IHItllllllllllMllllliniM (dL[ FOR IGH SCHOOLS SI MO S I L.V I, I AND (. ,.!U I. ) > ! LOS ANGELtiD ' llA UNIVERSITY of CALIFORNa AT LOS ANGELES LIBRARY FIRST YEAR ENGLISH FOR HIGH SCHOOLS BY KMOGENE SANFORD SIMONS, A.B. Englisfi Examiner in New York State Departvient of Educatiott '2 /9 ? 7 SILVER. BURDETT AND COMPANY NEW YOKK HOSTON CHICAGO COPYKIGHT, 190G, 1911, BY SILVER, BURDETT AND COMPANY PREFACE The author has prepared this little volume with the hope that it may aid in producing more satisfactory results in first year English in high schools. The subject matter follows closely the outline of the New York State Regents syllabus, and is designed to fur- nish material for all the work required outside of the pre- scribed texts. Certain features such as topical outlines, character sketches, narration, description, etc., which are on the whole new to first year work, have been made especially prominent, while drill in punctuation, letter writing, and sentence analysis has not been neglected. The book is not intended to be a complete treatise, but includes as much of the principles of composition and of grammatical analysis as a first year high school student is expected to master. While the work has been written with the needs of New York schools immediately in view, it is believed that it can be advantageously used for first year work in high schools throughout the country. Where the work has not been definitely organized, the author sug- gests that the appended outline, drawn for high schools of New York State, be adopted in whole or in part. Regents questions, as well as extracts from the pre- scribed literature, have been freely used for exercises and illustrations. Indeed, the work is based largely on the readings of the course, although the author has made 3 4 PREFACE no attempt to supply the detailed information which belongs to editions of the texts themselves. In regard to Chapter I, on oral composition, it may be stated that it was not the intention of the author to give an exhaustive summary of the work to be done along this line, but rather to suggest the kind of topics to be covered and the methods to be employed. The teacher should always bear in mind that no pupil can write until he has something to say, a fact which has been kept constantly in view in the presentation of the constructive work contained in this book. The author desires to acknowledge her indebted- ness to certain of her friends whose suggestions and criticisms have been invaluable. PREFACE TO THE REVISED EDITION The original edition of this book was based on the 1905 New York Regents syllabus. As revised by the publishers it now meets fully and exactly the requirements of the 1910 syllabus, as well as the uniform college entrance requirements in English for the years 1913, 1914 and 1915. CONTENTS Craptkk Paoe I. Oral Composition 9 II. Written Composition 27 III. Review of Capitalization and Punctuation 63 IV. Letter Writing 86 V. Sentences, Clauses and Phrases 116 VI. Narration 134 VII. Description 169 VIII. Synonyms and Homonyms 204 Outline of Work in English for the First Year of High School first half Literature. The general purpose of teaching litera- ture in the first year is to arouse an interest in reading, to teach how to read, and to develop, through reading, the power to form vivid mental pictures. To this end books should be selected, first of all, for their wholesome interest to boys and girls. They should be chosen also with a view to nmltiply the student's interests and thus to prepare him to read other books to advantage. Some, for example, may treat of chivalry, some of romance, others of history, and still others of the classic myths and mediaeval legends. Required for reading. One from each of the fol- lowing groups : I Scott. Ivanhoe. Quentin Durward. Stevenson. Treasure Island. II Coleridge and Lowell. The Ancient Mariner and the Vision of Sir Launfal. Poe, Whittier and Longfellow. The Raven, Snow- Bound, and the Courtship of Miles Standish. Arnold and Macaulay. Sohrab and Rustum and The Lays of Ancient Rome. Suggested for supplementary reading. Ballads; fables; stories from the Old Testament; interesting short stories such as those of Irving, Hawthorne, R. H. Davis, Kipling, Thompson Seton, Joel Chand- ler Harris, Stockton and Stevenson; narrative poems by Tennyson, Whittier, Brow^ning and others. G SYLLABUS REQUIREMENTS 7 Composition and rhetoric. The general purpose of teaching composition and rhetoric in the first year is to secure facility in expression, with some degree of accuracy. To this end students should write many compositions. While the criticism of the teacher must be concerned with matters of grammar, spelling and punctuation, it should be largely such as will encourage constructive effort. The work of the term shall be as follows: 1 Letter writing with attention to substance as well as to form. 2 Short themes, both oral and written, based for the most part on the experience of the student. A fair proportion of the themes should be narratives. 3 A review of capitalization and of the simpler principles of punctuation. Elementary study of the principles of unity and coherence in the composition and in sentences. Grammar. Analysis of easy sentences. Review, when necessary, of inflection of nouns and pronouns; agreement of pronoun with antecedent and of verb with subject; distinction between transitive and in- transitive verbs, between the active and the passive voice; attention to the most common errors in the student's oral and written composition. SECOND HALF Literature. Required for reading. One from each of the following groups: I The Odyssey (in an English translation of rec- 8 FIRST YEAR ENGLISH ognized literary excellence) with the omission, if de- sired, of books I, II, III, IV, V, XV, XVI, XVII. The Iliad (in an English translation of recognized literary excellence) with the omission of books XI, XIII, XIV, XV, XVII, XXI, if desired. Parkman. Oregon Trail, or Thoreau. Walden. II Shakspere. Midsummer Night's Dream. As You Like It. Suggested for supplementary reading. Descriptive literature by various authors; for example, Haw- thorne, Lowell, Goldsmith, Blackmore, Burroughs, Irving and Dickens, in addition to those mentioned in the first half year. Composition and rhetoric. The work of the term shall be as follows: 1 Letter writing. 2 Short compositions, both oral and written, based for the most part on the experience of the student. A fair proportion of them shall be descriptions. The subjects chosen should be simple in character, and should relate to what the student has seen in real life or in imagination. 3 Elementary study of the paragraph, and of unity and coherence in the composition and in the sentence. Grammar. Analysis of sentences. Practice in the conversion of direct into indirect discourse (state- ments, questions, commands) and vice versa, in the oral and written composition of students; definition and uses of phrases and clauses; study of synonyms and homonyms. FIRST YEAR ENGLISH CHAPTER I ORAL COMPOSITION Language i& an art, and a glorious one, whose influence extends over all others and in which all science whatever must center. J. Horne Tooke. I Introduction. During the eighteenth century there lived in London a man who shone without an equal even among the brilUant men who comprised the literary commonwealth of that day. This man was Dr. Samuel Johnson. Strange to say, his fame rests not upon what he did nor upon what he wrote, but upon what he said. " The influence," says Macaulay, " exercised by his conversation, directly upon those with whom he lived, and indirectly upon the whole literary world, was alto- gether without a parallel." Few students realize that everything we say is really composition and may possess just as much true merit as anything that we may write. Oral composition is far more common and scarcely less important than written work. Oral compositions reach only the hearers, and are easily forgotten, while wTitten compositions are more widely known and more permanent. Upon the individual whom it reaches, however, oral expression is the more effective of the two, for into it the personality of the author enters more prominently. 9 10 FIRST YEAR ENGLISH 2 Conversation. The least formal and most com- mon form of oral composition is conversation. No topic is too trivial or too serious to be barred from conversa- tion. Just because, however, conversation is so com- mon and so informal, we are most likely to become careless of the English we use in it. There are two excellent reasons why we should be ever watchful of errors in our conversation. First, we are judged by our speech. The use of correct English is an important indication of refinement and education. An illiterate man literally '' speaks for himself." Second, if we toler- ate errors in spoken language we are likely to make the same mistakes in written work. Such expressions as "He has went " or " She don't " if tolerated in conversation repeat themselves on paper. Thus it behooves us to cul- tivate the habit of careful expression in conversation. 3 Pronunciation and enunciation. In conversation, moreover, as well as in other forms of oral expression, we need to pay particular attention to pronunciation and enunciation. [Consult the dictionary for the differ- ence in the meaning of these terms.] A word mispro- nounced is an indication of carelessness or ignorance. Distinctness in speaking is also necessary in order that we may be clearly understood. AVords in sentences should not be carelessly dropped nor should syllables in words be omitted. " How de do? " for " How do you do? " is not only inelegant but incorrect. " Libr'y " for " library " and similar mistakes are also indications of haste and inaccuracy. Words ending in " — ing" are particularly liable to contractions of this kind, the final " g " being commonly omitted. Our conversa- ORAL COMPOSITION 11 tional speech is so much a matter of habit with us that it is only by close attention to these little errors in our everyday language that we can acquire the habit of correct and elegant usage. EXERCISE (1) Discuss the following topic in class; make your state- ments hi complete sentences, containing clear, simple language: What kind of stories do you like best? (2) Report orally some conversation that you have had or have heard within a day or two; as, for instance, a discussion with your teacher as to your choice of subjects for this year. Try to repeat the exact words used. (3) Imagining a child to be j-our hearer, retell a fairy tale, such asCinderella or The Three Bears. Report the conversation in what you imagine to be the exact words of the speakers. (4) Read the following story once, then close your book and see how well 3^ou can repeat it, paying particular attention to the conversation. YUSSOUF A stranger came one night to Yussouf s tent, Saying, "Behold one outcast and in dread, Against whose life the bow of power is bent. Who flies, and hath not wher-^ to lay his head ; I come to thee for shelter and for food. To Yussouf, called through all our tribes ' The Good.' " 12 FIRST YEAR ENGLISH "This tent is mine," said Yussouf, "but no more Than it is God's; come in, and be at peace; Freely slialt thou partalce of all my store As I of His who buildeth over these Our tents His glorious roof of night and day. And at whose door none ever yet heard nay." So Yussouf entertained his guest that night, And waking him ere day, said : " Here is gold ; My swiftest horse is saddled for thj' flight; Depart before the prying day grow bold." As one lamp lights another, nor grows less, So nobleness enkindleth nobleness. That inward hght the stranger's face made grand. Which shines from all self-conquest ; kneeUng low, He bowed his forehead upon Yussouf's hand, Sobbing: "0 Sheik, I cannot leave thee so; I will repay thee ; all this thou hast done Unto that Ibrahim who slew thy son!" "Take thrice the gold," said Yussouf, "for with thee Into the desert, never to return, My one black thought shall ride away from me ; First-born, for whom by day and night I yearn, Balanced and just are all of God's decrees ; Thou art avenged, my first-born, sleep in peace!" (5) Discuss in class the following: Which of your studies in school have you found most interesting? (6) Consult the dictionary for the meaning and the pro- nunciation of each of the following words: ORAL COMPOSITION 13 alert illustrate diphtheria receipt subtile isolated recipe column dispersion bronchial literature courteous partridges mischievous accUmate demonstrate lamentable hearth incomparable construe pathos synonym antonym politic (7) Pronounce the following words clearly and accurately, taking care not to omit or give indistinctly any of the syllables: considerable general laboratory noticeable accept inspiration except veteran recitation kept children memorize arithmetic going Tennessee family participle everything participial cabbage government trigonometry geography abstraction doing reading several education miscellaneous heroine deduct potato veterinary imaginary 4 Recitation. Next to conversation the student has occasion to use most frequently the form of oral expres- sion known as recitation. Just as conversation covers topics of all kinds, both commonplace and lofty, so reci- 14 FIRST YEAR ENGLISH tation belongs not alone to English but to all subjects. A student who uses bad grammar in explaining a prob- lem in algebra cannot expect to make a fine recitation in English, any more than a student who lacks the ability to reproduce a good story can give a good reci- tation in history. Three things should be considered in reciting. First, make complete statements. There are cases in which a brief answer perhaps of only one word is needed, but these are rare. Common sense Avill teach the student when such an answer is appropriate. Complete state- ments give force and weight to the subject matter, as well as aid in forming correct habits of expression. A recitation should not commence with " Well-a." It is better to take a moment for arranging material before beginning at all than to try to bridge the gap by such insignificant articulations. Topical recitations should always be given unless the question asked requires merely a simple term in reply. Whenever a question demands more than one state- ment in answer, the reply should be so planned that the statements follow in logical order. Moreover, all the facts directly bearing upon the subject in question should be included in the complete recitation, although it is not necessary to give information which is related to the matter under discussion but which is not asked for. A topical recitation is valuable only so far as it is both definite and comprehensive. For instance, suppose the question in American his- tory is, " What poHtical parties existed in 1800 ? " The answer " Federahsts and Anti-federalists " is suffi- ORAL COMPOSITION 15 cient. But if the tojpic under discussion is "Political parties in 1800," not only should the names of the parties be mentioned, but the underlying principles and the leaders of each should be given. It is not, however, necessary to give information concerning the gradual development of these parties in succeeding years, for the date 1800 limits the discussion to that particular year. EXERCISE (1) Listen carefully to at least two recitations in class, noting the incomplete statements made. Note, too, whether the one who recited mentioned all that should be stated about the topic in question, and whether he gave any information that was not asked for. (2) Consult the dictionary to find the exact meaning of the following synonyms and form sentences showing the correct use of each word: kill abandon opponent murder desert rival assassinate forsake competitor Arrange your matter in logical order and be prepared to give a topical recitation on each of the groups. (3) From the dictionary find the derivation of each of the following words, stating in a complete sentence the result of your search in each case: capricious umbrella ridiculous boycott 16 FIRST YEAR ENGLISH (4) From one of the dictionary supplements find who or what each of the following was : The Wandering Jew. The Lady of Shalott. Be prepared to recite the information you obtain. (5) Give an oral abstract (a shortened form of the in- formation given at some length in the original account) of some article from the daily paper. Make a slight pause whenever you have told all of the facts on any one phase of the topic. (6) Give an oral abstract of some short magazine article that you have read, following the same plan suggested in the preceding question. Note. — Topics from current literature may be selected by the teacher. (7) Sometimes the selection is so valuable that nothing can with propriety be omitted, nor can it be told so well in other words. Memorize one or more of the following, and repeat in class, paying particular attention to expres- sion and pronunciation. Break, break, break, On thy cold gray stones, O sea! And I would that my tongue could utter The thoughts that arise in me. O well for the fisherman's boy, That he shouts with his sister at playl O well for the sailor lad. That he sings in his boat on the bayl ORAL COMPOSITION 17 And the stately ships go on To their haven under the hill ; But O for the touch of a vanish 'd hand, And the sound of a voice that is still! Break, break, break, At the foot of thy crags, O sea! But the tender grace of a day that is dead Will never come back to me. Tennyson. So Uve, that when thy summons comes to join The innumerable caravan which moves To that mysterious realm where each shall take His chamber in the silent halls of death, Thou go, not Uke the quarry slave at night, Scourged to his dungeon, but, sustained and soothed By an unfaltering trust, approach thy grave Like one who wraps the drapery of his couch About him and lies down to pleasant dreams. Bry-^nt, Thanatopsis. If thou art worn and hard beset With sorrows that thou wouldst forget. If thou wouldst read a lesson that will keep Thy heart from fainting and thy soul from sleep, Go to the woods and hills! No tears Dim the sweet look that Nature wears. Longfellow, Sunrise on the HiUs. The splendor falls on castle walls And snowy summits' old in story : The long light shakes across the lakes, And the wild cataract leaps in glory. Blow, bugle, blow, set the wi\& echoes flying, Blow, bugle ; answer, echoes, dying, dying, dying. 18 FIRST YEAR ENGLISH Oh hark, oh hear! how thin and clear, And thinner, clearer, farther going! Oh sweet and far from cUff and scar The horns of Elfland faintly blowing! Blow, let us hear the purple glens replying : Blow, bugle; answer, echoes, dying, dying, dying. O love! they die in yon rich sky, They faint on hill or field or river : Our echoes roll from soul to soul. And grow for ever and for ever. Blow, bugle, blow, set the wild echoes flying. And answer, echoes, answer, dying, dying, dying. Tennyson, The Princess. Build thee more stately mansions, O my soul, As the swift seasons roll! Leave thy low- vaulted past! Let each new temple, nobler than the last, Shut thee from heaven with a dome more vast. Till thou at length art free. Leaving thine outgrown shell by life's unresting sea! Holmes, The Chambered Nautilus. 5 Extempore speaking and debating. A third form of oral composition not so common as conversation or recitation is the extempore speech. It is a great ad- vantage to a person to be able to " think when upon his feet." In conversation one remark alternates with another; first one person speaks and then his companion replies. Whenever either individual goes into detail so that he discourses at some length on his side of the question he is really making a speech. In debating we have the same kind of composition. First one debater ORAL COMPOSITION 19 delivers a speech, then his opponent repHes, Althoiigh in debates the speeches are so long that they are often written out, it is an immense advantage to be able to express one's ideas without being confined to a written article. The leaders, in either case, must, in summing up, be able to make their final arguments extemporarily. The secret of clear debating or of good speech-making lies in quick, clear thinking and in arrangement of mate- rial in correct order. EXERCISE (1) State orally the reasons why you consider English a harder an easy study. Begin by saying, " I think Eng- lish is a hard (or an easy) study, because " (2) State your preference for winter or summer. Give your reasons. (3) What holiday is most enjoyable? Why? Contrast the study of English with some other study, giving three reasons to prove or disprove that the study of English is the more interesting. Begin your oral recitation by saying, "There are three good reasons why I find that English is [not] more interesting than " [Name some other subject that you have studied or are now pursuing.] (5) Give orally four reasons wh}^ 3'ou would rather live in New York than in Florida [or in Florida than in New 20 FIRST YEAR ENGLISH York]. Preface your reasons by first, second, third, and fourth. (6) Arrange for a short debate in your class on a topic suggested by your teacher. The number of debaters should be limited to three on each side. Those taking part should not be allowed to use written speeches,, but should be restricted to notes. The rest of the class should note incomplete statements, mistakes in pronunciation, and errors in grammar made by the speakers. (7) Commit to memory the following speech and recite it in class. Pay particular attention to naturalness of expression. Fourscore and seven years ago our fathers brought forth upon this continent a new nation, conceived in liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal. Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that nation, or any nation so conceived and so dedicated can long endure. We are met on a great battlefield of that war. We have come to dedicate a portion of that field as a final resting- place for those who here gave their lives that that nation might live. It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this ; but in a larger sense, we cannot dedicate, we cannot conse- crate, we cannot hallow this ground. The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here, have consecrated it far above our power to add or detract. The world will little. note, nor long remember, what we say here, but it can never forget what they did here. It is for us — the living — rather to be dedi- cated here to the unfinished work which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us, that from these honored dead we take increased demotion to that ORAL COMPOSITION 21 cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion; that we here resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain; that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom, and that government of the people, by the people, and for the people, shall not perish from the earth. Lincoln, Gettysburg Address. 6 Oral reproduction. Most of your class work on the literature of this course will necessarily be oral repro- duction. It will be needful to retell the stories you have read, to tell how the people in the books looked or how they acted or what they said. You will also have occasion to discuss their manner of living, their customs, their dress, their occupations, etc. To be able to recount clearly so man}^ different things you should first arrange your material before you begin to speak, putting all the ideas that belong to one topic apart in a group by themselves. This kind of work has already been suggested in the preceding exercises. In this way you are learning how to paragraph. 7 The paragraph. A paragraph, whether oral or written, is a group of related sentences developing a single topic. It bears to the prose composition some- thing of the same relation that the stanza does to a poem, except that its form and length are not fixed as in the case of the latter. The point to observe is that each paragraph centers about a single topic or idea. This topic or central thought of the paragraph is some- times stated directly in some sentence, usually the first, of the paragraph itself, but sometimes it is not expressed at all, so that it is necessary for us to supply one. This is a test of the paragraph, for if one central thought 22 FIRST YEAR ENGLISH cannot be found, the paragraph lacks unity or oneness of thought, and is therefore not properly constructed. In writing or speaking the simplest way is to begin the paragraph by stating the topic in the first sentence. This will aid in making the paragraph a unit, for when all has been given relating to this subject, a new topic sentence and a new paragraph naturally follow. Read the following selection carefully and point out the central thought of each paragraph, showing that each paragraph has unity. Then reproduce the selec- tion orally, making your oral paragraphs correspond \vith the printed ones. Leaving these haunted tanks behind us, we pursued our ramble up a solitary mule-path winding among the hills, and soon found ourselves amidst wild and melancholy mountains, destitute of trees, and here and there tinted with scanty verdure. Everything within sight was severe and sterile, and it was scarcely possible to realize the idea that but a short distance behind us was the Generalife, with its blooming orchards and terraced gardens, and that we were in the vicinity of delicious Granada, that city of groves and fountains. But such is the nature of Spain; wild and stern the moment it escapes from cultivation; the desert and garden are ever side by side. We at length arrived on the highest part of the pro- montory above Granada, called the mountain of the sun. The evening was approaching; the setting sun just gilded the loftiest heights. Here and there a solitary shepherd might be descried driving his flock down the declivities, to be folded for the night; or a muleteer and his lagging animals, threading some mountain path to arrive at the city gates before nightfali. ORAL COMPOSITION 23 Presently the deep tones of the cathedral bell came swelling up the defiles, proclaiming the hour of '' oration " or prayer. The note was responded to from the belfry of every church, and from the sweet bells of the convents among the mountains. The shepherd paused on the fold of the hill, the muleteer in the midst of the road; each took off his hat and remained motionless for a time, mur- muring his evening prayer. There is always something pleasingly solemn in this custom, by which, at a melodi- ous signal, every human being throughout the land vmites at the same moment in a tribute of thanks to God for the mercies of the day. It spreads a transient sanctity over the land, and the sight of the sun sinking in all his glory adds not a little to the solemnity of the scene. In the present instance the effect was heightened by the wild and lonely nature of the place. We were on the naked and broken summit of the haunted mountain of the sun, where ruined tanks and cisterns, and the mould- ering foundations of extensive buildings, spoke of former populousness, but where all was now silent and desolate. Irving, The Alhambra. EXERCISE In the following exercises heed carefully the directions given in the preceding sections. Pay particular attention to the use of correct language, to exactness of subject matter, and to paragraphing. Note to Teacher. These exercises are based on a knowl- edge of the first chapters of the prescribed reading of the course. [See outline in the preface.] They are merely suggestive of the work to be done along this line and may be multiplied in- definitelv. 