I 
 
 607 
 
 iDRYEY OF THE ETHNOGRAPHY OF AFRICA : 
 iND THE FORMER RACIAL AND TRIBAL 
 MIGRATIONS IN THAT CONTINENT. 
 
 
 SIR H. H. JOHNSTON, G.C.M.G., K.C.B., 1* 
 
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 A SUEVEY OF THE ETHNOGRAPHY OF AFRICA: AND 
 
 THE FORMER RACIAL AND TRIBAL MIGRATIONS 
 
 IN THAT CONTINENT. 
 
 21 1708 5
 
 375 
 
 A SURVEY OF THE ETHNOGRAPHY OF AFRICA: AND THE FORMER 
 RACIAL AND TRIBAL MIGRATIONS IN THAT CONTINENT. 
 
 BY SIB H. H. JOHNSTON, G.C.M.G., K.C.B., D.Sc. 
 
 THE paper which I am about to read contains no element of deep research and 
 perhaps no complete solution of any ethnological puzzle. It is rather a statement 
 of the problems and probabilities and the few known facts connected with the 
 archaeology and history of Man in Africa. It has been compiled in the hope that 
 by calling attention to these theories and questions, workers in the field of research 
 may be led to fill in the outlines and to supply further and more detailed informa- 
 tion as to the evolution of races and the gradual human conquest of this still 
 mysterious part of the earth. 
 
 There is less written history in connection with Africa (outside Egypt) than 
 with Asia or Europe ; though of course in this respect Africa ranks before America 
 and Australasia. In the lower valley of the Nile, history as inscribed by the brush, 
 the reed, of 1 the graving-tool goes back earlier than in any other part of the Old World, 
 except Mesopotamia Mesopotamia which may have passed on from Western Asia 
 the Neolithic civilization that was to cross Arabia and Syria and find a wonderful 
 sphere of development in North-east Africa. But for the deductions that follow, 
 we depend less on written history than on the discoveries of palaeontology and 
 archaeology, on the study of philology, and the consideration of oral tradition. 
 
 Discoveries of human implements show the Nile Valley to have been inhabited 
 by man of Palaeolithic and Neoli thic culture at a time considerably remote from the 
 present day perhaps 20,000 to 30,000 years ago ; but so far there are no bones, 
 rock pictures or sculptures to show what were the most ancient types of human 
 being using those implements. In the prehistoric graves of Lower Egypt small 
 figures of carved stone have been found which show some resemblance to the 
 Bushman type in their marked steatopygy, 1 but this resemblance is not reinforced 
 by the face, which so far is missing or too rudely liinued to serve as evidence. The 
 earliest pictures given to us by the dynastic Egyptians of the wild aborigines of 
 the Nile Delta are engraved on slate palettes, and depict a dwarfish Negro-like 
 race, not unlike the Congo pygmies of to-day differing from them only in possess- 
 ing rather bigger though flattish " Papuan "-noses with bushy heads of closely 
 curled hair. The males are circumcized (after the Masai fashion) ; they are bearded 
 
 1 The same may be said about the little statuettes or figurines found in South-west France. 
 
 a 2
 
 376 SIR H. H. JOHNSTON. A Survey of the Ethnography of Africa, etc. 
 
 like the modern pygmies, and in some of the other representations the women (like 
 the Congo pygmies and Tasmanians) grow slight whiskers. I do not know if there 
 are in Egypt or Nubia rock pictures or engravings of as remote a date as those to 
 be seen in Tunis, Algeria, Tripoli, and above all in Southern Morocco and across the 
 Sahara Desert. In the Sahara remarkable discoveries may yet await us, and too 
 little publicity has been given to those already made, owing to the jealousies 
 between ethnologists. Some of these engraved rocks, or photographs of them, can 
 be seen in the Museum or the University of Algiers ; and certain publications have 
 been issued at Lyons dealing with the rock drawings of Northern Africa. Here we 
 see depicted I have had the experience myself, in South-western Algeria an 
 extinct type of buffalo, elephants, and (I am told) giraffes, which have long since 
 vanished from the North African fauna. In the few examples which show man 
 associated with these beasts, the human type is rather that of the Caucasian than 
 the Negro. 1 
 
 Yet the skulls of greatest antiquity judged from the depth at which they were 
 embedded which have so far been obtained in North Africa (and stored in the 
 University of Algiers), indicate a Negroid type as being the most primitive Algerian 
 people. Some French anthropologists, however, advance the idea that Neander- 
 thaloid man reached North Africa, especially Tunisia, and that he has even left his 
 descendants there in tribes like the Mogods of the Bizerta district. These Mogods, 
 whom I have seen myself, have a very savage look, with their strongly developed 
 brow-ridges and tendency to prognathism, but their divergence from the average 
 type of Mediterranean man is merely Australoid. 
 
 The stone implements of Somaliland seem to show the existence of an ancient 
 human population in the eastern horn of Africa. And the same may be said of 
 Senegambia, Inner Nigeria (especially of the northernmost part of the Niger Valley), 
 of the Gold Coast, of West Congoland, and of South Africa from the Zambezi to 
 the Cape of Good Hope. It is, however, remarkable, that so far stone implements 
 have not been discovered in Central Congoland, in the very heart of the Congo Forest. 
 They have only been found along the fringe of the Congo basin ; in the far north, 
 in the open country of the Mubangi, in the region between Southern Tanganyika 
 and Angola, and again in the Cataract region of Western Congo. This and 
 other negative evidence points to the supposition that the most densely forested 
 regions of Central Africa represent areas which have only been penetrated by man 
 within a comparatively recent period. There are traditions at the present day 
 amongst the Bantu tribes of Central Congoland that their ancestors only arrived 
 in this region some few centuries ago ; or at most 1,000 to 1,200 years back (as 
 far as such terms of years can be calculated by the reigns of successive chiefs and 
 dynasties) ; and further it is generally related, both here and in the forested parts 
 of West Africa, that when these metal-using, big-bodied peoples arrived, the forest 
 
 1 See Bulletin Trimestriel de la Soctite de Geographic et d? Archeologie d^Oran, December, 
 1908. Also the writings of L. Pomel, J. B. Flamand, and E. F. Gautier easily found in 
 British Museum Library.
 
 Sm H. H. JOHNSTON. A Survey of the Ethnography of Africa, etc. 377 
 
 country was only occupied by a dwarfish race, sometimes referred to as " red men," 
 in fact, similar to the Congo pygmies of to-day. These traditions of a pre-existing 
 dwarfish (occasionally red-skinned), negroid race are existent in parts of Inner 
 Nigeria and in the southern oases of the Sahara. 
 
 It is in South Africa that the most interesting and the most puzzling of 
 discoveries have recently been made regarding the antiquity of prehistoric Man. 
 When the Hottentots of South Africa were questioned by scientific men a hundred 
 years ago and more regarding their traditions, they were wont to refer to their 
 predecessors on the coast of South Africa as a savage race living on the seashore 
 and subsisting on shellfish and the bodies of stranded whales. From their habits 
 these were styled in Dutch the Strandloopers or " Shore-runners." About tw r enty 
 years ago discoveries began to be made of skulls and bones of the Strandloopers in 
 caves on or near the sea-coast, and the first of these that were brought to light, and 
 described by Dr. F. C. Shrubsall and others, exhibited (I am told) some degree of 
 aflinity with the Bushman, but appeared to be more primitive and perhaps more 
 typically Negro in the prognathism they exhibited and the proportionate length of 
 the skull. There would seem to be survivors of this prognathous Strandlooper 
 type amongst the Bushmen and Hottentot peoples of South-west Africa at the 
 present day, for I throw on the screen slide-photographs of a Bushman 
 and of a so-called Hottentot woman (actually, we know, of Bushman race) which 
 exhibit a degree of prognathism exceeding that of any other race known in Africa 
 or elsewhere. They thus differ sharply from the conventional Bushman head, 
 which is round and with a comparatively high facial angle, and little or no 
 protrusion of the jaws. [These photographs are not isolated examples, but only 
 selected instances. See Note at end of paper.] 
 
 But other specimens of Strandlooper skulls, such as those described recently 
 by Dr. Peringuey, were neither Bushman nor particularly Negro in their affinities. 
 They exhibit considerable brain capacity, and recall much more in general outline 
 the skull form of generalized Negroid-Caucasian types, say, for example, the 
 Hamitic peoples of North-east Africa ; and they have even been compared to the 
 G-alley Hill skull of East Kent a primitive Caucasian type that existed in 
 England some hundred thousand years ago. With this large-brained skull may be 
 apparently associated in South Africa those stone implements which are pre- 
 Bushman, in some respects superior to Bushman arts and inventions. 1 
 
 1 Our chief source of information on the subject of the Strandloopers is vol. viii of The 
 Annals of the South African Miweum, written in the main by the Director of that Museum, 
 Dr. L. Peringuey. In Chapter 22 of that work, Dr. Peringuey discusses the evidence of the 
 Strandlooper skulls as analysed up to about 1911 by Dr. F. C. Shrubsall (F.B.A.I., of London). 
 Dr. Shrubsall has studied the Strandlooper question for something like fifteen years, and has 
 written on it in various works, iucluding the present writer's " Uganda Protectorate." It is 
 understood he has much unpublished material on this important question to give to the world, 
 so that when his final verdict is pronounced our conclusions may be strengthened or changed. 
 But as they stand at present the results of his investigations would seem to show 
 
 That the Strandlooper of the Cape Colony caves (as distinct, perhaps, from the miserable 
 race of shore dwellers exhibiting the prognathism above referred to) preceded the Bushman in
 
 378 SIR H. H. JOHNSTON. A Survey of the Ethnography of Africa, etc. 
 
 The next oldest type in South Africa was probably the Bushman, and the 
 Bushman certainly seems to have reached Southern Africa from the north-east. 
 We can trace his physical peculiarities up through Eastern Africa into Galaland, 
 and some say even into Egypt. 
 
 It may be as well at this juncture to consider what are the leading Bush 
 physical peculiarities, apart from skull formation. They consist of the steatopygia 
 already alluded to, and small, folded-over ears, of the hypertrophy of the labia, 
 vulvce minor a in the woman, and, in the men, of the peculiar angle at which the 
 penis is set in relation to the pubic region. The " pepper-corn " aspect of the 
 tightly curled head-hair which seems only to be planted in distinct patches 
 together with the light-yellow, wrinkled skin and the small hands and feet, are 
 features shared by other African or even Oceanic groups of Negroes. This pepper- 
 corn arrangement of the head-hair tends to disappear in the north Kalahari Bush- 
 men, in whom also the skin colour is darker and the wrinkles are usually absent. 
 
 These North Kalahari or Ovampoland Bushmen usually exhibit some degree 
 of brow-ridge development in the male, their cheek-bones are very prominent, the 
 base of the nose is much sunk and the eyes are very deep set. 
 
 South Africa ; that the Strandloopers were a race of short but not dwarfish men (the. earlier 
 examples were taller than the later) with a much higher skull capacity than that of the average 
 Bush race 1,500 cubic centimetres as against 1,300 for Bush men and 1,350 as against 1,200 
 for Bush females. The extreme of cranial capacity in the Strandloopers was a maximum of 
 over 1,600 cubic centimetres, while the extreme minimum among the Bush people descends as 
 low as 955 cubic centimetres ! The frontal region of the skull is much better developed than in 
 the Bush race, and in that respect is more like the Negro. There is little or no brow promi- 
 nence, and one at least of the skulls is as orthognathous in facial angle as that of a European ; 
 others of the skulls are slightly more prognathous, but the Strandlooper type was as 
 orthognathous as the average European. The teeth are well developed and liberally spaced, 
 but are not proportionately as large as those of the true Negro. Dr. Pe'ringuey denies there 
 being any definite resemblance between the Strandlooper cave-dweller and the " Grimaldi " 
 skulls of Monaco. He considers that these South African cave-dwellers were the most primitive 
 known race of South Africa, the oldest examples being the least negroid in features. Yet the 
 affinities between them and the Bushmen were more evident than between Cave Strandlooper 
 and Negro. 
 
 Professor Henry Balfour (who will shortly publish an essay on the subject in the Journal 
 of the African Society) seems to be of opinion that prior to the occupation of South Africa by 
 Bush, Hottentot, and Bantu, there was a race of superior PahBolithic, almost Neolithic culture, 
 judging from the oldest stone implements and other relics discovered south of the Zambezi. 
 This same race apparently colonized even more markedly the Central Zambezian regions, and to 
 it may be perhaps accredited the ancient pottery discovered at considerable depths below the 
 surface of Nyasaland. Dr. Peringuey, on p. 215 of the work quoted above, sums up his conclu 
 sions regarding the Cave Man of Cape Colony : He was less dolichocephalic than the Bush- 
 men and Hottentots, under 80 in cephalic index. " He was artistically gifted, like the race 
 which occupied and decorated the Altamira . . . and other caves of Spain and France. He 
 painted ; he possibly carved on rocks ; he used bone tools ; he made pottery ; he perforated stones 
 for either heading clubs or to be used as make-weights for digging tools (I have obtained the.e 
 perforated stones from South Tanganyika and Nyasaland H. H. J.) ; his ornaments consisted 
 of sea-shells ; and the ostrich egg-shell discs, which he made, may be said to be a typical 
 product of his industry. And this culture is retained in South Africa by a kindred race, but 
 more dolichocephalic the Bushmen-Hottentots. . . . Analogous are most of his tools and 
 his expression of culture to those of Aurignacian man."
 
 SIR H. H. JOHNSTON. A Survey of the Ethnography of Africa, etc. 379 
 
 In the ordinarily small stubby feet of the Bushmen the great toe is usually 
 straight, or curves, if at all, inward and away from contact with the other toes, a con- 
 dition which is seen in an exaggerated form in the Oceanic Negroes and the New 
 Guinea Negritos. This " open-toed " aspect of the short foot is one of the few traits 
 which the Bushman shares with the Congo pygmy, though the work of Dr. F. 
 Fiilleborn on the natives of East Africa shows that the Bushman type of foot 
 oblong, with inverted big toe is sporadic in Nyasaland and Mozambique. 
 
 As to steatopygia, it occurs in a slight degree among the Congo pygmies, but 
 is usually absent from West African Negroes. 1 It is nevertheless observable some- 
 times among the American Negroes (mostly recruited from West Africa), as may be 
 noted in one amongst a number of photographs taken for me at the Tuskegee 
 Institute to illustrate points in negro physiology. In Nileland as on the Kru Coast 
 there is sometimes much steatopygy among the women, but it is less a great backward 
 projection of the nates than a lateral accumulation of fat along the hinder aspect 
 of the thighs. But the Bushman type of steatopygy reappears sporadically among 
 the Somali and Gala women (negroid Caucasians), among Egyptian women of to-day, 
 and even in Syria, Southern Europe, and it is said as far north as Poland, 
 carried thither by the Jews. In France fashion has in the latter part of the 19th 
 century deliberately cultivated the steatopygous outline in woman, and this pre- 
 dilection was based as Dr. Pe"ringuey suggests on a racial admiration for " Venus 
 callipyge," due, possibly, to the deep-down stratum of protonegro race which 
 permeates the Mediterranean peoples. Steatopygia recurs in Arabia and among 
 the Negroid people of South-west Persia (the old Elamites), and according to several 
 German writers is occasionally observable among Oceanic Negroes. 
 
 As regards the exaggerated growth of the Idbia minor a, the " longinymph " 
 condition which produces what was called a hundred years ago the " Hottentot 
 apron " (illustrated by photographs in Dr. Pe'ringuey's work), this likewise is not a 
 feature exclusively confined to the Bush-Hottentot race, but, as Dr. Karl Weule 
 points out (Native Life in East Africa : Sir Isaac Pitman and Sons, 1909), is of 
 constant occurrence among the Negro women of East Africa, while others have 
 earlier stated that it is a character met with among Egyptian, Abyssinian, Gala, 
 and Somali women. Lastly, the peculiar set of the penis in Bushmen 2 occurred 
 obviously among the Mukenaian and Ionian people of the Eastern Mediterranean, as 
 may be noted in the early Greek designs on painted pottery. Like the steatopygy, 
 the crumpled ear, and the longinymph development, this peculiarity of the Bushman 
 male organ can be matched here and there among the nomad heterogeneous, broken, 
 
 1 In all Negro and Bushman children and in the men and women of many Central and 
 East African tribes the development of the nates is actually less than in Europeans. 
 
 2 "The penis is normally carried horizontally and in some } r oung subjects in a semi-vertical 
 or even vertical position. In paintings it is the same ; man's genitalia are never hanging when 
 Bush people are delineated." P6ringuey. The practice of pushing up the testicles when the 
 child was young, so that the growth of a pendant scrotum might be avoided as much as possible, 
 lest it impeded flight, was not peculiar to the Bushmen and Hottentots, but was recorded by 
 Greek geographers as among the practices of the Hamitic tribes of the Red Sea littoral.
 
 380 SIR H. H. JOHNSTON. A Survey of the Ethnography of Africa, etc. 
 
 hunting tribes of Equatorial East Africa, who evidently contain elements of a 
 now absorbed Bushman race. 
 
 As regards linguistic evidence of Bushman distribution and migrations, I might 
 point out that Ludovico di Varthema, an Italian adventurer who visited Mozambique 
 about 1505, relates how in a mountain of caves on the mainland of Mozambique, 
 was a people of dwarfish stature and yellow skin, whose speech was full 
 of clicks. He compares these clicks to the noises made by Sicilian mule- 
 drivers in urging on their beasts. I have collected traditions amongst the 
 Bantu peoples of Nyasaland as to the existence down to quite recent times of 
 a dwarfish, yellow-skinned, click-using, stone-throwing people on the tops of 
 certain high mountains. At the present day there is a click-using language of 
 undecided affinities the Sandawi, spoken by a cattle-keeping, semi-nomad tribe 
 to the south of the Victoria Nyanza in German East Africa. The existence 
 of clicks in this language is undoubted, but I have not been able to trace 
 much affinity in word roots between this language and either Bushman or 
 Hottentot, though it is noteworthy that the word for four, ha^a, is almost identical 
 with the word for four in all the Hottentot dialects, while the phonology of 
 the language is reminiscent of Bushman in its nasals and gutturals. 1 Various 
 travellers have thought that they saw a physical resemblance to the Bushman 
 in some of the Andorobo hunting people of Eastern Equatorial Africa. The 
 Andorobo are mixed in their racial elements like the Sandawi. Some examples 
 are almost Hamitic in face, others are dwarfish and offer a slight resemblance 
 to the Bushman type, while others again are very prognathous and present 
 a facial resemblance to certain Melanesian types of Oceania. 2 The language 
 spoken by the Andorobo no doubt imposed on them by conquerors is an 
 outlying member of the Nandi-Nilotic group. 
 
