 
 'What, O thou wicked one! I shall cry and thou 
 
 shalt laugh/ And then said He [God] to Samael, 
 
 the Wicked One," etc. 
 
 (c) Babylonian Talmud, Baba Bathra i6a, " The 
 earth is given into the hand of tJie wicked one [Job ix. 
 24]. Rabbi Eliezer says, Job wanted to put the dish 
 upside down \i.e., to blaspheme, saying, God is unjust]. 
 Then answered him Rabbi Jehoshua, 'Job meant in 
 this phrase [the wicked one] none but Satan.' " 
 
 However, as I have intimated already, it seems to 
 
APPENDIX II. 287 
 
 me to be a matter of very small moment whether 'the 
 Evil, the Wicked One ' is so used in the LXX or in 
 the Targums or in Talmudical writers, when it is 
 confessedly employed in this sense by S. Matthew 
 (reporting our Lord's words) and S. Paul and S. John; 
 and it is not easy to account for the stress which 
 Canon Cook lays on this argument. 
 
 But Canon Cook has an expedient to invalidate 
 the force of the evidence from the New Testament 
 itself. He supposes that the term, 'the Evil One/ 
 was first applied to Satan in the parable (Matt. xiii. 
 19), and thence became common in the Christian 
 Church. As the Lord's Prayer was delivered earlier, 
 this sense would have been unintelligible to the hearers 
 at that time, and therefore cannot have been intended. 
 At least, so I understand his words (p. 5): 
 
 * It must be observed first, that the Epistle of S. John was 
 written more than half a century after the delivery of the 
 parable in S. Matthew i.e., at a time when the expression, 
 taken from the exposition of the parable itself, had probably 
 become idiomatic.' 
 
 And again (p. 10): 
 
 'The single exception (Matt. xiii. 19) to which I refer is 
 however very important. I have already alluded to it, and 
 would on no account question its significance. I believe it to 
 be the one saying of our Lord recorded in the earlier Gospels 
 which determined the later usage of the Church. It was spoken 
 however long after the Sermon on the Mount, and is far from 
 
288 APPENDIX II. 
 
 proving that, when the discourse was uttered, the hearers would 
 attach such a meaning to the expression.' 
 
 This is a mere hypothesis, and in order to com- 
 mend itself should bear on its face some verisimilitude. 
 But what is the fact? If one thing be more clear 
 than another, it is that o Trovrjpos had already this 
 meaning, when the parable was spoken. It is not 
 only itself unexplained, but is even introduced as an 
 explanation of something else. The birds coming 
 and devouring the seed sown by the way side are 
 interpreted to mean ep^erat 6 Trovrjpo^ /cal dp7rd%i 
 TO ea-Trapfjbevov K.T.\. Would not this have been to 
 interpret obscurum per obscurius, unless o 73-01/77/909 
 had already this recognised sense ? 
 
 2. THE CONTEXT. 
 
 Very little need be said on the connexion of this 
 clause with its context; and yet this little has an 
 important bearing on the question at issue. We are 
 taught to pray fj,rj elo'eveyfcys 77/^9 ew Treipa&fiov, d\\d 
 pvaai ?7>a9 a-Tro rov Trovrjpov, ' Bring us not into temp- 
 tation, but deliver us ' from what ? Does not the 
 word ' temptation ' at once suggest the mention of the 
 tempter ? And here I may perhaps be allowed to step 
 aside for a moment and to say a word about another 
 matter. The Revisers have been taken to task, even 
 
APPENDIX II. 289 
 
 by friendly critics, for an unnecessary and therefore 
 irritating change in substituting ' bring ' for * lead ' in 
 the previous clause. But the word in the original 
 certainly means 'bring' not 'lead/ elcrevey/crjs not 
 elo-aydyr]? ; and considering the grave and subtle 
 questions which gather about the subject of tempta- 
 tion and its relation to the agency of God, it would 
 seem to be a matter of real theological moment that 
 the Revisers should be scrupulously exact in their 
 rendering of this word. Any one who takes the 
 pains to read the patristic comments on the clause 
 'Bring us not into temptation' must be impressed 
 with the anxiety which they betray, and will no 
 longer (I venture to think) be disposed to censure 
 the Revisers. This at least has been my own case, 
 for I approached the subject with a decided repug- 
 nance to the change, which nevertheless I am now 
 convinced was right. But to return from this digres- 
 sion. If the tempter is mentioned in the second clause, 
 
 then, and then only, has the connexion firj a\\d 
 
 .... its proper force. If on the other hand rov Trovrjpov 
 be taken neuter, the strong opposition implied by these 
 particles is no longer natural, for ' temptation ' is not 
 coextensive with ' evil.' We should rather expect in 
 this case, 'And deliver us from evil.' Several of the 
 Fathers remark that S. Luke omits the last clause 
 d\\a pv<rat ^/xa? djro TOV irovqpov, because he 'gives 
 L. R. 19 
 
2QO APPENDIX II. 
 
 the prayer in an abridged form, and this petition was 
 practically involved in the other. The comment is 
 just, if TOV TTovrjpov be masculine, but not so if the 
 neuter be adopted. Thus the context decidedly 
 favours the masculine. Nor is it an insignificant 
 fact that only two chapters before S. Matthew 
 has recorded how the Author of this prayer found 
 Himself face to face with temptation (iv. I, 3), and 
 was delivered from the Evil One. 
 
 3. EARLY EXEGESIS. 
 
 The previous investigation has shown that the 
 dictional usage of the New Testament writers, and 
 the requirements of the context, both point in the 
 same direction towards the masculine rendering of 
 TOV TrovTjpov. I now purpose interrogating early 
 exegesis. If its response is found to agree with 
 the results hitherto obtained, this will be no slight 
 confirmation of their truth. The channels of early 
 exegesis are threefold : (i) The Versions ; (ii) The 
 Liturgies; (iii) The writings of individual Fathers. 
 Each of these therefore will have to be examined 
 in turn. 
 
 (i) The Versions. 
 I. Of the ancient Versions, the Syriac will pro- 
 
APPENDIX II. 291 
 
 bably be allowed to hold the chief place in a question 
 of this kind. I gather from Canon Cook's language 
 that he would not seriously quarrel with this estimate. 
 He has not however investigated the usage of the 
 Syriac Versions as regards the rendering of 6 irovrjpo^ 
 and TO Trovrjpov. If he had done so, he would have 
 found (I believe) that it gives no such uncertain sound 
 as he supposes. 
 
 For the sake of readers who are unacquainted with 
 the Syriac language, it may be well to state that, as 
 there are only two genders in this language, the mas- 
 culine and the feminine, the neuter of the Greek has 
 to be rendered by one of these. The feminine in 
 Syriac is the proper equivalent for the neuter in 
 Greek, as any common Syriac grammar, will show. 
 The masculine however may be so used. Thus, in 
 this particular word the masculine bisJio properly 
 represents 6 Trovrjpos, but may represent TO Trowrjpoi', 
 though the proper representative of the latter is the 
 feminine bishtho. 
 
 What then is the usage in the Peshito Syriac of 
 the New Testament? 
 
 In all passages where the masculine rendering is 
 beyond a doubt, bisho is found. These are Matt. xiii. 
 19, 38; Ephes. vi. 16; I John ii. 13, 14; iii. 12; v. 18, 
 19. On the other hand, in those passages where the 
 neuter is unquestionable, the feminine bishtho (or, in 
 
 192 
 
2Q2 APPENDIX II. 
 
 the plural, btshotho 1 ) is found. These are Luke vi. 45, 
 Rom. xii. 9. When therefore in the Lord's Prayer 
 ToO irovrjpov is rendered by bisho, there is (to say the 
 least) a strong presumption that 'the Evil One' is 
 meant. Otherwise this version would depart in this 
 passage alone from its general usage. 
 
 The same is the case with regard to the Curetonian 
 Syriac, which probably exhibits an older type of the 
 Syriac Version than the Peshito. The evidence indeed 
 is defective here, because only fragments of the Cure- 
 tonian Syriac remain. But so far as it goes, its testi- 
 mony is to the same effect. In Matt. xiii. 19, 38, it 
 has the masculine bisho, which also is its rendering in 
 the petition in the Lord's Prayer. These are the only, 
 passages yi the extant fragments which throw any 
 light on the question. 
 
 But this is not all. So familiar was the word 
 bisho, ' the Evil One/ as a synonym for Satan, to the 
 ear of a Syrian, that in the Curetonian Syriac it ap- 
 pears in Matt. xiii. 39, where the original has 6 iu- 
 /3oXo?, and in the Peshito Syriac in Acts x. 38, 
 where the original has TOV Sta/3oXou. 
 
 We are now in a position to measure the accuracy 
 of a statement made by Dr Neubauer (Academy, June 
 
 1 The printed editions of the Peshito have the plural ; but, as the 
 difference is only one of vocalisation, the original text doubtless had 
 the singular, corresponding to the Greek. This point however does 
 not affect the question at issue. 
 
APPENDIX II. 293 
 
 1 8, 1 88 1, p. 455): 'The Aramaic original of airo rov 
 Trovrjpov seems to have been men bishol So far I agree 
 with him, if at least the words were originally spoken 
 in Aramaic and nbt in Greek a question not to be 
 decided offhand. It seems probable that in this in- 
 stance the Syriac would have preserved the original 
 words. But he adds, ' which can be translated from 
 evil, and from the evil, but not from the Evil One! 
 And lower down he writes, ' Both Syriac translations 
 have from evil or from the evil'' A glance at Dr 
 Payne Smith's Thesaurus would have saved him 
 from this error. 'Imprimis usurpatur de diabolo/ 
 writes this learned Syriac scholar, speaking of the 
 word bisho. The instances which I have given show 
 that there is no exaggeration in this imprimis. The 
 word not only can be rendered ' the Evil One/ but is 
 most naturally so rendered. It is indeed difficult to 
 see how else 6 71-0^77/009, when referring to Satan, could 
 be translated so appropriately. The paraphrastic ren- 
 dering in the Peshito of the Old Testament, when it 
 refers to a human agent, 'a doer of evil/ on which 
 Canon Cook seems to lay stress, as if it supported 
 his own view (p. 9), would be out of place as applied 
 to the author of evil. 
 
 2. From the Syriac I pass to the Latin Versions. 
 The Old Latin (the term Old Italic, by which Canon 
 Cook calls it, should be avoided, as it seems certainly 
 
294 APPENDIX II. 
 
 to have been made in the first instance not for Italy, 
 but for Africa) has ' Libera nos a malo.' There seems 
 to be no variation in any of the extant forms or recen- 
 sions of this version ; and this rendering is retained 
 also by Jerome in his Vulgate. Was malo here in- 
 tended as a masculine or a neuter ? 
 
 The earliest Latin Fathers, as we shall see pre- 
 sently, interpreted it as a masculine. Though to ears 
 accustomed only to classical Latin, or even to later 
 theological Latin, it might suggest the neuter rather 
 than the masculine, this was not the case with these 
 primitive writers. Mahts was with them a recognised 
 term for ' the Evil One '; e.g. Tertull. de Idol 16 ' Ita 
 mains circumdedit saeculum idololatria,' ib. 21 'Per 
 quern te malus honori idolorum, id est idololatriae, 
 quaerebat annectere,' de Cult. Fern. ii. 5 'Christianus 
 a malo illo adjuvabitur in aliquo?' de Patient, n 
 ' Lata atque diffusa est operatic mail; multiplicia 
 spiritus incitements jacttlantis .... certemus igitur quae 
 
 a malo infliguntur sustinere Quaqua ex parte aut 
 
 erroribus nostris aut mail insidiis, etc.' (where the 
 obvious reference to Ephes. vi. 16, and indeed the 
 whole context, show that the masculine is intended). 
 These instances are partly taken from Oehler's index 
 to Tertullian, where, after his list of references, the 
 editor adds ' et saepius.' I have no reason to think 
 this statement exaggerated. 
 
APPENDIX II. 295 
 
 Again, I turn to the index to Hartel's Cyprian, 
 and I find that after giving two references where 
 mains signifies 'the Evil One/ he too adds 'et saepius.' 
 With the earliest Latin Fathers therefore this was a 
 common use of the term. 
 
 But Canon Cook urges against this meaning in 
 the Lord's Prayer what he supposes to be the general 
 usage of the Latin Versions elsewhere. ' On referring 
 to other passages/ he writes (p. 10), 'I find that in 
 every case but one, where the Greek certainly points 
 to a personal agent, and specially to Satan, both 
 Jerome and the Old Italic have the word malignus, 
 not malus! The exception to which he refers is 
 Matt. xiii. 19, epxercu 6 Trowrjpos. 
 