24 FIRST YKAK P:NGLlsri IVANHOE Chapter I. (1) Tell how Gurth looked when he first appears in Ivanhoc, giving details concerning his size, color of hair and beard, his clothes, his weapons, and his occupation. Describe Wamba in the same way. (2) What difference in the characters or temperaments of Wamba and Gurth is set forth in the first chapter of Ivanhoe ? (3) Tell all you can concerning the conditions of the Saxons and of the Normans in England at this time. (4) Retell the opening conversation between Gurth and Wamba, bringing out the difference between the Saxon and the Norman languages. What language did they use? QUENTIN DURWARD Chapters I and II. (5) Contrast the characters of Louis XI and the Duke of Burgundy as described in Chapter I. Which do you like better ? Whv ? (6) Describe Quentin Durward as he first appears in the story. How did he look ? How did he greet the people he met ? (7) Describe the older of the two men whom Quentin met by the brook side. "What did Quentin think of him at ORAL COMPOSITION 25 first ? What did he think of him after the service in the chapel ? Treasure Isl.\nd Chapters I-III. (8) Describe the scene between Dr. Livesey and the old Buccaneer in the inn parlor. [Chapter I] (9) Why do you think Black Dog came to see the old Buccaneer ? How did their talk end ? [Chapter II] (10) What was the Black Spot ? Describe the person who brought it to the old Buccaneer. [Chapter III] The Ancient Mariner (11) What three changes came over the wedding guest as the ancient mariner continued his story ? (12) Compare the ancient mariner and the wedding guest as to (a) looks, (6) kind of man. (13) Give an account of the ancient mariner's return to his home country. Lays of Ancient Rome Horatiiis. (14) Who were the Tarquins? Locate Rome, Tiber, Etruria, Apennine. Name some of the Tuscan cities mentioned in the opening stanzas of H or alius. 26 FIRST VEAll ENGLISH (15) What kind of man do you think Lars Porsena was? Compare the remark raade by him in stanza 63 with that of Sextus immediately following. The Vision of Sni Launfal (16) Did Lowell love nature ? Support your answer by reference to The Vision of Sir Launfal. • (17) Compare the scenes withm and without the castle when Sir Launfal returned. SOHRAB AND RUSTUM (18) Describe the battle between Sohrab and Rustum. What dazed Sohrab so that he let himself be wounded ? The Raven (19) What was the poet doing when the Raven appeared to him ? What time of the day and of the year was it ? Describe the room in which he was sitting as accurately as you can. Snow-Bound (20) Tell about each of the persons who were snow-bound with the poet. The Courtship of Miles Standish (21) Compare John Alden with Miles Standish. Which do you admire more ? Why ? CHAPTER II WRITTEN COMPOSITION But words are things, and a small drop of ink, Falling, like dew, upon a thought, produces That which makes thousands, perhaps millions, think. Byron. 8 Purpose. Written composition differs from oral composition in that it is meant either to reach some one at a distance, or to address itself to a larger num- ber of persons, or to be read at some future time. In- deed it is not infrequently the case that a writer has in view the accomplishment of all three of these ends not attained by oral composition. Spoken statements are often carelessly composed and quickly forgotten, but most written expressions are meant to be more or less lasting. No matter whether the composition is in the form of a letter, a diary, an essay, a history, or a story, the writer expects it to be read. Therefore it behooves him to write so that the reader not only may but must understand. In oral composition certain in- tonations of the voice, movements of the lips, pauses, gestures, expressions of the face, aid the speaker to express his meaning. But in written composition none of these helps are available. The word forms only are there and the reader must himself supply whatever is lacking. 27 28 FIRST YEAR ENGLISH 9 Form. In order to help the reader to understand readily whatever we may write it is necessary that our compositions have a certain form. Legibility and neat- ness are aids to easy and pleasurable comprehension. A soiled or carelessly written letter, for instance, may sometimes cause the writer both shame and pecuniary loss. Since an applicant for a position is usually judged by his letter of application, a slovenly written one may cost him the position. Needless delay and annoyance may be caused by an illegible business letter. For uniformity in class work the following mechanical rules should be adopted: 1 Write only on one side of the paper. 2 Use either black ink or the blue writing fluid which becomes black on exposure to the air. 3 Leave a one-inch margin at the left side of the paper. Most theme paper is now made with lines on one side only and with a wide margin ruled off from the left edge. 4 Put the title in the middle of the first line. Begin the principal words of the title with capitals. 5 Leave a line blank after the title. 6 Indent the first line of writing at least three fourths of an inch from the marginal line, i.e. one and three fourths inches from the edge. Indent likewise the first line of every group of sentences known as a paragraph. Most short compositions should contain but one or two paragraphs. 7 Do not divide a word at the end of a hne. This is done in printing but it is not necessary in written work. If the remaining portion of the line is too short WRITTEN COMPOSITION 29 to contain the word to be written, put the whole of the word on the next line. The following model is prepared in accordance with these rules. Notice particularly the direct conversation ^v^itten in correct form. 0^ \/n,i; tlu* good wives of the village. They took his part in family squabbles. They talked these matters over in their evening gossipings. They laid the blame on Dame Van Winkle. The children hailed his appearance with joy. He helpetl them with their sports. He told them long stories of ghosts, witches, and Indians. There was a great error in liip's composition. He had an insuperable aversion to all kinds of profitable labor. (0 Combine tlie following statements into sentences of considerable length: .\mong those was a burly, roaring, roystering blade. His name was Abraham. The Dutch abbreviation for .\braham was Brom. Brom was the hero of the country roimd. The country rang with his feats of strength and hardihood. It was a fine autumnal day. It was late in the afternoon. Rip wao panting and fatigued. He threw him.self on a green knoll. The knoll was covered with mountain herbage. Miss Barker provided me with some literature. It was in the shape of throe or four handsomely bound fashion books. They were at least ten or twelve years old. She put a httle table and a candle for my benefit. She said young people liked to look at pictures. John Alden rushed into the open air. He was perplexed and bewildered. He was like a man insane. He wandered alone by the seaside and bared his head to the east wind. He was cooling his heated brow. My friend was unfortunate. Ho embarked his property in large speculations. He had been married but a short time. \ WRITTEN COMPOSITION 43 succession of sudden disastters came. His fortune was swept from him. He found himself reduced to poverty. He wears a broad-brimmed hat. About his neck is a huge roll of colored handkerchief. It is knotted and tucked in at the bosom. He has in summer time a large bouquet of flowers. He wears his bouquet in his buttonhole. It is probably the present of some enamored country lass. (5) Correct the following violations of unity by rewriting in short, well-constructed sentences: He was a frequent gunner and fisher; he sailed his boat him- self; he had a fine one presented to him by a ship- joiner; he had fowling-pieces presented to him by one that loved him. He was six feet tall, he was over eighty years old, his sons were massive, clean, bearded, tan-faced, handsome. Above the porch rose a belfry within which hung a weather- beaten bell, the feeble sounds, of which had been heard by the knight who had lost his way in the forest. The river that flows at the foot of the garden that is behind the house is overhung by tall elms that grow on its banks. I have a friend who knows some one who used to attend your church. I was interested in the book that you loaned me and it was fascinating and I was sorry when I finished it. We met a man who was walking along the path that leads to the rocks which are at the water's edge. Ivanhoe is a very interesting book which treats of the life and times of Richard the Lion-Hearted Avho returned to England in disguise and entered the tournament and there he fought very bravely in behalf of Ivanhoe. The children are going to the country and some ladies are going with them for they will be on a farm which is near a lake and there are swans and boats which the children will be allowed 44 FIRST YI'AU F.Nlil.l^H tu use and swings and games and plants are ull around and I am sure ihey will have a good time. My uncle who is an old man asked my sister w ho was study- ing her lesson which wus very difticult to go to the store for him and she refused and niother thought that she was disa- greeable but I said that it was eold and the snow was deep and I did not think that she ouglit to go. («) Correct the following violations of eoherenee: Ask him if he is in the city tu let me know. Apply this cream when the skin is perfectly dry niwl rub it until it disappears. PickiiiL: \U) lii'i- bunille with muth ditFi< ulfy .>pt(tai')r was niieii in tiie company of the good chap- lain during his visit at Coverley Hall. Did you return the book to the library that I borrowed? Uncle John lent me his gun for the day which he bought yesl^erday. Dr. Goldsmith traveled on foot over a large part of Europe and it was very difficult. The mother abandoned her child who seemed utterly heart- less. A sermon is a discourse based on a text chosen from Scripture which appeals to the conscience. The fruit was packed in a box wliich we ate and it came from California. Lost — A black handbag containing two letters and a bunch of keys on the way to Troy. All helped themselves to the contents of the basket includ- ing my sister. Many persons were poisoned by eating fimgi at the camps that were supposed to be mushrooms. WRITTEN COMPOSITION 45 He had a small head and large green glassy eyes which was flat at the top. * It is a little house with a vine covering the front which was planted by former tenants. .The yellow birds left the nest in order to search for food which was then quickly destroyed by the envious catbirds. Being in a distant land I suppose you do not know how we spend our Friday afternoons in school. \Vlien the baby sister was taken ill, Mary sent for Ella, who came after she was dead but seemed very stiff and cold. Crane used to quote Cotton Mather to us until we were tired of him. 15 Introductory sentences. Perhaps one of the most vexatious problems to be solved in writing a composi- tion is the question, " How shall I begin it? " Every composition must have some attempt at an introduc- tory sentence, or else it sounds blunt and awkward. In this capacity the complex sentence is at its best. No other form is so often and so satisfactorily used. The dependent clause beginning with ichen, since, where, why, etc., and the participial constructions, make smooth and pleasing introductions. If the sentence is long, or if two or more sentences have an introductory function, we often set them apart in an introductory paragraph, the purpose of wMch is to give the reader an idea of the subject of the composition. Formal introductions may give the subject, the theme, or some idea of the scope of the work, the purpose of the author, or the way in which he means to treat his subject. For instance, the subject of the composition following the introductory paragraph given below is William 4'! KIWM- Vr.AK KNt.IJSll Hamilton Gibson; tlio tlirnio, s(Mnc account of his life and works. Note how this parhgraph seeks to justify the composition: Three men have done more than any othei^s to iris|iire our generation with the love of nature. They are Henry D. Thorcan, .Tolm Burroughs, and William Hamilton Gibson. Thorcau. when the generation was young, challenged it to come out of doors, live in a shanty, and see as much of the world as he saw. John liurroughs. in later years, has acted as guide to a multitiidc of minds, eager to be "jx)r- sonally conducted " to field and forest. William Hamilton Gibson, besides wimiing many feet into those "highways and byways" whose charms he taught us to feel, was fortunate in his exceptional power to bring nature to the very eyes of men in the works of liis i)encil, with which he made luminous — literally "illustrated" — his pages. This alone would be a justification of some account of his life and work. " Abraham Lincoln " is the subject introduced by the following paragraph. The book is a story in which he appears " a true picture in a framework of fiction," while the purpose of the composition is to show how his character was formed. Observe how the subject is introduced and the purpose of the work briefly stated in a single sentence: Abraham Lincoln has become the typical character of American institutions, and it is the purpose of this book, which is a true picture in a framework of fiction, to show how that character, which so commanded the hearts and confidence of men, was formed. WRITTEN COMPOSITION 47 Other ways of introducing a composition are (a) by using a quotation, followed by a sentence showing how the quotation applies to the subject to be considered, (6) by using a direct question, (c) by plunging directly into the subject matter, as in the last paragraph quoted above. Irving in his Sketch Book heads each selection with an appropriate quotation. Such long quotations, however, are not to be used in short themes. Unless the com- position is very long an introduction should not con- tain over fifty or seventy-five words. In daily themes of one page be careful not to make your introduction too long; one well-constructed sentence is usually sufficient. Study carefully the selections given below Sera tamen respexit. Libertas. — Virgil, A clerk I was in London gay. — O'Keefb. If perad venture, Reader, it has been thy lot to waste the golden years of thy life, thy shining youth, in the irk- some confinement of an office; to have thy prison days prolonged through middle age down to decrepitude and silver hairs, without hope of release or respite; to have lived to forget that there are such things as holidays or to remember them but as the prerogatives of childhood; then, and then only, will you be able to appreciate my deliverance. Lamb. The above selection shows the way in which Lamb introduces his essay, The Superannuated Man. In this case, however, the quotations are not properly a part 48 FIRST VKAK ENGLISH of the introduction itself, but arc apiMopriatfly applied to the whole cs^ay. Notice that the autlior addresses the reader directly ami writes in the first person. In the following sentence, which forms a brief intro- duction to Bacon's PJssay on l''rictidtihi}>, the (juotation us a part of tiie composition: It had been hard for him that spake it to have put more truth ami untruth together in few words than in that speech. " \Vhoso(!ver is delitihted in solitude is either a wild beast or :i (uxl." Notice that in both of the preceding selections as well as in the following, which is the opening sentence of The Legend of Sleepy Hollow, the sense of the sen- tence is not completed until the end is nearly reached. The sentence could not be brought to a close l)efore the word " port" is reached. This method of dispos- ing of time and place expressions, or participial phrases, by placing them at the beginning before the main state- ment, is worthy of imitation: In the bosom of one of those spacious coves which indent the eastern shore of the Hudson, at that broad expansion of the river denominated by the ancient navi- gators the Tappaan Zee, and where they always pru- dently shortened sail, and implored the protection of St. Nicholas when they crossed, there lies a small market town or rural port, which by some is called Greensburgh. but which is more generally and properly known by the name of Tarrytown. WRITTEN COMPOSITION 49 The following introductions suggest the time and place of the action, and introduce the principal char- acters: And the first gray of morning filled the east, And the fog rose out of the Oxus stream. But all the Tartar camp along the stream Was hushed, and still the men were plunged in sleep. Sohrab alone, he slept not; all night long He had lain wakeful, tossing on his bed: But when the gray dawn stole into his tent, He rose, and clad himself, and girt his sword. And took his horseman's cloak, and left his tent, And went abroad into the cold wet fog, Through the dim camp to Peran-Wisa's tent. Arnold, Sohrab and Rustum Long lines of cliff breaking have left a chasm; And in the chasm are foam and yellow sands; Beyond, red roofs about a narrow wharf In cluster; then a moulder'd church; and higher A long street climbs to one tall-tower'd mill; And high in heaven behind it a gray down With Danish barrows; and a hazel wood, By autumn nutters haunted, flourishes Green in a cuplike hollow of the down. Here on this beach a hundred years ago, Three children of three houses, Annie Lee, The prettiest little damsel in the port, And Philip Ray, the miller's only son, 50 lIKsr VKAH ENtiLISU And Enoch Arden, a rough SKilor'is lad Made orphan by a winter shipwreck, play'd Among the waste and lumber of the shore, Hard coils of cordage, swarthy fishing-nets, Anchors of rusty fluke, and boats updrawn. Tennyson, Enoch Arden. Hawthorne, in Peler Guldthwaites Trcamre, plunges directly into the story by introducing conversation in the form of direct cjuestions : "And so, Peter, you won't even consider of the busi- ness?" said Mr. John Brown, buttoning his surtout over the snug rotundity of his person, and drawing on his gloves. " You positively refuse to let me have this crazy old house, and the land under and adjoining, at the price named?" i6 Concluding sentences. If the question first to be considered is that of a proper beginning, no less important is the problem of a conclusion. In a short theme no more than one sentence is needed ; in a longer composition a paragraph is usually devoted to this purpose. Here again the complex sentence and the participial construction may be brought into use with good effect. Many authors of long stories or of books both begin and end with quotations. If the quotation is apt and pithy, its use is to be recommended, but for short compositions its use is too stilted and roundabout to be tolerated. As in most introductions the writer necessarily tries to lead up to the subject to be considered, so in most WRITTEN COMPOSITION 51 conclusions he endeavors to look back over the matter presented and to give a summing up or a result of what has been told in the body of the composition. In daily themes of from one to two hundred words, however, no formal summary is needed; a single sentence is usually sufficient. The following synopsis of Hawthorne's '' David Swan " will serve to illustrate how the author in his concluding paragraph gives a brief summing up of the story he has related and fastens it in our minds by drawing a moral from it : David Swan at the age of twenty started on the high road from his native place in New Hampshire to the city of Boston, where his uncle, a small dealer in the grocery line, was to take him behind the counter. After journeying on foot from sunrise until nearly noon, he stopped under the shade of a tuft of maples and lay down to await the coming of the stage-coach. And this is what befell him. Wliile he lay sound asleep in the shade, many people passing to and fro looked in upon him, among them an elderly merchant and his wife whose carriage had broken down near the spot. Being attracted by the inno- cence and open countenance of the sleeper, they discussed the advisabihty of taking him into their home of luxury to fill the place which had been left vacant by the death of their only son. Their coach was ready, however, before they came to any con- clusion, and they left David to enjoy his nap unmolested. Scarcely had they gone when a pretty young girl came along and turned aside into the shelter of the maple trees, where she found the young man asleep »by the spring. She was about to hurry away, when she noticed a monster of a bee about to settle on the eyelid of David Swan. Having driven the bee away with her handkerchief, she Ungered to become deeply infatuated with the sleeping youth, but she did not awaken him ; she left S2 VIKST YKAU ENCLISH him with the lovp in her heart uns|)oken. She, in tnrn, was hardly out of sijjjht when two villains, who lived by whatever the devil sent them, stumbled upon David's hiding place. They had planned to kill and rob him of whatever funds he might haj)pen to have, when they were interrupted by a doc, which ramc in beneath the maple trees. Thinkiiip that the dog's mas- ter must be close behind, they made (juickly off. Unconscious of all that was going on about him, David slept soundly on until, his wearines.s l)eing over, he was awakened by the sound of the stage-coach upon the road. And tluMi tilt' autlioi- conclinlcs : Up mounted David, and l>()\vlfd away merrily towards Bos- ton, without so much as a parting glance at that fountain of dreamlike vicissitude. He knew not that a phantom of Wealth had thrown a golden hue upon its waters — nor that one of Love had sighed .softly to their murmur — nor that one of Death had threatened to crimson them with his blood — all, in the brief hour since he lay down to sleep. Sleeping or waking, we hear not the airy footsteps of the strange things that almost hapj^en. Does it not argue a superintending Providence, that, while view- less and unexpected events thrust them.selves continually athwart our path, there should still be regularity enough, in mortal life, to render foresight even partially available ? The following is .sufficient conclusion for a short theme giving an account of the ancient mariner's rescue by the pilot and the hermit : Then the ancient mariner was shriven by the holy hermit, but he was not wholly free of penance, for he was compelled at times to tell his story to certain persons whom he was given power to recognize. WRITTEN COMPOSITION EXERCISE (1) Tell \vhy the conclusion of Macaulay's Horatius is a good one. (2) Show how the conclusion of one of the following completes the general plan of the story; point out the moral and a result of the stor}?- told in The Ancient Mariner or The Vision of Sir Launfal. (3) Write an introductory sentence and a concluding sen- tence for a short theme on "Black Auster in Battle," " Life-in-Death Wins the Ancient Mariner/' or "The Second Meeting of Sir Launfal and the Leper." (4) Write an introductory sentence for a short theme de- scribing the personal appearance of one of your acquaint- ances. (5) What word in the next to the last stanza of Browning's Tray given on pages 32, 33 refers to the introduction and thus rounds out the story? 17 Length of paragraphs. Most short themes of one page need have but one paragraph, or at most a short introduction with a long paragraph following. Li para- graphing, the following directions should be observed, 1 Do not make too many paragraphs. It is better to write a paragraph two pages in length than to indent foT every sentence. 54 FIRST YEAR ENGLISH 2 In reporting direct conversation, put the speech of each person in a paragraph by itself. 3 Remember that each paragraph should have one central thought or topic; all the sentences in that para- graph should in some respect bear upon that main theme. i8 Notes. Unless one has a remarkable memory the taking of notes is an invaluable aid in composition. Notes are guide posts on tlie road to composition. Suppose you make a visit to a foundry with a view to writing a sketch for class room work. You would per- haps be unable to remember all the successive steps and minute details of the process of casting unless you should take notes on the spot. Most good writers have followed this plan. Whenever you find a particularly happy expression, a word that gives the precise shade of meaning that you desire, write it down. WTienever you make an interesting visit to a noted or beautiful place, put on paper the points that seem to you most worthy of notice. If you see a fine picture, enter in your note book a brief description of the details, and the impression it made upon you. Complete sentences are not needed; hasty note- taking necessitates abbreviation. Rode around the lake — quiet — trees mirrored in water — sailboat at upper end — sails flapped lazily — two men fishing, etc. Remember that the first requisite to really good WTiting is clear seeing, but inasmuch as we may not be able at the time of writing to recall exactly the details we desire, we need, in such case, the prompting that good notes can offer. WRITTEN COMPOSITION 55 EXERCISE (1) Visit some place of historical interest near you, writing down the items that you noticed particularly. (2) Note the details that impress you while watching a beautiful sunset. (3) Observe some beautiful picture, writing down the points that you most admire • and the thoughts that occur to you while looking at it. (4) Visit a factory or a shop where some article is made; note the successive steps in the process. (5) Note the different objects and incidents observed during a walk or ride. (6) Take notes of a lecture or sermon that you attend. Put down the main heads of the address, and perhaps enough under each division to recall to you the illustra- tions given. Also write at the end the conclusion or inference that the speaker draws. IQ Outlines. Notes upon any one subject form, when properly arranged, a topical outline. The follow- ing method is useful for arranging: Write on separate slips of paper the main thoughts to be told in the composition; also the minor details to be brought in under each topic. Place in one group all those bearing upon any one central thought. Then 50 FlUsr YKAlt KNtiLISll arrange the groups in wliatevcr yuu lliink is the best order and number them I, II, III, I\', etc. Sort the sUps in each group and number them I, 2, .'3, etc. .Ax- range the sHps of the first group in the following manner and copy : 1 Central or main thought. 1 Details to he mentioned. I'roctrd in this wise witii all the groups. When you have finished copying you will have a topical outhne for your composition. Each of the main cUvisions, or groups, I, II, III, etc., should represent a paragraph or one topic of the composition, while 1, 2, 3, etc., denote the details to be mentioned in that paragraph. Observe carefully the form of the following outline: At the Time of the Spring Floods I Introduction — Time and place. 1 Narrow valley containing stream. 2 Spring of year. 3 Heavy rains and melting snow. 4 River a deep, black torrent. 11 Mary Hartwick discovers the coiidition of the old railroad bridge. 1 Has been staying with a sick neighbor below the bridge. 2 Hurrying home late at night. 3 Sees water rising. 4 Hears a crash. 5 Truth flashes over her — part of bridge swept away. WRITTEN COMPOSITION 57 III She remembers that the express is soon due and hurries home for lantern. 1 Shps and falls. 2 Limps on — so slowly, she thinks. 3 Finds her husband gone from home. 4 Lantern out of place. 5 Finally hurries out with lighted lantern. IV She saves the train. 1 Hears the shriek of the whistle. 2 Faster she hurries. 3 Reaches end of bridge as headlight appears. 4 Waves lantern — Will they see in time? 5 Train slackens and stops two feet from bridge. V Conclusion — Her reward. 1 Passengers and trainmen crowd about the fainting woman. 2 Man appears and takes her in his arms. 3 Her husband, unexpectedly called away, was on train she saved. EXERCISE Let the teacher develop by skillful questioning of the class enough material for a brief composition suggested by the following hints; the class should then arrange in order the material gathered, making a topical outline on the blackboard; finally let members of the class give orally in complete statements the facts grouped in each paragraph: Boys — boat — accident — dog. The story may then be written for a subsequent lesson. 