READUI6 DOOM 1 LIBRARY OF THE University of California. Class ./I UNIFORM WITH THIS VOLUME 6s. net Italy of the Italians. By Helen ZiMMERN. France of the French. By E. Harrison Barker. Spain of the Spanish. By Mrs. Villiers-Wardell. Switzerland of the Swiss. By Frank Webb. •br25* Of Photo by Biebcr THE KAISER Germany of the Germans By Robert M. Berry Of -ryif ^ UNIVERSITY Of NEW YORK CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS 153-157 Fifth Avenue 1910 i!MD»l6 ROOM PREFACE The object of this book is not to deal with the history of the German Empire, but to draw for the reader a simple pen- picture of the German nation as it is to-day — the Germany of the Germans. It is not the intention of the author to criticise ruler, people, constitution or institutions, but to give the result of many years' personal observation. He has had the advantage of working with German workmen, studying with the students, participating in the national sports, joining in the people's amusements, watching their politics, marching with their soldiers, coming in close contact with their officials, and paying their taxes — in fact, he has lived in north, south, east and west, in town and in country, the life of the people as far as a foreigner is able to do so. Comparisons with the peoples and institutions of other nations have not been introduced into the book. The facts are given : the reader is left to draw his own conclusions. Statistics have been avoided wherever possible, but in some instances it has been absolutely necessar}^ to give figures in order to explain the subject under discussion. In these cases the most reliable authorities have been consulted either through books or personally. It has been the endeavour of the author to avoid the use of foreign expressions throughout the book, and, where an exact rendering of a title or the name of an institution would be confusing to English readers, he has given the nearest English equivalent. The book undoubtedly contains imperfections, which may give rise to criticism ; but any errors that have been made have been committed in good faith. 211806 CONTENTS CHAP. I. INTRODUCTION . II. WILLIAM II AS EMPEROR III. THE IMPERIAL CONSTITUTION IV. PRUSSIA'S PREPONDERANCE V. IMPERIAL PARLIAMENT VI. OFFICIALDOM VII. THE ARMY IS THE NATION VIII. THE NAVY . IX. THE " AGE OF YOUTH '* X. INTELLECTUAL HOTHOUSES XI. THE BATTLEFIELD OF CREEDS XII. THE LETTER OF THE LAW XIII. ABOUT THE POOR XIV. A GENERATION AHEAD IN INSURANCE XV. THE PROBLEM OF THE UNEMPLOYED XVI. THE GREAT INDUSTRIAL MOVEMENT XVII. MODEL FORESTERS . . . XVIII. THE TEMPERANCE MOVEMENT XIX. THE SPORTING SPIRIT . XX. woman's POSITION AND PROSPECTS XXI. LITERARY SEARCHINGS XXII. THE PRESS AND ITS INFLUENCE XXIII. " INTENSE " MUSIC XXIV. DRAMATIC FARE . XXV. ART AND ARCHITECTURE XXVI. PHILOSOPHY AND CULTURE XXVII. MUNICIPAL ACTIVITIES . XXVIII. LIFE AND SOME CUSTOMS Ti ILLUSTRATIONS THE KAISER THE BATTLESHIP HANOVER ROYAL PALACE, POTSDAM COUNT ZEPPELIN THE CROWN PRINCE . THE REICHSTAG HERR- VON- BETHMANN-HOLLWEG ADMIRAL VON TIRPITZ THE BATTLESHIP " NASSAU " A FUTURE KAISER . PULPIT, TRIER CATHEDRAL CHAPEL OF ST. URSULA, COLOGNE EMPEROR STREET, FREIBURG THE DOCKS, HAMBURG BARONESS VON BOHLEN (N^E KRUPP) A GERMAN TYPE THE KAISERIN AND HER DAUGHTER HERMANN SUDERMANN THE BUCHHANDLERHAUS, LEIPZIG EMMA DESTINN GERARD HAUPTMANN LUDWIG VON KNAUS PORTA NIGRA, TRIER THE CATHEDRAL, MAYENCE THE CATHEDRAL, FREIBURG ERNST HEINRICH HAECKEL . TOWN HALL, FREIBURG GUILD HOUSE, RATISBON . VIEW OF BERLIN ST. SEBALDUS' SHRINE, NUREMBERG MARKET PLACE, FREIBURG . vii Frontispiece facing- pagt 8 12 16 18 40 50 66 70 76 94 100 134 150 154 168 184 196 200 214 222 232 234 236 238 242 248 250 256 258 262 ^ Of TH€ UNIVERSITY OF Germany of the Germans CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION " These people are wonderfully methodical ! " is a phrase often uttered by the foreigner visiting Germany for the first time. Without knowing it, he has hit on the Method principal reason of Germany's prosperity. Signs of method and discipline are visible on every hand. Well-ordered progress is apparent every- where — not that frenzied, demonstrative progress observable in newer countries, but an organized forward movement in which every detail seems to have been well considered and nothing left to chance. When a deeper knowledge has been obtained of the country and the people — the Germany of the Germans — the foreigner is no longer surprised at the nation's unceasing march towards the front rank of civilised countries. Perseverance, education, knowledge of their strength, ambition, have all united to urge the German people forward. It cannot be denied that in the past forty years their concentrated efforts have carried them onward to such a position in trade, in power, and in the develop- Germany ment of systematized care for their own welfare Dreaming. that other nations, who formerly looked on Germany as only a land of dreamers, have been compelled to come to the conclusion that, instead of dreaming, she was wide awake, thinking quietly and method- ically. Now that she has put the result of her thought into effect, the other nations have to content themselves with following, in many directions, the way she has thought out, with the disadvantage of having to give her a start in the race. 1 2 Germany of the Germans In whatever part of the Empire one finds oneself, the fact becomes immediately apparent that the most modern methods are utilized in both public and private enter- tion, and to this study of detail much of the extraordinary progress which has been attained is to be attributed. The marvellous organisation and method, which count for so much to the nation, are an outcome of the formation of the Empire four decades ago. The many small States into which Germany is divided suffered, before their union into a federal bond, from all kinds of petty jealousies, as well as from the varied systems in vogue. Development was in this way greatly retarded. Since the creation of the Empire, with a central government to watch over its greater world-interests, and with the strong directing hand of the administrative system Vinhty of the borrowed from Prussia — the paramount State of the federation — extended to all parts of the country, the overflowing virility of the people, instead of being dribbled away in constant internal bickerings, has been directed into its proper channel, and the power hitherto wasted has been utilized to develop the vast natural resources of the country. Certainly, not all the administrative system taken from Prussia calls for admiration. The interference of the authori- ties in petty details of private life, which in other countries are left to the good sense of the people, is felt by the Germans themselves, with all their inborn instinct of submission to the powers that be, to go sometimes to extreme lengths. The ubiquity of the police is very striking and impresses itself on the foreigner as one of the most Ubrquitv objectionable features of German life. The fact that one can only obtain a cab at a railway station through a policeman, the personal reporting of arrivals to the police, and the registration of the Introduction 3 engagement or dismissal of a servant girl at the police station, and other matters of a like nature might pass without remark, but when a policeman in full uniform and armed with a sabre enters your private apartment to inquire about your religious belief, then police interference becomes objectionable. The fact that the policeman's helmet and sabre are the most conspicuous objects on the platform of a political meeting, which he can disperse at a moment's notice should he imagine a speaker is expressing his arguments in an objectionable way to the Government, of course does not affect the foreigner to any great extent. The policeman's word is law everywhere. Right or wrong, the public must obey him. Complaint as to the injustice of his action is virtually useless. The Government undertakes entire responsibility for all his acts, legal or illegal, while he is on duty. Much the same may be said in regard to most Government and municipal officials. They in many cases, among the lower ranks, act as though they were the ^^tUers*^^ rulers by some kind of divine right, and woe be to a member of the public who expresses his disapproval ! It must be said that the higher ranks of officials are, in the majority of instances, extremely obliging. They are men of the highest education who have behind them the long traditions of the Prussian administration, which has always been noted for its uprightness and faithfulness to duty. As to the military cult — that stands by itself. The soldier's uniform is honoured by Germans more than by the people of any other nation. The officer occupies a ^^^C^lt^^^^ privileged position, which is inviolable by the civil authorities. He takes precedence every- where. How highly the military stand in the estimation of the ruler may be gathered from the fact that, when the Imperial Chancellor happens to be chosen from among the civilians, he is at once given a rank in the Army, so that he 4 Germany of the Germans may wear the uniform, the usual diplomatic uniform not being regarded as bearing such a high value. This was done in the case of Bismarck, Caprivi and Biilow, and now Bethmann- Hollweg has received the appointment he has been made a major as a first step. All of these four Chancellors when they performed their service in the Army did so as one-year volunteers. The German from his earliest years is educated in patriotism. His school songs are martial ; he is given holidays on the anniversaries of great victories ; he is taught Patriotism history mostly by references to wars in which the nation has participated ; when he walks abroad he finds everywhere monuments of generals and marshals ; his picture galleries are full of battle pictures ; he is taught to doff his hat to the flag whenever he passes it ; the soldier is held up to him as the pattern which he should follow. A remarkable phenomenon in a nation where education and ability are so widespread is the fact that the development of the political instinct of the people has been so slow. They make use, it is true, of their right to vote for members of the Imperial Parliament, for which universal manhood suffrage obtains ; but there their interest in poHtical matters ends, and they are content to accept with little comment the legislation made for them by Ministers not responsible to the nation, and not chosen from its elected representa- tives. Hitherto this apathy has not apparently injured the people's interests, for the new laws enacted have in most cases introduced reforms which have benefited the whole nation. There is in some quarters a very strong argument urged against this system of paternal government. Government namely, that it destroys individuality and takes away the personal will of the people. They become so used to obeying orders that they cannot think for themselves in politics. Spontaneity is not requisite for Introduction 5 them. The Government sees to all things : the people only need to do what they are told. Perhaps, it is argued, equally good and even better results in the way of popular thrift and laws could be attained if the people were taught to think for themselves. One of the most striking features of German Hfe is that the people have so little understanding of the way in which they are governed. In other things the German can recite long lists of data without the slightest hesitation, but in poHtics he replies with a blank look when questioned. It has never impressed him as necessary that he should comprehend politics. He is governed — as a rule well : that is sufficient for him. The national character cannot easily be summed up in a few words, for in north, south, east and west exist many different traits. It may, however, be said of the people National f ^^ ^^ federated States that they are Character. , . , i -i t_ mdustrious, honest and earnest ; while on the other side of the slate they are generally greatly inclined to bully anyone they consider inferior and abase themselves before anyone a step higher in the social scale. This latter failing seems, unfortunately, to extend with the spread of Prussian influence over the other States. The struggle for prosperity, as has been seen, takes a larger place in German thought than party politics. The men engaged in trade and commerce are most P^ofperity"^ enlightened and full of worldly knowledge. This they apply to business, which they conduct with intense energy, common-sense, and practicality. More especially among the working classes, where hard work and little play are the rule, the necessity for tenacity and striving towards improvement is fully recognised. Imbued with the spirit of discipline during their service in the Army, they carry it with them to their work and their trades unions. Their leaders are wide awake to the terrific struggle going on between the nations in the search for trade. They never 6 Germany of the Germans cease to drive home to the workmen the benefits of temperance in making them better able to attain efficiency in their work. They also encourage them to attend in their spare time the technical trade classes which are such a feature of German education. This subject of education is dealt with in Germany in a way that is wonderfully efficient. It leaves doubts in many people's minds, however, as to whether the Elation ^^* system has been adopted, for, although it is aimed at providing the most thorough training of the pupil for the walk in life that has been chosen, it appears to impose a limit on opportunity. Specialisation and caste feeling are carried to such an extreme limit in all things that it is almost impossible for any German to strike out and take up any position except that for which he was originally destined. The workman's son becomes a workman, the professional man's son follows in his father's footsteps, the Government official's son almost inevi- tably enters a Government office, the officer's son expects nothing more than to become an officer, while the scions of nobility would not expect to do anything but serve a time as officer in the Guards and then take up the management of their estates or go into the diplomatic service. Professor Ludwig Bernhard, a leading German economist, recently called attention in the course of an address to the gulf that existed between the working classes ^^ClSses^''^ in the German Empire and the rest of the nation. He declared that their manner of thought was so different that they gave the impression of belonging to another race ; yet they formed the greater proportion of the nation and provided the majority of the Army. The intellectual progress of the Empire certainly had extended to the working class, although its results had led it in a different direction, and the workmen now had their own ideals, history and traditions, which would in the future without doubt play an important part. Introduction %^ While the bulk, if not all, of the middle class devote them- selves to trade and commerce in the practical way that is instilled into them in the technical schools, "^^Crust^^*^ leaving intellectual pursuits for their leisure time, which is very scanty, the great land- owners and the feudal nobihty, with their ultra-conservative traditions, reside as a rule on their country estates. These are sometimes of vast extent and afford them wide oppor- tunities for the display of the talent for management which seems inherent in the German. Germany has undoubtedly become a power which must be reckoned with in the future progress of the world. In shipping, industry and commerce, she has, Reckon^ With ^^^^^^ to her hard-working, well-disciphned, well-educated, thrifty population of over 63,000,000, already taken a place near the front. The people of this youthful Empire, despite their immense increase of wealth, have not relaxed one iota of their marvel- lous energy. Indeed, it looks as though their inherent strength and vitaHty are only now being stirred to still further effort. The sudden successes which led to the foundation of the Empire were not without their drawbacks, for they found the people without any of the tact and diplomacy so necessary when in contact with other races and other Powers. The acquisition of these indispensable attributes is, however, only a matter of time. No false impression prevails in the land that whatever the nation undertakes it will be able to accomplish. The Germans, however, after the most careful Thought Out preparation and forethought, enter upon new ventures with the utmost confidence, knowing that they stand at least an equal chance with the people of any other nation. Sometimes they choose a wrong way to attain their object, but when that way is once chosen they go forward without hesitation and often pull through owing to their discipline. 8 Germany of the Germans They bear with equanimity the awful burden of a gigantic Army and a rapidly growing Fleet, as they feel both are necessary to maintain the position of the Ailment's! Empire in the world, and thus to bring them more opportunities for trade. With their growth of power, they have lost much of their former simpHcity, and their desire for more comfort and luxury has increased, with the result that modern German houses may now be regarded as among the most convenient in the world. The cities also are remarkably well organised, rationally laid out, and wonderfully clean. Their way of dealing with social problems has aroused world-wide admiration. Here again the ingrained discipline of the people has had its effect. Practically Probl ms every working person accepts with good grace the enforcement of the far-reaching system of thrift which was introduced by Bismarck in an effort to stay the tide of Socialism. The compulsory method of making provision for hard times has not had its feared effect of dis- couraging private thrift. On the contrary, the people seem to have gathered encouragement from it to make further efforts of their own in the same direction, as the immense figures of the small deposit accounts in the savings banks show. The guardianship of the State in this respect has effected much in delivering the working classes of the land from the horrible nightmare of an old age of hopeless privation and dependence on others. The remarkable extension of scientific learning during the past thirty or forty years appears to have had a deleterious effect on the spiritual condition of the nation, ?"t^Vjf^ which exhibits itself in a notable increase of Learning. ... , , discontent and pessimism in regard to religion. Everything connected with the Church is the subject of discussion. Nothing is perfect ! All needs changing and reform. These criticisms are in many cases justified, for the 'iP^H Introduction d old fervent religious spirit seems to have died out of the Church itself, and it offers nothing that appeals to a people that has always had a longing for religion. The days of Luther seem very far away ! From aU classes, whether high or low, arises occasionally a murmur as to the burden of taxation, more especially when a fresh source is tapped which apparently affects one class more than another. When the heavy sums raised by the Empire and the various States are regarded, it must be confessed that there is cause for muttering. The Statistical Department has drawn up a list of the budgets of the various Federal States and of the Empire for the year 1908, according to which the States B d ts expended public money to the extent of "" ^^ * £270,500,000, and the Empire £147,650.000, altogether £418,150,000, part of which sum was raised from the State and Imperial undertakings, and the remainder from taxation, direct and indirect. The States enter to a considerable extent into industrial enterprises, much to the benefit of the people. The chief sources of revenue, apart from taxation, are the forests and other lands, which brought in a net income of £7,650,000 in 1908 ; the mines, which returned a net total of £485,000 ; the railways, which made a profit for the States combined of £29,700,000 ; the posts and telegraphs, which altogether brought in £810,000 ; and other smaller undertakings, which earned a profit of £1,845,000. The only item on which the States lost money was the State-ovsned river and lake steamships, which showed a loss of £10,000. The Empire also has some similar sources of revenue. For instance, the Imperial railways in Alsace-Lorraine were worked at a profit of £770,000, the Imperial posts and telegraphs showed a balance of £1,865,000, and the Imperial printing office one of £190,000. The net income to States and Empire together from these undertakings in 1908 was £43,305,000. 10, Germany of the Germans With all the incessant expenditure of energy in the race of industrial progress, Germans leave themselves Httle time for creative work in other directions. Literature, for instance, has suffered greatly in recent years. Not that there is a lack of books ! The quantity is to hand in more than sufficiency ; but the good, sound **sSn£til?^ ^ literary effort of former times has disappeared. More reading than ever is done, but German lovers of letters rely on the old standard authors, while the multitude, with the meagre leisure time at its disposal, contents itself for the time being with ephemeral literature, which it hastily glances through and throws away — its proper fate. Both music and art appear to be passing through a period of transition. Music, of course, is born in the blood of the German, and no one can ever quench his Art^"^ love for it. German musicians of the present day, however, are striving for some goal which they themselves can but dimly see, if they see it at all, with the result that wild, sensational compositions are given to a public which is seeking for other and better things. As to art, in both sculpture and painting an effort is being made to evolve a German style, hitherto without great success, but with ever-increasing promise. Excellent art schools exist in plenty, and there seems little doubt that some day modern German art will take its place on the same plane as that of other nations whose achievements have rendered them as famous in that regard as Germany is for her education, her discipline, her industry, and her administration. CHAPTER 11 WILLIAM II AS EMPEROR William II, chosen Emperor of the most powerful military nation of the world, may be said almost to have achieved his purpose of becoming the arbiter of Europe's Arbiter of destinies. Essentially a man of peace, the Kaiser is yet a great war-lord. It is more in that capacity than as their ruler that the Emperor is recognised by the German people. Yet during his reign of more than twenty years the sword of Germany has not once been drawn, although it has on occasions rattled ominously in its sheath. The fact is, the Kaiser loves to feel his power, which enables him to maintain the prestige of the House of HohenzoUem and with it that of the German Empire. He indulges in what might almost be termed worship for his ancestor, the Grand Elector Frederick Wilhelm of Brandenburg, who first changed Prussia from a vaissal province into an independent principality. The Emperor certainly inherited the traditional devotion to duty of the Hohenzollerns. He is a lover of hard work. There is no eight-hour day for him, and if he ^^Du^" *° completes his formidable list of daily tasks in double that time it is only because of his extraordinary energy and system. His example in this respect seems also to affect those around him, and the position of his Court officials is never a sinecure. When any matter of importance is brought to his notice, he insists that it shall be settled the same day, if at all possible, for he does not hke anything to be held over. The signature of all State papers is carried out immediately they are presented to his Majesty, who never fails to order that they shall be returned to the Ministry whence they emanated on the same day. Very often on the following morning he inquires of his secretaries or 11 12 Germany of the Germans aides-de-camp whether the documents have been returned, and if he learns of any delay the ofi&cial at fault has a bad quarter of an hour. Even when he is travelling, which is often the case, the Kaiser transacts all his State business as the Imperial train is dashing along, and his post-bag when he is away from Berlin is always a heavy one. The expense attached to an Imperial railway journey is very great. The Kaiser never travels by ordinary train, but utilizes the luxurious railway carriages painted Tr "el ^^ ^^^^ ^^^ white specially constructed for his use. The train is composed of eleven of these carriages, fitted in palatial manner with all thinkable conveniences, and is so heavy that two locomotives are required to draw it. The average cost of running the train is about ;f 10 per mile, and this has to be paid from his Majesty's privy purse. A telegraph operator always accompanies the train, carrying portable telegraphic and telephonic apparatus, so that in case of breakdown or accident the wires on the side of the track can be tapped and immediate communication obtained with some central point. The calls on his Majesty's privy purse are very many, but he has ample resources to meet them. As King of Prussia he enjoys a civil list of ;f 850,000 a year. He R our^^ is, besides, the biggest landowner in Prussia, with an immense private income. His grand- father, the Emperor William I, who led a very quiet and economical life, also left him a fortune of £2,500,000. The Emperor possesses a large number of castles and palaces in various parts of the country, which call for the expenditure of an enormous amount of money for their upkeep, and he has recently undertaken the costly task of restoring some of them which had almost fallen into ruins. He also practically bears the entire expense of the Imperial Opera in Berlin, which must cost him many thousands yearly. <^ Of THE ' William II as Emperor 13 He once said : " When I once undertake anything, I always carry it out," and it is certain that in whatever he undertakes the Emperor seems to put his whole heart. Tu«-^^!fu Whether he is leading a cavalry charge, Thoroughness. . o .. ./ rr 7 commandmg his cruiser yacht, the Hohen- zollern, sailing in a yacht race, motoring, playing tennis, walking, shooting or riding — ^his mind is concentrated on what he is doing. He is devoted to exercise, and when in Berlin spends considerable time on horseback, although it is said that he does not care much for riding. The sea appears to have many attractions for him, and he delights to be on board of the Meteor during a hard-sailed race, or walking the quarter- deck of a battleship during the manoeuvres, when he foUows every evolution of each vessel of the fleet with the utmost minuteness. Deer-stalking is one of his favourite sports, and he secures many a good bag of game when he is staying at his shooting preserves at Rominten and Liineburg. Wild-boar hunting is another form of sport which his Majesty thoroughly enjoys. He throws off all formality during the sport and joins in conversation with the foresters and gamekeepers in the most good-natured way while aU sit round the ambulatory lunch waggon to partake of a simple meal. Lawn-tennis is a form of exercise in which he was at one time an adept, but of late years he has practised the game only occasionally while at Potsdam. Even in his private life, when he is not occupied with State business, the Kaiser's energy displays itself at all times. He is a rapid eater, prefers the most simple ^Life.^^ dishes, and generally has an excellent appetite ; but he drinks most moderately and now only rarely smokes. His first meal, which is a hearty one, served very early, is eaten with all the members of the family who are in residence in the palace. Then, after pressing State business is settled, he often 14 Germany of the Germans walks or rides, sometimes with the Empress. Luncheon is always very formal and many guests are generally present. The rest of the day is usually given up to public engagements, reception of guests, conferences with his councillors, etc., until dinner, a simple meal, after which the Kaiser reads with his family and discusses the events of the day until about 11 o'clock. Then another hour's hard work at State business and his Majesty retires to bed. Like all the members of the Hohenzollern family, the Emperor has learned a trade, that of bookbinding, and he applied himself to it with such energy that he became really expert. He has often put his knowledge to practical use in the Imperial private library, which contains many a volume bound by the Imperial hands. It was he, too, who designed the bookmark in daily use in the palace. It is almost impossible not to admire the Emperor, who^ strong personality is so attractive. Some of the vitality with which he has filled his reign seems to Personality ^^-^e spread to all classes of his subjects, who have thus been spurred on to make efforts which they would not have thought of attempting had they not imbibed some of the overflowing optimism of their Emperor. He has, in fact, revivified decadent kingship. Although not physically very strong, he toils without cessation for his House and the Empire in a way that neither he nor any other man could do unless with a great incentive, and that incentive is the belief that he is divinely selected to brace up and lead the German nation to a great destiny. The Kaiser possesses most of the virtues of the German people — he is warm-hearted, impulsive, earnest, intelligent and ideahstic. He has also some of its Demerits demerits, for he is rather vain and inclined to complete self-satisfaction, but these are somewhat tempered by his lively sense of curiosity and recognition of the fact that others also have merits. He is above everything else filled with the belief of the divine William II as Emperor 15 ^ mission of the House of Hohenzollem, and determined to maintain and if possible increase its prestige, and this appears to overburden his character. It is said he will not brook, or rather does not like, the expression of initiative or independent thought among his Ministers or courtiers ; but he likes to hear the views of distinguished foreigners on subjects in which he is interested. In his conversations with them he is charming and wonderfully versatile. Most persons who come into personal contact with him leave under a kind of fascination. He seems to know at once how to get the best out of his guests. With an Englishman he is more than English, with a Frenchman more than French, and with an American more than American. Some say that this is the result of perfect acting, but there is every reason to believe that in every case the Kaiser is sincere. Whatever errors of judgment he may have committed during his reign, there is no doubt the Kaiser has always acted in good faith for what he believed at the •^^r^^A^'^^u moment to be the welfare of the Empire, in (jooq raitn. ,t i i ^ • i ... He has been subjected to very severe cnticism, not only in other countries, but by his own people. This was more especially the case at the time of the notorious interview in 1908, when a veritable storm burst over his Majesty's head from people and press of every party and class. The Emperor feels that his kingly duty calls upon him to take up such a position in public life as to make him the arbiter to whom the people will look in all public questions. His readiness to make a speech on any and every subject which comes under his notice has, however, on many occasions caused local storms in the circles affected by his words, for he has that dogmatic trait of asserting his views and admitting no contrary opinion which is characteristic of the German. His range of thought is so wide, and he is credited with being so liberal, that one must almost come to the conclusion that this dogmatism has been given birth to by the flattery of his courtiers, most of whom belong to that old feudal class whose 16 Germany of the Germans first and only belief is that everything their monarch says or does is right, and are constantly telling him so. It is said that he rarely learns the exact truth about public opinion of his doings and sayings, for his time is too much occupied for him to read newspapers, and the information has to filter through the hands of a number of courtiers before it reaches his Majesty. Notwithstanding his more recent leaning towards the sea, the Kaiser has not lost his love for soldiering. His early career as an infantry and then as a cavalry Sold*er ne officer was, as with all princes, one of rapid promotion. It was when he became colonel of the Hussars of the Guard in 1885 that his personality began to make itself felt. He was a real martinet, and if a subaltern officer did not attain that pitch of perfection in his duties which was demanded by the young princely colonel, he found himself suddenly transferred to an obscure line regiment with small chance of promotion. Prince WiUiam did not allow even the minutest details to escape his notice : even the men's clothing and their barrack comforts were carefully inquired into. When he was promoted brigadier every regimental report was examined and commented on by him and the archives of the troops then under his command still contain lengthy criticisms in his handwriting. He was major-general at the age of twenty-nine, when he was called to the Imperial throne. Even as Emperor he continued his military studies whenever he found an opportunity, and he always makes it a point to be present at the great annual army manoeuvres, where he follows the movements of the opposing forces with the closest attention. At the end of a hard day's fighting he will often, surrounded by the wholfe corps of officers who have taken part, speak for an hour or so without notes, criticising or praising the execution of the movements. In the Navy, which is his own creation, he also shows immense interest. When on board the flagship at the COUNT ZEPPELIN OF. THF U!SIIVER3fTY Of William II as Emperor 17 manGeuvres, he inquires closely into the welfare of the crew and every day he has a plateful of the sailors' rations brought to him direct from the cook's galley. Interest m the q^ many occasions he does not content him- self with looking at it and giving his approval, but consumes the entire contents, apparently with enjoyment, even when the food consists only of red herrings and unpeeled potatoes. The varied distribution of the Emperor's energies, which is sometimes decried, is due to his overwhelming desire to push things forward. The Emperor's versatility is so extended that scarcely any subject escapes his attention. He will jump from an earnest discussion on theology to the latest theory V atuitv ^^ ^^^ conquest of the air. On the subject of airships he is enthusiastic. When Count Zeppelin was reported to be on the way to Berlin in his monster air-cruiser for the first time, the Emperor set off in his motor-car from Potsdam and waited in the midst of hundreds of thousands of excited inhabitants of Berlin for several hours on the military parade-ground looking out for the Count's arrival. It was the Kaiser who, after hearing a lecture on the progress made in dirigible airships in France, gave orders for the army balloon corps to construct the steerable balloon which has proved such a great success. The society for the study of aerial navigation, under the chairmanship of Major von Parseval, was also founded on the Kaiser's recommendation, with the result that it now constructs dirigibles which with the greatest ease undertake trips of twelve and fifteen hours. Art is one of the subjects on which the Kaiser regards himself as an authority, and to which he gives ^"^^^1^ °" ^^^ patronage. He undoubtedly possesses a remarkably extensive artistic understanding, acquired from his mother, the Empress Frederick. The knowledge he imbibed from her was based on such sound 18 Germany of the Germans and common-sense principles that he has never been able to overcome his oft-expressed dislike for modem Impressionists. His love for the old masters is deep-seated, and he never misses an occasion of displaying it. One of his great prefer- ences is for old English pictures, as was shown when he himself opened the exhibition in Berlin of masterpieces by Gainsborough, Reynolds, Lawrence, and other British painters. The list of his Majesty's activities is almost inexhaustible — from preaching an impromptu sermon to making suggestions for a statue, from launching a battleship to superintending an opera rehearsal, everything is included, and all the varied tasks are carried out with an attention to detail which would be surprising in anyone else. Whether he is really popular is hard to judge. The German, although loyal to a degree, is not enthusiastic, and his reception of the Kaiser when his Majesty passes through Pooula^ ? *^^ streets strikes a foreigner as somewhat cold and forced. Perhaps the German con- siders loyalty has no need to be shouted, but is better demonstrated by making sacrifices in his country's and his monarch's service. In the person of the Crown Prince, whose character is much quieter than that of his father, the people of the German Empire have a future ruler wko is not only '^^Prince!^" respected for his ability, but thoroughly liked. His cheerful presence is welcomed everywhere. A soldier from the age of fourteen, he has followed the pro- fession of arms with earnestness and devotion. Although he is still very young — he was born in 1882 — he has travelled much, having paid a visit to the Far East, as well as to many of the Courts of Europe. This phase of his education, although of importance from the point of view of extending his know- ledge of the world through personal observation, passes into the background beside the complete training he has undergone and is still continuing in statecraft. He has undertaken, at Pholo by THE CROWN PRINCE u Of THE DIVERSITY OF William II as Emperor 19 his father's request, to go through a course of practical work in all the State ministerial offices, where, according to the Ministers themselves, he has proved a very apt pupil. Following the example of the Emperor, he has learned a trade, and is a very competent carpenter and joiner. He is, however, above all a sportsman in the true sense of the word, for he takes an active part in many games, although tennis is his favourite pastime. Yachting on the lakes round Berlin in a small vessel is also a frequent amusement. He has also made an ascent in an aeroplane. He married, in 1905, at the age of twenty-three, the Princess Ceciha of Mecklenburg, and the young couple already have three sons, so that the succession to the Imperial throne is well secured. The Emperor has taken such a pre-eminent position that foreigners are almost unaware that there are in the Empire twenty other ruhng monarchs and princes. Other German gQjjjg ^f whom have occupied their thrones much longer than the Emperor has occupied the throne of Prussia. Duke George of Saxe-Meiningen is the oldest of these. He was born on April 2nd, 1826. Then follow Prince Charles Gunther of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen, 1831 ; Prince Henry XIV of Reuss (younger line), 1833 ; Prince George of Schaumburg-Lippe, 1847 ; King WiUiam 11 of Wiirttemberg, 1849 ; King Otto of Bavaria, 1849 ; Grand Duke Adolph Frederick of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, 1849 ; Prince Gunther of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, 1853 ; Grand Duke August of Oldenburg, 1853 ; Duke Frederick II of Anhalt, 1857; Duke Frederick II of Baden, 1858; Prince Frederick of Waldeck and Pyrmont, 1865 ; King Frederick August of Saxony, 1866 ; Grand Duke Ludwig of Hessen, 1869 ; Prince Leopold VI of Lippe, 1872 ; Duke Ernst II of Saxe-Altenburg, 1872 ; Grand Duke William Ernest of Saxe-Weimar, 1877 ; Prince Henry XXIV of Reuss (old line), 1879 ; Grand Duke Frederick Francis IV of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, 1883 ; and Duke Charles Edward of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, 1885. CHAPTER III THE IMPERIAL CONSTITUTION This great Empire, with its immense population of over sixty millions and its enormous interests throughout the world, possesses a Constitution which does not rest ^ ^° A^.^"*^"^^ ^^ tradition, as those of many other countries do, but is written down above the signatures of the heads of all the States forming the Federation. The interpretation of the Constitution has given rise to many arguments, more especially during that period of 1908 when the Emperor was generally supposed to have exceeded his rights as head of the Bond. It was then argued in the Imperial Parliament that the Kaiser was not the Sovereign of the Empire, but simply the most important Prince among the body of thrsov/re?^*. ^^^^^g P^^^^s- This argument met with much opposition at the time and, on examina- tion of the Imperial Constitution, cannot be upheld in all its force. That the Kaiser is not the ruler of the Empire de facto is true, although he exercises virtually absolute sovereign power, especially in regard to external politics, and he is also in the event of hostilities supreme commander of all the military forces of all the States composing the Empire. The real rulers, however, are supposed to be the Federal Council, representing all the Princes, States and free cities, and this view has been upheld by the Imperial Supreme Court. The King of Prussia, according to the Imperial Constitution, must be German Emperor and President of the Federal Union, in which all ruling sovereigns of the Empire possess supposedly equal rights. 20 The Imperial Constitution 21 The Kaiser, however, from his position as such, is the representative of the Empire in the conclusion of treaties and in all other dealings with foreign Powers, ^^^Emp^.*^* and without his consent no contract or treaty with any other Power can become binding. He alone of the ruling Princes is entitled to confer with foreign ambassadors. He alone has the right to declare a state of siege in any part of the Empire, and he does not require the consent of the ruler of that part of the Empire before making such a declaration. The Kaiser alone has the right to appoint the Imperial Chancellor and other Ministers, and may do so without consulting in any way the feeling of the ^^Ch^cdlSJ.*"^ country or taking into account the political tendency of the majority of the people. Of course, it is possible for the people through their repre- sentatives in Parliament to decline to vote supplies for a Chancellor whom they regard as unsuitable, and for this reason the Kaiser takes great care in his selection so as not to arouse the opposition of the people. Should the Chancellor, however, be defeated by a parlia- mentary majority, there is nothing to compel the Kaiser to remove him from office, and it has happened Popu?2^ WilL^ frequently that a Chancellor has suffered a parliamentary reverse without his position being affected. Usually in such an event the Chancellor makes slight changes in his propositions and, taking advantage of the divisions among the parties, secures a majority favour- able to his wishes by creating fresh combinations, sometimes casting aside for the purpose groups which have hitherto strongly supported him. The Chancellor is, in the true sense of the word, the servant of the Emperor. According to the Constitution, he takes the responsibility for all the Emperor's acts, but it is not laid down in that document to whom he is responsible. It certainly is not to the people, who are not permitted to pass 22 Germany of the Germans a vote of censure on him through their representatives in Parliament and cannot call for his dismissal or resignation. Neither are any of the Ministers responsible to the Imperial Parliament, but to the Chancellor. They are not members of the parliamentary body, although they ^elplnsibk!