 Where did the true Negro type, with more or less black skin, tall or normal 
 stature, large feet, big teeth, thickly-growing woolly hair, originate ? This is a 
 problem that perhaps lies outside Africa and the scope of my paper, and it is one 
 as to which we can only hazard vague guesses. We find a markedly Negro 
 type in Papuasia, more especially in the islands of the Bismarck Archipelago to 
 the east of New Guinea. The distribution of the Negro throughout Southern 
 Asia occurs sporadically, but scarcely anywhere in a pure form. The type of 
 Asiatic Negro existing at the present day which most nearly resembles the Negro 
 races of Africa, is that which is to be found in the northern Solomon Islands and 
 the Bismarck Archipelago. The Grimaldi skulls of Monaco were Negroid in some 
 features, but they show a brain capacity much exceeding that of African or Asiatic 
 
 1 In the Pygmies of the north-eastern corner of the Congo basin and amongst the Bantu 
 tribes of the Equatorial East .African coast there is a tendency to faucal gasps or explosive 
 consonants which suggests the vanishing influence of clicks. 
 
 2 The Nandi people on the western and the Kikuyu on the eastern side of the Rift Valley 
 in Equatorial East Africa offer similar divergent types of prognathous, small-featured, low- 
 statured Negroids and comely, big-nosed, orthognathous Caucasoids.
 
 SIR H. H. JOHNSTON. A Survey of the, Ethnography of Africa, etc. 381 
 
 Negroes. Their age has been guessed at some 30,000 years ago, but this may be 
 an under estimate. 1 It is conceivable that the Negroid sub-species originated 
 in Western Europe and thence spread southwards into Africa and across Western 
 and Southern Asia into Australasia, reaching in its most generalized and primitive 
 type the far distant Island of Tasmania. There is some evidence to show that 
 Algeria (and North Africa generally) was inhabited by a Negro race before these 
 regions were invaded by the Caucasian. 
 
 The Congo Pygmy seems to be little else than a primitive and dwarfed form of 
 the Forest Negro, perhaps representing one of the earliest types of Negro that 
 invaded Africa. The Negro specialized in the swamps of Nileland into what we 
 know as the Nilotic Negro : tall, even to gigantic, long-legged, but as a rule 
 with comelier features and a better development of brain than in the Forest 
 Negro. There is perhaps a third variety to be distinguished : the Sudan Negro : 
 the type so often met with in Bornu. in the Bahr-al-Ghazal, Kordofan and the 
 western flanks of Abyssinia ; also in French Nigeria. This Sudanese Negro shares 
 the tall stature and thin shanks of the Nilotic, but sometimes exhibits a good deal 
 of prognathism and has the triangular face and the aggressively projecting cheek- 
 bones of the Bushman-Hottentot and the exaggerated eversion of the lips, which 
 is also a feature in the West African Forest Negro. The fusion of these three 
 varieties, dashed here and there with Pygmy and with Bushman blood, gives us 
 the " Bantu " Negro, a linguistic term which merely connotes a vast congeries of 
 Negro tribes united by the common bond of language. Except as indicating an 
 average Negro, and a fusion of Negro types, the term Bantu has no value in physical 
 classification. 
 
 Looking back into the past by the very dim light furnished by the discovery 
 of crania and bones, a few objects of human art, and the indications of language 
 affinity, we seem to see an Africa 15,000 years ago which was mainly Negro or 
 Negroid in population. But already at this period the Mediterranean man a 
 Caucasoid had entered Egypt and occupied the Nile Delta, driving away or 
 absorbing its dwarfish Negro population. He might even have penetrated up the 
 Nile into the highlands of Abyssinia. He had certainly much earlier begun to 
 colonize Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco, and was pursuing and destroying the 
 remarkable mammalian fauna of North Africa, which even at as recent a date as 
 about 15,000 years ago had a decidedly African fades, as already indicated in my 
 opening remarks. 
 
 What was the type of language spoken by the earliest white colonists of 
 North Africa ? Some French ethnologists have suggested that it may have been 
 the ancestor of the Fula, Wolof, Temne, Bantu, and Kordofan groups, a type of 
 language offering faint resemblances in structure with the Lesghian speech of the 
 Caucasus and the Dravidian tongues of Baluchistan and India ; a speech in which 
 
 1 See the monograph of Dr. Verneaux on the Grottes de Grimaldi. Dr. Verueaux has also 
 made an exceedingly interesting anthropological survey of Abyssinia, published (1911) by the 
 French Government, which bears on some of the theories advanced in this paper.
 
 382 SIR H. H. JOHNSTON. A Survey of the Ethnography of Africa, etc. 
 
 nouns were divided into more or less numerous classes with distinctions not based 
 on sexual gender, and in which as a rule the root was unchanging, while much use 
 was made of detachable prefixes or suffixes, linked up throughout the speech by 
 concordant adjectival and pronominal particles. According to such a theory, 
 therefore, the first Caucasoid invaders of North Africa would have used tongues 
 akin to that of the Fula, and when they were forced by the impact of other 
 immigrants from the north or east to wander into Negro Africa they became the 
 ancestors of the Tula and carried their language family with them far into the 
 Sudan and West Africa ; perhaps in the direction of Kordofan or the Equatorial 
 Nile developing the Bantu family. In the far west of Africa, by intermixture 
 with the Negroes, they possibly originated the Wolof, the Temne, Mosi, and other 
 groups, and even influenced the tongues of the Niger Delta. 
 
 The same theorists would contend that the Fula type of " white man " and of 
 Caucasian (i.e., Lesghian, Georgian) language was displaced in North Africa by the 
 invasion of the Hamites and the Libyans or Berbers. The Haniites were no doubt 
 of common origin, linguistically and racially, with the Semites, and perhaps 
 originated in that great breeding-ground of conquering peoples, South-west Asia. 
 They preceded the Semites, and (we may suppose) after a long stay and concen- 
 tration in Mesopotamia invaded and colonized Arabia, Southern Palestine, Egypt, 
 Abyssinia, Somaliland, and North Africa to its Atlantic shores. The Dynastic 
 Egyptians were also Hamites in a sense, both linguistically and physically ; but they 
 seem to have attained to a high civilization in Western Arabia, to have crossed the 
 Eed Sea in vessels, and to have made their first base on the Egyptian coast near 
 Berenice in the natural harbour formed by Eas Benas. From here along, broad 
 wadi or valley then no doubt fertile led them to the Nile in the Thebaid, the 
 first seat of their kingly power. The ancestors of the Dynastic Egyptians may have 
 originated the great dams and irrigation works in Western Arabia ; and such long 
 struggles with increasing drought may have first broken them in to the arts of quarry- 
 ing stone blocks and building with stone. Over population and increasing drought 
 may have caused them to migrate across the Eed Sea in search of another home ; or 
 their migration may have been partly impelled by the Semitic hordes from the 
 north, whom we can imagine at this period some 9,000 to 10,000 years ago 
 pressing southwards into Arabia and conquering or fusing with the preceding 
 Hamites ; just as these latter, no doubt, at an earlier day, had wrested Arabia from 
 the domain of the Negroid and Dravidian. 
 
 The Dynastic Egyptians were not far distant in physical type from the Gala 
 of to-day, but they had perhaps some element of the proto-Semite ; and their 
 language, which is still rather a puzzle to classifiers, though mainly Kushite in its 
 features, exhibited early in its history the influence of Semitic speech, and no doubt 
 absorbed into itself elements of its Libyan sister, which it perhaps found already 
 extending to the valley of the Nile. The Dynastic Egyptians evidently concentred 
 themselves in the narrow strip of fertility along the banks of the Nile, not 
 colonizing very markedly the Eed Sea coast-lands. By about 8,000 years ago they
 
 SIR H. H. JOHNSTON. A Survey of the Ethnography of Africa, etc. 383 
 
 had become the conquerors and rulers of Lower and Upper Egypt. The inhabitants 
 of Egypt were thenceforth a people in which Hamitic (Libyan-Kushite), Semitic, 
 Nilotic and even Sudanese-Negro elements were fused ; but the Caucasian type 
 predominated. In the early days of their colonization, the Dynastic Egyptians 
 domesticated only the indigenous African wild ass, the Nubian ibex, the audad or 
 African wild sheep, the Leucoryx and Addax antelopes, and the striped hyena. 1 
 They probably brought with them from Arabia various types of domesticated 
 dog. As they increased their trade relations with Syria and Mesopotamia they 
 received from the north-east first the long-horned " Gala " ox (which originated 
 seemingly in Western Asia), next the hairy, long-tailed, long-legged, inaned, 
 domesticated mouflon of Europe and Western Asia, a little later the fat-tailed, 
 dewlapped variety of this sheep, and, in succession, the " Wallachian " type of 
 domesticated sheep (in which the spiral horns grew out at right angles to the line 
 of the head), and the humped cattle which we know as the Indian breed, but which 
 were near akin in origin to the early long-horned, straight- backed Egyptian ox. 
 The first true goat which they received from Syria in a domestic form, and 
 which rapidly displaced the ibex in their estimation, was a dwarf, plump, compact 
 breed, with short hair and rather reduced horns the Guinea goat of to-day. 2 This 
 was succeeded at a later date by the Roman-nosed Syrian goat with long hair, 
 pendent ears, and a tendency to become hornless (a breed which has never 
 reached real Negroland beyond northern Nigeria). It was not until about 500 B.C. 
 that the Egyptians received the domestic fowl from Syria and Persia. The horse 
 was brought by the Hyksos from Syria about 2000 B.C., but was not fully 
 established in Egypt till about 1500 B.C., though it may have been separately 
 imported into North Africa 3 at an earlier date. 
 
 As early, perhaps, as the fifth millennium before Christ, the Pharaohs of 
 Egypt turned their attention to the Sudan, the land of black men, which began in 
 those days somewhere about the Second Cataract. Between the First and Second 
 Cataract of the Nile the population was of a mixed type, Negro mingled with 
 Kushite in various forms and degrees ; but south of the Second Cataract it was 
 almost purely Nubian, that is to say, Nuba or Sudanese Negro. Higher up still, 
 beyond the junction of the Blue and White Niles, the population was Nilotic 
 
 1 See Claude Gaillard's " Les Tatonneraents des Egyptians de 1'Ancien Empire a la 
 recherche des animaux a domes tiquer " (Revue cP Ethnographic, etc., Paris, December, 1912). 
 
 2 This obviously ancient breed the only oue known to true Negro Africa penetrated 
 through India to Malaysia and Borneo, where it still exists, displaying much likeness to the 
 domestic goat of West and Central Africa. 
 
 3 It is very doubtful whether North Africa any more than Egypt or Arabia possessed a 
 wild horse of the Caballus sub-genus. The bones of extinct equines indigenous to Algeria 
 rather suggest a type of zebra than a horse. (See the writings of L. Pomel.) But the ancestors 
 of the Barb or Numidian horse may have been brought by the Berbers from Spain at a 
 comparatively early date. After 1000 B.C., the Phoenicians no doubt imported the Arab type of 
 horse into Mauretauia and crossed it with the Spanish horse. So far, we have discovered no 
 traces of any true indigenous wild horse in Syria or Arabia, only asses. It is probable that 
 the true horse was confined in its area of evolution to Europe, Central Asia and North India.
 
 384 SIR H. H. JOHNSTON. A Survey of the Ethnography of Africa, etc. 
 
 Negro, though at a later date this region was colonized by Kushites of the Beja, 
 Hadendawa, and Gala types. A brisk commerce in slaves, ivory, gold, leopard-skins, 
 gums, and strange beasts and birds began between Egypt and the Nilotic Sudan, 
 and the coming and going of caravans, probably composed of Nuba Negroes, with 
 here and there an adventurous Egyptian, must have opened up communications 
 between Kordofan, Darfur, and the regions round Lake Chad, as well as the purely 
 Negro countries of the Bahr-al-Ghazal and the Mountain Nile. Thus as early as 
 4,000 years before the time of Christ, goats of the plump Guinea breed, hairy sheep 
 of the long-legged or the fat-tailed varieties, and straight-backed, high-shouldered 
 cattle of the long-horned Egyptian variety, had begun to penetrate Negro Africa 
 across Kordofan to the regions-of Lake Chad, the basins of the Niger and the Benue 
 and the Northern Kamerun, and all parts of West Africa. Together with these 
 domesticated animals there came all musical instruments superior to the musical 
 bow and the drum, several types of games played with hollowed or divided boards 
 and counters, and a good many Egyptian notions about religion. Moreover, these 
 emissaries of trade and culture may have brought with them to the Neolithic and 
 Paleolithic Negroes and Negroids the earliest idea of using metals, copper in the 
 first place, though perhaps not iron. 1 
 
 Athwart this fan-shaped spread of Egyptian influence over Negro Africa the 
 apex of the fan being at the Second Cataract of the Nile and the two outermost 
 spokes of its partially-opened spread lying (one) on the east, up the Nile Valley to 
 the Great Lakes, (two) on the west through Kordofan, Darfur, and Lake Chad to 
 the Niger Valley we can trace strands of other Caucasian migrations and influences 
 coming due south from North Africa : possibly " Pelasgian " or " Mukenaian." But 
 though here and there they leave traces of Pelasgian or Minoan civilization in the 
 Western Sudan and West Africa, it is clear that Negroland, anterior to the 
 Christian era,, owed less of its awakening to conditions of civilized human existence 
 to the white men of North Africa proper (Mauretania and the Tripolitaine) 
 than to those of Egypt. For example, all the domestic animals of Negroland (except 
 such as have been quite recently derived from America or Europe) are of Egyptian 
 origin or type and not North African. The early peoples of North Africa had a well- 
 marked form of domestic dog, which exists down to this day amongst the Berber 
 nomad tribes. This was of the long-haired, prick-eared, broad-headed Chow type, 
 with a plumed tail tending to curl over the back a type of dog common in 
 Southern Europe from the Bronze period onwards and far spread in its range over 
 all Northern and Eastern Asia and Northernmost America. This Chow-like dog, 
 though apparently it reached the Canary Islands, never penetrated (till modern 
 tunes) across the Sahara Desert to Negro Africa, neither did the taurine (as 
 contrasted with the zebu) type of ox, the woolly sheep, the long-horned European 
 goat, or any other domestic animal or cultivated plant of European origin. It was 
 Egypt that furnished Negroland not only with all its earliest domestic animals, but 
 
 1 See postscript at the end of this essay.
 
 Sm H. H. JOHNSTON. A Survey of the Ethnography of Africa, etc. 385 
 
 
 
 with all its cultivated plants, and Egypt derived these for -the most part from Syria 
 and Arabia. 
 
 The Dynastic Egyptians of later times having recreated their kingdom on the 
 Lower Nile, after the invasion of the Hyksos, seemed to have lost interest in Negro 
 Africa and thought mainly of extending their conquests across Syria to Asia Minor ; 
 but they retained dim traditions of the land of their origin, South-west Arabia. 
 Moreover, a considerable boat trade had sprung up on the Red Sea, and civilized 
 South-west Arabia was beginning to colonize with its present Semitic population the 
 highlands of Abyssinia, 1 and possibly a good deal of Somaliland. Thus the Arabs 
 had become acquainted (in Somaliland) with trees yielding aromatic gums, present, 
 110 doubt, also in Arabia, but not in such considerable quantities. It is possible, there- 
 fore, that Arabia first drew the attention of Egypt to the western land of 
 Punt the eastern horn of Africa whither the Egyptians themselves sent ships 
 about 1500 B.C. to open up a trade in incense and other products. 
 
 Did the Dynastic Egyptians colonize Negro Africa as well as influence it ? 
 
 Perhaps relatively little, at any rate until during the thousand years whiclr 
 preceded the Christian era. We then seem to see traces of enforced migrations 
 of rebels or malcontents, probably not of very pure Egyptian stock. Bands of such 
 a kind seem to have entered the northern part of Hausaland and to have assisted 
 in moulding the Hausa language as a medium of trade intercourse. This speech, 
 Sudanese Negro in phonology and perhaps in most of its word roots, is emphatically 
 Hamitic in its grammatical features and pronouns. But the Hamitic element is 
 thought by experts to be as much Kushite, or even Koptic, as Libyan. On the whole, it 
 seems probable that the Hausa speech was shaped by a double influence : from Egypt, 
 and Hamiticized Nubia, as well as by Libyan immigrants from across the Sahara. 2 
 
 Egyptian adventurers no doubt from time to time found their way up the Nile 
 through the countries of the Nilotic Negroes, and there became chiefs and almost 
 demigods, so great being the Impression made by their lighter skins, their beautiful 
 features, and possibly their domestic animals or simple arts. Sometimes one is 
 disposed to think that those remarkable cattle-keeping aristocracies of the heart of 
 Central Africa the Bahima, the Batusi, the Makarka, 3 and Mangbettu are 
 descended from Egyptian colonists of 2,000 and 3,000 years ago. I have certainly 
 seen individuals in Western Uganda and Unyoro who were so remarkably Egyptian 
 (rather than Gala) in features that I took them actually for Egyptians left behind 
 
 1 The Himyaritic Arabs who Semiticized the Abyssinian highlands and incidentally 
 Northern Somaliland, probably found Abyssinia populated by three principal racial elements : 
 the Negro, the dark-skinned Kushite-Hamitic, and the white-skinned sometimes blue or 
 grey-eyed and brown-haired Libyan. This, at least, is Dr. Verneaux's assumption. 
 
 2 See the article in the Mittnilungen des Seminars fiir Orientalische Sprache, Berlin, 1906, 
 by Julius Lippert (" Uber die Stellung der Hausasprache," etc.). 
 
 3 A common name for the Makarka, Azande, and allied tribes ranging over the northern 
 Bahr-al-Ghazal and the Northern Mubangi basin is " Nyam-Nyam " a cant term meaning 
 " Meat ! meat ! " or " cannibals." Some of the Nyam-Nyam are broad-headed and 
 brachycephalous.
 
 386 SIR H. H. JOHNSTON. A Survey of the Ethnography of Africa, etc. 
 
 by Emin Pasha's expeditions. But they turned out to be local aristocrats who knew 
 absolutely nothing of Egypt and could enumerate their ancestors for centuries as 
 residents in Equatorial Africa. Others again of this type were so strikingly like 
 Galas and Somali that the Somalis of my party declared them to be of their 
 own race. The pure-bred Gala resembles physically the Dynastic Egyptian. It 
 is possible these aristocracies of East-central Africa and of the Central Sudan 
 do not owe their origin to Egypt, but to former attempts of the Galas and 
 Abyssinians to penetrate Negro Africa. Personally I am inclined to invoke both 
 influences. 
 
 It has indeed been suggested by Father Torrend in his Grammar of the South 
 African languages, that the Zimbabwe civilization (which I would assert with 
 emphasis is not Negro) is due to some unrecorded Abyssinian penetration of South- 
 east Africa along the East African coastline. This theory is not quite so wild as it 
 might appear, seeing that more or less degenerate Hamitic (Kushite) nomad tribes 
 have penetrated, as it is, a considerable distance into German East Africa, as far 
 south as the 4th or 5th parallel of S. latitude. 
 