58 FIRST YKAK ENGLISH Topical outlines of selections alivudy written should also be made. These are really thought analyses; the process is a dissecting of the composition. This is, however, much easier than forming an original outline, for the order of the tiioughts is fi.xed. Study the follow- ing selection and its outline. Notice the correspond- ence between each paragraph of the text and each main division of the outline. Note, too, how each paragraph takes up only one phase of the description, antl how the conclusion completes the whole by refer- ring to the balcony which is mentioned in the intro- duction. In Gr.\n.\d.\ I occasionally amused myself with noting from my balcony the gradual changes of the scenes below, accord- ing to the different stages of the day. Scarce has the gray dawn streaked tiie sky, and the earliest cock crowed from the cottages of the hillside, when the suburbs give sign of reviving animation; for the fresh hours of dawning are precious in the summer season in a sultry climate. All are anxious to get the start of the sun, in the business of the day. The muleteer drives forth his loaded train for the journey; the traveler slings his carbine behind his saddle and mounts his steed at the gate of the hostel; the brown peasant from the country urges forward his loitering beasts, laden with panniers of sunny fruit and fresh dewy vegetables, for already the thrifty housewives are hastening to the market. The sun is up and sparkles along the valley, tipping the transparent foliage of the groves. The matin bells WRITTEN COMPOSITION 59 resound melodiously through the pure bright air, an- nouncing the hour of devotion. The muleteer halts his burdened animals before the chapel, thrusts his staff through his belt behind, and enters with hat in hand, smoothing his coal black hair, to hear a mass and to put up a prayer for a prosperous wayfaring across the sierra. And now steals forth on fairy foot the gentle senora, with restless fan in hand and dark eye flashing from beneath the gracefully folded mantilla; she seeks some well-frequented church to offer up her morning ori- sons. . . . As the morning advances, the din of labor augments on every side; the streets are thronged with man and steed and beast of burden, and there is a hum and mur- mur, like the surges of the ocean. As the sun ascends to his meridian, the hum and bustle gradually decline; at the hight of noon there is a pause. The panting city sinks into lassitude, and for several hours there is a general repose. The windows are closed, the curtains drawn, the inhabitants retired into the coolest recesses of their mansions; . . . the peasant and the laborer sleep beneath the trees of the Alameda, lulled by the sultry chirping of the locust. The streets are deserted, except by the water carrier, who refreshes the ear by proclaiming the merits of his sparkling bever- age, "colder than the mountain snow." As the sun declines, there is again a gradual reviving, and v-V.pn the vesper bell rings out his sinking knell, all nature seems to rejoice that the tyrant of the day has fallen. Now begins the bustle of enjoyment, when the citizens pour forth to breathe the evening air, and revel away the brief twilight in the walks and gardens. As night closes, the capricious scene assumes new 60 FIRST YEAR KM.l.lMl features. Light after liglit gradually twinkles forth; here a taper from a balconied window; there a votive lamp before the image of a saint. Thus, by degrees, the city emerges from the pervading gloom, and sparkles with scattered lights like the starry firmament. Now break forth from court and garden, and street and lane, the tinkling of innumerable guitars, and the clicking of castanets, blending, at this lofty hight. in u faint but general concert. Irvi.no, The Alhambru. TOPICAL (JLTLINE In (iRW.vda 1 Introduction. 1 Point of view — balcony. 2 (leneral thought of whole — scenes at dif- ferent stages of the day. II Busy stir of early summer morning before sunri.se. 1 Cock crow. 2 Reasons for early rising — hot climate, etc. 3 Muleteer with train. 4 Traveler on steed. 5 Peasant with produce for market. Ill Sunrise and devotional hour. 1 Effect of svmrise. 2 Ringing of matin bells. 3 Devotional hour. (a) muleteer. (6) senora. IV As the morning advances business increases in streets. 1 Men, horses, beasts of burden. 2 Hum and murmur of trafTic. WKITTEN COMPOSITION 61 V Decline of business at noon and the stillness of afternoon. 1 Hum of business decreases. . 2 General repose. 3 Windows shut. 4 Curtains drawn. 5 Inhabitants in houses. 6 Peasants asleep in parks. 7 Streets deserted. VI Gradual revival of life at sundown. 1 Vesper bells. 2 Nature rejoices. 3 Bustle of enjoyment — citizens come out to enjoy evening air and twilight. VII Scene as night closes — new features. 1 Lights. (a) taper. (6) votive lamp. 2 Music. (a) guitars. (b) castanets. 3 Conclusion. The phrase at this lofty hight rounds out and completes the whole by referring to the introduction. EXERCISE (1) Make topical outhnes of at least two chapters from one of the books you have read this year. [The following are suggested: Walden, Chaps. VIII and IX; Treasure Island, Chaps. II and XXVI; Ivanhoe, Chaps. XII and XLII; Quentin Durward, Chaps. XXI and XXXV.] G2 FIRST YKAK KNT.LISH (2) Write the story, "At the Time of the Spring Floods," as outlined on pages 56, 57, making the paragraphs in the composition correspond to the divisions indicated in the outline. (3) Make a topical outline for a brief account of one of the following topics from American history, giving causes in the introduction and results in the conclusion: War of 1812-14, Mexican War, Spanish-American War. CHAPTER III REVIEW OF CAPITALIZATION AND PUNCTUATION Do not think that the knowledge of any particular subject cannot be improved merely because it has lain wnthout improve- ment. Watts. 20 Use. In the preceding chapter the use of capi- tals and punctuation were mentioned as being valuable aids to the interpretation of written composition. Formerly punctuation marks were freely used to indi- cate pauses to be observed in reading. The tendency at present, however, is away from the liberal use of punctuation marks, especially of commas. In general we may say that only such marks are used as will render the meaning of the wTiter easily and unmistakably clear. The importance of accuracy in punctuation can- not be too strongly urged. Not only is it an evidence of good scholarship, but there have been many cases in which large fortunes or other momentous questions have hung upon the omission or insertion of a comma or upon the determination of whether a particular mark was intended for a comma or a period. In the follo"\^dng paragraphs notice how much easier it is to grasp the thought of the second paragraph than of the first where capitals and punctuation marks are omitted, father father exclaimed a piercing cry from out the mist it is i alice thy own elsie spare oh save your daugh- 63 04 FIKST VEAK KNGLlSH ters hold shouted the former speaker in the tiwful tones of parental agony the sound reaching even to the woods and rolling back in solemn echo " Father, father! " exclaimed a piercing cry from out the mist, " it is I, Alice, thy own Elsie! Spare, oh. save your daughters! " " Hold," shouted the former speaker in tones of parental agony, the sound reaching even to the woods and rolling back in solemn echo. The usage of tliese signs, which is on the whole an outgrowth of common sense and convenience, is now embodied in certain more or less firmly established rules for punctuation and capitalization. 21 Rules for capitalization. Tlie following are the general rules for the u.-^e of capitals: 1 A capital shoukl be used to begin the first word of a sentence. When you are ready, we shall begin. 2 A capital should be used to begin the first word of every line of poetry. Sigh no more, ladies, sigh no more, Men were deceivers ever; One foot on sea and one on shore, To one thing constant never. 3 The first word of a direct quotation making com- plete sense should begin with a capital. The boy asked, "Don't you think it's time for father to be here?" REVIEW OF CAPITALIZATION AND PUNCTUATION 65 4 Prop>er names, including names of the Deity and words derived from them, should begin with capitals. [See special rules below.] England, English, Mary, Queen Elizabeth, Jehovah. 5 Most abbreviations should begin with capitals. A.M. (master of arts) Mr a.m. (forenoon). 6 A capital should be used to begin phrases and clauses used as separate headings. Words and their uses. 7 The pronoun I and the interjection are always capitals. 8 The letters used in Roman notation are usually capitals. Small letters, however, are often used in refer- ring to chapters, sections, etc., and are nearly always used in numbering the pages of a preface. Chap. VIII or chap, viii, but Louis XIV. The following special rules for proper nanies should be observed: 1 The tendency at present is to omit capitals in writing class names of places.^ New York city, city of New York, Atlantic ocean. Fifth avenue, Adirondack mountains, State street, Mis- sissippi river. We sometimes speak of the Atlantic, the Mississippi, etc., without using the class word, but in names like * This usage is in accordance with the editing rules of the New York State Education Department. tit) FIKST YEAR ENGLISH Lake George, Lake Ontariu. Long Lslaial, Kansas City, etc., the class name is never omitted. It has there- fore become a part of a compound name and is capital- ized according to the following rule: 2 The parts of a compound projKT name are always capitaUzed, as arc also the titles of people when they precede, but not when they follow, the name. John Quincy Adams, Daniel Webster, President Roose- velt, General Jackson, Roosevelt, president of the United States. Holy Bible. 3 In writing the titles of books, poems, etc., and the names of the Deity, only the important words begin with capitals. Holy One of Israel, When Knighthood was in Flower, Hanging of the Crane. Still more radical is the use in libraries, where, in writing the names of books for catalogues and indexing, only the first word is begun witli a capital. Decline and fall of the Roman empire. The winning of the west. This, however, is too far in advance of the present use for the student to follow\ In general it may be said that for every use of a capital letter there must be a sufficient reason. There was a time when, for the sake of bringing the important ideas prominently forward, every noun in the sentence was capitalized. In the German language this is still the rule. In English, however, the movement is con- REVIEW OF CAPITALIZATION AND PUNCTUATION 67 stantly away from the abundant use of capitals. Indeed a too liberal use of them is quite- as bad as the failure to use them where they are necessary. EXERCISE Give a reason for the use of each capital in the fol- lowing: (1) Omaha, Nebraska, June 10. A severe storm swept over James and Pike counties yesterday at three o'clock, killing thirteen persons and seriously injuring twenty-one. Two small villages, Canton and Fairburn, were completely destroyed. New York Herald. (2) Many parts of the Pilgrim's Progress, such as the combat with Apollyon, would seem forced if we did not remember the spiritual meaning of the bluntly told sto^5^ The same is true of those passages in Spenser's Faery Queene that tell of enchant- ments and monsters. Cairns. (3) And in languages so mongrel in breed as the English, there is a fatal power of equivocation put into men's hands, almost whether they will or no, in being able to use Greek or Latin words for an idea when they want it to be awful; and Saxon or otherwise common words when they want it to be vulgar. What a singular and salutary effect, for instance, would be produced on the minds of people who are in the habit of taking the form of the "Word" they live by, for the power of which that Word tells them, if we had always either retained, or re- fused, the Greek form " biblos " or " bibUon " as the right ex- pression for "book" — instead of employing it only in the one instance in which we wish to give dignity to the idea, and translating it into English everywhere else. How wholesome 68 FIRST YI.AK ENGLISH it would be for many simple persons if, in such places (for in- stance) as Acts xix 19, we retaineil the (Jreek expression instead of translating it, and they had to read, " Many of them also which used curious arts, brought their Bibles together and burnt them before all men; and they counted the price of them, and found it fifty thousand pieces of silver!" Or if, on the other hand, we translated where we retain it, and always spoke of "the Holy Book" instead of "Holy Bible," it might come into more heads than it does at present, that the Word of God, by which the heavens were of old, and by which they are now kept in store, cannot be made a present of to anybody in morocco binding. RusKl.v, Sesame and Lilies. (4) Then the maiden clasped her hands and prayed That savfed she might be; And she thought of Christ who stilled the waves On the lake of Galilee. Longfellow, The Wreck of the Hesperus. Rewrite the following acconling to the preceding rules: (5) tent on the beach, tales of a traveler, sheridan's school for scandal, north america, james ru.s.sell lowell, mi.ssouri river, pacific ocean, scott and denney's composition and rhetoric, cape cod bay, mount holyoke, rocky mountains, university of cahfornia, oUver twist, motley's rise of the dutch republic, para- dise lost, Oliver wendell holmes, arctic ocean, city of san fran- cisco, the great jehovah, king of england, king edward vii, astor house, lake erie, mediterranean sea, city of mexico, cape may, hudson's bay, Connecticut river, city of albany, governor big- gins, harvard university, british Columbia, sea of galilee. (6) the man is an englishman, george Washington fought in the french and Indian war. REVIEW OF CAPITALIZATION AND PUNCTUATION 69 William penn founded the city of Philadelphia. mrs burton, who lives in Chicago, visited my cousin in detroit List week. the present german emperor is called kaiser wilhelm. king george v is related to the emperor of russia through his mother, queen alexandra, who is aunt to emperor nicholas. (7) ... to thine own self be true ; and it must follow, as the night the day, thou canst not then be false to any man. SHAKESPEARE. with throats unslaked, with black hps baked, we could nor laugh nor wail ; through utter drought all dumb we stood! i bit my arm, i sucked the blood, and cried, "a sail! a sail!" SAMUEL TAYLOR COLERIDGE. (8) "now," said wardle, after a substantial lunch, "what say you to an hour on the ice? we shall have plenty of time." "capital!" said mr benjamin alien. "prime!" ejaculated mr bob sawyer. "you skate, of course, winkle?" said wardle. "ye-yes; o yes," repUed mr winkle, "i-i- am rather out of practice." "o, do skate, mr winkle," said arabella. "i Uke to see it so much." "o, it is so graceful," said another young lady. CHARLES DICKENS. 22 Rules for the period. A period is used after every statement or command, i.e. after every sentence that is neither exclamatory nor interrogative. Shut the door. The members voted upon the ques- tion. To FIRST YEAR ENGLISH A period is placed after most abbreviations. e.g. A.B. St. (street) 23 Abbreviations. The following is a list of the abbreviations in common use. Remember that while most abbreviations begin with capitals and are followed by periods, there are a few conspicuous exceptions. Note these carefully. A.B. bachelor of arts. B.C. before Christ. A.D. anno Dnnn'ni. in the year of our Lord or after Christ. a.m. ante meridiem, before noon. p.m. post meridiem, after noon. A.M. master of arts. P.M. postmaster. D.D. doctor of divinity. D.D.S. doctor of dental surgery. LL.D. doctor of laws. M.D. doctor of medicine. D.V.M. doctor of veterinary medicine. Ph.D. doctor of philosophy. e.g. exempli gratia, for example. etc. et cetera, and others, and so forth. ibid, the same (used in references). inst. of the present month. uU. of the last month. jr junior (no period). sr senior (no period). 110. numero, number. do. or ditto, the same. C. 0. 7)., collect on delivery. Anon, anonymous, writer luiknown REVIEW OF CAPITALIZATION AND PUNCTUATION 71 i.e. id est, that is. N.B. nota bene, note well, take notice. p. page. pp. pages. pro tern, pro tempore, for the time being. viz videlicet, namely (no period). vs versus, against (no period). MS. manuscript. MSS. manuscripts. Mt mountain (no period). St saint (no period). Co. company. In writing the address or superscription on letters the following are used : St. street. CO. county. av. avenue. R.F.D. rural free delivery. N. north. E. east. S. south. W. west. Vo in care of. The following are abbreviated whon used as titles, before the name ; otherwise they are written out in full : Pres. president. Dr doctor (no period). Mr mister (no period). Mrs mistress (pronounced missis, no period). Mile, mademoiselle. Mme. madame. Messrs. messieurs, gentlemen. SupH (apostrophe) super- intendent (no period). Prof, professor. Sec. secretary. Gen. general. Capt. captain. Lieut, lieutenant. Col. colonel. Rev. reverend. Gov. governor. Hon. the honorable. 72 FIRST YEAR ENGLISH It is perhaps more elegant not to make use of such contractions as " can't," " \yon't," " doesn't," " hasn't," etc., except when quoting directly. EXERCISE (1) Review the abbreviations for the names of the states. (2) Review the arithmetical abbreviations, for barrel, quart, pint, etc.; also the abbreviations used in writing and receipting bills. (3) The names of what months of the year are abbreviated? 24 Rules for the comma. The present tendency is to omit commas whenever possible; no more should be inserted than are necessary to make the meaning clear. 1 Words or phrases in pairs need a comma after each pair. Sink or swim, live or die, survive or perish, I give my hand and my heart to this vote. 2 Such phrases and words as " I think," " I hear," " indeed," " also," " however," introduced between the parts of a sentence, should be set off by commas. This is, however, not the question to be considered. This man before me is, in my judgment, the culprit. 3 Phrases and clauses which, although subordinate, are by inversion placed at the beginning of sentences. REVIEW OF CAPITALIZATION AND PUNCTUATION 73 are usually separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma. This rule, however, is not invariable. Having completed the work, the man departed. 4 A comma is used when a coordinate conjunction is omitted. Men, women and children ran to the fire. The boy studied Latin, algebra, history and civics. If the last conjunction is omitted, a comma is also placed after the series. Planks, trees, houses, debris of all kinds, were being carried down the river. 5 Expressions placed between the parts of a quota- tion should be separated from the rest of the sentences by commas, "Well," said he, "I am sure I do not know what to do." 6 Words in apposition with their modifiers are set off by commas ; when, however, the first term is a gen- eral or class name, the comma is omitted. Longfellow, the poet, was a professor in Harvard. The poet Longfellow was a professor in Harvard. 7 Nouns or phrases used in direct address should be set off by commas. John, listen to what I am saying, I am sure, my dear sir, that you will agree with me. 74 FIRST YEAR ENGLISH 8 Non-restrictive relative clauses are separated from the rest of the sentence by commas. The girl who lent me the book was not at the desk, [Restrictive.] This girl, who is my cousin, found the book and re- turned it to me. [Non restrictive.] 9 Quotations following the verb of saying are usu- ally separated from that verb by a comma. If the quotation is very long, a colon may be used. Quoth he, "The pen is mightier than the sword." EXERCISE Capitalize and punctuate the following, giving the reason for each change made: with my idea of the rector derived from a picture in the dining-parior stiff and stately in a huge full-bottomed vng with gown cassock and bands and his hand upon a copy of the only sermon he ever published — it was strange to read these letters you know i suppose that my sister is coming home todaj^ silas marner one of the best books i ever read was written by a woman irving was a native of new york hawthorne of new england indeed i believe the man tries to do right sitting on the veranda of a cottage by the seashore i was interested in watching the people as they went about their different occupations motherwort catnip plantain tansy wild mustard — what a homely human look they have! the stately trees the moon and shining stars the softly-stirring wind the overshadowed lane the broad bright country side they all kept watch KEVIEW OF CAPITALIZATION AND PUNCTUATION 75 the odd little man who had addressed rip led the way up the mountain a civil war indeed is Uke the heat of a fever surely saith he i had rather a great deal men should say there was no such man at all as plutarch than that they should say that there was one plutarch that would eat his children as soon as they were born as the poets speak of saturn i must have books pictures theatres chit-chat scandal jokes ambiguities and a thousand whim-whams which the quakers with their simple tastes can do without if they can sit with us at table why do they keck at our cookery? how things were suffered to go on thus i cannot guess softly my worthy friend replied i you are not aware how much better off you are than most books of your generation i can sew neatly she said and i like nursing longfellow the poet was very fond of children the poet holmes was also a physician 25 Rules for the semicolon. The semicolon is used but seldom. Habitual use of this mark usually leads to weak and careless sentence structure. 1 Between coordinate clauses (a) which are shghtly connected, or (6) which are themselves subdivided by the comma, a semicolon is used. Crafty men contemn studies, simple men admire them, and wise men use them; for they teach not their own use, but that is a wisdom without them and above them, won by observation. 2 A semicolon is used between long or involved phrases or clauses which have a common dependence upon something which precedes or follows. 76 FIRST YEAR ENGLISH If you would work any man, you must either know his nature and fashions, and so lead him; or his ends, and so persuade him; or his weakness and disadvantages, and so awe him; or those that have interest in him, and so govern him. 3 A semicolon is used before, and a comma after, as, to wit, namely, and that is, when they are used to intro- duce examples or illustrations. The semicolon is also used before i.e. and e.g. but the comma is omitted after them. The boy has studied four languages; namely, Greek, Latin, French, German. A capital is used to begin every proper name; e.g. Massachusetts. 26 Rules for the colon. The colon is even less frequently used than the semicolon. 1 The colon is used after the salutation in letters. My dear sir: Dear madam: 2 The colon is used before a long involved quota- tion or an enumeration of particulars formally intro- duced. The orator of the evening spoke as follows: Ladies and gentlemen, I come before you, etc. EXERCISE Punctuate the follpwing, giving the reason for every mark used: Some books are to be tasted others to be swallowed and some few to be chewed and digested that is some books are to be read REVIEW OF CAPITALIZATION AND PUNCTUATION 77 only in parts others to be read but not curiously and some few to be read wholly and with diligence and attention He that considereth the wind shall not sow and he that looketh to the clouds shall not reap Some when they take revenge are desirous the party should know whence it cometh this is the more generous Such a piece of news as Lord Mauleverer's visit was not to be lost on the Cranford letter writers they made the most of it. I had often occasion to notice the use that was made of frag- ments and small opportunities in Cranford the rose leaves that were gathered 5re they fell to make into a pot-pourri for some one who had no garden the Httle bundles of lavender-flowers sent to strew the drawers of some town dweller or to burn in the chamber of some invalid In the morning of life the shadows of Ufe all he behind us at noon we trample them under foot and in the evening they stretch long broad and deepening before us Give an example of each of the following simple sentence complex sentence compound sentence Luck relies on chance labor on character Luck is ever waiting for something to turn up labor with keen eyes and strong will will turn up something But above all that of the triumph amongst the Romans was not pageants or gaudery but one of the wisest and noblest insti- tutions that ever was for it contained three things honor to the general riches to the treasury out of the spoils and donatives to the army 27 Rules for the interrogation point. 1 An interrogation point or question mark is placed after every direct question, "Hurt?" he asked. 2 An interrogation point inclosed in parenthesis is placed after a statement to indicate doubt of its accuracy. 78 riRST YEAR ENGLISH Columbus discovered the mainland in August (?), 1498. Ichabod disappeared after his encounter with the ghost (?). 28 Rule for the exclamation point. An exclamation point is placed after every exclama- tory expression. What passion cannot music raise and quell! "Alas!'' he said, "I thought I was right!'' When the interjection is repeated, a comma may be used to separate the words, an exclamation point being placed only after the last. "Ha, ha, ha!" laughed Polly. EXERCISE Punctuate the following: How much thought I has each of these volumes now thrust aside with such indifference cost some aching head The book was published in 1640 was it not "Oh that wicked flagon" thought Rip "What excuse shall I make to Dame Van Winkle " " Poor Mary " at length broke with a heavy sigh from his lips " And what of her " asked I " has anything happened to her " Where is Van Bummel the schoolmaster Oh my dear mother I do wish you could see her Oh dear oh dear What shall I do He was too fond of mischief Poor Peter 29 Rules for quotation marks. 1 Every direct quotation should be inclosed in double quotation marks — that is, the exact words of the speaker or writer and those only should be inclosed by the quotation marks. REVIEW OF CAPITALIZATION AND PUNCTUATION 79 "I like Ivanhoe best of all/' said my friend. [Direct.] My friend said that she liked Ivanhoe best of all. [Indirect — no quotation marks.] 2 A quotation within another quotation should be inclosed by single quotation marks. "Our motto," exclaimed he, "is 'United we stand, divided we fall!'" 3 Titles of books, essays, etc., when neither preceded by the author's name nor printed in italics, are usually inclosed in double quotation marks. " The Ancient Mariner," as well as " The Vision of Sir Launfal," teaches a moral truth. Caution. Remember that quotation marks, whether double or single, belong in pairs, one at the beginning and one at the end of a quotation. Whenever the direct quotation is interrupted by the introduction of other words, such as " he said," etc., the first set of marks must be completed and a new set begun when the quotation is resumed. If, however, no such ex- pressions are introduced, the marks need only be at the beginning and the end, unless the selection quoted con- sists of several paragraphs. In such case, quotation marks are used at the beginning of each paragraph but at the end of the last one only. EXERCISE Paragraph and punctuate the following conversation: Have you seen any numbers of The Pickwick Papers said Captain Brown Capital thing Now Miss Jenkyns was daughter 80 FIRST VEAU ENGLISH of a deceased rector of Craiiford and on the strength of a num- ber of manuscript sermons and a pretty good library of divinity considered herself literary and looked upon any conversation about books as a challenge to her so she answered and said that she had seen them and indeed might say she had read them And what do you think of them exclaimed Captain Brown Aren't they famously good So urged Miss Jenkyns could not but speak I must say I don't think they are by any means equal to Dr Johnson Still perhaps the author is young Let him persevere and who knows what he may become if he will take the great doctor for his model This was evidently too much for Captain Brown to take placidly and I saw the words on the tip of his tongue before Miss Jenkyns had finished her sentence It is quite a different sort of thing my dear madam he began I am quite aware of that returned she and I make allowances Captain Brown Just allow me to read you a scene out of this month's number pleaded he I had it only this morning and I don't think the company can have read it yet As you please said she settling herself with an air of resignation He read the account of the swarry which Sam Weller gave at Bath Some of us laughed heartily I did not dare because I was staying in the house Miss Jenkyns sat in patient gravity When it was ended she turned to me and said with mild dignity Fetch me Rasselas my dear out of the book room When I brought it to her she turned to Captain Brown Xow allow me to read you a scene and then the present company can judge between your favorite Mr Boz and Dr Johnson She read one of the conversations between Rasselas and Imlac in a high-pitched majestic voice and when she had ended she said I imagine I am now justified in my preference of Dr Johnson as a writer of fiction 30 Rules for the dash. The following are the most important rules for the use of the dash : 1 The dash should be used where there is an omis- sion of letters or figures. REVIEW OF CAPITALIZATION AND PUNCTUATION 81 Mary saw her friend Mrs. B — yesterday. The warehouse of the company is at 214-216 High street. 