 This statement needs much qualification. The 
 word is translated by mains in Matt. xiii. 19, where 
 it is certainly masculine ; it is so translated again in 
 Matt. v. 37, etc TOV Trovrjpov ICTTLV, a malo est, and 
 John xvii. 15, iva vrjpijo-r)? avrovs etc TOV 7rovrjpov y ut 
 serves eos a malo, in which passages it was commonly, 
 and (I believe) rightly, taken as masculine by the 
 Fathers. So too in 2 Thess. iii. 3, <j>v\d%ei a-jrb TOV 
 TTovqpov, custodiet a malo. It is rendered by this 
 same adjective again in I Cor. v. 13, egapare (e%a- 
 peiTe) TOV. TTovrjpbv, and in Matt. v. 39, fj,rj dvTiaTijvai, 
 TO> irovrjpw, in both which passages it probably means 
 'the evil man/ In Luke vi. 45, 6 Trovrjpbs IK TOV 
 
296 APPENDIX II. 
 
 .... TO Trovijpov, it stands malus de malo .... 
 malum, though Cod. Verc. substitutes nequam for 
 malus, thus destroying the studied iteration. In 
 Ephes. vi. 16, ra j3e\rj rov Trovrjpov is translated by 
 tela nequissimi. In Matt. xiii. 38 however the Cod. 
 Brix. has filii maligni for ol viol rov irovrjpov ; but 
 here the readings of other MSS are different ; Veron. 
 filii iniquity Vercell. filii nequitiae, Corb. filii nequam ; 
 and this last is followed by Jerome in his Vulgate. 
 Even here it may be conjectured (though no stress 
 can be laid on the conjecture) that the original 
 reading was mali, and that it was variously altered, 
 some transcribers supposing it to be the nominative 
 agreeing with^/zY. If not, it was probably Jitu iniqui, 
 as read in the Cod. Veron., iniqui being intended as a 
 genitive. At all events we have found no authority 
 for malignus as a rendering of 6 7701/77/305 in the 
 Gospels ; for filii maligni of Cod. Brix., in Matt. xiii. 
 38, is an obvious correction for the sake of clearness, 
 and indeed cannot be pleaded by Canon Cook him- 
 self, who contends for the neuter rendering here (p. 7). 
 Only then at length, when we arrive at the First 
 Epistle of S. John, is o Trovrjpos rendered by malignus 
 (i John ii. 13, 14; iii. 12; v. 18, 19). 
 
 The proper Latin equivalent of o jroz/^po? is malus, 
 
 1 Canon Cook has by some mistake given./?/// nequiliae as the read- 
 ing of the Cod. Veron. 
 
APPENDIX II. 297 
 
 not malignus. For the sake of avoiding ambiguity, 
 or for other reasons, it might be rendered by malignus, 
 as is done consistently by the translator of S. John's 
 Epistles. But the full sense of the word, as applied 
 to the author of evil, is lost by the use of this more 
 restricted term ; and there is no ground for supposing 
 that the translator or translators of the Gospels would 
 have made this sacrifice. 
 
 3. In the first rank, together wich the Syriac and 
 Latin, stand the two principal Egyptian Versions. 
 
 The Sahidic, the version of Upper Egypt, is quite 
 explicit. It adopts the Greek word Trowrjpos, pre- 
 fixing the Egyptian definite article, pponeros (not 
 piponeros, as given by Canon Cook, p. n, for this is 
 the Memphitic form). Canon Cook indeed, while 
 allowing that this rendering ' most probably indicates 
 a personal agent/ yet attempts to invalidate its tes- 
 timony by adding in a note, * Not certainly ; for 
 when Greek words are taken into the Coptic Version 
 the translators keep the first and simplest form un- 
 changed/ and he gives the instance of met-chrestos, 
 ' goodness.' It is quite true that for ^T/O-TOT^? they 
 might use met-chrestos, prefixing the Egyptian form- 
 ative particle met- to the first form of the Greek word 
 which came to hand. But this is a wholly different 
 thing from rendering TO irovypov by pponeros, which 
 properly represents 6 Trovrjpbs, and, until some instance 
 
298 APPENDIX IT. 
 
 of such a usage can be adduced, I am constrained to 
 hold that the Sahidic translator without question 
 adopted the masculine rendering. 
 
 The case is different with the Memphitic, the 
 version of Lower Egypt. Here the translator, in- 
 stead of incorporating the Greek word, adopts the 
 corresponding Egyptian, pi-pet-hoou. This is alto- 
 gether ambiguous. The Egyptian language, like the 
 Syriac, has no neuter, and the feminine commonly 
 does duty for it (Peyron's Gramm. Copt. p. 34). But 
 this is very far from being a universal rule. In the 
 present instance pi-pet-hoou is used equally where the 
 masculine is certain (Matt. xiii. 19, 38 ; I Cor. v. 13 ; 
 Ephes. vi. 16), where the neuter is certain (Luke vi. 
 45 ; Rom. xii. 9), and where the gender in the Greek 
 is disputable or disputed (Matt. v. 37, 39; John xvii. 
 1552 Thess. iii. 3). But here again we meet with the 
 same phenomenon as in the Latin Version. When 
 we get to the First Epistle of S. John we find a 
 change. The translator adopts piponeros ( i John ii. 
 13, 14; v. 1 8) as the rendering of 6 iroviypos, though 
 not consistently; for in I John iii. 12, v. 19, he has 
 pi-pet-hoou. Here again, as in the case of the Latin 
 Version, the rendering piponeros probably betrays a 
 different hand from the translator of the Gospels. 
 
 At the same time, though ambiguous in itself, it 
 was taken as^ a masculine in the Egyptian Church, as 
 
APPENDIX II. 299 
 
 may be inferred from the fact that in the embolismus 
 of the Lord's Prayer, which will be quoted hereafter, 
 the Greek words pvcrai ??/Aa<? CLTTO TOV Trovrjpov Kal rwv 
 cpycav avrov are translated in the Coptic Liturgy 
 4 Nahmen ebolha pi-pet-hdou nem nef-hbeoui.' 
 
 The reader will have gathered from these facts 
 how little justification there is for the statement of 
 Canon Cook that ' as a general rule the form quoted 
 above \_pi-pet-hoo2t} is appropriated in the Memphitic 
 Version to the neuter' (p. u). When he asserts 
 that pi-pet-hdou is used 'invariably to render TO TTOVTJ- 
 pov in this version/ the assertion indeed is true, but it 
 tends to mislead : for ' invariably ' is not an appro- 
 priate expression, where the distinct examples of 
 TO Trovrjpov in the New Testament are two only. 
 Again, when he states that 'Perrone, the highest 
 authority, holds it to be neuter' (Lex. Cop., p. 340), 
 this language also is misleading, though doubtless 
 unintentionally so. Peyron [not 'Perrone'] does not 
 mention this passage, but gives the neuter sense to 
 pi-pet-hdou with other references. 
 
 But Canon Cook urges that ' had a personal agent 
 been meant, all ambiguity would have been avoided 
 by the use of either of two common forms, ref-er-pet- 
 JLOOU or ef-hoou? As a matter of fact, neither of 
 these forms is once used in this version when a 
 personal agent is meant ; nor, unless I am mistaken, 
 
3OO APPENDIX II. 
 
 could either of them stand here. The one, ref-er-pet- 
 hoou, means a 'doer of evil/ and is unsuitable as 
 applied to the author of evil ; the other, ef-hdou, is a 
 predicate or adjective, and might stand for irovrjpos 
 or irovrjpbs cov, but not for 6 iroviipos. There is 
 indeed a form which is used in Luke vi. 45, as a 
 rendering of 6 Trovrjpos, pi-sa-em-pet-hdou, but, like 
 ref-er-pet-hoou t it would not be appropriate of him 
 who is the Evil One absolutely. 
 
 These are the oldest versions, and stand in a 
 class by themselves. The latest of them perhaps 
 falls within the second century, or at all events not 
 much later. Of these four, two the Syriac and 
 Sahidic point to the masculine rendering, and two 
 the Latin and Memphitic are altogether indeter- 
 minate. In these latter, however, the word was in- 
 terpreted as masculine in their respective Churches 
 in the earliest times of which we have evidence. 
 We have as yet found no authority for the neuter. 
 
 Of the remaining versions the earliest does not 
 date before about the middle of the fourth century. 
 They are therefore of far inferior importance, and 
 need not detain us long. Of these versions, belong- 
 ing to the second rank, the Gothic and the Armenian 
 are as ambiguous as the Greek. Canon Cook indeed 
 writes of the former, ' The Gothic of Ulfila has of 
 thaimna tibilin, corresponding to the Old Italic, ma- 
 
APPENDIX II. 301 
 
 him, i.e. evil, not the Evil One' But af thamma 
 ubilin is masculine as well as neuter, and no inference 
 therefore can be drawn from the words themselves. 
 The earliest version which favours the neuter is the 
 ythiopic, where diro rov Trovijpov is rendered 'from 
 all evil.' The date of this version is uncertain. Dill- 
 mann assigns it to the fourth century ; Gildemeister 
 and others to the sixth or seventh. The Abyssinians 
 themselves are said not to claim an early date for it. 
 But, whether early or late, it was translated by some- 
 one who betrays gross ignorance of Greek. Thus 
 aXXd/uei/09 (Acts iii. 8) is translated pisces capiens, as 
 if dXievcov', ireSai? (Luke viii. 29), parvulis, as if 
 Trdrrja-e (Rom. vii. n), conculcavit, as if 
 These and other examples are given by 
 Tregelles Introduction to the New Testament, p. 319 sq. 
 Yet this work, of highly questionable date and wholly 
 unquestionable ignorance, is the chief witness among 
 the versions for the neuter rendering. Later and se- 
 condary versions like the Anglo-Saxon, which Canon 
 Cook quotes, are absolutely valueless for our purpose. 
 
 (ii) The Liturgies. 
 
 The Liturgies also will be allowed on all hands to 
 be most valuable witnesses only second, if second, 
 to the Versions. A Liturgy represents not the mind 
 of an individual, or of a congregation, or even of a 
 
3O2 APPENDIX II. 
 
 diocese or province, but (in many cases) of a whole 
 patriarchate. Whatever may have been the origin of 
 a particular prayer or petition, it is adopted by the 
 congregations throughout this large area, and thus it 
 educates and moulds them. The one drawback to 
 the value of this testimony is the difficulty of ascer- 
 taining dates. Liturgies grew by accretion and deve- 
 lopment ; and it is not easy to separate the more 
 ancient from the more modern parts. But after all 
 allowance made for this uncertainty, their testimony 
 has the highest importance. It is therefore strange 
 that, with the exception of a reference to the Moza- 
 rabic Liturgy in a note, Canon Cook has altogether 
 ignored this source of evidence. 
 
 This is the more remarkable, because we have 
 exceptionally good means of arriving at the mind of 
 the Liturgies on the question at issue. The Lord's 
 Prayer holds a prominent place in them ; the last 
 petition, pvaat yfjias diro rov Trovrjpov, being expanded 
 into a form of prayer called embolismus. 
 
 Setting aside the Liturgies of the Latin-speaking 
 peoples of the West, we may say that the whole area 
 of the Church is covered by three forms of Liturgy. 
 The oldest extant types of these are the Liturgy of 
 S. James, the Liturgy of S. Mark, and the Liturgy of 
 Adasus. The first is, roughly speaking, coextensive 
 with the patriarchate of Antioch ; the second with the 
 
APPENDIX II. 303 
 
 patriarchate of Alexandria ; and the third comprises 
 the populations to the farther East, who spoke not 
 Greek, but (for the most part) Aramaic. 
 
 The following then are the forms which the em- 
 bolismus takes in these three Liturgies respectively. 
 I quote them from Hammond's Liturgies Eastern and 
 Western (Oxford, 1878), as a volume easily accessible 
 and convenient for reference : 
 
 (i) Liturgy of S. James p. 47; 
 
 Kat firj et<Jveyiq7S ^/x,as eis Trctpacr/xoi/, Kvpte, Kvpie TWI/ 
 Svvdjj.(j)v, d etSous rrjv aVflevetai/ Ty/Awy, aAAa pixrat ly/ 
 TOV Trovrjpov Kat TCOV cpycov avrov, 7rdcnr)<; eirr/petas 
 avrov, 8ta TO OVO/JLOL crov TO aytov, TO eTTtKX^^ej/ CTTI 
 pav Ta7retVcoo-tv. 
 
 (ii) Liturgy of S. Mark p. 188 ; 
 
 Nat Kvpte, Kvpte, /xi) cl&evtyKys 7;/xa5 etg Trctpaer/xov aXXci 
 pwrat 7^/>ws ct7ro TOV Trovrjpov. oTSev yap T; TroAA?; o~ov cv- 
 O'TrXay^vi'a ort ov 8wa/xe^a VTrcveyKetv Sta TI}V TroAA^v ly/iwi' 
 acr0eviav aXXa irofycrov (rvv TO> 7retpao"/xw Kat cKy8ao~tv, TOU 
 xas VTrcveyKetv. av yap IScoKas ly/xty e^ovo-tai/ TraTctJ/ 
 o^>ea)V Kat o-KOp7riW, Kai CTT! Tracrav TJ}I> BvvafJLiv TOV 
 
 (iii) Liturgy of Adceus p. 279: 
 
 'Ne nos inducas, Domine, in tentationem, sed libera et 
 salva nos a malo et ab exercitibus ejus.' 
 
 Thus all these Liturgies are in favour of the 
 masculine rendering. The meaning of the first and 
 
304 APPENDIX II. 
 
 third is obvious. The first paraphrases 'deliver us 
 from the Evil One and his works, from all his inso- 
 lence and plotting'; the third, ' deliver and save us 
 from the Evil One and his hosts.' The second is not 
 quite so explicit; but its bearing is obvious. The 
 explanation of airo rov irovrjpov appears in the words, 
 'Thou hast given us power to tread upon serpents 
 and scorpions, and upon all the power of the Enemy.' 
 But, when we turn to the Western Liturgies, all is 
 changed. The Latin-speaking peoples embodied in 
 their Eucharistic Service the interpretation which (as 
 will be shown presently) appears first in the later 
 Latin Fathers from Augustine onwards. In the Gre- 
 gorian and Gelasian Canons (Hammond, pp. 372, 373) 
 the embolismus takes the form, 'Libera nos, quae- 
 sumus, Domine, ab omnibus malis praeteritis, prae- 
 sentibus, et futuris, [et] intercedente beata et gloriosa 
 semperfque] virgine Dei genitrice Maria,' etc., where 
 the context betrays the late date of this form. This 
 is also the form adopted in Roman and other later 
 Latin Liturgies (pp. 344, 345). The words are wholly 
 different, and not so explicit, in the Mozarabic Liturgy 
 (ib.y p. 345), but they seem likewise to point to the 
 neuter ; ' Liberati a malo, confirmati semper in bono, 
 tibi servire mereamur Deo ac Domino nostro.' Strange- 
 ly enough, this last is the only Liturgy which Canon 
 Cook has quoted. 
 