 Considered linguistically the Hamites of Africa became at an early date 
 divided into two main sections (to which later was added a third, the Dynastic 
 Egyptian). These two categories might be distinguished as Libyan and Kushite. 
 The Kushite group passed down to the south along the west coast of Arabia and 
 left a considerable element behind in South-west Arabia and in Sokotra, which 
 afterwards became Semiticized. Then (we may suppose) they crossed the lied Sea 
 12,000 years ago or more, colonized North-east Africa and Somaliland, became the 
 ancestors of the Bishari and Hadendawa, the Saho, Agau, Bogos, Kaffa, Afar, Gala, 
 and Somali groups. 1 Entering also the valley of the Nile in the tropical and 
 equatorial regions, they mingled with the Nilotic Negroes and formed subsidiary 
 groups of peoples, whose languages to this day, though they are truly Nilotic and 
 Negro, yet bear evidence of Hamitic influence. Of such, for example, are the 
 Masai and Lotuka. Meantime the Libyan section of the Hamitic peoples, reinforced 
 by the Berbers (Iberians) from Spain, much whiter in skin-colour, colonized all 
 North Africa to the limits of the Sahara and the Libyan Deserts. They in their 
 turn mingled with the pre-existing Tula type and the Negroids, and from some such 
 mixtures, as well as the far earlier intercourse between the Fula and the Negro, 
 were formed the Songhai, or " Habe " (Habe, plural of Kado, is only " slaves " or 
 serfs in the Fula tongue), the Tibus or Teda, the Kanem and Kanuri peoples ; who, 
 as lithe, handsome, and intelligent Negroids, ranged across the Sahara from Fezzan 
 to Agades and Bornu and the oases of the Libyan Desert. These hybrids assisted 
 to introduce into Negro Africa the white man's weapons and early domestic animals. 
 
 1 It is remarkable that the Bishari (Baja) and Hadendawa peoples (which formerly 
 extended their rauge across Senaar to the Nile and Dongola ; Dongola = Dauagla, Dauakil) 
 should have preceded and outlived the Dynastic Egyptians ; and equally remarkable that the 
 British should have occupied Egypt and the Eastern Sudan since 1882 and have made no efforts 
 to study and illustrate their interesting speech.
 
 SIR H. H. JOHNSTON. A Survey of the Ethnography of Africa, etc. 387 
 But if French aud German theorists are right. Northern Africa, after bein<r 
 
 O 
 
 Hamiticized from the direction of Egypt in pre-Pharaonic times Hamiticized on 
 top of the previous Fula, Negro, Negroid, and Australoid inhabitants received a 
 colonization from Spain almost coevally with the invasion of Egypt by the Dynastic 
 Egyptians. These Iberian invaders (who, one may permissibly suppose, were akin 
 to the Neolithic Iberians of Western Europe) fused with the Gala-like Hamites 
 already in possession of Mauretania, adopted their language in the main, and swept 
 eastwards in a tide of conquest which brought them not only to the delta and 
 valley of the Lower Nile, but even to the highlands of Abyssinia, where 
 there is, according to Dr. Verneaux, a distinct Libyan, fair-complexioned element. 
 Henceforth the great far-spread Hamitic group of languages became divided into two 
 main sections : the Libyan or Berber and the Kushite. The Libyan speech reached 
 to the very confines of Dynastic Egypt, and exists at the present day as far east as the 
 oasis of Siwah. It is even stated by some authority Maspero, I believe that the 
 Aniorites of Palestine history were a Libyan tribe. 
 
 This allegation has served to support a counter theory as to the Libyan 
 colonization of North Africa. It has been supposed that the Libyans were the 
 north-west branch of the Hamites, and that after colonizing Egypt before the 
 Dynastic Egyptians (as well as after them) they swept westward and occupied all 
 Mauretania north of the Sahara Desert. On the whole I think the probabilities 
 are that the theory of the Spanish origin of the Berbers is a sound one, and that 
 their eastward march from Morocco is the right line of investigation. Those who 
 are interested in the question will find it set forth in a paper by A. Lissauer, of 
 Berlin, republished in the 1912 issue of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington. 
 
 Some impulse of Egyptian and Hamitic influence immediately prior tp the 
 Christian era (such as perhaps assisted to bring about the creation of the Hausa 
 language) carried a wave of late Egyptian culture across the Sudan along the 
 southern fringe of the Sahara Desert to the Upper Niger. It is thought that in 
 connection with this movement came the east-to-west migration of the civilized 
 Negro Mandingo peoples, who finally subdued and colonized much of Western 
 Nigeria and founded powerful kingdoms, extending their influence over the Fulas 
 and far into the Sahara Desert. Another focus of late Egyptian civilization seems 
 to have been Agades, an oasis in the Southern Sahara. Here arose the remarkable 
 Songhai or " Habe " people, whose somewhat monosyllabic language is a mystery, 
 as it has no evident affinities with any other group of African tongues. The 
 Songhai adopted, accidentally or by influence, an imitation of ancient Egyptian 
 architecture in clay and wood instead of stone. They in their turn subdued the 
 Mandingos and replaced the Mandingo empire of Melle (which had succeeded the 
 older Negroid empire of Ghanata) by that wonderful Songhai dominion which for a 
 time had its headquarters in the city of Jenne, at the confluence of the Niger and 
 the Bani. From Jenne was radiated over all the Western Sudan an apparent 
 Egyptian influence in architectural forms, in boat-building, and other arts. 
 
 West Africa proper, bounded on the north and east by the Senegal and the
 
 388 SIK H. H. JOHNSTON. A Survey of the Ethnography of Africa, etc. 
 
 Niger, is a region that hitherto has been less studied by expert ethnologists than 
 any other portion of Africa. This is partly due to the fact that the basin of the 
 Niger was only really conquered and occupied by European Powers from about 
 1890 onwards, while the coast-belt from the Gambia 'to Dahome was so densely 
 forested that, apart from the hostility of its natives and the unhealthiness of its 
 climate, its examination was a matter of the greatest difficulty. Moreover, tins 
 quarter of Africa almost exceeds the rest in racial and linguistic complexity. 
 
 The Wolofs of Senegal are a race of handsome Negroids, showing some physical 
 affinities with the Tula, and speaking a concord language which offers some 
 resemblance in syntax to Fula and Bantu, but is absolutely dissimilar to both 
 in phonology. Some of the word roots, however, suggest affinities with Tula and 
 with other West African stocks. Between the Gambia Eiver and the western 
 frontiers of Sierra Leone there is a remarkable welter of indigenous tribes, mostly 
 of exaggerated Forest Negro physical type, speaking a scarcely listed variety of 
 dissimilar and unrelated tongues. Evidently in westernmost Africa we have 
 a region which has received many broken peoples forced into it by the pressure 
 of conquering tribes from the north and west. In Senegambia there are traces 
 of ancient stone worship suggestive of " Neolithic " influence from the north. In 
 eastern Sierra Leone, on the uppermost Niger and Bani, and in Liberia there are 
 other isolated remnants of tribes or even considerable peoples speaking unrelated 
 languages of unknown affinities, such as the Kisi of Sierra Leone and the Niger 
 sources, the Gora of Liberia, the Senufo of the Bani and Baule affluents of the 
 upper Niger. In Liberia and part of the Ivory Coast we have the Km peoples 
 typical Negroes with a well-marked, excessively nasal type of language (all the 
 West African peoples, by the bye, excepting the Wolof and Fula, are very nasal 
 in utterance, and display a predilection in their phonology for the conjunction of 
 labial and guttural consonants kp and gb a trait which may be traced eastwards 
 right across Tropical Africa from Senegambia to the Mountain Nile, and southwards 
 to the Upper Congo and the Cameroons). 
 
 Athwart all these Forest Negro tribes of unclassed languages 1 there have been 
 certain comparatively recent invasions from the east which have entered into the 
 recorded and unrecorded history of West Africa. There have been tribes like the 
 Limba and Temne of Sierra Leone paler complexioned, handsomer Negroes, cattle 
 keepers (like most of these eastern invaders), and speaking a remarkable type 
 of language, prefix-governed and concord-using, which, though strikingly like the 
 Bantu in syntax, has absolutely no resemblance to that family in word-roots. The 
 Mandingo invasion of West Africa (much associated with the introduction and use 
 of the horse) has been already referred to : it affected West Africa within the past 
 two thousand years (at a guess), between the vicinity of the Senegambiau coast and 
 
 1 Much information on past wanderings and migrations in Senegambia and western 
 Nigeria can be gleaned from the writings of Colonel Louis Binger, and from the linguistic 
 studies of Maurice Delafosse. The Senufo group was first described by Delafosse.
 
 SIR H. H. JOHNSTON. A Survey of the Ethnography of Africa, etc. 389 
 
 the Upper Niger, the forests of Liberia and the Ivory Coast, and the western 
 borders of the Mossi Kingdoms. The Mandingo language group has features 
 which resemble those of inner West African speech families, and others decidedly 
 suggestive of the far-away Nilotic division. Perhaps earlier in coming than the 
 Mandingo conquerors were the ancestors of the Yoruba-Benin-Dahome peoples, 
 who under some unknown northern influence originated such remarkable arts, 
 industries, and religious ideas, firstly in Yorubaland and then by expansion in the 
 regions between the western delta of the Niger and the Ga country of the Gold 
 Coast (the region round Akra, the home of the ancient and isolated Ga Negroes). 
 North-west of the Yoruba-Dahome stock, with its monosyllabic, tone-using 
 languages, is the area of the Mossi tribes, who as invaders seem to have preceded 
 the Mandingo, but to have been literally " over-ridden " by them. Their group 
 of languages, prominent in the northern Gold Coast and North Togoland, is suffix- 
 using and offers some resemblances to Fula in structure and syntax. 
 
 The eastern side of the lowermost Niger, from the Benue confluence down- 
 wards, was invaded perhaps contemporaneously with the Mossi and Yoruba move- 
 ments by the Ibo and Igara tribes, and these found their " farthest south " in the 
 colonization, about fifteen hundred years ago, of the Cross River region by the allied 
 Efik group. Particularly noteworthy for their culture in this direction are the 
 semi-Bantu Ekoi tribes (referred to elsewhere) and the mysterious Aron people 
 of eastern Iboland (near the middle Cross Eiver). The Aron people in their 
 physical aspect suggest very strongly some ancient stranding in these Nigerian 
 forests of semi-Caucasian invaders ; and their religious beliefs resemble those of 
 Benin and pre-Muhammadan Yoruba. 
 
 A comparatively recent tribal movement in West Africa, perhaps less than 
 two thousand years old, brought the ancestors of the Agni-Ashanti peoples from 
 Borgu or Barba, on the west side of the Niger north of Yoruba, right across the 
 Dahomean sphere to the Gold Coast and the eastern half of the Ivory Coast. Their 
 speech not without its suggestions of affinity with the eastern Nigerian and semi- 
 Bantu tongues now marches coterminously with the Kru languages of Liberia. 
 Behind the Kru group and the Agni-Ashanti, and northwest of the semi-civilized 
 Muhammadan-Mossi peoples, are tribes affiliated in speech to the Mossi-Gurunsi 
 group, but wild and uncultured. Of such are the " Bobo-Fing " of Louis Binger 
 (their discoverer), who are tall, heathen Negroes living in absolute nudity, at any 
 rate so far as the men are concerned. 
 
 Absolute nudity in the male is a very rare condition among African aborigines. 
 So far, these Bobo-Fing people of the very heart of western Nigeria are its only 
 exemplars in West Africa at the present day, though I can remember in the Cross 
 Eiver district, in the early eighties of the last century, seeing male natives (as well as 
 female) affecting complete nudity. Elsewhere male nudity (female nudity was, until 
 the last few years, a very common condition throughout Negro Africa) was only 
 to be met with among the Nilotic Negroes and their allies; and such Bantu 
 tribes as the Ba-hima, the North Nyasa folk, the Central Zambezians, and the 
 
 I
 
 390 SIK H. H. JOHNSTON. A Survey of the Ethnography of Africa, etc. 
 
 Zulus, as are considered to have some strain of Nilotic or Hamitic blood in their 
 veins. 
 
 The last important gift of Egypt to Negroland was the domestic fowl, which 
 began to penetrate into Negro Africa after about 300 B.C. The domestic ass (not 
 found in North Africa before Roman times) had apparently reached West Africa 
 as an element of the Songhai civilization. It only penetrated elsewhere into Negro- 
 land up the Nile Valley, and was finally adopted as a domestic animal by the Masai 
 and cognate tribes. With those exceptions the domestic ass was non-existent in 
 Negroland before it was brought there in the Christian era by the Arab or the 
 European. The woolly sheep, which in Egypt succeeded the short-haired breeds, 
 was likewise an element in the Songhai civilization, though it also reached the Upper 
 Niger in later times by means of the Tuaregs or Berbers. The horse accompanied 
 the westward march of the Mandingos and the Songhai. It had also, further, 
 reached the Central Sudan from Egypt about the same period (say, 1,000 to 500 
 years ago) and had become established amongst most of the Kushite peoples, but 
 was completely unknown to the Nilotic Negroes and all the rest of Negroland. 
 
 Some such convulsion as might have been caused by the first movements of 
 the ancestors of the Mandingo, Songhai, Kanuri, 1 and Hausa peoples gave birth to 
 the Bantu movement. So far as linguistic evidence goes, the ancestors of the 
 Bantu dwelt in some region like the Bahr-al-Ghazal, not far from the Mountain Nile 
 on the east, from Kordofan on the north, or the Benue and Chad basins on the 
 west. Their first great movement of expansion seems to have been eastward, and 
 to have established them (possibly with a guiding aristocracy of Hamitic origin) in 
 the region between Mount Elgon, the northern Victoria Nyanza, Tanganyika, and 
 the Congo Forest. At some such period as about 300 B.C. their far-reaching 
 invasion of Central and South Africa seems 'to have begun. The mass of them, at 
 any rate, did not separate into streams of migrations until they received the 
 domestic fowl from Nile-land, since, with the doubtful exception of a small portion of 
 the western Bantu languages, the root-word for domestic fowl is the same throughout 
 all Bantu Africa, and is obviously related to the Persian words for fowl, yet quite 
 unrelated to the Semitic terms or to those used by the Kushites of Eastern Africa. 
 
 In a much fainter degree, Kushite influence on language may be traced to the 
 Musgu people far to the south of Hausaland. Sexual distinctions in pronouns and 
 grammar also make their appearance in the Bongo of the Egyptian Sudan as well as 
 in the Masai and some other Nilotic languages. These influences may have been 
 perhaps pre-Hamite, derived from the language of some invading white people 
 intermediate between the Fula group and the Hamitico-Semite. Such a group has 
 left a similar imprint (the discrimination of sex 2 ) on the Bantu family. 
 
 1 The Kanuri people of Bornu originated from the Tibu or Teda Negroids of Kan em, and 
 of the Eastern Sahara. These Tibu were perhaps the Garamantes of Roman geographers. 
 Their range in ancient times extended from Fezzan to Lake Chad. 
 
 2 In the Ka- prefix and particle (diminutive and very feminine in tenour and scope) and in 
 the Nya-, Na- " mother " or feminine prefix.
 
 SIR H. H. JOHNSTON. A Survey of the Ethnography of Africa, etc. 391 
 
 In my work on George Grenfell and the Congo, I have developed the theory 
 that the Bantu invasions of Central Africa are divided in the main into two groups. 
 The earliest may have been a direct east-to-west movement across the basin of the 
 Wele-Mubangi River to the Cameroons, which ended its impetus in colonizing the 
 Island of Fernando P6 and in the creation of the semi-Bantu languages of the 
 Western Cameroons and Calabar district. It is a remarkable fact that there are 
 elements in the Fernandian language at the present day which offer a certain 
 resemblance to Bantu dialects still spoken on the north-eastern verge of the 
 Congo Forest, while the intervening languages and others which are found near the 
 north-eastern bend of the Congo would form connecting links. This first 
 east-to-west migration of the Bantu (which I will discriminate as No. 1) may have 
 gone far towards creating the quasi- and semi-Bantu languages of the Cameroons, 
 Benue and Cross-River borderlands, languages of which the Munshi on the Benue, 
 the Ekoi of Calabar, and the Fang of S. Cameroons are good examples. But it may 
 well be that the more northern among the semi-Bantu tongues are descendants of 
 the speech-family in the Central Sudan from which the Bantu group was evolved. 
 I should be disposed to think, however, that the Ekoi speech (like the Fang 
 languages) was of direct Bantu origin mixed with elements of some vanished 
 monosyllabic ground-speech of West-Equatorial Africa. The Ekoi civilization, so 
 admirably illustrated of late by Mr. P. A. Talbot, was possibly derived from that 
 Egyptian-Roman impetus which invaded Eastern Nigeria l>etween 100 B.C. and 
 A.D. 500, bringing Roman beads to Hausaland and the Gold Coast, the pattern of 
 Roman oil-lamps in metal as far south as the Baya country of the Nortli Cameroons, 
 and creating the wonderful art and the strange religions, idols, and metal-work 
 of Borgu, Yoruba, Benin, Iboland, and Calabar. 
 
 The second and the principal line of Bantu migration (No. 2) at first skirted 
 the dense Congo Forest on the west, penetrated round the Victoria Nyanza and 
 down both coasts of Tanganyika. From the region between the Victoria Nyanza 
 and Tanganyika a great stream (No. 3) of conquering peoples must have swept 
 eastwards to the Zanzibar coast, . while a thinner migration (No. 4) came from 
 Kavirondo eastwards and occupied the Kikuyu highlands and the slopes of Kiliman- 
 jaro and Kenya. In the actual coast belt, north of Mombasa, the Bantu invaders 
 have had to fight their way northwards being often exterminated and pushed back 
 against the pre-existing Kushite, Nilotic and even Sudanese, Bushman, and 
 Hottentot peoples. 
 
 Dotted here and there over Eastern Africa, south of the Equator, are 
 mysterious little groups of Negroes speaking languages that offer no marked 
 relationship with any other. Such tongues as the Bakumu of the North-east Congo 
 bend, the Sandawi, Mbulungu, and the Mbugu of German East Africa may be 
 confined nowadays to a few thousand or a few hundred people in a little group of 
 villages. They are evidently the relics of many unrecorded Negro colonizations of 
 East Africa. All Bantu Africa of to-day, except the heart of the Congo Forest and 
 the regions south of the Zambezi, must have been more or less thickly populated 
 
 b 2
 
 392 Sm H. H. JOHNSTON. A Survey of the Ethnography of Africa, etc. 
 
 before the Bantu impressed with extraordinary rapidity and completeness their own 
 type of language on the tribes they conquered. There are faint indications of 
 people of pre-Bantu speech having existed in South-east Africa, south of the 
 Zambezi ; pre-Bantu, but not Hottentot or Bushman. There are small enclaves of 
 non-Bantu people on the Northern and North-eastern Congo. These latter languages 
 are distantly connected with isolated families of speech in the Southern Bahr-al- 
 Ghazal and the Egyptian Sudan, and may be classified with vagueness as 
 " Sudanese," and distantly affiliated with the Nyam-Nyam and Mangbettu groups. 
 