* may speak in the House when they like. No member of Parliament has the right to demand an answer to a question from a Minister, and the House cannot turn a Minister out of office. The Imperial Parliament is, therefore, only nominally a portion of the governing body. It has the right, it is true, to refuse to pass a bill presented to it by the Government, but in doing so it runs the danger of being sent about its business. If this occurred, another Parliament would be elected. In case the new Parliament took the same view as its predecessor, what would occur ? The question has often been discussed without eliciting a satisfactory response. The Federal Council, in that event, would not be con- stitutionally empowered to carry on the business of the Empire, for the consent of the Imperial Federal Council Parliament is requisite in order to make Unable to Act , ., , i , Alone. ^^y ^^ its acts legal. It seems probable, therefore, that any such action on the part of Parliament would bring about the introduction of real parliamentary government, although this would be strongly opposed by Prussia, which, with its seven- teen votes in the Federal Council, exercises such a predominant influence, and, besides, has the support of many of the smaU moribund principalities. 'v A glance at the principal articles of the written Imperial "^ Constitution of April 16th, 1871, will be useful in determining Kl ? 1 the scope of the agreement, with the respective , f Principal rights of the Emperor, the component parts ' Constitution. ^^ the Empire and the two legislative bodies. It will be seen that the document binds the various kingdonis, principalities, dukedoms, and free cities The Imperial Constitution 23 into " an eternal union," from which no single member may break away without the consent of the others. Since the date on which the Constitution came into opera- tion, several of its clauses have been slightly changed. These alterations are included in the following synopsis of the fourteen sections containing in all seventy-eight articles. After a prehminary paragraph stating that " His Majesty the King of Prussia in the name of the North German Union, his Majesty the King of Bavaria, his Majesty ^^oT"^ the King of Wiirttemberg, his Royal Highness the Grand Duke of Baden and his Royal Highness the Grand Duke of Hesse and the Rhine for the portions of the Grand Duchy of Hesse situated south of the Main, enter into an eternal union for the protection of the territory of the Union and the established law therein valid, also for the furtherance of the welfare of the German people," the Constitution goes on to say : " This Union shall bear the name of the German Empire and have the following Constitution." Section I contains only one article : " Article I. — The territory of the Union consists of the States of Prussia, Lauenburg, Bavaria, Saxony, Wiirttemberg, Baden, Hesse, Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Saxe- Territorv Weimar, Mecklenburg-Strelitz, Oldenburg, Brunswick, Saxe-Meiningen, Saxe-Altenburg, Saxe - Coburg - Gotha, Anhalt, Schwarzburg - Rudolstadt, Schwarzburg-Sondershausen, Waldeck, Reuss (elder line), Reuss (younger hne), Schaumburg-Lippe, Lippe, Liiback, Bremen and Hamburg, as well as the Imperial province of Alsace-Lorraine." The second section consists of four articles, giving Imperial legislation the preference over State legislation ; making the inhabitants of all the Federal States into German subjects in whatever part of the Empire they may choose to reside, giving the Imperial authorities supervision of import and export duties, commercial treaties, banks, coinage, weights 24 Germany of the Germans and measures, patents, copyrights, consulates, railways, waterways, posts and telegraphs except in Bavaria and Wiirttemberg, the carrying out of civil and commercial law, the Army and Navy, the regulation of the medical and veterinary professions, and the rules for the Press and associations. Article 5 of this section nominates the Federal Council and the Imperial Parliament as law-making institutions for the Empire, and declares that the agreement of Law Makers *^^ majorities of those bodies on a bill enacting Imperial legislation is necessary and sufficient to make it law. Section III comprises five articles, the first of which lays down the voting power of the various Federal States in the Federal Council as follows. The total number of votes is 58, of which Prussia (comprising also the old province of Han- over, the electorate of Hesse, Holstein, Nassau and the city of Frankfort) is allotted 17, Bavaria 6, Saxony 4, Wiirttemberg 4, Baden 3, Hesse 3, Mecklenburg-Schwerin 2, Saxe-Weimar 1, Mecklenburg-Strelitz 1, Oldenburg 1, Brunswick 2, Saxe- Meiningen 1, Saxe-Altenburg 1, Saxe-Coburg-Gotha 1, Anhalt 1, Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt 1, Schwarzburg-Sonders- hausen 1, Waldeck 1, Reuss (elder line) 1, Reuss (younger line) 1, Schaumburg-Lippe 1, Lippe 1, Liibeck 1, Bremen 1, and Hamburg 1. To every meeting of the Federal Council each of these States is entitled to send as many plenipotentiaries as it has votes, but all the representatives of each ^*Power°**"^ State must vote together, either for or against a proposal. The powers of the Federal Council consist in the drawing up and proposal of bills to the Imperial Parliament and the discussion of bills and resolutions passed by that body, as well as the carrying into effect of Imperial legislation. Every State belonging to the Federal Council has the right to bring forward proposals and the Council must discuss such proposals. The Imperial Constitution 25 When a question arises affecting only certain States in the Empire, only the representatives of those States take part in the voting. On general questions of legislation a simple majority carries or rejects a bill or motion, but in questions affecting a change of the Imperial Constitution, fourteen votes cast against the proposal are sufficient to reject it. The Federal Council has seven standing committees, dealing with (1) the army and fortifications, (2) the navy, (3) the duties and taxes, (4) trade and commerce, (5) Committee railways, posts and telegraphs, (6) justice, (7) finance. On each of these committees at least four Federal States must be represented. The com- mittees are chosen by election in the Council, except in the case of the Army committee, on which Bavaria is always represented, and the Emperor nominates the other members. There is also a numerically stronger committee formed by the Council to deal with foreign affairs. This is always presided over by a Bavarian representative, and Saxony and Wiirttemberg have the right to membership, while two other committeemen are elected by the Federal Council. Every member of the Federal Council has also the right to attend and speak at the sittings of the Imperial Parliament. He can claim to be heard there at any time, and may explain the views of his Government although the Federal Council may have rejected them. Section IV deals with the presidency of the German Union, which is definitely allotted to the King of Prussia, " who is to bear the title of German Emperor." ^RThte '^ The rights of the German Emperor as such are strictly laid down. ** He has to represent the Empire in international affairs, in the name of the Empire to declare war or conclude peace, to make alliances or other agreements with foreign Powers, to nominate and to receive ambassadors." The declaration of war in the name of the Empire has to 26 Germany of the Germans receive the consent of the Federal Council, unless an attack on the territory or the coasts of the Empire has been delivered. Any treaty or agreement with a foreign power which affects the Imperial internal law has to receive the I^VJ^atiwf ^^^^^* ^^ ^°*^ Federal Council and Imperial Parliament. It rests with the Emperor to call together, to open, to adjourn and to close the Federal Council and the Imperial Parliament. Both must meet annually. The Federal Council may be called together in order to prepare its legislative work without the Imperial Parliament, but the Imperial Parliament may not meet without the Federal Council being caUed together at the same time. The Federal Council must be called together whenever a third of its membership demands it. The Imperial Chancellor, who is nominated by the Emperor, is president of the Federal Council and directs the business. He can, however, nominate another member of the Council as his deputy. The proposals of the Federal Council are sent to the Imperial Parliament in the name of the Emperor, and members of the Council or commissioners nominated by the Council attend the Imperial Parliament to represent the Council during their discussion. The Emperor has the duty of signing and decreeing Imperial laws and the supervision of their execution. The Emperor's commands and decrees are issued in the name Si^iS^Laws ^^ ^^^ Empire and require for their validity the counter-signature of the Imperial Chancellor, who thereby accepts the responsibility for them. The Emperor appoints all Imperial officials, swears them into the service of the Empire, and has the right to dismiss them. If members of the Federation do not fulfil their constitu- tional duties, they may be forced to do so by the Federal Council, and the Emperor must enforce the compulsion. The Imperial Constitution 27 Section V is composed of thirteen chapters relating to the Imperial Parliament. It begins with the method of election, and says : " The Imperial Parliament is Imperial constituted throuerh universal and direct Parliament. , . . , ^ • i. ^i ^ elections with secret voting. The number of members, according to the law of June, 1873, is 397, of whom 48 are allotted to Bavaria, 17 to Wiirttemberg, 14 to Baden, 6 to the province of Hesse south of the Main, and 15 to Alsace- Lorraine, while the remainder come from the constituencies of Prussia and Saxony. Officials of the Empire or the States may become members of the Imperial Parliament even while they are in active service, but any member of the Imperial Parliament accepting a paid office in the State or Imperial service, or any official who is a member and is appointed to a higher rank or is accorded an increased salary thereby vacates his seat and must seek re-election. The sittings of the Imperial Parliament are public. The Imperial Parliament has the right, within the compe- tence of the Empire, to propose new laws and to submit petitions which have been presented to it ^^pi^rf '^ to the Federal Council or the Imperial Chancellor. The period for which the Imperial Parliament is elected is five years. Its dissolution during that time can only be effected through a resolution of the Federal Council assented to by the Emperor. In case of dissolution the new elections must take place within sixty days, and the Imperial Parliament must be reassembled within ninety days. An adjournment of the Imperial Parliament for more than thirty days cannot occur without its own consent, and this must not be repeated during the same session. The resolutions of the Imperial Parliament are reached by absolute majority, but no resolution is valid unless a majority of the 397 members participate in the vote. 28 Germany of the Germans The members are regarded as representing the entire people and not any particular constituency. No member can be prosecuted or punished for any utterance he Members may make in the House, and carries no Nation. responsibility outside for what he has done in the Parliament. Without the consent of the House, no member can be called on during the session to answer any punishable charge nor can he be arrested unless he be caught in the act or within the next twenty-four hours. Section VI, with eight articles, deals with commerce and import duties. Section VII, with seven articles, relates to the railways and the right of the Empire to take them over in case of need. It also calls on the Federal States ^nSlwaT^ to have all railways constructed or relaid on a single system. Section VIII, with five articles, concerns the posts and telegraphs. Section IX, with only three articles, refers to the Navy, which is placed under the supreme command of the Emperor, who names all officers and officials. The necessary funds for its upkeep are to be drawn from the Imperial Treasury. This section also places the supervision of the merchant marine under Imperial control. It gives the colours of the flag of the Imperial Navy and merchant marine as black, white and red. Section X, with one article, regulates the consular service. Section XI, in eleven articles, defines the military duties of every German, and designates the peace Militery strength of the Army as 1 per cent, of the population. Section XII, with five articles, concerns the finances of the Empire, whose expenditure is to be covered by import duties and general taxes, from the surplus of the Imperial railways, the posts and tele^aphs, and other branches qi The Imperial Constitution 29 Imperial enterprise. If these do not suffice, the Federal States are caUed upon to contribute towards the deficit in proportion to their population. Section XIII, with four articles, threatens with punishment any undertaking against the existence, the integrity, the security or the constitution of the Empire, and any insult to the Federal Council, the Imperial Parliament, or to a member of either, or to a public body or official of the Empire while carrying out his duties, or in connection with his office, by word of mouth or wxiting, in print or picture. Section XIV, the last, says proposed changes of constitution can only be effected by law, and are considered as rejected if fourteen votes are recorded against them in the Federal Council. CHAPTER IV Prussia's preponderance The position of the States of the Empire towards one another is a question of the greatest interest. It cannot be denied that Prussia has spread its influence to an the* States! enormous degree since the foundation of the Empire. Everywhere, whether in Saxony, Bavaria, Wiirttemberg, Baden, or elsewhere, one can see evidences of rapid Prussianisation. Whether this influence is a beneficial one remains to be seen. The German Empire has hitherto reaped one great advan- tage from its division into a number of small and, to a certain extent, independent States, each with its own Court and capital. Owing to the existence of these smaller seats of Government, the intellectual life of the Empire has been spread over the entire nation, and not all drawn towards one centre, as in some other countries. The influence of Prussia in connection with parliamentary affairs has always been reactionary. There is no doubt that at the present moment the great landowners Prussia ^^ Prussia, favoured by an antiquated system of parliamentary elections, and a distribution of voting power which has not been changed for fifty years, control the policy of the Empire both internal and external. There exists even to-day a strong feeling of antipathy to Prussian methods in the other States, but they are powerless to oppose them. The overwhelming influence conferred on Prussia by the fact that the King is also Emperor, and that the interests of his dynasty are allied to those of the reactionary elements in his kingdom, must make itself felt, and the reac- tionary spirit shows few signs of weakening. Prussia also feels, owing to the fact that it was chiefly as a result of her military strength that the Empire was formed, that she has Prussia's Preponderance 31 a right to have the principal role in Imperial affairs, and she maintains that position with great force. Prussia has also another instrument in her hands by which she can usually force her will on the other States. The Federal Council, as has been declared in the Consti- In tjie Federal ^ution, has the power to reject any proposed change of Constitution of the Empire, even although the representatives of the people in the Imperial Parliament have approved of it. A further important factor in the position of Prussia towards the other Federal States is the fact that, owing to the gradual extinction of some of the reigning princely dynasties, a considerable portion of their territories will at some future time fall into Prussian hands. The succession to the dynasties of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Reuss (elder line), Schwarzburg-Sondershausen, Baden, Hessen, Wiirttem- berg, Oldenburg, Saxe-Altenburg and Saxe-Weimar is very scantily provided for as regards male heirs, and in many of these cases there is a provision that the succession shall eventually fall to the King of Prussia, in other words, the Emperor. As a matter of fact, the Imperial idea already projects far beyond the federal idea. Scarcely anyone, in Prussia at least, ever thinks of Bavaria, Saxony or Wiirttem- ^^^Id?r"^ berg as a separate State. They are all mere parts of Germany and, in the Prussian mind, of Prussia ! Yet when the political progress of Saxony, Bavaria and Baden is taken into consideration, it is seen that those States are much better developed than is Prussia. Bavaria, for instance, has since 1906 possessed the direct secret vote in the election of the members of its Diet, which sits in Munich. Every citizen who has cfns^tion completed his twenty-fifth year is entitled to the franchise if he pays direct taxation, which means that he must have an income of £25 a year. Efforts are also being made to reform the Second Chamber, which. 32 Germany of the Germans except for sixteen life members appointed by the Crown, consists of nineteen princes, two Crown officials, two archbishops, and forty-seven hereditary nobles. Saxony in 1909 obtained a reform of its electoral and parliamentary system, which had until then been as old-world as that of Prussia. Even now, however, a Reform in difference is made between the working and the other classes of the population. It is true that under the new system every man has a direct secret vote at the age of twenty-five, but State and municipal officials as well as men with incomes of over ;f80 a year and small landowners are accorded a second vote, while persons with over £1 10 and officials with over £95 a year obtain a third vote. Men belonging to the liberal professions — lawyers, doctors, clergymen, engineers, chemists and technical experts — and others who can produce a certificate of higher education are permitted four votes, as are also men with more than ;fl40 and officials with £125 income. The Parliament is to be renewed in future in its entirety every six years instead of, as formerly, a third every two years. The result of the first election under the new system was the return of twenty-five Socialists to the Diet, where hitherto only one had been able to obtain a seat. Baden was one of the first States to introduce the direct voting system and manhood suffrage from the age of twenty- five. As a result, the Socialists have secured ^•*^^B d°*^* ^^^^ ^ strong position in the Diet that they were in 1909 able to carry the election of a vice- president of the Chamber from their ranks — ^the first time on record in Germany that a Socialist has occupied such a position. In contrast to the liberal spirit of some of the other States, the political conditions prevailing in Prussia Mediaeval ^^^^y ^^^ ^^ designated mediaeval. According to the electoral system, every male aged twenty-five is entitled to a vote in the election of members to the Diet. The voters, however, are divided into three Prussia's Preponderance 33 classes. This is effected by taking the total of the State taxes paid in each electoral district in Prussia and dividing it into three equal amounts, the first third of which is paid by the wealthy, the second by the middle class, and the third by the workers. The first class, therefore, consists of very few people ; occasionally only one person pays a third or even more of the taxes levied in a district. The second class consists of a somewhat larger number. The third comprises all the workers, some of whom do not pay any direct State taxes. Say, for instance, the first class comprises 1,000 men, the second 3,500, and the third 25,000, which is about the actual proportion. Each of these bodies then pro- ^o?V^teTs^^^ ceeds to the selection of, say, 100 members , of what is known as an electoral college, who then have to elect the member of Parliament. The election is usually a mere matter of form, for, with very few exceptions, the members of the first and second classes vote together, and there is thus a majority of two to one in favour of the candidate of the wealthier classes, so that the poorer section of the community is not represented at all. 5. The actual totals of the three classes at the elections of 1903 were : First class, 239,000 voters ; second class, 857,000 voters; third class, 6,000,000 voters. Each of these classes, as explained, chose an equal number of members of the final electoral college, and the result of the system is seen in the fact that at that election not a single Socialist became a member of the House, although it is known there are over 3,000,000 Socialist voters on the register. Only in 1907 did the people secure a few seats, seven in all, and this shocked the reactionary parties which had hitherto had the entire monopoly to such an extent that they found means to invalidate some of the elections. Even in Prussia itself there is a clearly cut division which 3— (2391) 34 Germany of the Germans still further strengthens the hands of the feudal nobility and great landowners, who stoutly fight for the Stt-encth continuance of existing conditions, in spite of the fact that the Emperor himself, as King of Prussia, has promised reforms. The six eastern provinces of Prussia — East and West Prussia, Brandenburg, Pomerania, Posen, and Silesia — are, with the exception of the city of Berlin, which is in Branden- burg, entirely agricultural, and the seats of the ancient nobles are virtually all there. These six provinces return 225 members to the Prussian Diet, as representatives of 14,800,000 inhabitants, while the seven western provinces — Sachsen, Schleswig-Holstein, Hohenzollern, Hanover, Westphalia, Hessen-Nassau, and the Rhine — where industries have been developed largely, return, together with the city of Berlin, only 218 members for a population of 22,400,000. The same proportion exists in the representation of the country in the Prussian House of Lords, where, however, the members are either hereditary, nominated by the King for life, or are entitled to seats as high officials. The six eastern agricultural provinces send 200 members to the House of Lords, while the seven western industrial provinces, including Berlin, send only 118. The Prussian Upper House is not simply conservative in its tendencies — it is reactionary. Its members for the most part regard even the Diet — elected, as has Prussian ^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^ ^^ antiquated system and consisting almost entirely of conservative elements — as far too progressive, and they accordingly place obstacles in the way of all legislation. The internal administration in Prussia is carried on by one of the most complicated systems in existence, and even the Kaiser, who is wont to regard the con- ^^'s'stem^*'^^ tinuance of political conditions in that State as necessary to the support of his dynasty, has recognised the need for reform and ordered a commission to inquire into the subject. Prussia's Preponderance 35 One of the provincial councillors, in a speech in the Prussian Diet, called for the abolition of the greater part of the official machine, and demanded decentralisation, simplification and acceleration of work. At the present moment even the most minute details of administration are referred to the Ministry in Berlin, thus occasioning an amount of writing from one office to another and from inferior to superior officials that is, to say the least, quite unwarranted. The officials in the Ministry have, for the most part, passed all their official lives in Berlin, and know nothing whatever about the various districts on whose affairs they have to give decisions. The provincial councillor has in Prussia the most extensive political influence. He has the right to reject the appointment of school inspectors, he can release men from Provincial their military obligations, he can reduce the Power. taxes when he regards the taxpayer as having some claim to a reduction on account of misfortune or otherwise, he decides the provision for orphans and aged persons, he has the granting or refusal of infirmity pensions in his hands, he decides disputes about sickness insurance, and in many other departments of life he exercises control. As virtually all of these officials are appointees of the feudal nobility and great landowners, and in their official capacity are in possession of the information obtained by the police as to the political opinions of the inhabitants of their districts, they are placed in a position which enables them, in case they are inclined to utilize their power, to bring con- siderable pressure to bear on the people at times of parlia- mentary elections. In the smaller towns of the provinces, the correspondence of the local councils with the central government must pass through the hands of the provincial councillor on its way to its final destination, and his annota- tions on the documents are given the first attention by the administrative officials. Whether the inordinate influence thus placed in the hands of men who are dependent on the favour of the feudal nobility 36 Germany of the Germans for their positions is ever exercised is, naturally, a question which a foreigner is incapable of responding to. Charges of that nature are, however, constantly made by the organs of the progressive parties. Germany is burdened with three questions of nationality — the Alsace-Lorrainean in the west, the Danish in the north in Schleswig-Holstein, and the Polish in the NalionaJitv ^^^^' ^^^Y ^^^ ^^ entirely separated from each other, and each offers difficulties of its own to be overcome. The problem of the future of Alsace-Lorraine, where the population had for many generations been under the influence of French culture, only to be suddenly transferred to entirely different influences after the war in which they were conquered by Germany, appears to be settling itself gradually. The people, especially those of the poorer classes of society, are losing touch rapidly with French traditions. Only among the older inhabitants and in the higher classes of society is French generally spoken. They are, however, not becoming really Germanised. They tend to form a class apart both from French and Germans. The people of the conquered provinces are striving constantly for a system of self-government, with a local parliament. At present there is what is The Conquered j^^Q^n as a provincial assembly, which is elected by indirect voting and has no real power to legislate. The two provinces until now have been given no voice whatever in the Federal Council, although efforts to obtain representation in that body have often been made. They have, however, always failed, as the provinces have no constitution and do not possess a ruler. They are, therefore, on a different footing from that of the States of the Empire, which have hitherto opposed the granting of representation because they argue that if the governor of the provinces nominates the members of the Federal Council it will mean Prussia's Preponderance 37 only the strengthening of the position of Prussia, as the Emperor, who is also King of Prussia, appoints the governor, who would consequently act as Berlin desired. The Polish question is a much more serious one. In the Polish provinces of Prussia the inhabitants do not affect to conceal their dislike of their rulers, and the ^ ^^*^^ Prussians do not take the best measures to acquire their goodwill. The attempted colo- nisation of the provinces with artisans and German farmers has not achieved much success, as the Poles have shown themselves just as acute as their masters in driving bargains. The use of the Polish language, too, is extending, despite all repressive measures in schools and churches. The Govern- ment has tried the offering of rewards in order to win some of the people over, but with small results. The Poles are not permitted to enter the Government service unless they transform their names into German. The Danish question is at times rather acute, but the people of Schleswig-Holstein, among whom are many old German inhabitants, are gradually accustoming them- ^r^n^R^e ^^^^^^ *° German rule. Many of the sons of the original Danish population, it is true, prefer to emigrate to America rather than submit to German allegiance, and in some families it is still the custom to send the children to school over the border in Denmark, so that they may keep in touch with the Danish language, but the majority of the people are contented with the new conditions and cause no trouble to the Government. CHAPTER V IMPERIAL PARLIAMENT It has often been said, and with much truth if results are to be counted, that the German nation is puerile in politics. On every side — except among the Socialists and extreme Radicals, who argue that restricted opportunity is to blame for the apparent lack of political instinct — one UnripenMs hears the assertion in Germany that the people are not ripe for Parliamentary government. It strikes a foreigner as strange that, wherever he goes, he should hear such an argument in connection with the popula- tion of a nation which is undoubtedly, as far as education is concerned, in the van of the world's progress. The dogma is fostered in every way, not only by officials and the feudal landowners, but by the State clergy ; and many of the people, by force of hearing it so often, have come to believe it themselves. Even the Socialist movement, with its advanced ideas and widespread propaganda, has not succeeded in affecting the enormous class of Germans who appear absolutely happy in being governed. Luckily for them, their public officials are honest and generally efficient ! It is certainly a fact that the best thinkers of the nation do not take part in its politics. Germany is still, politically, marking time, not moving from the place she ^meT^ occupied before the Empire was founded. The men of progress — the great industrial leaders who have done so much to raise Germany to its present prominent position among the commercial nations of the world — have hitherto almost entirely ignored the internal political controversies which have occurred since the formation of the Empire. They have been too much occupied in devel- oping the great resources of the country formerly allowed to go to waste. The feudal landowners and multitudinous petty nobility 38 Imperial Pariiament 39 have been accustomed for centuries to the exercise of prac- tically despotic power over the labouring classes. They have, since the organisation of the Imperial Parliament, owing to the lack of interest of the captains of industry, who are naturally more liberal-minded, been able to hold their own against the tide of popular desire to participate in government. The Imperial Parliament, it is true, is fundamentally constituted on the basis of one of the most extensive suffrages in the world. It is elected every five years P I'am^t *^ ^^ intents and purposes by universal and direct manhood suffrage, and by means of a secret baUot. Every man, unless a criminal or a lunatic, has a vote from the age of twenty-five. There are nearly 14,000,000 qualified voters. While possessing this most democratic suffrage, the Parlia- ment in which the people's representatives sit is yet quite reactionary in spirit. Unfortunately for the Liberal parties, the constituencies were formed at a time when Germany was much more of an agricultural nation than it is now. Despite the enormous changes that have occurred through the development of industry and the consequent concentration of the more intel- ligent and enterprising people in large cities and industrial centres, no change in the boundaries of the constituencies has been made. The consequence is that rural districts are often largely over-represented, while urban districts do not get anything like a fair share of representation. For instance, Berlin, according to its population, is entitled, proportionally to the number of inhabitants in the Empire, to thirteen or fourteen seats in the Imperial Parliament, but has only six. An instructive idea of this inequality of representation may be obtained from the figures of the last Co'^tlSfes. election, in 1907, when the Conservatives polled 1,549,741 votes, and secured 85 seats, or one for every 18,232 votes; the Centre with 2,145,098 votes secured 104 seats, or one for every 20,626 votes ; 40 Germany of the Germans the National Liberals with 1,715,584 votes secured 56 seats, or one for every 30,635 ; the Radicals with 1,163,279 votes secured 43 seats, or one for every 27,054 votes ; the Anti- Semites with 281,633 votes secured 17 seats, or one for every 16,566 votes, while the Socialists with 3,259,029 votes secured only 43 seats, or one for every 75,781 votes. If the Socialist voters were represented in the same ratio as the Conservatives they would have 178 members in the Reichstag, almost half the House. The majority of the Reichstag that was the direct cause of Prince Billow's fall from power, consisting as it did of the Conservatives, the Clericals and the Poles, represented only 3,992,736 voters, while the minority, consisting of the Liberal and Radical parties, some of the free Conservatives and the Socialists, represented 6,948,552 voters. The members, who are paid an indemnity for every sitting they attend, are drawn from the following professions or callings : agriculturists, 106 ; Hberal pro- ^pSd^" fessions (including 37 authors, 67 lawyers, 21 clergy, 24 teachers, 7 doctors, 63 State, municipal and private officials, and 1 artist), 220 ; manu- facturers, 21 ; small traders and artisans, 20 ; commercial men, 13 ; and independent gentlemen, 17. No fewer than 72 of the members belong to the nobility ; 200 have served in the Army or Navy ; 240 have had a univer- sity education ; 188 are also members of the separate State Parliaments ; 45 are under forty years of age and the remain- ing 352 over that age ; 220 are Protestants, 141 Catholics, 18 unsectarian, and 3 Jews, while 15 are atheists or decline to state their religion. The Reichstag, as well as the minor State Parliaments, is remarkable for the hair-splitting differences Many between many of the fractions. This is probably brought about by the fact that the Parliament does not have any real participation in the Govern- ment. The Ministers are not chosen from among the members >^ Of THE UNIVERSITY OF £>%LIF01<11S Imperial Parliament 41 of the House, are not members of any political party, and are responsible only to the Chancellor and the Emperor. As the people's representatives are thus shut out from public office, they spend much of their time in debating theoretical differences among themselves. There is also a great lack of oratorical talent. Rarely does one hear a great speech delivered in the House. The speakers appear to desire to express themselves as though they were reading from a book, and their utterances do not seem to be spontaneous. The Socialist members, however, must be excepted from this rule. They at least have mastered the art of political oratory, and of saying clearly what they mean. It is argued by many that political and oratorical talent would grow among the people and their elected representatives if a system of Parliamentary government were ^^*Gov^"°* introduced. People with real abiUty would then, it is contended, spontaneously come to the front. Be that as it may, up till now the Government of the Empire, as well as of the many States of which it is composed, is not in the hands of the people, but is conducted by administrative officials over whose appointments the people have no control. The Reichstag has the right to grant or to refuse supplies, but on the only occasions in which it has exercised its power contrary to the wishes of the Government, it has been imme- diately sent about its business. This has happened on four occasions — in 1878, when the House was dissolved because it refused to pass the repressive bill introduced by Bismarck against the Socialists ; in 1887 and 1893, when the majority declined to vote increases in the Army ; and in 1906, when the Colonial policy of the Government was rejected. On each of these occasions the result of the new elections was the return of a majority for the Government proposals : not because the people were in favour of them, but because the voters were awed by the Government's firm stand. 42 Germany of the Germans That the Government should consider itself as the servant of the public with the duty of carrying out the will of the people is inconceivable to German Ministers Mere^Organ^ and State officials. Parliament is to them a mere organ whose duty it is to agree with their policy. The members of Parliament may suggest improvements to Ministers' proposals, but their co-operation in the work of law-making ends there. Ministers have become so much accustomed to an Imperial Pariiament in which no party has ever had a majority that they have virtually ceased to look on it as more than a passive factor in law-making. They have always, or nearly so, been able to secure a majority by shuffling the small groups together, and have thus retained their almost absolute power to carry out their own or, rather, the monarch's desires. Yet there are two parties which exert, owing to their splendid organisation and discipline, and their power of making themselves heard, a great amount of influence over legislation. Although neither the Centre, or Clerical, party nor the Socialists have ever secured anything approaching a majority in the Reichstag, there is little doubt that ^sTcSis^te^ the attitude of each of these parties must be considered when new legislation is projected. Perhaps the Socialists — who, in spite of their insignificant numbers in the House, are supported by practicaUy the whole of the working population — throw the heaviest weight into the scale, with their scathing criticism and unveiling of abuses. The Government, even in the time of Bismarck, found that they were a very powerful force, and they have continually increased their numbers of voters ever since. It was fear of the growth of Sociahsm and a desire to arrest its progress which caused the introduction of the system of State insur- ance that has turned out to be such a splendid thing for the nation, but has not diminished the forward march of Socialism. Imperial Parliament 43 The Centrists take a different standpoint. Their principal object, at the time of the formation of the party in the early seventies, when the Kulturkampf was P^itics and ^^ ^^ swing, was the protection of the interests of the Catholic Church, but not always quite in accord with the views of Rome. Now that the original cause of their existence is no longer in evidence, they form a party whose ultimate action can never be known by what has gone before. Always prepared to serve their own ends, sometimes they range themselves on the side of autocracy and at others they appear almost democratic. As a general rule, however, they are much more reactionary than Liberal, for they argue that their religious interests are better protected by the thoroughly Conservative parties than by those sections of the community possessing advanced ideas, which in their opinion bring danger in their train. The Conservatives, of which there are two groups, are professedly for Empire and Emperor before everything else, except perhaps the defence of privileges and ^ '^^®^. vested interests, which they endeavour to Conservatives. , ' . -^ . protect from any encroachment, wherever it comes from, while many of them would not resist the repeal of the laws for the protection of labour. The section known as the Free Conservatives consists of the less autocratic members of the old landed nobility, who have begun to recognise that the masses of the people have rights as well as duties. In the House, however, their point of view is almost identical with that of the more old-fashioned group. As to the Liberals and Radicals, who should stand for all that is best in the constitutional and parliamentary idea, they are at present weakened by division into many ^ R^?^\l*"^ groups, separated sometimes only by a shade of opinion, but the two opposite extremes bordering on Conservatism and Socialism respectively. Among them is a strong leaven of agrarianism and protectionism. 