2 The dash should be used to mark sudden changes in thought or in grammatical construction. Father, mother, brother — where are they? 3 The dash should be used to mark pauses or repeti- tions of w^ords which are intended for elocutionary effect- "I c-can nev-er do it," she sobbed. 31 Marks of parenthesis. Parentheses are used to inclose closely connected but unessential matter. These marks are at present seldom used in carefully written composition, except in reports of speeches, where proper names or expressions of approval and disapproval on the part of the audience are placed within parentheses. The gentleman from the thirty-second (^Ir. A ) has seen fit to refer to my record in the lower house (hear! hear!). 32 Brackets. These are used to inclose comments, criticisms, or directions which are entirely independent of the rest of the sentence. Shylock. [Aside.] How like a fawning publican he looks! 33 Apostrophe. The apostrophe is the sign of the possessive case. It is used to form the plurals of figures and letters, and is inserted whenever one or more letters are omitted. Don't use Mary's racket. Bp careful to dot vour i's. 82 FIRST YEAR ENGLISH 34 Hyphen. The hyphen is used to divide a word into syllables. It is sometimes used to join the parts of a compound word, although the tendency now is to omit such hyphens, the parts being written together as one word, or being entirely separated if the connection is but slight. cheer-ful-ness se-clud-ed light-footed toda}' bookkeeping Cautions. Never put punctuation marks or capitals in a sentence unless there is a definite reason for so doing. Too many of these are worse than too few. Avoid, as far as practicable, doubling punctuation marks; i.e. comma and dash, period and comma. EXERCISE (1) Punctuate the following, giving a reason for the use of each mark: Well after all what is dress that we should care about it Youll tell me if you want anything wont you Here is the bell I suppose turbans have not got down to Drumble yet have they As I was stepping out of Gordon's shop today I chanced to go into the George my Betty has a second cousin who is cham- bermaid there and I thought Betty would like to hear how she was and not seeing any one about I strolled up the staircase and found myself in the passage leading to the assembly room There are six syllables in the word in com pre hens i ble My friend Mrs J visited in the town of M last week Didnt you know about it Madame Defarge looked coldly at her and said The wife of EvT^monde where is she REVIEW OF CAPITALIZATION AND PUNCTUATION 83 All our lives we have seen our sister women suffer in them- selves and in their children poverty nakedness hunger thirst sickness misery oppression and neglect of kinds all these we have seen and known. Rip bethought himself a moment and inquired wheres Nicho- las Vedder Nicholas Vedder Why he is dead and gone these eighteen years There was a wooden tombstone in the churchyard that used to tell all about him but thats rotten and gone too God knows exclaimed he at his wits end Im not myself Im somebody else thats me yonder no thats somebody else got into my shoes I was myself last night but I fell asleep on the mountain and they ve changed my gun and everything s changed and Im changed and I cant tell whats my name or who I am (2) Rewrite each of the following, using capitals and in- serting punctuation marks according to the preceding rules. Give a reason for each change made. just then a scout came flying all wild ^^^th' haste and fear to arms to arms sir consul lars porsena is here MACAULAY horotius then i told what a tall upright graceful person their great grandmother field once was and how in her youth she was esteemed the best dancer here aUces little right foot played an involuntary movement till upon my looking grave it desisted the best dancer i was saying in the county till a cruel disease called a cancer came and bowed her down with pain but it could never bend her good spirits or make them stoop but they were still upright because she was so good and reUgious CHARLES LAMB dream children a reverie 84 FIK.ST YEAR ENGLISH he had on a coat made of that cloth they call thunder and lightning which though grown too short was much too good to be thrown away his waistcoat was of gosling green and his sisters had tied his hair with a broad black ribbon we all followed him several paces from the door bawling after him good luck good luck until we could see him no longer i began to wonder what could keep our son so long iit the fair as it was now almost nightfall never mind our son cried my wife depend upon it he knows what he is about ill warrant well never see him sell his hen on a rainy day i have seen him buy such bargains as would amaze one ill tell you a good story about that that will make you spUt your sides with laughing but as i live yonder comes moses \\'ithout the horse and a box at his back what cried my wife not silver the rims not silver no cried i no more silver than your saucepan oi.ivKri coi.DsMiTH ricar <»/ uakefield. you will tind me a iheerful little body answered phoebe smiling and yet with a kind of gentle dignity and i mean to earn my bread you know i have not been brought up a pyncheon a girl learns many things in a new england village hepzibah brought out some old silver spoons with the family crest upon them and a china tea-set painted over with gro- tesque figures of man bird and beast in as grotesque a landscape your great great great great grandmother had these cups when she was married said hepzibah to phoebe she was a davenport of a good family HAWTHORNE housc of scven gables. (3) Give the reason for every capital and punctuation mark in the following: REVIEW OF CAPITALIZATION AND PUNCTUATION 86 "Alas! gentlemen," cried Rip, somewhat dismayed, "I am a poor, quiet man, a native of the place, and a loyal subject of the king, God bless him!" Here a general shout burst from the bystanders: "A Tory! a Tory! a spy! a refugee! hustle him! away with him!" Irving, Rip Van Winkle. "Never mind touching your hat, Sam," said Mr. Winkle hastily. "You needn't take your hand away to do that. I meant to have given you five shillings this morning for a Christ- mas box, Sam. I'll give it to you this afternoon, Sam." "You're very good, sir," repUed Mr. Weller. "Just hold me at first, Sam, will you?" said Mr. Winkle. "There, that's right. I shall soon get in the way of it, Sam. Not too fast, Sam, not too fast!" Mr. Winkle stooping forward, with his body half doubled up, was being assisted over the ice by Mr. Weller in a very singular and un-swanlike manner, when Mr. Pickwick most innocently shouted from the opposite bank, "Sam!" . . . "Let go, sir," said Sam. "Don't you hear the governor calling? Let go, sir." Charles Dickens, Pickvnck Papers. Best, an Irish clergyman, told Davis, the traveler in Amer- ica, that the hawthorn-bush mentioned in the poem was still remarkably large. "I was riding once," said he, "with Brady, titular bishop of Ardagh, when he observed to me, 'Ma foy, Best, this huge overgrown bush is mightily in the way. I will order it to be cut down.' — '"WTiat, sir!' replied I, 'cut down the bush that supplies so beautiful an image in "The Deserted Vil- lage"?' — 'Ma foy!' exclaimed the bishop, 'is that the haw- thorn-bush? Then let it be sacred from the edge of the axe and evil be to him that should cut off a branch.' " — The haw- thorn-bush, however, has long since been cut up, root and branch, in furnishing relics to literary pilgrims. Irving, Oliver Goldsmith. CHAPTER TV LETTER WRITING And shouldst thou iisk rny jiul^nu-nt of tliat which hath most profit in the world For answer take thou this: the prudt-ut [)(Miiiin«; of a letter. TUPPKH. 35 Kinds of letters. J.cttcrs are broadly classified according to the purpose of the writer. They may be separated into three main divisions: friendly letters, business letters and social forms. Of these, the first is always informal, the last two strictly formal. 36 Form. Letters differ in form as they differ in subject matter, but in general they have five essential parts. Place. Date. 1 The heading 2 The address and salutation. 3 The body of the letter. . rrii- 1 • i complhnentarv close. 4 i he conclusion < ^ e -. " I name of writer. 5 The superscription. The Heading The form of the heading is the same for both friendly letters and business letters. The place and date are usually wTitten on two separate lines, in the upper right- hand comer of the page, about one and one half inches from the top of the page. When the letter paper bears 86 LETTER WRITING 87 the name of the place printed or engraved at the top of the sheet, the date alone needs to be written beneath this, at the right of the page. The number and street should be given if the writer lives in a city, but if he hves in a small town, the name of the village and that of the county should be written. In either case the state should be mentioned. When the street and number are given, it is usually best to break the heading into three lines instead of two, especially when note paper is used. Notice the punctuation of the following headings, as well as the order in which the details are written. Phoenix, Oswego cc, N. Y. April 4, 1905 156 Hamilton st. Boston, Massachusetts Jan. 16, 1904 Note that the figures alone are used to indicate- the day of the month. Do not, for instance, write " April 4th " or " Jan. 16th." After the several Unes in the heading no punctuation mark is used except the period is used to indicate an abbreviation. The tendency at present also seems to be toward the omission of the comma between the name of the town or city and that of the state, especially in printed letter heads. This is, however, a matter of choice at the present time. 88 FIKST VKAU ENGLISH The Addresn and Salutation The formal address is used only in business letters. In such communications the name and address of the person written to are placed at the left of the paper, about one inch from the edge, on the two separate lines next below the date. The .salutation, Dear sir, My dear Mr Brown, follows. This is common to both busi- ness and friendly letters, and in the latter, forms the only introduction to the body of the letter. Rev. C. M. HarrLs Lawrence. Mass. Dear Mr Harris: Mr J. R. Thorpe Bennington, Vt. Dear sir: Mrs D. M. Pitman Lansingburg. N. Y. Dear madam : A comma or semicolon may be used in place of the colon. A dash following the salutation is unnecessary. The Body of the Letter The first word of the letter itself should be T\Titten on the line below the salutation, one and three fourths inches from the left edge, i.e. just where any paragraph should begin. The body of the letter should be para- LETTER WRITING 89 graphed and punctuated in the same manner as any other composition. The subject matter depends upon the purpose of the letter, and the relations existing between the writer and his correspondent. This will be considered under the various divisions, friendly- letters, business letters, etc. The Conclusion This consists of the complimentary close, Yours truly, Respectfully yours, Sincerely yours, etc. and the name of the writer. The comphmentary close is placed just below the last Hne of the body of the letter, the name following on the next line, a little to the right of the com- plimentary close. Observe that only the first letter of the complimentary close is capitalized, while no punc- tuation marks are used after the lines of the conclusion. Yours truly William N. Chester Very sincerely yours Emma R. Chase If the answer is to be sent to a permanent or a tem- porary address of the writer differing from that given in the heading, the street, number, and place should be written at the left of the page, on the Hne below the name. If a married woman signs her own name be- neath the comphmentary close, she should rewrite her name, prefixing Mrs and using her husband's name or initials, at the left of the page; usually the address also is repeated in such a case. If, however, for business 90 FIRST YKAR ENGLISH reasons, she prefers that her own Christian name or her initials ho used, slie sliould prefix to her signature the abbreviation Mrs inclosed in parentheses. Yours sincerely Ella I, Townsend Mrs Henry Townsend 31 n:xrj)or av. Rutland, Vt. Yours respectfully (Mrs) Mary WriKht (When different addrras is given in heading) Very respectfully yours Martha L. Wheeler 155 Grand st. Hudson, X. Y. The Superscription This is written on the envelope and consists merely of the name and address of the person to whom the letter is to be sent. In writing the superscription (1) the name should be written about midway between the upper and lower edges of the envelope, but slightly to the right; on separate lines should follow (2) the street and number, (3) the city or town, (4) the county, if the place be small, and finally (5) the state. Periods are used after abbre\'iations, and commas are placed between the items of a line, but neither commas nor periods are any longer used at the ends of the lines. LETTER WRITING 91 STAMP 1 H-2 MkxX^ ixt. u. \. Place the stamp squarely in the upper right-hand corner. A stamp placed upside down or pasted obliquely across the corner indicates haste and slovenly habits on the part of the writer. In addressing a letter to a person in New York city, it is not necessary to write either the word city or the name of the state; New York alone is sufficient. In Awiting addresses containing numbered streets it is best to write out in full the ordinals up to tenth. Above that, the numbers themselves followed by st for first, d for second and third, and th for those remaining, may be used. 245 Fifth av. 163 16th St. 172 43d St. 37 Friendly letters. In letters of friendship, the tone of the letter is determined by the degree of famil- iarity between the writer and his correspondent. If 92 FIKST YtAi: 1 .NL.1.1.>H the acquaintance is just beginning, the tune may be quite formal. In general, the most interesting letters of this class are those in wliich the correspondent writes as he would speak to the person addressed. A fault to be guarded against, however, is " writing without think- ing." Many friendships have been broken by state- ments impulsively written and never re-read. Words in script frequently give the reader an impression alto- gether different from that which they would leave U|X)n him if spoken, accompanied by a laugh or a gesture. Certain variations of form sliould be noticed. In a friendly letter the formal part of the salutation, that is, the name and address of the jjerson to whom it is writ- ten, is omitted, unless the letter is addressed to a mere acquaintance or to a person nmch above the writer in station. Such salutations as the following are used: Dear cousin: ^ly dear mother: Dear Mary: Dear friend : Dear Miss Phillips: Only the first word should begin with a capital ex- cept where the name of the person addressed is used. The body of the most friendly letters is, of course, made up of that which the writer thinks will be interesting to the person addressed. Never be afraid to begin the body of the letter with the pronoun " I." A stilted and forced tone is given to many letters by an effort on the part of the writer to keep himself in the background. Do not, however, begin with any such expressions as LETTER WRITING 93 " I now take my pen in hand," or " I thought I would write you a few lines," etc. These phrases belong to a past age in letter writing. The complimentary close of a friendly letter, as well as the salutation, is usually more familiar than that used in business communications. An easy and graceful con- clusion is given by such sentences as the following: I hope you will not fail to write me when you have the opportunity. Very cordially yours Helen King Mrs J. W. King 120 Fremont av. Buffalo, N. Y. Trusting that I shall, ere long, have the pleasure of seeing you, I remain Your sincere friend George Johnson Notice that the words " I am," " I remain," are placed in the body of the letter and not on a separate line. Many other expressions may be used in the compli- mentary close of letters passing between intimate friends or between relatives. Some of these are given below: Yours lovingly Your loving friend Very sincerely yours Your loving cousin Sincerely yours 94 FIRST YEAR ENGLISH Do not, however, use such concUisions as Yours, Yours hastilij, and Yours in haste. Notice tlie form of the following selections. Com- pare the tone of these letters with that of the business letters found on pages 102-104. Written for the children in the schools of Indianapolis ai the request of their teachtrs. New York, Decemlx?r 6, 1904 My dear boys and girls: 1 wish I might talk to you instead of writing, for, if I could see you once before nie, fair and dark, little and big, short and tall, I should very quickly know what you would like to hear. Indianapolis, however, is a long distance from New York, and we must do as well as we can, under the circumstances, with pen and paper. You have found out long before this, I am sure, how easily talk trips off the tongue, and how it hobbles and limps when we try to write it down. Yet, difficult though it may be, we must all learn how to do it, for it is just this "learning how" which makes possible all the beau- tiful letters between friends, all the stories which seem so real, and all the poetry that sounds all music in our ears. Some one has told me that you have studied two volumes of poetry which my sister and I have put to- gether for young people — Golden Numbers and The Posy Ring. We made the books because we loved the poems ourselves and wanted every boy and girl in the land to know and love them, too. I should be so glad to hear the names of your favor- ites, and why you liked some poems more than others. LETTER WRITING 96 It is easy to love a thing, and yet not be able to tell why, but try to see if you can put your feelings into words. It would be delightful for me, too, supposing you have read any of my stories, if you would tell me the title of the one you like best. The Birds' Christmas Carol, Timothy's Quest, Polly Oliver's Problem, The Story of Patsy, Rebecca — all have more in them to interest girls than boys; indeed, my book for boys is still to be written. I do not dare ask suggestions for it, however, lest Indians, bears, wolves, desert islands, cannibals, shipwrecks, buried treasure, and other subjects about which I know nothing be recommended to me by every post. Goodbye to you, then, girls, for whom I have written, and boys, for whom I am still to write. Yours affectionately Kate Douglas Wiggin William Cowper to John John, Esquire ^ Weston, March 11, 1792 My dearest Johnny: You talk of primroses that you pulled on Candlemas day; but what think you of me who heard a nightingale on New Year's day? Perhaps I am the only man in England who can boast of such good fortune; good, indeed; for if it was at all an omen, it could not be an unfavorable one. The winter, however, is now making himself amends, and seems the more peevish for having been encroached on at so undue a season. Nothing less than a large slice out of the spring will satisfy him. Lady Hesketh left us yesterday. She intended, in- deed, to have left us four days sooner; but in the evening 96 FIRST YEAH ENULISIl before the day fixed for her departure, snow enough fell to occasion just so much delay of it. Forget not vour promised visit. „. _ W. L. Oliver Goldsmith to Sir JoshiKi Reynolds Paris, July 29, 1770 My dear Friend: I began a long letter to you from Lisle, giving a descrip- tion of all that we had done and seen, but finding it very dull, and knowing that you would show it again, I threw it aside and it was lost. You see by the top of this letter that we are at Paris and, as I have often heard you say, we have brought our own amusement with us, for the ladies do not seem to be fond of what we have yet seen. With regard to myself I find that traveling at twenty and forty are very different things. I set out with all my confirmed habits about me, and can find nothing on the continent so good as when I formerly left it. One of our chief amusements here is scolding at everything we meet with, and praising everything and every person we left at home. You may judge, therefore, whether your name is not frequently bandied at table among us. To tell you the truth I never thought T could regret your absence so much as our various mortifications on the road have often taught me to do. I could tell you of dis- asters and adventures without number; of our lying in barns, and of my being half poisoned with a dish of green peas; of our quarreling with postillions, and being cheated by our landladies; but I reserve all this for a happy hour which I expect to share with you upon my return. I have one thing only more to say, and of that I think LETTER WRITING 97 every hour in the day, namely, that I am your most sincere and most affectionate friend, Oliver Goldsmith Brief, informal notes should in general have the same form and be governed by the same rules as longer letters. There is, however, one exception to this; the place and date are sometimes written out in full at the end of the note, instead of being written in abbreviated form at the top of the page. My dear Margaret: I should like you to meet my cousin, Edith Thornton, who is visiting me this week. Can you come to tea at five o'clock to-morrow? Yours sincerely Jennie Bigelow Kenwood, New York August fourteenth, nineteen hundred EXERCISE (1) Write to a friend who has recently moved away from 3'cur town, telling him what has happened at school since h€4€ft. (2) A cousin from Chicago visited you during your vacation. Write a letter to a friend, telling what you did to entertain your cousin. (3) Suppose you are visiting in Boston. Write a letter to your mother, mentioning some of the interesting places you have visited, and telling her when you will return. yS FlUST YEAK ENULISII (4) Write a letter to your brother wlio is in college, giving an iiccount of somo purty you luivc just attended. Write » letter in w liicli you uive tin account of a picnic. Iti) Write to your cousin an account of an exciting football game, that you witnessed or took part in. (7) You have a friend in Montreal. Write her a letter telling her how you like your .school work. (S) Write a note to your aunt, thanking her for the book she sent you on your birthday. (9) Write a letter to your friend who live.s in Lawrence, jMassachusett.s. asking him or her to camp for a week with you in the Adirondacks. (10) Write a note inviting one of your teachers to take tea with you Saturday. (11) Your mother is away from home. W' rite her an account of the family happenings since she went away. (12) Imagine you are spending a winter in Florida. Write a letter describing, as well as you can. the people, the climate, the products, etc., of this state. LETTER WRITING 99 (13) Suppose a friend of yours has just won a valuable medal for debating. Write a note of congratulation. (14) Write an answer to the letter on page 94. (15) Write a letter to a cousin in the far south, telling him of the winter sports that you enjoy here. (16) Write a letter to Marcia V. Sweet, Rutland, Vermont, asking her to spend the Christmas holidays with you. Give details concerning trains, transfers, etc. (17) Write a letter in which you tell what plans you have made for the next vacation. (18) Assume that you have just returned from a visit to a friend. Write to this friend a note or brief letter expressing your appreciation of the kindness shown you. 38 Business letters. In business letters every one of the five parts of a letter is represented. There is, moreover, but one acceptable form in good usage. Hardest to acquire in a business letter is the business- like tone that a really good communication of this type should have. The following suggestions should be care- fully observed : 1 Notice that a formal salutation is always used in a business letter, except in a letter of general recom- mendation or certification. 100 FIRST YKAH KN(:rLlsH 2 Never use Yours sincerely, Your sincere friend, or other expressions of regard in business letters. No mat- ter how intimate the writer's personal relations with his correspondent the business letter should be formal in tone and exact in form. Do not use Yours respectfully unless there is some particular reason why the person addressed should be entitled to such distinction. For instance, in an order for goods, the transaction is purely a business matter, and no particular expression of rever- ence or veneration is admissible. 3 In applications, such expressions as " I take the liberty of applying," " I beg to offer myself as a candi- date," etc. aid in producing a good tone. 4 A formal letter of introduction may be opened by such expressions as " I take pleasure in introducing to you the bearer, Mr William Harding"; " It affords me great pleasure to be able to introduce to you Mr William Harding." 5 In a general letter of recommendation or certifica- tion the personal address and salutation are omitted and the phrase, " To whom it may concern," is substi- tuted, followed by such an expression as: I take pleasure in recommending Mr Warren Crosby, who, etc. I am glad to recommend Mr Warren Crosby, etc. It gives me much pleasure to recommend, etc. This is to certify that Mr Warren Crosby has been in my employ for the past four years, etc. In a general letter of this kind no closing phrase is used, the name only being signed at the end. Follow- LETTER WRITING 101 ing the name, however, the official title, if any, should be given. F. G. Wickes Principal of Genesee High School M. B. Munson President of Hecla Iron Works 6 Do not use such expressions as " Answer by return mail," " Answer soon," " Answer immediately." A business letter is usually answered as soon as possible. In case the writer particularly desires an immediate reply, he should close with one of the following expres- sions : An early reply will be appreciated. Kindly reply at your earliest convenience. Hoping for an immediate reply, I am Yours truly Arthur B. Jackson Hoping you will give this matter your immediate attention, I am Very truly yours B. D. Treadwell 7 Avoid using the word '' please " in a business letter. '' Kindly " is a better word to use. If favors are desired, ask for them in a straightforward, business- like way. 8 Let your letter be clear and as brief as possible. A business man has no time to waste in deciphering the real meaning or object of a business letter. 