 From the west coast of Tanganyika the Bantu migrants are divisible into 
 three main groups (Nos. 5, 6, and 7), which may have set out almost concurrently. 
 The most northern (No. 5) pushed its way along the main stream of the Lualaba- 
 Congo and crossed over from the Western Congo to the Caineroons coastline, where 
 it fused in speech and culture with the descendants of the first great east-to-west 
 Mubangi-Cameroons invasion. The second section of the Tanganyika Bantu 
 (No. 6) conquered and colonized Southern Congoland the Luba and Lunda 
 territories, Angola, and what came to be known as the kingdom of Kongo, 
 expending the last of its force in Loango, to the north of the Congo mouth, 
 where it encountered the southernmost range of Yoruba-Benin culture. The third 
 and most southerly section of the West Tanganyika groups (No. 7) may have 
 received some great reinforcement from the east or north, a reinforcement 
 accompanied by the straight-backed, long-horned cattle and the fat-tailed sheep. 
 This section originated the remarkable Herero people of Damaraland and the 
 tribes of Northern and Central Zarnbezia. But the Herero section early specialized 
 itself when it got to the west of the Upper Zambezi. It colonized Southern 
 Angola (leaving here and there an unassimilated element) but developed its most 
 marked characteristics of speech and culture in South-west Africa, where it was 
 obliged for centuries to fight against the Hottentots, Bushmen, 1 and a pre-existing 
 Negro type which had already accepted a Bushman form of speech. This 
 was the Berg-Damara or Ova-Herero, a people that in physique are typically 
 Bantu (generalized Negro with a suggestion here and there of the Forest 
 Negro), but in speech are Bushman or Hottentot. It has been suggested 
 by some that the Ova-Herero (called Dama by the Hottentots) may be the 
 Ma-tama described by the Portuguese as existing in Southern Angola in the 
 16th century. 
 
 Another great Bantu migration (No. 8) descended from the south of Tangan- 
 yika and occupied Eastern Zambezia, Nyasaland, and Mozambique. These were 
 the ancestors of the great Nyanja, Yao, and Makua groups, and of the Karafia 
 peoples of Southern Zambezia. A considerable stream of tribes (No. 9), speaking 
 primitive Bantu languages, made its way in successive waves down the east coast 
 of Tanganyika, reached to the north coast of Lake Nyasa, and penetrated finally 
 
 1 Or the mysterious, little-known, Bushman-like tribes of the westernmost limits of the 
 Zambezi basin : the Kankala, Kasekere, Ma-kwengo, and Ma-sarwa.
 
 SIR H. H. JOHNSTON. A Sin-vei/ <>f the Ethnography of Africa, etc. 393 
 
 along the IJufiji and Kuvuma valleys to the shores of the Indian Ocean, where it 
 has left its traces in the Makonde people. 
 
 From out of tribes of the 3rd group the Arabs of South Arabia, who had 
 certainly settled sporadically along the east coast of Africa before the Christian era, 
 built up the Swahili people and the Swahili language, which bids fair to become 
 the Linyua Franca of all Bantu Africa. 
 
 But the most mysterious of all the Bantu migrations (No. 10) is that which 
 created firstly the Bechuana people, and secondly the Zulu-Kafir tribes. Although 
 the Zulu-Kafir group is the most isolated of all divisions of the Bantu speech 
 family, it possesses marked affinities with the Sechuana group and less marked 
 relationships with the Ochi-Herero (No. 7). On the whole its relationships beyond 
 those tongues might be described as East African and Central African. It would 
 seem as though the ancestors of the Bechuana and the Zulu rushed down from East- 
 central Africa in one of those great raids which they have repeated and made so familiar 
 to us in the course of the 1 9th century, and passed over the heads (so to speak) of 
 the earlier Nyanja and Karafia tribes of Zambezia and Nyasaland. They first settled 
 in South-central Zambezia, and then penetrated down the Limpopo River into South- 
 east Africa, passing up the coast as far north as Inyambane, and conflicting here 
 with the pre-existing Karafia invasion, and with still earlier settlers who may not 
 have been of Bantu speech. At all events a considerable body of these Bechuana-like 
 people passed south through Swaziland across the Drakensberg Mountains into 
 Zululand, Natal, and what is now the eastern part of Cape Colony. Shut in from 
 the north by the great ranges of lofty mountains, and thus cut off from intercourse 
 with their Bechuana relations, yet having somewhat more intercourse with the 
 tribes of Nyanja-Karana stock on the north-east they developed a type of 
 language which in a large proportion of its vocabulary is absolutely original and 
 self-developed. At the same time they found in the lands along the coast of the 
 southern Indian Ocean a considerable Bushman population. 1 They probably killed 
 the Bush men and espoused the Bush women ; and the Bush mothers 
 imparted to the children of their Bantu husbands three or four of their ugly clicks, 
 
 1 It has been questioned by some authorities whether there were ever any Bushmen in 
 Zululand and Amatongaland, because no Bushman paintings have yet come to light in 
 easternmost South Africa ; and yet there is an obvious strain of Bushman blood in the serf 
 (not the high class) population of Zululand and South-east Africa. May it not, however, be a 
 misleading idea on the part of some ethnologists that wherever cavern paintings are found in 
 Africa and South-west Europe they are to be attributed to the presence of a former Bushman 
 people in those regions, and conversely that where in South Africa no cavern paintings exist, 
 in such regions there have been no Bushmen ? So far as I am aware, cavern paintings are 
 only met with in the centre of southernmost Africa and in great Namakwaland, and some are 
 associated with the pre- Bushman, Strandlooper race. No paintings or rock engravings have as 
 yet been discovered due north of the Kalahari Desert, in South-west Africa, where, nevertheless, 
 Bush tribes exist to this day. The Strandlooper may have introduced this imitative art into 
 central South Africa and have taught it to the Bushmen. In all probability the ancient graphic 
 arts of Northern Africa and Western Europe were the work of Palaeolithic proto-Caucasians or 
 Neolithic Caucasians. Somewhat similar work was done by the Australoids of Australia and the 
 vanished, blond Neolithic race of Western Siberia.
 
 394 Sffi H. H. JOHNSTON. A Survey of the Ethnography of Africa, etc. 
 
 disfigure the Zulu-Kafir speech to this day. The Bechuana peoples between 
 the Orange Kiver and the Drakensberg on the south and the Limpopo and Ngami 
 j basiu on the north, also seem to have been rather isolated for a time and thus to 
 have developed marked linguistic peculiarities. According to their traditions their 
 ancestors crossed the Zambezi from the north about the 14th to 15th centuries A.D. 
 They did not hesitate to mingle with the pre-existing Bushmen, but were little 
 Influenced in their speech by the click languages. This has only occurred in the 
 southernmost part of their range Basutoland. 
 
 Before passing to the consideration of the recent migrations of Caucasian 
 peoples in Africa, we might touch on an invasion of Central Congoland which had 
 a profound influence on Bantu Africa : I refer to the " Bushongo " ("or more 
 correctly, Bashi-bushongo) civilization of Central Congoland made known to us and 
 made famous by the splendid work of Mr. Emil Torday and his collaborator, 
 Mr. Athol Joyce. On such evidence as Mr. Torday has placed before us, we may 
 hazard the guess that the ancestors of the Bashi-bushongo (these words seem to 
 mean in Bantu the "fathers" bashi "of the metal- spear-blade " bushongo) 
 came from the region of the Shari Eiver about A.D. 600, say 1,300 years ago. They 
 were a type of Sudanese Negro with a considerable infusion of Hamitic blood in 
 their veins, and spoke a language apparently belonging to the vaguely-defined 
 Central Sudanese group represented by some of the tongues still extant on the 
 Shari Eiver and in Baghirmi. In fact, they may have derived some of their 
 inherent culture from the relatively old civilization of Baghirmi. No doubt much 
 Egyptian influence of an indirect kind passed from Lake Chad up the Shari and 
 Logun Eivers, as it similarly reached the Upper Benue. The ancestors of the 
 Bushongo according to their traditions would seem to have crossed the Mubangi 
 Kiver and the main Congo, and to have made their way to the Sankuru and the 
 eastern basin of the Kasai. Here they met with an aboriginal race of pygmies and 
 with the Bantu invaders of Nos. 5 and G (No. 6 is that of the Luba-Tabwa tribes). 
 The Bushongo finally abandoned their own Sudanese language and assisted to 
 create a very corrupt form of Bantu speech (quite different from the beautiful 
 Luba tongue) which they use at the present day. But they perfected in the very 
 heart of Congoland the arts of working metals, plaiting and weaving, and developed, 
 in conjunction with the Baluba (whose inspiration came from the highlands north 
 of Tanganyika), a culture which is most remarkable in comparison with the 
 savagery round the innermost circle of the Congo basin. In their magnificent 
 physique the Bushongo aristocrats bear to this day traces of the Caucasian element 
 which must have reached their far-back Negro ancestors from North-east Africa. 
 Once well established in the heart of Congoland their influence, conjoined with that 
 of the Baluba, radiated over their Bantu neighbours to the west and south, so that 
 finally through the Awemba people it penetrated to the regions north-west of Lake 
 Nyasa, or even farther south still to the Central Zambezi. 1 
 
 1 Mr. Emil Torday thinks that the Bushongo came only as warriors to take possession of a 
 portion of civilized Lubaland, and that the Baluba brought from the east or north-east the arts
 
 SIR H. H. JOHNSTON. A Survey of the Ethnography of Africa, etc. 395 
 
 There has evidently been an old civilization in what may be termed the 
 Butonga country of Barotseland, and perhaps also in Katanga and on the coasts 
 and islands of the northern half of Tanganyika. In both these regions there are 
 or were remarkable breeds of domestic fowl those of Butonga (the so-called 
 " Makololo " fowls) being of small size, but of extraordinary prolificness in laying, 
 while the fowls of North-west Tanganyika were a giant breed more like the Cochin 
 China. In Butonga also there was a remarkable breed of pygmy cattle, only 
 3 feet high. 
 
 The influence of the Bushongo-Luba led, no doubt, to the creation of great Bantu 
 empires such as that of Lunda, which spread over the Luba countries towards 
 Tanganyika and Lake Mweru. But the empire of this Mwata Yanvo only arose as 
 far as I can ascertain about the 16th century. Its growth seems to have 
 followed on one of those racial eruptions in Negroland which baffle explanation and 
 seem incredible had we not witnessed similar ones in our own day in the northward 
 raids of the Bechuana 'and Zulu peoples. Early in the 16th century a cannibal 
 people of Bantu speech, but with little or none of the Bushongo or Luba civilization 
 about them, suddenly boiled over, and devastated much of Western Congoland and 
 Angola, of Central Zambezia, and of East Africa. These were the Jagga and the 
 Ba-zimba of the Portuguese. Their descendants still a somewhat truculent folk 
 are the Imbangala of the Upper Kwango, and the Ba-jok of Mr. Torday, the Va-kioko 
 or Va-chibokwe of Livingstone, Cameron, and Swan. Their devastations on the north 
 almost overwhelmed and exterminated the semi-civilized kingdom of the Congo, 
 which had already come under Portuguese influence. They occupied much of 
 Angola, and after swarming across the Zambezi-Congo water-parting, they surged 
 down the valley of the Luangwa until they came to the northern bank of the 
 Zambezi opposite Tete. Here they fought for years with the Portuguese, who 
 eventually got the better of them, though they practically wrecked Portuguese 
 Zambezia for half a century. But one body of these dreaded Ba-zimba 1 fought 
 their way northwards through South Nyasaland and the Yao countries till they 
 crossed the Euvuma and laid siege to the Portuguese-Arab town of Kilwa. This they 
 finally took and sacked, and ate thousands of their prisoners. Then they continued 
 their ruthless course till they similarly encamped on the mainland west of Mombasa. 
 Only by desperate efforts did the Portuguese, allied with the local Negroid tribes 
 of Gala affinities, defeat them here. Their defeat led no doubt to their practical 
 annihilation, for they seem to have left no traces behind in this region. 
 
 Let us retrace our steps in the prehistory which is founded on archaeological 
 research and in the history which is derived from written records, and consider the 
 
 of metal working, weaving, etc. There certainly was, many centuries ago, a remarkable Bantu 
 civilization, emanating from the Ruanda and Tabwa countries (north and west of Tanganyika), 
 and extending south to metalliferous Katanga. 
 
 1 It is said by French missionaries such as Arbousset that another section of the Ba-zimba 
 wandered across Matebeleland to the Limpopo and became the ancestors of the Bavenda tribe, 
 and introduced the custom of cannibalism amongst the south-eastern Bechuana peoples. The 
 Chi-venda language, the most interesting and purely Bantu in South Africa, is, how ver, of East 
 African affinities.
 
 396 SIK H. H. JOHNSTON. A Survey of the Ethnography of Africa, etc. 
 
 effect on Africa of the Semitic invasions and settlements. Here again, as in the 
 term " Hamite," designation is of linguistic rather than racial import. Several 
 distinct types of Mediterranean white man the Aramaean (Jew, Assyrian, Phoeni- 
 cian), the Armenian, and the Arab ; the Kurd ; besides the negroid Elamite and the 
 brown-skinned Hamite and Mongoloid Sumerian : have fused partially in the com- 
 position of the white men of Semitic speech. These composite types of Semitic race 
 more European in physique, for the most part, than the Kushite Hamites, less so 
 than the true Berber have colonized Africa at intervals from about 6,000 to 
 7,000 years ago. At some such distant period as about 4500 B.C., Semitic 
 settlements were apparently being formed in the Isthmus of Suez and the Nile 
 Delta. About 4,000 years ago began the great Hyksos or Haqshu invasions of 
 Egypt, which for more than 500 years paralysed the power of the Dynastic 
 Egyptians. These " shepherd kings " may have been akin to the Arabs in their 
 pastoral stage, though some Egyptologists think there was an admixture of Turk 
 or Turkoman or even of the Medes (Skythian Aryan). Their use of the horse 
 suggests a Central or West Asian influence, but their speech seems to have been 
 Semitic. Their migration from Syria took place before the domestication of the 
 Arabian camel, but they brought the horse with them as a draught animal. When 
 Pharaonic dynasties had regained power and overcome these barbarians, some of 
 the survivors of the Hyksos probably retreated into Midian and Arabia and fused 
 with the Arabs ; others must have contributed to the complex elements of the 
 residential Egyptian population. There is no need to suppose that any large body 
 of them went westward to form the Fula or the Songhai peoples. At least there 
 is not the slightest evidence as yet to support this conjecture. 
 
 We may hazard the guess that an important Neolithic civilization had remained 
 behind in South-west Arabia even after the departure of the Dynastic Egyptians ; 
 that this peninsula became gradually Semitic in religion and language ; and that 
 having sent one of its peoples the Phoenicians the "Pun," perhaps of the 
 Egyptian Pun-t or Puanit from the Persian Gulf to the Syrian coast, and hordes 
 of Himyarites to colonize Abyssinia, it still possessed sufficient energy in its west 
 Arabian states of Saba and Mina to explore the east coast of Africa, perchance in 
 boats with mat sails like the existing "mtepe" of Zanzibar. I see nothing inherently 
 improbable in the finding of gold by proto-Arabs in the south-eastern part of 
 Zambezia ; nor in the pre-Islamic, Arab origin of Zimbabwe. 
 
 In any case we know from the Periplus of the Erythrasan Sea a compilation 
 dating back to the 1st century of the Christian era that at that time the Arabs 
 of the south-west corner of Arabia traded with the Zanzibar coast. Probably by 
 this time, or soon afterwards, their ships had found the north end and east coast of 
 Madagascar. Here they introduced, before the Islamic period, the use of their 
 Himyaritic dialect, and thither they conveyed (from Bantu Africa opposite) the 
 long-horned cattle and the domestic fowl. From various indications one is entitled 
 to believe that the East African coast was brought by Arab sea-trade into touch 
 with India, and even China and Malaysia, as much as 2,000 years ago, if not
 
 SIR H. H. JOHNSTON. A Survey of the Etknmj niphy of Africa, etc. 397 
 
 earlier. I think Arab ships introduced the cultivated banana 1 (whose nearest wild 
 relation grows in South-eastern Asia, not in Africa) into East Africa, whence it 
 spread from tribe to tribe right across Equatorial Africa to the West Coast. They 
 also introduced hemp from Asia ; possibly also the cotton plant and the sugar-cane, 
 rice and wheat. The Arabs may also have brought the domestic fowl from Persia 
 or India to East Africa and Madagascar. They conveyed cattle of the long-horned 
 ancient Egyptian type into Madagascar, and certainly brought thither, early in the 
 Christian era, numbers of Negro slaves from the Zangian and Motjambique coasts. 
 
 The " Carthaginians " of course originated in the Phoenician settlements of 
 Sidon and Tyre on the coast of Syria. They established themselves on the coasts of 
 Tunis and northern Morocco about 1100 B.C. But the real growth of their power 
 and colonization only dates (it may be) from the foundation of Carthage in 822 B.C. 
 A good deal of the coastlands of Tunis and western Tripoli was actually colonized 
 by the Phoenicians, who left many monuments behind which testify to their former 
 presence there. They undoubtedly opened up trading stations along the Atlantic 
 coast of Morocco, and in one or more voyages penetrated to the mouth of the 
 Senegal, and even to the southern limits of Sierra Leone. 2 They seem to have got 
 in this way into relations with the Fula and Wolof peoples, and to have used Fula 
 interpreters 3 to communicate with the shy, black Negroes. Their farthest-south 
 permanent trading station on the west coast was the little island of Kerne (still 
 called Herne) in the narrow gulf of the Rio de Oro. This region has for some years 
 been in the possession of the Spaniards, and it is surprising that no excavation 
 or research work has been made in Herne Island. The archaeological results might 
 be of the highest interest. No doubt, even as far back as 1000 B.C., a certain 
 amount of overland trade went on between North Africa and the Western Sudan, 
 but such trade probably only followed the Atlantic coastline. Several of the more 
 important oases of the Sahara seem to have become uninhabited. In fact, the 
 Neolithic population of the Sahara would appear to have died out, no doubt owing 
 to the increasing drought. But there is nothing in the culture or the languages of 
 West Africa to suggest any great amount of intercourse between the Carthaginians 
 and Negroland, after Hanno's celebrated voyage to Sierra Leone in the 6th 
 century B.C. 
 