APPENDIX II. 305 
 
 But though this was apparently the sense which 
 the later Latin Churches put upon the words 'a 
 malo' in the Lord's Prayer, as used in the Eucha- 
 ristic Service, we have satisfactory evidence that it 
 was differently understood at one time. 
 
 In an ancient Exposition of the Roman Mass 
 printed by Martene (de Antiq. Eccl. Rit. p. 450) the 
 words ' Sed libera nos a malo' are thus commented 
 upon : 
 
 * Hoc est a diabolo, qui totius mali et auctor est et origo. 
 Diabolus natura caelestis fuit, nunc est nequitia spiritalis ; 
 aetate major saeculo, nocendi usu tritus, laedendi arte peri- 
 tissimus, unde non jam matus, sed malum dicilur, a quo est 
 omne quod malum est. .... Petendum nobis est ergo ut Deus 
 nos a diabolo liberet, qui Christum terris ut diabolum vinceret 
 commodavit. Clamet, clamet homo ad Deum, clamet Libera 
 nos a malo, ut a tanto malo, solo Christo vincente, liberetur.' 
 
 This is the more remarkable, because the writer 
 immediately afterwards proceeds to comment on the 
 embolismiis in the form in which it occurs in the 
 Roman Mass, ' Libera nos, quaesumus, ab omnibus 
 malis praeteritis,' etc. If the words which I have 
 italicised formed part of the original text of this 
 exposition (as they seem to have done), the pheno- 
 menon is instructive as showing that, though the 
 writer took 'malo' for a neuter, yet the older interpre- 
 tation, which was founded on the masculine rendering, 
 still so far survived and influenced him that he felt 
 L. R. 20 
 
300 APPENDIX II. 
 
 constrained to interpret it directly of Satan, 'that 
 evil thing/ This exposition is attributed by the 
 editor to about the year 800. 
 
 We are now in a position to see what force there 
 is in the following pleading of Canon Cook (p. 18) : 
 
 ' So far as I am aware, in no collection of prayers, in no 
 ancient liturgy, and in no authorised form of devotional exer- 
 cises, has the primitive Church, or our own Church, or any 
 other Church before or after the Reformation, prescribed sepa- 
 rate or special prayers for deliverance from the power of 
 Satan.' 
 
 I imagine that at this point he must have recalled 
 the familiar words of the Litany : 
 
 ' From the crafts and assaults of the devil, .... 
 
 Good Lord, deliver us. 
 
 ' From all the deceits of the world, the flesh, and 
 the devil, 
 
 Good Lord, deliver its' 
 At all events he continues : 
 
 ' The crafts and assaults of the devil, the temptations brought 
 to bear upon man's frailty, are of course dwelt upon as motives 
 for watchfulness and earnestness ; prayers are offered that 
 those assaults may be averted and brought to nought ; but all 
 such prayers are, I believe, invariably connected with petitions 
 to be delivered from evil, from all evil and mischief, and specially 
 from sin and wickedness, and, in comparison with such petitions, 
 occupy a secondary place.' 
 
 Whether the reader will consider these statements 
 consistent with the facts which I have adduced, I do 
 
APPENDIX II. 307 
 
 not know ; but I venture to think that they can only 
 be vindicated, when confronted with these facts, by 
 such an interpretation of their meaning as deprives 
 them of any real value for the purpose for which they 
 were made. 
 
 (iii) The Fathers. 
 
 Among Greek writers there is, so far as I have 
 observed, absolute unanimity on this point. They 
 do not even betray the slightest suspicion that any 
 other interpretation is possible. 
 
 In the CLEMENTINE HOMILIES xix. 2 sq., S. 
 Peter is represented as inferring the existence of the 
 Evil One from our Lord's own words. He says ; 
 
 o/*oXoyw etvai TOV Trovypov, STL TroXXa/a? avVoV vVapxetv o 
 irdvra. aX^evVas flprjKtv StSacncaXos .... otSa O.VTOV flp-rjKora 
 .... OTL EoopaKei/ ToV Trovrjpov 009 aarpaTrryj/ Trccroi/ra .... /cat 
 WXiv Mi? Sore Trpofyaarw TO> TrovTypa). aXXa Kat o-vfjL(3ov\va)v eip^- 
 
 KV "Eo-T(0 V/XCOV TO Vttt VOL KO.I TO OV OV, TO Of. TT^pLO-Q-OV TOUTO)!/ K 
 
 TOV TTOvifjpov lo~TLV. aXXa Kat iv rj TrapeScoKev tvXQ l^o/xev elpr]fLvov 
 'Pvaat 7^/>tas a?ro TOU irovypov .... Kat Iva. py ts TTO\V /X^KVVW 
 TOV Xoyov, TroXXaKt? olSa TOV StSctcr/caXof pov tiirovra. tivai TOV 
 
 I have nothing to say for the general orthodoxy 
 of this writer, nor is his accuracy of quotation all 
 that could be desired ; but on a question of this kind 
 his early date gives a high value to his testimony. 
 
 20 2 
 
308 APPENDIX II. 
 
 ORIGEN de Orat. 30 (l. p. 265) explains this 
 petition : 
 
 pverat Se i^/xas o cos UTTO TOV 7rov?7pov, ov^t ore ov 
 T^/JLIV TrpoVeiaii' avTiTraA.auov o t^pos oY ottuv S^TTOTC 
 eavTov /cal vTnypCTtoi/ TOV ^eXry/xaros avYov, aAA.' O7 
 
 K.T.X. 
 
 and he gives Job as an instance. 
 
 ID. Sel in Psalm, ii. 3 (n. p. 66 1), 
 
 *Sed et Dominus in Evangelio diabolum non dixit pec- 
 catorem tantummodo, sed malignum, vel malum, et cum docet 
 in oratione vel dicit, Sed libera nos a malo .... Aliud est enim 
 per ignorantiam mala agere et vinci a malo ; aliud est voluntate 
 et studio mala facere, et hoc est nequitia, Unde et merito 
 diabolus nomine TTOI^POS-, id est malignus, vel nequam, appel- 
 latur.' 
 
 DIONYSIUS OF ALEXANDRIA Fragin. p. 1601 (ed. 
 Migne), 
 
 Kat nrj ctcreveyKTjs 7;/jtas ct? 7rctpa(r/xov* TOVTCCTTI pr} courts 
 
 /X7TCTtI/ CIS 7Tlpa(T/XoV, OTl 8e ToCrO T^V OV TO fllj 7Tlpa- 
 
 i, pvcr6rjvaL 8e avro TOV Trovrjpov, 7rpoo-^KV, 'AAAa pucrat 
 aTTo TOV Tronypou. Kal Tt Siev^i/o^ev, to"a>s epcts, TO 
 TTLpa.(rGfjvai Kal TO ets 7reipacrfj.ov e/x7rO*etv ir/rot to~X^tv; o 
 jtxev ycxp qTrrjOfis viro TOV Trovrjpov . . . . cts TretpaoyxoV ovros 
 
 Kttl CIS 7TlpaO"/XOV CtO-^X^C, KCU tCTTtl' V ttVTO) Kttt V7T* 
 
 -Trep exacts ai^/xaXtoTOS . . . . o /xiv yap 7rovYjpo<s Tretpa- 
 is TOWS Trctpacr/Aovs Ka.6e\Ki K.T.X. 
 
 CYRIL OF JERUSALEM Catech. xxiii. 19 (p. 331), 
 
 Sc o dvTiKCt/Acvos Sat/xcuv, a</>* ou pwOrjvai 
 
APPENDIX II. 309 
 
 GREGORY NYSSEN de Omt. Dom. 5 (i. p. 760), 
 
 apa o TreipaoTxos re /cat d Trov^pos fv TL /cara r-qv a"rjp.ao-iav 
 
 f(TTl. . . . pUO-at 77/X<XS ttTTO TOV TTOVrjpOV, TOV V TO> KoV/XO) TOuYto 
 Tj)v tOT^VI/ KKTTT]fJ,VOV, K.T.X. 
 
 DIDYMUSOF ALEXANDRIA r. Manich. u (p. HOO, 
 ed. Migne), 
 
 d Sia^oXos Kat Sarava? KCU Trovrjpds. tJs CK cvayycXtw o 
 
 (TOJTTyp TTpOS T ( 30t9 Kttt TOUTO \ytV 8t8cX(7Kt V T7^ f^\V TO ^? 
 
 fjLaOfjTds' Kat /XT; eto-cve'yKrjs Ty/xas ets Treipacr/xov, a'AXa pOom 
 rj/xas a*7ro TOV irovrjpov. 
 
 ID. Enarr. in Epist. Prim. Johann. v. 19 (p. 1806, 
 ed. Migne), 
 
 1 Lib era nos a malo; redimuntur namque et liberantur ab eo 
 cuncti qui nequaquam ab ignitis ejus jaculis vulnerantur, etc.' 
 
 ClIRYSOSTOM In Matth. Horn. xix. (vil. p. 253), 
 
 Trovrjpov 8e cvTavda TOV Sta^oXov KaXet, /ceXet'ooi/ ly/xas 
 
 ISIDORE OF PELUSIUM ^//>/. iv. 24 (p. 425), 
 
 TO 'POcrat 7;/xa? CITTO TOU irovypov, ot Trpos TOI/ 
 l' I^OVTCS TT)^ /xa^v [St/catoi av eTev Xeycti/]. 
 
 I do not doubt that it would be possible to in- 
 crease the list of testimonies largely; but these 
 examples will suffice. 
 
 The unanimity extends, so far as I have investi- 
 gated, to Greek writers of all ages. 
 
 Among the Latin Fathers there is not the same 
 agreement. The Latin Version 'libera nos a malo' 
 
310 APPENDIX II. 
 
 was less explicit than the original; and 'a malo' 
 could much more easily be treated as a neuter than 
 dirb roO irovijpov. The point to be observed is that 
 the two great ante-Nicene Latin Fathers, writing 
 while the Greek original still spoke through the 
 Latin Version, treat it as a masculine. 
 
 The testimony of the earliest Latin Father is 
 clear and decisive ; 
 
 TERTULLIAN de Orat. 3, 
 
 * Ne nos inducas in temptationem, id est, ne nos patiaris 
 induci, ab eo utique qui temptat. Ceterum absit ut Dominus 
 
 temptare videatur diaboli est et infirmitas et malitia Ipse 
 
 a diabolo temptatus praesidem et artificem temptationis demon- 
 
 stravit Ergo respondet clausula, interpretans quid sit, Ne 
 
 nos inducas in temptationem. Hoc est enim, Sed devehe nos a 
 malo. 1 
 
 ' It is to be regretted/ writes Canon Cook on this 
 passage, 'that in his treatise on the Lord's Prayer 
 Tertullian simply quotes the last petition devehe nos a 
 malo without giving any interpretation/ ' From this 
 supposed silence he argues that 'in whatever sense 
 the Latin Version used the word, in that Tertullian 
 received it'; and, forasmuch as he claims to 'have 
 shown that malignus, not mains, was the word used 
 in all redactions of the Old Italic Version, when the 
 personal enemy of mankind was designated/ he infers 
 that Tertullian here understands a malo in the neuter 
 sense. 
 
APPENDIX II. 311 
 
 I have already discussed Canon Cook's treatment 
 of the Old Latin Version, and shall therefore pass 
 over his inference from it in silence here. Of the 
 whole argument in the passage just quoted it is 
 sufficient to say that it starts from a false premiss. 
 Tertullian does give an interpretation of the words 
 devehe nos a malo, indirectly indeed, but not less 
 plainly on that account. He says that when we 
 pray not to be brought into temptation we must 
 understand that the temptation comes not from God, 
 but from the devil; so that the following clause, 
 sed deveJu nos a malo, answers to and interprets what 
 has gone before. The words 'ergo respondet clausula 
 interpretans,' etc., would be rendered meaningless, if 
 ' malo ' were not masculine. This being so, it is lost 
 labour to argue that devehe is more appropriate of a 
 thing than of a person, as Canon Cook does. 
 
 * In a much later treatise however,' he continues, * De Fuga 
 in Per. c. 1 1 [the reference should be c. 2], Tertullian has an 
 entirely different rendering, erue nos a maligno....T'hQ difference 
 of rendering may indicate, and may probably be explained by, a 
 change of feeling such as might be evolved in the spirit of a 
 separatist, especially in the direction of Montanism.' 
 
 Here the words 'difference of rendering' must 
 imply ' difference of interpretation,' if the context is 
 to have any meaning. But not only (as we have 
 seen) is the interpretation the same in the two 
 passages, but also (what is more important) the 
 
312 APPENDIX II. 
 
 argument is the same. Here are Tertuilian's own 
 words in the second passage : 
 
 1 Cum dicimus ad patrem, Ne nos inducas in temptationem 
 . . . . ab eo illam profitemur accidere, a quo veniam ejus depre- 
 camur. Hoc est enim quod sequitur, sed erue nos a maligno, 
 id est, ne nos induxeris in temptationem permittendo nos ma- 
 ligno; tune enim eruimur diaboli manibus, cum illi non tradimur 
 in temptationem.' 
 
 Thus Tertullian is perfectly consistent with him- 
 self. If any shadow of doubt could have rested on 
 the interpretation of the first passage, it would have 
 been dispelled by the second. 
 