44 Germany of the Germans The Socialists will have naught to do with them and the Centrists and Conservatives use them only when they have need of them. There is undoubtedly in the Liberal and Radical groups the making of a really great party, which, if only internal bickerings could be disposed of, is destined to lead Germany a long way along the road to Parliamentary government. An idea of the lines on which the parties or groups usually work is best given by quoting the official programmes. Perhaps the best way to do this will be to take them Pro^armnes ^^ ^^^^ ^^^ ^^ ^^^ House from right to left of the Speaker. First come the Conservatives, whose fundamental principle is the maintenance of present conditions, except those relating to the social advancement of the working classes. The items of the party programme are : German unity under the Imperial Constitution, with the protection of the independence of the single States composing the Empire ; steady develop- ment of public and private rights based on historical founda- tions ; strengthening of administrative power on a monarch- ical foundation ; participation of the people in law-making and the self-government of municipal communities on the principle of utilising the organic elements of the people instead of equal universal suffrage ; furtherance of sectarian elementary schools ; settlement by law of the relations of Church and State, with liberty of conscience and no interference by the State in the internal affairs of the Church ; combating the favorisation of industrial capitalism by the encouragement of agriculture and the protection of small traders ; combating social democracy by protecting the honest worker ; support of military and naval armaments. Then follow the Imperial Party, or Free Conservatives, who adopt practically the same programme and nearly always work together with the Conservatives, except that they show a very slight leaning to Liberal views in regard to schools. Imperial Parliament 45 Next to these are the Centrists, who are strictly clerical, and a party entirely separated from all others. Their declared object is to place Catholics and Protestants on De?res ^" equal footing. They demand complete freedom for the Catholic Church in matters of Church discipline and organisation. The programme reads : To not only combat every attack on the independ- ence of the Church hierarchy, on the development of religious life and the expansion of Christian activity, but also to work for the restoration of and renewed constitutional security for the independence of the rights of the Church destroyed by recent laws ; the putting into practical effect of the legal equality of the recognised religions ; the defence and maintenance of the Christian character of the marriage rite ; the permission of Church schools and the real carrying out of the educational freedom promised by the Constitution ; the repeal of the Press limitations and of the Law of Associa- tions ; the decentralisation of administration and the self- government by the people in parishes, dioceses and provinces ; the limitation of Imperial expenditure, especially for the Army, by means of reasonable shortening of the period of military service and the reduction of the peace effectives ; equable and just distribution of the burden of taxation ; maintenance and encouragement of a powerful middle class of independent citizens and peasants ; freedom for all legal efforts towards the solution of social problems, and combating the principles and agitations which threaten property and social order. The, National Liberals form a sort of bridge between Conservatives and Radicals. They are essentially patriotic in sentiment, upholding the existing consti- Pa^S^^ tution with its system of separate States. They seek the further development of the Empire as a world power. Members of the party are left free to vote as they please in regard to protective tariffs. The party is noted for its participation in coalitions in support of the Administration, and has often succeeded in bringing 46 Germany of the Germans the two extremes of Radicalism and Conservatism together. The official programme contains the following clauses : It is the task of the National Liberals in questions of Imperial and national policy, while laying stress on their long-tried loyalty to Emperor and Empire, to uphold towards both sides of the House their absolutely independent position, which is established on consideration for the good of all, and at the same time to watch over the old Liberal principles. The party considers that a time for pause has been reached in social politics, so that time may be given for the proper carrying out of those laws which have already been passed, but that social requirements should continue to be attentively observed. The party holds firmly to the principle that economic questions should not be made the foundation of political parties. The Radical party, of which there are two fractions, demands in its programme : Equal rights for aU religions and all classes ; parliamentary government and social reforms R?ghts °^ ^^ kinds ; free trade in all necessities of Hfe ; while it supports necessary expenditure on armaments, although striving for the shortening of the term of military service. The last, but not the least important, party — the Socialists ^s very extreme in its demands. Its programme contains demands for the ownership by the people of all land, mines, machines, tools and means of communication, and equal rights and opportunities for all in everything. The German Socialists have hitherto decHned to co-operate with any other party in the House. They stand firm for unconditional Socialism. They participate in debates on all subjects with the greatest vehemence, bring skilful arguments into the discussions on all occasions, and furnish some of the best speakers in the Parhament. Various groups consisting of a few members each have been formed for the protection of particular interests. They have little influence on politics and on general questions vote just as the moment takes them. CHAPTER VI OFFICIALDOM State control is taking a continually extending part in the economic life of Germany. Scarcely any feature of life is left in which the State does not have some direct (S^ntrol ^^ indirect influence. It protects agriculture and industry from foreign rivalry, forbids unfair competition in internal trade, looks after the welfare of the workers, controls the exploitation of women and children, arranges the hours of labour, and sees that the workers are accorded the necessary meal times, while it also enforces compulsory thrift and hygiene, and insures workers against sickness, accident, infirmity and old age. Besides all these branches of State control, the Government wisely provides for the general education, organises police protection and the administration of justice, and it goes further by entering into trade, possessing and working its own coal and potash mines, running railways, cultivating forests and monopolising the post, telegraph, and telephone services. Then the municipalities supply gas, electricity and water, care for the poor and the insane, look after the sick, run tramways, public baths and libraries, under- Interests^ take the making of roads, control the markets and a host of other works of public utility. Germany is undoubtedly, owing to its many and extensive State and municipal enterprises, the country where most officials are employed, unless the despotic bureaucracy of Russia be taken into account. A rough calculation shows that there are in the Imperial, State and municipal service, apart from the ^Offidals!*^ Army and Navy, no fewer than 2,188 832 persons. These are distributed over many occupations. The total employed by the railways is 563,684 ; by the posts and telegraphs, 319,026 ; in the police, gendarmerie, 47 48 Germany of the Germans prisons, law courts, palace guards, and the diplomatic and consular services, 390,005 ; as teachers, school officers, librarians and museum guardians 299,396 ; in the hospitals, including doctors, dispensers, nurses, office staffs and domestics, 207,717 ; in forestry and game preserving, 125,980 ; in the Church, including clergy, missionaries and church officials, 58,738 ; as street-cleaners, 16,506 ; and in cemeteries, 7,780. There are, besides all these, thousands of tax and revenue, insurance and other officials, mining and tramway employees, etc., whose numbers are not ascertainable, but who probably bring the total up to nearly 3,000,000. This army of officials grows in numbers from year to year, and with each new law dealing with ^Numbers*" sociological problems a fresh regiment is added. " For the people, but not by the people " is the motto that has been adopted by the Empire ever since Bismarck's effort to limit the spread of Socialism by introducing State-enforced thrift. The system has its advantages in that many things are well ordered, but it tends to create a governing class, which is inclined to regard itself as a select people apart from the non-official majority of the nation. Another danger in the taking over by the State of many branches of production lies in the killing of individuality, for the State measures the man in its employ D^n'^r ^^^y ^^ proportion to his producing power for the State, and the man gradually comes to regard himself as a unit which has only certain work to perform, and when it is performed there is no further impulsion to improve his own position either physically or intellectually, and consequently both he and the State remain continually on the same level. The masses of the people in Germany are always treated by the official classes as minors requiring guardianship with many restrictions. Since this method has been in vogue for Officialdom 49 so long a time, the Germans, almost to a man, expect all ameliorations of their condition, political as well as economical, to be proposed by the administrative authorities. They would not dream of initiating anything of the kind themselves. The working of this system of bureaucratic administration as it affects some classes of the community may be seen from the fact that a Social Democrat is not per- Ixcluded "fitted to hold even an honorary office in any country district. An instance of this was seen a short time ago in the district of Potsdam, where a Socialist was chosen by the inhabitants of Michendorf as school overseer. The provincial councillor refused to permit him to occupy the ofhce, and the decision was upheld by the Ministry, although there is no law against Socialists holding such an office. It has been asserted, and with some truth, that the affairs of the Empire are regulated by the 15,000 feudal nobles and great landowners who own the eastern provinces of Prussia. From among this class come all the higher Prussian and many of the Imperial officials, most^of the diplomats and many of the officers of the Prussian army. They have for so long held sway in the administration of the country that they have come to regard themselves as the State, whose duty it is to govern the people. The administration is absolutely separated from any parliamentary influence, except that brought to bear on it by its traditional dependence on and support ^""^Influ^ce!^ ^^ *^^ monarch, in whose service and not in that of the people it imagines itself to be. Every official, high or low, would indignantly resent being called a public servant, and would not fail to assert that he was a State or Imperial official, as the case might be, intending, in his own mind, to explain that he was in the service either of one of the ruling princes or of the Kaiser. Even the highest official of the Empire acts on the same 4— (9390 50 Germany of the Germans idea, and indeed he has to submit to no other control than that of the Sovereign. The difference between the position of the German Imperial Chancellor and that of the Prime Minister of a State under parliamentary government is that the Chan- '^Cha^elllT'^ cellor's first duty is to carry out the Emperor's policy, for which he has in some way to gather together a majority in the Parliament, which he regards as a necessary evil ; while a Prime Minister who has become such owing to the victory of his party at the polls has simply to carry out the desires of his supporters, who generally represent the majority of the people of the country. The Chancellor, as a matter of fact, has merely to exercise a certain amount of manoeuvring with the parliamentary parties in order to carry through the policy of his monarch, who desires the country to be ruled in the main by himself alone, and virtually without consulting the will of the people. The present holder of the office of Imperial Chancellor, Dr. Theobald von Bethmann-HoUweg, became a Prussian administrative official in 1882 and, after Herr von passing through all the grades, was in 1905 Hollweg." selected by the Emperor, in his capacity as King of Prussia, to fiU the office of Prussian Minister of the Interior. He later received the appointment of Imperial Minister of the Interior and Vice-ChanceUor of the Empire. In these positions he utilized the excellent adminis- trative training he had enjoyed to the best advantage, under the leadership of Prince Biilow, until on the latter's resig- nation in July, 1909, he was nominated Chancellor of the Empire. The new Chancellor comes of an ancient Prussian family, which has had many connections with the ^Re«>r?*^^ administration. His grandfather was Minister of Education about sixty years ago. The genealogy of the family has been traced back as far as 1287, when a member of the family was nominated by the then Pholo by Diihren HERR VON BETHMANN-HOLLWEG ^ Of THE UNIVERSITY OF Officialdom 51 Markgrafs Konrad and Otto Brandenburg as collector of duties in Osterburg. Then in the years from 1300 to 1400 several Bethmanns held municipal offices and others belonged to the clergy. After 1400 the family was well known in commerce and also as owners of house-property, and a manuscript is still in existence relating to a loan made by a Bethmann to the town of Goslar. The family continued increasing in wealth and importance throughout the centuries, devoting their energies to trade and banking. The palace allotted to the Imperial Chancellor in Berlin during his period of office was purchased by the Imperial authorities in 1875 for ^^300,000. Prince R ^^nce Bismarck was its first occupant, having moved from the neighbouring house in the Wilhelmstrasse, which is now the Imperial Foreign Office. The palace formerly belonged to Prince Radziwill, who acquired it in 1795. The country seat of fhe Imperial Chancellor at Hohen Finow has been in the possession of the family only since 1855, when Felix von Bethmann-Hollweg purchased the property, for £60,000. He made the estate into a model farm, and was made County Councillor of Upper Bamim, later becoming a Privy Councillor, Before his death in 1900 he often entertained the Emperor at shooting parties, and this custom has been continued by the present Imperial Chancellor. All the other Imperial Ministers and Ministers of the numerous Federal States hold office as a purely personal appointment from their respective sovereigns F^^TstatL ^^^ ^^ entirely unaffected by the wishes of the parliaments which vote the budgets. There are no fewer than seventy-two Ministers and Secretaries of State in the kingdoms and principalities of which the Empire is composed, although in some of them the entire executive and legislative power is placed in the hands of the ruler. 52 Germany of the Germans From the Ministers down through the ranks until the lowest grade of of&cial is reached, the dogma of irresponsibility except towards his next superior in position, without Irresponsibility, ^^ought of public opinion, is carried. No official may have an opinion of his own even outside of his ofi&ce. He is subjected to all sorts of restric- tions, not only as to his politics, but as to his private life. Should he attend a Socialist meeting or belong to certain societies or pin his faith to any other than the State Church, his misdeed is certain to come to the knowledge of his superiors and he is given to understand that he may not think for himself unless it be in the direction desired by his superiors. It is a most fortunate thing for Germany that, with so much of its public welfare in the hands of officials answerable only to the ruler, the virtue of honesty is ^?^"^ ingrained in the nation. Only very rarely does an official break away from the traditions and defraud the public. Each does his work and permits nothing to interfere with it. The loyalty of the lower ranks to their superiors is note- worthy. This probably springs from their army training, for in order to become an official or employee in the service of the Empire, the State or the municipality, the candidate has to fulfil Army service, and for many positions must have attained non-commissioned rank. This is the case in the police and gendarmerie and some other public services. The Government in many departments reserves half, and in others a large proportion, of the positions for worthy soldiers, who have a right to claim, after a certain service in the Army, admission into the civil service. Perhaps this influx of non-commissioned officers into the civil service accounts for the rather offensive The Army ^^^^ ^^ command often adopted by policemen, postmen, railway employees, and other minor officials in Germany towards the public. In many cases it probably does not imply wilful rudeness, but arises Officialdom 53 simply from the habit of command acquired while in the Army. Public servants are, however, in some degree encouraged by the authorities to regard themselves as standing on a higher level than other people, for the law imposes severe punishment on anyone using a hasty word uttered in remonstrance against an official's impoliteness, despite the fact that in many instances the official is the creator of the incident. With all this, the German people are as a rule, more espe- cially in Prussia, quite satisfied with the system as it is. One scarcely ever hears a murmur against officialdom except from the Socialists, who certainly often have to suffer from the repressive harshness of the authorities. > CHAPTER VII THE ARMY IS THE NATION That the Army is the people can perhaps be asserted of Germany more than of any other nation. Every citizen considers service in the national defensive NaSrS^Dutv ^^^^^^ ^^ ^ natural duty. He thinks it un- worthy of any nation that its men should need to have attractions offered them in order to induce them to take their proper share in the defence of their country. Patriotism is a cult among the Germans. The German youth, as a general rule, looks forward with pleasure to the day when he is to don the uniform, and if, for some physical reason, he should be rejected he feels that he has not quite proved his manliness. The service in the Army certainly refreshes and builds up the young man's physical strength, awakes in him the feehng that he is performing a patriotic duty, and increases his store of energy for later years. The direct effect of the service on the man's mental capacity may not be so beneficial, as blind obedience to orders and unnecessarily strict discipline are rather apt to destroy initiative. Everyone recognizes that the Empire was founded and has been kept intact by the Army, and the popularity of the uniform is such that whenever a detachment p^^*""^ passes the people turn out in crowds and, straightening themselves up, march along in time with the troops. The " tramp, tramp " of the soldiers seems to strike a sympathetic chord in the breast of every German — man or woman. Sometimes the burden of the cost is the cause of murmurs, but the money required is always voted and provided for by taxation or loan. Everybody is liable for service. Millionaires must serve shoulder to shoulder with peasants and artisans. For this 54 The Army is the Nation 55 reason the soldier and sailor are treated everywhere with respect, for they are the flesh and blood of all classes, and when wearing the uniform one class cannot be distinguished from another. A proposal is on foot to place a supplementary tax on the estates left by persons who have not served in the active army, for it is argued that those who really serve give several years of their time to the State, while those who, on account of a physical deficiency which does not prevent them from following their trade, are reHeved from service are saving money, and they should give some substitute to the State in kind instead of service. Such a tax formerly existed in Bavaria, where it was regulated according to income. It was abolished on the formation of the Empire. One is struck when in Germany by the upright figures and firm gait of the men oi all grades of society. The sloucher is an absentee. The causes of this are to be ^^Nation *^^ traced to general service in the Army, with its healthy bodily exercise and discipline. The system has had a marked effect on the physique and length of life of the nation, which improve and continue to improve from year to year. It is said by German doctors that in this way more men have been added to the German nation than have been kiUed in battle since the Army existed, because if they had not come under the influence of healthy training they would have died much sooner than they now do, A notable consequence of the general liability for service is that even the men who have not been called on to join the ranks, owing to weakness of physique or some slight deformity, bear themselves uprightly, trying to emulate their brothers who have been trained. Cleanhness, too, is a notable feature of the German nation, for while the young men are in the Army they acquire a thorough knowledge of the value of hygiene. Tidiness of dress, although the cut and fashion may not always be up to West End ideas, is also universal in Germany. 56 Germany of the Germans The German army is — both in peace, when it numbers something over 600,000, and in war, when it may comprise every healthy adult in the Empire between the ^"^CWef *^^ ^^^^ ^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^' ^^ something up to 5,000,000 men — under the sole command of the Emperor. In time of peace, however, the three army corps of Bavaria, the two of Saxony and the single one of Wiirttemberg have their own internal organization, although they form part of the Imperial Army and are drilled, armed and exercised on the same system. The contingents of the other Federal States are considered as belonging to the Prussian Army, under whose administration they are. The organisation of the immense force available for military service, although not an easy matter, is effected with remark- . Q . able simplicity. From his earliest boyhood every German knows that he will, if physically and mentally sound, form a unit of the armed forces as soon as he has completed his seventeenth year, and remain on the rolls until he has completed his forty-fifth year. The authorities do not worry him about his liability, however, until he reaches his twentieth year. In the meantime he has, in most cases, passed through an apprenticeship to his chosen trade or profession, or has adopted a calling of some kind. Probably he has also become a member of the local public gymnasium, where he has acquired the rudiments of drill and strengthened his muscles in preparation for his army service. In the early months of the year in which he com- pletes his twentieth year he must present himself at the district recruiting office for medical examination and enrol- ment. Should a youth be absent in another part of the Empire, he must present himself there. If he is abroad, for which he is theoretically compelled to request leave from the military authorities, his parents or guardians must report that he is willing to serve, and he is usually put back for a year until the next enrolment. When neither a youth nor his parent reports, should he at some later time enter Germany he The Army is the Nation 57 would be arrested as a defaulter and placed in the ranks immediately. The recruiting office registers all the details as to stature, strength, etc., and earmarks the recruits for the branch of the service for which they appear to be best fitted. A slight deformity does not exempt from Hability. The recruiting commissioners consist of a doctor, a civil official and a military officer. On the result of their examina- ^ „ ., tion depends the young man's military The Recruits. , ^ ^-,, r ui • j / fortune. There are four possible judgments — ^fit, temporarily unfit, conditionally fit, and permanently unfit. It is interesting to watch the recruits as they enter the commissioners' cabinet — some healthy and gay, knowing they will surely be chosen, gthers trembling, fearing they will be rejected, still others knowing they are physically excluded from service. The examination is very severe and as they make their exit some, who hitherto knew of no ailment, are filled with despair, having been told by the doctor that they are seriously affected. About 30 per cent, of all presented are accepted as fully fit for the full two or three years' service. Many of the others — about 20 per cent. — are passed at once into the supplementary reserve, where they do only six or eight weeks' training, and are only called up to join their regiments to fill up for casualties in time of war. Others — about 2 per cent. — are put back for a year in the hope they will wax stronger. The rejections as totally unfit number about 48 per cent. The regulations as to stature are so widely extended that most men presented for examination are liable for some arm, but no one shorter than 5 feet OJ inch is accepted. The average stature of recruits is 5 feet 5J in. As to the origin of the recruits, statistics show that the agricultural districts and small towns supply the greatest percentage of men fit for service, and purely industrial districts the smallest percentage. Villages with a population 58 Germany of the Germans not exceeding 2,000 furnish 64-15 per cent. ; those from 2,000 to 5,000, 11-27 per cent. ; towns from 5,000 to 20,000, 1107 per cent. ; from 20,000 to 100,000, 7-37 per cent., while cities of 100,000 and more inhabitants furnish only 6*14 per cent. The soldiers' education is, owing to the strictness of the compulsory school system, very satisfactory. Only sixty-two men in the entire Army were at the last recruiting period entirely illiterate. Recruits selected for the cavalry, horse artillery and mounted rifles have to serve three years in the active army ; those for the other arms only two, but the latter may l^rms of ^^ refused permission to leave the country during the third year. The formalities of enrolment, measurement and assignment to a corps over, the recruit returns to his home, where he continues his ordinary avocations for several months longer. Towards the end of the same year, when he is approaching the age of twenty-one, he receives the order to join his corps. The departure of the recruits, of whom, of course, there are many from the same district, is the occasion of a patriotic, although sometimes tearful, outburst, parents and friends accompanying them to the barracks or the railway station to cheer them on their way. To the general scheme of recruiting there are numerous exceptions. Any youth may, for instance, at eighteen years of age, if physically, mentally, and morally fit, join the Army or Navy voluntarily for a term of two or three years, except for the cavalry and horse artillery, in which he may enlist for three or four. These voluntarily enlisted men, of whom there are about 40,000 in the annual total of recruits, may re-enlist for several further periods if they attain non- commissioned rank during their first enlistment. Should they remain in the Army for twelve years they are entitled on leaving to a bounty of £40, and the right to candidacy for the postal, police and other civil services. The Army is the Nation 59 Besides this class of voluntary enlistments, there is another, but smaller class of exceptions from the ordinary system. This consists of young men of superior education who, on producing certificates that they have passed a severe examination, such as would fit them to become officers, are permitted to serve as volunteers for a period of one year only, during which time they pay for their rations, arms, quarters and equipment, and if in the cavalry or artillery for their horses. They can hire one from the authorities for £20 in the horse artillery and cavalry, or for £1 10s. in the field artillery or army service corps. A written agreement by the parents or guardians to pay the necessary amount is required. These one-year volunteers, who, owing to the conditions connected with their service, naturally belong to the well-to-do classes, number about 10,000 annually in the whole Empire. In order to secure the privilege, they must have passed (1) the examination of the second class in a classical, semi- classical, or modem school of the first grade ; (2) the first class of a preparatory classical school or modem school of the second grade ; (3) the passing out examination of a com- mercial school, secondary school or school of industry ; (4) a trades school or upper private school. The privilege is also accorded to school teachers, doctors, chemists, veterinaries, theological students, and to youths who prove their ability in any artistic or scientific profession considered of public benefit, while even mechanics of extraordinary skill in their trade and actors in the State theatres are also admitted, if they are able to pass an elementary educational examination. Proof of education must be sent in to the recruiting com- mission with the application to serve as a one- Ed°°^ti °^ y^^^ volunteer, which must be made in the eighteenth year. If school certificates are not forthcoming, the candidate must notify his readiness to undergo an examination, including two foreign languages chosen from 60 Germany of the Germans Latin, Greek, English and French. Candidates may also request to be set back for one or several years before serving, but not later than their twenty-fourth year. They may choose any branch of the Army or Navy or any regiment. Four months after entering the Army they undergo a prac- tical and theoretical examination, on the result of which depends recommendation as officers of the reserve on leaving. After six months' service, on proving their efficiency, they are promoted lance-corporal and after nine months corporal, and those who have shown their capacity to become officers of the reserve then undergo a further examination in theory and practice, the passing of which entitles them to promotion as reserve officer-aspirant. Thereafter, when they have per- formed one or two periods of drill in the reserve, they may be selected as lieutenant by the officers of their regiment, with whom the entire choice of their comrades rests. If, on the other hand, they have not during the year acquired sufficient knowledge of a soldier's duties, they may be kept with the colours to undergo further training. There is a still further class of exceptions, consisting of the Mennonites, or Anabaptists, whose creed forbids them taking an oath or performing military duties. These, unless they volunteer for service, are enrolled in an unarmed section of the forces, such as the hospital orderlies, military artisans or drivers, or else they do duty in the military administration offices. Ordained Catholic priests also are placed at once in the supplementary reserve, and are not called upon to drill. It is unnecessary to deal here with the training of the troops, which is virtually the same in every country ; Sever^ but it may be mentioned that the discipline and the service itself are very severe, and during his term with the colours no effort is spared to make the soldier fully acquainted with his duties. The Army is the Nation 61 Shooting is encouraged very extensively, but generally in the shape of volley-firing. Independent practice at targets is never extended to longer distances than 440 yards, as it is considered that volley-firing is the only effective musketry after that distance. This simplifies the instruction, as the soldier has not to worry about long sighting and wind allow- ances. He is, however, put through plenty of practice at the shorter ranges. There is not much time left to the soldier for sport or recreation, and, even if there were, the private's pay, which amounts in the line infantry and garrison artillery to only 6s. 5Jd. per month, and in the guards cavalry rises to 9s. TJd. per month, does not afford very much scope. Latterly an endeavour^ has been made to increase interest in outdoor sports on Sundays in many regiments, but hitherto the soldier has preferred to spend his meagre spare time in walking out. The barracks are generally very roomy and clean. The soldier is warmly and well clothed and the Well Cared j^^^^ -^ ^^^ good, though roughly served. Cases of brutality by officers and noncoms against the men, which at one time were very frequent, are diminishing rapidly with the spread of education. The cases of cruelty brought to the notice of the authorities, which number about 500 annually, not a large proportion among over 600,000 men, are usually severely dealt with. It is a rather remarkable fact that, even after the soldier has served his term in the active army, he clings closely to his remembrance of his regiment, in most cases becoming a member of a veterans' society. He would not do this if universal service weighed heavily on him or if he were badly treated. The service with the colours completed, the soldier's duty to his country has not ended. He is then attached for varying periods to the different classes of reserve, as may be seen from the following table, setting forth the soldier's entire military life. This is divided thus : — 62 Germany of the Germans For Infantry, Engineers, Army Service Corps and Cavalry, Horse Artillery Field and Garrison and Mounted Rifles. ArtiUery Yearf. Years. Active army 2 3 „ reserve 5 4 5 3 2nd div. 6 8 Landsturm 6 6 The reserves are called up in large contingents, sometimes as many as 300,000 men, each year for exercise with the active _, „ troops, but the same men are never mobilized The Reserves. , ^ _^ ... two years m succession. iLvery man while in the reserve of the active army may be called to do 112 days' drill, but as a rule is only mustered for two periods of about a month each. When he passes into the Landwehr, or second reserve, he is brought up again, except when a cavalryman, on several occasions for from 7-14 days. The Landsturm, or last reserve, only attends an occasional roll-call. Noncoms and reserve officers are liable to more frequent calls than the privates. The supplementary reservists do duty in that branch of the service for twelve years. The Government, however, does not take the reservist away from his civil occupation without providing for his dependents. Wives of reservists are entitled to claim 30 per cent, of the usual rate of workmen's wages in the district where they live, while for each child a further 10 per cent, is allowed ; but the whole sum granted may not amount to more than 60 per cent, of the usual rate of wages. The question of providing officers for this vast army has become a serious one under the prevailing conditions of com- mercial and industrial prosperity, which act ^^Officers °^ ^^ ^^^^ ^ great attraction to men of energy. However, there is an extensive leisured class in Germany, consisting of the nobility and large feudal land- owners, which from family tradition and the ancient caste feeling sends many of its sons into the Army as officers. Added The Army is the Nation 63 to these are the civil officials, who like to give proof of their loyalty by placing their sons to the Army career. A university education is not considered necessary, but the passing-out certificate of a higher classical or modern school is requisite for a candidate for the position of officer. Many officers enter the Army in this way, first serving six months in the ranks, but known as aspirant-officers. They must during this period attain corporal's rank. Thereafter, on giving full proof of their education, they are sent to a military academy for nine months, when they undergo a theoretical and practical mihtary examination. They then return to their corps as ensigns and, if the regimental officers approve their selection, they are promoted to second lieutenant, which usually occurs from eighteen to twenty-one months after first entry to the corps. Bavaria, however, demands the higher qualification of passing the matriculation examination for a university from those entering as aspirants. Conse- quently the education of the Bavarian officer is usually better than that of the officers in other States of the Empire. Another source for the provision of officers is formed by the cadet schools, of which there are a number in Prussia, /- J ^ c 1. 1 Bavaria and Saxony, where sons of officers and Cadet Schools. . ., ^ -, , -, r civil servants are educated from a very early age for a military career. They are subjected throughout to very severe tests as to fitness. Some of them enter the Army directly as ensigns and must then wait eighteen months for promotion to second lieutenant, while others remain longer in the cadet school and enter the Army with the rank of second Heutenant. There are 25,559 active officers, 2,282 doctors, 2,303 pay- masters and 691 veterinaries. There are 403 generals, 2,988 other staff officers, 6,425 captains, 4,797 first lieutenants and 10,946 second Heutenants. A movement has been started to give the rank of sergeant-major-lieutenant to deserving non- coms, who will then be able to exercise the duties of officer should the number of the latter be at any time below the estabhshment. 64 Germany of the Germans Considerable outcry has recently been raised against the apparent favouritism shown to officers who have inherited titles. There seems at first some reason for the complaint, as a glance through the lists of the higher officers of the Army shows few untitled names, while the guards regiments and corps stationed in large cities scarcely ever contain an officer who is not of the nobility. Those regiments stationed on the frontier and in small garrison towns, however, are mostly officered by untitled men. It may be, of course, that the latter owing to their less favourable financial circumstances choose to serve away from centres where the social life calls for heavy expenditure. Taken altogether, the German officers are a thoroughly loyal, sincere, hardworking, sport-loving and certainly efficient body of gentlemen, in the real sense of the ^ EvirtWn^"^^ word. Soldiers before everything else, they have their social limitations, but it may be taken as certain that every officer in the German Army is continually striving to improve his knowledge of his profes- sion and is prepared to undergo any hardship he may be called upon to suffer for the benefit of the service. He usually enters the Army at nineteen as an ensign, has to wait one and a half years before becoming second lieutenant, five or six years later is lieutenant, in seven years more captain, and then has to wait another 12-13 years before reaching his majority. Then promotion is somewhat quicker for men of proved ability, who may become lieutenant-colonel in another two years and full colonel six years later. During this long period the officer does not become wealthy on his pay. As a lieutenant, he receives for the first three years £60 annually, from the fourth to the sixth year, ;f85 ; from the seventh to the ninth, ;f95 ; from the tenth to the twelfth, £110 ; and after the twelfth, ;fl20. As captain the pay is from the first to the fourth year, £170 ; from the fifth to the eighth, £230 ; and the ninth year and after, £255. CHAPTER VIII THE NAVY '* Germany's future is on the water," in the words of the present Emperor, creator of the Imperial Navy. Before the accession to the throne of WiUiam II scarcely ^*^ll^^ ^^'^ 3. thought was given by German statesmen to the building up of sea power, but during the twenty years of his reign such a vast evolution of ideas has occurred that the German Empire may now be counted among the most powerful maritime nations. In the Emperor's opinion, Germany could not afford, in case of hostilities with a sea power, to wait on the defensive within her land borders for the enemy to come and attack. She must be prepared to take the offensive wherever the adversary may be found. His efforts throughout his reign have had this end in view, perhaps not with any intention of aggression, but in order to feel that, if necessary, his naval force might be able to play its due part in deciding a conflict with another nation. It must be confessed that he has been remarkably successful in interesting his subjects in the Navy. The Navy League — ^which, as head of the Navy, the Emperor, since its formation, has always patronized, although he is not actively connected with it — ^has become a most powerful organisation, exercising vast influence in aU parts of the Empire. It numbers at the present moment nearly a million active and honorary members, despite the recent tribulations through which it has passed in consequence of the part some of its leading officials had taken in internal politics. The disturbing elements have been eliminated and the League, confining its work to the education of the people in naval affairs, hopes to build up a fleet as powerful on the sea as the Army is on land. It issues a periodical. Die Flotte, dealing purely with naval affairs and which has attained a 65 5— (23qi) 66 Germany of the Germans circulation of 375,000. It arranges for frequent lectures on the Navy, with moving pictures, in all the big cities. Members living far from the sea are taken on excursions to see the fleet when it is lying in one of the naval ports. It opens all over the Empire small naval exhibitions for the assistance of sea- men's homes and to pay for outfits for poor boys wishing to enter the naval service. Through its influence many of the newer battleships are named after provinces or cities, and this simple procedure has aroused the keenest interest in the various districts, which are thus reminded of their direct share in the fleet. The "Father of the Fleet," Grand Admiral von Koester, who has just retired from active service after serving fifty years, is the president of and the most active " ^^F?eet "^^ *^^ personality in the Navy League, to which he devotes his virtually unquenchable energy. School teachers are also enlisted in the work of spreading interest in the fleet among the youth. They lose no oppor- tunity in their references to memorable dates in the Empire's history of pointing out that the fate and future prosperity of Germany are bound up with the possession of a strong Navy. All these factors have worked together to bring the German Navy to its present standing. The Germans now have, and can rapidly build more, splendid ships ; they possess strongly fortified naval stations, and their sailors, although perhaps lacking in the experience of actual battle, are well drilled and splendidly disciplined, good seamen and gunners, and are besides active and earnest. This remarkable creation of a Navy is the work of twenty years, for it was only in the late eighties that serious con- sideration was given to the subject. The "^^^V^rk^"** first commander-in-chief of the Navy was ^ * appointed in 1889, when it was thought that, with the increase of oversea commerce and the consequent ever-present danger of conflict of interests ADMIRAL VOX TIRPITZ ^ Of THE UNIVERSITY The Navy 67 with other lands, it was necessary to have a naval force to act as a protection to the rapidly increasing mercantile marine. Several vessels of nominal value were then in commission and very few additions were made for some years. In 1898, however, a programme of shipbuilding was drawn up and a law was passed by the Imperial Parliament providing for a fleet consisting of nineteen battleships (inclusive of reserve) and forty-two cruisers, large and small. This was but a beginning, for two years afterwards another programme became law, under the auspices of the then and present Marine Minister, Admiral von Tirpitz, which increased the strength of the Navy to thirty-eight battleships, fourteen armoured and thirty-eight protected cruisers and ninety-six torpedo boats and destroyers, the whole of which were to be laid down by 1916. Six further big cruisers were added to the programme in 1906. The sea-carrying trade in the meantime went up by leaps and bounds, until Germany has now taken second place on the list of mercantile marine nations. Devd^pment. ^^^ ^^' ^^^ ^^^ ^ perfect right to be, proud of this achievement effected in so short a time. The wonderful development gave birth to the idea that she could also become a first-class fighting power on the water, and, with the stern determination of the race, she has set about the task of realizing this idea. In 1908 the naval programme underwent some changes in consequence of the decision to reduce the effective life of battleships from twenty-five to twenty years. The total of vessels provided for was not altered, except in the case of torpedo boats and destroyers, whose number was increased to 144. A large flotilla of submarines was added, and the whole programme is to be completed by 1916-17, whereas formerly the ships were only to be laid down by that year. The fundamental duties of the fleet are set out in the preamble to the naval law of 1900 as follows : 68 Germany of the Germans 1. Protection and representation of German commerce on all seas. 2. Defence of the coasts of the Empire. 