10*2 KIHST YKAH KNfJMSH 9 Never add u |)()sts('ri|)t to u Imsiiiess letter. If something esseiitijd has l^een omitted, rewrite tlie letter. Study the following forms, paying particular atten- tion to the punctuation and the position of the heading, address, salutation, and complimentary close, to the language used in the body of tlie letter, and to the general tone. 1226 James st. Syracuse. N. Y. May 27, 1905 Mr B. M. Kicimrds linldwiti3ville. N. Y. Dear sir: Having seen your :idvertisenient in this morning's " Standard." I hereby apply for a position in your office. I am eighteen years old and a gradtiate <^f the Tuxedo Business College of this city. I can refer you, by permission, to the principal of this school, and to Mr F. L. Rogers, of 438 Franklin st.. in whose office I was employed for one year. Hoping to receive a favorable reply. I am Very respectfully yours James L. Townsend 126 State st. Albany, N. Y. Sept. 17. 1904 Crawford & Crawford Buffalo, N. Y. Gentlemen: Your favor of the 14th ult. inclosing a check for twenty-five dollars ($25) in payment of your account came duly to hand. LETTER WRITING 103 We thank you for your promptness in remitting and hope to receive further orders from you. Very truly yours Wood & Co. 134 Water st. Schenectady, N. Y. October 19, 1904 Howe & Barker Poughkeepsie, N. Y. Gentlemen : Kindly send us by N. Y. C, freight prepaid, the following: 25 Remington typewriters 6 dozen Paragon purple ribbons 3 dozen Paragon black ribbons 2 sheets carbon paper 2 sheets stencil paper We trust that these goods will be sent promptly, as we are in immediate need of them. We will send check on receipt of the shipment. Yours truly King Bros. & Co. 67 Chnton av. Troy, N. Y. January 3, 1906 Mr John M. Crouse Elmira, N.Y. Dear Mr Crouse: This will introduce to you our friend and former book- keeper, Mr Henry R, Bolton, who visits your city to engage in the stationery business. He is a capable, ener- 104 Fiu.sr yi:ak KNiii.isH getic, honorable gentleman, and will, we feel sure, bo. very successful in his new undertaking. Any courtesies you may show him will be greatly appreciated by us. Very truly yours Sheffield & Brown. 1911 Third hv. Rochester, N. Y. March 12, 1906 To whom it may concern: This is to certify that Miss Charlotte A. Knowles has been in my employ during the past two years. She is faithful, reliable and industrious, and I take pleasure in recommending her to any one desiring the services of a competent stenographer. George M. Shattuck. EXERCISE (1) Write to Harper & Brothers, New York, subscribing for "Harper's Magazine." "Harper's Weekly," and " Harper's Bazar," each to be sent to a different address. Inclose a money order for $9.00. (2) Write to the assemblyman of your district asking him to procure for you a copy of the " Legislative Manual, 1906." (3) Write to David F. Hoy, Registrar of Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y., asking him to inform you concerning the requirements for admission to that university. LETTER WRITING 105 (4) Write to Silver, Burdett & Company, 231 West 39th st.. New York, for a complete catalogue of their publications. (5) You find the following advertisement in the morning paper; apply for the position. Wanted — Boy to work in drug store. W. H., 326 Central av. (6) Mr L. C. Barton sends your father a draft for $22.75 in payment for goods or for services. Write your father's reply, acknowledging the receipt of the draft. (7) Write to M. L. Field, 126 Elm st., Albany, New York, asking for particulars concerning his annual vacation tour to Europe. (8) Write Mr Field's reply, stating that the date for sail- ing is June 30, on S. S. Caledonia. He incloses illus- trated pamphlet. (9) You desire to enter the Henley Business College, Syra- cuse, N. Y. Write for information concerning courses, terms, etc. (10) Write to your grocer, ordering the following: 1 sack flour, 2 boxes force, 10 lbs. granulated sugar, 1 lb. soda, 2 doz. eggs, 1 bu. potatoes. lOt) FIUKT VEAK ENGLISH (11) A friend is moving to a distant city. Write a letter introducing this friend to your cousin who lives in that city. (12) Apply for a position as bookkeeper in the hardware store of W. R. Patterson & Co., Geneva, N. Y. (13) Write a general letter of recommendation for John B. Gardiner from his former employers, Wilson & Grand. (H) A teacher having taught three years in a grade school of your town applies to your father, who is president of the board of education, for a letter of recommendation. Write this letter. (15) Write a letter to a publishing house, ordering three books that you need. Give the necessary details. (16) Write an answer to an advertisement for a clerk who can do typewriting. State your age, your qualifications and experience, and give references. (17) Suppose that in the letter just written you have referred to your high school principal. The firm to whom you have applied writes to him for information concerning your ability. Write this letter and the principal's reply. 39 Postal cards and telegrams. These are abbrevi- ated business letters. Postal cards are used in business whenever a short message, usually a notice or quotation LETTER WRITING 107 of prices, is to be sent by mail. The superscription on the '' address " side of the postal is identical with that written on an envelope. On the reverse side of the card, the heading, salutation, and conclusion should be written just as they are in a letter. The formal salutation, and frequently the whole salutation, is omitted. The mes- sage itself should be brief and of such a nature that pri- vacy is of no importance; if it is so long that it is with difficulty crowded on the space allotted, or if it is of a personal nature, a letter should be written instead of a postal card. Friends, however, sometimes use souvenir cards as a reminder of a particular day or occasion. In such a case no set form is followed, the name or the mere initials being usually signed to a few words written wherever there is space. In the use of postal cards the chief rule to be observed is never to employ them for \\Titing private affairs of any kind. The contents of the message should consist of facts — and only such facts as might properly be made public. Telegrams are the briefest of all communications. As ten words only may be sent for a given fixed sum, and as all words over ten add so much per word to the cost of the message, it is necessary to be as brief as possible. Hence all except the most important words should be omitted. The name and address of the per- son to whom it is to be forwarded, and the name of the sender are not counted in the telegram itself; they are, however, essential parts of the telegram and must never be omitted. Capitals and punctuation marks are of minor importance, for they are usually altered or destroyed in the course of transmission. Telegrams are usually 108 FIRST YEAH ENCJLISH written upon a blank form especially provided by the telegraph company. The name of the place is supplied by the telegraph operator. A telegram should be clear as well as concise; therefore be sure that a telegram is so worded that it conveys the meaning intended. Postal Card Troy, N. Y. Feb. 2G. 1903 Mr Junies R. Russell West Troy, N. Y. • Dear sir: A meeting of the class of 1907, Troy High School, will be held in classroom B, Saturday afternoon at 3 p.m. Yours truly Jane C. Belden. Sec. Telegram Mrs C. W. Bradt 109 Willett St. Binghamton, N. Y. Delayed. Will reach Union Depot 3 a.m. Send car- riage. Julia 40 Advertisements. These, like telegrams, should be clear and concise. Although more or less abbreviated, they are not, however, reduced to the terseness and abruptness of telegrams, for it is often necessary to give many details in a communication of this kind. Capitals and punctuation marks play quite as important a part as they do in letters, for the advertisement is printed exactly as it is written. LETTER WRITING 109 Study the following illustrations, noticing the general form and the distinctive expressions belonging to the advertisement. Lost — February 4, between Jay and Cherry streets, a silver watch, open face. Finder kindly return to 71 Cherry and receive reward. To Let — Two large furnished rooms, hot and cold water, gas, steam heat, rent reasonable. 128 Lancaster. Wanted — Girl, for general housework. No washing or ironing. Inquire 63 Grand. Wanted — By steady young man, aged 21 years, work of any kind; experience in upholstering. Address J. Boynton, 156 North River. EXERCISE (1) Write a postal card to Perry Mason Company, Boston, Massachusetts, and ask them to stop sending you " The Youth's Companion." (2) Write a postal card to an express agent in your town, asking him to call at your house for a heavy package to be sent by express. (3) Write a postal card to the business manager of some daily paper, and ask him to change your address on his delivery list. The old address should also be mentioned. 110 FIRST YEAR ENGLISH (4) Suppose you have gone to visit a friend in Chicago. Write a postal card to your mother, telling her you have just arrived at your destination, (5) Write a postal card asking for a sample copy of some paper that you have seen advertised. (6) Suppose you are in Buffalo and have lost your pocket- book. Telegraph your father asking him to send you some money. (7) Telegraph the People's Line, Albany, N. Y., ordering a stateroom on the New York boat leaving Albany tomor- row evening. (8) You are on your way from Chicago to Syracuse. A wreck occurs just east of Buffalo. Telegraph your mother apprising her of your safety and telling her when you will reach home. (9) Assume that you have planned to visit a friend. She expects you on the train arriving at 4.45 p.m. Telegraph her that you cannot come because your mother has suddenly been taken ill. (10) After starting for ■Montreal you find that you will be delayed in Troy two hours. Telegraph a friend to meet you there, giving details concerning the time and place of meeting. LETTER WRITING 111 (11) Write an advertisement of some article that you have found. (12) Write an advertisement stating that you desire a posi- tion as bookkeeper in a business office. Give details. (13) Suppose you have lost a valuable ring. Write an ad- vertisement asking for its return and offering a reward. (14) Your father has a house that he wishes to let. Write an advertisement giving details as to location, improve- ments, etc. (15) Mann & Whittle, wholesale grocers, desire a traveling salesman. Write their advertisement, giving details con- cerning territory, salary, etc. 41 Social forms. These are the most formal kind of commumcations. They include formal announce- ments, invitations to formal social functions, and ac- ceptances and refusals of them. The following points in the wording of social forms may be noted: 1 They are always written in the third person; hence the pronouns, "I," "we," or "you," are never used. 2 No name is signed at the end. 3 Abbreviations are seldom used. 4 The place and date are always written at the close. They are placed below and to the left of the body of the note and are usually written out in full. The year is often omitted. 112 FIRST VKA1{ KNGLISH 5 They are always brief. Remember that the style of the mvitation determinea the tone of the answer. The acceptance or the refusal of an invitation written in the third person should also be in the same person. If an invitation is tendered in a brief informal note written in the first person it should be answered in the first person. Study the following forms: Mr anrl Mrs Edward D. Wightman request the pleasure of Mr Howard Wayne's company at dinner, Tuesday evening, September ninth, at seven o'clock. Kenwood Place September fifth, nineteen hundred three Mr Howard Wayne accepts with pleasure Mr and Mrs Wightman's invitation to dinner Tuesday evening, Sep- tember ninth, at seven o'clock. One hundred and forty Sixth avenue September sixth, nineteen hundred three Mr Howard Wayne regrets his inability to accept Mr and Mrs Wightman's invitation to dinner, Tuesday eve- ning, September ninth, at seven o'clock. One hundred and forty Sixth avenue September sixth Mr Howard Wayne regrets that a previous engagement prevents his accepting Mr and Mrs Wightman's invita- tion to dinner, Tuesday evening, September 9, at 7 o'clock. 140 Sixth avenue September 6 LETTER WRITING 113 The printed or engraved form of announcement instead of extending the whole width of the page is spaced so that the words occupy a comparatively small portion of the page. c5K/0 j§)onioA/ CZoudA^ ot I C|05 Q/:>y\y\nrvJur\.QAJYY\jUY\X C/ocOuiaA)Aj(i> to [}-o yuJxL t/vi/ z5yjL/tMAxx/iy i/xyt/ru/Yxxju, HAJuvUy ^mj-^jyxXaaJjto, O/t vucvnX o'clocJt/. The letters R. S. V. P. which represent the French, Repondez, sHl vous plait (respond, if you please), are sometimes added at the bottom of an invitation or announcement. The use of these letters is in question- able taste, for courtesy requires that every invitation be answered at once. EXERCISE (1) Mr and Mrs James Forman are to give a formal dinner next Thursday. Write their invitation to Miss Viola Harding. 114 tlHST VKAK KNGLISU (2) Write Mis3 Harding's acceptance of this invitation. C3) The Iroquois club have issued invitations to a reception and ball on the Friday evening after Thanksgiving. Writ« your reply declining the invitation. (4) Miss Ella Stedman is to give a whist party Wednesday afternoon. Write her invitation to Miss Clara Dawson. (5) Write Miss Dawson's reply. (6) The Epsilon Debating Society of your high school de- sires to have a public debate. Write the invitation prop- erly spaced for engraving. (7) The alumni association of your high school is to hold a banquet June 20. How should the invitations be worded? Some mention should also be made of the calling card wliieh is gradually taking the place of the formal written invitation. Invitations to afternoon functions and to many evening affairs are now sent upon the engraved visiting card of the host or hostess, the day and hour being written either just below the engraved name or in the lower left-hand corner. LETTER WRITING 115 Thursday From four to six 133 Xaftc Hrenue Pliss Jfane iSbelgn Sl^ato To meet Miss Blank Wednesday From four to six In acknowledging an invitation of this kind, the call- ing card is again called into use. CHAPTER V SENTENCES, CLAUSES AND PHRASES " The grammar of every language is merely a compilation of those general principles or rules, agreeably to which that language is spoken." Cuomiuk. 42 Definition and classification according to form, A sentence is a complete statement of a single thought. A complete thought may sometimes be expressed by a single subject and predicate, or in some instances, where !.he subject is understood, by a predicate alone. Birds sing. Obey! Oftentimes the subject or predicate or both may consist of several parts. Men, women and children, stare, cry out and run. He helped to make hay and mended the fences. In most cases both subject and predicate have modi- fiers, which may be words, phrases or clauses. If these modifiers are words or phrases, they merely add more explicit information to that expressed by the subject and predicate. The statement is still a single one and is known as a simple sentence. Our ancestors were nice in their method of sacrificing these tender victims. 116 SENTENCES, CLAUSES AND PHRASES 117 The rays of a bright morning sun had a dazzUng effect among the glittering foUage. Every sentence must have at least one principal state- ment. If, however, in addition to the principal state- ment or member of a sentence there is either another statement of equal rank or a minor statement, the sen- tence is no longer said to be a simple sentence. The main statement of the sentence is called the principal member or principal clause, and if the sentence contains statements of equal rank, these are called coordinate members of the sentence. The minor statements, which really perform the function of single parts of speech, are called subordinate clauses. Some sentences contain one principal member and one or more subordinate clauses. Other sentences contain two or more coordi- nate members and in addition may have one or more subordinate clauses. I saw his grief was eloquent and I let it have its flow. [Two principal clauses, the first containing a subordinate clause.] It was toward evening that Ichabod arrived at the castle of the Heer Van Tassel, which he found thronged with the pride and flower of the adjacent country. [One principal, two subordinate clauses.] EXERCISE Pick out the clauses in the following and classify them as principal or subordinate : Riches are for spending and spending is for honor and good actions. Of great riches there is no real use, except it be in the dis- tribution; the rest is but conceit. 118 FIRST YEAR ENGLISH By and by she shut the book, locked her desk, and came and drew a chair to mine, where I sat in moody sorrow over the fire. I had forgotten to tell Miss Matty about the pudding and I was afraid she might not do justice to it, for she had evidently very little appetite this day. I have loved her ever since, though perhaps I 'd no right to do it; but if you can think of any way in which I might be allowed to give a little more without any one knowing it I shoukl be so much obliged to you. And, perhaps, it would not have done in Drumble, but in Cranford it answered very well; for not only did Mr. Johnson kindly put at rest all Miss Matty's .scruples and fear of injuring his business, but I have rea.son to know he repeatedly sent cus- tomers to her, saying that the teas he kept were of a common kind but that Miss Jenkyns had all the choice sorts. He who can turn churlishly away from contemplating the felicity of his fellow-beings, and can sit down darkling and re- pining in his loneliness when all around is joyful, may have his moments of strong excitement and selfish gratification, but he wants the genial and social sj'mpathies which constitute the charm of a merry Christmas. And here, perhaps, it may not be unacceptable to my un- traveled readers to have a sketch that may serve as a general representation of this numerous and important class of func- tionaries who have a dress, a manner, a language, an air, pecu- liar to themselves, and prevalent througliout the fraternity; so that, wherever an English stage-coachman may be seen, he cannot be mistaken for one of any other craft or mystery. When a sentence is composed of one principal state- ment and one or more subordinate clauses, it is called a complex sentence. It was a fine sunny morning when the thrilling cry of "Land" was given from the masthead. He even ventured, when no eye was fixed upon him, SENTENCES, CLAUSES AND PHRASES 119 to taste the beverage, which he found had much of the flavor of excellent Hollands. When a sentence is composed of two or more co- ordinate statements, it is called a compound sentence. He was surprised to see any human being in this lonely and unfrequented place, but supposing it to be some one of the neighborhood in need of assistance, he hastened down to yield it. Though he was rather shy and distrustful of this new acquaintance, he complied with his usual alacrity, and mutually relieving each other, they clambered up a nar- row gully. EXERCISE Classify as simple, complex or compound each of the following sentences; also select and classify the clauses as dependent or independent: But when the next day broke from underground, And shot red fire and shadows thro' the cave, They rose, heard mass, broke fast, and rode away. All that remained to be discovered was the Captain's infinite kindness of heart and the various modes in which, unconsciously to himself, he manifested it. I have been trying all my life to like Scotchmen, and am obliged to desist from the experiment in despair. When the landlady brought in the bill, the eldest of my companions discovered that she had charged for both meals. A gi'eat and potent nobility addeth majesty to a monarch but diminisheth power; and putteth life and spirit into the people, but presseth their fortune. The last time I ever saw Miss Jenkyns was many years after this. 120 KlUM ^ lAH KNGLISH ... To this the courteous Prince Accorded with his wonted courtesy, Courtesy with a touch of traitor in it, And stay'd; and cast his eyes on fair Elaine. Various attempts have been made by his biograpliers to soften and explain away this early transgression of the poet, but I look upon it as one of those thoughtless exploits natural to his situation and turn of mind. Shakespere, when young, had doubtless all the wildne.s.s and irregularity of an ardent, undisciplined, and undirected genius. To him the poaching in Sir Thomas Lucy's park was doubt- less like a foray to a Scottish knight. The brook was searched but the body of the schoolmaster was not to be found. On all sides he beheld vast store of apples, some hanging in oppressive opulence on the trees; some gathered into baskets and barrels for the market; others heaped up in ricli piles for the cider press. The animal he bestrode was a broken-down plow-horse that had outlived almost everything but his viciousne-ss. Mrs. .lamieson stood up, giving us each a torpid smile of welcome, and looking helplessly beyond us at Mr. Mulliner, as if she hoped he would place us in chairs. As a proof of how thoroughly we had forgotten that we were in the presence of one who might have sat down to tea with a coronet instead of a cap on her head, Mrs. Forrester related a curious little fact to Lady Glenmire — an anecdote known to the circle of her intimate friends, but of which even Mrs. Jamie- son was not aware. 43 Classification according to use. Sentences are, according to use, divided into four classes, declarative, interrogative, imperative, and exclamatory. A declarative sentence is one that states a fact. SENTENCES, CLAUSES AND PHRASES 121 He stepped forward to hear more distinctly. The lands thus lost have not been entirely regained. An interrogative sentence is one which asks a question. What excuse shall I make? Where's Van Bummel, the schoolmaster? An imperative sentence is one which expresses a com- mand or entreaty. In this type of sentence the subject '' you " is understood. Having food and raiment, let us therewithal be con- tent. An exclamatory sentence is one which expresses strong feeling or emotion. What passion cannot music raise and quell! In an exclamatory sentence the order of subject and predicate is often changed for the sake of emphasis, the predicate then coming first. Exclamatory words, such as, how, what, etc., also invert the order. Great is Diana of the Ephesians! In sentences having the normal order the exclama- tion point alone indicates to the reader the emotional nature of the sentence. Exclamatory sentences, being determined by the pres- ence of emotion on the part of the writer or speaker, do not, strictly speaking, form a distinct class; that is, every exclamatory sentence is, at the same time, de- clarative, interrogative, or imperative in use. What a beautiful day it is! [Exclamatory-declarative.] What would he not give to be here ! [Exclamatory-in- terrogative.] 12*2 FIRST Vr.AR ENGLISH Strike, ye cowards! [Exclamatory-imperative.] The introduction of no, not, never, or any otlicr words of negation or denying, makes a negative sentence. All statements, questions, demands, or exclamations wliich are not negative are known as affirmative. EXERCISE Classify the following (^7) accordini; to form, as simple, complex or compound, and (b) according to use, as declara- tive, interrogative, imperative or exclamatorj-: How many things are thero which a man cannot, with nny face or comoHness, say or do himself! In a long ramble of the kind, on a fine .'iiitumnal day. Rip had unconsciously scrambled to one of the highest parts of the Kaatskill Mountains. "Sure enough! It is Rip Van Winkle — it is himself. Wel- come home again, old neighbor! Why, where have yon been these twenty long years? " From the moment Ichabod laid his eyes upon these regions of delight, the peace of his mind was at an end, and his only study was how to gain the affections of the peerless daughter of Van Tassel. How trivial, my dear father, do all our apprehensions of the last evening appear, at the present moment, to calm and in- quiring minds! . . . When the curtain drew up, what cared we for our place in the house, or what mattered it where we were sitting, when our thoughts were vnih Rosalind in Arden or with Viola at the Court of lUyria? And now do just look at that merry little Chinese waiter holding an umbrella big enough for a bed-tester over the head of that pretty, insipid, half Madonnaish chit of a lady in the very blue summer house. SENTENCES, CLAUSES AND PHRASES 123 44 Dependent clauses. Dependent or subordinate clauses are, according to their grammatical use, divided into three classes: noun, adjective, and adverbial. A noun clause is one that is equivalent to, or does the work of, a noun. The following are the principal uses of the noun or substantive clause*: 1 As subject of a finite verb. "What can you do?" should be the first question. 2 As object of a verb or preposition. He has already told us that he is past fifty. [Object of verb.] He lives on what he inherited. [Object of preposition.] 3 In apposition with a noun or substantive. I am sure of the fact that he is not going. He asked me the question, "Where have you been?" 4 As attribute or predicate nominative. The fact is that I do not believe him. 5 As objective complement or factitive predicate. I shall call him what I please. EXERCISE Classify the following sentences as complex or com- pound, and select the noun clauses ; giA^ng the syntax : I know that you do not believe what he says; nevertheless his statement is true. He relies upon what he has accomplished in the past. He insisted that I should go with him and I consented. The fact is that I have always been haunted with a sense of incapacity for business. * An iaterrogative sentence vised as a noun clause is called an indirect question. 124 FIRST YEAK ENGLISH It is true that I had my Sundays to myself, but Sundays are not adapted for days of unbending and recreation. Whatever is, is to me a matter of taste or distaste. In a certain sense I Iiope it may be said of me that I am a lover of my species. I love Quaker ways and Quaker worship; it does me good for the rest of the day when I meet any of their people in my path. An opening in the trees now cheered him with the hope that the church bridge was at hand. "If I can but reach that bridge," thought Ichabod, "I am safe." Whether Ichabod left the country through mortification at having been suddenly dismissed by the heiress, or whether he was carried off by the Galloping Hessian, no one ever knew. An adjective clause is a dependent clause that de- scribes or limits. It does the work of an adjective. Most adjectives can be expanded into adjective clauses and many adjective clauses can be contracted into single words or phrases. How can you afford to buy any book that pleases you? I know the time when roses bloom. An adverbial clause is one having the same office as an adverb. Adverbial clauses express the following relations: 1 Time. When you are ready, he will go. 2 Place. Rip followed where his companions led. 3 Marxner. The boy walks as if he were lazy. SENTENCES, CLAUSES AND PHRASES 126 4 Comparison or degree. My brother is taller than I. [Comparison.] He ran as fast as he could. [Degree.] 5 Condition. Had I so desired, I might have gone. If it had not rained, we should have had a picnic. 6 Concession. I shall be obliged to start, although it is raining. 7 Cause. The child was happy because the sun shone. 8 Evidence. He has a cold, for he is hoarse. 9 Purpose. He went to the library that he might obtain a volume of Dickens. 10 Result. There was something so ludicrous in the catastrophe that I burst into laughter. EXERCISE Classify as noun, adjective or adverbial, each subordi- nate clause in the following, stating the subdivision of the classification if the clause is adverbial ; and give syntax : It is common to hear a person say, "You do not expect me to speak as if I were upon my oath." We stopped to bait at Andover where a meal, partly tea apparatus, partly supper, was set before us. Those who live only for the world, and in the world, may be cast down by the frowns of adversity. / While I was gazing about in this idle way, my attention was attracted to a distant door which was at the end of a suite of apartments. 