 We pass on to the next great Latin Father, who 
 owned Tertullian as his master. He is, as Canon 
 Cook says, a 'most weighty attestation to the mind 
 of the Latin Church': 
 
 CYPRIAN de Domin. Orat. 25 sq. 
 
 'Illud quoque necessarie monet Dominus ut in oratione 
 dicamus, et ne patiaris nos induct in temptationem : qua in 
 parte ostenditur nihil contra nos adversarium posse, nisi Deus 
 ante permiserit, ut omnis timor noster et devotio adque obser- 
 vatio ad Deum convertatur, quando in temptationibus nihil 
 
 malo liceat, nisi potestas inde tribuatur Potestas vero 
 
 dupliciter adversum nos datur, vel ad poenam cum delinqui- 
 mus, vel ad gloriam cum probamur : sicuti de Job factum 
 videmus manifestante Deo et dicente, Ecce omnia quaecumque 
 habet in tuas manus do, sed ipsum cave ne tangos. Et Dominus 
 in evangelio loquitur tempore passionis, Nullam haberes potes- 
 tatem adversum me, nisi data esset tibi desuper.....\n novissimo 
 enim ponimus sed libera nos a inalo^ comprehendentes ad versa 
 
APPENDIX II. 313 
 
 cuncta quae contra nos in hoc mundo molitur inimicus, a 
 
 quibus potest esse firma et fida tutela, si nos Deus liberet 
 
 Quando autem dicimus libera nos a malo, nihil remanet quod 
 ultra adhuc debeat postulari, quando semel protectionem Dei 
 adversus malum petamus, qua impetrata contra omnia quae 
 diabolus et mundus operantur securi stamus et tuti.' 
 
 Throughout this passage the sense requires that 
 malum, malo, be treated as masculines, as Hartel in 
 his index rightly assumes. The expression ' nihil 
 malo liceat, nisi potestas inde (i.e. a Deo) tribuatur,' 
 corresponds to the preceding ' nihil contra nos adver- 
 sarium posse, nisi Deus ante permiserit.' The constant 
 references to the enemy of mankind under divers 
 names adversaries, 'inimicus, diabolus point to this 
 interpretation. The examples enforce it. Indeed 
 the whole argument requires it; for in this respect 
 the passage is merely an expansion, with illustrations, 
 of the comment of Cyprian's master, Tertullian. 
 
 Canon Cook however only quotes one sentence, 
 ' Sed libera nos a malo, comprehendentes adversa 
 cuncta quae contra nos in hoc mundo molitur inimi- 
 cus,' to which (quite unintentionally) he gives a strong 
 bias in his own favour by his translation, 'But de- 
 liver us from evil, comprehending all evils which the 
 enemy devises against us in this world.' Here, by 
 translating adversa 'evils/ as if it were mala, he 
 makes adversa cuncta the interpretation of a malo, 
 whereas in fact its interpretation lies in inimicus, as 
 
3H APPENDIX II. 
 
 the whole context shows. I quite agree with Canon 
 Cook that 'very special importance attaches to this 
 exposition of Cyprian's'; and I claim him as a power- 
 ful witness on my side. 
 
 Even in the latter half of the fourth century this 
 interpretation is not lost in the Latin Churches, 
 though it becomes gradually obscured : 
 
 AMBROSE De Sacram. v. 29 sq. (n. p. 380), 
 
 ' Non dicit, Non inducas in tentationemj sed quasi athleta 
 talem vult tentationem quam ferre possit humana conditio ; et 
 unusquisque a malo, hoc est, ab inimico, a peccato, liberetur. 
 Potens est autem Dominus .... tueri et custodire vos adversum 
 diaboli adversantis insidias.' 
 
 HILARY Tract, in cxviii Psalm. \. 15 (I. p. 282), 
 
 * Quod et in dominicae orationis ordine continetur, cum 
 dicitur Non derelinquas nos in tentatione, quam ferre non 
 
 possimus lob Deus tentationi permittens, a jure diaboli 
 
 potestatem animae ejus excerpsit, etc.' 
 
 This is far from explicit, but as Hilary elsewhere 
 (Comm. in Matt. v. i, I. p. 689) excuses himself 
 from commenting on the Lord's Prayer on the ground 
 that he has been anticipated by Cyprian and Tertul- 
 lian, it may be presumed that he acquiesced in their 
 explanations. 
 
 With AUGUSTINE however a new era begins. 
 The voice of the original Greek has ceased to be 
 heard, or at least to be heard by an ear familiar 
 with its idiom; and, notwithstanding his spiritual 
 
APPENDIX II. 315 
 
 insight, the loss here, as elsewhere, is very percept- 
 ible : 
 
 Epist. 130 (II. p. 390), 
 
 ' Libera nos a malo ; nos admonemur cogitare, nondum nos 
 esse in eo bono, ubi nullum patiemur malum. Et hoc quidem 
 ultimum, quod in dominica oratione positum est, tarn late patet, 
 ut homo Christianas in qualibet tribulatione constitutus in hoc 
 gemitus edat, etc.' 
 
 De Serm. Dom. ii. 35 (in. 2, p. 214), 
 
 * Sed libera nos a malo. Orandum est enim ut non solum 
 
 non inducamur in malum, quo caremus sed ab illo etiam 
 
 liberemur, quo jam inducti sumus, etc.'; 37 (p. 215), 'et 
 malum a quo liberari optamus, et ipsa liberatio a malo, ad 
 hanc utique vitam pertinet, quam et justitia Dei mortalem 
 meruimus, et unde ipsius misericordia liberamur.' 
 
 Serm. Ivi. (v. p. 330), 
 
 'Libera nos a malo, hoc est ab ipsa tentatione.' Comp. 
 Serm. Ivii. (p. 334), Serm. Iviii. (p. 342). 
 
 Serm. clxxxii. 4 (v. p. 872), 
 
 ' Et si susurret tibi Quid est quod clamasti, Libera nos 
 
 a malo? Certe non est malum. Responde illi, Ego sum malus, 
 etc.' 
 
 De Pecc. Her. ii. 4 (x. p. 41), 
 4 Libera nos a malo. Manet enim malum in carne nostra.' 
 
 Thus the older interpretation has passed out of 
 sight. 
 
 The patristic testimony therefore in favour of the 
 masculine rendering is overwhelming. To Canon 
 Cook however it assumes a wholly different aspect : 
 
APPENDIX II. 
 
 ' I venture to assert (he writes) that no allusion to this view 
 of the meaning of the petition is to be found in the so-called 
 Apostolic Fathers, or in Justin Martyr, or in Irenseus, or in 
 Clement of Alexandria, or any of their contemporaries or 
 in short in any Greek-speaking Father earlier than Origen' 
 (p. 14). 
 
 The reader would, I imagine, infer from this 
 language that allusions to the other rendering were 
 numerous, or at least not rare. The case however is 
 far otherwise. If there is no allusion to this view of 
 the meaning of the petition, it is because there is no 
 allusion to the petition at all. 
 
 But is it quite certain that no such allusion occurs? 
 The reference is not so clear as to be beyond a doubt, 
 and therefore I do not press it. But when Polycarp 
 (c. 7), after condemning one type of heretic as from 
 the devil, and another as the firstborn of Satan, goes 
 on to warn his readers to shun such false teaching 
 and to give themselves to prayer, 'beseeching the 
 allseeing God not to bring us into temptation' (pr) etVe- 
 vey/celv 77/^9 e^9 7T6pacr//,o2/), this reference to the 
 petition in the Lord's Prayer certainly gains in point 
 if we suppose him to have adopted the masculine 
 rendering. 
 
 Again, Canon Cook has his own explanation of 
 the origin and spread of the masculine rendering. 
 He says of Origen (p. 14) that 'he was apt to 
 introduce new thoughts, new speculations into the 
 
APPENDIX II. 317 
 
 sphere of Christian doctrine.' Elsewhere he writes 
 more explicitly (p. 15, note): 
 
 'Considering the absence of testimony as to any earlier 
 admission of a reference to Satan in the Lord's Prayer, and on 
 the other hand the very remarkable influence of Origen upon 
 the exegesis of the Greek and Latin Fathers of the fourth and 
 fifth centuries, I am disposed to believe, though I should 
 hesitate to assert, that this interpretation was first introduced, 
 as it was certainly urged upon the Church, by Origen himself.' 
 
 This surmise is refuted at once by the fact that 
 the interpretation in question appears before Origen's 
 time in the Latin Church i,n passages of Tertullian, 
 which Canon Cook himself has quoted elsewhere but 
 strangely overlooks here, and among Greek Christians 
 in a passage of the Clementine Homilies, which has 
 escaped Canon Cook's notice but is cited above. 
 
 Once more : Canon Cook supposes that, whereas 
 the neuter rendering prevailed in the ante-Nicene 
 ages, the masculine gradually supplanted it after the 
 conversion of Constantine, when the altered relations 
 between the Church and the world brought with 
 them a change of view with regard to the dominion 
 of Satan, and consequently with regard to the exe- 
 gesis of this passage : 
 
 'After the absorption of large masses,' he writes (p. 12), 
 'into the visible Church, the most earnest and influential 
 Fathers recognised Satan as an enemy within the camp, lead- 
 ing captive many a redeemed soul, and, as such, the object of 
 deprecatory petitions. The prayer * Deliver us from that Evil 
 
318 APPENDIX II. 
 
 One' might then be of intense interest A clear line of 
 
 demarcation should be drawn between the witness of the 
 Fathers who wrote before the conversion of the Empire, and 
 those who wrote at a time when the Church had received 
 within its visible precincts a preponderating mass of half- 
 converted or merely nominal Christians.' 
 
 I have not myself noticed any such divergence 
 between the ante-Nicene and post-Nicene Fathers 
 respecting the power of Satan as is here supposed ; 
 nor should I expect to find it. During the ages of 
 persecution the agency of Satan in alluring men 
 from the faith through their fears would impress 
 the Christian conscience not less strongly than his 
 wiles in seducing them through the blandishments 
 of the world at a later date. If the form of the 
 temptation was changed, yet the tempter was as 
 active in the one period as in the other. But indeed 
 we need not waste time in accounting for phenomena 
 which are themselves imaginary. The fact which 
 Canon Cook thus seeks to explain melts away in 
 the light of evidence. He seems indeed to have 
 read the history of the exegesis of this passage 
 backwards. There is no evidence that the neuter 
 rendering was adopted by a single ante-Nicene writer, 
 Greek or Latin. The first direct testimony to it 
 appears half a century or more after the conversion 
 of the Empire. 
 
 To sum up; the earliest Latin Father, and the 
 
APPENDIX II. 319 
 
 earliest Greek Father, of whose opinions we have any 
 knowledge^ both take rov irovrjpov masculine. The 
 masculine rendering seems to have been adopted uni- 
 versally by the Greek Fathers. At least no authority, 
 even of a late date, has been produced for the neuter. 
 In the Latin Church the earliest distinct testimony for 
 the neuter is S. Augustine at the end of the fourth and 
 the beginning of the fifth century. From that time 
 forward the neuter gained ground in the Western 
 Church till it altogether supplanted the masculine. 
 
 4. THEOLOGICAL PROPRIETY. 
 
 The personality of the tempter does not come 
 under discussion here. Whatever may be meant by 
 this personality, it is plainly and repeatedly asserted 
 in the New Testament elsewhere and in the Gospel 
 of S. Matthew more particularly. There is therefore 
 no a priori objection to its occurrence in the Lord's 
 Prayer. It is not on this ground that Canon Cook 
 objects, or could object, to the masculine rendering. 
 His objection is of another kind. He supposes that 
 the form of the petition, pva-at, y^as cnro rov Trovrjpov, 
 when so interpreted, assumes the petitioner to be 
 under the power of Satan. He contrasts with this 
 assumption the language of S. John, 
 
 'who does not represent the Evil One as a foe, or tyrant, 
 from whom the Christian has to be delivered, but as an enemy 
 
32O APPENDIX II. 
 
 whom even the young men have overcome (i John ii. 13, 14), 
 and who is powerful over those only, who abandon themselves 
 to his influence (v. 18, 19). As for the Christian, S. John 
 assures us, That Evil One toucheth him not' (p. 5). 
 
 He maintains that : 
 
 'The earlier Fathers agree .... with the Scriptural view, 
 which looks upon him [Satan] as an enemy who has been 
 expelled from the precincts of the Church, whom the Christian 
 as such opposes, resists, and overcomes, armed, as S. Paul 
 describes him, in the panoply of faith, and safe under the 
 protection of his Lord' (p. 12). 
 
 Speaking of S. Athanasius, he writes that he 
 ' invariably and in the strongest language represents 
 the Evil One and his agents as utterly weak, beaten, 
 discomfited, deprived of all power, and the object of 
 contempt not less than of abhorrence to the Christian 
 as such.' 'We can conceive him and his disciples/ 
 he adds, ' praying for the utter and final overthrow of 
 Satan, for the discomfiture of all who contended 
 against the truth under his influence ; but I, for 
 one, cannot realise a petition on their part to be 
 delivered from his power' (p. 16). 
 
 To those who have read this Father's Life of 
 S. Anthony, Canon Cook's statement will, I venture 
 to think, appear singularly one-sided. But this by 
 the way. I am only concerned with the general 
 question. 
 