 Things became a little more active when the Romans displaced the 
 Carthaginians in North Africa. In the early part of the Christian era they the 
 Romans had crossed the Atlas Mountains of Morocco, and had sent expeditions 
 far down into the Sahara Desert from Tripoli, probably to Bilma. They were 
 
 1 This may even have been brought by Malay canoes across the Indian Ocean to Madagascar 
 and the Comoro Islands. The earlier Arab writers on East Africa between the 10th and 13th 
 centuries mention both Larnu on the North Zangian Coast and the Comoro Islands as special 
 centres of banana cultivation. 
 
 2 Mr. Frederick Migeod, in his Languages of West Africa, suggests from certain evidence 
 that the Carthaginians were in touch by sea with the Gold Coast. 
 
 3 A deduction made by the French colonial administrator and historian, M. Louis Binger, 
 on fairly good grounds.
 
 398 SIR H. H. JOHNSTON. A Survey of the Ethnography of Africa, etc. 
 
 assisted in this last direction by the Garamantes, who were perhaps Tibus. But it 
 would seem as though the Eoman beads which turn up all over West Africa and 
 the Sudan had entered Negroland through the Egyptian trade across Nubia, Darf ur, 
 and the Lake Chad region. 
 
 The Jews both before and after the opening of the Christian era took up the 
 work of their kindred, the Phoenicians. They established themselves in such 
 numbers in Cyrenaica that they practically ousted the Greeks ; indeed, in a Jewish 
 uprising of A.D. 117 the Greeks of this old Greek colony (now Italian territory) 
 were almost exterminated. 1 The Romans retaliated by killing the Jews, but 
 the Jewish settlements at Carthage and elsewhere in Tunisia and in Morocco 
 prospered mightily under Roman rule ; or rather outside the limits of Roman rule 
 amongst the Berber princes, many of whom became converts to the Jewish faith. 
 The Jews played a great part in the history and development of North Africa in 
 those days. They instigated the Berbers to oppose the Arab invasion and to assert 
 their independence against the Vandals. The Arabs and Berber historians of 
 North Africa even state that it was the Jews who, in their trading enterprise, first 
 occupied or re-occupied important oases in the Northern Sahara such as Twat. 
 They may possibly have found still living at Twat a Negro or a Negroid race, and 
 unquestionably they were not the first inhabitants of any Sahara oases. But they 
 seem in many directions to have preceded the Berbers in their south-west migra- 
 tions. Some of these Jews are thought even to have crossed the Sahara, carrying 
 with them a garbled blending of the Jewish and Christian faiths, and to have 
 reached the country of Borgu to the south of the Central Niger, establishing there 
 a form of religious faith which has only recently given way to Islam. Jews, how- 
 ever, early in the Christian era (according to traditions gathered up by Arab 
 historians) made their appearance in the Mandingo kingdoms of Ghana ta and Melle 
 and at the capitals of the Songhai empire which followed. On the eastern side of 
 Africa, Jews or Idumoaans had evidently settled in Abyssinia several centuries 
 before the Christian era, and many of the Jews of Arabia migrated to Abyssinia 
 after the establishment of Islam. 
 
 The other Arab invasions of Africa before the Christian era were restricted 
 to occasional settlement on the west coast of the Red Sea and in Somaliland, and 
 to the trading colonies on the Zangian coast already described. But after the first 
 Islamic convulsions in Arabia, Arabs began to pour into Lower Egypt from the 
 direction of Syria. Thence they passed at the head of conquering armies through the 
 Tripolitaine into Roman Africa and Morocco. Allied with the Berbers they 
 descended in thin streams the Atlantic coast of the Sahara till they reached the 
 Senegal River in the early part of the 10th century. Other bands of them found 
 
 1 There would seem to have been a Pelasgian, Minoan, or early Greek colonization of 
 Eastern Tunisia, and the Greeks, as we know historically, founded a prosperous colony in 
 Cyrenaica as early as 631 B.C. It is possible that through the intervening Berbers and Tibus, 
 Greek influence to a slight degree penetrated (in objects of trade) across the Sahara Desert into 
 the Sudan.
 
 SIR H. H. JOHNSTON. A Survey of the Ethnography of Africa, etc. 399 
 
 their way from Arab Egypt along the old trade route to Darfur, and commenced 
 the Islamizing of the Central Sudan, from Bornu to the Niger. But the great invasion 
 of Northern Africa and the Sudan by Islamic Arabs did not take place till the 
 llth century that invasion which is named the Hilalian by French writers. 
 This was the result of the driving out from Arabia of two turbulent tribes, 
 the Beni Soleim and the Beni Hilal, who crossed the Red Sea, forced their way 
 through the Hamitic peoples of the Nubian Desert, and settled on the Nile in the 
 Cataract region. From this direction many of them made their way in succeeding 
 centuries across Darfur to Wadai, Bornu, and Baghirmi, where they are represented 
 at the present day by the Shawia. Others, again, mingled with Hamitic and Negro 
 elements and founded the powerful Funj dynasty of Senaar. 
 
 A large proportion, however, of this Hilalian invasion in the llth century 
 was directed by the decadent power of Arabized Egypt (under the Fatimite puppet- 
 Caliphs) towards Mauretania. Northern Africa, when it ceased to be Graeco-Ronian, 
 was becoming practically a series of Berber principalities which retained Arabic 
 as their official language and remained Muhammadan in religion, but were inclined 
 to enter into friendly relations with the European States across the Mediterranean. 
 But the Arab character of North Africa and the Muhammadan fanaticism were 
 sharpened by this Hilalian invasion, which planted in Tunis, Algeria, Morocco, and 
 the Western Sahara hundreds of thousands of Arabs, who have retained to this day 
 their racial characteristics, except where they have mingled with the Negroes. Thus 
 there are Arabic-speaking tribes along the northern Senegal and within the Western 
 Sahara. 
 
 The Islamic Arabs had resumed intercourse with the Somali and Zangian 
 coasts as early as the 8th century A.D. According to their historians, ships from 
 India or Malaysia were trading soon afterwards with the natives of (what we now 
 call) the Angoshe district of MoQambique for iron ; and making use of the Comoro 
 Islands as trading depots. By the llth century of this era the Arabs were 
 established at Kilwa and as far south as Sofala. Soon afterwards they formed 
 a settlement at Sena on the Lower Zambezi, and their influence and culture probably 
 went far towards the creation of the powerful Negro empire of the Monomotapa. 
 The arrival of the Portuguese, however, arrested for a time the Arabizing of 
 East Africa, though the Arabs had already got into touch with Unyamwezi 
 and Lake Nyasa. They were reinforced at different periods after the llth 
 century by colonies of Persians from Shiraz, and these Persians introduced much 
 culture into the East Africa coastlands between Somaliland and Kilwa. 
 
 Although the Islamized Berbers of the Sahara Desert the so-called Tuaregs 
 (this nickname is itself of Arab origin, from Tarqi, a raider) had after the first 
 Arab invasions of Mauretania pushed farther and farther into the Sahara Desert 
 (often, in the oases, preceded by Jews), and had in the 12th century founded or 
 refounded Timbuktu and given a Caucasian reinforcement to most of the Negroid 
 tribes and dynasties in the Central and Western Sudan, their civilizing work was 
 hardly to be distinguished from that of the Arabs who accompanied them, or who
 
 400 SIR H. H. JOHNSTON. A Survey of the Ethnography of Africa, etc. 
 
 supplemented their efforts in introducing everywhere throughout the Sudan (north 
 of the forest belt) the religion, the language and culture of Arabia. On the east 
 coast of Africa a great revival of Arab emigration took place after the decline 
 of the Portuguese power in the 17th century. The Arab cause was taken 
 up by the bold seafaring traders of Oman in South-east Arabia. The Portuguese 
 were driven from all their positions north of the Ruvuma Ptiver by the 18th 
 century. In the 19th century, from the Arab metropolis of Zanzibar, East 
 Africa, as far inland as Tanganyika and Nyasa, was considerably Arabized. 
 Arab adventurers reached even to the extreme Upper Zambezi, concurrently with 
 Livingstone, besides discovering the Upper Congo. Besides this, a pre-Portuguese 
 element of Arab settlement continued to exist, and exists still, in the southernmost 
 part of the Mozambique region, chiefly the district of Angoshe. 
 
 Arabs from Syria and North Africa, together with large contingents of Berbers 
 from Algeria, Morocco, and the Northern Niger, had colonized Spain between 
 the 8th and the llth centuries. Here they had mingled with Jewish and 
 Christian elements, and the amalgam of all these strains produced a magnificent 
 human type of great physical beauty and a tendency towards whiteness of skin ; 
 a most talented people, artistic to their finger-tips, passionately fond of music, 
 clever at mechanics, industrious in agriculture. Chased out of Spain because of 
 their imperfect acceptance of Christianity and their inherent dislike of Castilian 
 rule, these Pamias as they were styled by the people of North Africa or 
 " Andaluzi " became to Muhammadan Africa what the French Huguenots were to 
 England, Ireland, and Holland. They brought into Africa the bravery, the ideas 
 of discipline, and the cultivated mind and artistic instincts of the European. 
 They became the sharpshooters, the artillerymen of the Moorish Empire, and were 
 the main agents in carrying the rule of Morocco to Western Nigeria. As a 
 civilizing element on the Upper Niger, and even as far south as Senegambia, they 
 cannot be overrated. They also figured considerably in the founding of the Fula 
 kingdoms, and the eventual Fula empire, even as far east as Bornu, and as far 
 south as Baghirmi. A colony of them also settled at or near Lamu on the 
 equatorial East coast of Africa, and their descendants assisted the Maskat Arabs to 
 expel the Portuguese. 
 
 Amongst the many race movements due to the influence of the Muhammadan 
 religion were those of the Hausa and the Fula. The Hausa-speaking Negroes of the 
 Central Sudan, by their industry and intelligence (helped, however, largely by the 
 unconscious gospel of art and agriculture, preached by the dark-skinned Caucasian 
 hybrids who have permeated this region for about two thousand years, and perhaps 
 long before), had founded important states between the Benue basin and the Sahara 
 Desert; and their trading language and influence by the 16th century had crossed 
 the Niger and travelled westward over the semi- civilized kingdoms of the Mossi group of 
 Negroes, until they were stayed from any further western progress by the equally 
 potent Mandingos. The Hausification, so to speak, of all these regions of the Central 
 Sudan prepared the way for the establishment of the three remarkable Fula
 
 SIR H. H. JOHNSTON. A Survey of the Ethnography of Africa, etc. 401 
 
 empires over West, Central, and Eastern Nigeria which have only l>een replaced of 
 late by French or British rule. 
 
 The ancient history of the Fulas has already been alluded to. Their original 
 home, according to Arab-Berber tradition, was in the western oases of the Sahara, 
 the valley of the Draa, the hill country of Adrar, and the Atlantic coast of the 
 Sahara Desert. They may have been the " Pharusii " of Roman geographers. The 
 Berber emigrations which resulted from the wars of conquest of the Romans, 
 followed by the convulsions due to the invasion of Mauretania by the Islamic 
 Arabs, are believed to have driven the Fulas south towards Senegambia, their place 
 being taken by Berbers and Arabs. They were at first quiet people, herdsmen and 
 shepherds, with a high and intricate type of pagan religion which still survives in 
 parts of Nigeria. But large numbers of them became converted to Islam from the 
 12th century onwards and gained some knowledge of the world outside Africa 
 by their pilgrimages to Mekka. In Senegambia they came gradually to form proud 
 little principalities of Muhammadan people ; which, often assisted by Arab and 
 Moorish adventurers or fakirs, finally dominated the basin of the Upper Senegal at 
 the close of the 18th century. Their colonies and wandering gypsy tribes of cattle- 
 keepers, however, had long before this penetrated to Borgu (at the back of Yoruba), 
 and to most parts of the Sudan within the Niger basin. They had even penetrated 
 as far to the east as the Shari River and Darfur. At the end of the 18th and 
 the beginning of the 19th centuries an uprise of Muhammadan fanaticism and a 
 proud consciousness of their racial superiority to the mere Negro (a principle they 
 had learnt by their pilgrimages to Mekka) armed them as an aristocracy to wrest 
 the political control of all Nigeria (between the Futa Jallon highlands and the 
 Upper Benue) from the hands of Negro rulers or the decaying power of the Tuareg 
 and Songhai. The Fula conquests effected little or nothing against the eastern 
 Mandingos or the powerful and warlike Mossi group of Muhammadan Negro states ; 
 but made them completely dominant in the basin of the Middle Niger and the 
 Upper Benue. The pure-bred Fulas were at least semi-Caucasian in physique and 
 brain ; and this race was all unconsciously carrying on the Caucasian invasion and 
 penetration of 'Africa. 1 
 
 1 Since the discussion on my paper (verbal, and in Mr. Morel's paper, the African Mail) 
 I will sum up my views on the Fula as follows : Very little material is still available for 
 the definition of the precise physical type of their pui'est breeds. Those I have seen myself 
 in Portuguese Guinea, the Gambia and Sierra Leone, and in French West Africa struck 
 me forcibly with their likeness to very good-looking Arabs, the Arabs of Western Arabia. 
 Their complexions were no darker and their hair was in long ringlets. Though betraying the 
 same ancient " negrification " that is to be seen in so much of the North African population 
 and in that of Egypt, they were emphatically a three-quarter Caucasian race, the one undoubted 
 touch of the Negro being the kinky hair. It is strange that so handsome and remarkable a 
 race should be almost unrepresented in the books and museums of Europe by any good series 
 of photographs. 
 
 According to the best authorities of the 19th century the purest-blooded, most 
 Caucasian-looking Fulas are or were to be found in what is now French West Africa, between 
 the Upper Senegal and Upper Gambia and the " lacustrine " Niger (Jenn6 also in Borgu
 
 402 SIR H. H. JOHNSTON. A Survey of the Ethnography of Africa, etc. 
 
 There remain five other noteworthy racial migrations in Africa and its great 
 adjacent island of Madagascar which should be described before we close this survey 
 at the last phase : the recent invasion of the dark continent by the white peoples of 
 Europe. These five would be (1) the Malay colonization of Madagascar ; (2) the 
 southern and south-eastern migrations of the Nilotic Negroes ; (3) the northward 
 movement of the Hottentots in South-west Africa ; (4) the northward raids of the 
 Zulus and Bechuana in South-central and East Africa, and (5) the descent of the 
 Fang tribes on the coast lands of the Gaboon and South Cameroons. 
 
 (1) The colonization of Madagascar by a race or races which came thither in 
 prehistoric times right across some 3,500 miles of open Indian Ocean from Sumatra 
 or Java, in apparently nothing better than outrigger canoes, must remain one of the 
 most astounding adventures in the history of man. Yet there are the Malagasy 
 tribes of Madagascar at the present day, speaking one single language which has no 
 deep-seated differences between its dialects, and which bears the unmistakable signs 
 of its kinship with the Malayo-Polynesian tongues. It has been evolved much earlier 
 
 (between Gao and Yoruba) ; and among the semi-nomad herdsmen or " Cow" Fulani of British 
 Nigeria from Hausaland to Lake Chad. According to Denham, in 1825 there were 
 communities of very pure-blood pagan Fulas in the Mandara country, south of Bornu. Most of 
 the conquering and ruling Fulani of the 19th century, more especially in British Nigeria, 
 are so mixed with Hausa blood that they are more Negro in physique than anything else. 
 
 Although the religious beliefs of the pagan Fula are described as of a lofty mysticism, 
 very little exact information has been published about them. The Western Fulas became 
 Tslamized comparatively early in the history of the Arabization of West Africa say in the 10th 
 to 14th centuries of this era. The West African Fulas have always shown a great 
 sympathy for and interest in the Arab, and have furnished a large proportion of the " Takruri " 
 pilgrims to Mekka. On the other hand, the original eastern Fulani of Bornu and Baghirmi 
 (apart from the Fula conquerors who came from the Northern Niger under Sheikh Omar in the 
 early 19th century) have shown themselves hostile to Islam and.to the Arab. 
 
 The trend of migration at any rate during the Christian era has been from west to 
 east, if one may go by the evidence of the existing Fula dialects, that of the regions between 
 the Senegal and Niger being apparently the mother-speech. 
 
 The physical type of the pure-bred Fula would seem to be definable as follows : Tall of 
 stature (but not gigantic, like the Nilote and South-east Sudanese), olive-skinned or even a pale 
 yellow ; well-proportioned, with delicate hands and feet, without steatopygy, with long, oval 
 face, big nose (in men), straight nose in women (nose finely cut, like that of the Caucasian), 
 eyes large and " melting," with an Egyptian look about them, head-hair long, black, kinky or 
 ringlety, never quite straight, hair of body almost absent except at pubes and axillae (that is to 
 say, the body is not hairy as in most Berbers and in the Forest Negroes), but a fairly abundant 
 beard and moustache in the men. No Negro skin odour (in the pure-blood Fula). 
 
 Their original culture was mainly pastoral. They seem to have originated no architecture 
 or industries. Their domestic animals and cultivated plants were just those of the Northern 
 Sudan and of indirect Egyptian origin. They did not have the plough or the Libyan chow- 
 like dog and ignored the use of stone for building. Their language most highly developed 
 betrays absolutely no structural affinity with the Semitic or Libyo-Hamitic groups, or with 
 any other speech families outside Africa, except in the principle of " class " distinctions (which 
 it shares with many Negro speech groups). The Semitic and Berber vocabulary elements 
 in Fula are all borrowed words of comparatively modern use, due to the introduction of 
 Muhammadanism. Such affinities as Fula may have with other speech families are confined 
 to the class languages of West and Central Africa, including Bantu.
 
 SIR H. H. JOHNSTON. A Survey of the Ethnography of Africa, etc. 403 
 
 than the actual Malay language, which is a comparatively recent birth of time ; but 
 the general affinities of the Malagasy speech with the Malay o-Polynesian group 
 are undoubted. In physique the people of Madagascar vary from the almost Negro 
 Sakalavas on the west and the Betsileo, Tanala, and Ibara on the south, to the 
 straight-haired, short-statured Javanese-like Hovas in the centre and east. Along 
 the north coast there is clear evidence of ancient intermixture with Arabs and 
 Hindus, while, of course, there is much Negro blood in the west. On the whole, 
 however, the people of Madagascar bear a remarkable resemblance to the different 
 types of Mongoloid and Melanesian inhabitants of the Malay Archipelago and 
 Papuasia. 
 
 We may surmise that as soon as the enterprising Indonesian immigrants 
 into Malaysia, three to four thousand years ago (or more), began to affect the Mon- 
 golian-Melanesian-Negrito savages with their Caucasian energy and daring spirit of 
 adventure, Malay voyages in outrigger canoes with mat sails (like those of 
 Polynesia) may have extended across the Bay of Bengal from Sumatra to Ceylon 
 and Southern India, and later to the Maldiv and Chagos Archipelagoes. But there 
 is as yet no historical or archaeological evidence of such Malay voyages. 
 