126 FIRST YEAR ENGLISH The scene reminded mc of an old Arabian tale, of a philostv phcr who was shut up in an enchanted Ubrary, in tht' bosom of a mountain, that opened only once a year; where he made the spirits of the place obey his commands and bring him books of all kinds of dark knowledge so that, at the end of the year, when the magic portal once more swung open on its hinges, he issued forth so versed in forbidden lore, that he was able to soar above the heads of the multitude and to control the powers of nature. If it mined they would resolve to spend an evening at home. Although the doctor's daughter had known nothing of the country of her birth, she appeared to have innately derived from it that ability to make much of little means, which is one of its most useful and most agreeable characteristics. I well understand that, without you, I could have no hope. Then Mr. Stryvcr turned and burst out of the bank, causing such a concussion of air on his passage through that to stand up against it required the utmost remaining strength of the two ancient clerks. The man moved a httle further away as soon as he could. I am glad you are at home, for these forebodings by which I have been surrounded all day long have made me nervous without reason. People who could lay hold of nothing else began to force stones and bricks out of their places in walls in order that they might be used as weapons. 45 Phrases. A phrase is a group of related words not contaiiiing a finite verb and used as a single part of speech. Such groups add details to or complete the statement made by a subject and predicate. Having heard this bit of gossip, he started for home to repeat the news to his wife. Phrases as well as clauses are divided into classes, both according to their form and according to their SENTENCES, CLAUSES AND PHRASES 127 use. According to form, they are known as preposi- tional, participial or infinitive; according to use, as noun, adjective or adverbial. A prepositional phrase is introduced by a preposition, which may have a noun, pronoun, participle, infinitive, phrase or clause for its object. The whole phrase may be used like an adjective to describe or limit a noun, or it may be used like an adverb to express time, place, manner, etc. Prepositional phrases are either adjective or adverbial. This is a matter of importance. [Adjective.] He put the letter into his pocket. [Adverbial.] On coming nearer, I perceived my mistake. [Ad- verbial.] Adverbial prepositional phrases have the following special uses: 1 Time. He was here at noon. 2 Manner. The horse ran with great swiftness. 3 Place in which. I met your sister in the depot. 4 Place to which — end or hmit of motion. I am going to the library. 5 Place from which, Peter ran away from home. 6 Accompaniment. He strolled down the street with his dog at his heels. 128 FIRST YEAR ENGLISH The horse trotted along without a driver. [Negative ol accompaniment.] 7 Agency or authorship. This book was written l)y Dif^kens. 8 Instrument or means. He accidentally struck his brother with a stick. 9 Cause. He was frightened at his danger. 10 Degree. He is taller than I by three inches. The following special uses of adjective prepositional phrases should be noted; 1 Possession. The owner of the house has gone abroad. 2 Partitive. One of the boys went home. 3 Quality or description. I saw the man with the hoe. The house of wood burned quickly. A participial phrase is introduced by a participle. Such a phrase describes or limits a noun or pronoun in the same manner as an adjective or an adjective clause. The house, being in the path of the tornado, was de- stroyed. Having risen before the sun was up, we started on our way. Participial phrases loosely thrown into a sentence SENTENCES, CLAUSES AND PHRASES 129 without a word to depend upon are known as dangling participles. Standing upon the summit of the mountain, a glorious view of the surrounding country could be obtained. The participle " standing," if it depends upon any word in the sentence, must modify the subject " view." This would indicate that the " view " was " standing on the summit of the mountain." The sentence should be reconstructed as follows: Standing upon the summit of the mountain, one could obtain a glorious view of the surrounding country. An infinitive phrase is introduced by an infinitive. It may be used as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. It is a good thing to give thanks unto the Lord. [Noun.] The boy has work to do. [Adjective.] The fruit is not ripe enough to eat. [Adverb.] An adverbial infinitive phrase is often used, instead of a clause, to express purpose. Books were written to give pleasure. EXERCISE (1) Select the phrases in the following, classifying them according to form, as prepositional, participial or infini- tive, and according to use, as noun, adjective or adver- bial (subdivision if adverbial); give the syntax of each: Desired at a feast to touch a lute, Themistocles said he could not fiddle, but yet he could make a small town a great city. I was curious to see how he manufactured his wares. 160 FIUST YEAR KNGMSll Right to tlie heart of Lausulus Horatius sent a blow. The present customer stood opposite to iier, without asking for anything, only looking fixedly at her as he drummed upon the table with his fingers. I found my.self in u spacious chamber, surrounded with great cases of venerable books. On coming down stairs I found Mrs. Forrester waiting for me at the entrance to the dining-parlor. .1 found myself in a lofty anti(|ue hall, the roof supported by massive joists of old English oak. The house is shown by a garrulous old lady in a frosty red face, lighted up by a cold blue, anxious eye, and garnished with artificial locks of flaxen hair curling from under an exceed- ingly dirty cap. It is a pleasure to read. The boy had the ill luck to lose his cap. The stone struck the water with a tremendous splash. He was a tall, shambling youth, with a cast in his eye, not at all calculated to concihate hostile prejudice.". After him they silently slunk in, and followed by stealth up four flights, and saw him tap at a poor wicket, which was opened by an aged woman, meanly clad. The next morning the old horse was found without his saddle, and with the bridle imder his feet, soberly cropping the grass at his master's gate. (2) Write: 1 A complex declarative sentence containing a sub- stantive clause. 2 A compound imperative sentence. 3 A compound sentence having one complex member. 4 A complex interrogative sentence containing an adverbial clause. SENTENCES, CLAUSES AND PHRASES 181 5 An indirect quotation. 6 A direct question containing a clause of purpose. 7 A sentence containing an indirect question. 8 A negative complex imperative sentence. 9 A sentence containing an indirect command. 10 An indirect statement containing an adverbial clause of evidence. 11 An indirect question as object of a preposition. 12 A compound sentence containing an adverbial clause of manner. 13 A complex declarative sentence containing an adverbial clause of condition. 14 A compound interrogative sentence, 15 A simple exclamatory sentence. 16 An imperative sentence containing an infinitive phrase. 17 A simple sentence containing a participial phrase. 18 A sentence containing a noun phrase. 19 A simple interrogative sentence containing a prep- ositional adverbial phrase. 20 A simple negative sentence containing an adjec- tive phrase. 21 A compound sentence containing a participial phrase. 22 A compound sentence containing one imperative member and one declarative member. 23 An interrogative sentence containing an adjective clause. 24 Sentences containing adverbial clauses of (a) place, (6) time, (c) degree, (d) evidence, (e) cause. 25 A compound declarative sentence containing an adverbial clause of result. 26 A complex negative sentence containing an ad- verbial clause of concession. 132 FIKST YEAR ENCLISM 27 A simple sentence containing a participial phrase an infinitive phrase, and a prepositional phrase. 28 A complex sentence containing an adjective clause and an adverbial clause. 29 A complex sentence containing an infinitive phrase and an adjective clause. 30 A simple sentence containing two particij^ial phrases. 31 Sentences containing adverbial phrases of (a) place in which, (6) manner, (c) means, (d) limit of mo- tion, (e) time, (/) cause, (g) degree, {h) negative of accompaniment. * 32 The following in indirect discourse: " Why, in the name of Davy Jones," said he, " is Dr. Livescy mad?" "Why, no," says I. "lie's about tlio la.st of this cr*" f'"- that, I take it." " Well, shipmate," said Gray, " mad lie may not be; but il At •> not, / am." "I take it," replied I, "the doctor has his idea; and if I'm right, he's going now to see Ben Gunn." (3) Classify each dependent clause as noun, adjective or adverbial, giving its use. Contract the dependent clauses to phrases, and classify each resulting phrase according to form and use. Toys are made in order that they may give children pleasure. When I heard her voice, I turned around. I select books that give instruction. Authorship was an unprofitable craft which was pursued by monks. The boy decided that he would try again. SENTENCES, CLAUSES AND PHRASES 138 My mother, who was watching at the window, enjoyed the game very much. After he had dehvered the message he began to play with the other children. One day our schoolmaster received a message which was brought to hijn by a negro slave. Ichabod who was anxious to go to the party let school out early in order that he might be ready in time. I moved forward in order that I might get a nearer view. The cupbearer who came behind him whispered in his ear. He is conscious that he has done a good deed. The boy resolved that he would trust to the sagacity of his horse. When the boat was completed, he turned to his companions. You cannot fully sympathize with suffering unless you have suffered. He takes exercise in order that he may become strong. That he should take offense at such a trifle surprised us. We were obliged to seek shelter for the storm was near. Resolve that you ^dll do right. People who live in glass houses should not throw stones. (4) Keeping the same meaning, write the following sentence in (a) simple declarative form, (6) interrogative form: The boy who is ambitious is never idle. Write the following sentence in (a) simple interroga- tive form, (b) simple negative ' form, (c) conditional affirmative form, (d) conditional negative form : By perseverance wejpan overcome most difficulties. Without changing the meaning rewrite the following sen- tence in (a) simple declarative form, (6) conditional form, (c) negative declarative form, (d) negative interrogative form •. A man who perseveres deserves to succeed. CHAPTER M NARRATION Of all those arts in which the wi.st> excel, Nature's chief masterpiece is writing well. Sheffield, Duh- of Buckingham. 46 Definition. All coinijositions belong to one of the following type lornis of discourse — narration, de- scription, exposition, and argumentation. The first of these, narration, is in simple language, a story — a recital of what actually did happen or what possibly Miiglit happen. To this type belong biography, news, history, and many letters. The composition may be short or long, true or fictitious, prose or poetry; the factor that determines its classification as narration is the action which it represents. Any writing that re- lates incidents, actions, or events is classed under nar- ration. Ml narratives are written in one of three ways: 1 By one of the actors. 2 In the form of letters. 3 By the method of omniscience, which assumes that the author knows all that his characters do, say and think. Sometimes two of these methods are combined. If in a letter to a friend the writer tells of some happen- ings in which he is an actor, the result is a combination 134 NARRATION 136 of the first two methods. A long story is sometimes told in parts, sections being written in different ways. The beginner in composition usually finds it easiest to narrate incidents in which he himself is concerned, for the narrator in order to succeed must have a vital interest in his story. This way of telling a story makes it seem real. The realism of such narratives as Robin- son Crusoe, Siviss Family Robinson, and Pilgrim's Progress is largely due to the fact that they are written in the first person. Narrative letters, too, embody happenings that the writer has seen or heard, or acts which he has performed. Letters containing such " news " presuppose a certain degree of acquaintance- ship or familiarity between reader and writer, and there- fore belong to the class known as " friendly letters," which have already been treated in a former chapter. Narratives thus written in the first person are called 'personal narratives. EXERCISE Note to Teacher. — In the work on narration and de- scription, the teacher should be careful to see that the student confines his work to what is called for — that he narrates when narration is asked for, describes when description is wanted, and characterizes when a character sketch is required. (1) Relate orally in class something that you witnessed while on your way to school. (2) Write a letter to a friend who lives in California giving an account of a Saturday excursion to the woods. 136 FIRST YEAR ENGLISH (3) Write a personal narrative of a boat ride. (4) Give orally a narration consisting of one paragraph based on tlic following hints: I fell into the water — when, where, how did it happen — result. (5) Relate in the first person some humorous incident, real or imaginary, in which you were concerned. 47 Anecdotes. Next to narrative letters in order of study hiliouUl coinc anecdotes, or short stories, which wc iiuTcly reproduce. These arc of great u.'^c to the beginner in composition, for in order to say anything well he must first have something worth saying. .\n anecdote, more than any other kind of story, must have a well-defined point or climax, without which the recital would he tame and meaningless. In a carefully planned anecdote the climax is usually brought in at or near the end. Before this climax is reached the attention of the reader or hearer is sustained in order that he may learn the outcome; he is said to be " held in suspense." The art of withholding the climax so as to produce such an effect is an e\'idence of skill on the part of the writer. To introduce suspense into a story is a real art which ought to be cultivated. Point out the climax and a moment of suspense in each of the following selections. During the Civil War, several Northern soldiers were talking together one day just before the advance upon NARRATION 137 Corinth. A tall, ungainly, raw recruit stepped up to them with a bundle of soiled clothes in his hand. "Do you know where I can get this washing done?" he asked. Two of the group were practical jokers. A bright thought flashed into their heads, and, as the sequel shows, unfortunately found expression. "Oh, yes, we know! Just go up there with your bundle," — pointing to the headquarters of General Grant — "you will see a short, stout man" — describing the general — "who does washing. Take your bundle to him." The recruit thanked them and walked off in the direc- tion indicated. He gained entrance to headquarters and stood in the general's presence. "What can I do for you?" said General Grant. "I was directed here by a couple of soldiers. They told me that you did washing, and I have a bundle here." General Grant probably enjoyed the situation, but his imperturbable face did not relax. He simply asked the question, "Could you identify those men again?" "Yes, sir." "Very well; you shall have the chance." Turning to an orderly, he directed him to call a guard, go with the recruit to where the jokers were standing ready to enjoy his discomfiture, and let him identify them. "Take the men to the guard-house, give them this man's bundle of clothing, and make them wash it thoroughly. See that the work is well done." The general was obeyed to the letter. An amusing incident is related as occurring in Gold- smith's last journey homeward from Edgeworthstown. His father's house was about twenty miles distant; the road lay through a rough country^ impassable for car- riages. Goldsmith procured a horse for the journey, and 138 FIRST YKAU KNGLISH a friend furnished him with ;i guinea for traveHng ex- penses. He was but a stripHng of sixteen, and being thus suddenly mounted on horseback, with money in his pocket, it is no wonder that his head was turned. He determined to play the man and to spend his money in independent traveler's style, .\ccordingly. instead of pushing directly for home, he halted for the night at the little town of Ardagh, and, accosting the first person he met, inquired, with somewhat of a consequential air. for the best house in the place. Unluckily, the person he had accosted was one Kelly, a notorious wag, who was quartered in the family of one Mr. Featherstone. a gentle- man of fortune, .\mused with the self-oonsequence of the stripling, and willing to play o(T a practical joke at his expense, he directeil him to what was literally "the best house in the place," namely, the family man.«!ion of Mr. Featherstone. Cloldsmith acrordingly rode up to what he supposed to be an inn, ordered his horse to be taken to the stable, walked into the parlor, seated him- self by the fire, and demanded what he rould have for supper. On ordinary occasions he was diffident and even awkward in his manners, but here he was "at ease in his inn," and felt called upon to show his manhood and enact the experienced traveler. His person was by no means calculated to play off his pretensions, for he was short and thick, with a pockmarked face, and an air and carriage by no means of a distinguished cast. The owner of the house, however, soon discovered his whim- sical mistake, and, being a man of humor, determined to indulge it, especially as he accidentally learned that this intruding guest was the son of an old acquaintance. Accordingly, Goldsmith was "fooled to the top of his bent," and permitted to have full sway throughout the evening. Never was schoolboy more elated. When NARRATION 139 supper was served, he most condescendingly insisted that the landlord, his wife, and daughter should partake, and ordered a bottle of wine to crown the repast and benefit the house. His last flourish was on going to bed, when he gave especial orders to have a hot cake at breakfast. His confusion and dismay on discovering the next morn- ing that he had been swaggering in this free and easy way in the house of a private gentleman, may be readily conceived. True to his habit of turning the events of his life to literary account, we find this chapter of ludi- crous blunders and cross-purposes dramatized many years afterward in his admirable comedy of She Stoops to Con- que)-; or, The Mistakes of a Night. Irving, Life of Goldsmith. Notice that after the climax of a story is reached the interest of the reader or hearer decreases. He can then usually discern the final outcome, whereas earlier in the story he cannot determine the issue. Hence the climax is often called the turning point of the story. The most important climax in Ivanhoe occurs where the fire kindled by Ulrica is discovered by the defenders of the castle of Torquilstone. The reader surmises that the besiegers will win. The moment of greatest suspense, or the moment when the interest is keenest, comes im- mediately before the discovery, while the reader is still uncertain which party will win. A long story like Ivanhoe which is made up of many scenes will usually contain minor climaxes and moments of suspense, perhaps one in each scene. 14U FlUST YEAR ENGLISH EXERCISE (1) Reproduce orally the anecdote concerning General Grant, paying particular attention to suspense and climax. (2) Be prepared to give in class an account of some witty remark made by a ciiild, .Model your anecdote on the specimens given, using direct conversation and withhold- ing the climax. (3) Point out tlie climux and a moment of suspense in at least two short stories from the supplementary reading that you have done since the beginning of this school year. (4) Retell orally the incident upon which Goldsmith foumled She Stoops to Conquer, divitling your reproduction into two oral paragraphs to correspond with the written ones. (5) Using reference books in history of literature, find (a) what events or circumstances in Irsing's life aided him in writing the Sketch Book: (b) how Scott's environment during his childhood helped him to write stories in later life; (c) how the life of Charles Lamb is reflected in his essays. Be prepared to give in class a topical recitation upon each of these subjects. (6) Write a short story into which you introduce an inci- dent from your own life or from the lives of others around vou. NARRATION 141 (7) Point out a moment of suspense and a climax in each of the following scenes with which you are familiar: Ivanhoe The tournament. Isaac, the Jew, in the dungeon of Torquilstone. The trial of Rebecca. Quentin Durward The attempted hanging of Quentin. [Chapter VI] The battle with William de la Marck. [Chapter XXXVII] Treasure Island Jim in the apple barrel. [Chapter XI] Jim's fight with Israel Hands. [Chapter XXVI] (8) Point out a moment of suspense and a climax in some magazine story that you have recently read. 48 Thread of action. Some narratives are said to have but one thread of action. That is, they have but one actor or one group of actors, and but one event is told. John and James had a skating race. Henry cut his finger with his father's knife. These two sentences if expanded form short narratives of this kind. Most narratives, however, are formed on the following plan: A tries to do something, B opposes or aids A. A succeeds or fails. 142 FIRST YEAR ENGLISH A and B may each mean oither a single character or a whole group of characters. John and James had a skating race. Mr Brown res- cued the two boys. Henry cut his finger with his father's knife. His mother punishes him for disobedience. In each of these another statement lias been added to the single statement first mentioned. A narrative developed from either of these combinations will have two threads of action. The accompanying diagram illustrates such a union. The cUmax usually occurs at the junction of the elements. In a long narrative such as Ivanhoe or Qucnti/t Dur- loard several threads of action are carried along simul- taneously through the entire story. Even in simple narratives it is often necessary to relate in succession two or more events which really happen at the same time. In order to acquaint the reader with the time of, or the relation between, the events, the student should use such words as at the same time, already, mean- while, etc. A clause introduced by while or a parti- cipial phrase may also be used \\'ith good effect to secure an easy transition from one event to another. NARRATION 143 EXERCISE (1) Make five statements each of which embodies a single line of action. With each of these combine one or more other state- ments to form a suggestion for a compound narrative. Write one of the narratives suggested in this exercise. (2) What is the main thread of action in Ivanhoe or in Qaentin Durward ? (3) Reproduce the story of Wamba. By doing this you have separated one thread of action from the plot. Note. — For students not familiar with Ivanhoe, the teacher should suggest some other character or group of characters. (4) Two boys were having a skating race. Mr Jones was driving along the lake with a load of lumber. Combine these two simultaneous actions into a short narrative, using one of the methods suggested for transi- tion from one thread to the other. Point out a moment of suspense and a climax in the narrative you have written. 49 Conversation and dialogue. The introduction of direct conversation into a story serves to enliven the narrative, to provide variety in the form of the compo- sition and often to give us a glimpse of the real char- acter of the actors. Conversation helps to make a story seem real and interesting. We are often tempted to skip the descriptive passages in a story, but never the conversation. We aiso become acquainted with the 144 FIRST YEAK KNGLISH people in the story tlirough the words they utter, as well as through their deeds. ISoiiie stories are largely made up of conversation; every story may contain conversation, and we should try to use it whenever possible. The direct form should be used; it prevents tiresome repetition of such expressions as " they say," "he said,'' etc., which are always necessary in reporting conversations in the indirect form. In writing conversation, five cautions should be observed. 1 Try to make the characters speak naturally. In speaking, i)eople often abbreviate statements and fre- quently use colloquial expressions. Do not be afraid to report conversations in cvery-day language, even though the expressions violate good usage. 2 Do not use the verb say too frequently. Consult the dictionary or a book of synonyms for a list of words which mean nearly the same, such as reply, return, remark, answer, whisper, retort, etc., and use these whenever possible. 3 The speech of each person, no matter how- long or how short, should form a separate paragraph. 4 Each paragraph quoted should be inclosed in double quotation marks. 