 Happily Canon Cook has saved me all trouble, 
 
APPENDIX II. 321 
 
 for he has himself supplied a complete answer to his 
 own objection. In an earlier page (p. 4) he has 
 pointed out the difference between pveo-Qat, etc and 
 pvea-Oat, airo, the former preposition 'implying that 
 the petitioner is actually under the power of an 
 enemy or principle/ which the latter does not. It is 
 somewhat strange, after this explicit statement, to 
 find Canon Cook again and again arguing as if 
 ' Deliver us from the Evil One ' were equivalent to 
 ' Deliver us from the power of the Evil One.' I am 
 far from saying that, properly understood, even this 
 last form of petition is out of place on the lips of the 
 true Christian; but the question need not be discussed 
 here, as it lies outside the words of the Lord's Prayer. 
 And here I might let the matter drop. But the 
 use which Canon Cook has made of I John v. 18, 19 
 ought not to pass unnoticed, if only on account of the 
 consequences which may follow and have followed 
 from similar treatment of the language of Scripture. 
 The Apostles and Evangelists very frequently put 
 forward the ideal view of the Christian's position. 
 His potential achievements are insisted upon without 
 qualification of language. 'But any one who appro- 
 priates to himself individually this ideal perfection, 
 which belongs to the typical Christian, will fall into 
 the most perilous errors. We have only to take the 
 context of the passage which Canon Cook quotes, if 
 L. R. 21 
 
322 APPENDIX II. 
 
 we would see where this mode of treatment would 
 land us: 'Whosoever is begotten of God, sinneth not ; 
 but he that is begotten of God, keepeth him [A.V. 
 'himself'], and the Evil One toucheth him not' Must 
 not the devout Christian then, by parity of reasoning, 
 maintain that he is sinless ? Yet, * if we say that we 
 have no sin, we deceive ourselves, and the truth is 
 not in us' (i John i. 8). 
 
 But if there are passages which celebrate the 
 liberation of the Christian from the dominion of 
 Satan, there are also others which warn him that 
 Satan is still a terrible foe against whom he must 
 exercise all vigilance ' Be sober, be watchful ; your 
 adversary, the devil, as a roaring lion, walketh about, 
 seeking whom he may devour' (i Pet. v. 8); 'Then 
 cometh the Evil One and snatcheth away that which 
 hath been sown in his heart' (Matt. xiii. 19). Though 
 the enemy may be outside the city, he is watching 
 his opportunity to scale the walls or to effect a 
 breach. Though the wild beast may be without the 
 tent, he is prowling about, ready to seize any chance 
 straggler who may cross his path. Why should it be 
 thought unreasonable to pray for deliverance from 
 such a foe ? Prayer is the armour of the Christian. 
 
 I hope that I have now put the reader in posses- 
 sion of reasons which justify the procedure of the 
 
APPENDIX II. 323 
 
 Revisers. My paper has extended to a greater 
 length than I had contemplated when it was com- 
 menced. But a certain thoroughness of treatment 
 was needed in order to do justice to the case; 
 and the importance of the subject will probably be 
 accepted as a valid excuse. I must conclude by 
 expressing my thankfulness that I have had to deal 
 with an adversary so learned and courteous as Canon 
 Cook. 
 
 212 
 
INDEX I. 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 .TT.i. I 
 
 III 
 
 MATT. vi. 34 
 
 190,226,227 
 
 2,3 
 
 I 7 8 
 
 viii. 12 .... 
 
 117 
 
 6 
 
 "3 
 
 23 
 
 "5 
 
 22 
 
 100, 101, 135 
 
 ix. i 
 
 I2 5 
 
 ii. 4 
 
 112 
 
 16 
 
 159 
 
 5 
 
 135 
 
 x. 4 
 
 153, 155 
 
 6 
 
 I 7 8 
 
 9 
 
 9 8 
 
 15 
 
 96, 135 
 
 16 
 
 152 
 
 17 
 
 135' '75 
 
 29 
 
 I8 4 
 
 iii. i 
 
 106 
 
 xi. 2 
 
 112 
 
 3 
 
 135 
 
 xii. i, 5, 10, ii, 
 
 12 l62 
 
 4 
 
 129 
 
 18 
 
 157 
 
 13 
 
 106 
 
 xiii. 2 
 
 125 
 
 14 
 
 107 
 
 19 
 
 274,282,287, 
 
 15,16 ... 
 
 146 
 
 
 288, 291, 
 
 iv. 1,3 
 
 290 
 
 
 292, 295, 
 
 5 
 
 121 
 
 
 298, 322 
 
 6 
 
 139 
 
 20 
 
 53. 196 
 
 8 
 
 124 
 
 21 
 
 196 
 
 13 
 
 194 
 
 24,25 
 
 75 
 
 V. I 
 
 123 
 
 33 
 
 1 88 
 
 15 
 
 47, 122, 131, 
 
 38,39 - 
 
 274.275.282, 
 
 
 187 
 
 
 291, 292, 
 
 16 
 
 47 
 
 
 296, 298 
 
 32 
 
 78 
 
 42,50 ... 
 
 117 
 
 37 
 
 275' 278, 
 
 55 
 
 178 
 
 
 295, 298 
 
 xiv. 8 
 
 151 
 
 39 
 
 2/5, 278, 
 
 13 
 
 125 
 
 
 295, 298 
 
 22 
 
 125 
 
 vi. ii 
 
 217268 
 
 xv. 3, 6 
 
 138 
 
 13 
 
 33, 269323 
 
 21 
 
 194 
 
 16, 18 ... 
 
 145 
 
 22 
 
 154 
 
 25 
 
 190, 227 
 
 27 
 
 149 
 
 31 
 
 190 
 
 35 
 
 81 
 
326 
 
 INDEX I. 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 
 MATT. xvi. 9, 10... 
 
 80 
 
 MATT. xxv. 30 ... 
 
 117 
 
 
 14 
 
 175 
 
 32 
 
 38 
 
 
 16 
 
 112 
 
 4 6 
 
 45 
 
 
 17 
 
 177 
 
 xxvi. 15 
 
 156 
 
 
 25 
 
 65 
 
 25 
 
 1 80 
 
 
 16 
 
 53^5 
 
 3 6 
 
 1 60 
 
 
 xvii. r 
 
 I2 4 
 
 48 
 
 76 
 
 
 10 
 
 I6 9 
 
 49 
 
 76, 
 
 180 
 
 21 
 
 33 
 
 50 
 
 143 
 
 
 14 sq. 
 
 1 86 
 
 56 
 
 IOO, IOI 
 
 25 
 
 198 
 
 63 
 
 112 
 
 
 xviii. 6, 7 
 
 197 
 
 64 
 
 139 
 
 
 24 j?. 
 
 187 
 
 69,71 ... 
 
 126 
 
 
 33 
 
 38 
 
 xxvii. 9 
 
 33 
 
 
 xix. 8 
 
 IOO 
 
 15 
 
 128 
 
 
 9 
 
 79 
 
 27 
 
 54 
 
 
 17 
 
 34 
 
 33 
 
 179 
 
 
 r 9 
 
 177 
 
 35 
 
 J35 
 
 
 xx. 2, 9, 10, 13 
 
 184, 185 
 
 xxviii. 19 
 
 28, 
 
 140 
 
 20 
 
 38 
 
 MARKi. I 
 
 33, 
 
 in 
 
 xxi. 4 
 
 100,101,135 
 
 21 
 
 162 
 
 
 12 
 
 88, 122 
 
 ii. 15, 16 
 
 126 
 
 
 33-^- 
 
 77 
 
 21 
 
 '59 
 
 
 xxii. i sq. 
 
 79 
 
 23 
 
 162 
 
 
 9, 10 ... 
 
 76 
 
 iii. 2, 4 
 
 162 
 
 
 13 
 
 117 
 
 5 
 
 i5 2 
 
 
 xxiii. 6 
 
 48 
 
 18 
 
 153 
 
 
 7,8 ... 
 
 1 80 
 
 iv. \ 
 
 125 
 
 
 24 
 
 204, 205 
 
 16 
 
 53 
 
 
 35 
 
 88 
 
 21 
 
 122, 187 
 
 xxiv. 5 
 
 112 
 
 2 9 
 
 156 
 
 
 12 
 
 109 
 
 v. 13 
 
 122 
 
 
 15 
 
 X 35 
 
 vi. 3 
 
 I 7 8 
 
 
 21 
 
 IOO 
 
 27 
 
 183 
 
 
 27 
 
 144 
 
 30 
 
 125 
 
 
 30 
 
 139 
 
 37 
 
 185 
 
 
 5 I 
 
 117 
 
 45 
 
 ii 
 
 
 xxv. 6 
 
 101 
 
 52 
 
 152 
 
 
 14^. ... 
 
 187 
 
 vii. 9 
 
 138 
 
 
INDEX I. 
 
 327 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 MARKvii. 26 
 
 174 
 
 LuKEiii. 23 
 
 141 
 
 31 
 
 194 
 
 24 
 
 I 7 6 
 
 viii. 19, 20 
 
 80 
 
 26 
 
 178 
 
 29 
 
 112 
 
 27 
 
 176, 177 
 
 36 
 
 53 
 
 30 
 
 176, 177, 17* 
 
 ix. 2 
 
 124 
 
 33 
 
 I 7 8 
 
 5 
 
 1 80 
 
 iv. 5 
 
 124 
 
 29 
 
 33 
 
 9 
 
 121 
 
 41 
 
 in, 113 
 
 ii 
 
 139 
 
 x. 18 
 
 34 
 
 20 
 
 193 
 
 51 
 
 180 
 
 vi. 15 
 
 154 
 
 xi. 4 
 
 122 
 
 16 
 
 128 
 
 15 
 
 122 
 
 17 
 
 123 
 
 21 
 
 180 
 
 36 
 
 8 4 
 
 xii. 26 
 
 139 
 
 45 
 
 274,292,295 
 
 39 
 
 48 
 
 
 298, 300 
 
 42 
 
 I8 4 
 
 vii. 4 
 
 196 
 
 xiii. 14 
 
 135 
 
 5 
 
 122 
 
 28 
 
 149 
 
 33.34 .- 
 
 106 
 
 xiv. 5 
 
 185 
 
 41 
 
 185 
 
 32 
 
 160 
 
 45, 46 ... 
 
 76 
 
 45 
 
 180 
 
 viii. 14 
 
 54 
 
 53.54 .- 
 
 146 
 
 29 
 
 301 
 
 66,69 . 
 
 126 
 
 ix. 25 
 
 53 
 
 xv. 6 
 
 128 
 
 55 
 
 32 
 
 16 
 
 55 
 
 x. 35 
 
 185 
 
 22 
 
 179 
 
 xi. 3 
 
 217 260 
 
 xvi. 9 20 ... 
 
 31 
 
 4 
 
 269323 
 
 LUKE i. i 
 
 158 
 
 33 
 
 122, 187 
 
 39 
 
 125,178, 186 
 
 51 
 
 88 
 
 59 
 
 106 
 
 xii. 6 
 
 184 
 
 63 
 
 192 
 
 35 
 
 131 
 
 65 
 
 125, 186 
 
 xiii. 6 
 
 150 
 
 ii. n 
 
 in 
 
 21 
 
 1 88 
 
 18 
 
 132 
 
 23 
 
 105 
 
 24 
 
 122 
 
 28 
 
 117 
 
 33 
 
 32 
 
 xv. 8 
 
 1 86, 187 
 
 36 
 
 171 
 
 9 
 
 1 86 
 
 43 
 
 32 
 
 xvi. 6, 7 
 
 1 88 
 
,28 
 
 INDEX I. 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 LUKExvii. i, 2 ... 
 
 I 9 6 
 
 JOHN iv. 5 
 
 160 
 
 xviii. 12 
 
 97 
 
 6 
 
 Si 
 
 19 
 
 34 
 
 27 
 
 127 
 
 31 
 
 135 
 
 31 
 
 1 80 
 
 xix. 13 
 
 46, 187, 197 
 
 37 
 
 129 
 
 15 
 
 46 
 
 V. I 
 
 129 
 
 xx. 37 
 
 139 
 
 3.4 
 
 34 
 
 xxi. 19 
 
 97 
 
 35 
 
 130 
 
 xxii. i 
 
 1 80 
 
 44 
 
 129 
 
 43.44 
 
 32 
 
 vi. 4 
 
 129 
 
 xxiii. 2 
 
 in 
 
 7 
 
 185 
 
 5 
 
 179 
 
 14 
 
 JI 5 
 
 17 
 
 128 
 
 22 Sq. ...-;' 
 
 125 
 
 33 
 
 179 
 
 25 
 
 1 80 
 
 34 
 
 32 
 
 5 I 
 
 249 
 
 35.39 - 
 
 112 
 
 6 9 
 
 112 
 
 xxiv. 10 
 
 109 
 
 vii. i 
 
 I 79 
 
 JOHN i. 3 
 
 91, 136, 137 
 
 19,20 
 
 199 
 
 7 
 
 W J 37 
 
 25 
 
 199 
 
 8 
 
 131 
 
 26 
 
 112 
 
 9 
 
 131 
 
 4 o 
 
 "3 
 
 10 
 
 I3 6 137 
 
 viii. i ii ... 
 
 3 1 
 
 ii 
 
 77 
 
 44 
 
 278 
 
 14 
 
 63 
 
 58 
 
 84 
 
 16 
 
 114 
 
 ix. 2 
 
 1 80 
 
 17 
 
 in, 137 
 
 5 
 
 I 3 I 
 
 18 
 
 22, 30 
 
 22 
 
 in 
 
 21 
 
 "5 
 
 x. 16 
 
 79 
 
 25 
 
 112, 115 
 
 xi. 8 
 
 1 80 
 
 2 9 
 
 157 
 
 14 
 
 202 
 
 39 
 
 1 80 
 
 xii. 5 
 
 185 
 
 43 
 
 176, 177 
 
 6 
 
 158 
 
 50 
 
 180 
 
 13 
 
 120 
 
 ii. 6 
 
 187 
 
 4 o 
 
 152 
 
 iii. 2 
 
 1 80 
 
 xiii. 12 
 
 81 
 
 8 
 
 64 
 
 23,25 ... 
 