3. Development of means of defence. The list of vessels built or to be laid down is cX«m2. thefoUowing: Home Active Fleet 2 flagships. 32 line of battleships. 8 big armoured cruisers. 24 protected cruisers. Vessels for Service Abroad 8 big armoured cruisers. 10 protected cruisers. Reserve Fleet 4 battleships. 4 big armoured cruisers. 4 protected cruisers. Flotillas of Small Craft 6 gunboats. 10 training ships. 12 special vessels, repairing ships, etc. 144 torpedo-boats and destroyers. 39 coast and harbour torpedo boats. Of the four squadrons of first-class battleships of which the Navy is eventually to be composed, two, besides two flagships, form the active fleet, which is always fully manned and armed and in readiness to proceed anywhere. The other two squad- rons of eight first-class battleships each form the reserve of the active fleet, half of which, according to the law, must be always fully manned and ready for immediate commission. Hitherto this law has not been carried out in its entirety, owing to lack of ships, but now that the newer class of ships The Navy 69 is being so rapidly laid down orders have been given to keep a reserve fleet of eight ships permajiently in commission during six months at least of each year. The total of the personnel on the establishment for the year 1909-10 was 5,521 officers and 51.547 men. _, -, , There is a first reserve, consisting of men The Personnel. , , i • .1 -v- r ^^ ^/n« who have served m the Navy, of over 60,000 men. A large number of these are engaged in the mercantile marine, which employs 33,932 seamen and officers, 22,779 stokers and engineers and 15,142 boys and other ratings, making a total of 71,853. Others, to the number of some thousands, work as artificers in the shipbuilding yards. Many are employed in foreign merchant ships. All these. as well as the fishermen and inhabitants of coast towns and the men employed in river and canal traffic, are enrolled for service in the Navy if needed. The total number of artificers employed in the Imperial Navy yards is nearly 20,000, while the private shipbuilding yards, where many of the warships are built, employ no fewer than 50,000. Some naval men assert that the seafaring and semi-seafaring population is no longer sufficiently large to provide all the M L ds ^^^ required for the Navy and its reserves. It is a rather notable fact that most of those who enter the Navy as boys for a long period of service, and who in nearly all cases become petty officers, come from the inland town population. The fact has been of great service to the mercantile marine, which thus has its sailors trained for it by the Government. The increase in the number of merchant ships has of late been so rapid that this assistance is heartily welcomed by shipowners. The number of merchant vessels flying the German flag on January 1, 1909, was 1,922 steamers, with a net tonnage of 2,256,783, and 2,345 sailing ships, registering 433,749 tons. The system of recruiting for the Navy is similar to that for the Army, except that the seafaring class is specially set apart, 70 Germany of the Germans but landsmen may enlist voluntarily, if fit, for a period of four years or more, and a considerable number do this. The usual term of service for ordinary recruits is three years in the active fleet, four years in the reserve, five years in the first levy of the second reserve and then till forty years of age in the second levy. The petty officers, who form the backbone of the Navy, often serve for twelve years. A considerable number of boys from fourteen and a half to eighteen years of age are also voluntarily enlisted, and these _ . . are compelled in return for their training to complete from nine to ten and a half years' active service. They serve on board the training ships for a year and a half, during which they make a long sea cruise lasting several months. After this period they are, if fully developed physicedly, posted to the warships of the active fleet as ordinary seamen. If, however, not considered as having acquired sufficient knowledge of seamanship, they must serve another year on the training ship. Then follows their three years' active compulsory service, and they must afterwards continue in the Navy for another four and a half years as a return for the cost of their training. Most of these boys become petty officers and remain in the service until entitled to a pension. About 700 young men also enter the Navy annually as one-year volunteers. Most of these are engineers and, after the completion of their year and one or two further terms of eight weeks* service in the reserve, may be appointed engineer officers of the naval reserve. The officers of the Navy are supplied from the naval cadet corps, into which youths with a higher school education enter N 1 Offi between the ages of seventeen and nineteen. They are first sent to a naval barracks for a month's setting-up drill and are then drafted on to the cadets* training ships, where they remain for twelve months and receive a very severe practical and theoretical training. An examination follows, as the result of which they are either ^^ THE UNIVERSITY OF The Navy 71 dismissed as unsuitable or sent to the Imperial Naval College at Kiel. The course in this college, which lasts another year, is almost purely scientific, and at its conclusion the cadet undergoes a trying examination. If successful he is then sent to the gunnery and torpedo training depots for a six months' course of instruction and afterwards appointed midshipman in the active fleet, all the while receiving only the pay of an able seaman. In another two years, having in the meantime participated in various cruises and fleet manoeuvres, the midshipman is promoted to sub-lieutenant and launched on his career. The German " Watch on the North Sea," Wilhelmshafen, the new naval station on the North Sea, gives remarkable evidence of the fixed determination of the North^Sea" *^^ German Empire to transform itself into a naval power. The town practically dates only from 1872, when its first church was built. To-day it has 27,000 inhabitants, with fine houses, official buildings, schools, parks, and, last but not least, an enormous fortified harbour with three entrances, to which the greater portion of the fleet is attached, including all the Dreadnought class. The rapid development in the number and dimensions of the vessels of the Navy made it necessary for the Marine Ministry to look outside of the boundaries of the Baltic for another naval base. Wilhelmshafen was the most suitable, as it possessed already ten years ago an Imperial shipyard for the construction of the largest vessels. The fact, too, that the latest designed war vessels were too large to pass through the Kiel Canal hastened the decision to fortify Wilhelmshafen, and it has now become almost impregnable. In the near vicinity are now, besides the Imperial yard, three private yards able to build even the 25,000 ton leviathan ships now under consideration. These are the yards of Blohm and Voss, in Hamburg, the Weser Shipbuilding Co., near Bremen, and the Vulkan Co., which has recently transferred its 72 Germany of the Germans principal yard from Stettin to Hamburg, while another yard is being erected in Briinsbiittel. Wilhelmshafen has three enormous dry docks, and Briins- biittel is to have one — all capable of takmg in and repairing the biggest ironclads. Kiel, the principal naval station on the Baltic, has hitherto been Germany's most important naval port. All the technical schools belonging to the Navy are situated ^Strti^ns!^ there. It is defended by the fortress Fried- richsort, with several other smaller fortifica- tions. The naval arsenal employs about 7,000 men. It possesses dry and floating docks capable of receiving the largest vessels afloat. Heligoland is also rapidly becoming a powerful naval station, but is principally utilised for the smaller class of vessels, such as torpedo-boats and destroyers, of which a large number are always stationed there. Cuxhaven is the central mining station for the fleet, while Geestemiinde is also a minor naval depot. The mouths of the Elbe and the Weser have been so strongly fortified of late years that they are now regarded as impregnable. At all of these points the work of making the fleet efficient and perfecting the instruction of the crews in the duties they must carry out in case of war goes on incessantly the year round. Squadron and fleet manoeuvres, torpedo attacks, landing operations in co-operation with the army, and mine- laying are constantly practised at different parts of the coast-line. No effort is being spared by those in command, with the Emperor and his brother. Prince Henry, at their head, to make the German fleet as powerful on the sea as the German Army is redoubtable on land. CHAPTER IX THE " AGE OF YOUTH " " The nation which possesses the best schools must take the lead : if not to-day, then to-morrow." These words, uttered many years ago by M. Jules Simon, the French Schools statesman, appear at the present day to be strikingly true. Germany is the land of schools, and she is rapidly taking a leading place in the world. The present period of the world's history might with reason be called the " Age of Youth." Every class of society in every land is now devoting its most serious attention to the discovery of the best method of developing and educating the young, on whom the future of every nation depends. There exist, even in Germany, many and varied ideas as to what should be passed on to the young from the lessons of the past, and how it should be taught. The tendency to-day seems to be more and more in the direction of extracting from the past all that can be utilised for the practical needs of the present day, and leaving learning for learning's sake severely alone. Germany was one of the first countries to recognise its duty towards youth, and, many years before other nations turned their thoughts in this direction, compulsory to Youth ^^^^ education was enforced in town and country. There are at present in the Empire 60,584 free public elementary schools with nearly 10,000,000 pupils, and 614 private elementary schools, mostly denominational, with 42,000 pupils, who pay fees. The scheme of education is similar in both public and private schools. The average number in a class is fifty-eight, but this falls as low as thirty- three in Liibeck and rises to eighty-five in Schaumburg-Lippe. Although the schools are free, parents who can afford to do so are obliged to pay for the requisite books and utensils. 73 74 Germany of the Germans The total cost of the elementary schools Amounts to £26,143,050 a year, of which the various State governments pay £7,507,700 and the local school authorities the remainder. The average cost of the education is nearly £2 14s. per pupil per annum. The variation in the cost of elementary school education in the large cities is set out clearly in the following table : Cost of Schools. No. of Elementary Annual Cost falling Scholars per Outlay on each 100 i nhabitants per Scholar Inhabitant i s. s. d. Wilmersdorf . . 7-3 ...51 ... 7 5 Charlottenburg 9 ... 5 15 ... 10 2 Schoneberg . . 8-4 ...55 ... 10 6 Frankfort-on-Main . 91 . ... 4 12 ... 8 3 Wiesbaden . . 7-7 ... 5 12 ... 8 8 Erfurt 91 ...26 ... 4 2 Bonn . . 111 ... 3 11 ... 7 9 Miinster 11-4 ... 2 18 ... 6 8 Dusseldorf . . 13-2 ... 2 17 7 6 Coblence 11-7 ... 3 12 ... 8 6 Berlin 111 . ...45. ... 9 5 Cologne 131 ... 3 5 ... 8 1 Aachen 13-3 ... 2 17 ... 7 7 Trier 10-3 ... 3 10 ... 7 3 Elberfeld 14 ... 3 13 . ... 10 2 Rhendt 16 ... 2 17 . ... 9 1 Essen 16-5 . ...3 4. ... 10 7 Duisburg 16-7 ... 3 2 ... 10 Oberhausen . . 17-7 . ... 2 2 ... 7 6 Miinchen Gladbach . 15-6 ... 2 17 . ... 9 1 Krefeld 13-4 ... 4 ... 10 7 Iserlohn 17-3 ...3 ... 10 4 Dortmund 16 ... 3 9 ... 11 Barmen 15-2 ,.. 3 18 ... 11 9 Gelsenkirchen 19-4 . '.. 3 ... 11 8 Ludenscheid . . 18-2 ... 2 10 ... 9 2 Bielefeld 14-7 ... 3 10 ... 10 3 Remscheid . . 17-3 ...36 ... 11 5 Miilheim-Ruhr 18-7 ...29 ... 9 1 Solingen 16-5 ... 2 18 ... 9 6 Heme 20-6 ... 2 13 ... 12 1 Bochum 17-4 ... 3 1 ... 10 6 Hamm 17 ... 2 15 ... 9 4 Witten . 16-9 ... 3 3 ... 10 7 ReckUnghausen . 17-8 .... 2 18 .... 10 5 Hagen . 17-7 .... 3 12 .... 12 7 The " Age of Youth " 75 In all the grades of schools the first great principle put into practice is the enforcement of rigid discipline and the fostering of patriotism and loyalty to the ruler. Rich and poor alike, with very few exceptions, begin their education in the free elementary schools, where the children are given a thorough grounding in the elements of education. The syllabus is not a very extensive one, but is taught in such a manner that it takes firm root. Every effort is made to keep the number of subjects taught within % Uabi^^ *^^ narrowest limits, experience having shown that when the curriculum is spread over too wide a range the pupils learn very superficially. Arithmetic, reading, writing, modern German history and geography, especially with reference to the colonies, drawing, natural history, hygiene, physiology, and religion are the subjects on which most stress is laid. The natural history lessons are usually conducted in the open air, in the course of walks in the parks, the forests and the zoological gardens. Children are encouraged to write their impressions of everything they have seen and also to relate their experiences aloud before their class-mates. This has an excellent effect on their manner of expression, both written and spoken. The mechanical system of learning from books by heart, wfiich until recently was the method usually adopted, is now abandoned except in cases where such learning Learning by jg absolutely necessary. More freedom is also Abandoned, allowed the pupils in working out their answers to the problems set them, and thus their personal initiative is encouraged. The German love of nature extends to the school-children, who usually on one afternoon a week are taken out into the country by their teachers for a ramble through the woods, where they, besides enjoying the fresh air, are taught the elements of botany and the nature of the soil, the names of birds and animals, etc. A society has been founded for the promotion of walking 76 Germany of the Germans tours among the children during the school holidays, under the supervision of the teachers. The outlay is very small and the children are encouraged to save their pence towards the cost. Those who have no means are allowed to accompany the expedition free of cost. The children are housed in farms and country cottages at the various stopping-places and, as the tours usually last a week at a time, the pupils gain a considerable knowledge of the surrounding countj-y. The purely impersonal relation which formerly existed between teacher and pupil has in this way undergone consider- able change of late years. In many schools, too, the system of monitors has been introduced with excellent results in teaching the scholars self-government and responsibility. The monitors are chosen by the pupils themselves. Teachers in Germany have the right to punish pupils, but this right has been often objected to, and has caused many quarrels between teachers and parents. On ^Pun^shmenf ^^^Y sides it is regarded as dangerous to allow a teacher to be at once complainant, judge and executioner. It has been proposed that a committee, comprising some of the pupils' fathers, several headmasters and teachers, should be called together in every case where corporal punishment is proposed by a teacher, and on their decision the case should be decided. The age of school attendance is in general from the sixth to the fourteenth year, but in some of the smaller States of the Empire slight variations are made. Even when a child has reached the minimum age limit for leaving, he or she has to secure by examination a certificate of efficiency. In many districts children are not permitted to leave school until after their confirmation, which is made a condition of release. It is the custom in Germany to start school in summer at seven o'clock and in winter at eight, but it Attendance *^ proposed in future to make the time an hour later. The younger children are given instruction only in the A FUTURE KAISER f^ OF TH£ The *' Age of Youth '' 77 forenoon. Those of the higher classes, however, have to attend a minimum of thirty-two hours' study during the week. Of these four are devoted to scriptural instruction, increasing to six when the child is preparing for confirmation. Many complaints have been made that the education given in the elementary schools is precisely similar in town and country, in spite of the diversity of conditions and require- ments. It is recognised that the city children are well looked after in this respect, but the country children spend much of their time in acquiring knowledge which is of little or no use to them if they are destined to remain on the land. Farmers and landowners throw the blame for the desertion of the country by the growing generation of men and women on to this mistaken education. The various Ministers of Education have lent a willing ear to the complaints and have decided that in future the curriculum of the country schools, although retaining the groundwork of general education, shall provide for the gaining by the pupils of at least a theoretical knowledge of agriculture and other country work. Similar murmurs against the clerkly nature of the instruction given in the elementary schools were at one time very frequent in the cities, where it was found that large InfteuSion numbers of the boys from the elementary schools on leaving declined to become appren- ticed as artisans. They preferred to start life as shop-boys and junior clerks, earning at the beginning a little more money and wearing better clothes than artisans' apprentices. A few years later, however, when it was almost too late, they found the road to advancement to the higher clerical and managerial positions closed to them by the entry into the business of technically educated higher school pupils, who commenced at a later age with better equipment. The lack of trained artisans meanwhile made itself felt, and in many cities, of which Munich and Charlottenburg were the pioneers, an entire change has been made in the elementary school instruction. In the latter years of the schoolboy's 78 Germany of the Germans life he is given thorough instruction in drawing and provided with opportunities to acquire the elements of various handi- crafts, while the girls are taught practical household economy, cooking, dressmaking and laundry work. The result is that the interest of the children is aroused at the age when they are most receptive, and in Munich at the present moment nearly 98 per cent, of the boys on leaving school become apprenticed, while the great majority of the girls enter domestic service instead of going into factories. In the city of Halle parents of elementary school children are asked during the last year of the child's school attendance to visit the headmaster and discuss with him Co^^e^ation *^^ question of the child's future. At this meeting the question is generally decided as to what calling the boy or girl shaU adopt — health, inclination and adaptabiHty aU being taken into consideration. The school or town doctor's certificate of the child's state of health is always sought before a decision is reached. In every school district provision is made for classes for the deaf and dumb, the blind and the mentally feeble. Poor children are given food, mostly by private societies, which are subsidised by the municipahties. Cripples, of whom there are over 80,000 of school age in the Empire, are also cared for by private societies, which have erected sixty-three cripples' homes. Dentists have been appointed in several cities by the school authorities to inspect the teeth of elementary school children, who lose much of their school time owing to ^^^^ . toothache. The time occupied by a regular Doctors. inspection of teeth during school hours has proved to be much less than that lost by the children remaining absent in consequence of toothache. Doctors engaged by the school authorities examine every scholar before he is entered on the registers, and if the can- didate is found to be physically or mentally weak he is put The '' Age of Youth " 79 back for a year or even more, and then, throughout his school attendance, he is examined from time to time, and advice is given to the parents as to how he should be cared for. In Charlottenburg a trained nurse is in constant attendance in the elementary schools. The forest schools for anaemic and consumptive children have met with great success. The pupils attend them from the age of nine to thirteen. All the classes ^hoolL ^^ ^^^^ ^^ ^^^ open air in the centre of the forest during the summer months. The pupils, when it rains, sit under a shelter, but still in the open air. In the Charlottenburg forest school 196 per cent, of the pupils are reported as cured of their maladies, while in Miinchen-Gladbach no fewer than 73' 5 per cent., and in Dortmund 53'3 per cent, have been restored to health and strength in these schools. In the cities and surrounding districts the school buildings and accommodation are excellent, but in the country in many instances they are very primitive. Mecklenburg is very backward in this respect, as weU as in its scale of instruction, the ruling class, consisting for the most part of the feudal nobility, regarding schools for the working class as almost superfluous. In Bavaria, Protestants and Catholics usually attend different schools, but in some of the larger towns mixed schools have been organised despite the decided opposition of the more conservative Catholics. The teachers of the elementary schools (of whom there are 166,597, including 29,384 women), to whom Germany owes so much for their faithful and trying services in Teacher bringing the Empire to its present position as one of the best-educated nations, work for a very modest remuneration, which, however, is to be increased shortly. In Prussia they begin their career after a three years' course in training colleges as probationers, with a salary of ;£50, which is raised to £60 as soon as they are appointed to a 80 Germany of the Germans definite post. Usually when the teacher has attained twenty - five years the salary is raised to £67 10s., which is increased every three years by £] 10s., until at forty years of age it totals ;f 105 yearly ; then it rises again by £10 every two years, until at forty-eight years of age the highest total permitted, £145, is reached, when the teacher may retire. Besides the salary, however, there is an additional sum given in place of house- room, varying from £5 to £45, according to the situation of the school in the city or the country and the age of the recipient. With this addition, the highest income of an elementary school teacher under the best circumstances, after twenty- eight years' service, could attain £190. A woman teacher's salary would, under the same conditions, vary from £60 to £123 10s., according to age and situation. There are various grants which may be added for different objects. In other States of the Empire the salaries are, as a rule, rather lower. The idea seems to have taken firm hold of some educational authorities that greater frankness is desirable in informing children about their physical selves. Although ^h^^^hf^ Germany is, comparatively speaking, a moral Necessary. nation, yet it is a recognised fact that im- morality among children and persons of very youthful age has spread and is spreading at a terrific pace. Many instances, here as in other lands, come to light of both boys and girls going astray from the paths of virtue merely through ignorance of the effects of their thoughtless acts. The time, it is thought, has arrived when children should be enlightened by their mentors, and not allowed to learn in a slipshod and dangerous way the mystery of life. In some of the schools evening classes for boys and girls separately are formed, to which the respective male and female parents or guardians are invited, and in a perfectly modest and refined way the children's minds are opened up. They are thus prepared for the perils and pitfalls that beset them in after Ufa, and are taught the principles of right living. The " Age of Youth '* 81 Compulsory attendance at evening continuation classes is imposed on all boys after they have left the elementary schools at the age of fourteen, and in Wiirttemberg C°J^P^!^°^y and Baden on both sexes. Until they have Schools. completed their seventeenth year, they must go two or three evenings weekly to receive theoretical and practical instruction in the trade or calling which they have taken up, and at the same time keep in touch with the subjects they have been taught in the elementary schools. Employers are obliged by law to arrange their working hours so as to permit of the boys' attendance at these classes, which are really excellent. Usually in the big cities centres are formed to which all pupils following one particulaj: trade are sent. Continuation schools were first officially recognised in 1874, since which time the State Governments have voted money for their support ; but where possible the local authorities provide the funds. The average annual cost is £1,250,000. In Prussia alone there are over 1,600 continuation school centres, with an average attendance of over 300,000 pupils. The yearly course of study lasts forty weeks and each week from four to six hours' instruction is given. In the country continuation classes practical carpentry, gardening, seed ^ and tree-planting and grafting, and the care of animals are taught to the boys, while the girls learn cookery, domestic and farm work, and the care of children. A Bill has recently been approved in principle by the Prussian Parliament to extend the age of compulsory attend- ance at these classes to eighteen, and there is every probability that it will shortly become law. In some States of the Empire special commercial schools have been founded, which train their pupils for a commercial career. Bavaria possesses no fewer than thirty-two of these institutions, while Prussia, which adopted the scheme many years later, has only two, at Cologne and Frankfort-on-Main. 6— {2391) 82 Germany of the Germans Running concurrently with the elementary schools are the middle schools, which, however, are but a slight advance on the way to higher education. Their main Schods object is to permit parents to send their children to a " pay " school. Pupils remain in attendance until the age of fifteen or sixteen, paying moderate fees. They have the opportunity of studying Latin and EngHsh as extra subjects if they wish, while French is obligatory after the fourth year's attendance. A brilliant pupil of the elementary school has the chance of being sent to a superior school without paying fees. About 5 per cent, attain this advantage, and may thus in the end reach the university. Children who are destined for the superior education necessary for a professional or higher technical career usually leave the elementary school at nine years of age. They may then enter a classical, semi-classical, or modern school, according to their bent. At the gymnasium, or higher classical school, Greek, Latin, Enghsh and French, Hterature, history and mathematics form the groundwork of the tuition, and the course EcSca^fon. °^ ^^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^^^ ^^^ pro-gymna- sium has practically the same studies, except that the course does not proceed so far and lasts only seven years. In the real-gymnasium, or semi-classical school, more attention is paid to modem subjects and science, and Greek is not compulsory. Pupils, however, continue for nine years to matriculation. In the real-pro-gymnasium the studies are the same without the higher classes. In the superior and ordinary upper modem schools the classics are entirely suppressed, and the tuition of ancient history and literature is conducted by means of modem languages, while great attention is paid to scientific subjects. ' -iv;).. The " Age of Youth '' 83 The fees demanded for higher education are extremely moderate, averaging £J 10s. a year in the classical schools, £6 10s. in the semi-classical schools, and ^Fees^^^ £5 lOs. in the modem schools, besides books and utensils. In Southern Germany the fees are somewhat lower. The Germans have entirely abandoned the old idea that the more useless the study the more honourable it is, and have decided that the certificates gained at the classical, semi-classical and modem schools are to be reckoned as absolutely equal from the point of view of standing. Pupils passing through any of these schools are now entitled to proceed directly to the universities. The pupils of all the high schools must exercise immense application in their studies. It is very rare for them to board in the school. The regular course of instruc- A ^"^ti ^^°^ necessitates six hours' class work every day, with an additional two hours for special subjects and from two and a half to three hours' home work. The result of this strenuous application is that the Army recruiting offices report 45 per cent, of the lads unfit for the year's military training to which they are liable, while over 70 per cent, become short-sighted. Until recently physical exercises among higher school pupils were almost totally neglected, only two hours a week being set apart for recreation in Prussia, and in Bavaria only one. Lately, however, efforts are being made to introduce athletic sports and outdoor games. The passing of the final examination, which is equivalent to matriculation, entitles the pupils of the upper classical, semi-classical and modern schools to go to the university and enter either the law or philosophical sections. They may, however, choose to enter the special technical schools, such as the mining and forestry academies or the veterinary col- leges. Entry into the first division of the post and telegraph service and into the Army as officer is also open to them. ^ Germany of the Germans For the study of medicine the pupil must pass the classical or semi-classical school. Theological candidates are confined to pupils from the pure classical schools. The approach of the final examination is looked forward to by all the pupils with mixed fear and hope, for success means release from nine years' hard study and Matriculation discipline into the absolute freedom of the university. Almost without exception the candidates pass, for the system of education is so thorough that the chances of failure are virtually eliminated. Then follows a series of festivities for the successful scholar before he leaves for three or four years' untrammelled liberty uncontrolled by masters or parents. CHAPTER X INTELLECTUAL HOTHOUSES German universities may be likened to intellectual hothouses, where the system of teaching forces the student to rapid growth in the direction that has been chosen l^Feat^e^ for his learning to take. The training to-day is almost exclusively scientific and highly specialised. The great strides made by the nation in the development of existing industries and the opening up of new ones during the past thirty years have created a demand for men possessed of a highly technical training. The universities, urged on by the Ministers of Education in the various States of the Empire, have turned a favourable ear to this call, and are furnishing men thoroughly equipped to take the leading places in the commercial and industrial world. It has even been a matter of complaint that those studies, which at one time were considered indispensable to a properly educated man, are now somewhat neglected ^*^^^\P^^^^^ both by the educational authorities and by students. It is pointed out that the State can usually find an excuse for not filling a classical chair at a university, but whenever a demand is made for finances to support a new technical professorship the money is forth- coming. It is also a fact that students nowadays show more regard to the practical than to the classical side of the univer- sity. Only a little over a third of the undergraduates now pursue the contemplative studies — philosophy, philology, theology and history. The remaining two-thirds are attached to technical faculties. The most prominent men in every branch of learning are secured by the State to fiU the professorial chairs, and they impart their knowledge to the students in a very systematic manner, so that a graduate finds himself at the conclusion of 85 86 Germany of the Germans his university career fully equipped for his chosen profession, and replete with specialised knowledge. The students belong, as a general rule, to the comparatively well-to-do classes. All must have passed three years in an elementary school, and then from the age of StiSents ^^^^ *^ eighteen have undergone the training of a classical, semi-classical or purely modern upper school, the passage of the final examination of either of which permits matriculation. Thence the student proceeds to one of the twenty-one universities spread about the Empire, many of which have gained world-wide renown as seats of learning. At the present moment there are 51,700 undergraduates entered on the university books, of whom 1,432 are women. Berlin takes first place in numerical importance with a total of 7,194. Then foUow Munich with 6,547, Leipzig 4,581, Bonn 3,801, Freiburg 2,760, Breslau 2,347, HaUe 2,310, Gottingen 2,239, Heidelberg 2,171, Marburg 2,134, Strassburg 1,935, Tiibingen 1,921, Miinster 1,760, Jena 1,606, Kiel 1,593, Wiirzburg 1,369, Konigsberg 1,293, Giessen 1,271, Erlangen 1,158, Greifswald 967, and Rostock 743. Heidelberg is, besides being the oldest, one of the most popular of the universities. It was founded in 1386, and was followed in 1409 by Leipzig, in 1419 by Rostock, in 1456 by Greifswald, and in 1457 by Freiburg. Berlin, Munich and Bonn, three of the most frequented universities, are quite recent foundations, having been founded respectively in 1810, 1818 and 1826. All have the four principal faculties : theology, law, medicine and philosophy. Bonn, Breslau and Tubingen have separate Cathohc and Protestant theological F uit* faculties ; Munich, Tiibingen and Wiirzburg possess besides a faculty of political science, while Strassburg and Tiibingen have also a faculty of natural sciences. Berhn is endowed with an agiicultural high school as part of the university. Intellectual Hothouses 87 In most of the Federal States exist purely technical high schools, which have recently been radsed to the rank of universities, with the power of granting degrees. Before entering these high schools, a student must pass the usual terms in an upper classical or modem school and obtain the final certificate. The branches of study pursued by the students at the universities and technical high schools are as follows : 13,911 (including 699 women), philosophy, philology and history ; 11,657 (23 women), the science of law; 9,462 (371 women), medicine ; 7,385 (245 women), mathematics and natural sciences ; 2,398 (4 women), Protestant theology ; 1,766, Catholic theology; 2,198 (42 women), fiscal science and agriculture ; 1,454 (4 women), pharmacy ; 1,238 (44 women), dentistry ; 124, forestry ; and 107 veterinary medicine. AU the universities in Germany except Strassburg and Rostock are now open to women students, but in most cases the permission has only recently been granted. StidTnS Until the winter of 1908 only Jena, Leipzig, Heidelberg, Freiburg, Wiirzburg, Tubingen, Munich and Erlangen received women students, and the total attending the lectures numbered under 400. As soon as the doors of the other universities were opened to women, the number increased to nearly 1,500. Besides the recognised women students, a large number of women are permitted to attend lectures as unattached auditors, all the universities without exception admitting them as such. At the university the student finds an entirely different life awaiting him from that which he has been accustomed to. He is now thrown absolutely on his own L'f * resources away from home and school control. There is no coUege system and he is com- pelled to seek for social intercourse among complete strangers. On going up to the university ofiices at the beginning of term to enter his name for the courses of lectures he intends to follow, the freshman finds groups of members of the various 88 Germany of the Germans duelling corps and guilds promenading, with their multi- coloured caps and sashes, in the vicinity in order to attract new-comers to their ranks. In many cases the freshman's father or some relative has been a member of one of these corps and the young fellow feels traditionally bound to follow the example. Nowadays, however, the large majority of students do not join the corps, the alleged object of which is to develop chivalry and courage, but which as a general Duelling ^^ ^^-^y encourage their members to drink and instil into them supersensitive feelings in regard to personal honour, which must be defended with weapons when it is supposed to have been hurt. The becapped student, so often caricatured with his gashed face and bloated body, must not be accepted as the representative of the average German undergraduate. He exists certainly and often stays for years at the university devoting his time to hard drinking and useless fencing. Very often the gashes on his face and head are the sole signs that he has been to a university. The really representative German student is found outside the ranks of these antiquated brutalising guilds, living quietly and modestly in a boarding-house or furnished room, and applying himself with earnest purpose to the acquisition of book knowledge which he hopes will be useful to him in his future career. Usually the student must exist on a very slender allowance from home. Sometimes he depends on the income from a private or Government scholarship which he has gained at the expense of terribly hard study at school, and often he ekes this out by giving private lessons. As to the course of study, an almost appalling seriousness and technicality pervades it, which is not relieved by any kind of social intercourse or sport. Even the ^ Study °^ language used by the professors and students is a thing apart from that of the ordinary person, to whom it is almost incomprehensible. Intellectual Hothouses 89 There is no attempt made to carry out any scheme of general culture. The point of view taken is that, if a man desires to devote himself to a certain branch of knowledge, he must renounce his interest in those events of everyday life which are not directly connected with or do not lead towards the goal which he is attempting to reach. Everything else must give way to the object he has in view. If the student does build up his character he does so despite the system. Happily the education he has acquired at the secondary schools is of a more general nature, ^*Build[nff*^^ otherwise the graduate of a German univer- sity would be a being even more widely separated than he is from the rest of the nation. Germans who have studied at a university are in far too many instances inclined to despise those who have not, what- ever the natural gifts and intelligence of the non-imiversity man may be, and however much real practical knowledge he may have acquired. The whole tendency seems to be to form a class spirit, but even among the students themselves there is very little community of interest. A student of one branch of science will take no interest what- ever in the studies of a comrade who has selected another course. Very few of the students know their class comrades, and still fewer are personally acquainted with their professors. Discipline is rather lax during the lectures, the professors being often interrupted by the entry of late comers. Students are, however, not entirely released from control except as far as their moral welfare is concerned. They are subject to certain restrictions in regard to politics, the State contending that, as a considerable amount of public money is spent on the universities, the students who reap the benefit of the outlay are under its guardianship. They are, therefore, forbidden to participate in political meetings, as it is considered that, owing to their unripe age, they 90 Germany of the Germans are likely to be led away by the arguments of the orators and to form erroneous opinions on questions of public interest. The quality of the instruction is without exception good, but owing to the stress laid upon memorising, it tends to develop that pedantry and dogmatism which ^"^GcIJ>d^°" ^^^ ^^^^ notable traits of the German univer- sity man, who will not listen to the opinion of anyone who is not a college man and has not made an academic study of the subject. The professors appear to encourage this arrogant spirit, for they themselves seem to imagine that their teachings comprise the whole sum of what can be known on their speciality, and that when the students have memorised their teachings they have reached the culminating point of wisdom. One great advantage German students possess is that the most prominent active scientists in every branch of knowledge are appointed professors at the universities. In this way the very latest achievements and discoveries are explained to the students at first hand by the inventor or discoverer himself. Professors, too, are exchanged between the various univer- sities, so that the whole nation benefits by their teachings, and the knowledge imparted to students is uniform. The superintendence exercised over the universities by the State ensures a steady constancy in the educational system and keeps the professorial body braced up to its work, although the objection is raised that it tends to bring about a certain mechanical course of teaching. Private tutors exist, but not to such an extent as in other countries, as cramming for examinations is scarcely known. The arrangement of the courses of lectures is such that students are compelled to specialise, and even to specialise on a branch of a science. The professorships are so numerous and the lectures so multiplied that a clash would come if a student attempted to arrange a general course. Intellectual Hothouses 91 The length of the undergraduate's stay at the university depends principally on the profession he has chosen. Law students usually stay up for three and a half ^ s^t^dT" °^ years, Catholic theological students the same period, Protestant theological students four years, mathematicians and natural scientists, philologists and historians and medical students five years. A new term begins every half-year and the university year is divided into winter and summer semesters. The Catholic students incline more to classical education than the Protestants, who devote their energies to technical training. Statistics from the Rhine district, where the population is 70 per cent. Catholic, show that only 40 per cent, of the technical students are Catholic, while in Posen, where the proportion of Catholics is the same, only 15 per cent, of students of that sect attend technical lectures. In Bavaria, also, similar facts are recorded. The teaching at the universities is the subject of considerable murmuring from those who would prefer to see more indi- viduahty among educated men. It is argued ^a^*!! ^ *^^* ^^^ university in Germany is a mere workshop for turning out special parts, each batch of which consists of units of a likeness to each other which is excellent when applied to parts of a machine, but becomes monotonous when the system affects human beings. This uniformity, however much it may be deplored by ideal- ists, seems to be called for at the present day, which demands technical accuracy and the suppression of individuality, so that the whole organisation shall progress with mechanical smoothness. Parents and teachers no longer ask themselves, " How shall we bring out the best in our sons or our pupils ? " but too often, without consulting the youth's desires, " How can we best make our sons or our pupils useful to themselves and to us ? " Happily this is not always the case. The student sometimes strikes out for himself and asserts his individuality, with the 92 Germany of the Germans result that there is an extraordinary number of men in Germany who have carried their studies so far as to obtain the title of doc- tor of law, of music, of philology, of philosophy. Doctors °^ theology, of mechanics, of sciences, or of some other of the many branches of knowledge. The title is to-day extremely difficult of attainment at most of the universities, and it always involves the accomplishment of original work. The candidate for the title must necessarily be a graduate of a university. He must send in an application to the professor of the branch of study in which he desires to undergo an examination. The professor usually selects a number of themes on which no original work exists. The candidate chooses one and writes a long essay, which he sends in for examination. Then he must undergo the trying ordeal of an oral examination by three professors on the subject selected and on the result of this depends the granting of the doctor's hood. The Germans, usually so thorough, have not yet become convinced of the benefit to be derived by the nation and the world through the provision of opportunities for all classes to attain the highest education. The shutting out of the overwhelming millions of the working classes from this advan- tage undoubtedly means the loss of much brilliant intelligence and intellectual vigour, which must exist among the working classes in equal proportion to the other less numerous but more fortunate classes to whom higher education is now confined. Although the working class and many of the middle class are thus virtually cut off from the enjoyment of university education, yet at some of the universities Working Class evening extension lectures are provided at Excluded. very moderate fees and have proved extremely successful. The University of Leipzig took the lead in this movement some ten years ago and the results have exceeded all expectations. In the winter of 1908-09 eighteen courses on varied subjects were arranged in the Intellectual Hothouses 93 university buildings under the guidance of the professors of the faculty at fees ranging from Is. to 3s. No fewer than 6,989 persons, men and women, attended regularly, most of them belonging to the middle classes, but also including 227 artisans and 147 working women. Taken altogether, despite their traditions, the German universities do not impress as being the centres of national refinement and culture. This is brought about, not because the refinement and culture are absent, but because the life of the university does not tend to cultivate these qualities. The personal touch does not exist between professor and student, nor even among the students themselves, except in connection with the duelling corps, whose influence is in many quarters regarded as exactly the opposite of refining. There is no college life to inculcate a system of self-discipline, and the young man, just released from a school where his every move has been controlled, is thrown entirely on his own resources among utter strangers, often with very grave results to his character. CHAPTER XI THE BATTLEFIELD OF CREEDS Ever since the Reformation Germany has been a battlefield of creeds. Divided as it is into two great camps — Protestant and Catholic — the struggle then begun has "^^^cSoT^"^ ^^^^ continued without cessation until to-day. By the Imperial Constitution complete freedom of conscience and absolute toleration are assured to aU Germans ; but in the carrying-out of that clause of the Constitution a considerable difference is made between the sects, Jews and Dissenters being made to suffer many disadvantages. As a matter of fact, no candidate for an official position would have the slightest hope of success if he or she were a Dissenter. The candidate may be a Hebrew, Exclude" ^^ *^^^ ^^^* ^^ ^^^^ virtually a State religion ; but for the rank of officer in the active Army or Navy Hebrews are not eligible. There are also other disabilities for Dissenters, in that they are not permitted to go through a religious marriage ceremony nor to have their children baptized, and they are deprived of burial in consecrated ground. Religion has undoubtedly exercised an immense influence on the life and development of the Empire. After the French war, in all probability in consequence of the general mourning, Germany for a period seemed to be overflowing with religious fervour. The churches were always filled. The movement for Sunday observance, which had to a great extent lapsed, became powerful, and, helped by the demand of the workers, a weekly rest-day has now become compulsory in all factories, while shopkeepers are forced to close during church hours and from two o'clock in the afternoon onward. 