5 Do not use the dramatic form of reporting con- versations. By dramatic form is meant that used in actual dramas, where the name of the speaker stands alone, unconnected with the quotation, the verb of saying being omitted. Notice the paragraphing, the punctuation, the variety NARRATION 145 in the use of verbs and general character of the lan- guage used in the following selection: Young Jerry, walking with the stool under his arm at his father's side along sunny and crowded Fleet street, was a very different Young Jerry from him of the previous night, running home through darkness and solitude from his grim pursuer. His cunning was fresh with the da}^ and his qualms were gone with the night — in which par- ticulars it is not improbable that he had compeers in Fleet street and the city of London that fine morning. "Father," said Young Jerry, as they walked along, taking care to keep at arm's length and to have the stool well between them, "what's a resurrection man?" Mr Cruncher came to a stop on the pavement before he answered, "How should I know?" "I thought you knowed everything, father," said the artless boy. "Hem! Well," returned Mr Cruncher, going on again, and lifting off his hat to give his spikes free play, "he's a tradesman." "What's his goods, father?" asked the brisk Young Jerry. "His goods," said Mr Cruncher, after turning it over in his mind, "is a branch of scientific goods." "Persons' bodies, ain't it, f-ather?" asked the lively boy. "I believe it is something of that sort," said Mr Cruncher. "Oh, father, I should so like to be a resurrection man when I'm quite growed up!" Mr Cruncher was soothed, but shook his head in a dubious and moral way. "It depends on how you de- velop your talents. Be careful to develop your talents, 140 KlRSl" VKAK ENGLISH unci never to say no more timn you ran help to nobody, and there's no telUng at the present time what you may not come to be fit for." As Young Jerr>', thus encour- aged, went on a few yards in advance, to plant the stool in the shadow of the Bar, Mr Cruncher added to himself: "Jerrv', you honest tradesman, there's hopes wot that boy will yet be a blessing to you, and a recompense to you for his mother!" Dickens, A Tale of Two Cities. EXERCISE (1) Write an imaginary conversation between two boys about a chestnutting ex{)edition. (2) Write a short story introducing a conversation be- tween yourself and a lost child. (3) Write a conversation between yourself and a schoolmate concerning your plans for the Christmas vacation. (4) Write the conversation suggested by the picture on the opposite page, "A Difficult Problem." [Material should first be worked out orally.] (o) A newsboy sees a lady drop her purse. W>ite two conversations, one between the boy and his compan- ion concerning the advisability of returning it, and one between the lady and the boy when he returns the purse. Connect the two conversations by a transitional sentence. NARRATION 147 14H ]iK>r vKAi: K^(;l.l^ll (6) .Iciiliic (•;il('S most ;iltiiiit hixtks. ricnr;;)' .ihoul ntil- (|(»(»r spiiiis. Write ;i cniivcrsMt ioii hrtwcoii the twn (ni the siihjfM'l of n'crojit ion. (7) In the suggestt'il icadiuir tor tills coui'se.' or in some of tlio ivcent miinlHTs of the m;i;il ioii has ahc.'uly liecn ineiitioiied. Xo less important is the choice < f verbs in otiier parts of a nar- rative. \'i>rl)s denote action, which is the element upon which narration depends. The more exactly the verb conveys the nieanin.tr, the inoic artistic is the narrative. Notice how much is told hy the verb in the following expressions, and how i)reci.se is the information given: The top hums. The cat pun-f^. Next to verbs in aiding the movement of narration rank adverbs, words which tell how the action is per- formed. The continued use of many adverbs, however, is apt to become tiresome. Discretion, therefore, should be exercised in determining jrhen to use them as wcHl as in deciding what ones to u.se. A thing which helps to make a narrative real is the use of concrete rather than abstract words. Instead of WTiting about "a boy," write about Harry or John; instead of making your story take place in '' the city," give the town a definite name even though it does not » See outline in the preface. NARRATION 149 need to be that of an actual place. Neither the leper in the first part of The Vision of Sir Launfal nor the ancient mariner in the poem of that title is given a con- crete name. These characters are used as types to aid in developing a truth. Compare the realism of either of these stories with that of Horatius where every per- son and place is definitely named. You do not know where Sir Launfal's castle lay, nor where the harbor of the ancient mariner was, but you do know exactly where the action of Horatius is placed. EXERCISE (1) Write a short narrative on the following, introducing concrete names: A small girl rescues a dog, which is being teased by some boys. (2) The boy walked hastily down the street just as the six o'clock whistles shrieked out the closing hour. The quarter — that one precious coin — was tightly clasped in the little brown hand. On past the bright windows, gay in the red and green of hohday time, he cheerily sped, oblivious to everything but the object of his search. At last the window with the Christmas tree appeared. He was almost there — and then ! He closed his eyes for a second in order to shut out all but that horse with its silvery mane and tail, the horse that he would buy with Uncle Jim's quarter. He braced his sturdy httle back against the s^ang door, preparatory to entering, when a low sob caught his ear. . . . Write the remainder of the story, paying particular attention to the choice of words. 150 FIRST YEAR ENGLISH Point o>it a moment of suspense and a climax in the finished narrative. 51 The elements of narration. Narration may be doHnecl ay the relating:; of successive events in definite order, or as a series of word pictures pn\^(>nt(Ml in the order of their occurrence. The action in a story is called tlie plot. Inuvsniuch a« action imj^lies actors, it follows that in every narration there is a second elenuMit. character. Since there must be some place in which tiic characters act, we add to these a third, settini/. The fourth and last element is purpose, which concerns the motive of the author. These four elements answer the four questions: What? Who? Where? Why? 52 Plot. Tlie ])lot of a narrative may be arranged in several ways, such as: 1 By building up a climax, as in most anecdotes. 2 By following the strict time order, as in chronicle histories, most biographies, and many short stories. 3 By following cause and effect, as in literary or political history. 4 By presenting, only such events as illustrate the aim or purpose of the author. In this type, the author is especially careful to say nothing about events that would not serve to illustrate his underlying thought. It is best for the beginner in composition to keep to the time order or the order of climax. Complicated plots require considerable skill in construction, in order that they may maintain the interest to the end. NARRATION 151 In the following selection the strict time crder is ap- parent. Notice how the courtships are described in the order of their occurrence. Will Honeycomb, who looks upon love as his particu- lar province, interrupting our friend with a jaunty laugh, "I thought, Knight," says he, "thou hadst lived long enough in the world not to pin thy happiness upon one that is a woman and a widow. I think that without vanity I may pretend to know as much of the female world as any man in Great Britain, though the chief of my knowledge consists in this, that they are not to be known." Will immediately, with his usual fluency, ram- bled into an account of his own amours. "I am now," says he, "upon the verge of fifty" (though, by the way, we all knew he was turned of threescore) . ' ' You may easily guess," continued Will, " that I have not lived so long in the world without having had some thoughts of settling in it, as the phrase is. To tell you truly, I have several times tried my fortune that way, though I can't much boast of my success. "I made my first addresses to a young lady in the country; but when I thought things were pretty well drawing to a conclusion, her father happening to hear that I had formerly boarded with a surgeon, the old put forbid me his house, and within a fortnight after married his daughter to a foxhunter in the neighborhood. " I made my next applications to a widow and at- tacked her so briskly that I thought myself within a fortnight of her. As I waited upon her one morning, she told me that she intended to keep her ready money and jointure in her own hand, and desired me to call upon her attorney in Lyon's Inn, who would adjust with 152 FIRST YEAR ENGLISH me what it was proper for me to udelow and others tiiat might be introduced into the stor>': Poor little boy finds Ix^autiful trick dog; the two Ijecome friends; boy trios to find dnjj's owner; or«rnn grinder pretends to own dog; he uses it to earn money; the real owner, rich man's little daughter, is heart-broken over loss; boy discovers real owner; organ grimier arrested. Write a narrative based on the above; inelude at least two conversations. (20) Select one of your own narratives for criticism. Has each sentence unity and is it clear or coherent? Is each paragraph a unit? State the theme or central thought of each paragraph. Do the events chosen form a con- tinuous chain or line of action? Have you introduced a climax and a moment of suspense? Have you in- cluded any incidents that are connected with, but do not further, the plot? Have you a good introduction and conclusion? What is the aim or purpose of your story? State the theme. Have you introduced direct conversa- tion into your narrative? If so. is it paragraphed anrl punctuated correctly? Do you think the interest lies chiefly in the plot or in the characters? CHAPTER VII DESCRIPTION Words are but pictures, true or false design 'd, To draw the lines and features of the mind. Butler. 60 Definition. We have seen in the preceding chapter that narration is a series of pictures arranged in order of time. Any one of these may be the form of composition which is called a description. In other words, description is a word picture of some object, person or scene. This form of writing seldom occurs alone; it is usually found as a part of a narration. It is of great value in narration, for it aids in giving a realistic setting to the story and is indispensable in con- veying to the reader distinct impressions of the charac- ters of the narrative. 61 Kinds of description. Description, broadly clas- sified, is of two kinds — circumstantial and impressional. The former aims to present details only, the latter to convey an impression. Circumstantial description gives a detailed picture of the object or scene as it actually is; impressional description, as it appears to the eye of the author, or rather, as it appeals to his emotions. The first kind affords exact information, the second creates for the reader an impressive picture. Notice the difference in the descriptions given below. WTiich gives the better picture? Which proceeds in more logical order? 169 170 FIRST YEAR ENGLISH He IS a middle-aged spare man. about forty years oKl, of a brown coniploxion. ami dark brown colored iiair, but wears a wig; he has a hooked nose, a sluirp chin, gray eyes, and a large mole near his mouth. [Circumstantial.] An ivor\'-faced and silver)'-haired old woman opened the door. She had an evil face, smoothed by hypocrisy, but her manners were excellent, [hnpratsional.] In came Mrs. Fezziwig, one vast substantial smile. [Impressional.] The afternoon sun wa.s warm on the live workmen there, busy upon doors and window-frmnes and wains- coting. A scent of pine wood from a tent-like pile of planks outside the i)pen door mingleil itself with the scent of the elder bushes which were spreading their summer snow close to the open window opposite; the slanting sunbeams shone through the transparent shav- ings that flew before the steady plane, and lit up the fine grain of the oak paneling which stood propj^ed against the wall. On a heap of tho.sc soft shavings a rough gray shepherd-dog had made himself a pleasant bed, and was lying with his nose between his forepaws, occasionally wrinkling his brows to cast a glance at the tallest of the five workmen, who was carving a shield in the center of a wooden mantel piece. [Circumstantial.] Ellen's Isle, situated at the foot of the beautiful Loch Katrine, is a small island containing two or three acres of land rising abruptly from the water to a height of from twenty-five to fifty feet. It is covered with a thick undergrowth of shrubbery, ferns, honeysuckle, and heather, with a few native birches and pines. The land- ing is in a slight recess hidden by trees. The ascent is up a steep bank, the roots of the trees forming steps in the winding path. [Circumstantial] DESCRIPTION 171 In an impressional description there is usually one main characteristic that stands out more boldly than any of the others, or a oneness of effect to which all the details contribute. A description may be composed of details which in themselves are circumstantial, but if these details are so presented as to contribute to a single impression the description as a whole will be impres- sional. A description containing details that suggest color, form, hght, sound, odor, etc., but do not definitely outline a picture to the reader, is said to be suggestive. [See "Echoing Footsteps," Chapter XXI, A Tale of Two Cities.] Such a composition may be either impressional or circumstantial, according to the motive or purpose of the author and his ability to realize that purpose in his composition. The following selection illustrates a suggestive im- pressional description. No definite instructive details are given, no picture is clearly outlined; each item is suggestive. The whole selection, however, gives the im- pression of the quiet watchfulness of nature, although the first three lines approach circumstantial description. We feel the atmosphere of the description instead of seeing a picture boldly outlined. The fishes slumbered in the cold, bright, glistening streams and rivers, perhaps; and the birds roosted on the branches of the trees; and in their stalls and pastures beasts were quiet; and human creatures slept. But what of that, when the solemn night was watching, when it never winked , when its darkness watched no less than its light! The stately trees, the moon and shining stars, the 172 FIRST YEAR ENGLISH softly stirring wind, the overshadowed lane, the broad, bright country-side, they all kept watch. There was not a blade of growing grass or corn, but watched; and the quieter it was, the more intent and fixed its watch upon him seemed to be. Compare the description given above with the follow- ing, which, although suggestive, leaves no one distinct impression upon the reader. The picture, however, is more distinct than in the preceding. Whoever has made a voyage up the Hudson, must remember the Kaatskill mountains. They are a di.^mem- bered branch of the great Appalachian family and are .seen away to the west of the river, swelling up to a noble height, and lording it over the surrounding country. Every change of season, every change of weather, indeed every hour of the day, produces some change in the magical hues and shapes of these mountains; and they are regarded by all the good wives, far and near, as per- fect barometers. When the weather is fair and settled, they are clothed in blue and purple, and print their bold outlines on the clear evening sky; but sometimes, when the rest of the landscape is cloudless, they will gather a hood of gray vapors about their summits, which, in the last rays of the setting sun, will glow and light up like a crown of glorv. At the foot of these fairy mountains, the voyager may have descried the light smoke curling up from a village, whose shingle roofs gleam among the trees, just where the blue tints of the upland melt nw;iv into the fresh green of the nearer landscape. Irving. Rip Van Winkle. DESCRIPTION 173 EXERCISE (1) Then think I of deep shadows on the grass, Of meadows where in sun the cattle graze, Where, as the breezes pass, The gleaming rushes lean a thousand ways, Of leaves that slumber in a cloudy mass, Or whiten in the wind, of waters blue That from the distance sparkle through Some woodland gap, and of a sky above. Where one white cloud hke a stray lamb doth move. Lowell, To the Dandelion. Is this description, as a whole, circumstantial or im- pressional? Give reasons for your decision. (2) Classify as impressional or circumstantial each para- graph of the description In Granada beginning on page 58. Give a reason for your decision in each case. (3) Imitating the circumstantial description of Defoe, on page 170, describe a person of your acquaintance. (4) Write a circumstantial description of your schoolhouse as it would appear to a person standing directly in front of it. (5) Write an impressional description of a snow storm. [Suppose you are indoors, looking out of a window at the storm.] 62 Point of view. Especially in circumstantial de- scription, the aim of which is to give information, it is 174 FIRST YEAR .KNGLISII necessary for the writer to choose some one standpoint from which to observe the object in question. A build- ing, a landscape, a human face, a chair, a cube, etc., all appear different when viewed from different standpoints. A cubical or prismatical object viewed from a point diagonally opposite presents an appearance consider- ably at variance with that observed from a point directly in front of one of its faces. This standpoint chosen by the writer is known as the point of view. If it becomes necessary, a,s it some- times does, to shift the point of view in order to obtain a more complete picture, the author should indicate that such a change is to be made, that he may prevent the reader from becoming confused and losing the dis- tinct impression. The point of view, like the topic of a paragraph, is frequently stated in the first sentence of the description. It thus gives the reader at once a definite grasp of the situation and forms a good intro- duction. Read carefully the following specimens of description, classifying each as inipressional or circumstantial and indicating the point of \\v\y. Does the point of view in any one paragraph change? Point out the suggestive details. Up the broad flight of shallow steps, monsieur the marquis, flambeau preceded, went from his carriage, sufficiently disturbing the darkness to elicit loud remon- strance from an owl in the roof of the great pile of stable building away among the trees. All else was so quiet that the flambeau can-ied up the steps and the other flambeau held at the jrreat door burnt as if thev were in DESCRIPTION 175 a close room of state instead of being in the open night- air. Other sound than the owFs voice there was none, save the faUing of a fountain into its stone basin; for it was one of those dark nights that hold their breath by the hour together, and then heave a long low sigh, and hold their breath again. Dickens, A Tale of Two Cities. The two selections following are descriptions of the same valley. Note how the pictures which they give us differ, the choice and arrangement of details being determined by the point of view. (A) The chine of highland whereon we stood, curved to the right and left of us, keeping about the same eleva- tion, and crowned with trees and brushwood. At about half a mile in front of us, but looking as if we could throw a stone to strike any man upon it, another crest, just like our own, bowed around to meet it; but failed by reason of two narrow clefts of which we could only see the brink. One of these clefts was the Doone-gate, with a portcullis of rock above it; and the other was the chasm, by which I had once made entrance. Betwixt them, where the hills fell back, as in a perfect oval, trav- ersed by the winding water, lay a bright green valley, rimmed with sheer black rock, and seeming to have sunken bodily from the bleak rough heights above. It looked as if no frost could enter, neither winds go ruffling; only spring and hope and comfort breathe to one an- other. Even now the rays of sunshine dwelt, and fell back themselves, whenever the clouds lifted; and the pale blue glimpse of the growing day seemed to find young encouragement. ITt) FIRST YEAR ENGLISH (B) A very rougii und lieadstrong road wuj> all that she remembered, for she could not think as she wished to do with the cold iron pushed against her. At the end of this road they delivered her eyes, and she could scarce believe them. For she stood at tlic head of a deep green valley, carved from out the mountains in a perfect oval with a fence of sheer rock standinj: round it, eif^hty feet or a hundred high; from whose brink black wooded hills swept up to the sky-line. By her side a little river glided out from underground with a soft dark babble, unawares of daylight; then, growing brighter, lapsed away, and fell into the valley. There, as it ran down the meadow, alders stood on either marge, and gra.ss was blading out upon it. and yellow tufts of rushes gathered, looking at the hurry. But further down, on either bank, were cov- ered houses, built of stone, square and roughly cornered, set as if the brook were meant to be the street between them. Only one room high they were, and not placed opposite each other, but in and out as skittles are; only that the first of all, which proved to be the captain's, was a sort of double house, or rather, two houses joined to- gether by a plank bridge over the river. Blackmore, Lorna Doone. EXERCISE (1) Write a circumstantial description of your schoolhouse from a point of view diagonally placed. Compare this description with the one written in answer to the fourth question under the preceding exercise. DESCRIPTION 177 (2) Write a description conveying the impression of hurry and confusion. [Take the scene from a bridge on a sum- mer day.] (3) Write a description of an old man and a child sitting by a fire. (4) Write (a) a circumstantial description of winter, (b) an impressional description of spring. Try to use details that are suggestive, (5) Write a description of a moving train. (6) Suppose you are riding on the train. Describe some of the things you see as you pass along. (7) Taking a point of view in some window or tower, de- scribe the scenes that you see below. [See In Granada, page 58.] (8) Write a description conveying the impression of peace- ful stillness. (9) Write a description of a valley, containing a river and a village, as it would appear to an observer high up on one of the surrounding hills. Write a second de- scription taking as a point of view the belfry of one ol the church towers. Which description should contain general items and which one distinct and comparatively minute details? 178 FIRST YEAR ENGLISH 63 Arrangement of details. Next in importance to the choice of a point of view is the arrangement of the details in logical order. In actual vision, we observe things first as wholes, then as parts. Follow this in your descriptions. Give the general outline, then pro- ceed to more minute details; or, begin at some definite point and enumerate the details in logical order as you proceed from the near to the distant, from right to left or vice versa. The importance of place words, such as, in the joreground, in the background, at the side, at the right, to the left, in the center, near which, above which, around which, beside ivhich, below which, farther off, across, along, at the foot of which, etc., must not be over- looked. These materially aid in locating the objects in a picture. They serve to give the reader '' his bear- ings " in the land to which Ave would in imagination conduct him. Diagrams are of special aid in establishing in the mind of the reader definite relations between objects or parts of an object. Descriptions which are circumstantial and which aim to give exact information are frequently incomplete without diagrams. Note the use of the diagram in the following descrip- tion from Victor Hugo's Les Miserables: Those who would get a clear idea of the battle of Waterloo have only to lay down upon the ground in their mind a capital A. The left stroke of the A is the road from Nivelles, the right stroke is the road from Genappe, the cross of the A is the sunken road from Chain to Braine- I'Alleud. The top of the A is Mont St. Jean, Welling- ton is there; the left-hand lower point is Hougomont, DESCRIPTION 179 Reille is there with Jerome Bonaparte; tlie right-hand lower point is La Belle Alliance, Napoleon ^is there. A little below the point where the cross of the A meets and cuts the right stroke is La Haie Sainte. At the middle of this cross is the precise point where the final battle word was spoken. There the lion is placed, the involuntary symbol of the supreme heroism of the imperial guard. The triangle contained at the top of the A between the two strokes and the cross is the plateau of Mont St. Jean. The struggle for this plateau was the whole of the battle. The wings of the two armies extended to the right and left of the two roads from Genappe and from Nivelles; Erion being opposite Picton, Reille opposite Hill. Behind the point of the A, behind the plateau of Mont St. Jean, is the forest of the Soignes. EXERCISE (1) Describe the battle of Gettysburg, using a diagram representing the field and the position of the opposing forces. (2) Draw a diagram indicating the relative position of the objects described in the following: Near to the bank of the river, o'ershadowed by oaks from whose branches Garlands of Spanish moss and of mystic mistletoe flaunted, . . . Stood, secluded and still, the house of the herdsman. A garden Girded it round about with a belt of luxuriant blossoms, Filling the air with fragrance. . . . At each end of the house, amid the flowers of the garden, Stationed the dovecots were. . . . 180 FIRST YKAK KNGLlSlI What is the most important object in this picture? Do you consider it mainly impressional or circumstantial? (3) Reproduce orally the ftillowinp; description of Cedric's dining hall, basing your description on the letter T. F'or about one quarter of the length of the apartment, the floor was raised by a step, and this space, which was called the dais, was orcupicd only by the i)rincipal members of the family, and visitors of distinction. For this j^urpose a table richly covered with scarlet cloth was placed transversely across the platform, from the middle of which ran the longer and lower board, at which the domestics and inferior persons fed, down toward the bottom of the hall. The whole resembled the form of the letter T or some of those ancient dinner-tables which, arranged on *^he same principles, may be still seen in the an- tique colleges of Oxford or Cambridge. Massive chairs and settles of carved oak were placed upon the dais, and over these seats and the more elevated table was fastened a canopy of cloth, which served in some degree to protect the dignitaries who occupied that distinguished station from the weather and especially from the rain, which in some places found its way through the ill-constructed roof. Scott, Ivanhoe. (4) Draw a diagram of some room the details of which you recall, indicating where certain articles of furniture are placed. Then describe the room, referring to the diagram for the location of the objects. (5) Write a description of a landscape, making use of some of the place words mentioned above. Choose a definite pouit of view and give the general outline first. DESCRIPTION 181 64 Comparison and contrast. One of the best ways of describing an object is to compare it with others. Many of our common expressions, '' as quick as a flash," " as bright as a dollar," etc., are founded on comparison. Contrast, which is comparison of unlike things, is also a great aid. In describing form or shape, or telUng our own feelings, we are usually compelled to resort to com- parison, using such expressions, for instance, as, " a T square," " wedge shaped," " the mouth of a stream," " as happy as a lark," " as brave as a hon." The effectiveness of the preludes in The Vision of Sir Launfal is largely due to the sharp contrast between summer and wdnter. The following brief selections illustrate the use of comparison and contrast. Read carefully the following: And as afield the reapers cut a swath Down through the middle of a rich man's corn, And on each side are squares of standing corn, And in the midst a stubble, short and bare — So on each side were squares of men, with spears Bristling, and in the midst, the open sand. Arnold, Sohrab and Rustum. The drawbridge dropped with a surly clang. And through the dark arch a charger sprang. Bearing Sir Launfal, the maiden knight, In his gilded mail, that flamed so bright It seemed the dark castle had gathered all Those shafts the fierce sun had shot over its wall In his siege of three hundred summers long, And, binding them all in one blazing sheaf. lii'2 FIRST YEAR ENGLISH Had cast them forth: so, young ami strong, And lightsome as a locust-leaf. Sir Launfal flashed forth in his maiden mail, To seek in all climes for the Holy Grail. Sir Launfal turned from his own hard gate, For another heir in his earldom sate; An old, bent man, worn out and frail, He came back from seeking the Holy Grail; Little he recked of his earldom's loss. No more on his surcoat was blazoned the cross, But deep in his soul the sign he wore, The badge of the suffering and the poor. In the two stanzas quoted above, notice the com- parison between the reflection from his armor and a sheaf of arrows; also, ncte the sharp contrast that Lowell brings out between Sir Launfal's departure and return. EXERCISE (1) Contrast a poor boy with a rich boy, (2) Describe a large building bj'^ comparing it with a very small one beside it. (3) Compare Hermia with Helena (Midsummer Night^s Dream) . [Other characters may be selected by the teacher.] (4) Describe a very tall man by comparing him with peo- ple and objects about him. DESCKIPTION 188 (5) Describe a pond or lake as it appears in summer. Com- pare this with a second description of its appearance in winter when thronged with skaters. Are these descrip- tions circumstantial or impressional? (6) Trace the points of comparison throughout the de- scriptions of summer and winter in The Vision of Sir Launfal. 