 80, 8 1 
 
 10 
 
 120 
 
 27 
 
 H3 
 
 19 
 
 131 
 
 xiv. 5, 6 
 
 "5 
 
 26 
 
 1 80 
 
 i6sq. 
 
 56, 59. 
 
INDEX I. 
 
 329 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 JOHNxiv. 18 
 
 59 
 
 ACTS viii. 16 
 
 140 
 
 26 
 
 56, 59 
 
 30 
 
 6 5 
 
 xv. 3 
 
 138 
 
 37 
 
 33 
 
 26 
 
 56, 59. 6l 
 
 ix. 2 
 
 "5 
 
 xvi. 1,4,6 ... 
 
 38 
 
 35 
 
 120, I 7 2 
 
 7 
 
 56,59 
 
 X. 2 
 
 8 9 
 
 30 
 
 43 
 
 30 
 
 33 
 
 xvii. 3 
 
 in 
 
 38 
 
 292 
 
 15 
 
 275. 279, 
 
 xi. 17 
 
 96, 129 
 
 
 295, 298 
 
 19 
 
 1 80 
 
 xviii. i ... 
 
 160 
 
 xii. 4 
 
 180 
 
 28,33 - 
 
 54 
 
 9 
 
 133 
 
 39 
 
 129 
 
 12 
 
 174 
 
 xix. 9 
 
 54 
 
 22 
 
 89 
 
 17 
 
 179 
 
 25 
 
 174 
 
 36 
 
 IOI 
 
 xiii. 14 
 
 162 
 
 xx. 16 
 
 1 80 
 
 21 
 
 171 
 
 22 
 
 64 
 
 50 
 
 161 
 
 25 
 
 38 
 
 xiv. 13 
 
 160 
 
 xxi. 15, 16, 17 
 
 176, 177 
 
 xv. 3 
 
 1 80 
 
 20 
 
 81 
 
 xvi. ii 
 
 222 
 
 ACTS i. 3 
 
 1 60 
 
 3538 .- 
 
 183 
 
 13 
 
 !54 
 
 xvii. i 
 
 122 
 
 18 
 
 98 
 
 2 
 
 163 
 
 ii. 3 
 
 156 
 
 5 
 
 8 9 
 
 ii 
 
 '75 
 
 19,22 
 
 179 
 
 23 
 
 133 
 
 23 
 
 88, 197 
 
 273i ..- 
 
 88 
 
 29 
 
 160 
 
 38 
 
 in 
 
 xviii. 12 
 
 181 
 
 43 
 
 133 
 
 14 
 
 '95 
 
 47 
 
 105 
 
 xix. I 
 
 194 
 
 iii. 6 
 
 in 
 
 2 
 
 96 
 
 8 
 
 301 
 
 3.5 
 
 140 
 
 I3 2 6 ... 
 
 157 
 
 9 
 
 "5 
 
 iv. 25,27 ... 
 
 89 
 
 15 
 
 67 
 
 27,30 ... 
 
 157 
 
 23 
 
 "5 
 
 vii. 26 
 
 107 
 
 30 
 
 89 
 
 45 
 
 175 
 
 31 
 
 182 
 
 viii. 5 
 
 128 
 
 33 
 
 89 
 
330 
 
 INDEX I. 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Aersxix.35 
 
 182. 
 
 ROM. iv. 19 
 
 35 
 
 38 
 
 181 
 
 22 
 
 5i 
 
 XX. 2 
 
 174 
 
 v. 9 
 
 117 
 
 15 
 
 222 
 
 15 
 
 96 
 
 xxi. 2 
 
 1 80 
 
 1519 ... 
 
 108 
 
 3 
 
 145 
 
 vi. I sq. 
 
 93 
 
 15 
 
 193 
 
 1 
 
 93. 96 
 
 18 
 
 222 
 
 3 
 
 93, HO 
 
 28 
 
 8 9 
 
 4,6 ... 
 
 93 
 
 3i 
 
 199 
 
 8 
 
 93, 96 
 
 3L32 ... 
 
 I8 3 
 
 , 13 -. 
 
 158 
 
 xxii. 24 26 ... 
 
 I8 3 
 
 17,18 
 
 93 
 
 xxiii. 17 23 ... 
 
 183 
 
 21 
 
 202 
 
 35 
 
 55 
 
 22 
 
 94 
 
 xxiv. 5, 6 
 
 199 
 
 23 
 
 158 
 
 22 
 
 "5 
 
 vii. i sq. 
 
 no 
 
 XXV. 22 
 
 107 
 
 4 
 
 94 
 
 26 
 
 7i 
 
 6 
 
 94 
 
 xxvi. 24, 25 
 
 38 
 
 ii 
 
 30i 
 
 xxvii. 12 
 
 180 
 
 viii. 6 
 
 96 
 
 20 
 
 144 
 
 ii 
 
 138 
 
 xxviii. 13 
 
 193 
 
 16 
 
 60 
 
 15 
 
 179, 207 
 
 24 
 
 105 
 
 16 
 
 183 
 
 26 
 
 60 
 
 16,29 
 
 32 
 
 ix. 3 
 
 107 
 
 ROM. 1.29 
 
 195 
 
 25 
 
 89 
 
 ii. i 
 
 69 
 
 26 
 
 89, 174 
 
 8 
 
 152 
 
 x. 9, 13 ... 
 
 105 
 
 12 .S^. 
 
 no 
 
 15 
 
 38 
 
 18 
 
 118 
 
 xi. 2 
 
 139 
 
 22 
 
 1 60 
 
 7 
 
 151* 152 
 
 2 4 
 
 138 
 
 8 
 
 155 
 
 26 
 
 151 
 
 20 
 
 195 
 
 iii. 4,6 
 
 202 
 
 25 
 
 151, 152 
 
 19 *?. ... 
 
 1 10 
 
 xii. 2 
 
 86 
 
 25 
 
 I5<> 
 
 3 
 
 65 
 
 24 26 ... 
 
 56 
 
 9 
 
 292, 298 
 
 iv. 3,9 
 
 51 
 
 ii 
 
 3 
 
 i$sq. 
 
 no 
 
 19 
 
 51, 117, 118 
 
INDEX I. 331 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 RoM.xiii. n 
 
 9 6 
 
 i COR. xii.2 
 
 66 
 
 xiv. 14 
 
 141 
 
 + sq. 
 
 38,49 
 
 22,23 
 
 69, 74, 75 
 
 13 
 
 140, 141, 175 
 
 xv. 4, 5 
 
 38 
 
 22 
 
 6 
 
 32 
 
 118 
 
 28 
 
 143 
 
 xvi. i 
 
 127 
 
 xiii. 8 
 
 40 
 
 3.5.6,7,8,9 
 
 39 49 
 
 9, 12 
 
 68 
 
 7 
 
 179 
 
 xiv. 7 
 
 82 
 
 9 
 
 174 
 
 16 
 
 193 
 
 10 16 ... 
 
 39. 49 
 
 20 
 
 82 
 
 19 
 
 152 
 
 23 
 
 203 
 
 23 
 
 182 
 
 24,29 ... 
 
 7i 
 
 i COR. i. 10 
 
 161 
 
 36 
 
 78 
 
 13 
 
 140 
 
 XV. 2 
 
 96, 105 
 
 18 
 
 105 
 
 4 20 ... 
 
 98, 99 
 
 28 
 
 231 
 
 22 
 
 96 
 
 ii. 1315 ... 
 
 69 
 
 24 28 ... 
 
 40, 41 
 
 14. 15 - 
 
 70 
 
 4 
 
 83,84 
 
 iii. 5 
 
 96 
 
 51 
 
 34 
 
 17 
 
 38 
 
 xvi. 1,2 
 
 4i 
 
 iv. 3' 4. 5 - 
 
 69 
 
 12 
 
 118 
 
 8 
 
 202 
 
 15 
 
 201 
 
 v. 9 
 
 119 
 
 22 
 
 H4 
 
 13 
 
 295, 2 9 8 
 
 2COR.i. I 
 
 175 
 
 vi. i 6 
 
 69 
 
 3-8 ... 
 
 41 
 
 vii. 5 
 
 33 
 
 9 
 
 75 
 
 31 
 
 65 
 
 13 
 
 66 
 
 32 
 
 192 
 
 19 
 
 i75 
 
 viii. 6 
 
 136, 140 
 
 20 
 
 35 
 
 IO, 12 
 
 129 
 
 23 
 
 149 
 
 ix. 3 
 
 70 
 
 ii. 6 
 
 no 
 
 4 
 
 109 
 
 14 
 
 150 
 
 22 
 
 92 
 
 15 
 
 105 
 
 X. 2 
 
 140 
 
 iii. i 
 
 41 
 
 l6sq. 
 
 38 
 
 2 
 
 65 
 
 25,27 ... 
 
 70 
 
 5,6 ... 
 
 42 
 
 32 
 
 175 
 
 7 
 
 42 
 
 xi. 2834 
 
 72, 73 
 
 ii 
 
 77 
 
 29.31,32-.. 
 
 69 
 
 l^sq. ... 
 
 42 
 
332 
 
 INDEX I. 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 2 COR. iii. 14 
 
 42, 151 
 
 2 COR. xiii. 9, ii... 
 
 161 
 
 18 
 
 42 
 
 14 
 
 28 
 
 iv. 2 
 
 195 
 
 GAL. i. 6 
 
 83 
 
 3 
 
 42 
 
 ii. 7 
 
 96 
 
 4 
 
 '156 
 
 16 
 
 96 
 
 8 
 
 66 
 
 16 21 ... 
 
 94 
 
 13 
 
 97 
 
 iii. 3 
 
 94 
 
 15 
 
 138 
 
 6 
 
 5i 
 
 v. 6 ii ... 
 
 42 
 
 ios$. 
 
 no 
 
 14 
 
 95 
 
 19 
 
 '34 
 
 16 
 
 67 
 
 27 
 
 94, 140 
 
 vi. 9 
 
 69 
 
 iv. 20 
 
 107 
 
 10 
 
 66 
 
 v. 13 
 
 94 
 
 vii. 7 
 
 42 
 
 20 
 
 152 
 
 10 
 
 85 
 
 2 4 
 
 94 
 
 ii 
 
 119 
 
 EPH. i. i 
 
 23/231 
 
 I3i4 . 
 
 92 
 
 11,13 
 
 94 
 
 viii. 10 12 ... 
 
 43 
 
 23 
 
 46, 114 
 
 19 
 
 130 
 
 ii. 5, 8 
 
 105 
 
 ix. 2 5 
 
 43 
 
 5, 6, 13, 14 
 
 94 
 
 13 
 
 2OI 
 
 iii. 10 
 
 134 
 
 x. 5 
 
 159 
 
 19 
 
 114 
 
 12 
 
 66,69 
 
 iv. 1,4, 7 ... 
 
 94 
 
 13.15,16 
 
 43 
 
 13 
 
 114 
 
 xi. 3 
 
 *39 
 
 18 
 
 IS*. 152 
 
 4 
 
 84 
 
 29 
 
 143 
 
 9 
 
 i59 
 
 30 
 
 94 
 
 16 18 ... 
 
 43 
 
 v. 15 
 
 66 
 
 xii. i 
 
 36 
 
 vi. 12 
 
 199 
 
 isq. ... 
 
 99 
 
 16 
 
 274,291,294, 
 
 2,3 
 
 43 
 
 
 296, 298 
 
 7 
 
 9i 
 
 PHIL. i. 13 
 
 55 
 
 9 
 
 63 
 
 14 
 
 109 
 
 13 
 
 109 
 
 17 
 
 152 
 
 13,14 ... 
 
 '59 
 
 ii. 3 
 
 152 
 
 15 
 
 76 
 
 6sq. 
 
 87 
 
 17 
 
 9i 
 
 9 
 
 119 
 
 18 
 
 91, 119 
 
 13 
 
 43 
 
 20 
 
 152, 195 
 
 15 
 
 144, 152 
 
INDEX I. 
 
 333 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 PHIL. ii. 30 
 
 35 
 
 i TIM. iii. 3 
 
 161 
 
 iii. 2, 3 
 
 65 
 
 ii 
 
 127 
 
 $sq. 
 
 43 
 
 13 
 
 198 
 
 14 
 
 199 
 
 16 
 
 30, i99 
 
 iv. 2 
 
 179 
 
 v. 4 
 
 194 
 
 2,3 
 
 142 
 
 19 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 192, 227 
 
 vi. 2 
 
 130 
 
 19 
 
 235* 2 3 6 
 
 5 
 
 130 
 
 COL. i. 13 
 
 94 
 
 17 
 
 195 
 
 16 
 
 92, 136 
 
 2 TIM. i. 7,9 
 
 94 
 
 19 
 
 114 
 
 ii. 19 
 
 130 
 
 ii. 5 
 
 158 
 
 iii. 4 
 
 195 
 
 8 
 
 151 
 
 iv. ii 
 
 174 
 
 9 
 
 114 
 
 TIT. i. 7 
 
 162 
 
 9, 10 
 
 46 
 
 12 
 
 175 
 
 II sq. 
 