94 Photo by PULPIT, TRIER CATHEDRAL OF The Battlefield of Creeds 95 When, however, the sharp grief over, the war losses began to be allayed by the passage of time, the German people became greatly dissatisfied with the poor P^^'^P^^^^"" religious fare offered them. This dissatisfac- tion has led to the development of a deep feeling of indifference and a wholesale desertion of the Church, especially by the working classes. There are to all intents and purposes three State Churches — the EvangeHcal, the Catholic and the Hebrew — each of which has the right to levy taxes for its own purposes on all its nominal members. The sum raised depends upon the amount of income-tax paid by the person taxed, generally being 15 or 20 per cent, on the total of the income-tax. The latest returns show that the EvangeHcal Church raised in 1908 taxes to the amount of £2,184,153; the Catholic Church £779,667, and the Hebrew Church £298,176. Besides these amounts, in the country districts, the parishioners were compelled to supply a considerable quantity in kind. The Budget of the Prussian Ministry of Public Worship also provides nearly £400,000 annually in aid of stipends and expends besides £900,000 on public worship. Of the three State Churches the National Evangelical is numerically the most important, comprising at the present moment nominally 62*1 per cent, of the Chunfhes population, a decrease of nearly 1 per cent. since 1895. Its organisation is extremely simple. The sovereigns of the different States are the nominal heads of the Church, but where they happen to be Catholic, as, for instance, in Bavaria and Saxony and some of the smaller States, their powers are transferred to the Ministry of Public Worship and the Superior Consistory. The States are divided into several consistories or synods, each of which comprises several dioceses composed of a number of parishes. The hierarchy is formed of general superintendents, superintendents and parish clergy. 96 Germany of the Germans Each parish elects or selects a Church council, which meets occasionally under the chairmanship of the pastor to transact Church business and parish affairs. Every candidate for the clerical career must have attended a classical school for the full term of eight or nine years. Thence he proceeds to the university, where he "^^Career^^ must study for at least three years, during which time he attends lectures for from four to five hours daily, and must also study for at least three hours a day in private. The fees for the lectures are very low. The first examination, the passage of which entitles him to become a candidate for the ministry, takes place after three years, and is very severe. The successful candidate, who is now officially recognised, must continue his studies for another two years, in the meantime taking a short course in the science of teaching, before he is admitted to the second and final examination for ordination. Probably in the interval he has benefited by one of the many bursaries for theological students and has entered a seminary where he obtains every- thing free. Before final ordination he must be twenty-five years old and have served his year in the army. The pastors are nominated by the consistories representing the State, but the consent of the parish has to be obtained before a clergyman can take up his duties. The pastors are not regarded as direct State officials, although the State guarantees them a minimum income. In the majority of instances the Protestant pastors belong to the lower middle class, many of them being the sons of small Government officials, clergymen and ^PaSore'^* school teachers. Their stipends are regulated by the Ministry of Public Worship and range in Prussia from ;f90 to £210 a year, according to the importance of the parish and length of service ; but in addition free resi- dence is given, with generally a small glebe. In Berlin and other great cities the stipends are higher, averaging £350, but ranging up to £850 a year, with an allowance instead of the The Battlefield of Creeds 97 glebe of £7S a year. All are entitled to fairly substantial pen- sions on retirement, and the widows and orphans of the clergy are provided for by means of a compulsory insurance fund. As a class, with some few notable exceptions, the State clergy cannot be said to have much personal hold over their congregations. In their sermons they are prone to become academic and to speak over the heads of the people, and the lack of simplicity is so great that the congregation often leaves the church with only a very vague understanding of the subject that has been preached about. Touch and sympathy with the strivings of the people seem to be almost entirely missing. This has no doubt been a great factor in the shrinkage of Church membership, which has progressed so rapidly in the past three or four years. In Berlin alone Flight from J7QQQ iQ^^2\ secessions have been handed the Lhurch. i /^i -i , . . . , m to the Church authonties m the past three years. In 1908 they numbered over 10,000. Recent statistics show that only 9 per cent, of the members of the Evangelical Church ever take the Communion. In the whole of the Berlin Protestant churches in 1908 only 50,264 persons took the Holy Communion out of a total of considerably over 500,000 adult members of the Evangelical State Church. The working classes, urged thereto by their Socialist leaders, who strongly object to the union of Church and State, are formally leaving the Church in serried ranks. The step has to be taken with aU the legal formality of a sworn affidavit, which must be coimtersigned by the authorities. The move- ment has become so strong that the Chiu-ch authorities have issued warnings in aU the newspapers as to the forfeits the people are making ; but these have hitherto been in vain. The Socialists argue that the Church is far too indifferent to the weU-being of the working man, and that the pastors endeavour to influence the political opinions of the people in an intolerable way. They accuse the clergy of being first State servants and Christian teachers only as a secondary business. 7-(a39x) 98 Germany of the Germans One of the most usual causes given by the unofficial middle classes for their action in leaving the Church is naturally the compulsion to pay Church taxes. This would CauTes ^^^ appear so harsh if the ordinary uniformed policemen were not used to enforce the Church's demands. The parishioners rarely receive a visit from a clergyman to inquire into their spiritual needs. If, however, they are entered on the police registers either as Catholic or Protestant or Jew, at some time in the year a paper will be presented by a revenue official demanding payment of Church taxes. If these are not paid at the exact moment stated, the brokers are put in and great expense is occasioned. In the case of a foreigner who registers himself as a Dissenter the trouble is endless. Time after time, at the instance of the Church authorities, the police visit him, demanding a certificate proving that he has left the National Church. He, of course, never having belonged to it, cannot produce proof that he has left it, and an inquisitorial cross-examination is then carried out by the police in order to obtain some indica- tion whether the offending Dissenter, or his wife or children, who have furnished no proof of desertion of the National Church, have been baptised or married in a church anywhere, and if it develops that such an act has happened, the Dissenter is mulcted in taxation for the Protestant or Catholic Church, whichever it may have been. These are facts from personal experience. A foreigner may possibly escape paying the taxes to the German Church by joining a church of his own nationality, if one exists in the district in which he resides, and paying for a pew therein ; but this privilege depends on the Church authorities. The formal break with the Church is, however, of small proportions compared with the growing apathy of those who, while continuing to pay their Church '^E/emenr*'^* ^^^^^ ^^^ remaining nominally members of the various churches, display absolute indif- ference. They take no part whatever in services or Church The Battlefield of Creeds 99 work. This is more marked among the wealthier middle classes than any others. Many of these are earnest, good people, who without doubt retain their Christian belief, but look on the official Church as unsatisfying. The Church, however, is regarded as one of the strongest pillars of the monarchy and, devotedly loyal as they are, they consider that it is their duty to belong to the State Church. Then, too, the women cling to the State Church, as hitherto the free religions have not been developed to such an extent as to offer them a substitute, and. Christian as they are in spirit, they say to themselves : " Better an unsatisfying State Church than no Church at all ! " Indications are not wanting that some of the younger and more hberal pastors have noticed the shrinkage of Church members and recognised its causes, and are ^eformT taking steps to reform their methods. The fight for reform will be a severe one ; but with a nation like Germany, which has a deep-rooted desire for religion, the victory will probably go to the reformers. The separation of the Church from the State will almost inevitably be an accessory to this victory and the Church will then take its proper position in the nation. In the meantime, the whole working of religious life in Germany seems to have descended to a purely mechanical basis. The eight years spent by the children in learning texts and creeds and Psalms by heart are followed by a further uninteresting drilling of the young people for confirmation, during which the Bible becomes to them a dull and dreary text-book. The child sees in the whole course of religious instruction nothing but a compulsion to learn things which he does not understand spontaneously and which are not properly explained to him by means of the lessons applicable to daily life to be drawn from them. So soon, therefore, as he reaches an age when he is permitted to decide for himself he gives it all up and lapses into indifference. 100 Germany of the Germans The other great State Church, the Catholic, has during the past fifteen years improved its position in the Empire. In 1895 it numbered only 35'8 per cent, of the '^^ChMch°^*^ population ; now it comprises 36-5 per cent. Whereas Protestantism is overwhelmingly represented throughout the centre of the country. Southern, Eastern and Western Germany are principally Catholic. Remarkable evidence of the activity of the Catholics in Germany is shown in some statistics just published. The number of members of the Catholic Church throughout the Empire has, according to these figures, increased in forty years by 77 per cent., from 12,489,371 to 22,094,492. The number of establishments belonging to Catholic brotherhoods and sisterhoods increased during the same period from 996 to 5,211, while the number of persons residing therein rose from 9,735 to nearly 60,000. To judge by the increase in numbers, the Catholic Church appeals more to the sympathies of the people than does the Protestant. At any rate, the priest is nearly always more popular than the pastor. He certainly seems to exercise an influence on his flock politically and thus secures in most of the local State Parliaments, as well as in the Imperial Parliament, a powerful representation of Catholicism. Perhaps the thrifty manner of life of the Catholic priest appeals directly to the peasants, for the Catholic Church finds the majority of its adherents in the Priest IS agricultural districts. The priest lives among them very modestly on his small guaranteed stipend and takes interest in everything that happens in his parish. In many cases he is himself a son of the land. He has to pass through a training which is probably more severe than that of the Protestant pastor, and is always under a stricter discipline. His education follows practically the same course as that of the Protestant pastor, except that he must attend a university with a Catholic theological faculty, of which there are eight : Munich, Strassburg, Bonn, Breslau, OF ^ / The Battlefield of Creeds 101 Miinster, Tubingen, Wiirzburg and Freiburg. At its con- clusion, if he has been ordained sub-deacon, he is usually dispensed from active military service, and nominated to a parish by the bishop, with the approval of the State authori- ties, which do not interfere with the hierarchy, the discipline or the customs of the Church in any way. Catholic clergymen begin with £15 annually as sub-priest, rising after five years' service to £90 as priest, after ten years to £115, after fifteen years to £130, after Sti ^*d twenty years to £145, and after twenty-five years to £160. This is raised by the col- lections in the church when possible, but if the parish is too poor, the stipend is raised by means of a Church tax which the ecclesiastical authorities are empowered to levy 'pro rata on the income-tax of the Catholic parishioners. A proposal is on foot to increase the maximum stipend obtain- able to £200 annually, which if passed will change the period- ical augmentations in the following manner : The priest will begin with £90 as before, but after only three years' service will receive an increase to £100, after six years to £1 10, after nine years to £125, after twelve to £140, after fifteen to £155, after eighteen to £170, after twenty-one to £185, and after twenty-four years to £200. The Government had proposed to make the maximum £225, but the bishops considered the higher sum would lead to the disappearance of the simple mode of life among the priests. The Prussian Government grants £175,000 yearly to the Catholic Church to assist in payment of stipends. There are many liberal Catholics in Germany who regard Romanism and Catholicism as two entirely different things. Among these are some of the University pro- r iu^r fessors, who have lost the confidence of the Latnolics. -rr • 1 • • • 1 • Vatican because they persist in pursuing their studies and teachings in an unrestrained and unprejudiced way. They are often disciplined by Rome for expressing \^iO|thodo^ views, which tend towards adapting Catholicism 102 Germany of the Germans to modem ideas. The Government, whose officials the professors are, has in many cases, especially in Bavaria, had to give way to the pressure of the Church and remove these liberal-minded heretical professors from their chairs, as the hierarchy forbade Catholic students to attend their lectures. Notwithstanding these set-backs, the liberal movement appears to be making great headway in Germany, where the people are disinclined to dismiss all the teachings of science at the bidding of what they are beginning to regard as a foreign church. The Catholic Church, as well as the Evangelical, has also its struggle against the indifference of the people and their reluctance to attend places of worship, although the formal giving up of Church membership does not occur so often as in the Protestant Church. The Jewish Church has similar rights to those possessed by the Catholic and Protestant Churches in regard to levying _^ Church taxes on Jewish parishioners. The Jewish Church is formally controlled by the State, which, however, never or rarely interferes. The regulations of the Church vary in the different provinces and States, and even in the districts of one province they sometimes differ. Each synagogue is practically self-governing and chooses its own rabbi. In Bavaria, Wiirttemberg and Baden the Jewish Church is regulated by synods. In the schools a strong feeling has recently arisen against the prominent part taken by the clergy in the direction of the children's education. In Saxony the Schools elementary school teachers have gone so far as to demand that religious instruction, or Bible readings, should be given without any sectarian comment. They are strongly supported by most parents in their demand, but the Church authorities offer the sternest opposition to any such proposal. Although in everything else the German law denies any prson under the age of twenty-one the right to make contracts The Battlefield of Creeds 103 or take any important step without the consent of parent or guardian, it gives every child of fourteen the right to decide which religion it shall follow, even against the wishes of the parents. It seems rather anomalous that such an important step, which should be preceded by ripe thought, should be left to the decision of an infant. It would seem preferable to extend the age of confirmation — which, as has been ex- plained, is virtually compulsory in Germany — to the attain- ment of the legal majority, meanwhile carrying out religious instruction during the child's schooldays on absolutely unsectarian lines. CHAPTER XII THE LETTER OF THE LAW The letter of the law is adhered to in Germany perhaps more than in any other country. the^Code ^° ^^^ ^^^ ^^^ equity, unless equity coincides with the law, is the fundamental principle underlying the judgments of all German courts, although considerable power is given to the judge by the Code to exercise his own personal conviction. The first question the judge asks himself is, " What does the Code say ? " For the law — criminal, civil and commercial — has been codified, and crimes and illegalities, with their respective punishments, are laid down in black and white with absolute precision, but giving a maximum and minimum within which the court must limit itself. All judgments must be written, giving the articles of the Code on which they are based, and in every TudSn^nt ^^^^ ^^^ parties have the right to appeal. It must be understood that in all criminal cases the State is a party, for, according to German law, not only does a person by an illegal act injure the person who has been affected by that act, but also at the same time the State itself, and therefore the State, in the person of the representa- tive of the Minister of Justice, appears as complainant, con- ducts the case, and demands punishment of the offence. Only rarely, and then in simple cases of insult and assault, may a private person prosecute alone. The Criminal Code has existed in its main lines since the foundation of the Empire in 1871, although since that year many amendments have been added. Only offences which are included in the Code are regarded as punishable. Offences against the custom of a certain district are not recognised as unlawful. 104 The Letter of the Law 105 The Criminal Code divides offences into three classes. The first of these, which comprises crimes of commission such as violence and fraud, entails penalties ranging Cod*^^ from five years' hard labour in a convict prison to death, and involves trial before a jury. The second includes smaller objective felonies and crimes of omission and involves fines over £1 10s. or imprison- ment up to five years by the judges of a criminal court. The third deals with small misdemeanours, punishable by fine up to £1 10s. or imprisonment for a short .term by a poHce court. There is a large number of courts with differing jurisdictions. Police officers, in the first case, have the right to inflict fines definitely stated in the police orders for certain C i^ minor misdemeanours. The parties in such a case, however, have the right to ask to be sent before the Amtsgericht, or court of first instance. These courts, of which there are 1,944, try petty criminal cases and civil cases involving sums up to £15. They are presided over by a professional judge, who may caU in two lay assessors to assist him. The Schoffengericht (with a bench consisting of three pro- fessional judges and two la5mien, something like grand jury- men) has jurisdiction in criminal cases with power to inflict imprisonment up to three months and in civil cases involving sums up to ;f30. Then follows the Landgericht (a provincial or county court), of which there are 176, composed usually of three judges in civil cases and five in criminal cases, which hears appeals from the Amtsgericht and also possesses original jurisdiction in more important civil and criminal cases and in divorce suits. A further step is the Oberlandgericht (superior provincial court), with seven judges, who hear further appeals and also try serious civil and criminal cases. The Schwurgericht (a court of assizes with three professional judges and a jury) tries cases of felony. 106 Germany of the Germans Above all of these is the Imperial Supreme Court, which tries treason cases, and to which a final appeal in any case may go and whose decision cannot be reversed. In Bavaria, however, there is a Supreme Provincial Court, which possesses virtually the same powers as the Imperial Supreme Court. There are altogether 9,686 judges. According to the latest statistics, which relate to 1907, these sentenced in that year Th T H 530,120 persons for crimes, misdemeanours and all kinds of offences. In every department of justice there has of late years been a remarkable increase of work, so that, despite the large force of judges, there is always considerable delay. This is natu- rally increased by the intervention in nearly all cases of the State as prosecutor. As soon as a criminal case is started, all the documents are placed in the hands of the Crown counsel, who opens an investigation. He has at his disposal aU Counsel ^^^ police and legal authorities of the Empire. On the result of his inquiry depends whether the charge shall be carried into court or allowed to lapse for lack of proof. Should the case go into court, the Crown counsel watches the action until the end, and in most cases calls for judgment, suggesting to the judge the sentence he thinks is called for. It is customary to consider an accused person as guilty until he proves himself innocent, and this gives rise to a great amount of criticism, for it has happened hinocence* frequently that an innocent person has been detained many months on suspicion of an offence which he has not committed. The preliminary inves- tigation of a crime often lasts nine or ten months, and it is a great hardship on the accused to be detained so long if there is no direct proof of his guilt and he himself is not in a position to bring evidence of his innocence. It must be added, however, that in most cases an accused person is set free while awaiting trial, unless the crime is a The Letter of the Law 107 serious one and circumstantial evidence is very strong, or the authorities suspect the accused of the intention of fleeing from justice. Persons without a domicile, those refusing information about themselves, foreigners, and people who are suspected of attempting to destroy evidence or to suborn witnesses are all liable to detention under the Code while awaiting trial. Among advocates there is a very strong feeling against the provisions of the Criminal Code which limit the right of the counsel for an accused person to examine the evidence which is to be brought against the prisoner before he comes into court. Permission for him to do this depends on the decision of the Crown prosecutor, who is of course conducting the case against the accused. The defending barrister is also much hindered in his work by the rule that he may only see his client in the presence of a court official. When an accused person is unable to employ an advocate, one is appointed by the court to assist him in his defence. Counsel for the defence in criminal cases is entitled to a fee of 12s. in the courts of first instance, 20s. in those of second instance, and £1 in the higher courts ; while the court fees in criminal cases involving a fine of from Is. to 20s. or imprisonment from one to ten days amount to 5s., increasing gradually until they attain in a case involving £150 fine or three to ten years' imprisonment, £9. Equality before the law, without regard to social standing, is naturally the foundation of the German as of other codes. In practice, however, it has been found that systematic equality is impossible, and many exceptions are made, so that judgments vary considerably. A wealthy offender, for example, if fined for a misdemeanour at the same rate as a poor man would be for a similar offence, does not in fact suffer so much ; while a man of superior education, sentenced to a strictly laid down term of detention for a crime which he has committed, suffers considerably more than a tramp used to hardships woidd do if committed to prison for a similar 108 Germany of the Germans term for the same offence. In the same way, a prominent public man brought into court for a crime endures a more considerable amount of suffering owing to the publicity of the case than does an unknown criminal. All these individual differences are taken into consideration by the tribunals and, in spite of the outcry among unthinking people for the unwavering application of the ^"c^S^^* same pains and penalties to all, German judges are permitted to grant ameliorating conditions to prisoners when they consider such pro- cedure advisable, and, as a consequence, many cases are decided in camera. This is more especially so when the Minister of Justice is of opinion that public reports of a case would affect injuriously public morals, and for this reason all divorce cases are heard in private and long reports of shameful evidence connected with such cases are unknown. Only the verdict of the court is compulsorily delivered in public. The old-fashioned idea of measuring the severity of the punishment according to the seriousness of the crime appears „ . , to be eradually outliving itself and to be giving Punishments. ,^, ■^, ^ -jx- ht place to more humane considerations. More stress is laid on the individuality of the offender and the causes that led to his crime. It has been proved by lengthy experience among prisoners that a man who has committed a single crime, perhaps a serious one, through thoughtlessness is often turned into a chronic criminal if sentenced to a long term of imprisonment, which seems to embitter him against society instead of bringing about repentance. The terms of the Criminal Code permit the probationary release of well-behaved convicts after they have served three-quarters of their sentences, or at least one year, but this is not a right. They may be forced to serve the whole of their unexpired term if, during their probation, they relapse into crime. Statistics show that of the number released on probation only about 2 per cent, relapse, i The Letter of the Law 109 There is a movement on foot to empower judges to deliver sentences mentioning a minimum and a maximum term, so that if the prisoner shows signs of reform he Minimum and should be released on the expiration of the Maximum . . ^ . • xi r ^ • • • i Sentences. mmimum, but m the case of a chronic criminal he should be detained for the maximum term. The law affecting first offenders, which has been in force since 1895 in every State except Mecklenburg-Strelitz and the two Reusses — even there the rulers have the right to apply it — has been of great benefit. According to the last statistical returns, during the year 1908 no fewer than 28,004 persons profited by a conditional release from serving terms of imprisonment, which in most cases led to an entire release from punishment. In Bavaria conditional release is granted in no less than 64 per cent, of criminal cases, and in Prussia in 31 per cent. Of the persons thus conditionally released over 80 per cent, are never called on to go to prison. One of the great problems in Germany, as in other countries, is how to employ prisoners without injury to free and honest workers. There are on an average 60,000 uSottf able-bodied prisoners in German prisons. In most cases, they are kept in absolute solitary confinement in well-aired, roomy cells, where they work at some trade — carpentry, typesetting, shoemaking, book- binding, tailoring. The name of the prisoner is printed on the inside of the cell-door, with the length of sentence and the date of liberation. On the outside of the door is the prisoner's number and occupation. A prisoner remains absolutely unknown to his fellows. Prisoners earn a certain amount of money by their work, of which they are permitted to spend a portion on extra food. This usually takes the form of butter and dripping, as fat is entirely lacking from the prison food. Letters are permitted to be received and written, under control, at stated intervals. 110 Germany of the Germans The system of solitary confinement has a remarkable effect on the intellect of the prisoner. At the conclusion of his term, if long, everything outside is strange to Confinement ^^"^' ^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^^^^ allowed newspapers and the magazines given him, if he conducts himself properly, are of the dull religious character. School is held and prisoners taught in classes according to their previous knowledge or ignorance. They do not see each other in school or church, where, however, they can all be seen by the teacher or clergyman as they sit in their boxes around a semicircle. Corporal punishment and withdrawal of warm rations are often inflicted for petty offences committed by the convicts. The regulations are most strict, and are carried out by old non-commissioned officers of the Army, who have become warders generally after nine or twelve years' service. The governor is usually a retired officer. Prisons for women, in the opinion of persons who have made a study of the subject, leave much to be desired. Although the principle of solitary confinement is sup- Women s posed to have been adopted, in many of the prisons not sufficient cells are provided to permit of each prisoner being separated from the others, and thus first offenders are often allowed to come into contact with old offenders, to the great danger of transforming the accidental criminal into a confirmed criminal. The procedure in civil cases is very simple and inexpensive, and the Imperial Civil Code, which has been in force in its _. . present form since 1900, is a model of precision. It contains over 2,000 paragraphs, but does not as yet cover every branch of litigation. The simplicity and cheapness are perhaps responsible for the enormous amount of litigation and the consequent over- burdening of the courts, with its accompanying delay. A point which is open to abuse is the facility of appeal, which may be claimed as a right by any litigant, and thus trivial The Letter of the Law 111 cases are often carried from one court to another until one of the litigants is worn out. This is especially unfortunate for the poorer classes, although, according to the Code, a person unable to support the expense of a suit may claim to have an advocate appointed by the Courts to watch his interests. It must be admitted that the courts themselves, in spite of the enormous amount of work they have to do, are seldom responsible for delays in litigation, except Delays in -^^ ^^iq superior tribunals. The chief cause of Litigation. / delay arises from the fact that the advocates practise in all kinds of courts and rarely specialise. They are thus often pleading in one court when another case in which they are engaged in a different court is called. As the parties are compelled to have counsel, and may not plead their own cases in his absence, the judge has to set the case back in the list. The court may refuse adjournment of a case if the opposing counsel is present and raises an objection. Judg- ment is then entered against the absentee ; but this means only that an appeal is entered for a new trial, with the addi- tional expense of a fresh hearing fee. The advocate gains no pecuniary benefit in such an event, the costs being fixed by law. An idea of the extreme moderation of the costs connected with litigation may be gathered from the figures of the court fees. In a civil suit involving an amount not ^Coste*^ exceeding £1, the court fee is only Is. ; if £45 to £60 is in dispute, it amounts to £1 18s. ; for £500 it is £5, and so on, increasing 10s. for every further £100. The advocate is permitted to charge, in a civil suit in a court of first or second instance involving up to £1, the sum of 2s. for entering the action, 2s. for the hearing, 2s. for composition of the dispute out of court, and Is. for securing evidence. Should a composition be brought about, the fee for entering the action is only Is. These fees are slightly higher in the 112 Germany of the Germans superior appeal courts if the action should proceed so far. In a case involving ;f 10 to ;f 15, the fees amount to 10s. for entry, 10s. for the hearing, 10s. for composition, and 5s. for securing evidence, and in a suit involving ;f410 to ;f500, they are £3 4s. for entry, £3 4s. for the hearing, £3 4s. for a composition, and £1 17s. for securing evidence. Then on to £2,500 they rise by 4s. in each stage for every £100. The payment of witnesses in criminal cases for loss of time in attending court is under the control of the Ministry of Justice and is generally regarded as insuffi- CompenStfon. ^^^^^- ^^^^ people, such as shopkeepers, hotel-keepers and commercial men employing assistants or clerks, are not entitled to payment, as it is considered that their business does not suffer by their absence. Even in cases where payment for lost time is granted the amount is very small, in no case exceeding Is. an hour or 10s. a day, but this is given only in extremely rare instances. As to the costs incurred by a witness in order to reach the court, these are estimated on a very low scale, never exceeding about a penny a mile, while a labourer would be given only a halfpenny a mile unless he was compelled to come from a distance of over eight miles. He would also, if he were compelled to remain in attendance a whole day, receive only Is. to pay for his meals. The procedure in the civil courts appears to be somewhat arbitrary. Tangible proof must be brought by both parties as to the truth of their statements. An oath, Pro ^ however, is taken as proof, and for this reason it often happens that a party to a dispute who has no tangible proof of his claim cedes his interest to a third person, who appears as plaintiff or defendant, as the case may be, and the original party is then sworn as a witness, thus establishing what is regarded as legal proof. Appeals, as has been said, are permissible in all cases, and this is the reason for the judgment always being a written one, The Letter of the Law 113 noting all the law points involved. The judge usually informs the parties where and within what time limit the appeal must be entered. In bankruptcy cases, when a man has been declared bank- rupt he can make no further payments from his estate, which is then placed in the hands of the receiver ^^"f *^^ for the benefit of the creditors. Payments that have been made even before the bank- ruptcy has been declared can also bs demanded back by the receiver and thrown into the estate. The period to which the receiver can go back is not defined, but it is designated as the time when the debtor was still solvent. The debtor is often made to swear to the best of his knowledge, supported by as much proof as he can find, when he considered himself to be last solvent. Another point which is very unsatisfactory in the common law is the right of a person to sell his property, as a precaution, to a creditor. Another person may come along and give him further credit and then find to his astonishment that the property which he has regarded as a guarantee for the solidity of his debtor does not belong to him at all. But should it be proved that the property has been sold so as to injure the prospects of other creditors, the sale does not hold good. One remarkable feature of the bankruptcy law consists in the fact that a creditor cannot enter proceedings in bankruptcy against his debtor unless the latter possesses Anomaf'es sufi&cient property to pay the costs of the proceedings or the creditor himself guarantees the costs with a sum of at least {2S. If the creditor cannot, or will not, do this, the proceedings drop and a fraudulent debtor can go on making further debts. What is demanded by commercial and other circles is that proceedings should be permitted to be started without any guarantee as to costs, so that the books of the debtor can be examined and a stop put to any further debt-making. «-(«39i) 114 Germany of the Germans The appointments of judges are made by the head of the State through the Minister of Justice. Every candidate must have studied law for three and a half years, Judges' during eighteen months of which he must have been a student at a university, and have thereafter passed a severe examination. He is then admitted to the courts or into the Attorney-General's department for a further three and a half years' preparatory service as judge, during which time, however, he is not permitted to deliver judgments. Then comes a second and final examination, the passing of which entitles him to the office of judge in any of the States of the Empire. Usually, a newly-appointed judge acts as assistant judge for a considerable time before final appointment to a court. The salaries of the judges, considered from the standpoint of other countries, are strikingly low, ranging from as little as £150 up to only ;f 1,000, which is the amount received by the President of the highest court. Many of the judges in the commercial courts hold honorary positions, and are not possessed of legal education ; but they are always engaged in suits where expert knowledge is neces- sary and they sit with a professional judge. They are appointed for three years on the recommendation of the Chamber of Commerce of the district in which they serve. CHAPTER XIII ABOUT THE POOR The problem of the poor, although in some degree made easier in Germany by the compulsory insurance system, is still a very difficult and costly one. A Costly Poor-houses, such as exist in Great Britain, Problem. i • /^ are unknown m Germany. Outdoor relief with supervision is the principle in general adopted, the underlying idea being that in this way the poor are helped to help themselves without becoming pauperised. In the administration of the Poor Law no insuperable difficulty is found in dealing with the aged, the totally infirm, the sick and the orphans. Support has to be given to them and the public does its duty. The real difficulty begins with the willing healthy unemployed workmen for whom no place is available. Then there are the lazy and weak-minded, but otherwise healthy, people. Finally, come the semi-invalids and bodily weak, whom no one will employ. It has been suggested that the municipalities should start factories in which these classes of the poor should be employed, in the same way as in the country colonies Suggested ^^j. ^-^^ workless. Proposals have been made Remedies. , , , -, , t ■, • t - that the poor should be engaged m makmg paper, ink and pens for the Administration, simple appli- ances for cripples and for the hospitals and lunatic asylums, and toys for the amusement of the orphans in the schools. The poor people would not be boarded or lodged in the factories, and would only be called on to do just what they were capable of doing, and at any time be allowed to go and seek other work if a definite chance was open. The method of caring for the deserving poor in Germany has often been described, but will bear brief recapitulation. 