 There are indications of an ancient human habitation of the Sechelles 
 Archipelago, but not to any great extent. These equatorial islets were without 
 inhabitants or traces of inhabitants when first discovered by the Portuguese and 
 French. There is absolutely no evidence of any ancient human settlement on 
 Rodriguez, Mauritius or Bourbon (the Mascarenes), or on the Aldabra group, or 
 even the Komoro Islands. This last string of volcanic islands which lies between 
 the Zangian coast and Madagascar and which may be the submerged remains of 
 a great peninsula that nearly connected Africa with Madagascar in the Miocene 
 and Pliocene nearly, but not quite does not seem to have received a Malagasy 
 population but to have been uninhabited until it was discovered by Arab ships 
 about 2,000 years ago or more, discovered and partially settled by Arabs 
 and by the Negro slaves they brought thither from the mainland. These slaves 
 must have been of fairly recent importation perhaps since the Islamic period 
 began, for the dialect they speak is nearly related to the Swahili of Zanzibar, though 
 to an archaic form of Swahili. 
 
 The Malay colonization of Madagascar therefore, though very thorough and 
 several times repeated, was singularly limited in its scope, since the Malayo- 
 Polynesian adventurers apparently never reached the Mascarene Islands or the 
 Komoros, 1 or Zanzibar or the Zangian or Mozambique coasts. Once they had 
 landed on Madagascar they appear to have abandoned sea-faring habits ; and though 
 they retained the outrigger canoes they never ventured in them far from shore. 
 The outrigger canoes were afterwards introduced by the Arabs into the Komoros 
 and to the Island of Zanzibar, but were never spontaneously adopted by the Bantu 
 
 1 There is a good deal of Malagasy blood in the Komoros to-day, but it is due to compara- 
 tively recent immigration and the slave trade of the 18th and 19th centuries.
 
 404 SIR H. H. JOHNSTOX. A Survey of the Ethnography of Africa, etc. 
 
 Negroes of the East African coast. According to tradition there have been repeated 
 Malay invasions of Madagascar, the earliest perhaps about 3,000 years ago : the 
 latest that of the Hovas in (some suggest) the 7th century of the present era. 1 
 The Hovas instinctively fought their way through the antecedent peoples of the 
 east coast-belt till they reached the healthy plateaux of the interior. Here in the 
 course of some hundreds of years they became a warlike, vigorous nation which in 
 the early 18th century set out to conquer all Madagascar and would have 
 succeeded, but for French interference. The Hovas have kept their Malay racial 
 characteristics much more than the Betsileo, Sakalavas, and other tribes of earlier 
 arrival. The Sakalavas have evidently mixed much with the Bantu Negroes of the 
 East African coast. A number of words of Bantu origin have been imported into 
 the Malagasy dialects, but more into those of the west coast than into the speech of 
 the Hovas. Still the dialectal differences in Malagasy are slight and point to a 
 certain racial homogeneity. There is, per contra, not the slightest trace of Malagasy 
 influence or blood among the peoples of East Africa. There is a tradition in East 
 and South Madagascar that the earliest Malay immigrants found a preceding Negro 
 or Negroid race still existing in the land. These are generally called the " Va- 
 zimba," and in many districts mounds of seemingly artificial origin are called 
 " Vazimba graves." But although both French and English explorers have made 
 such remarkable discoveries of a fossil and sub-fossil fauna in Madagascar, they 
 have either never troubled to investigate these alleged sepulture places of an ancient 
 and vanished race of Negro type which may have preceded the Malagasy ; or they 
 have found nothing to support the theory of the existence of a pre-Malagasy 
 population. The word " Vazimba " may have been introduced by the Arabs at the 
 time the cannibal Ba-zimba hordes were ravaging the opposite African coast. But 
 it is difficult to believe that the actual, historical Ba-zimba, who had no canoes with 
 which to ford the Zambezi at first, and were thwarted in their attack on Mombasa 
 because it was an islet separated from the mainland by a narrow tidal creek, 
 could have found the means of crossing the 300-miles-wide Mozambique 
 Channel and invading Madagascar at the time when the Portuguese held command 
 of these seas. Considering, moreover, that neither the Bantu Negroes of East 
 Africa nor the Bushmen who preceded them were possessors of any better 
 means of navigation than dug-out canoes or rafts, it is difficult to believe in an 
 ancient Negro peopling of Madagascar before the Arabs could serve as transport 
 agents. Of course it is just possible that the mysterious race that built the 
 Zimbabwe 2 walls and temples and commenced mining for gold in South-east 
 
 1 In the opinion of the late Professor A. H. Keane, who has given an excellent resume of the 
 question in his Man: Past and Present (1899), the Hova departure from Java or Sumatra must 
 have been much earlier than only twelve hundred years ago. The reader is also referred to 
 Madagascar, etc., by E. F. Gautier, Paris, 1902. 
 
 2 There is seemingly no etymological connection between -zimba, a Bantu tribal name-root 
 applied amongst others to the cannibal raiders from Southern Congoland in the 16th 
 century), and Zim-babwe, which simply means " stones " in the Karafia dialects, from -babwe, 
 -bawe, a stone, and Zin-, a plural prefix.
 
 SIR H. H. JOHNSTON. A Survey of the Ethnography of Africa, etc. 405 
 
 Africa may also have invaded Madagascar. But in such case they are more likely 
 to have been pre-Islamic Arabs or Karaites rather than Negroes. 
 
 It has been stated by Capitaine M. Guillain, Sir Kichard Burton, and other 
 writers on East Africa in the middle 19th century that Malay sailing vessels 
 have been blown by strong easterly winds from Java to the East African coasts once 
 or twice within the last hundred years. But the thorough and repeated colonization 
 of Madagascar by a Malay o-Polynesiau race was scarcely a matter of mere accident, 
 and argues a certain design, though a bold one, at the period of its inception. Another 
 enigma in the history of East Africa is : If the Malay -Polynesians could colonize 
 Madagascar deliberately or even accidentally, why did they not reach East Africa 
 in similar numbers and leave unmistakable marks of their former presence there 
 in the native races, the languages, manners, and customs ? There is no greater 
 puzzle in the history of human migrations. 
 
 (2) The Nilotic Negroes early came under the influence of that primitive or 
 modified form of white man, the Hamite. This influence is to be seen in not only 
 the physique of some of the Nilotic types, but in several of their language- 
 groups in which there exist numerals obviously borrowed from Gala or Somali, and 
 in which there are other word-roots of apparently ancient incorporation. Whether 
 the discrimination of sex, masculine and feminine, is directly derived from the 
 impact and influence of the Hamite, is open to question. Most, if not all, of the 
 Nilotic tongues, and the mysterious and isolated Bongo of the Bahr-al-Ghazal, 
 distinguish in their pronoun-particles between masculine and feminine, " he " and 
 " she." But this may be only a further development of a principle already at work 
 in the Bantu tongues, in which there has been a tendency from remote times 
 towards the institution of a feminine particle or prefix (without a concord) derived 
 from a word meaning " mother " (na, nya), or to identify the diminutive prefix Jca 
 (which possesses a concord) with a feminine sense, and the root-word for "woman," 
 -ka. At the same time a male prefix, se, sa, or so, exists in some of the Bantu 
 tongues and is related to a root-word for " father." It is, at any rate, noteworthy 
 that the feminine particle or prefix in the Nilotic tongues, which is usually na and 
 which consequently offers some resemblance to the Bantu " mother " prefix, is unlike 
 anything associated with the feminine gender in the Hamitic or Semitic groups, 
 wherein the feminine letter or particle (prefix and suffix) is t or ti in its pristine 
 form. 
 
 But about the 17th century of the Christian era (as nearly as we can calcu- 
 late by deductions from native traditions and from the prevalence of Bantu place- 
 names) some distance to the north of the present Bantu frontier there began a decided 
 movement southwards up the valley of the Mountain Nile on the part of the Nilotic 
 Negroes, such as are represented at the present day by the Shiluk, Bari, and Lotuka. 
 The Shiluk 1 type sent considerable colonies southwards, overrunning Sudanese 
 
 1 This word is an Arabic corruption of a triba name which was probably something like 
 Choli originally, but it is a convenient term for the inclusion of a special group of the Nilotic 
 peoples of which the existing Shiluk are representative. 
 
 c
 
 406 SIR H. H. JOHNSTON. A Survey of the Ethnography of Africa, etc. 
 
 tribes like the Madi (of West-central African affinities). Thus there were founded 
 settlements of the Aluru group on the shores of the Albert Nyanza, and of the 
 Acholi and Gang tribes between Karamojo and the Victoria Nile, and the much 
 farther-afield colony of the Ja-luo in the Kavirondo country east of the Victoria 
 Nyanza. In Kavirondo, Bukedi, and Bunyoro, and possibly even the southern 
 part of the Madi country, the Nilotic tribes were certainly preceded by the Bantu, 
 judging from the prevalence of a Bantu type of place-name, especially those with 
 the prefix pa-. Earlier still, perhaps, the Nandi group of Nilotic peoples had 
 migrated southwards from the west coast of Lake Rudolf (perhaps expelled by the 
 Turkana) and had colonized the plateaus and mountains of Eastern Equatorial 
 Africa from about 3 N. latitude to 6 S. latitude. They have imparted their 
 present characteristics in language and customs to the hunting tribe of the 
 Andorobo, which now ranges nearly to the equatorial coast of the Indian Ocean and 
 far south into German East Africa. Such of the broken tribes of northern German 
 East Africa near the Victoria Nyanza as are not a kind of bastard Hamitic (Es-segeju, 
 etc.), or are unclassed like the Mbugu, Mbulungu, or Sandawi, belong to this 
 Nandi group in language. 
 
 Simultaneously with these convulsions (we may guess), a third group of 
 Nilotic Negroes, the Bari-Lotuka-Turkana, sent out its pastoral herdsmen and its 
 cattle-loving giants. These in their southward march have left the Teso or Elgumi 
 people near Mount Elgon, the Turkana and allied tribes on the west coast of Lake 
 Eudolf, and most noticeably the Masai of British and German East Africa. 
 
 The Masai became noteworthy as migrants and raiders, and touched the fringe of 
 recorded history no earlier than the first half of the 19th century. At that 
 time, when Krapf and Rebmann and other German missionaries were penetrating 
 from the coast towards the great Snow Mountains, they were made aware of the 
 Masai or Oigob raiding peoples, who were pressing the Bantu in all directions, 
 driving them towards the coast or up into the mountains. They noted that there 
 were two types of Masai, though it might be added, there was practically no 
 linguistic difference between the two. The earlier arrivals were known by the 
 Swahili name of Kuavi or Kuafi, and apparently described themselves as Oigob. 
 They were agricultural as well as cattle-loving, and became much more placable 
 than the prouder Masai, who pressed on them from the west and virtually destroyed 
 them in course of time. Before European influence interposed a check, the Masai in 
 their southward raids had reached as far as 7 S. latitude. 
 
 (3) In the south-west of Africa far-reaching convulsions were caused by a 
 relatively small band of invading Hottentots. The Dutch settlers in Cape Colony 
 had imparted some knowledge of Christianity and elements of material civilization 
 to their Hottentot serfs and servants, whom they did not always treat very well. 
 One family of three brothers, which had assumed the Dutch nickname of 
 Afrikaner, revolted against the cruel treatment of their master or employer, shot 
 him, and escaped north of the Orange River with all the plunder and arms on 
 which they could lay hands. These Afrikaners were daring men of reckless courage, 
 
 ;
 
 SIR H. H. JOHNSTON. A Survey of the Ethnography of Africa, etc. 407 
 
 strong swimmers, ferocious fighters, and ruthless slayers of big game. North of the 
 Orange River they soon collected a band of adherents, mostly Hottentots and 
 Bushmen, but also a few nondescript Negroes, escaped Bantu slaves from 
 Cape Colony. Their numbers increased by birth and immigration ; and at last in 
 the sixties of the 19th century they had become the dominant power in what 
 is now German South-west Africa, and carried on a bloody warfare with the Bantu- 
 speaking Ova-Herero. 
 
 The Hottentot race is possibly composed of an ancient Negro ? proto-Bantu 
 or even semi-Caucasian (Hamitic) invading element in South-western Africa, mixed 
 with the blood of the indigenous Bushman population. The Bushman element now 
 greatly predominates in the Hottentot physique. When South Africa was first dis- 
 covered by the Portuguese and the Dutch, there seem to have been two very distinct 
 types of Hottentot, one much more civilized than the other. The more savage Hot- 
 tentots were simply larger and stronger Bushmen, using weapons superior to those 
 of the Bushman, but not possessing domestic cattle or sheep. The other tribes 
 found in the more central part of southernmost Africa eastern Cape Colony were 
 much more pleasing in appearance, and not only possessed domestic cattle of 
 an ancient Egyptian breed, but had already trained them as riding animals. Hot- 
 tentots of this type, especially amongst the women, are described by the European 
 pioneers as being good-looking or handsome, the women especially so. Not only in 
 language 1 but in culture and in bodily characteristics, there would seem to 
 have been some slight element of the Hamitic Caucasian in the Hottentot, and 
 this, considerably reinforced by the constant intermarriages between Dutch settlers 
 and Hottentot women, made of the Hottentots in the 19th century a conquering 
 race wherever they came into contact with pure-blood Negroes or Bushmen. 
 
 It was, of course, mainly the possession of firearms and the knowledge how to 
 use them that gave to the Namakwa Hottentots, under the leadership of that 
 remarkable Afrikaner clan, the position of a conquering race throughout South- 
 west Africa during the second half of the 19th century. The Afrikaner clan 
 and its adherents penetrated northwards during the last hundred years till they 
 actually menaced the Portuguese settlements in Southern Angola. But for the 
 intervention of the Germans they would probably have exterminated or enslaved 
 the tall Bantu Herero and Ovambo. 
 
 On the other hand, in the more central parts of South Africa, the bastard 
 Hottentots or " Grikwa," working in closer sympathy almost alliance with the 
 missionaries and the British authorities, opened up the way to Bechuanaland and 
 the Western Transvaal. In 1884 Germany intervened in the affairs of South-west 
 Africa (because of the maltreatment of German missionaries by the Namakwa 
 
 1 The existence of the click language Sandawi south-east of the Victoria Nyanza which 
 has slight root affinities with Hottentot, yet is spoken by a degraded Hamitic race, is an instance 
 of how the Hottentots of South-west Africa may have arisen. The Hamitic affinities of the 
 Hottentot dialects are confined to sex distinction and sex-indicating particles, a somewhat 
 parallel instance to Hausa. There is apparently no sex discrimination in Sandawi. 
 
 C 2
 
 408 SIR H. H. JOHNSTON. A Survey of the Ethnography of Africa, etc. 
 
 Hottentots). Subsequently, between 1890 and 1906 it cost the Germans several 
 millions sterling and the lives of several thousand German soldiers, before these 
 thirty or forty thousand Hottentots and Hottentotized Negroes could be subdued, 
 mainly by extermination. 
 
 (4) The Zulu conquests of South-east Africa began about the same period, 
 the opening years of the 19th century. Dingiswayo, a Zulu refugee returning 
 after years of exile in Portuguese East Africa, secured the chieftainship of a small 
 clan in Zululand proper, and laid the foundations of the Zulu monarchy. 1 He was 
 succeeded by Chaka, who became a mighty conqueror, but whose conquests were 
 largely futile owing to his wild-beast love of slaughter. But he was the indirect 
 means of sending two of his great captains on subsidiary careers of conquest 
 Mosilikatse on the north-west, and Sochangane on the north-east. In addition to 
 this, other Zulu bands, known generally as the Bangoni, wandered northwards on 
 their own account, raiding and ravaging, until at last from sheer weariness of travel 
 they settled down as overlords amongst submissive populations. Mosilikatse carried 
 the Zulu language and the Zulu blood across the Transvaal to what is now known 
 as Matebeleland and the western Karafia or Mashona country. His rule, however, 
 and his tribal influence stopped short at the Zambezi. 
 
 His efforts were countered in that direction by the equally warlike Makololo, 
 the Basuto followers of Sebituane. The general upset caused by these Zulu 
 convulsions in South-east Africa had sent streaming northwards hundreds of thousands 
 of Bechuana, 2 first as refugees and then, as they grew bold, as raiders and con- 
 querors. A hundred years ago or more one band of these the Ba-hurutse or 
 Bafurutse had turned northwards and partly settled the Ngami Lake region and 
 partly the banks of the Upper Zambezi, where they left behind them the tribal 
 name " Barotse." But Sebituane's followers, the Makololo, belonged rather more 
 to the Basuto or southernmost Bechuana stock. They had conquered nearly 
 all Upper Zambezia by the middle of the 19th century, and although the 
 indigenous tribes and dynasties returned to power after 1864, the ugly Makololo 
 dialect of Sechuana remains (unfortunately) the official language of Northern 
 Zambezia at the present day, where it does not give way to the still uglier " Kitchen 
 Kafir." 
 
 The descendants and slaves of Mosilikatse's Zulus have settled down as the 
 
 1 Zulu power arose from one of the easternmost of the many Kafir clans of South Africa a 
 tall, good-looking Bantu people, with a suspicion of a Caucasian strain in their blood, 
 derived, it may be, from those unknown Caucasian builders of Zimbabwe, or even from 
 that remote Egyptian strain which is so prominent to the eye in the more aristocratic Bantu 
 tribes of Central and Eastern Africa. The Zulus were armed for these far-reaching conquests 
 by the ideas of discipline and organization which they obtained from the example of the 
 white man in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. 
 
 2 The Bechuana, anciently allied to the Zulu-Kafir group, had reached Central Zambezia 
 about the 14th to 15th centuries. Some connect them in origin with the Ba-zimba cannibals 
 of South Congoland. They forced their way in the 16th to 17th centuries through the Karafia 
 people of Monomotapa and reached the Transvaal, which they colonized, after expelling or 
 absorbing the Bushmen.
 