 93 
 
 ii. 14 
 
 261, 263, 
 
 16 
 
 162 
 
 
 267, 268 
 
 20 
 
 96 
 
 iii. 5 
 
 94 
 
 iii. 1,3 
 
 94 
 
 PHILEM. 2 
 
 207 
 
 3 
 
 96 
 
 24 
 
 175 
 
 8 
 
 199 
 
 HEB. i. i 
 
 48 
 
 13 
 
 J 95 
 
 2 
 
 136 
 
 15 
 
 94 
 
 ii. 10 
 
 136 
 
 iv. 10 
 
 i49 175 
 
 16 
 
 156 
 
 14 
 
 !75 
 
 iii. ii 
 
 52 
 
 iTHESS.ii.4 
 
 44 
 
 iv. 3 
 
 52 
 
 16 
 
 118 
 
 8 
 
 i75 
 
 iv. 4 
 
 97 
 
 V. 2 
 
 200 
 
 6 
 
 "9 
 
 12 
 
 2OO 
 
 V. 22 
 
 277 
 
 vi. i 
 
 143 
 
 2THESS.i. 6 
 
 44 
 
 7 
 
 138 
 
 ii. i, 2 
 
 141 
 
 8, 16 ... 
 
 130 
 
 3^- . 
 
 116 
 
 vii. 14 
 
 99, 178 
 
 6 
 
 45 
 
 21 24 ... 
 
 99 
 
 7 
 
 45. 198 
 
 viii. 8 
 
 178 
 
 iii. 2, 3 
 
 275, 288, 
 
 13 
 
 44 
 
 
 295, 298 
 
 ix. i 
 
 130 
 
 ii 
 
 66 
 
 69, 18... 
 
 103, 104 
 
 i TIM. i. 4 
 
 205 
 
 28 
 
 157 
 
 iii. i 
 
 3 
 
 X. I 
 
 104, 130 
 
334 
 
 INDEX I. 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 HEB. x. 30 
 
 51 
 
 I JOHNiv. 9, IO, 14 
 
 9 2 
 
 xi. 10 
 
 116 
 
 v. 6 
 
 126 
 
 31 
 
 172 
 
 7 
 
 2730 
 
 xii. 26 
 
 149 
 
 9, 10 
 
 44 
 
 JAMES i. 15 
 
 86 
 
 18,19 ... 
 
 274, 276, 
 
 17 
 
 85 
 
 
 291, 296, 
 
 ii. 2,3 
 
 44 
 
 
 298, 321 
 
 23 
 
 51 
 
 JUDE 12 
 
 149' I5* *53 
 
 25 
 
 172 
 
 REV. i. 4 
 
 147 
 
 iii. 5 
 
 156 
 
 15 
 
 44 
 
 14, 16 
 
 152 
 
 ii. 13 
 
 46 
 
 v. 9 
 
 195 
 
 26 
 
 H7 
 
 16 ... 
 
 203 
 
 iii. 12 
 
 147 
 
 20 
 
 51 
 
 17 
 
 44, 170 
 
 i PET. i. 3 
 
 94 
 
 21 
 
 M7 
 
 16 
 
 84 
 
 iv. 4 
 
 46 
 
 18 
 
 94 
 
 5 
 
 13' 
 
 ii. 4 
 
 141 
 
 ii 
 
 200 
 
 9 
 
 263, 268 
 
 v. 5 
 
 178 
 
 10 
 
 89 
 
 vi. 6 
 
 185, iSjSf. 
 
 16 
 
 195 
 
 vii. 5 
 
 178 
 
 21 
 
 94 
 
 6 
 
 171 
 
 2 4 
 
 157 
 
 12,14 ... 
 
 117 
 
 iii. 9 
 
 94 
 
 15 
 
 &5 
 
 21 
 
 151 
 
 viii. 10 
 
 J 3 r 
 
 iv. 8 
 
 52 
 
 12 
 
 145 
 
 v. 7 
 
 191, 227 
 
 xi. 9, ii 
 
 127 
 
 8 
 
 322 
 
 16 
 
 46 
 
 13 
 
 175 
 
 xiii. 6 - ... 
 
 63 
 
 2 PET. ii. 1,3 
 
 44 
 
 xiv. 15, 16 
 
 139 
 
 13 
 
 153 
 
 xvi. 10 
 
 46 
 
 iii. 12 
 
 142 
 
 xvii. i 
 
 117 
 
 i JOHN i. 8 
 
 322 
 
 6,7 ... 
 
 45 
 
 ii. i 
 
 56 
 
 xviii. 2 
 
 45 
 
 13,14 ... 
 
 274, 291, 
 
 23 
 
 145 
 
 
 296, 298 
 
 xix. 9 
 
 130 
 
 iii. 8 
 
 278 
 
 xxi. 3 
 
 63 
 
 12 
 
 274, 278, 
 
 14, 19*7.... 
 
 116 
 
 
 291, 298 
 
 24 
 
 105 
 
INDEX II. 
 
 Abelard on eTrtoi/trtos, 251 sq., -255 
 Acts of the Apostles, text of, 33 
 ^Ethiopia rendering of twio6(rios, 
 
 259; of curb roO irovypov, 301 
 Alford (Dean) on Revision, 52, 55, 
 
 65 
 
 ambiguities of expression, 198 sq. 
 Ambrose (S.) on ^7rtoi5<7ios, 246 sq. ; 
 
 on OTTO Toy Trovrjpov, 314 
 Andre wes (Bp), 12 
 Anselm, 251 
 Antigenidas, 8 
 Antiochene School, 233 
 aorist, confused with perfect, 89 sq.; 
 its significance in S. Paul, 93 ; 
 various misrenderings of, 96 sq. 
 Apphia, Appia, 207 
 archaisms in the English Version, 
 i8 9 sq. 
 
 by, 132 
 
 by and by, 195 
 
 carefulness, 191 
 
 carriages, 193 
 
 chamberlain, 182 
 
 coasts, 194 sq. 
 
 comforter, 58 
 
 debate, 195 
 
 deputy, 1 81 
 
 devotions, 197 
 
 dishonesty, 195 
 
 fetch a compass, 193 
 
 generation, 197 
 
 go about to, 199 
 
 grudge, 195 
 
 high-minded, 195 
 
 instantly, 195 
 
 let, 198 
 
 lewdness, 195 
 
 maliciousness, 195 
 
 minister, 193 
 
 nephew, 194 
 
 occupy, 47, 197 
 
 of, 132 
 
 offend, offence, 196 
 
 prevent, 198 
 
 room, 48, 193 
 
 scrip, 193 
 
 thought, 190 sq. 
 
 writing-table, 192 
 Armenian rendering of 
 
 258 ; of dirb TOV irovijpov, 300 
 Arnold (Mr M.) quoted, 210 sq. 
 article (the definite), neglect of, 
 107 sq. ; insertion of, 127 sq. ; 
 general ignorance of, 129 sq. 
 Asiarchs, 182 
 aspirate (Hebrew) omitted in Greek, 
 
 172 
 
 Athanasius (S.) on eTrtoi/o-tos, 232 
 Augustine (S.) on Jerome's revision, 
 
INDEX II. 
 
 4, 6, 9, 1 6 ; on the heavenly wit- 
 nesses, 29; on e7rtoti(Tios, 255; on 
 <'nro TOV Trovrjpov, 314 sq., 319 
 
 Authorised Version : historical par- 
 allel to, 10 sq,., 269; translators' 
 forebodings of, 1 1 ; never autho- 
 rised, 1 2 ; gradual reception of, 
 13; itself a revision, 15; faulty 
 text of, 21 sq. ; distinctions cre- 
 ated in, 36 sq. ; distinctions ob- 
 literated in, 66 sq. ; errors of 
 grammar in, 89 sq. ; errors of 
 lexicography in, 148 sq. ; its ca- 
 price in proper names, titles, etc., 
 163 sq.; archaisms in, 189 sq. ; 
 ambiguities of expression in, 198 
 sq. ; faulty English in, 202 sq. ; 
 editorial errors and misprints in, 
 -203 sq. ; corrections in later edi- 
 tions of, 143, 204 sq. ; variable 
 orthography of, 206 sq.; pure 
 English of, 211 sq. 
 
 cubs, adjectives in, 222 
 
 atpeiv, 157 
 
 ClK^pCUOS, 152 
 
 dXXos, 2repos, 83 sq. 
 dva.KpLvei.v t ditdnpiffis, 69 sq. 
 dvairlTTTeiv, So sq. 
 dveveyKeiv, 157 
 dffffdpiov, 184 sq. 
 avydfriv, 157 
 av\-/i, -n-ol/j-vij, 79 
 
 Barjona, 177 sq. 
 
 Barnabas, Epistle of, on 6 irovypos, 
 
 280 
 Basil (S.) on tiriofoios, 227, 233 
 
 sq. 
 
 Bensly, 242 
 Bentley quoted, 108 sq. 
 
 Bernard's (S.) controversy with 
 
 Abelard, 251 sq., 254 
 besaunt, 187 
 Beza, 257 
 Bible; see Authorised Version 
 
 Bishops'; 12, 30, 78, 79, 98, 
 142, 150, 155, 166, 168, 180, 
 
 181, 183, 201, 203, 205 
 Coverdale's ; 29, 79, 142, 150, 
 
 i54> i55 166, 183 
 
 Geneva; 12, 79, 98, 142, 150, 
 i55> 166, J 68, 179, 180, 181, 
 183, 201; Testament (1557), 
 30, 142, 150, 154, 159, 181, 
 184; Tomson's Testament, 
 203, 257 
 
 Great; 29, 79, 142, 150, 154, 
 155, 167, 180, 183 
 
 Rheims; 49, 79, 87, 150, 155, 
 
 182, 188, 200, 201 
 Tyndale's; 29, 49, 78, 79, 86, 
 
 87, 89, 90, 135, 142, 150, 154, 
 
 155, 160, 183, 188, 197, 198, 
 
 200, 257, 268 
 Wycliffe's (and Wycliffite); 87, 
 
 89, 150, 155. 181, 182, 184, 
 
 187, 1 88, 197, 257 
 Breviary, 255 
 Peurrdfcw, 158 
 /Saxes, 1 88 
 (3ii}/j,6s, OvffLo.ffT'fjpiov, 88 
 
 Calvin, 257 
 
 Cassianus, 250 sq. 
 
 Christ and the Christ, 1 1 1 sq. 
 
 Chrysostom (S.) on ^Triotfcrios, 234 
 
 sq.; on dirb TOV Trovypov, 309 
 Clementine Homilies on dwb TOV 
 
 trovnpov, 307, 317 
 coins, rendering of, 184 sq. 
 
INDEX II. 
 
 337 
 
 Cook, Canon, and the Last Petition 
 
 of the Lord's Prayer, 270 sq. 
 Corinthians, 2nd Epistle to the ; 
 
 recurrence of words in, 41 sq. 
 Coverdale's Bible ; see Bible 
 Cretans, Cretes, Cretians, 175 
 Cureton, 239 
 
 Cyprian (S.), 29, 244, 312 sq. 
 Cyril (S.) of Alexandria; on &ri- 
 
 o&rtos, 236; on Treptotfcrios, 261 
 Cyril (S.) of Jerusalem; on ^riotf- 
 (Tios, 234; on dtrb TOV irovrjpov, 
 308 
 
 KaiecrOai, 131 
 
 Kavavcuos, tHavavinqs, 153 
 s, Ka.Tavv(r<reu>, 155 
 
 , 161 
 KO\TTOS, ffrijdos, So 
 6pos, 1 88 
 
 Kb<pivoi, (rirvpides, 79 
 xpiveiv and its compounds, 69 sq. 
 
 , KKTijff6ai, 97 sq. 
 , 1 86, 187 
 , 1 60 
 
 Damascene (S. John) on 
 
 236 
 
 Damasus, Pope, i, 9 
 deaconesses, 127 
 didrachma, 186 
 Didymus of Alexandria on OLTTO TOV 
 
 irovripov, 309 
 digamma, 224 
 
 Dionysius of Alexandria; on tv rig 
 277; on ct7r6 roO Trovypov, 
 
 308 
 
 Dionysius Carthusianus, 251 
 drachma, 186 
 drjfws, Xaoj, 89 
 drjvdpiov, 184 sq. 
 
 L. R. 
 
 did, distinguished from #7r<S, 132 sq.; 
 its connexion with Inspiration, 
 134 sq.; with the doctrine of the 
 Word, 135 sq.; misrendered with 
 the accusative, 137 sq., 151 
 
 5ici/3oAos, daifjLoviov, 87 sq. 
 
 i, 156 
 151 
 
 5oc7ts, ddjprjfjia, 85 sq. 
 
 SouXot, dioucovoi, 79 
 
 Easter, 180 
 
 Egyptian Service-books, 244 
 
 Egyptian Versions ; rendering of 
 7ra/>a/c\?7Tos, 61 ; of <77ri\o5es, 152; 
 of ^Trtouatos, 243 sq., 257 sq. ; of 
 curb TOV Trovrjpov, 277, 297 sq. 
 
 Elias, Elijah, 169, 171 
 
 Ellicott (Bp) on Revision, 20, 55, 
 102 
 
 Embolismus, 302 sq. 
 
 English language, present know- 
 ledge of the, 2 10 sq. 
 
 Ephesians, Epistle to the ; its desti- 
 nation and genuineness, 22 sq. 
 
 Ephrem Syrus, 242 
 
 Evangelists, parallel passages in 
 the; 34, 52 sq., 124, 125 sq., 
 160, 178 
 
 Evil One, Deliver us from the, 269 
 sq. 
 
 flvai, ylvevBai, 84 sq. 
 
 ek wrongly translated, 139 sq. 
 
 "EXXijis EXX^j'io-TiJs, 174 
 
 tv wrongly translated, 140 sq. 
 
 t^alperos, 264 sq., 267 
 
 e7re/>cr?7/ia, 151 
 
 tirl wrongly translated, 139; the i 
 elided in composition, 224 
 s, 68 
 
 22 
 
INDEX II. 
 
 156 
 
 222, 226 
 lTTi.ovffi.os, 217 sq. 
 