65 Unity in description. In narration we saw^ that unity consisted, for the most part, in the selection of incidents which eventually helped to develop the story. In description, likewise, it is necessary that w^e select from the whole scene only those details which contrib- ute to the final effect or picture that we wish to bring- clearly before the reader. We should choose the details which present the most striking picture. In looking at an object we naturally observe first such properties as its color, shape, size, etc. These give a general outline of the thing in question. Then we should proceed to pick out its peculiarities, its distinctive details. In writing a description, we should not aim to give all the details, but only such as are absolutely necessary that the reader may gain a clear mental image. Unity there is in nature as well as in composition. Every leaf, every tree is symmetrical, every landscape has its central object around which others seem to be grouped. Every good painting or group of statuary has unity, i.e. there is some central object or some central idea that is to be brought out. 184 FIRST YEAR ENGLISH In Scherrer's picture. Joan of Arc's Victorious Entry into Orleans, reproduced on the opposite page, the central figiu'c is the mounted figure of the peasant girl Joan, now the conquering leader of the French army: the other figures in the picture are grouped around her in whom our chief interest lies. Two aids there are. then. f<>' >(>curing unity in a description. 1 Select a definite point of view. 2 Group the details about some central object or idea that j-ou wish to bring out most vividly. Avoid violating unity by observing the following cautions: 1 Do not carelessly shift the point of view. 2 Do not wander away from tlie central idea of your description. 3 Do not begin in a careless, uncertain manner. Have your picture arranged clearly in your own mind before you proceed. Notice the word picture in the following tlescription of Sir Morning Star, from Tennyson's Gareth and Lynette: Then at his call, "0 daughters of the Dawn, And servants of the Morning-Star, approach. Arm me," from out the silken curtain-folds Bare-footed and bare-headed three fair girls In gilt and rosy raiment came: their feet In dewy grasses glisten'd; and their hair All over glanced with dewdrop or with gem Like sparkles in the stone Avanturine. These arm'd him in blue arms, and gave a shield Blue also, and thereon the morning-star. DESCIUPTION 185 lyi ■j S ' ^ '^i^e^^^H 9 9HL ^pMp '^v|bV ^1 IS JOAN OF arc's victorious ENTRY INTO ORLEANS Scherver 18»] FinsT YFAR K\r,T.Tsn Autl (iaretli siloiit ^:i/etl upon the knigljf. Wlio st 1 a luoinent, ore his Iku-so whs hrought, CUoryinp:; and in the stream l>eneath liirn. shone Immingled with Heaven's azure uaverinKly. The ^ay pavihon and the naked feet. His arms, the msy niiment. a?id the star. The central li^iurc is Sir Moniini: Star. Allhoiij^h the ilctails ui\(Mi dcscrilM' the " llirrr fair irirls "' i|uil<' as distinctly as .^ir Mdrninj:; Star, yi-l uc an-, after all, conscious that he is the main hmnc, the ol)jecti\'(' point of the description. EXERCISE (1) CJroup the followinfi details in form for a description. I)rin<;inp; out the idea of rest or fireside comfort, ami write a wonl picture of the scene: fireplace, iron kettle on a crane, easy chair, ruir. hoy. L^raiidmother. cat. (2) Write the word picture sugge.sted to you Ky the follow- ino;: a mouse hole, a cat watchinir the hole, a mou.se crouched in terror behind the cat. unahle to reach it.s home. What is the central object? (live rea.sons. (3) Describe orally to your class some picture that you have seen and liked. Be careful to l)ring out the group- ing of the details in the picture. 66 Coherence in description. Coherence demands a clear and logical arrangement of the details which make up a de.scription. The reader must be able to follow the writer's meaning without serious effort. DESCRIPTION 187 In description the order followed should be: 1 From near to distant or vice versa. 2 From general details of form, shape, etc. to peculiarities and distinctive items, or vice versa. 3 From central figure to minor objects, or vice versa. 4 From right to left, or vice versa. 5 That suggested by a comparison or a diagram. In describing an individual it is best for the student to begin with the general outline or impression of the face or figure and then give the more minute details of appearance, proceeding from the top downward unless there is some particular reason why some other order is to be preferred. This rule is, however, by no means invariable, as may be seen from the following descrip- tions. In the first of these the order followed is that outlined above; in the second the more minute details are given first. (A) The modern Dutchman is quite a different creature from him of former times; he in everything imitates a Frenchman, but in his easy, disengaged air. He is vastly ceremonious, and is, perhaps, exactly what a Frenchman might have been in the reign of Louis XIV. Such are the better bred. But the downright Hollander is one of the oddest figures in nature. Upon a lank head of hair he wears a half-cocked narrow hat, laced with black riband; no coat, but seven waistcoats and nine pair of breeches, so that his hips reach up almost to his arm- pits. This well-clothed vegetable is now fit to see com- pany or make love. But what a pleasing creature is the object of his appetite! wh}^ she wears a large fur cap, 188 FIKST YEAR ENGLISH with a deal of Flanders lace; aud for every pair of breeches he carries, she puts on two petticoats. (B) "In person," says the judge, "Goldsmith was short; about five feet five or six inches; strong, but not heavy in make; rather fair in complexion, with Ijrown hair; such, at least, as could be distinguished from his wig. His features were plain, but not repulsive — certainly not so when lighted up by conversation. Ili.s mannei-s were simple, natural, and perhaps on the whole, we may say, not polished; at least without the refinement and good-breeding which the exquisite polish of his composi- tions would lead us to exjxict. He was always cheerful and animated, often, indeed, boisterous in his mirth; entered with spirit into convivial society; contributed largely to its enjoyments by solidity of information, and the naivete and originality of his character, talked often without premeditation, and laughed loudly without restraint." Irving, Oliver Goldsmith. Another aid to coherence must not be overlooked; this is the use of transitional words and phrases. Such words are bridges between the items, and they help to give smoothness and clearness in passing from one sen- tence to another. Place words have already been men- tioned (p. 178) ; they are one variety of connecting words and phrases, ^^^len, for instance, a sentence is introduced to note the change of the point of view in a description, we may say the whole sentence is transitional. Then, too, also, etc., are some of the connecting words in frequent use. DESCRIPTION 189 EXERCISE (1) What order is followed in the first, the fourth and the fifth specimens of description given at the beginning of this chapter? (2) Enumerate orally the main things that you pass on your way to school. (3) Give a brief oral description of what can be seen from a classroom window or from a window of your own room at home. In your opening sentence state your point of view; then tell what order you intend to follow. (4) Write a description of a landscape or of some pic- ture that you have seen, proceeding from left to right in giving the details. (5) Write a description of a large dog. Begin with the general and proceed to specific details. (6) Write a circumstantial description of your schoolroom. Take a definite point of view and in giving details pro- ceed from near to distant. (7) Find in some magazine a full length portrait and write a description of the person portrayed. Show that your description follows the general plan for the description of an individual. 1*J0 fIRST YEAR ENGLISH (8) Describe the picture on the opposite page, proceed- ing from the central figure to the minor or less impor- tant ones. The " Captive Andromache " is Sir Frederifk Ix-iphton's wonderful conception of an incident related in Homer's Iliad.' Andromache was the wife of Hector, " who fought Ix'st of all the Trojans when all fought for Troy." After the fall of Troy, she was taken prisoner to Greece, and became a slave at the Court of one of the Grecian kinjjs. The incident s<'Iected l)y the artist represents her in the center of the picture overwhelmed by grief, mourning her fate, while the other women perform their daily morning errand of fillinp their water vessels at the well. Describe the personal appearance of Abraham Lincoln according to the [)icture on i>age 11)5. 67 Condensation and choice of words. Just as in narration the action is made to move more rapidly and the interest of the reader in the story is kept uj) by means of condensation, so in description the picture takes on form more quickly by a few strong, deft touches skillfully applied than by many hazy indefinite strokes. Condensation is effected most readily by use of pic- ture words or words which in themselves suggest some- thing. Chief among these is the adjective. What the verb is to the narration, the adjective is to the descrip- tion. The writer should aim to select distinctive adjec- tives. We speak of a " touching scene," a " burning sky," a " whizzing sound," etc. Each of these words » Translation of Homer'.s Iliad, Books VI, XXII, and XXIV, sug- gested fnr .supplementary reading. 192 riKST YKAli KNCI.ISII suggests some effect, and ^nvcs in itself what one or more sentences would he r('(|uin'd to express entirely. Notice the choice of adjectives in the following: There is the (/ifiantir hody. the /hkji face seamed with the scars of disease, the hrowii coat, the hhick worsted stockings, the gray wi*:; with the smrrhcd foretop, the (lirli/ hands, the nails hitten and pared to the quick. We see the eyes and mouth niovinjr with conviihiir twitches; we see the heovi/ form ntllinu;: we hear it j)u(fin^; and then comes the "Why, sir!" and the "What then, sir?" and the '*Xo, sir!'' and the " You don't see your way through the question, sir!" Macaulay. liDsirdl's Poiiniil i>j Jnfins'tn. In the following Ixitli xcrhs and a By permission of Messrs. Houghton, Mifflin & Company. 198 FIRST YEAR ENGLISH loosely hung together. His head was small and flat at top, with huge ears, large green glassy eyes, and a long snipe nose, so that it looked like a weathercock perched upon his spindle neck to tell which way the wind blew. To see him striding along the profile of a hill on a windy day, with his clothes bagging and fluttering about him, one might have mistaken him for the genius of famine descending upon the earth or some scarecrow eloped from a cornfield. . . . Truth to say, he was a conscientious man, that ever bore in mind the golden maxim, "spare the rod and spoil the child." Ichabod Crane's scholars certainly were not spoiled. . . . When school hours were over, he was even the com- panion and playmate of the larger boys; and on holiday afternoons would convoy some of the smaller ones home, who happened to have pretty sisters, or good housewives for mothers, noted for the comforts of the cupboard. Indeed it behooved him to keep on good terms with his pupils. . The revenue arising from his school was small, and would have been scarcely sufficient to furnish him with daily bread, for he was a huge feeder, and though lank, had the dilating powers of an anaconda; but to help out his maintenance he was, according to country custom in those parts, boarded and lodged at the houses of the farmers whose children he instructed. With these he lived successively, a week at a time, thus going the rounds of the neighborhood, with all his worldly effects tied up in a cotton handkerchief. That all this might not be too onerous on the purses of his rustic patrons ... he had various ways of ren- dering himself both useful and agreeable. He assisted the farmers occasionally in the lighter labors of their farms; helped to make hay; mended the fences; took the horses to water; drove the cows from pasture; and cut DESCRIPTION 199 wood for the winter fire. He laid aside, too, all the dominant dignity and absolute sway, with which he lorded it in his little empire, the school, and became wonderfully gentle and ingratiating. He found favor in the eyes of the mothers by petting the children, particu- larly the youngest; and like the lion bold, which whilom so magnanimously the lamb did hold, he would sit with a child on one knee, and rock a cradle with his foot for whole hours together. In addition to his other vocations, he was the singing master of the neighborhood, and picked up many bright shillings by instructing the young folks in psalmody. It was a matter of no little vanity to him on Sundays, to take his station in front of the church gallery, with a band of chosen singers; where, in his own mind, he com- pletely carried away the palm from the parson. . . . Our man of letters, too, was peculiarly happy in the smiles of all the country damsels. How he would figure among them in the churchyard between services on Sun- days! gp.thering grapes for them from the wild vines that overrun the surrounding trees; or sauntering with a whole bevy of them along the banks of the adjacent mill pond; while the more bashful country bumpkins hung sheep- ishly back, envying his superior elegance and address. . . . He was, in fact^ an odd mixture of small shrewdness and simple credulity. His appetite for the marvelous and his powers of digesting it, were equally extraordi- nary; and both had been increased by his residence in this spellbound region. No tale was too gross or mon- strous for his capacious swallow. It was often his de- light, after his school was dismissed in the afternoon, to stretch himself on the rich bed of clover, bordering the little brook that whimpered by his schoolhouse, and there con over old Mather's direful tales until the gather- 200 FIRST YEAR ENGLISH ing dusk of evening made the printed page a mere mist before his eyes. Then, as he wended his way by swamp and stream and awful woodland, to the farmhouse where he happened to be quartered, every sound of nature, at that witching hour, fluttered his imagination; the moan of the whip-poor-will from the hillside; the boding cry of the tree toad, that harbinger of storm; the dreary hooting of the screech owl; or the sudden rustling in the thicket, of birds frightened from their roost. The fireflies, too, which sparkled most vividly in the darkest places, now and then startled him, as one of uncommon brightness would stream across his path; and if, by chance, a huge blockhead of a beetle came winging his blundering flight against him, the poor varlet was ready to give up the ghost, with the idea that he was struck with a witch's token. His only resource on such occasions, either to drown thought or to drive away evil spirits, was to sing psalni tunes; — and the good people of Sleepy Hollow, as they sat by their doors of an evening, were often filled with awe, at hearing his nasal melody, "in linked sweet- ness long drawn out," floating from the distant hill, or along the dusky road. Irving, The Legend of Sleepy Hollow. Observe that in the above selection one paragraph is given to each particular phase of the sketch. The stu- dent should follow this in long character sketches, devoting a paragraph to each topic taken up or each incident told in support of the characterization. In short personal descriptions one paragi'aph is usually sufficient. DESCRIPTION 201 EXERCISE (1) Write a character sketch of any one of the following with which you are familiar, supporting your estimate by reference to incidents of the story: Isabelle of Croye (Quentin Durward), Rosalind (As You Like It), Rebecca (Ivanhoe) . /2) Characterize Billy Bones (Treasure Island), describing his personal appearance and his pecuUar habits. (3) What trait is most prominent in each of the following characters ? Give reasons for your decision — Miles Standish, Jaques (As You Like It), Isaac of York (Ivan- hoe), Louis XI (Quentin Durward), John Silver (Treasure Island), Bottom (Midsummer Night's Dream). (4) Characters often change or develop during the progress of the story. What change is brought about in Sir Launfal ? the Ancient Mariner ? (5) Write a characterization of one of the following by telhng how other characters feel toward him. Appius Claudius (Virginia), Oliver le Dain (Quentin Durward), Squire Trelawney (Treasure Island), Horatius. (6) Describe some person of your acquaintance by telling about his or her chief aim in life. (7) Describe some person who might be called "a pillar of the church." 202 FIRST YEAR ENGLISH Describe a character in some book that you have read and Hked by telhng how this person feels towards other characters in the story. (9) Write a character sketch of EvangeHne, describing her personal appearance and telling her thoughts. [For students not familiar with Evangeline some other char- acter should be substituted.] (10) Write a caricature or humorous sketch by pointing out the laughable peculiarities of some person with whom you are acquainted or about whom you have read. (11) Characterize one of the following by telling what he says and what he does: Wamba (Ivanhoe), Tristan, the Provost {Quentin Durward), Captain Smollett (Treasure Island) . (12) Write a character sketch of one or more of the follow- ing, supporting your characterization by references to the story: Hayraddin Maugrabin {Quentin Durward), Jim Hawkins (Treasure Island), Athelstane (Ivanhoe), Penel- ope (The Odyssey), Paris (The Iliad). (13) Write a character sketch of some person of your acquaintance by enlarging upon one particular trait. Narrate an incident to support your characterization. (14) Describe your ideal man or woman. DESCRIPTION 203 MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN DESCRIPTION (1) Find in the literature that you have read this year (a) five specimens of circumstantial description; (6) five of impressional description. (2) Indicate the point of view in each of the descriptions selected above. Is the point of view changed in any one of these? If so, is this change plainly indicated? (3) Find from the required or the supplementary reading two descriptions written from a moving or traveler's point of view. (4) What effect upon the choice of details has a distant viewpoint? In general, which should be given first — general outline or specific details? (5) Find from your reading three specimens of description in which comparison or contrast is used. (6) Select some picture or group of statuary and show that it has unity. (7) Find from your reading three descriptions in each of which a definite arrangement of the details is manifest. (8) From some description that seems to you to be espe- cially good, select /ive distinctive adjectives. CHAPTER VIII SYNONYMS AND HOMONYMS Synonyms are words of like significance in tlie main, but with a certain milikeness as well. Trench. 69 Synonyms. Synonyms are words which have the same or nearly the same meaning. As a matter of fact, very few words have exactly the same signifi- cance. Many seem to us aUke, because in a given instance they may be used interchangeably. For example, one may say ''The book absorbed his at- tention," or ''The book engaged his attention," and intend the same meaning in either case. But this is only one of many uses of absorb and engage. When one tries to use them synonymously^ in other con- nections, the real difference between them is imme- diately apparent. For instance, one might say "He absorbed knowledge," but never "He engaged knowl- edge"; "He engaged a tutor," but never "He ab- sorbed a tutor." The exact uses of words as well as the real differ- ences between them are best seen by looking at their derivation. For instance, absorb comes from the Latin "absOrbere," meaning to "suck in," while en- gage comes from the French "engager," to "pledge." Keeping this in mind, one has no difficulty in using them and distinguishing between them correctly. One of the marks of the good wl'iter is the nicety 204 SYNONYMS AND HOMONYMS 205 with which he uses words. In the best writings, it is impossible to substitute one synonym for another without destroying the meaning. The author used a particular word because it, and it alone, exactly expressed his thought. EXERCISE (1) avoid evade shun escape elude Substitute in turn each of the other words in the above list for the underlined words in following quotations. What change takes place in the meaning of the sentence in each case ? Why ? " Often I have heard the house shaking with ' Yo ho ho and a bottle of rum/ all the neighbors joining in for dear life, and each singing louder than the other to avoid remark." Steven- son. Treasure Island. " It could not escape even Cedric's reluctant observation, that his project was now completely at an end." Scott. Ivankoe. (2) "With patient courage, Rebecca again took post at the lattice." Scott. Ivanhoe. Did Rebecca show fortitude, bravery, valor, boldness, intrepidity or dauntlessness ? Do any of these words describe her action so well as the term Scott has used ? Support your answer. (3) fear fright panic horror dread alarm terror dismay consternation Why did the authors of the following quotations use the underlined words instead of one of the other words 206 FIRST YEAR ENCLISH in the above list. Show what change the use of each of the other words would have made in the meaning of the sentences. " Fear at my heart, as at a cup, My life blood seemed to sip!" Coleridge. Ancient Mariner. " Like one that on a lonesome road, Doth walk in fear and dread. " Ancient Mariner. " A fresh alarm brought mc to a standstill." Treasure Island. " And the silken, sud, uncertain rustling of each purple curtain Thrilled me — filled me with fantastic terrors never felt before." PoE. The Raven. (4) " And a deep pity entered Rustum's soul as he beheld him coming." Arnold. Sohrab and Rustum. " Sure my kind saint took pity on me." Coleridge. Ancient Mariner. " He must contrive to break a limb or two, for on no slighter condition will his fall excite anything Uke serious sympathy. " Scott. Quentin Durward. Are pity and sympathy interchangeable words ? Con- firm j'-our answer by reference to the above quotations. Would the meaning have been the same if the word compassion had been used instead of pity or sympathy ? (5) Make sentences, using the words clanger, peril, jeopardy, hazard, risk, venture, so as to show the differences between them. Which of these words might be substituted in- stead of the underlined words in the following sentences ? Would the change of a word alter the meaning ? " Unheeding the danger he rode up to the tremendous ani- mal." Scott. Quentin Durward. " The honor of a noble lady is in peril. " Scott. Ivanhoc. SYNONYMS AND HOMONYMS 207 (6) "This grini, ungainly, ghastly, gaunt and ominous bird of yore." Poe. The Raven. Give the exact meaning of ea(;h adjective in this Hne. Are any two synonymous ? 70 Homonyms. Homonyms are words different in origin and meaning, which are pronounced alike and sometimes spelled in the same way. EXERCISE Make sentences, using each of the following words so as to show their exact meaning. ante capital mall right anti capitol maul rite wriglit ascent cession mantel write assent session mantle serge auger cite marshal surge augur site martial sight slight born meat sleight borne complement meet bourn compliment mete stationary stationery cannon draft missal canon draught missile vail vale canvas maize principal veil canvass maze principle ■ INDEX Abbreviations, 70; used in letter writing, 71; used in correcting compositions, 30. Action, narration based upon, 134; thread of, 141. Address of letters, 88. Adjective clauses, 124. Adjective phrases, 128. Adverbial clauses, 124. Adverbial phrases, 127. Advertisements, 108, Anecdotes, 136. Apostrophe, 81. Arrangement of details in de- scription, 178, 184. Beginning and end of story, 161. Brackets, 81. Calling cards, iise of, in invita^ tions, 115. Capitalization, use of, 35, 63 ; rules for, 64. Character sketches, 193. Characters in narration, 154. Choice of woi"ds, in description, 190; in narration, 148. Circumstantial description, 169. Classification of sentences, ac- cording to form, 116 ; accord- ing to use, 120. Clause, definition of, 117 ; prin- cipal or independent, 117; subordinate, 117 ; dependent, 128; noun, 123; substantive. Clause. — Continued. 123 ; adjective, 124 ; adverb. 124. Climax, 136, 139. Coherence, in sentences, 40 ; in narration, 160 ; in description, 186. Colon, rules for, 76. Comma, rules for, 72. Comparison, use of, in descrip- tion, 181. Complex sentence, 38. Composition, oral, 9; written, 27. Compound sentence, 38. Concluding paragi-aph, 164. Concluding sentences, 50. Conclusion in letters, 89 ; in narration, 162. Connectives, 39. Contrast, use of, in description, 181. Conversation, 10. Dangling participle, 129. Dash, rules for, 80. Debating, 18. Declarative sentence, 120. Dependent clauses, 123. Description, definition of, 169; kinds of, 169 ; impressional, 169 ; circumstantial, 169 ; point of view in, 173 ; details in, 178 ; use of diagram in, 208 INDEX 209 Description. — Continued. 178 ; comparison and con- trast in, 181 ; unity in, 183 ; coherence in, 186 ; choice of words in, 190 ; condensation, 190. Diagram, use of, in description, 178. Dialogue, 143. Elements of narration, 150. Enunciation, 10. Exclamation point, rules for, 78. Extempore speaking, IS. Form of manuscript, 28, 29. Heading of lettere, 86. Homonyms, 207. Hyphen, rules for, 82. Imperative sentence, 121. Impressional description, 169. Indirect question, 123. Infinitive phrase, 129. Interrogation point, rules for, 77. Interrogative sentence, 121. Introduction in narration, 161. Introductory paragraph, 164. Introductory sentences, 45. Letters, kinds of, 86; parts of, 86; heading of, 86; address and salutation, 88; body of, 88; conclusion of, 89; super- scription, 90; friendly, 91; business, 99. Manuscript, form of, 28, 29. Memorizing, selections for, 16. Moment of suspense, 136, 193. Narration, definition of, 134 ; choice of words in, 148 ; ele- ments of, 150; plot in, 160 ; unity in, 159; coherence in, 160; introduction, 161, 164; conclusion, 162, 164. Narrative, personal, 136. Note taking, 54. • Notes, informal, 97. Noun clauses, 123. Noun phrases, 129. Oral composition, 9. Oral reproduction, 21. Outlines, 55. Paragraph, 21, 53, 164, 200. Parentheses, 81. Participial phrases, 128. Participle, dangling, 129. Period, rules for, 69. Personal narrative, 135. Phrases, definition of, 126 ; ad- jective, 127; adverbial, 127 ; prepositional, 127; participial, 128; infinitive, 129 ; noun, 129. Pictures in stories, 157. Place words. 178. Plot, 150. Point of view, 173. Postal cards, 106. Pi'epositional phrase, 127. Principal or independent clauses, 117. Pronunciation, 10. Punctuation, use of, 35, 63; rules for, 69-82. Purpose, 156. Quotation marks, 78. 210 INDEX Recitation, 13. Salutation in letters, 88. Semicolon, rules for, 75. Sentence structure, variety in, 38. Sentences, simple, 38, 116; com- plex, 38, 118; compound, 38, 119; use of short and long, 36; introductory, 46; conclud- ing, 50; definition of, 116; classification of, according to form, 116; members of, 117 ; classification of, according to use, 120; declarative, 120; ex- clamatory, 121; imperative, 121; interrogative, 121. Setting of narration, 155. Simple sentence, 38. Social forms, 111. Stories in pictures, 157. Subordinate clauses, 117. Substantive clauses, 123. Suggestive description, 171. Superscription of letters, 90. Suspense, moment of, 136, 139. Synonyms, 204. Telegrams, 106. Thread of action, 141. Topical outlines, 55. Unity, in description, 183; in narration, 159; in sentence, 39. Variety in .sontence structure, 3&. This book is DUE on the last date stamped below i^AR g 8 1923 Form L-9-3o»(-8.'28 UCLA-Young Research Ubrarv PE1408 .S61T y L 009 599 392 9 UC SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILm A A 001 433 984 SCHOOL JFOANIA UNIVERSITY of CALIFORNU AT