 SIR H. H. JOHNSTON. A Survey of the Ethnography of Africa, etc. 409 
 
 " Matebele," a name given to them by the Bechuana. The followers of Sochangane 
 mostly became known as the Aba-gaza, and founded, so to speak, the Zulu State of 
 Gazaland in South-east Africa. They were first made famous by their ravages on 
 the Portuguese Zambezi settlements in the early 19th century. In this direction 
 they were called the " Landins," no doubt a corruption of the Zulu proper name, 
 Umlandine. But the Landins may also have belonged to the bands ordinarily 
 termed Abangoni. The Abangoni under various leaders crossed the Zambezi in 
 the twenties and thirties of the 19th century and founded powerful kingdoms in 
 West and South-west Nyasaland. Others of them passed to the east side of the 
 lake or round its northern extremity, and became the dreaded Ma-gwangara of 
 German East Africa, also known as the Maviti, Mazitu, Machonde, or Manindi. 
 Bands of these Abangoni founded powerful kingdoms in South-west and West Nyasa- 
 land and in the far north became known as the Batuta, and reached to the east coast 
 of Tanganyika and even to within sight of the waters of the Victoria Nyanza, before 
 their efforts died out and they became merged in the resident population. These 
 facts have to be borne in mind by the ethnologist and philologist ; otherwise, 
 finding Zulu clicks and Zulu word-roots, head-dresses, shields, and customs on the 
 verge of Equatorial Africa, he may arrive at wrong conclusions regarding the 
 development of Bantu speech and history generally, unless he realizes that the 
 presence of the Zulu speech and phonology and Zulu customs and names in 
 Eastern Africa and Nyasaland can be explained by the tribal convulsions which 
 occurred in South Africa a hundred years ago and led to those extraordinary Zulu 
 raids which reached from the 30th northward to the 3rd degree of south latitude. 
 
 (5) Traders and missionaries who had begun to settle on the Gaboon coast 
 in the first half of the 19th century, recorded the turmoil and loss of life which was 
 taking place due to the invasion of these equatorial coastlands in the basin of theOgowe 
 by a much dreaded race of cannibal Negroes of splendid physique. These were the 
 Ba-fang (as they sometimes call themselves generically), the Pahouin of the French 
 and Fan of the earlier British explorers. The Fang were lighter in skin colour 
 and better looking in facial features than the Negroes of the Gaboon-Cameroons 
 coastline. They used cross-bows and were clever iron-smiths. The men went 
 nude before they came under coast influence. We now know that the Fang 
 migration was due west from the Western Mubangi and Sanga rivers ; also from 
 the Upper Sanga, down the Nyong river to South Cameroons. They are to be divided 
 at the present day into three different groups: the Bulu (farthest east), the Yaunde 
 (north), and the Osieba or Fang (south). The Fang would appear to have migrated 
 from the Baya country, north-west of the Mubangi country, some five or more 
 centuries ago. Here they were impressed with the southernmost influence of the 
 Sudan, and tinctured with a superior strain of northern blood. They issued from 
 this region speaking a semi-Bantu tongue, but then for some centuries dwelt in 
 close contact with West Congo Bantu, from whom they borrowed numerals, many 
 word-roots, and some prefixes.
 
 410 SIR H. H. JOHNSTON. A Survey of the Ethnography of Africa, etc. 
 
 Finally, there is that question of vast importance, the modern European 
 colonization of Africa. Africa, we have seen so far as indications of archaeology 
 and language go has been anciently and continuously permeated by the white 
 man, who in some shape or form or attenuated intermixture has provoked all race 
 movements of great importance. 
 
 The definite and the modern European colonization of the Dark Continent began 
 with the establishment of the Koman Empire. After a long break, it was followed 
 by the maritime wars and slave trade of the Saracens and Moors, which imported 
 hundreds of thousands of Greek, Slav, Italian, French, and even British captives 
 into Northern Africa. In the 19th century there followed the commercial Greek 
 and Italian colonization of Lower Egypt, and the Maltese, French, Italian and 
 Spanish colonization of North Africa. The Dutch had begun to colonize South 
 Africa at the close of the 17th century. The Portuguese colonized Angola to a 
 limited extent at the same time, and especially during the 18th and 19th 
 centuries, producing, however, not as the Dutch had done, a solidly established, 
 pure white people on African soil, but a race of half-castes ; who, however, have 
 had a most potent influence on the civilization and the commercial development 
 of West-central Africa. 
 
 The Dutch were followed in South Africa by the British and the Germans. The 
 French have partially colonized Madagascar, as well as their old plantation colonies 
 of Mauritius and Reunion. The Italians will shortly make a new Italy in the 
 Tripolitaine. Spain undoubtedly will colonize a good deal of Northern Morocco. 
 The British are founding white men's colonies in Nyasaland, Rhodesia, and 
 Equatorial East Africa. Once again, Africa is about to receive a most powerful 
 infusion of Caucasian blood. 
 
 SUMMARIZED CONCLUSIONS AND SPECULATIONS OF THE AUTHOR. 
 
 The broad central part of Africa from Senegambia to Somaliland, north of the 
 Mubangi-Wele River, has evidently been densely and continuously populated by 
 Negro and Negroid races for a hundred thousand years or so. The reasons for 
 arriving at this conclusion are the evident ancient destruction of forests and 
 diminution of game by human agency over all but the very humid districts, the 
 apparent ancientness of the stone implements, the extraordinary number and 
 diversity of the speech families and distinct languages, and the isolated character of 
 many of these. Such linguistic developments and singularities would suggest a 
 considerable space of time, an abundant and persistent population. 
 
 Further, the more primitive Negro peoples of forested (i.e., West and West- 
 central) Africa offer a remarkable degree of affinity in the phonology of their 
 speech, in their customs, weapons, utensils, and body-adornments with the Mela- 
 nesians and Oceanic Negroes of New Guinea, the Bismarck Archipelago, and 
 Solomon Islands, and even Fiji. These affinities and peculiarities, however, are 
 not shared with the Bushman of South Africa in the same degree.
 
 Sm H. H. JOHNSTON. A Survey of the Ethnography of Af/ica, etc. 411 
 
 South Africa was seemingly the home of man of a generalized (perhaps 
 Negroid) type at a period which may be computed at some 10,000 to 50,000 
 years distant from the present day j 1 though as yet the approximate remoteness 
 of the earliest human remains and artefacts cannot be guessed with any precision. 
 Apparently the Bushman type was not the earliest human race in South Africa, 
 but was preceded by a race with fairly large brain capacity and slightly Caucasian 
 affinities. As yet there are no definite discoveries of undeniably ancient pure Negro 
 inhabitants in the regions to the south of the Zambezi. 
 
 The Bushmen are aberrant, specialized, and, perhaps, degenerate Negroids, 
 displaying scarcely any affinity with the true Negro beyond the spiral, tightly 
 curled hair. Amongst themselves they share certain peculiarities of physical con- 
 formation but vary in regard to the shape of the head, the degree of prognathism, 
 development of brow-ridges, and stature. Though they all agree in general 
 features of phonology the excessive use of clicks, of nasal and guttural sounds, 
 and tenuity or paucity of vowels yet judged by the degree of affinities in word- 
 roots their languages differ so widely from one another that a considerable 
 period of time is required to account for their divergence from a common stock. 
 On the other hand, the resemblance between the three or four Hottentot dialects 
 is close and shows that no very long period can have elapsed since the ancestors 
 of the existing Hottentots formed one people living within a restricted area. 
 Though a Bushman-like race extends northwards between the Kunene and Upper 
 Zambezi rivers, so far no specimen of Bushman pictorial art has been found north 
 of the Zambezi or in South-east Africa. Indications of the existence of a race 
 using stone implements like those of the Strandloopers and Bushmen occur not 
 only all over South Africa, but also through Northern Zambezia to the vicinity of 
 Tanganyika and eastward to Mozambique. One or two historical references and 
 a variety of native traditions lead to the conclusion that Bushmen-like, click- 
 language people persisted in Nyasaland and the Mozambique province down to 
 within a few hundred years ago. Other fainter indications chiefly the occurrence 
 of the Sandawi click-language and sporadic instances of Bushman physical 
 peculiarities suggest the former existence of a Bushman-like race over all East 
 Africa. " Strandlooper " (South African cave-men) stone and bone implements and 
 shell ornaments and pictorial designs can be matched in Algeria. 
 
 The arrival of the Hottentots as a band of conquering, cattle and sheep- 
 keeping people in South-west Africa did not much precede that of the Bantu in 
 time. The cultural and linguistic affinities of the Hottentots suggest their being 
 
 1 Very few data exist by which the age of the Cave men of South Africa and their artefacts 
 can be determined. These remains, however (and others in Northern Rhodesia), are associated 
 with the bones of mammals long since extinct, though how long we do not know ; for instance, 
 with the gigantic buffalo (Bos baini), a large horse (Equm maximus, an exaggerated develop- 
 ment of the zebra), a vanished type of rhinoceros, and even in the Transvaal with a 
 mastodon. But such mammalian types may have persisted to a very late date in Southern 
 Africa. Similar archaic mammals have survived all climatic changes and the attacks of savage 
 man, only to be extinguished in a few years by British sportsmen in the 19th century.
 
 412 Sm H. H. JOHNSTON. A Survey of the Ethnography of Africa, etc. 
 
 influenced by some Hamitic invasion of Eastern Equatorial Africa, say 2,000 to 
 3,000 years ago. 
 
 The Congo- Angola coastlands, especially north of the Kwanza Eiver, and the 
 coastlands of Zanzibar, down to the Euvuma Kiver, and the east coast of Lake 
 Nyasa and actual valley of the Zambezi, contain some evidence of comparatively 
 ancient human habitation. But the heart of Central Africa mainly the central 
 basin of the Congo as yet produces no sign of ancient human penetration and 
 settlement. So far no stone implements have been obtained between the Mubangi 
 River on the north and the table-lands and hill country which fringe the Congo 
 basin on the south and west, though they are common in the cataract region of the 
 Western Congo. 
 
 But the south-eastern fringe of the Congo Basin, and especially the West 
 Tanganyika and Katanga regions, are rich in stone implements and evidences of 
 comparatively ancient metal workings (copper and iron). The reported vast sub- 
 terranean dwellings and caves in Katanga call urgently for scientific investigation. 
 Some of the existing cave-dwellers are said to be Bushman-like in appearance. 
 This region yields " Strandlooper " implements. 
 
 The Bantu occupation of Trans-Zambezian South Africa does not go back 
 traditionally more than about 1,200 to 1,300 years. The only immediate 
 predecessors of the Bantu in South-central and South Africa seem to have been 
 the Congo Pygmies in the Congo basin and Bushmen and Hottentots south of the 
 Zambezi. There are no traces remaining of pre-Bantu people in East Africa 
 (other than Bushmen) south of the 8th parallel of S. latitude ; though the 
 Zimbabwe ruins and a certain non-Bantu, non-Bushman element in the tongues of 
 the south-east coast belt (Zambezi Delta to Sabi River) suggest the previous 
 existence in that region of peoples who were neither Bushman nor Bantu in 
 language, and far superior to either in culture. The ancient pottery dug up from a 
 depth of 10 feet or so in East Nyasaland is somewhat superior in make to the 
 pottery made there at the present day. 
 
 In East Africa but not markedly so, south of the 4th degree of S. latitude 
 there is some linguistic, cultural, and physical evidence to show that this region 
 was anciently inhabited by Bushmen, Pygmy, Forest, and Sudanese Negroes. But 
 there is no trace of an aboriginal Negro people in Somaliland proper. Much of 
 Abyssinia, Galaland, Egypt and North Africa (besides the Sahara Desert and the 
 Northern Sudan) had an ancient Negro population. 
 
 All North Africa and much of the Sahara to the northern limits of the Sudan 
 abounds with ancient rock engravings recalling in style and fidelity of reproduction 
 of animal life the drawings of the cave-men of Western Europe rather more than 
 the style of the Strandlooper and Bushman. Such indications as there are in these 
 records of the rocks of the human figure suggest a man of generalized Caucasian 
 type rather than a Negro. Stone worship and the use of stone in building and 
 sepulture extend from North Africa southwards across the desert region to Sene- 
 gambia (sporadically) and the northern parts of the Sudan, and to Somaliland.
 
 Sm H. H. JOHNSTON. A Survey of the Ethnography of Africa, etc. 413 
 
 The superstitious use of stone in connection with religion, burial, and after-death 
 memorial reappears again in Yoruba, in the North-west Cameroons and adjoining 
 Calabar region (Ekoi-land). Elsewhere there is scarcely a trace of the structural 
 use of stone (except the piling-up of cairns of small stones as a superstition) 
 over all Negroland until one reaches the region between the Zambezi, the 
 Limpopo, and the Sabi the Zimbabwe country. 
 
 In the heart of forested Negro Africa, from French Guinea to South-central 
 Congoland, wood everywhere takes the place of stone as material for utensils, as object 
 of worship and as memorials of the dead. The area of wood use and wood worship, 
 moreover, was of much wider extension formerly and covered nearly all East Africa. 
 
 The Bantu languages were called into existence by the immigration into the 
 Central Sudan of some Fula-like race of semi-Caucasians, speaking "class and 
 concord " language. In word-roots the Bantu tongues have their nearest affinities 
 with the "semi-Bantu" languages of the Benue, Lower Niger, and Calabar- 
 Cameroon s. In syntax they have also slight affinities with the Kordofan and the 
 Nilotic groups. I think we may further surmise that after they were created by the 
 impact of some language influence like that of the Fula type, they were additionally 
 at a later date reacted upon by slight Hamitic influence on the part of some 
 such people as the Gala. This impact probably took place after the ancestors of the 
 Bantu had occupied the central region of the Great Nile Lakes, and after they had 
 sent out their first hordes of invaders into the Northern Congo forest-belt, towards 
 the Atlantic (Cameroons) coast. I believe this Bantu conquest and occupation of 
 the southern third of Africa to have been an event of comparatively recent times, 
 beginning, perhaps, not more than 2,000 years ago. Parts of the Congo basin 
 were perhaps only occupied 400, 600, and 900 years ago. Some of the 
 pre-existing Sudanese Negroes, whose ancestors were overwhelmed and "Bantuized," 
 still remain with their non-Bantu languages along the course of the Northern Congo. 
 Elsewhere, however, in Northernmost and in Central Congoland, there have 
 been subsequent Sudanese invasions which have overridden and forced back the 
 Bantu. The Bantu-speaking Negroes, with their cattle-keeping aristocracies 
 (anciently of Gala origin), have from their earliest days and traditions been 
 associated with the use of metals, first copper and then iron. No doubt it 
 was this knowledge and these superior weapons which enabled them to displace 
 and assimilate so rapidly the pre-existing Negro tribes, still in the Stone age or 
 only using weapons and utensils of wood, horn, or bone. 
 
 The Malay colonization of Madagascar was an episode which extended perhaps^ $ 
 over a period of about 1,200 years, beginning about 3,000 years ago and terminating X 
 with the arrival of the Hovas about 1,800 years ago. There are vague traditions C , 
 among the Malagasies that they found this great island sparsely populated by ^ ' 
 some pre-existing Negro race which buried its dead in graves surmounted with u 
 stones. Later on, the Himyaritic Arabs, trading to Madagascar about the 
 beginning of the Christian era, transported thither many Negro slaves from the 
 opposite Mozambique and Zanzibar coasts. These Negroes presumably had then,
 
 414 SIR H. H. JOHNSTON. A Survey of the Ethnography of Africa, etc. 
 
 no more than now, no suitable vessels for sea-faring, therefore they could only have 
 come to the island on board the Arab daus and mitepe. But by some means or 
 other they came in sufficient numbers to colour the skin of the Malay invaders,, 
 crisp their hair and influence their speech with numerous Bantu roots. 
 
 Lastly, in deciphering the faintly recorded human history of Africa, one seems 
 to see in the White Man, the Caucasian, the primum mobile, the chief causer and 
 inspirer of racial migrations, disturbances, remoulding of peoples, uprise of religious 
 beliefs, creation of new languages, new arts, especially of agriculture and the 
 domestication of animals. The White Man has been the cause of all good progress 
 as well as of all the annectant misery and strife which hang on the flanks of 
 upward evolution. And so potent has been the Caucasian in the history of Africa,, 
 as of Asia and Oceania perhaps even of prehistoric North America that it has 
 needed but the slightest admixture of his blood with that of the Negro to effect 
 these far-reaching results. 
 
 When and since my paper was read before the Royal Anthropological Institute 
 in June, the following criticisms have been received ; together with others verbal 
 and epistolary which I have attended to in my revised text. But I append the 
 remarks of Mr. Emil Torday, Mr. T. Athol Joyce and Professor C. Gr. Seligmann as 
 they stand : 
 
 The intimate personal acquaintance Sir Harry Johnston has with the 
 various inhabitants of Africa (including the white men inhabiting the north, among 
 whom he began his brilliant career) makes him a much fitter person to judge their 
 respective merits than most of us who only know one race or the other and conse- 
 quently are prejudiced in its favour. I admit my partiality for the black man and 
 consequently have to distrust my own judgment when I feel convinced by certain 
 arguments that seem to prove to my satisfaction that we are indebted to the Negro- 
 for the very keystone of our modern civilization and that we owe him the 
 discovery of iron. 
 
 That iron could be discovered by accident in Africa seems beyond doubt : if 
 this is so in other parts of the world, I am not competent to say. I will only 
 remind you that Schweinfurt and Petherick record the fact that in the northern 
 part of East Africa smelting furnaces are worked without artificial air current and, 
 on the other hand, Stuhlmann and Kollmann found near Victoria Nyanza that the 
 natives simply mixed powdered ore with charcoal and by introduction of air 
 currents obtained the metal. These simple processes make it possible that iron 
 should have been discovered in East or Central Africa. No bronze implements 
 have ever been found in black Africa ; had the Africans received iron from 
 the Egyptians, bronze would have preceded this metal and all traces of it 
 would not have disappeared. Black Africa was for a long time an exporter of 
 iron and even in the 12th century exports to India and Java are recorded by Idrisi. 
 
 It is difficult to imagine that Egypt should have obtained iron from Europe
 
 SIR H. H. JOHNSTON. A Survey of tlie Ethnography of Africa, etc. 415 
 
 where the oldest find (in Hallstadt) cannot be of an earlier period than 800 B.C., 1 or 
 from Asia, where iron is not known before 1000 B.C., and where, in the times of 
 Ashur Nazir Pal it was still used concurrently with bronze, while iron beads have 
 been only recently discovered by Messrs. G. A. Wainwright and Bushe Fox in a 
 predynastic grave and where a piece of this metal, possibly a tool, was found in the 
 masonry of the great pyramid. 
 
 We, must, however, not forget that no archaeological work whatever has been 
 carried out in the greatest part of Africa, and future discoveries may disprove all 
 that is said above. The country west from Lake Mweru and of the Lukalaba 
 (Lualaba) with its great number of undisturbed caves ought to attract the 
 archaeologist who wants to contribute to this most fascinating research in the 
 
 ancient history of Africa. 
 
 E. TORDAY. 
 
 It is a matter of great regret to me that I am unable to be present at the 
 reading of Sir Harry Johnston's paper this afternoon ; but through the kindness of 
 the author and the Secretary of the Institute I have had the opportunity of seeing 
 an advance proof. I wish I could have expressed personally my congratulations to 
 the author for the clear-sighted manner in which he has reduced a most bewildering 
 mass of evidence to order ; the material which must have passed under his hands 
 is very vast, and its nature makes the continent of Africa perhaps the most 
 difficult of all to view as an organized whole as far as the tribal movements are 
 concerned. The paper represents, I know well, years of labour, and contains only 
 the results. On the importance of those results it is unnecessary to dwell ; but the 
 ethnologist is always asking for more, and I should like to express the hope that 
 Sir Harry will at some time give us the chief points of evidence concerning his 
 most important conclusions as well. This could not, of course, be done within the 
 limits of a paper ; I am hoping for a book, and I trust that Sir Harry will perform 
 yet another service to ethnology in producing it. 
 