 225, 228 
 152 
 
 Fidelity in translation, 270 sq. 
 Five Clergymen, Revision of the ; 
 
 55. 102 
 Fulke's answer to Martin, 167 
 
 Gehenna, Hades, 87 sq. 
 gender, change of, disregarded, 77 
 Geneva Bible, Testament; see Bible 
 Gothic Version of tiriovffios, 258; of 
 
 diro TOV irovrjpov, 300 
 Greek, Grecian, Greece, Grecia, 174 
 Greek forms of Hebrew names, 171 
 
 sq. 
 Greek scholarship in England, 208 
 
 sq. 
 Gregory the Great on the Latin Ver- 
 
 sions, 10 
 Gregory Nyssen on ^riovVios, 233; 
 
 on cforo TOV Trovrjpov, 309 
 Grote (Prof.), 205 
 gutturals (Hebrew), how dealt with 
 
 in Greek, 172 
 67 sq. 
 vs, 182 
 
 Hammond, 303, 304 
 
 Hare (Archdn), 56 
 
 Hebrews, Epistle to the ; date of, 
 
 104 
 Hebrews, Gospel of the ; its origin 
 
 and value, 237 sq. ; rendering of 
 
 ^rioimos, 237 
 Heloise, 251 
 hendiadys, 144 
 
 Hilary (S.) on tiriovffios, 255 ; on 
 
 OLTTO TOV irovypov, 314 
 hypallage, 143 
 
 idols of the cave, market-place, 102 
 
 sq. 
 imperfect tense mistranslated, 106 
 
 sq. 
 Isidore of Pelusium on dirb TOV 
 
 Trovripov, 309 
 Isidore of Seville, 13 
 Ismenias, 9 
 Italic, Old, the title, 293 ; see Latin, 
 
 Old 
 
 lepov, vaos, 88 
 lepoffv\iv t 1 60 
 IffTavai, 156 
 
 Jacob of Sarug, 241 sq. 
 
 James, Jacob, 175 
 
 Jeremy, Jeremias, 175 
 
 Jerome (S.) revises the Latin Bible, 
 i ; his detractors and opponents, 
 2 sq., 16; version of Book of Jo- 
 nah, 4; corrects the text, 4 sq., 
 17, 26; does not translate but re- 
 vise, 6; his Jewish teachers, 6 sq. ; 
 his devotion to the work, 7 sq. ; 
 gradual reception of his Version, 
 9 sq., 17 sq.; his rendering of ira- 
 pd/cX^ros, 6 1 ; of ^7rioi/<noj, 248 sq. ; 
 of irepiovffios, 249, 261 sq., 264 sq. 
 
 Jerusalem, spelling of, 172 
 
 Jesus, Joshua, 175 
 
 Jewry, 179 
 
 Johanan, John, etc., 176 sq. 
 
 John, the father of S. Peter, 176 sq. 
 
 John (S.), disciples of, 31 
 
 John (S.), Gospel of: its genuine- 
 ness, 22; minute traits in, 81, 120; 
 
INDEX II. 
 
 339 
 
 coincidences with the Revelation, 
 50, 62 sq. ; with the First Epistle, 
 50, 56 sq., 62, 280; later than the 
 other Gospels, 101; doctrine of 
 the Evil One in, 279 sq., 319 sq. 
 
 John (S.), Apocalypse of: broken 
 syntax of, 147 sq.; see /<?>& (S.) f 
 Gospel of 
 
 Jona, two distinct names, 177 
 
 Jude, Juda, Judah, Judas, 178 
 
 Juvencus, 244 sq. 
 
 Laodiceans, Epistle to the, 23 sq. 
 
 Latin, Old ; false readings in, 2 sq. ; 
 retained in Service-books, 14 ; ren- 
 dering of irapdK\T)TO$, 60; of ffiri.- 
 AciSes, 153; of ^riouo-tos, 244 sq. ; 
 of Trepiovfftos, 267 ; of rov irovrjpov, 
 276, 293 sq., 311; various read- 
 ing in the Lord's Prayer, 232 
 
 Latin Vulgate: see Jerome (S.) 
 
 Latinisms, 189 sq., 200, 210 sq. 
 
 Lindisfarne Gospels, 257 
 
 Liturgies, interpretation of dirb rov 
 Trovrjpou in the, 301 sq. 
 
 Lord's Prayer, the early use of, 218 
 sq. ; see also Appendices (passim) 
 
 Lucas, Luke, 175 
 
 Luke (S.), Gospel of: two editions 
 of, 31 sq.; its classical language, 
 124, 1 86 
 
 Luther's Bible, 30, 257 
 
 \v\vos, <f)ws, 130 sq. 
 
 Magdalene, spelling and pronuncia- 
 tion of, 173 sq. 
 
 Maldonatus, 256 
 
 malus as a designation of the Evil 
 One, 294 sq. 
 
 Marcus, Mark, 175 
 
 Mark (S.), Gospel of: the conclu- 
 
 sion, 31 
 Marsh (Mr) on revision, etc., 102 
 
 sq., 209, 212, 214 
 Martene, 305 
 Martin's (Gregory) attack on English 
 
 Bibles, 166 sq. 
 Mary, Miriam, 175 
 Matthew (S.), Gospel of: peculiari- 
 
 ties of language in, 100 sq., 124; 
 
 its relation to the Gospel of the 
 
 Hebrews, 237 
 measure, in what sense used, 186, 
 
 187 sq. 
 
 Memphitic : see Egyptian Versions 
 metaphors obscured, 158 sq. 
 Milman (Dean), error of, 252 
 modius, 187 
 Mount, Sermon on the ; its locality, 
 
 123 sq. 
 
 Mozarabic Liturgy, 304 
 Minister's Latin Bible, 166 
 fdpiuva, fjiepifu>av, 190 sq., 227; dis- 
 
 tinguished from /iAeu/, 191 
 /ierdvoia, /xera^iAeta, 85 
 /AerpTjTiys, 187 
 
 />ixa<r0cu, fJLOixevdfjvai, 78 sq. 
 86 sq. 
 
 Neubauer, 292 
 
 Nicene Creed, misunderstanding of, 
 
 136 sq. 
 
 Nicolas of Lyra, 251 
 J/^TTIOI, 7rat5/ct, 82 
 s, 6 vofjios, no 
 
 official titles, rendering of, 180 sq. 
 
 Origen, on ^irioixnos, 217 sq., 229 
 sq.; on irepiovffios, 260 sq.; on 
 dird rov Trovr/pov, 308 ; his method 
 
34 
 
 INDEX II. 
 
 of interpretation, 231; general 
 adoption of his interpretations, 
 232 sq. 
 
 686s (77), 115 sq. 
 
 oI5a, yivwffKW, eirlo'Tafj.a.i, etc., 67 sq. 
 
 6i>ofjLa (rb), 119 
 
 dirrdveo'dai, 144 
 
 tyri (ty* 117 sq. 
 
 opos (rb), 123 sq. 
 
 -oi/crioj, adjectives in ; derived from 
 -ay, 223, 266; from oixria, 223 sq. 
 ovrws, 8 1 
 
 Papias, 31, 207 
 
 paronomasia, 65 sq. 
 
 Paul (S.); his use of the aorist, 93 
 
 sq. ; his vision, 99 sq. ; his teach- 
 
 ing of redemption, 109 ; his con- 
 
 ception of law, no; his thorn in 
 
 the flesh, 159 
 Payne Smith (Dean), 293 
 peculiar, 267 sq. 
 peculium, peculiaris, 266 sq. 
 perfect, confused with the aorist, 
 
 91 sq.; misrendered, 98 sq. 
 Peshito ; see Syriac Versions 
 Peyron, 299 
 Pfeiffer, 247, 251 
 Phenice, Phcenix, Phoenicia, 180 
 pleroma, the, 114 
 Polycarp, reference to the Lord's 
 
 Prayer in, 316 
 prepositions ; in composition neglect- 
 
 ed, 75 sq. ; variation of, disregard- 
 
 ed, 77; mistranslations of, I32sq. 
 present tense, mistranslated, 103 sq. 
 Plumptre (Dean) on revision, 20, 
 
 210 
 proper names ; how to be dealt with, 
 
 163 sq. ; should conform in the 
 
 O. T. and N. T., 168 sq. ; whether 
 to be translated or reproduced, 
 179 sq. 
 
 TTCUS, servant, 157 
 
 irapdK\r}Tos, 56 sq. 
 
 Trapeo-ts, 150 sq. 
 
 Treptoucrictayios, 262 
 
 Tre/noua-tos, 218, 230, 260 sq. 
 
 Trepnroir)<n$, 263 
 
 TT\OIOV, rb irXoiov, 125 
 
 irvi>/ji.a, wind, spirit, 64 
 
 iro\\ol, ol Tro\\oi, etc., 109 sq. 
 
 irovrjpbs (6), Trovripbv (rb} t 274 sq. 
 
 Trpay/j-a (rb), 119 sq. 
 
 151 
 (6), 113 sq. 
 
 Trrepvyiov (TO), 12 1 
 
 trvXwves, 161 
 
 irwpovv, Tr&pucris, 151 
 
 <f)atveiv t <f>aLvecr6ai t 144 sq. 
 
 <paivo[j.ai uv, (patvofJiai elvai, 145 
 
 145 
 
 , (f>6oyy6s, 82 
 
 Rabbi, Rabboni, 180 
 
 Rahab, spelling of, 172 
 
 redemption, 109 
 
 Revision (the new) of the English 
 Bible; historical parallel to, 10 
 sq., 269; gloomy forebodings of, 
 14 sq. ; exaggerated views of, 15 ; 
 antagonism to, 16; disastrous re- 
 sults anticipated from, 17; ques- 
 tion of acceptance of, 18 sq. ; need 
 of, 19 sq. (passim) ; prospects of, 
 207 sq. ; conservative tendencies 
 of rules affecting, 212 sq.; liberal 
 conditions of, 214 sq.; favourable 
 circumstances attending, 215 
 
 Roberts (Dr), 238 
 
INDEX II. 
 
 341 
 
 Rome, bishops of; their use of the 
 
 Latin Versions, 9 sq. 
 Rufinus, 4 
 
 , &Tr6, 273 
 
 Sahidic : see Egyptian Versions 
 salvation, how regarded in the N. 
 
 T., 104 sq. 
 Saron : see Sharon 
 Schiller-Szinessy, 285 
 second Advent, 115 sq. 
 Septuagint, its evidence to N. T. 
 
 theological terms weighed, 281 
 
 sq. 
 
 shamefaced, shamefast, 206 
 Sharon, the, 121, 171 sq. 
 Shechinah, ffKrjvfi, 62 sq. 
 shibboleth, 171 
 sower, parable of the, 53 sq. 
 Stanley (Dean), 123 
 stater, 186 
 substantia, 245 
 Suicer, 229 
 supersubstantialis, 232, 246, 248 
 
 sq.,5i sq. 
 Symmachus, 266, 267 
 synonymes, 67, 79 sq. 
 Syrian service-books, 242 
 Syrian Versions : 
 
 Curetonian; rendering of wapd- 
 K\TJTOS, 61; of tiriovffios, 238, 
 241, 242, 257 ; of ctTrd rou iroyrj- 
 pov, 292 sq. 
 
 Jerusalem ; rendering of tiriotaios, 
 240 
 
 Peshito ; rendering of Tropa/cXT/ros, 
 61; of Kapcu'cuos and Xcwcu'cuos, 
 154; of tirioixrios, 239, 242, 257; 
 of airb TOU irovypov, 291 sq. 
 
 Philoxenian (Harclean); render- 
 
 ing of o-TTiXdSes, 153; of tmot- 
 fftos, 240 sq. 
 
 , 162 
 ffdrov, 1 88 
 
 i t 161 
 
 ri, <TKI]VOVI>, 62 sq. 
 (TTre/couXarwp, 183 
 
 i, (TTTiXaSes, 152 sq. 
 
 , 158 
 0'i'Xa'ywyeu', 151 
 ff(>)6fj.ei>oi (of), 104 sq. 
 ilpJD, 262 sq. 
 
 talent, 187 
 
 Targums and 6 7roi^p6s, 284 sq. 
 tenses wrongly rendered, 89 sq. 
 Tertullian, 244, 294, 310 sq., 317 
 Teutonic Versions of the Lord's 
 
 Prayer, 256 
 
 text, importance of a correct, 25 sq. 
 textual criticism, its tendencies, 21 
 
 sq. 
 
 Theodoret on firiov<rios, 236 
 Theophylact on eTrtoutrtos, 236 
 Tholuck, 219, 229 
 Thomas, Acts of, 241 
 Trench (Abp) on the Authorised 
 
 Version, 20, 46, 55, 80, 150, 155, 
 
 157, 169, 191, 194, 210 
 Trent, Council of, 17, 256 
 Tyndale's Bible : see Bible 
 delov (TO), 161 
 , 118 
 
 150 
 
 Urbane, 174 
 (fXi;, 156 
 viro, 5id, 133 
 
 various readings, 30 sq. 
 
342 
 
 INDEX II. 
 
 Versions, translation of &irb TOV TTO- Witnesses, the Three Heavenly, 27 
 
 vtjpov in the, 290 sq. sq. 
 
 Victorinus, on ^7rtoi5<nos, 245; on wrath, the, 117 sq. 
 
 7re/>totf(Ttos, 261 Wright (Prof.), 239, 241, 242 
 
 Vulgate ; see Jerome (S.) Wycliffe's Bible : see Bible 
 
 wages of labourers, 184 sq. 
 way, the, 185 sq. 
 Westcott (Bp), 13, 126 
 
 Zurich Latin Bible, 30, 257 
 faa, dijpla., 80 
 
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