115 116 Germany of the Germans The Elberfeld system of poor relief, which has been widely adopted by the city municipalities and country parishes of Germany, has obtained a world-wide ^^1 ^J^^^^^^ renown. The fundamental ideas of the system are mdividuansation and decentralisation. The municipality or parish is divided into small districts, each of which is again subdivided into divisions. In each district an honorary chairman of guardians is selected, and in each subdivision a poors' visitor or guardian to investigate cases, the subdivisional guardians being under the control of the chairman. The chairman of guardians receives as a rule £\ 5s. monthly in return for the use of a room as district poor office, where the poor must apply at certain hours for relief. The sub-divisions are made so small that each guardian has only two, or at the most four cases of poverty to look after, and, as he is always placed in charge of a district near to his residence, he gets to know personally all the poor people in the vicinity. The committee of guardians meets every fourteen days or month, when the result of the investigations is reported. The chairmen of all the districts meet from ^°^Trdilns.°^ time to time, under the presidency of the mayor or chief official of the municipality or country district, and at this meeting they give their reports and resolve on further action in case it is necessary to place the poor people under their supervision in a public institution. In some cities slight modifications have been introduced into the system, whereby the district committee may, on its own initiative, extend the duration of the assistance given. In some cases, paid officials are appointed to superintend the relief of permanent paupers. The guardian is in all cases empowered to give immediate relief when he finds it necessary, but not for longer than fourteen days. He remains in constant touch with the needy and gives them advice as to where to seek work if unemployed. About the Poor 117 This advice is not offered as a rule in a bureaucratic spirit, but in a kindly, helpful way. Women have hitherto not been permitted to participate largely in the work of poor relief, but a change has recently come about in some districts, and 4,000 Woman's women are now members of guardians' committees. In some cases, such as Berlin, Hamburg and other big cities, it has been found advisable to appoint boards of guardians. The needy have then to apply to the chairman, who appoints one of the guardians to investigate. This system has been found to work well. The guardians, as a rule, pursue their investigations with the utmost tact, and very often the neighbours do not know that a needy family is in receipt of public assistance. The help given to the poor consists in money, food, clothing, free medicines, and on the parish doctor's advice good nourish- ment, while in the case of the unemployed H Id G^ destitute, tools, sewing machines, mangles, or railway fare to places where work is offered are provided. In many instances, the assistance is given in the shape of a loan, and thus those receiving aid avoid the loss of civil rights which is incurred by persons entirely dependent on public support. Sick relief, the admission of a member of a family free of cost into an asylum or other institution, help given to an orphan in learning a trade, and temporary relief in general are not regarded as poor law aid incurring the deprivation of civil rights. In the rural unions a somewhat similar system to that of the cities is adopted. The effort is made to distribute the burden of poverty as widely as possible and not drive the poor into the towns and industrial centres. Each municipality or union must, whether the person affected is domiciled in the locality or not, provide for the deserving needy who apply. 118 Germany of the Germans In addition to the general system of assisting the resident poor, there are also public institutions spread all over the country wherein men wandering from one Poor*"^ place to another in search of work may obtain food and lodging on condition that they fulfil a modest task before continuing on their way. These may, in many respects, be compared to casual wards. The men have to be provided with an official certificate, in which the route is indicated which they are to follow, and this must be stamped at each halting place. When the men, who are usually honest workers looking for employment, are worn out with fruitless wandering, they may apply and be admitted to one of the work colonies in the country districts. There are thirty-four of these colonies, capable of accom- modating 5,000 persons. The original founder of the colonies, ^.r 1 ^ , . which are mostly private enterprises subsi- Work Colonies. j -, , .. c/4- j ^.t, • • ^^4.^ dised by the State and the municipahties, was the Emperor Frederick, when he was Crown Prince. He gave them a considerable endowment, which has, however, proved insufficient for their entire maintenance. Entry is entirely voluntary, and both men and women are eligible. Every applicant must produce his or her last rent receipt, a police registration form, a reference from the last situation and a stamped certificate entitling the holder to wander over the country in search of work. Over 200,000 of the poor unemployed of both sexes have utilised these colonies, but it is found that the skilled artisan objects to give up his trade and settle down to the entirely new occupation of an agricul- tural labourer, although opportunities are offered him to acquire his own piece of land from his own savings out of his earnings in the colony. In some instances, these colonies form entirely new villages and every effort is made to improve the economic condition of the colonists and increase their capacity to earn money. The governors are really foremen, who teach the colonists various kinds of agricultural work. About the Poor 119 The average duration of the colonists' stay is three months. An inmate who shirks the work is promptly ejected and handed over to the police as a vagabond. Anyone who is weak and unfit for hard work is given light tasks and may stay as long as he or she cares to. Before the institution of these colonies the houses of correction for tramps and vagrants contained over 30,000 tramps. Now their inmates number only 5,000 in the whole Empire, of whom 1,400 are in the vicinity of Berlin. Some of the houses of correction have consequently recently been closed. Night shelters are also provided in several large towns, many of them being the result of the efforts of private societies. There the users do not need to legitimise them- Sh^u^* selves. Everyone is welcome and receives a bath, has his clothing disinfected and may sleep and take a free breakfast before leaving. In the municipal night shelters in BerUn, where 4,000 homeless men take refuge every night in winter, the system has recently been introduced of enforcing inmates to do two or three hours' work in return for their lodging and bowl of soup with bread. This has had the effect of driving large numbers of confirmed tramps to seek other refuges either in private night shelters or wherever they can find a place to creep into. Despite this the Berlin municipal night shelters, during the last financial year, from April 1, 1908, to March 31, 1909, admitted 866,300 persons, or an average right through the year of 2,373 homeless people nightly. Orphans and foundlings are well looked after, both the system of institution and distribution among families being in vogue. The latter is more general, a small amount being paid by the authorities for their keep. The persons in charge are kept under control, so that the children are not ill-treated or exploited, women taking a great part in the control. The group, or family, system has also been adopted — a workman and his wife being given a free house in the country on condition that they bring up from 6-12 orphans, the boys 120 Germany of the Germans to learn the man's trade, the girls household work. A small amount per head is also paid. This has the advantage of giving the children the benefit of family life. Among other institutions for the assistance of the poor are the popular kitchens, where food is provided to both children and grown-ups. Where the latter can pay, Ktchens ^^^^ ^^^ asked for a small sum. Tramway workers, scavengers and other labourers may often be seen taking a meal in these kitchens. They are under the control of private societies, in the same way as the breakfasts to hungry school children, but the municipalities subsidize them. Poors' doctors are appointed in most districts. They are given a small salary by the municipality on condition that they set aside certain hours when poor sick people may visit them. They have also to visit the poor in their houses when necessary. In country districts several parishes join together and pay for one doctor between them. Accident stations exist in every town, where first help is rendered to victims of accidents, who are then taken to hospital or sent home. Dispensaries for the poor are also erected at the municipal expense. In university cities these serve as instructional centres for students. ^^^^HosptSs^'"'^ ^^^ hospitals are all controlled by the municipalities, and a charge, which is graduated according to the circumstances of the individual patient, is made for attendance. Poor persons unable to pay are admitted and receive medicine and surgical attendance at the charge of the municipality. Any person, however, is entitled to admittance to the hospital of the district in which he resides on payment of a minimum sum of 3s. per day, which includes medical attention, board and lodging. ! 2286 people on an average are in the Berlin hospitals at the city's expense. The number of beds available is over 3,000. The yearly cost to the city is £56,600. About the Poor 121 Whereas formerly natives of one German State when resident in another were considered for the purposes of the Poor Law as foreigners and immediately ^Dorrddle°^ expelled on becoming paupers, the law now says that every German, from whatever State of the Empire he comes, must be considered a native wherever he is in the Empire and be given assistance, which must aften\^ards be recovered from the authorities of his fixed domicile. Germany suffers just as other lands do in having most of the poor in great cities and industrial centres, many of them drawn thither by the indiscriminate charity of well-meaning but foolish people. Professional paupers certainly exist, but they are restricted to a very small class by means of the excellent regulation compelling private charitable institutions to ^pluperl!^ submit all applications for assistance to the central body having charge of the distribu- tion of official poor rehef in each district. An applicant for assistance who endeavours to obtain pecuniary or other aid from a number of institutions in the same district is soon found out and, as his or her name is also communicated to other districts by the authorities, it is very rare that he or she succeeds in hving systematically on the gifts of well-disposed people. Of course, the most ingenious of these pests of modem society manage by confining their operations to private persons, instead of applying to societies, to prey for a length of time on charity, but they are usually found out in the long run. The race of " nevers," who will not work without compul- sion, receives little encouragement. Woe be to them if they _ ,, fall into the hands of the authorities, for they are first punished by a term of imprisonment and then relegated to the houses of correction, or work houses, as they are called in Germany, and detained for a period of two to five years. The regime in these " work houses " is 122 Germany of the Germans very strict. They are virtually prisons, as the inmates may not take their discharge. Even when allowed to leave after a long term of detention, they may be sent back to their place of domicile and forbidden to leave under pain of relegation. Professional beggars, drunkards and prostitutes, as well as persons who, owing to vice, place those dependent on them in such a position as to become a burden to the community, are all liable to this form of detention. In some cases, the deserving poor and homeless are admitted, but are under no compulsion to remain if they receive an offer of employment. Foreigners who become destitute are expelled from the country. It must be confessed that the accommodation and nourish- ment in both workers* colonies and work houses is very poor, and a movement is proceeding to introduce improvements in these respects. Complete statistics dealing with the entire outlay for poor relief throughout Germany have not been issued for twenty Th c t years. The labour of compiling the returns from the great rural districts is enormous, and the central department is overburdened with so much administrative work that officials cannot be spared for the task. A fairly accurate official estimate of the outlay on the poor, the sick and the orphans in urban and rural districts containing over 10,000 inhabitants in the course of the year 1905 showed that ;f7,535,505 had been disbursed for these purposes. This total leaves entirely out of account the many hundreds of districts comprising fewer than 10,000 inhabitants. Figures for 1907 are, however, available for the forty-one cities containing over 100,000 inhabitants. The following table gives a clear view of the cost involved. CY ^^ some cases, remarks are made in the last column indicating that the returns do not include all the outlay : About the Poor 123 City Population 1907 Expenditure on Poor in c Expenditure per head of Popula- tion In Shillings s. d. Berlin . . . 2.096.300 674.419 6 5i Excluding hospitals Hamburg . , 844.480 317,846 7 6i Miinchen 552.000 129.002 4 8i Dresden . . 531.000 134.712 5 1 Leipzig . . . 518.700 187.338 7 2i Breslau . . . 486,000 84.788 3 6 Excluding cost of medicine Koln . . . 450,890 72.573 3 2i Excluding hospitals Frankfurt a. M. 350,300 115.789 6 7i Niimberg . . 307,700 53,307 3 5i Orphan asylums AYolnrlArl Chemnitz . 263.000 41.693 3 2 CA.dUUCvl Dusseldorf . . 262,300 74.789 5 8i Stuttgart . . 261,060 74,133 5 8i Hanover 257,750 55,738 4 4 Charlottenburg 257,300 75,508 5 lOi Magdeburg 245,340 55.902 4 7 Excluding hospitals Essen a. Ruhr . 244.680 44,982 3 8i Stettin . . . 232,830 41.831 3 7i f> t» Konigsberg 230,610 53.271 4 7i Bremen 223,520 62.534 5 7i Duisburg . 207,460 35,494 3 5 Dortmund . 192,580 32,837 3 5 Rixdorf . . 186.960 14,509 2 1 Halle . . . 175,870 36,383 4 If Kiel . . . 173,460 53,886 6 2i Mannheim . 173,270 45,975 5 4 Strassburg . 172,880 26,958 3 U Incomplete Altona . . . 171.890 38.316 4 8 Elberfeld . . 166.520 40.123 4 9f Danzig . 165.160 59,959 7 3i Barmen 159,100 26,873 3 4f Schoneberg 155,970 18,779 2 5 Gelsenkirchen . 154,430 16,697 2 2 Aachen . . 152,210 45,120 5 lU Cassel . . . 148,740 26,767 2 11 Posen . . . 146.020 32,563 4 5i Braunschweig . 138,620 25,754 3 8f Bochum . . 127,900 19,363 3 Karlsruhe . 122.110 15,558 2 6t Krefeld . . . 114,040 24.077 4 2f Wiesbaden . 104,510 19,221 3 8 Erfurt . . . 102.840 15,569 3 Hospital excluded 124 Germany of the Germans In the city of Berlin in January, 1909, 34,219 persons received poor relief. Besides these, grants were made to . _ J. widowed mothers in 12,414 cases for the sup- port of their children. 9,445 other persons received special temporary aid. 2,179 persons were arrested for begging. 115, 199 persons sought shelter in public shelters, while private shelters received 23,862. Of all these homeless only 853 were handed over to the police as confirmed vagrants, as they had made use of the shelters more than from 3-5 nights, which is the maximum permitted. Almshouses for the old people unable to care for themselves are provided in the suburbs, and they live there instead of taking outdoor relief. The almshouse connected with the Berlin municipality is situated at Buch, a delightfully healthy suburb. There accommodation is provided for 1,500 old people of both sexes. Near by are situated other municipal institutions, including an asylum for the insane with 1,800 beds, and a sanatorium for consumptives with 150 beds. The principles of the operation of the German poor law may be summed up as follows : 1. Very poor districts are carefully watched PrincipkT ^^^ ^^^ State comes to their assistance in case of necessity. 2. Poor law officials, most of whom are voluntary, are, with the resources placed at their disposal, kept under close control. 3. The arrangement by law of the right to settle in a district, thus preventing the flow of the poor towards any one point. 4. Official superintendence of private charities. 5. Organisation of a system of loan institutions, which, by advancing monetary assistance to those struggling against their downfall, help the poor to re-establish themselves in independent positions and at the same time protect them against usurers. CHAPTER XIV A GENERATION AHEAD IN INSURANCE If the system of compulsory insurance under State control by working men to provide against sickness, accident, infirm- ity and old age is the correct method, then tt?e°^Worid Germany is a quarter of a century in advance of all other nations in the world in this respect. Until now the system adopted, and being rapidly extended to include other classes of the population, has proved of enormous benefit in doing away with the hopeless poverty that at one time existed as widely in Germany as in other countries. The necessity for a system of compulsory workmen's insurance, to which employers also are forced to contribute, arose with the disappearance of the old class N cessar °^ independent workmen through the intro- duction of the factory system controlled by capitalists. Formerly every skilled journeyman had the prospect of becoming a master and undertaking work on his own account. Since the invention of machinery these condi- tions have changed to such an extent that only an infinites- imal proportion of workers can possibly, owing to lack of capital, ever become anything beyond employees throughout their lives. It has been found that when a worker becomes incapacitated for further labour, he is practically thrown on his own resources, or on to public charity, as the factories in very few cases make voluntary provision for their decayed workmen, while the workmen themselves are in most cases either unable to say^ 125 126 Germany of the Germans sufficient to provide for their needs during sickness and infirmity, or else through thrifUessness neglect to do so. The workmen themselves recognised their shortcomings in this regard, and welcomed the proposal to introduce the scheme of sick insurance, which has proved W*rT^ ^^^^ ^ success in Germany that many other countries are copying it. The infirmity and old-age insurance met with considerable disapproval at first, owing to the fact that workers, who are compelled to pay subscriptions from the age of sixteen, regarded it as very unlikely that they would ever reach the age of seventy, when the old-age pension is given them. However, since it has been found that the old-age clause is merely a set term when every insured person may uncon- ditionally claim a pension, whether disabled or not, while the vast majority, on account of infirmity, enter into the enjoyment of the pension at a much earlier age, the prejudice has died out. As a matter of fact, the number of infirmity pensioners (that is, pensioners who are granted pensions before the age limit of seventy is attained) from January 1st, pl^iSeTs. ^^^' ^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^' ^^^' reached 1,659,234, of whom 871,303 are still drawing their pensions. On the other hand, the number of purely old-age pensions granted in the same period was only 473,370, of which 107,064 are still in force. There is another clause of the law under which temporary infirmity pensions are granted. This has only been in force since January 1st, 1900, but from that date until March 31st, 1909, no fewer than 93,382 people have benefited by it, of whom 18,763 are still receiving their pensions. Grants were also made in 1,848,878 cases to women who had paid their dues regularly up till their marriage, and 409,789 grants to widows and children of insured men deceased before they had claimed a pension. A Generation Ahead in Insurance 127 Over £66,000,000 has been distributed in infirmity and old- age pensions since 1891. Of this amount £42,000,000 has been collected in weekly subscriptions from Evolved"' employers and employed, and £24,000,000 granted from Imperial funds. At the last return the number of persons insured under the infirmity and old-age pension law was given in round figures at 14,400,000, and the total sum in the hands of the administration was £70,205,000. This enormous amount has been raised by means of very small subscriptions, the insurable persons being divided into five classes : (1) those earning wages up to £17 10s. yearly ; (2) from £17 10s. to £27 10s. ; (3) from £27 10s. to £42 10s. ; (4) from £42 10s. to £57 10s. ; and (5) those earning more than £57 10s. annually. The weekly subscription hitherto payable by these classes respectively has amounted to Ifd., 2Jd., 3d., SJd., and 4Jd., of which the worker pays half and the employer half. The employer is responsible for the payments and usually deducts the subscription from his employee's wages. Workmen may pay into a higher class and thus have the right to a better pension. This causes some slight difficulty, owing to the employer having to pay half of the subscription ; but he must not refuse to do so, therefore the law permits him to stop the increased amount out of the insured person's wages. On April 1st, 1910, an extension of the infirmity and old- age insurance law is, it is hoped, to go into effect, providing for widows and children of deceased pen- the" Law sioners, who have hitherto been deprived of support on the pensioner's death. This is to be effected by increasing the weekly subscriptions of the five classes to 2d., 3d., 3}d., 4Jd., and 5}d. respectively. The widow of a pensioner will thereafter receive a pension equal to three-tenths of that of her late husband, with allow- ances for children and an annual addition from State funds amounting to £2 10s. for the widow and £1 5s. for each child. The ininimum infirmity pension, to be entitled to which at 128 Germany of the Germans any age an insured person must have paid subscriptions for at least 200 weeks, amounts, according to the class, to ;f3 annually in Class I ; £3 10s. in Class II ; £4 in Class III ; £4 10s. in Class IV ; £5 in Class V. To each of these pensions is added annually £2 10s., which comes from the Imperial funds, so that the minimum of Class I reaches £5 10s. ; Class II, £6 ; Class III, £6 10s. ; Class IV, £7 ; and Class V, £1 10s. Additions are, however, made, which increase in amount according to the number of weeks the insured person has paid his subscriptions. The average pension works out at £8 Is. 8d. annually. It can, however, attain to £22 10s. in the case of a person who has paid in to Class V for fifty years. Persons who are not compelled by law to insure themselves against infirmity and old age may voluntarily pay subscrip- tions to whichever class they choose, but ^ Clause^^^ these persons must have paid in for at least 500 weeks before becoming entitled to claim an infirmity pension. The amounts of the infirmity pensions obtainable by pensioners, their widows and orphans, of all classes under the new regulations about to go into force are set out clearly in the table on page 129. The authorities may decline to grant an infirmity pension to a claimant who, in their opinion, supported by that of _ medical experts, has himself brought about the infirmity. In such a case, part or whole of the pension may be awarded to the man's family. In instances in which the medical experts are of opinion that a claimant, by means of proper treatment, can be pre- vented from becoming a permanent invalid, power is given them to send him to an invalids' home, where every effort to effect a cure is made. Many absolutely infirm pensioners who have no one to care for them are also sent into these institutions instead of receiving the money. There are seven- teen of these homes for chronic invalids in existence, containing nearly 3,000 beds, and more are being constructed. The / ( 9. 5 J. H 6 1 1 1* irt'a 1 1 1 6 1 '^ J 1 o M •o 1 ! "1 a ^ u % « *s .1 s 1 6 >« 2 "1 9 1 B u M 3 v;§ o 1- 111 1 « 6«S| ki ii •^cs:^ C3 '^ Cl, § •a g JS "3 o a- § m 3 CO cu (9 "2 § 11 a < P 9 c z>* 1 171.00 175.20 179.40 183.00 187.20 So $88 t>.* CO* •* to 1 a Tf* t>.* ^ in Oi* Tf T}< 1/5 lO 1/5 §8§8§ o"r>.*irr«N*o" U5 U5 CO t^ X ooooo '* o_^." co" iC* -«*• CO* CvJCO -* lOCO O X CO CO o (N* CN* '** in* t>." CO '.* CO* 05* 05 oo r-^ ^ CO "xf o c^ -^ In Wages Class V 98.40 49,20 78.00 107.40 116.40 58,20 88,80 119,40 134,40 67.20 99,00 131.40 152,40 76,20 109,80 143,40 170,40 85.20 120.00 155.40 8§5?§ ^ CO CO* X* -^ CO* '■' CO CO CO i> t^ V) C/1 In Wages Class II 80,40 40.20 67.80 89,40 45,00 73.20 98.40 49.20 78.00 107.40 54.00 83,40 116.40 58,20 88.80 In Wages Class III 86.40 43.20 71.40 98,40 49,20 78,00 110,40 55.20 85.20 122.40 61.20 92,40 134.40 67.20 99.00 8$?88 >;^*gS88 In Wages Cla 72,60 36,60 77.40 39.00 81.60 40.80 86,40 43,20 90.60 45,60 In Wages Claj 92,40 46.20 107.40 54.00 122.40 61.20 137.40 69,00 152.40 76.20 ooooo ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ u:ro"io"o"irr c c^ X 150.00 180,00 210,00 240,00 270.00 0*0*0*0*0* o" o* o" o o" 210.00 270.00 330.00 390.00 450,00 ooooo ooooo §1111 ma mil CO CO CD CO CO C^ CO •* W5 CO S^^S8 S^^S8 S^$Jg8 S8^S8 ooooo ooooo i-i CO CO '* U5 i-> C^ CO '^ lO 9— (2931) 130 Germany of the Germans administrative authorities also subsidise largely many con- valescent homes and consumption hospitals and it is calculated that a very considerable number of infirmity pensions are saved in consequence of the cures thus effected. Various additions have recently been made to the law, whereby the privileges of voluntary State insurance are extended to persons earning higher incomes than those in the compulsory schedule. The old-age pensions, as distinguished from infirmity pensions, need very little description. The same subscription includes both branches. Every insured person Old-Age attaining the age of seventy, even though able to work, is granted the pension to which his class entitles him. The fixed annual sums accorded to the various classes from the pension funds are : Class I, £3 ; Class II, ;f4 10s. ; Class III, £6 ; Class IV, £] 10s. ; and Class V, £Q. To each of these sums is added {2 10s. from Imperial funds, bringing the totals up to IS 10s., £1, £S 10s., ;fl0, and £11 10s. respectively. The only condition is that an insured person must have paid in for 1,200 weeks, but if he has joined after the age of forty then for every year he was older than forty when he joined forty weeks are deducted, so that a man who joins at fifty would only need to have paid in 1,200 less 400 weeks, that is, 800 weeks, and a man joining at sixty would only need to pay in 1,200 less 800 weeks, that is, 400 weeks. Should an insured man die before receiving a pension, his widow and children under fifteen years of age are entitled to receive from the funds in a lump sum the half of the amount that has been paid in. Compulsory sick insurance is imposed (1) on all persons working for wages on a weekly engagement, in shops, or as artisans or in any trade ; (2) in mines, in Compulsory factories, steel and ironworks, on railways, Sick Insurance. . , i . i • j j • canals or m harbours, m shipyards and m buildings ; (3) in the offices of barristers, solicitors and bailiffs, A Generation Ahead in Insurance 131 in benefit societies, co-operative societies and insurance companies ; (4) in works where steam or other power is constantly in use ; (5) in the postal and telegraph services, and in the arsenals of the Army and Navy. Those persons coming under the third head, as well as foremen, managers and technicians, are only liable when their wage does not exceed 6s. 8d. per day or £100 a year. Chemists' assistants and apprentices are not liable, nor are ships' crews, for whom the owners are obhged to provide. Local authorities may extend the compulsion also to persons of all those categories whose engagement is for less than a week, and also to municipal employees, and to the relatives of an independent workman, to home workers, and to agricultural and forest labourers and overseers. New regulations have only recently come into force, extending the compulsory sickness insurance unconditionally to include all the following classes : agricul- A Wide tural workers and foresters, artisans, casual Kange. ... labourers, apprentices, domestics, managers, foremen, technical assistants, shop assistants, chemists' assistants, theatrical employees, private teachers, home workers, sailors, canal boatmen. Assurances of workers against sickness in 1908 numbered 12,942,000, or 81 per cent, of the working men of the Empire earning up to ;£100 a year. The fees paid in by workers and employers, who pay respectively two-thirds and one- third, amounted to nearly £15,600,000, or about £1 4s. per head. No less than £13,500,000 was paid out in sick benefit or for hospital treatment. The number who declared on the funds reached 4,956,388, who were sick altogether 97,148,780 days. The cost of administration was £834,645. The extension to other classes of workers is heartily welcomed by the nation in general. It is calculated that the new ordinance will increase the number of those insured against sickness by over 5,000,000 in the course of 1910, making the total in round figures 18,000,000. 132 Germany of the Germans A change has also been introduced in the payments, whereby employers and employed are to pay equal amounts. There are more than 23,000 compulsory sick funds in the Empire. They are not all of the same kind and the subscrip- tions and benefits vary considerably. Some Paymente and Qf ^^^ funds are organised by the municipal- Unequal, ities, others by rural district boards, by factories, in works, by trade-guilds or by voluntary unions of private persons. These latter unions are composed for the most part of people who are not compelled by the law to insure, but they are recognised by the Imperial authorities as fulfilling the conditions of the compulsory insurance law, and workmen coming under the legal hability are permitted to join them. The employer does not pay any part of the subscription in this case and some instances have been brought to light when employers have taken advantage of the existence of these societies to employ only workmen who belong to them, so that in this way the employers have escaped payment of their part of the cost. The conditions of entry into the varied kinds of sick fund are not always alike. In some instances an entrance fee amounting to six times the weekly subscrip- Conditions of ^^^^ -^ jj^posed on new members, unless Memoersnip. \ i r , • , transferred from another fund ; m others a probation is required before a new member is entitled to draw sick pay ; while there are also some societies which demand a medical certificate proving that the candidate is in good health. The cost of management, too, is very unequal, as some of the funds comprise only as few as fifty members, while others have over 100,000. In the new regulations an effort has been made to equalise conditions by enforcing a rule that no fund may be started with less than 500 members. The subscription to a municipal or rural district sick fund (whose members are mostly workers employed in shops or factories where less than five hands are engaged) is usually A Generation Ahead in Insurance 133 reckoned at the rate of 1 J to 2 per cent, of the ordinary work- man's wage of the district. Since January 1st, 1910, workman and employer each pays half of the subscription, viz., from 2Jd. to 3d. each per week, where the man's wage is 24s. weekly, and so on in proportion. The other funds usually charge higher subscriptions, ranging from 2 per cent, to as much as 4 per cent, of the ordinary workman's wage of the district. Thus, at the Regulations ^^wer rate a workman earning 24s. weekly pays 3d. and his employer 3d. weekly, while at the higher rate they each pay 6d. weekly. In aU cases the employer is responsible for seeing that his workmen pay their dues, and usually he deducts the sum weekly from their wages and gums the requisite stamps on the membership card. The stamps are issued by the postal and insurance authorities. Should the subscriptions, reckoned at 4 per cent, of the ordinary workman's wages, not be sufficient for the adminis- tration of the fund, a levy may be made on the employers of the district, but nothing further may be demanded of the workmen. The assistance to which an insured person is entitled during sickness consists of weekly monetary payments for six months, amounting to half of the usual workman's pay Sick Pay ^^ *^^ district, when this does not exceed 4s. per day. Medical attendance is provided, also free medicines, eye-glasses, trusses and other simple apparatus. An insured person may also be sent to the hospital by the fund, which pays the necessary cost of attendance there, but deducts part of it from the sum due to the insured man. The remainder of the money is handed to his family. Working women who are insured are entitled to sick pay for six to eight weeks during childbed, if they have belonged to the fund for the twelve months immediately preceding. This, however, does not apply in the case of municipal or rural district funds. Funeral money is also paid on ^ member's death. TUis 134 Germany of the Germans amounts to twenty days' full working pay at the ruling rate of the district, but is not paid by municipal funds. In Karlsruhe since July 1st, 1909, there exists a motherhood insurance office for the benefit of working men's wives who do not go out to work and are not compelled to insure. The women pay 6d. monthly and are entitled to receive after a minimum of a year's membership a sum of 20s. to 40s. at the period of their confinement. The amount is regulated according to length of membership. As the subscriptions are estimated not to be high enough to cover the outlay, the municipal authorities give a subsidy. The most extensive form of insurance is that against work- men's accidents. For this the employers bear the entire cost. They are formed into trade associations Accident ^^^ ^j^-g p^j-pose and each trade provides for its own casualties. Workers to the number of 20,207,438 were insured against accidents at the end of 1908. Of these in the course of the year 905,473 received compensation for injuries, while 80,508 widows, 103,473 children and grandchildren, and 4,095 other dependent relatives of men killed received compensation. 14,772 wives, 32,683 children and grandchildren, and 260 dependent relatives of the assured received grants while their breadwinners were in hospital. The method of compensation is laid down very clearly. A workman or woman who has suffered from an accident first goes on to the ordinary sick fund for Method of twenty-six weeks, and receives during this period sick pay amounting to two-thirds of the wages, besides attendance. Thereafter, two-thirds of the regular wages he or she has been receiving must be paid by the employer during total disablement, or in case of partial disablement a proportion of the regular wages sufficient to make up for the amount the person is unable to earn. In ca§e of death through accident of an insured prson the - OF THE \ UNIVERSITY / OF A Generation Ahead in Insurance 135 employer is compelled to defray all costs of burial and to pay a pension to his dependents. The Government has recently introduced new regulations which will tend to take a considerable amount of the work of arbitration in disputes off the central office in Berlin. About 800 district insurance offices are to be established, over which higher offices, numbering 125, will be formed to act as appeal courts, all to be superintended by the chief office. In all of these assessors representing in equal proportions employers and employed are to be engaged in the settlement of disputes. That the State should control every branch of insurance is argued on many sides. It is pointed out that the taxes paid for Army and Navy, for the administra- Compulsory Fire ^ion of justice, for police, for sanitation, etc., Insurance also n j- ^ • • \Tru j. Suggested. ^^^ ^^ direct msurance premmms. Why not then place fire insurance also in the hands of the State ? The poor people are often the greatest sufferers by fire, for in many instances a fire which starts in an insured factory or works spreads to the surrounding uninsured poor people's dwellings, and where are they to look for reimburse- ment of the damage ? They must generally bear the whole brunt unless a charitable subscription is started for their benefit. It is pointed out that the insurance could be carried out so much cheaper by the State than by private competitive companies, as the State would not need to spend 50 percent., or at any rate the large sum now spent, on advertising, agents, dupHcate officials and printing, and other things that run away with much of the money paid by the insured for premiums. CHAPTER XV THE PROBLEM OF THE UNEMPLOYED Hitherto fear of the stupendousness of the task has kept the Imperial authorities from drawing up a scheme of insurance against unemployment, although it is gener- ^ ^T^k^'''^ ^^y recognised that the subject is of the greatest importance and must eventually be dealt with as a corollary to infirmity, old age, accident and sickness insurance. A move in this direction has been under contemplation for some time, as may be gathered from the fact that in the great towns the authorities undertake from time to time a census of the unemployed, their trades, etc. In this way an idea of the average number unemployed is being attained, which is necessary if any scheme of insurance against unemployment is to be started with hope of success. Periods when the workers suffer from unemployment are just as unavoidable as they are disagreeable under the preva- lent conditions in the great industrial centres prosperity people are attracted to these centres by the high wages offered and then, when a time of trade depression sets in, they are usually unable, owing to lack of funds, to leave and proceed elsewhere. The danger of repeated periods of slackness and unemploy- ment increases with the commercial growth of a nation. The people devote themselves more and more to industries and neglect agriculture, with the result that, when a period of industrial depression arrives, many people who have been thriftless suffer, not only because of their want of means, but because of their inability to turn to other kinds of labour. Under present conditions, loss of employment may occur to anybody, although as a matter of fact some workers rarely suffer from such an experience. 136 The Problem of the Unemployed 137 In most cases the unskilled labourers are the first to suffer from depression in trade. Even under the best of conditions they do not earn sufficient to save enough to Suff ?Mo t carry them on until another spell of prosperity sets in. The skiUed worker, on the other hand, gains enough to permit him to provide for a rainy day, although he does not always do so. The workers who would obtain most benefit from insurance are thus the casual labourers, as owing to the uncertain and disconnected nature of their work their contributions would be very irregular and they would make most calls on the benefits. It is, however, principally this class which makes caUs on the poor rates under present conditions, so that if they can only be compelled to contribute to an insurance fund when they are in work, which they now do not do, some good wiU have been effected. Although trades unions have effected much in this direction, the time has come, in the opinion of many leading states- men, when the question of insurance against ^St^ ^n ^^ unemployment must be taken up by the State. The opinions as to the system to be adopted differ widely. In the first place, employers and employed cannot agree as to their respective participation in the pro- vision of the funds. Then the representatives of town and rural districts are divided as to the method to be adopted. Finally, the organised and unorganised workmen are at issue, owing to the fact that the former are more or less provided for by their unions, while the latter are in most cases unpro- tected and at the same time run more risk of being thrown out of employment, because they generally follow unskilled occupations in which work is often of a temporary nature. Governments and other public authorities recognise the great danger of recurring periods of depression, and are in many cases in favour of the principle of intro- ducing a compulsory system of insurance against their consequences. 