 Among the various kinds of evidence which the author has considered, I 
 believe that linguistic evidence has taken the principal place. Unfortunately my 
 studies have been limited to the culture and traditions of the various tribes, and it 
 is a great satisfaction to me personally to find that the conclusions which I have 
 been led to form correspond in the main to those which Sir Harry has based on a 
 more extensive knowledge. Nearly all my remarks consist in that request for 
 more which, as I said above, is always on the lips of the insatiable race of 
 ethnologists. 
 
 First as to the Fula. I cannot quite gather from the paper the exact 
 ethnological position which the author would give them. In one place he seems to 
 regard them as present in Africa before the immigration of the Berbers, and as 
 distinct from the " Libyan " section of peoples of which these Berbers are the 
 nucleus. If so, whence did they come ? [Presumably from western North Africa, 
 
 1 German authorities would make this 2000 B.C., or even earlier. H. H. J.
 
 416 SIK H. H. JOHNSTON. A Survey of the Ethnography of Africa, etc. 
 
 like the Berbers, whom they preceded. They may be the more or less negrified 
 remains of the Neolithic hunters and herdsmen of Mauretania. H. H. J.]. They 
 are first heard of in Senegal, and all their movements of which we have evidence 
 have been from west to east. Their geographical position and their physical 
 appearance make them a very convenient link between the Berber, Tuareg and 
 Tibbu on the one hand, and the Mandingo and Negro on the other ; and I have 
 hitherto regarded them as an intermediate tribe. It is true that the Berbers 
 are in the main agriculturists, the Tula cattle-keepers, but here the Tuareg and 
 Tibbu furnish the link, since these tribes have been forced to abandon agriculture 
 owing to their desert environment. 
 
 I gather that the author is inclined to regard the Libyans as, in the main, of 
 Iberian stock, and therefore distinct from the Hamite. This point of view is 
 supported by the cultural evidence. Wherever the Hamite is found, pure or diluted 
 with Negroid admixture, the keeping of cattle always assumes paramount 
 importance, while the Berber, except where he has had a pastoral life forced upon 
 him by his environment, is principally an agriculturist. I am inclined to regard 
 the Hamitic element in the Libyan peoples as entirely negligible unless some 
 evidence other than linguistic can be found. We know that linguistic evidence is 
 at times unstable, as in the case of the Barotse country, where the Sesuto speech 
 survives, though the Makololo who introduced it were wiped out to a man in 
 historical times. 
 
 When the author states with emphasis that the Zimbabwe ruins are not 
 Negro, I am quite prepared to agree with him if he uses the term in the narrow 
 sense. But if he means to exclude the Bantu also, then I find myself, to my 
 regret, on the other side. We are beginning to find that the Bantu is not so 
 primitive as at first thought ; recent investigations have brought to light a sociology 
 and system of government considerably more complicated than at first suspected, 
 especially as far as the greater kingdoms, Bushongo, Lunda, Benin, etc., are con- 
 cerned. The architecture of the ruins is on a very low plane, and we know that 
 the economical activity of the Negroid, as far as work implying communal labour 
 is concerned, depends solely on the personality of the chief ; and Africa has 
 produced many chiefs of great force of character. No remains other than fragments 
 of porcelain of comparatively recent date, implying external connection have been 
 found in connection with the ruins. The ruins themselves do not resemble any 
 buildings elsewhere, and in any case the onus of proof must lie with those who 
 wish to invoke some external influence. If Sir Harry has evidence of such I 
 should like to urge him to publish it. 
 
 As to Egyptian influence ; I am inclined to think that the author is inclined 
 to overrate its extent. That the tribes in the immediate radius of the Nile valley 
 were affected by its culture it would be hard to disbelieve ; but I would urge that 
 there is no evidence for supposing that this influence reached West Africa. The 
 presence of beads of Mediterranean type is no evidence. Beads are the most 
 exasperating objects with which the museum man has to deal. They are universally
 
 SIR H. H. JOHNSTON. A Sumey of the Ethnography of Africa, etc. 
 
 welcome, and they pass readily from hand to hand. Nor are they alone in thei 
 propensity for travel ; I need only mention Katanga copper, which in early 
 days travelled far to the north and north-west, and formed a regular article of 
 import among tribes who were never near the Katanga. Also we know 
 maize and tobacco in the interior of Africa anticipated by centuries the arrival of 
 the white man who introduced it on the coast. Nor can I admit that the art of 
 the Bushongo or Bini bears any striking resemblance to that of Egypt. In fact I 
 have for a long time held the other view, viz., that many points of Egyptian 
 culture, and especially of religion, are based on practices and beliefs which are 
 Negro in origin. 
 
 With regard to the specialized culture of the Bushongo, I think it is clear 
 that they brought little of it with them. Tradition is quite categorical at least on 
 the subject of weaving. It is expressly stated that they wore barkcloth until a 
 very recent date, and this material survived until contemporary times as the garb 
 of ceremony. We even know the name of the king in whose reign weaving was 
 adopted from the tribes to the west of their present home. 
 
 There are two movements of peoples on the importance of which to Africa I 
 should like to lay stress. The first of these is that which caused the Bushongo 
 migration, and which, I believe, gave rise also to the easterly movement of the 
 Azande and the westerly movement of the Fang. These three tribes appear to be 
 connected by many points of similarity, especially the use of the throwing-knife 
 (Shongo means undoubtedly throwing-knife). Moreover their traditional routes 
 of migration seem to coincide in the region of the Shari where this weapon 
 is still in use. It is possible that the Fang migration may be later than 
 that of the Azande and Bushongo, between whom the cultural connection is 
 particularly close. 
 
 The second movement is that attendant upon the formation of the Lunda 
 Empire, which had such far-reaching effects upon Angola and the Kwango, Kwilu 
 and Loange districts. I have recently worked out the complicated tribal movements 
 to which it gave rise, from a number of sources including certain information brought 
 back by Mr. Torday. This account now awaits publication in Belgium, and will be 
 found to confirm Sir Harry Johnston. Also I have information concerning the 
 westerly spread of tribes from Tanganyika, relating mainly to the great Batetela 
 people, and based almost entirely on Mr. Torday's material. This though worked 
 out two years ago, is still in the Belgian printer's hands. 
 
 I wish that I had had the time to give a longer study to a communication of this 
 importance ; the foregoing remarks embody my first impressions. In concluding 
 I should like to offer the author my thanks, as a student of African ethnology, for 
 his courage in attacking so complicated a subject, and in presenting a concrete 
 scheme which must be a valuable guide for future research. I hope that he will 
 not stop here, but will eventually give us in book form a fuller and more detailed 
 treatment of the question, in which he will discuss at length the various points of 
 evidence upon which his conclusions are based. T. ATHOL JOYCE.
 
 418 SIR H. H. JOHNSTON. A Survey of the Ethnography of Africa, etc. 
 
 In answer to the foregoing criticisms I add the following remarks on (a) the 
 originating or the introduction of iron working in Negro Africa, and (6) the 
 " ethnological " character of the Zimbabwe buildings and culture. 
 
 With regard to iron, I would refer readers to the article by W. Belck on 
 " The Discoveries of the Art of Iron Manufacture," in the Berlin Zeitschrift fur 
 Ethnologic, 1910 (there is an English translation published in the 1911 Annual 
 Eeport of the the Smithsonian Institute), and to the article on " Hallstadt " in the 
 Encyclopaedia Britannica and other writings of Professor W. Eidgeway, based on 
 much German and Austrian research work ; also to my book, George Grrenfell and 
 the Congo. It seems to be increasingly evident that the art of iron manufacture 
 originated first in Europe or "West Asia, and that, like the domestication of the 
 horse, it was one of the important discoveries of the Aryans which made them in so 
 many directions a conquering people, and from them passed to Semite and Mongol. 
 It is quite possible that Negroes or Negroids in the Northern Sudan were 
 manufacturing iron implements before iron became a much used metal in Egypt ; 
 but these Sudanese, Nubians, or Nilotes may have learnt the art from Caucasian 
 emissaries of trade and knowledge who were Minoan or Phoenician adventurers. 
 This much is clear from an examination of African archaeology, legends, folk-lore, 
 and languages : that copper was used before iron, and immediately replaced 
 stone, horn, bone, and wood, and that the use of iron and the knowledge of iron 
 working does not go back very anciently, except in Nubia. In the Congo 
 basin, the introduction of iron instead of copper had apparently much to 
 do with the great Bantu conquests and formations of kingdoms between an 
 approximate 600 A.C. and 1400 A.c. " The hunter with the iron spear " is in 
 many cases the legendary founder of this and that Central African dynasty, 
 I myself require very convincing proof that the pure-blood Negro ever origin- 
 ated anything. 
 
 This is one reason why I find it distasteful to attribute to a Negro Bantu 
 people, or any other more or less pure Negro race, the Zimbabwe architecture and 
 culture. No doubt the Makarana subsequently copied the art of stone-building 
 and of gold-mining learnt from the Caucasian or semi-Caucasian immigrants into 
 South-east Africa. But I am convinced they did not originate the gold-mining 
 industry or build the old and original Zimbabwe. The remarkable Bantu 
 languages may have been evolved in the Central Sudan from some diluted 
 impetus of white man's intelligence, but the purest " Bantu " and the least 
 Negro in physiognomy are the tribes of the Victoria Nyanza and Tanganyika ; and 
 although they stand high in brain capacity and religious and even social 
 developments, in the structural arts they like the Herero and Zulu have 
 remained low and have never conceived of the use of stone, nor have they taken 
 any interest in gold. The Arab historians quoted by Capt. M. Guillain 1 specially 
 
 1 Chiefly Idrisi, who wrote at the court of King Robert II of Sicily in the 12th century. 
 The passages I refer to more especially are on pp. 224-226 of Guillain's Documents sur I'Hiatoire 
 (etc.), de VAfrique Orientale.
 
 SIR H. H. JOHNSTON. A Survey of the Ethnography of Africa, etc. 419 
 
 mention that although the Sofala countries abounded in iron and gold, the native 
 Negroes preferred copper to other metals, and made all their ornaments of it. It 
 is a remarkable fact that up till now no indigenous Bantu word has been found for 
 " gold " the natives of Central, East, or South Africa employ for the concept, 
 " gold," corruptions of the English, Portuguese, or Arab word. In Zambezia the 
 word for gold is (ordinarily) ndalama, which is simply a corruption of the Arab 
 dirham = money. The conical towers of the Zimbabwe architecture recall 
 irresistibly the early Islamitic minarets on the east coast of Africa, which in 
 their turn may have been developed from antecedent Phoenician (or South-west 
 Arabian) pre-Islamic architectural influence on the east coast of Africa. I still 
 think the balance of probability lies in favour of an Arab-built Zimbabwe of from 
 
 2,300 to 2,000 years ago. 
 
 H. H. JOHNSTON. 
 
 The paper we have just heard covers so vast a territory and takes account o 
 so long a period of time that any attempt at criticism or discussion must necessarily 
 resolve itself into the consideration of a few sentences which, divorced from their 
 context, may very well appear to bear a different significance to that intended by 
 their author. Bearing this in mind, I am nevertheless tempted to cavil at Sir Harry's 
 suggestion (if I understand him aright) that the Forest Negro arose directly from 
 the Pygmy type, and I should absolutely dissent from the proposition that the 
 Forest Negro specialized in the swamps of Nileland and became the Nilotic Negro. 
 It is clear to my mind that the peculiarities of the Nilote are not due to specializa- 
 tion in situ of a primitive or comparatively primitive Negro race, but must be 
 attributed to the influence of a foreign element, this element being identical with 
 that non-Negro strain which also occurs in the Masai and kindred East African 
 tribes. In other words the Nilote owes his comelier features and better developed 
 brain to invading Hamitic influence, an influence which is perhaps to be found in 
 its purest form in the foreign (Gala) aristocracy of Bunyoro and Ankole. A good 
 deal of interest attaches to the tall stature of this group, of the allied Bahima and 
 of the tribes of the Masai group in East Africa ; indeed the Bahima are probably 
 the tallest men in the world, yet all seem to have sprung from the fusion of the 
 short, slim Hamite and the moderately-grown, stoutly-built Forest Negro. As far as 
 I have been able to ascertain the numerous breeding experiments on Mendelian lines 
 that have been carried on in recent years afforded no analogous instances, indeed 
 nothing seems to be known of the conditions producing variation of size in 
 animals; there may be, however, an interesting parallel to the stature of the 
 Nilotes and related tribes in the result of the union of the dwarf procumbent pea 
 (commonly called the cupid pea) and the bushy pea, the latter being a plant of stiff 
 upright habit of short to medium height : the first generation of hybrids are all 
 giants. 
 
 Again, the view put forward concerning the Bantu Negro (pp. 390,391^ seq.) quite 
 ignores the comparatively large foreign, and as I should say Hamitic, element in such
 
 420 SIR H. H. JOHNSTON. A Survey of the Ethnography of Africa, etc. 
 
 tribes as the Zulu Kafirs. This is perfectly logical from the author's standpoint ; if 
 there is no Hamite in the Nilotes then there need be none in the Zulu, yet a consider- 
 able foreign non-Negro element is generally admitted in the Southern Bantu. 
 
 In the last few months important evidence has come from the linguistic side 
 in favour of the Hamitic element in the Nilotes. This will be found in Wester- 
 mann's recent work The Shilluk People. This authority states that the Nilotic 
 languages, whether they belong to his Niloto-Sudanic group (Dinka, Shilluk, etc.), 
 or to his Niloto-Hamitic group (Bari, Masai, etc.), all show more or less strong 
 Hamitic influences, and as further showing how widely spread is this Hamitic 
 influence, I may quote his conclusion that even such languages as those of the 
 Abukaya, Lendu and Moru are connected with the Niloto-Sudanic group. 
 
 I may now refer to the suggestion that the cattle-keeping aristocracies of 
 Central Africa, e.g., the Bahima, are descended from Egyptian colonists of two or 
 three thousand years ago. Surely a simpler explanation is that these represent the 
 immigrant Hamitic element in a comparatively pure form. Here is a simple 
 explanation of Sir Harry's observation: "Others again of this type [resembling 
 Egyptians] were so strikingly like Galas and Somali that the Somalis of my party 
 declared them to be of their own race." I feel sure that Sir Harry would not 
 suggest an Egyptian origin for the Somali, though like the proto-Egyptians they 
 are pure or almost pure Hamitic. [I have sometimes fancied, in studying the facial 
 features of the Hima aristocracies in Central Africa, that I could distinguish two 
 non-Negro strains : one akin to the Dynastic Egyptian, and the other to the Gala- 
 Somali. Their long-horned cattle are akin to the breed of Ancient Egypt and 
 modern northern Galaland ; but this type of cattle (existing in the Chad region 
 also) is not found in southern Galaland or in Somaliland. H. H. J.] 
 
 To sum up ; my impression of one aspect of the paper is that the author lays 
 too much stress on Egypt as the great civilizing factor in Africa and ignores the far- 
 spread Hamitic influence (of which the Egyptian civilization was only a special 
 development) which was leavening dark Africa, perhaps for thousands of years 
 before Egypt herself emerged into the light of history. 
 
 Before sitting down I should like to be allowed to add my tribute of admiration 
 to that expressed by the President, and I may perhaps be allowed to suggest that 
 the value of the paper, great as it already is, would be enhanced if Sir Harry 
 could see his way to give brief footnotes giving his authorities. I very much doubt 
 if any one in this room except Sir Harry could refer to the original account of 
 Javanese junks which reached the African coast during the last century. 
 
 C. G. SELIGMANN. 
 
 The following are my comments on Professor Seligmann's remarks : 
 
 It matters very little whether the Forest Negro arises from a Pygmy stock or 
 whether the Pygmy is a specialized development of the Forest Negro. The two 
 groups are evidently closely allied in bodily type. But I am inclined to regard
 
 II I I II II II II 
 
 SIR H. H. JOHNSTON. A Survey of the Ethnography of Apia . A 9?? 95 1 
 
 dwarfishness (i.e., stature below a 5 ft. 3 in. standard for men) to be an acquired 
 rather than a primitive character in mankind since the formation of the human 
 genus. I think the long-leggedness and tallness of the Nilotic Negroes are physical 
 traits due quite as much to conditions of environment as to racial intermixture. The 
 Bahima are not, as Professor Seligmann suggests, "the tallest men in the world." 
 This statement should be applied to the Turkana of Lake Kudolf ; but gigantic 
 stature occurs in most of the tribes of more or less Nilotic affinities. I cannot find 
 anything in any statement of mine which underrates the importance of the Harnitic 
 blood-element in the higher types of Zulu or of other great Bantu peoples, though 
 this feature is capable of exaggeration at the hands of some writers. It is a great 
 mistake to suppose that the whole mass of the Zulu-Kafirs are a race of tall 
 handsome Negroids : it is only the aristocracies, so to speak, and a tribe or family 
 here and there which answers to a Eider Haggard description. Many of the 
 Pondoland and Natal Kafirs and the Swazis are pronouncedly Negro in build and 
 physiognomy, while even among the Zulus of Zululand the Bushman element 
 is patent to the eye of a trained observer. The linguistic influence of Hamite on 
 Nilote is not denied by me but is, I think, correctly defined and limited. 
 
 As regards the cattle-keeping aristocracies of the Central Sudan and of Bantu 
 Africa, I still prefer to assign much of the slight Caucasian element in their blood 
 and almost all their culture to infiltration from Ancient Egypt rather than to 
 influences from Galaland and Somaliland for reasons too numerous and wordy to 
 be given here. Most of them have been already presented in my published works 
 on Africa. 
 
 References to photographic illustrations of this essay appear here and there 
 and are partly allusions to lantern slides used at the time of the lecture and 
 partly to my original intention to illustrate this little treatise by a very 
 large number of photographs and drawings of racial types, skulls (ancient and 
 modern), domestic animals, architecture, and implements. But this collection 
 proved to be far too numerous and expensive for reproduction by the Institute 
 in its Journal. Therefore I decided to take the advice of Mr. Athol Joyce 
 and reserve this material, together with maps, statistics, and bibliography, for 
 production at some future date in a work on the Ethnography of Africa. 
 
 H. H. JOHNSTON. 
 
 \_Reprinted from the Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, Vol. XLIII, 
 
 July-December, 1913.] 
 
 Harrison and Sons, Printers in Ordinary to His Majesty, St. Martin's Lane, London. 
 
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