138 Germany of the Germans That unemployed workers, who have reached the end of their resources, should be compelled to become paupers, relying on public charity, is admitted to ^"^^Niedir^"* be wrong. Why not then, it is argued, en- courage the honest worker to make provision against such a possibihty by introducing a system of com- pulsory thrift, so as to enable him to have in his time of need a source of support to which he can go without shame, as he himself has contributed to its existence. It would seem easy, with all the experience gained from the success of the sickness, old-age, accident and infirmity insurance systems, to work out a scheme to include the unemployed. There is, however, one very serious difficulty to be over- come — namely, the question of deciding whether a man is out of work because he is unwilling to work Diffi ulT^ or unable to find employment. Can a man be said to be unwilling to work because he refuses work outside of his own trade, or because he is un willing to remove to another district where work is offered him ? How can proof be obtained that a man is unemployed by his own fault, when, perhaps, he is really incapable of doing the work of a trade to which he has served a long apprenticeship ? Is a man insured against unemployment to be given out-of-work pay if he loses his berth through drunkenness ? In these cases, should it be decided to refuse him out-of-work pay, is he to be allowed to go on to the poor rates and thus entirely depend upon public support ? In that event it seems as though the ne'er-do-well is being better treated than the honest man. The fear that insurance would have a demorahsing effect on the casual labouring class may be dismissed as in most cases groundless ; but the difficulty of control ^^Fears^^* still remains. Any system must bring with it a certain compulsion to accept work when offered. The question of compelling the employers to The Problem of the Unemployed 139 contribute is much discussed, but it is generally admitted that they should bear part of the cost, as they derive benefit from an overplus of labour which they can utilise when their factories are busy and dispense with when they are slack. The question arises : " What can be done to help these unskilled labourers and thriftless artisans to tide over their time of distress without making them What Can r>annprci ? " be Done ? Paupers ." Perhaps the results attained in some of those cities in Germany where schemes of various kinds of im- employment insurance have been and are being tried will throw some hght on the subject. For instance, in Strassburg, all the twenty-nine trades unions existing in the town have joined the out-of-work scheme inaugurated by the municipality. Their total member- ship consists of 4,872. A small subscription is paid to the city by the trades unions for each member while in work. As a return for this the city undertakes to add 50 per cent, to the out-of-work benefit given by the union to its members, but in no case is more than Is. a day added by the city. At the same time, in connection with the scheme, there is a labour exchange, which puts the insured in communication with vacant places. Only workmen who have been in the city a year and who have lost their work through no fault of their own are entitled to the city out-of- work pay. A strict eye is kept upon the men, so that there is no shirking work when offered. For the unor- ganised workmen the city in winter starts rehef works. The whole insurance scheme in 1908 cost the city only £175. Supplementary pay was given by the municipality to 443 trades unionists, who received between them 4,989 days' benefit. Other smaller municipalities in the vicinity are following Strassburg's lead, and in Schiltigheim, Bischheim and Erlangen similarly successful results have been attained. 140 Germany of the Germans The report of the Q)logne voluntary municipal insurance fund against unemployment (which is run on entirely different lines and which has been in existence twelve ^S^heml^^ years) for the period from April, 1908, until the end of March, 1909, is interesting. During the twelve months the number of insured reached 1,957, of whom 1,435 were skilled and 522 unskilled workers, mostly connected with the building trades. The men in order to benefit by out-of-work pay from the fund must pay in at least thirty-four weekly subscriptions during the twelve months — skilled workers paying SJd. and unskilled labourers 4Jd. a week. For this they are entitled to draw during the three winter months, December, January and February, 2s. a day for twenty days and Is. daily for a further twenty-eight days, but if suitable work is offered them by the central labour exchange they are obliged to take it. Last winter 1,433 went on the fund for altogether 37,971 days, and they received 61,934 M. (;f3,096 14s.) ; 829 per cent, of the members went on. The city gives a subsidy of £1,000 a year. According to the views of the trades unionists, the scheme is not practical, because only men who are virtually certain to be out of work for a certain time in the year take the trouble to join. For several years a private scheme of unemplo)anent insurance has been in operation in Leipzig and the surrounding district, under the auspices and control of EffortsT *^^ municipal authorities. A society has been founded, to which all wage-earners who have lived a year in the city are eligible for membership at a rate of subscription varying according to the trade or calling with its greater or lesser stability of employment. The members are divided into four classes, the first paying 3}d., the second 4}d., the third 6d., and the fourth 7id. weekly subscription. After forty-two weeks* membership any mem- ber falling out of employment is entitled to out-of-work pay amounting to Is. 2Jd. daily for forty-two days in the course of a year. The Problem of the Unemployed 141 Mayence has also tried municipally directed out-of-work relief, with the view of introducing out-of-work insurance. In the winter of 1908 during one month Schemef^ single men out of employ were given 3s. weekly, married men with children of over fourteen years of age, 4s., and married men with children under fourteen years of age, 5s. weekly. The regulations required recipients to have passed their eighteenth birthday, to have lived a year in Mayence, to have been over a fort- night out of work, and until they had lost their places to have been constantly employed since the preceding March. The control was exercised through the trades unions for the organised workers and by the police for the unorganised. Every day that a worker did not register himself 6d. was deducted. The scheme went without a hitch. No attempt at fraud was detected. The municipality estimated the cost of the experiment at £500, but it turned out that only £171 was used. In Diisseldorf the municipality expended in the winter of 1908-1909 no less than £24,926 on out-of-work relief, which Reli f W k ^^^ given in the shape of municipal relief works. The total cost of these was £10,000 more than if they had been executed in normal times at the ordinary labourer's wage. This has forced the municipality to take into consideration the introduction of compulsory unemployment insurance. In Elberfeld, during the winter of 1908-9 the municipality expended £7,477 on relief works for the unemployed, and in every large city in the empire the outlay was in the same proportion. An interesting report on the progress made in out-of-work insurance has been drawn up for the town of Schoneberg, a suburb of Berlin. The report discusses the ^'^ R^port*^'"^ subject in all its bearings, dealing with the various possible ways of preventing unem- plo3mient. In the first place is mentioned the regulation of 142 Germany of the Germans production, which it is proposed to place under the super- vision of the State. Then the arrangement of public works so that they should be carried out, where possible, only in times of industrial depression. Finally, the organisation of registry offices and labour exchanges under the municipal authorities, connected with a central office, so that workers may be easily put into contact with work that is offered, is thoroughly gone into. The primary condition necessary for the unemployed worker who seeks public support is, it is pointed out, proof that he has honestly but unsuccessfully sought employment. His first duty is to seek work, and if the labour exchange affirms that work is unobtainable for him, then he may claim assistance. The labour exchange thus becomes the controlling factor. The support given must stop as soon as the worker finds employment. No scheme has yet been drawn up for the city of Schoneberg, but the municipal council is pursuing its inquiries. The city of Charlottenburg is about to introduce the so- called Bielefeld system of giving work to the deserving and willing unemployed in its own undertakings, R^r Pg ^^f^^^ comprising the collection of dust and waste paper, gardening, etc., and also arranging for private persons to take them into their service for unskilled work. The city authorities pay all sickness, old- age, accident and infirmity insurance fees, and guarantee the workers from two to three shillings a day while in their employ. An important factor in the fight against distress arising from unemployment is the establishment of labour exchanges. Apart from those connected with trades Labour unions and private registry offices, there Exchanges. • ^, /^ i r> • oon i_v i x. are m the whole Empire 389 public labour exchanges, 248 of which are in Prussia, 55 in Bavaria, 11 in Saxony, 15 in Wiirttemberg, 17 in Baden, 10 in Hesse, and The Problem of the Unemployed 143 16 in Alsace-Lorraine, 3 each in Brunswick and Waldeck, 2 each in Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Oldenburg, Saxe-Coburg- Gotha and Hamburg, and 1 each in Liibeck and Lippe. During the last year for which returns are available these exchanges found employment for 932,956 people, of whom 667,441 were men and 265,505 women. Only 61,742 situations were filled in agricultural employ, the remainder being spread over the various trades. Most of the labour exchanges are organised into district unions, which are in constant communication, and through which the supply and demand are equalised. When a work- man is offered work in another district, the railways, which are all in the hands of the State, assist him to get there by allowing him to travel at Id. for five miles. At some of the exchanges registration is entirely free, at others a small fee is charged. The central labour exchange of Berlin, which is subsidised by the city to the extent of £2,750 annually and receives from the Prussian State railways the privi- R uU**^ lege of very cheap railway rates for workers proceeding to other districts to take jobs offered, has been very successful in its efforts to bring the unemployed in touch with employment. In the year 1908 no fewer than 100,000 applicants were placed in the city, and 1 ,669 working men were sent by the exchange to definite work in other districts. During the twelve months 16,686 women, other than domestics, were registered as out of emplo5nnent, and 15,213 inquiries were made by employers for working women. Of the places offered 12,700 were filled through the medium of the exchange. Domestic servants registered to the number of 867, and for these the exchange had 1,184 places at its disposal. The Stuttgart and Munich exchanges each provided places for over 70,000, while Dresden and Diisseldorf were each able to find situations for about 50,000 in the course of the year. 144 Germany of the Germans The scene at one of the labour exchanges is worth description. If a visit is made to the central exchange in Cologne early any morning in winter hundreds of unemployed Dailv Scene "^^^ ^ ^^^^ waiting for the doors to open, for the rule is "First come, first served." Most of the men are unskilled labourers, many of whom have voluntarily joined the unemployment insurance. When no work is offered them at the exchange they receive the daily pay offered from the insurance fund, which is just enough to keep them and their families from starvation. All are cleanly if not well dressed, and one can almost discern from their clothing to what branch of industry they belong. Builders and masons' labourers and navvies, prevented by the pre- vailing frost from working, ironworkers, shopmen, working women — all kinds are there. None need to remain out in the cold when the doors are opened. There are separate waiting-rooms for men and women, with 330 seats, and provided with newspapers. The trades unions each have an office. Wash basins and towels are provided. A jobbing tailor and a snob are on the premises in order to execute repairs at moderate prices for those who desire to improve their appearance. A canteen is provided where milk, bread and fruit are sold at cheap rates. Many veterans* societies also have labour exchanges con- nected with them, and these are much used by soldiers leaving the active army for the reserve. The greatest What the (iifficulty is encountered by them in filling situations in agricultural districts, in conse- quence of men, originally agricultural labourers, after their period of service has expired, showing a great desire to remain in the cities instead of returning to the country. A number of the State Governments have been giving latterly very earnest consideration to the matter of unemployment. The Bavarian Ministry of the Interior has drawn up a The Problem of the Unemployed 145 scheme for municipal insurance against unemplo5mient, which has been submitted to the city councils of all the larger towns for criticism. It is proposed ^^TcUoif*^*^ that all municipal authorities shaU register the skilled and unskilled unorganised unem- ployed and also the skilled unemployed belonging to organ- isations not providing out-of-work benefits. These are, in case the scheme becomes law, to be given monetary support in a ratio dependent on the ability of the municipality to supply the funds. A central labour exchange is also to be opened in each city, and the municipalities are asked to arrange the carrying out of any suggested public works, so that they shall be performed in times of depression. The Ministry of the Interior of Baden has also issued a memorandum on unemployed insurance, in which it proposes the introduction of the system of municipal support of trades unions for skilled workmen who are out of work and of a voluntary system of insurance under the auspices of the city authorities for unskilled labourers. Should the voluntary system not prove efficient in inducing thrift among the unskilled, the Ministry is of opinion that a law should be passed authorising the munici- palities to introduce compulsory insurance, to which all unskilled workmen not belonging to a trades union should be forced to subscribe a certain weekly sum while they are in work. Voluntary giving up of a situation and refusal to take suitable work when offered would bar a man from out- of-work pay. The Ministry rejects the idea of starting relief works, as dear and unsatisfactory. The Prussian Ministry has not taken any official steps towards the introduction of out-of-work insurance, but has ordered that the execution of public works Waitin* in connection with the railways, the roads, etc., shall be restricted to German subjects, unless by special permission, which is only accorded when no German workmen are available. lo— {2391) 146 Germany of the Germans The figures relating to unemployment in various trades in Germany for the year 1908 are in some cases of an almost alarming nature. For instance, the union of State of Various j^etal workers and engineers, which has its headquarters in Stuttgart and comprises 366,052 members, had in the first quarter of 1908 no fewer than 9-2 per cent, of its members on the out-of-work list, in the second quarter the percentage ran to 9-4, in the third to 9"6 and in the last quarter to 11-2. The number of days of out-of-work benefit paid out amounted to 2,673,000. In the stone-masonry and hair-dressing trades the figures were even worse, culminating in the last quarter of 1908 with per- centages of 66' 4 and 53-4 unemployed out of every 100 mem- bers, while in the same quarter the upholsterers and glaziers had 40-9 and 28*0 of every hundred members on the unemployed Hst. With these facts in view, it appears imperative that some steps should be taken by the various States to counteract the widespread distress, and, as the workmen Some Steps -^ nearly all cases object to relief works, considering them as only a form of cloaked charity, the introduction of a scheme of insurance to which workman, employer, municipality and State shall contribute, in proportions to be worked out after full discussion of the subject, seems to be called for, and, in the words of the Baden Minister of Commerce, must come. CHAPTER XVI THE GREAT INDUSTRIAL MOVEMENT Rarely indeed in the history of the world has a nation made such rapid commercial and industrial progress as has the German Empire since its foundation in Rapid igyi JI12 that time split up into smaU Development. /.,, , • , • ■, • .1 fractions, filled with petty jealousies, the nation, soon after its union, began to feel its strength and to seek for outlets for its enormous latent energies. The best thought, the keenest intelligence and the greatest energy of the nation have been and are being concentrated on the advancement of its prosperity, and devoted to the task of raising it to a higher plane. Where formerly the classics occupied the minds of the leading men, at the present moment economics are the leading branch of study. The causes of depression and prosperity among the principal foreign nations, and especially among Germany's trade rivals, are sought, so that mistakes can be remedied and fresh openings for trade secured. Theory and practice are no longer separated, but act in combination in commercial affairs, striving to push the nation forward to the front rank. The industrial system which has been developed by all these efforts, although perhaps not ideal, is Admirable certainly admirable as far as organisation and efficiency are concerned. The result may be seen in the gradual transformation of Germany from an agricultural into an industrial nation. The rural population, which in 1871 amounted to 64 per cent., had decreased in 1907 to 32*7 per cent., and since then has still further declined. 147 148 Germany of the Germans The industrial growth may be measured to a certain extent by the amount of fuel consumed, which increased in round figures from 100,000,000 tons a year in 1895 to considerably over 200,000,000 tons in 1907. The value of taxable property rose from £283,901,316 in 1892 to £510,758,890 in 1906, when the last valuation was made. The increases in the imports and exports are remarkably significant. In 1889, including precious metals, the total of the imports amounted to £220,710,000; ^"Erortr*^ in 1908 it was £415,095,000. The exports in ""^^ ^* 1889 were £178,795,000 ; in 1908 they were £350,980,000. From these figures it can be seen that foreign trade has almost doubled, but the imports have increased in greater ratio than the exports. In the meantime the population during the same years increased from about 49,000,000 to about 63,000,000 at the end of 1908. In examining more closely some of the causes which have brought about German success, it must be recognised that nothing is done haphazard. System and the Causes of ^-^^ ^^ attain their ends are the principal 0IICC6SS factors in their triumphs. Some of their methods may not appeal to other peoples, who regard them as destructive to individuality and personal initiative. The German looks at the nation itself as an individual and the people forming it as mere parts of that individuality, all of which have to be trained to act in unison so that the best result can be attained. Their compulsory schooling is succeeded by virtually compulsory apprenticeship, compulsory manual training in the night schools, compulsory thrift, and compulsory military service — aU tending to mould the people into those parts of the national machine which they are destined to become. Even when the German artisan is at work he is subjected to almost military discipline. The Great Industrial Movement 149 Perhaps one of the reasons why Gennany is able to make so much progress in international trade, especially in machine- made articles, is the fact that German work- ^isd^fne^ men are more amenable to discipline than those of other countries. It must be conceded that in machine work discipline counts for much, and the employers as a result of the universal strict military service have it placed ready to their hand. The German workman, as a general rule, does not possess much initiative. He will do what he is told to do, and do it well ; but beyond that he does not go. Specialisation, under the new conditions brought about by the introduction of machinery, is necessary, and it is carried out to a fine point in Germany. A system of control, too, is practised, in order to get the most out of the workers during their hours of labour. Law compels employers to send their apprentices to the continuation schools and to Sunday and Trade^Qasses ^'^^^i^S classes for young artisans, which are organised by the local authorities. Even the training of business managers is undertaken by some of the technical high schools : for example, that in Dresden, which not only gives the pupils a thorough technical and theoretical knowledge of the trades they desire to follow, but teaches them how to direct the business of a firm, the handling of men, and the making of estimates. The situation of the workman is not so good as in America or England, but is being rapidly improved by the action of the trades unions. Wages have risen and working hours declined to a remark- able extent throughout Germany in the last twenty years. While living has become very much dearer, ^H^o^iLs^'^^ yet the workers are better off than they were. The tendency to improve their position is still marked, and manufacturers who, owing to the low wages formerly prevailing, were able to compete successfully without trouble at a goodly profit with foreigners, even often 150 Germany of the Germans paying freight, now find that the German workman is demanding his dues and getting them, to such an extent that the profits are cut down to a very low figure, and it is only owing to cutting off all waste expenditure and per- fecting methods that they will in the near future be able to compete at all. Printers, miners, metal-workers, stokers, machine-men, wood-workers, glaziers, builders, carpenters, bakers, textile workers and municipal employees have all succeeded in considerably shortening their working hours and have at the same time secured increases of wages. Despite these improvements, the position of many factory workers is not a brilliant one, as may be seen from an interest- ing collection of statistics obtained by the pfeures German Union of Factory Workers, composed of 140,000 members, to each of whom a circular was sent asking for information on these points. The replies received totalled 79,140, of which 73,088 were from men and 6,052 from women workers. Of the total 61,383 worked 54-60 hours per week, 11,183 worked from 60-72 hours and more weekly, and only 6,574 worked less than 54 hours weekly. The average weekly wage of all the men working in factories was 22s. 9d., while that of the women was lis. 6d. Only 530 of the men received more than 35s. a week, and only sixteen of the women more than 20s. weekly. Probably the large number of foreign workmen coming into the country from lands where wages are still lower has retarded the increase of wages in some Wo/kmen industries to a certain extent. The number of foreign workmen employed in the German Empire is in round figures 1,000 000, of whom 600,000 are engaged in industries and 400,000 in agriculture. Of the total 400,000 are Austrians, 270,000 Russians, 150,000 Italians, 100,000 Dutchmen, and the remainder of various nationalities. The Great Industrial Movement 151 The progress of trades unionism was considerably assisted by the introduction of the compulsory insurance laws for workmen, as these enactments relieved the ra es nions. ^^.^^^gg unions of a heavy burden. The position of the German Socialist trades unions and the trade societies of Great Britain may be exactly compared, as they are numerically almost equal. In each country there are about 2,000,000 trades unionists, and the income of the trade societies in each case amounts to about £2,350,000 annually. Their expenditure, however, is on an entirely different footing. The British trades unions paid out in sick and superannuation pay, according to the yearly statistics for 1906, no less than £735,000, while the German trades unions paid out only £190,000 for the same purpose. Death money to the total of only £10,000 was paid by the British unions, whereas the Germans paid out £115,000. Unemployed pay in the British unions totalled £430,000, while the Germans paid out only £180,000. As may be seen from these few figures, the funds of the German unions did not have so many calls made upon them. They were thus able to give a greater amount of pecuniary support to strikers, the total paid out under this head reaching £790,000, against only £160,000 paid out by the British unions for the same purpose. Strikes in Germany tend to increase every year. For the year under review they totalled 3,626 with 349,000 strikers, whereas in Great Britain they numbered only 486 with 158,000 strikers. The exact number of members belonging to the Socialist trades unions at the end of 1908 was 1,831,731, of whom 138,443 were women. There are two other Members important federations of trades unions, which are not of a political character, namely, the Hirsch-Duncker Federation, numbering 105,558 members, and the Christian trades unions, comprising 264,519 members. In direct opposition to the trades unions are the associations 152 Germany of the Germans of employers. There were at the beginning of 1909 no fewer than 127 of these associations with a total membership of 159,304 employers, giving employment to 3,648,679 workers. They are, however, not so well organised as the trades unions, and up till the present they have not formed a central federation. Work-books, once carried by all workers, are now confined to minors and domestics. In them are inscribed the name of the owner, place and date of birth, date ^ook"' ^^ starting and quitting an employ, and nature of the occupation. In the case of minors under sixteen the book also contains the name and domicile of the father or guardian. An employer may not write his opinion of the abilities of the worker or the reason for leaving in the book, either favourable or unfavourable. The workers' welfare is well watched over in the workshops. Factory inspectors are at aU times empowered to visit factories where ten men and over are employed, and in W ?fa?^ trades regarded as unhealthy even where a smaller number of persons are engaged. In many factories, where the work is of a dirty nature, shower baths are provided, together with wardrobes for the men's outdoor clothing, for it is customary in Germany for the workman to change his outer clothing entirely before he starts work. This is one of the reasons why the working men, in whatever trade, present such a clean, neat and weU-to-do appearance in the streets. It is a very rare thing for a worker to be accorded a vacation, with his wages, in a German factory ; but of late years some firms have introduced the system, and there is some likelihood of its spreading throughout the country, as the grant has tended to create more satisfaction with the conditions of labour where it has been introduced. The German workman has been badly off indeed in this respect, for he does not have a Saturday half-holiday. The Great Industrial Movement 1S3 The family life of the working people is on the most modest scale. They are usually contented with their lot in life, and do not share in the hunt after excitement Workers' ^^^ extravagance. Temperate to a remark- able degree, they delight to stay at home and enjoy the company of their wives and children and join with them in simple home amusements. The extraordinary thrift of the working classes, men and women, is shown by the savings banks' returns, which give a total of over 19,000,000 small depositors, who have £642,600,000 to their credit, all of which is guaranteed by the municipalities. Although small incomes are the rule everywhere throughout Germany, there is a considerable number of persons who are in receipt of incomes which may be considered Some Large ^^ placing them in very comfortable positions. Incomes. . ,. , . r ^r^rxr> Accordmg to the mcome-tax returns for 1908, there were in Prussia alone no fewer than 17,957 persons enjoying an annual income of between ;f 1,500 and ;f5,000, a body of 3,796 persons who had over £5,000, 190 with from £25,000 to £50,000, and 77 with more than £50,000 a year. Among the principal industries are those connected with coal, iron and steel. Prmcipal Owing to the immense richness in coal of Industries. ° the Ruhr, the Saar and the Upper Silesian districts, the iron and steel industries of Germany have concentrated there and have made such enormous progress that they now employ over 2,000,000 hands. Three works alone, the Krupp, the Phcenix and the Gelsenkirchen Companies, give employment to over 150,000 people. Coal-mining is a great industry, employing about 1,000,000 workers. The State takes part in it to a considerable extent. Of the total of 143,168,300 tons of coal mined in 1907 throughout Germany the State took out 10,693,000. 154 Germany of the Germans The Government mines in the Saar district employ 51,000 miners and officials, whose families number over 200,000. Forty per cent, of the men possess their own ^M^neT"* cottages ; 31 per cent, live with their parents ; the remainder live in surrounding villages. The mines are models of organisation and are situated in the centre of artificially cultivated forests which belong to the State. In the Rhenish Westphalian coal district, which thirty years ago was almost undeveloped and only provided work for thousands, towns have sprung up, and hundreds of thousands are now employed. Everywhere can be seen slack heaps resembling miniature mountain ranges and flaming chimneys of iron and steel works. The production of pig-iron has increased rapidly since 1900, when 8,521,000 tons were produced. In 1907, 13,046,000 were produced, but this total fell off to 11,814,000 in 1908, owing to the trade crisis which affected the whole world. Machinery construction forms a very important branch of German industry, employing over 600,000 persons. The electrical industry has spread to immense proportions, and the companies connected with it possess vast resources and employ many thousands of men. They fndiwtr*^ are at the present moment formed into three great trusts, which have eliminated the disastrous competition carried on by the host of smaller concerns before the economic crisis that occurred at the beginning of this century. The principal object aimed at by the trade, now that the municipalities have universally adopted the electric-lighting system and the tramways have all been transformed into electric lines, is the electrification of the great main lines of railway, nearly all of which are in the possession of the various States of the Empire. On nimibers of the shorter and secondary hncs electricity Photo by Kessler BARONESS VOX BOHLEX (XEE KRUPP OF The Great Industrial Movement 155 has been introduced and has proved very practical and economical in working. Railway engineers say that the cost of electrification is soon paid for by the diminution of the working force necessary, as the motors do not require so much cleansing, damage to forests by fire is avoided, whereby thousands of pounds yearly are saved, there is no smoke from locomotives to injure crops, a far smaller quantity of coal is necessary to develop the electricity than to run separate steam locomotives, and thus space and buildings are saved. Chemistry, in which over 90,000 persons are employed, has had its home in Germany since the beginning of the Christian era, and the Germans seem to have been ^Trade^ among the first to discover the value of the natural treasures in the shape of mineral and vegetable salts, although owing to the divisions of the nation the chemical industry was not properly developed until later than in England. At the present moment Germany possesses practically a monopoly in the production of potash salts, so useful for fertihsation purposes. Over ;f5,000,000 worth of these salts are utilised annually in Germany in the cultiva- tion of the soil, and enormous quantities are exported. In the manufacture of pharmaceutical preparations and smelling salts also Germany takes a leading part. In the past quarter of a century more discoveries have been made in chemistry than in any other branch of science, and with her natural resources and highly trained chemical specialists Germany promises to keep her lead in this respect. One branch of manufacture, which is entirely new to Germany, has made enormous strides since its introduction. In very recent years Saxony has won a place N w Trad ^^ ^^^ manufacture of tulle which is causing considerable uneasiness in other countries. In the vicinity of Plauen and Chemnitz factories have sprung up like mushrooms. Twenty years ago not a yard of tulle was made in the German Empire. Now 1,100 tulle 156 Germany of the Germans frames turn out £2,000,000 worth annually, and more are being erected. The machines for the industry are also being constructed in the neighbourhood, and it is said that the spools and shuttles, the secret of manufacturing which has hitherto been in English hands, has now been discovered, and that in future the whole trade will be entirely independent. One of the most important glass works in the world is to be found in Jena, where fifty-five tons of optical glasses of all kinds alone are made yearly, and exported Branches ^^^^ ^^^ entire world, including telescopic lenses up to four feet in diameter. Ovfer 1,200 workers are employed. Other great branches of industry are quarrying, employing 317,000 ; the wood-working trades, in which over 200,000 people are engaged ; the clothing trade, employing 220,000 ; and printing, which occupies considerably over 100,000 people, without taking into consideration the bookbinding and other branches connected with it. In the eastern provinces of Germany, progress has not been so rapid as in other districts, owing to the lack of coal and iron, but in spite of this rather unfavourable ^ttie WesT^ position strong efforts are continually being made to establish industries there. The utiHsation of the water power of rivers, with which the east is weU provided, promises to change the aspect of these hitherto almost purely agricultural provinces, which will then be able to participate more freely in the timber trades, in brickmaking, papermaking, and the textile trades. The Emperor gave an impetus to the industrial movement of the east by his speech at the opening of the Danzig Technical High School, when he said : "If the eastern provinces, owing to their position and natural conditions, are less adapted to industrial development than other parts of the Empire, yet technical knowledge will be able to replace in many instances what nature has failed to provide." The Great Industrial Movement 157 Germany shares with England and the United States the honour of the lead in inventiveness. It is, however, notable that very few inventions are brought to the Inv?ntivwi€ss ^^°^* ^^ ^^^ working classes. This is, accord- ing to people who have studied the subject in various countries, to be traced to the fact that the German artisans work longer hours and so have less time to devote to exercising their inventive genius. In technical inventions Germany is well to the front. To take one branch alone, in one year no fewer than 1,500 patents were appHed for in Germany for inventions connected with electricity. It is not only in the systematic organisation of their indus- tries that the Germans have made great progress, but also in the way of bringing their wares to market. The commercial German is among the leaders of his kind. He is more to be thanked for Germany's prosperity than is the industrial, for he has gone all over the '^^^cSmSi^'"'''^ world and sought markets for the goods. He finds no trouble too great when he is seeking openings for trade. He learns the languages, customs, and coinage of the various countries, and by placing his goods before the foreigners in their own language and figures he often secures orders where others fail. Two small examples of the German readiness to meet the wishes of customers : The egg-cups imported into India at one time aU came from Great Britain. The Indian eggs are, however, very small, and the egg-cups did not fit. A German traveller noticed this small item and got his firm to make smaller egg-cups and export them there. AU the trade is now in German hands. In Africa the scissors imported from Sheffield were found to be rather dangerous weapons to place in the hands of the natives owing to their sharp points. The Solingen steel works sent a lot of round-pointed scissors out, which found favour, and now Gennany has captured the whole market. 158 Germany of the Germans The banks may be said to compose the very marrow in the bones of German commerce. Always ready to furnish capital to enterprising manufacturers and for ''svstenr*^ promising speculations, many of the larger institutions retain a staff of experts in elec- tricity, engineering, shipping, railways and other leading branches who report on the prospects of success, and if their reports are satisfactory the bank at once guarantees the necessary monetary aid. There are altogether in Germany 442 banking companies with a total paid-up capital of ;fl84,750,000 and ;f50,000,000 reserves. Six of these are note-issuing banks, 40 mortgage banks, 396 credit banks. It was Frederick the Great who, in the eighteenth century, initiated the system of land credit and mortgage banks, L d c d't ^^^^^ -^^s proved of such enormous value to agriculture, and has practically rooted out the formerly prevalent usury. The operations of each of these banks, which exist only in Germany, Austria and the western provinces of Russia, are confined to a certain district, where it lends money on landed property up to a certain proportion of its officially estimated value. The capital is raised by means of mortgage notes sold to the public, which pass readily from hand to hand in the open market. The banks are co-operative institutions formed by the landowners of the district, who give a general guarantee for the payment of the interest. Another series of these mortgage banks deals with city and industrial property. It was instituted about fifty years ago, and has had an immense and beneficial influ- BanS^^ ence on the development and extension of the cities and in assisting in the spread of industry. At the end of the year 1907 mortgages on land arranged by these institutions amounted to £481,120,000. This figure has since that date greatly increased, and it is now estimated that the mortgages amount to £600,000,000, and other loans The Great Industrial Movement 159 on property to ;f300,000,000. The percentage of interest on mortgages ranges between SJ and 5, the average being about 3' 66 per cent., but it shows, together with the interest on Government loans, an inclination to recede steadily. The agricultural element in Germany takes a very important position in the country. Over 17,500,000 of the population . areengagedincultivating just over 80,000,000 acres of land, which in general is fairly fertile. It produces annually an average of 10,700,000 tons of rye, 3,760,000 of wheat, 3,050,000 of barley, 46,000,000 of potatoes, 7,600.000 of oats, 12,500 of hops, besides hay and other products, and wine is grown to the value of £6,300,000 annually. The breeding of animals for food also gives very extensive occupation to the population. There were over 20,600,000 cattle, 7,700,000 sheep, 22,000,000 pigs, 3,500,000 goats, and 77,000,000 poultry at the last census. Besides these there were 4,300,000 horses. Many of the farmers possess not only a thorough practical knowledge of agriculture, but have also passed through a severe scientific and theoretical course at one of the excellent agricultural high schools. They apply the knowledge thus acquired with very successful results to the cultivation of the land, which is made to produce to its highest capacity. The smaU farmer, who at one time was strongly in favour of the imposition of duties on grain, has of late years somewhat slackened in his belief in the system. He, as ^Tariff °^ a rule, grows very little wheat to sell. It is mostly for his own use, so that the high selling price does not bring him any profit. The big farmers, on the other hand, who grow great quantities of wheat, are enabled, owing to the duty raising prices, to make very good profits on their sales. This leads the big farmers, when prices are high, to buy up neighbouring land, so as to be able to increase their profits, and thus the small farmer is ousted 160 Germany of the Germans from the land, and forced to turn to the towns, a fate which the imposition of the duties was intended to hinder. There exists a large body of opinion among manufacturers and commercial men in favour of a return to free trade, but it is entirely unorganised, and in face of the Ooinion well-disciplined phalanx of landowners stands small chance of a hearing. The exponents of the principle of free trade argue that an enormous increase of exports is necessary to keep pace with the rapid growth of population. Hitherto exports have not accomplished this, and the cause is said by the free traders to be that the protec- tive tariffs imposed by Germany make other countries resort to reprisals with the result that the German products are often shut out. They adduce the argument that in times of great prosperity all over the world the damage to German trade thus caused is not greatly noticed, but whenever a depression sets in she is among the first to suffer. The difference in prices caused by the protective tariff on grain is enormous. Whereas in London white wheat is quoted in round figures at £1 16s. Od. per ton, in Berlin it costs £10 10s. Od. Rye-bread costs in Berlin at the present moment 4d. per kilogram or 2J English pounds, while wheaten bread is unobtainable under 3d. a pound. The tariff laws grant farmers who export cereals certificates permitting them to import similar or other cereals free of duty. For instance, if a farmer exports fifty tons of oats he receives a certificate of the value of £125, which would be the amount of the duty on fifty tons of imported oats. The farmer, however, instead of importing oats, brings in forage-barley, the duty on which is only £32 10s. for fifty tons, so that with his certi- ficate he can import nearly 200 tons of forage-barley, which he can then sell at the high home prices. As coffee and petroleum may also be imported with these certificates, the State loses an enormous amount of duty, which goes into the pockets of the great landowners. The Great Industrial Movement 161 As to the position of the farm labourer, it is often described as being no better than that of a serf in some parts of the country. The stories of mishandling on the -'lb ^r^i" P^^^ employers must be regarded in many , ' cases as exaggerated, but that the farm labourer has not made such progress as his industrial brother seems evident from the figures of an average married agricul- tural labourer's budget for himself and family in East Prussia, which are : Weekly earnings, 9s. Expenditure : 32 lb. rough rye bread, 4s. ; 2 lb. lard. Is. 2id. ; 6 quarts milk, SJd. ; 3 herrings, IJd. ; meat, salt, onions, coffee, wood fuel, petro- leum, soap, 2s. 2Jd., leaving SJd. surplus weekly for clothing, etc. The lodging is free. The average wage of farm labourers is, however, somewhat higher in other districts, amounting generally in summer to lis. 6d. per week, with free lodging and potatoes, while the wife can earn 7s. 3d. a week. In winter the wages of each respectively are 9s. and 5s. 6d. weekly. The co-operative movement has made enormous strides in Germany in recent years. Not only does the movement apply to the co-operative manufacture and supply ' of aU kind of articles, but also to the working of land by small farmers, who join together in the purchase of up-to-date machinery for mutual use. Co-operative supply societies numbered at the end of 1907 no fewer than 51,000, with a total membership of over 8,000,000. II— (2391) CHAPTER XVII MODEL FORESTERS Sentiment and foresight combined have placed Germany in the proud position of serving as a model to all other countries in connection with the preservation and ^^^Jstlm!^""^ cultivation of forest land. Long before any other nation had given a thought to the immense damage that was being done to the soil by denuding it of timber, or to the false economy of using up natural resources without making any provision for future needs, Germany had thoroughly weighed the consequences and adopted a system of reafforestation which is now recognised by technical experts from all over the world to be as nearly perfect as possible. It must be admitted, even by those opposed to what is termed " State Socialism," that the intervention of the Government in this connection has been of undoubted benefit to the nation. The administration and oversight of the forests is wonder- fully efficient, so much so that the Indian Forestry Department engaged German foresters trained in the ^Efficient^^^ technical schools in this country to organise the forest preservation and cultivation in the Indian Empire, and with very satisfactory results. The minute manner in which every detail of forestry is studied is another instance of the thoroughness of Germans when they have once set their minds on a task. The most productive trees, according to the nature of the soil, are selected for plantation, and not a foot of available land is permitted to remain idle for longer than is absolutely necessary. Whenever a clump of trees is felled, a plot of Model Foresters 163 land of equal extent is planted simultaneously to provide for future requirements. It has been found in practice that the oak, the birch, the beech, the pine, the larch and the red and white fir furnish the most profit. The plan of taking care of the forests has not only had the effect of retaining and improving the beauties of the country- side, but has also been very profitable to the ^^pJ'iJSJar'* various Federal Governments of the Empire. During the year 1908, the Federal States made a total net profit of no less than £7,650,000 from their public lands and forests, after all the expenditure had been deducted. This sum really falls directly into the pockets of the taxpayers, who would, if the money had not been earned by the Forestry Departments, have undoubtedly been called upon for still larger increases of taxation than were levied. The forests belonging to the various States, however, do not compose even a half of the forest land in the Empire. There are altogether in Germany 34,734,123 acres of woodland area, distributed fairly equally over all the States, except Schleswig-Holstein, where, however, reaffores- tation is now being undertaken. Of the total 32*9 per cent, belongs to the Governments, 47*5 per cent, to private owners, including the rulers, 1*3 per cent, to the Church, 15' 6 per cent, to various municipalities, and 2*3 per cent, to public corporations. The proportion of the land of the Empire covered with woods is 25*7 per cent., or just over a quarter. Some of the States show a much larger proportion. For Wocfds instance, Meiningen is wooded to the extent of 41*7 per cent., Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt 45-4 per cent., Baden 37-5 per cent., Bavaria 33 per cent., Hesse 31*3 per cent., Wiirttemberg 30' 8 per cent., Alsace- Lorraine 30' 6 per cent., and Saxony, despite its almost entirely industrial character, has 27*7 per cent, of forests. The entire profit in 1908 was estimated at nearly £22,000.000, 164 Germany of the Germans but there is no possibility of getting at the exact figures. It must be understood that the value of the forest lands is constantly increasing. Every acre devoted to forestry is said to produce forty-six cubic feet of timber yearly. The most recent figures for a year's produce give 20,017,896 cubic metres of useful timber, and 17,850,646 cubic metres of firewood. It is not only from the timber produced by the forests that the States reap a profit. Peat is also got in great quantities. Then there are the shooting rents paid by sportsmen, which in Alsace-Lorraine bring in nearly ;f 4,000 a year ; in Baden, ;f2,660 ; in Bavaria, £5,750. As to the number of persons engaged in the work of cultiva- tion and preservation, only the figures for Prussia are available. These show that no fewer than 65,392 people nJ^Soyed ^^^^ employed in the Prussian forests in" 1907, including officials and labourers. Prussia is far from being the most wooded of the States, so that the number of persons employed in this work throughout the Empire must be very large. The upper division of State forestry officials — chief foresters and rangers — consists of men of the highest educational attainments and technical training. They are chosen from pupils of the superior classical, semi-classical and modern schools who have earned a certificate entitling them to enter a university, but they must also display particular brilliance in mathematics before being permitted to enter as candidate for the post of forester. The career, although not a very lucrative one, possesses a sort of sentimental charm for many Germans, who have ever since pre-Roman days been, greatly attached to the forest. One of the conditions imposed on a candidate is that he must procure a written guarantee from his parents or guardians that he shall be furnished with sufficient means to sustain him for at least twelve years after his acceptance into the service at the age of twenty-two years. Model Foresters 165 This formality complied with, the candidate must pass a year in the forest lodge of a chief ranger in order that he may obtain sufficient knowledge of the rudiments TralnirS' ^^ forestry to enable him later to follow intel- ligently the lectures at the technical forestry academy, which he must then attend for at least two years, meanwhile passing his vacations in doing practical forestry work. The two years over, he must proceed to a university for a year to study law before undergoing examination. On the result of this examination depends his appointment as referee, or assistant-surveyor, in which capacity he must serve two years at practical forestry work and then undergo another examination before being appointed assessor. Afterwards it depends on the abilities of the man himself how long he must wait for appointment as chief forester, which may be many years. He in the meantime must content himself with the small fees he can obtain from temporary surveying work. When his final appointment is made his salary as chief forester will mount gradually from £135 to £275 a year, with certain allowances, and the right to shoot game for his own table. The lower ranks of Government foresters are filled by men of good elementary education, who, after serving two years as apprentices under an experienced forester, RankT^^ between the ages of sixteen and eighteen, or attending a two years' course at an ordinary forestry school, of which there are a number spread over the country, must join one of the rifle regiments for a period of three years' active service. They then enter the forestry service as temporary helpers, but are not entitled to be appointed as foresters until they have finished a further period of nine years in the reserve. A number of men, however, by continuing their active service in the Army for another six years, during which they must attain the rank of sergeant- major, are entitled to appointments as foresters immediately after leaving the Army. So many youn§ men have chosen 166 Germany of the Germans forestry for their career that candidates often have to wait twenty years from the time of starting their apprenticeship before receiving permanent appointments as foresters. The question of the influence of forests on the climate of a country has been the subject of much discussion and extensive scientific observation for the past half-century. ^"?"!"ffL°" The result of this has led scientists to the conclusion that wooded lands exercise con- siderable influence in diminishing extreme changes of tempera- ture in the immediately surrounding country, but do not affect climatic conditions over a wide range. The soil of the forest, owing to the protection afforded by the trees, is cooler in summer and warmer in winter than the soil of open land. Scientists in Germany regard the idea as erroneous that the cultivation of trees attracts rain, but they agree that the forest land retains humidity after rain for a longer period than other soil, as the moisture cannot evaporate so quickly owing to the protection afforded from winds and the rays of the sun. The existence of trees also has some effect in breaking the force of the wind. The greatest utility of forests, besides the value of the timber they yield, is in the holding of the soil firmly together and not permitting it to be gradually blown away by winds, as it would be if the land were clear. Altogether, Germans with justice regard their forests as a precious treasure of the nation, indispensable, not only commercially, but for the opportunities they afford for the study of nature. CHAPTER XVIII THE TEMPERANCE MOVEMENT No one would imagine, from surface indications, that Germany was troubled with the difficult problem of how to deal with the curse of alcoholism. Public ii is a most peculiar fact that, although Drunkenness • ^i_ n- ^ .^. ■ j. ■ .- • Rare. ^^ ^"^ t>ig German cities intoxication is remarkable by its almost complete absence Irom the streets and public places, yet the drunkards' institutes in charge of the municipal authorities and private societies are almost always full. Foreigners who have lived for years in Berlin, for instance, will affirm with truth that they have hardly ever seen a drunken man. Yet one has only to visit one of the receiv- ing stations for drunkards in the suburbs and one can there see daily at about midday half a dozen men and women handed over by policemen in uniform who have brought them from police headquarters. Some of them are in a state of complete collapse suffering from alcoholic poisoning, others recovering from a heavy bout of drinking and in various stages of jollity or remorse ; still others are for the time being insane and require force to keep them from injuring themselves or others. In the receiving station they are taken charge of by powerful warders and at once inspected by the physicians. Some of them need careful medical treatment ; others Homes^*' ^^^ ^^^^ ^^P* ^^^^^ ^^^^ h2iVe recovered from the effects of an orgy, while the temporarily insane are placed in thickly-mattressed beds over which is a wooden framework covered with strong webbing through which it is impossible for them to force themselves. This 167 168 Germany of the Germans system is used instead of the old-fashioned strait jacket. The patients are dressed alike in blue and white striped smocks, but those who are nearly cured are distinguished from the others by wearing blue smocks. There are distributed over Germany thirty-one drunkards' homes, with 1,137 beds (1,062 for men and 75 for women). There are also in the lunatic asylums and hospitals many thousands of people under treatment for alcoholism. The Poor Law authorities find it necessary to place over a thousand persons under guardianship in public institutions every year in consequence of their alcoholic tendency being a danger to the community as well as to their famiHes, and this number would be greatly augmented but for the fact that many of the poorer parishes decline to take action against the drunkards for fear they should become a burden to the public funds. In spite of the spread of the temperance movement, official statistics for the Empire show that the number of habitual drunkards is increasing. In the three years Dmnk^rds. ^^^^ ^^^^ *^ ^^^^' *^^^^ ^^^^ ^^'^^ persons under treatment in hospitals and sanatoriums, suffering from alcoholism, while 2,556 more were confined in lunatic asylums. In the three years from 1899 to 1901, these figures had increased to 65,433 and 7,394 respectively, an increase of 500 per cent., while the population had in the meantime augmented by only 33 per cent. The number of cases of heart disease, rheumatism and gout increased in the same period by 600 per cent. The municipal council of Leipzig does not believe in en- forcing abstinence on habitual drunkards, nor has it any faith in punishment by fine or imprisonment. All the cases of chronic alcoholism which come under the notice of its Poor Law department are handed over to the temperance societies, who endeavour to induce the victims to enter a home for drunkards during a certain period. The Municipal Council supports these homes with an annual grant of £150. The authorities find that drunkenness is the cause of most of the A GERMAN TYPE The Temperance Movement 169 poverty in the city. As a rule, if it is proved that a man or woman has brought himself or herself and family to distress through drink, assistance from the public funds is refused unless the drunkard consents to enter a drunkards' home for a time. The Imperial Statistical Department, in its report on the working of the compulsory sick insurance of workmen, points out that in 1905 there were no fewer than Pubr^^°nd 34,375 cases of illness caused by excessive drinking of alcohol ; in 1906 there were 39,226, and in 1907 there were 45,248. Taking the average cost to the insurance funds of a case of sickness, in these three years alcoholism has been responsible for the outlay of ;f3 14,777 in sick pay alone. In these figures the sickness caused by the effects of alcoholism on the nervous and digestive systems is not taken into consideration. The Poor Law authorities calculate the cost to the rate- payers throughout the Empire in connection with cases of poverty caused by alcohoHsm at £2,500,000 annually. The sums spent on alcoholic liquors in Germany are immense, as can be seen from the figures of the Statistical Department, according to which in 1901, the Traffic in latest returns available, no less than iquors. ^112,500,000 was expended on beer, ;f28,000,000 on spirits and liqueurs, and ;f25,000,000 on wines. In the cities the consumption of alcoholic liquors appears to be decreasing, partly as a result of the campaign which has been waged by temperance advocates and hygienists in pointing out the dangers attending excessive spirit-drinking. Most of the newspapers in Germany have assisted this cam- paign by publishing from time to time articles on the subject. Still, one cannot assert that the opportunities for obtaining drink have diminished, for in Berlin, for example, there is a wine, beer or spirit dealer for every 157 inhabitants, including men, women and children. In the country districts during the harvest, when every 170 Germany of the Germans available hand is called in to help, the children working in the fields are often given a glass of spirits to encourage them, as their parents and employers say. Even Country ^^le suckling babies have a lump of sugar Conditions. °. j .• j • • r v dipped m spirits and tied m a piece of hnen given them to suck so as to keep them quiet. It certainly has the desired effect, but also produces other consequences, in inducing epilepsy, nervousness and disturbances of the body and brain. The formation of great dairy companies which coUect the milk from the farms and send it to the cities is said by tem- perance advocates to have had a notably deleterious effect on the inhabitants of the country districts. These people, who formerly made milk one of their principal articles of diet, now sell it for ready money, with which they purchase beer, coffee and cheap spirits, with the result that country children instead of taking milk at their meals drink coffee, and their parents either drink beer or coffee, to which they add a glass of bad spirit. The recruiting officers of the Army have noted in consequence a marked diminution in the stature and strength of the rural recruits, a much larger percentage of whom are now rejected as unfit for service than was formerly the case. A remarkable fact is that the country inns are much less frequented than in former years, when they were the meeting places of the villagers. The reason for this is that the big breweries and distilleries have estabhshed depositories in practically every district, whence beer and spirits are delivered direct into the peasants' houses on the instalment system. Apart from the fact that the workmen's trades unions recommend their members to abstain from alcohol as a means of ameliorating their lot, they also advise Yu*?^*.^"'* abstinence as a method of escaping taxation. Abstention. ^, ^ , , . . , The Gewerkveretn, a trade-unionist newspaper, recently published the following notice, addressed to its readers, in reference to the permit given to wine-growers to The Temperance Movement 171 distil a certain quantity of spirits free of duty : " Beer, spirits, coffee, tea, tobacco, cigars, matches have risen considerably in price owing to the new taxation. The burden is thrown on to the poor in order to protect the rich. We put the question to the German workers, whether they are going to support this poHcy of favours to the rich. Under no circum- stances should they do so. Many persons never take alcoholic liquor of any kind ; but the majority of German workers enjoy their glass of healthy refreshing beer, they Hke an occasional pipe or cigar, and find pleasure in a cup of coffee or tea with their families. They should make up their minds that they will do without spirits. The watchword of the future should be : * Not another drop of fusel.' Spirits must be avoided like the plague. They have already ruined physically and morally millions of mankind. Let the German workman swear never to touch them again. If a comrade weakens in his resolve, let his stronger-willed fellows give him moral support. The workman's wife should be able to do much good in this direction. Two things will thus be attained : the workman will escape the baleful influence of bad spirits and at the same time frustrate the efforts of the rich to exploit his weaknesses ! " The Church authorities, at their meetings, frequently discuss ways and means of combating alcoholism, but, although they recommend pastors and Church officers to In ti^ show by their example the benefits of tem- perate and orderly life, and also recognise the necessity of explaining to children the dangers of intemperance, the Church has hitherto not taken a very active part in the fight against the abuse of drink. The school authorities are fully aware of the dangers arising from the indulgence in alcohoHc liquors by their pupils, and scholars of the elementary schools and the lower classes of the superior schools are forbidden to enter public-houses unless with their parents, under penalty of punishment. It is, of course, impossible to exercise any effective control so as to 172 Germany of the Germans carry out this order, which has consequently become a dead letter. It is now proposed to abolish the threat of punishment and even to rescind the order prohibiting children from enter- ing public-houses alone. In their place it is suggested that the pointing out of the evils of strong drink for children shall form part of the school syllabus, for, it is contended, education on the subject is likely to effect far more good than prohibitions. The German Society against the Misuse of Spirituous Liquors has been in existence since 1883. It does not impose absolute abstention upon its members, but Soc'eSs*^*^ endeavours by personal example, by advice to school children, and by lectures and publica- tions, to combat the evil of excessive drinking. The State and municipal authorities at first regarded the influence of the society as against the public interest, but at the present time its services are recognised in every way. The society erects smaU booths in open spaces and opens shops for the sale of milk in busy streets, and in this way offers a substitute for the temptations of the beer and spirit shops. The Good Templars, who are of course absolute abstainers, pay more attention to individual cases of alcoholism, and have helped many families to save themselves from threatened ruin by taking charge of chronic drunkards. The Good Templars were the first to take up the total abstinence movement in Germany, where they founded a lodge in 1851. Many other temperance societies have, however, since been formed. Pastors, students, teachers, schools, women, railway men, church members, doctors, commercial men, artisans, all have their own societies, and there is also the Blue Cross Society. According to the latest returns, the membership of all these societies does not exceed 50,000. Germans, as a rule, do not pin their faith to absolute absti- nence. They found their view on the statements of prominent professors, who, while recommending moderation, do not think total abstinence is necessary. The Temperance Movement 173 In the course of an extended inquiry into the causes of alcoholism, it has been proved that when the working man's home accommodation is bad he always has ^^Scoholism/^ ^^^^ inclination to seek more cheerful surroundings, which he generally finds in the public-house. Thus, the ill-paid single workman or shop assistant, compelled to seek lodgings near his work, is often driven, perhaps against his own desire, to the public-house, I because he in many cases finds no attraction in his miserable room. It must be said that of late years, in most German cities, the newly-built houses in the working-class districts are airy and spacious, with every hygienic convenience, and it is found that the greater the space allowed in the lodging the lower the outlay of the working-class family for alcohoHc liquors. CHAPTER XIX THE SPORTING SPIRIT Germany is still in its infancy as a nation of sportsmen, as far as the playing of games is concerned ; but the delights of open-air exercise are fast making themselves ^olspo^^ known. One of the most powerful advocates for the cultivation of physical exercises, Count Posadowsky, a former Cabinet Minister, has said : " The future will belong to the nation which keeps itself most physically fit and consequently most capable of defence. Those who strive to maintain the health and vigour of the masses are fighting for the strength and the future of the nation." He is only the mouthpiece of many other leading men in Germany who favour similar ideas. The Emperor himself has advised the officers of the Army and Navy on ^MvocaXes^ several notable occasions to encourage out- door games among their men as an aid to self-reliance and discipline. The Crown Prince also takes every opportunity of encouraging sport by his presence at games and by founding and endowing prizes. He is himself one of the most assiduous of sportsmen. In yachting, riding, coaching and tennis he excels. Under such distinguished auspices it is small wonder that young and old, men and women, are beginning to appreciate the delights of open-air exercise. Where up till a generation ago one of the highest ideals of a German who had completed his military service was to acquire as much rotundity as possible and to avoid exercise when not compulsory, now he is continually seeking sun and air and practising all kinds of bodily exercise. Walking, 174 J The Sporting Spirit 175 mountain-climbing, riding, cycling, tennis, swimming, boating, and even football and cricket, all have their devotees. Every day brings fresh proof that the sporting spirit is awakening throughout the land. The physique and stamina necessary to all kinds of games are to hand : ^^SuSna^"^ why should they not be developed so as to permit the Germans to take their proper place in sport and pit themselves against other athletic nations of the world ? Among old-fashioned Germans, however, the introduction of foreign sports is decried. They are contented with the old German gymnastics : excellent exercises, extensively practised in every part of the Empire and strongly encouraged by the authorities. The extent to which they are carried on may be gathered from the last report of the Imperial Federation of Gymnastic Societies, which numbered no fewer than 8,600 societies, with a total membership of 902,646. Most of these societies are composed of young working men, and they are controlled by the municipalities. There are, besides, many gymnastic societies connected with the schools. There is no doubt this exercise does much towards setting up the youth of the nation, and at the same time accustoms the participants to discipline, for in the gymnasiums the discipline is almost as strict as in the Army. Every four years a National Gymnastic Tournament is arranged by the central body which controls all the societies in Germany. To this tournament flock thou- G^^Sts sands upon thousands of gymnasts. At the last one held in Frankfort-on-the-Main, in 1908, nearly 50,000 men participated in the competitions, and these were accompanied by nearly 250,000 relatives and friends, who came to cheer their favourites. The city was at that time so overcrowded with visitors that all the public buildings, including the town hall and the schools, had to be turned into dormitories. The spectacle offered was well worth going a long way to 176 Germany of the Germans see. Besides the various set competitions on apparatus, in which the German, owing to his constant training, is most expert, there were many events which are classed in other countries among athletic sports, including jumping, running, putting the shot, and throwing the ball. In these competi- tions no participant made anything like a record, but the average performances were so good that one could not but help thinking that if the German youth once takes up this class *> of sport seriously, he will surely make his mark, unless the stiffness of the iron discipline to which he is compelled to submit by the officials should prevent him from accomplishing the best that is in him. - Even the smallest of children during their play are brought under the direct influence of iron discipline, and are not permitted to play spontaneously. The k Discioline teachers, according to the school regulations, "sv... * which they follow to the letter, must super- ■% ' intend all the games of the children, and to the onlooker the sight of a group of little ones in a playground, forming a ring round a teacher and following his or her every movement with the precision of clockwork, is a lesson in how things should not be done. The poor little ones take no pleasure in this kind of play. It is regarded by them as part of their lessons. They need no such command, but love to spring around naturally and give off their excess of animal spirits. Of course, the presence of a teacher to prevent brutality and ^ bullying of weak children, and also to see that dangerous feats are not undertaken, is necessary ; but a continued direction of the children's movements makes the children old before they have grown up, and makes them lose their sense of freedom. Participation in gymnastic exercises is compulsory in all public schools, except when a doctor certifies ^ETerdse^^ that such exercises would be dangerous to the health of a pupil. A private doctor's certificate is not accepted as sufficient : the pupil must undergo examination by the official physician. Anaemia, The Sporting Spirit 177 weakness of muscles, or colds are not regarded as sufficient excuse. With aU this compulsory exercise, it was found by the watchful military surgeons who examine recruits for the Army and Navy that the physique of the nation was tending to decline, and their warnings caused fresh interest to be taken in outdoor games. Schoolmasters were instructed to see that all their scholars took an adequate amount of exercise and to introduce games and sports. The teachers, always thorough, acquired books of rules, etc., and have done a great deal towards increasing the theoretical knowledge of sport among the young. The Ministry of Education grants a small sum every year for the purchase of prizes for pupils who have shown remarkable ability in games. This, however, did not help much towards the introduction of the competitive spirit. The real initiators of the growing sporting movement in Germany were Britons, ^"thTwr"^^"^ who chanced either to be studying at the German universities or engaged in business in some of the larger cities. Twenty years ago there was not an athletic sports federation in existence in Germany. There were at that time a few clubs, mostly supported by British residents. Berlin and Hamburg boasted of Association football elevens ; Frankfort and Hanover possessed Rugby fifteens ; while each of these four cities had a small athletic sports club — but that was all ! At the present day, there are powerful unions representing lawn tennis, swimming, wrestling, and athletic sports, all of which number in their ranks a few members Unirns^Formed. °^ international reputation, such as O. Froitzheim and F. W. Rahe in tennis, Oscar Schiele in swimming, and Hans Braun on the running track. These are only mentioned because they are known in England, but there are others equally good who have not competed abroad. XJ— (2391) 178 Germany of the Germans Both in the Army and Navy sports are making headway. Besides gymnastics with apparatus, in which the men are adepts in many cases, football, swimming, tug-of-war and fencing are much in favour and every year great progress is made. The authorities have even latterly so far departed from strict discipline as to allow soldiers in uniform to par- ticipate in a long-distance marching competition in which the competitors had to carry a full war kit. A glance at the different branches of sport and their standing is interesting as showing the progress made in the last two decades. Rowing was one of the first sports copied from the English, and the Germans have made rapid strides in the management . of boats. Up to a very short time ago they continued to place their entire faith in British coaches. Recently, however, some of the leading clubs felt that they had acquired sufficient knowledge of the sport, and that the principal German exponents were adequately ex- perienced to rely on their own system of training. The English element has, therefore, been gradually but almost completely eliminated from the rowing clubs and a society of German rowing coaches has been founded, who place their services at the disposal of clubs all over the country. The effect of this assertion of independence remains to be seen. At any rate, it shows individuality. On all the principal streams are to be found boating clubs, capitally built boat-houses, and smart craft of the latest models. Berlin, Mannheim, Frankfort, Cologne, Bonn, Coblence, Konigsberg, Stettin, Hamburg, Mayence and Ludwigshafen all possess fine boating-clubs. According to the latest figures available, there are in all 286 rowing clubs with 37,038 active members, who have 4,876 craft of all styles at their dispossJ. Yachting has become a much-favoured pastime in con- sequence of the Emperor's patronage of the sport and his desire to e$tablish a yachting week at Kiel that shall rival The Sporting Spirit 179 Cowes. In spite of the existence of excellent German yachts, capable of competing with the best of other nations, the fact . that the Kiel Yachting Week is conducted "^' practically by the Navy and that the disci- pline of the Fleet is all-pervading, has not permitted the events to attain that popularity among international yachts- men which was expected. Every year the foreign entries decline in number, until they have almost disappeared, and yachtsmen from other countries have on various occasions expressed their conviction that the Kiel Week will never flourish while the discipline of the Navy is inflicted on the participants. The Emperor has certainly done everything in his power to make the Kiel Yachting Week a success. He has not only founded handsome prizes as an attraction to ^Efforte'* foreign yachtsmen, but he has continually participated in the races himself on board his yacht, the Meteor, with which he has won many prizes. He has hitherto confided the management of his yacht to a British skipper and a British crew, but he has decided that the new Meteor, now being built, shall be constructed entirely of German materials and be manned by German sailors. He feels it is his duty to show the nation, and more especially the yachting section, that a German vessel with German sailors can hold its own with those of any other nation. In the sailing of small yachts the German yachtsmen have attained remarkable skill and can compete with the best from any other country. They have excellent opportunities for this kind of sailing, owing to the extensive lakes spread about the Empire. There are over sixty sailing clubs with more than 10,000 members. A motor-boat club, formed in 1907, has already 350 mem- bers, possessing a flotilla numbering 107 vessels. Regattas have been organised for this class of vessel on Lake Constance, the lakes around Berlin, on the Rhine and at Kiel, but until now have not secured many entries. Some of the German 180 Germany of the Germans motor-boats have, however, made names for themselves in races outside of Germany, at Monaco and Nice. Outdoor athletics are making perhaps more rapid progress of late years than any other kind of sport. There are as yet Athi f ^^^y ^^^ good sporting grounds, and the public does not exhibit extraordinary interest, but the movement is growing. In 1908 there were no fewer than 139 athletic meetings, comprising long-distance, sprint, hurdle and cross-country races, jumping, etc. The competi- tors numbered 10,526, some of them excellent performers. The only fault that can be found with the German sportsman is his tendency to enter frivolous objections against the winners. Lawn tennis, besides being the oldest foreign pastime practised in Germany, holds pride of place in the number ol .its devotees. The game is not confined to the clubs, which number 234 with over 16,000 members, but the general public utilises the open courts, which are excellent, very extensively. Some of the German players have acquired world-wide reputations. Football is regarded by many of the younger generation of German officers as one of the best outdoor sports for cultivating the character and courage of the men, teaching ^°Cricket^"^ them to combine and to sink personality, while at moments calling for the quickest decision and initiative. In virtually every regiment of the Army the game has been introduced. It is also widely practised both winter and summer in the vicinity of every big city. Some of the clubs have taken part in international matches, but hitherto with not much success. There are 433 Association clubs with 24,462 members, and fifteen Rugby clubs with 1,104 members. Cricket has not yet made a strong appeal to German youth, but many clubs are in existence. ^ In cycling Germany has always been able to hold her own. The clubs alone have 115,507 members. Everybody cycles. The splendid roads appear to be specially made for the sport The Sporting Spirit 181 Skating is more or less natural to every German. The sharp cold winters usually experienced afford ample oppor- tunities to acquire the art. There are many skating clubs, which usually practise fancy skating. Swimming, also, is learned by nearly every man. All soldiers are marched down to an open-air bathing-place at least once a week, and almost invariably learn to swim while with their regiments. The lakes also afford capital oppor- tunities for practice. Municipal baths are not very numerous, but the city authorities almost always arrange facihties for bathing in the rivers. Swimming races are frequently held by the 212 clubs among their 26,259 members. Golf has only been introduced during the past ten years. Clubs aie now being formed in many districts, where British n+h <; rf professionals give instruction in the game. A golf association has been founded, which fourteen clubs have joined, and the championship of Germany is played for every year. Fencing is not greatly practised outside of the Army and the universities. There are, however, nearly fifty fencing clubs in the Empire. The Italian method is generally adopted. Motoring is extensively patronised, not only for racing, but for touring. There are twenty-eight motor clubs with 4,175 members. Ballooning has also taken hold as a sport, more especially since Germany has made such progress with steerable airships. The nine existing aeronautical clubs comprise 2,775 members. Horse-racing does not occupy much attention among the working classes. Betting is prohibited, except by means of the totalisator, which is controlled on all ^Be*tthfg°^ courses by the Government, and from the gross takings of which a large percentage is deducted for public purposes. The Government, however, provides a method of gambling in the public lotteries and also by authorising lotteries for all 182 Germany of the Germans sorts of purposes, a percentage of the receipts going to the public exchequer in the way of stamp duties. The German has not hitherto written many stirring pages in the history of outdoor sporting games, but in his own way of amusing himself he performs wonders. AmuseriSits ^^*^" during his holidays, without any training, he will start off with several com- panions, perhaps old Army comrades, and march, with his sack full of clothes and food on his back, twenty-five to thirty-five miles a day for a week, putting up at village inns at night and probably playing at nine-pins for a couple of hours before retiring. This is often the method adopted by groups of members of working men's gymnastic societies, who, as a rule, have not the wherewithal to go to a watering-place or mountain resort. Very often, too, the national military spirit asserts itself long after men have left the Army. One can see parties of men past middle age following the Army manoeuvres and keeping up with the active troops in a remarkable manner, at the expense of a deal of perspiration certainly, but always on hand to watch interesting operations, which they discuss among themselves with the greatest interest. Shooting, also, is a pastime to which much time is devoted. Game is very plentiful and licences are cheap. Besides the chase, a large number of rifle clubs provide opportunities to display marksmanship. The last statistics enumerate 752 rifle clubs with 24,310 members, but there are undoubtedly many more. Rifle contests are very frequent all over the country. The Imperial Chancellor, Herr von Bethmann-HoUweg, recently issued a decree accord- ing to all the societies of veterans the right to utilise the military ranges for rifle practice, and granting them the right to draw rifles of the most recent pattern from the Army arsenals for a very small fee. The societies are also provided with ammunition from the Army stores at cost price. In this way the members of the societies, most of whom are still liable The Sporting Spirit 183 to be called upon for service in the reserve, are enabled to maintain constant shooting efficiency. As there are between two and three million men belonging to these societies, the Government has, at small expense, thus secured a body of trained men, who are ready at any moment to take their places in the ranks with very little necessity for further training. Perhaps one of the most interesting forms of amusement of the average skilled city artisan and small shopkeeper in summer is the renting of a small plot of land Colon?s ^^ *^^ suburbs of the town. Many thousands of these plots are let round Berlin at a nominal rent by the building companies while they are awaiting development. Thither the artisan goes with his family every Sunday, taking their food with them, and all work together to erect the hut which is to be their Sunday home. It is regarded as a matter of pride that no one outside of the family shaU assist in planning or erecting the hut. As soon as it is finished, a flag is run up on a small mast, and the summer home is christened with a fine-sounding name. Then the family sets to work at gardening. Sometimes there are as many as 5,000 of these plots in the same vicinity, and the sight with all the flags flying is very picturesque. Enormous interest is taken by the authorities in this movement, which is considered to have done a great deal to correct the tendency to intemperance. The Empress gives prizes every year for the best hut in the various districts, and church societies also encourage the idea. CHAPTER XX WOMAN'S POSITION AND PROSPECTS Perhaps the two qualities that can with the greatest truth be ascribed to the German woman are tidiness and thrift. Whether she be the wife of the rich country 0°1T ^* noble, the wealthy manufacturer, the com- fortable official, or the working man, she always possesses these valuable endowments. Others, of course, she has, but they are so varied in the different spheres of life, in country and in town, that they cannot be described in general. There is a stratum of society, even in Germany, where the women as well as the men devote themselves to amusements, the search for sensation, extravagant dress, and all-round display ; but this is to be found only in the big cities, and the class is very limited, although from its presence at every public place of entertainment it is thought to be much more extensive than it is. The Empress is an excellent example of the German woman — with simple tastes in all directions, a good Empress's housewife, religious, modest, yet possessing many accomplishments. The real German woman is to be found in her home, where she devotes herself to her usually large family. As a housewife she can without doubt take her place with any other woman in the world. She is absolutely devoted to her home and her children, and always contrives, in whatever station she finds herself, to live within the family income. It is quite an event in the life of the ordinary married woman for her to go to a restaurant to dine, even when she lives in 184 THE KAISERIN AND HER DAUGHTER • OF THE UNIVERSITY Of Woman*s Position and Prospects 185 town, after the first few years of marriage. The single girls and younger married women are, on the other hand, devoted to out-of-door life and to the concert and ^ ^Uf™^"^ theatre. As a rule, however, they are satisfied if their sweethearts or husbands take them to a beer-garden, a concert, a popular cheap performance at the theatre, or to the circus, which is in great renown in Germany. Usually very modest in dress, and with apparently little conception of colour-effects, the German girl and woman do not always take the place that rightly belongs to them in the matter of looks. There is no doubt, however, that they possess, as a rule, good complexions and physical development, although in too many cases they destroy the effect by copying the stiff walk of the soldiers. The education of the German woman is, as a rule, fairly thorough. Those of the working classes naturally do not generally pass beyond the stage of elementary ^Edicafed^^ school, whence they have to turn out at fourteen years of age to earn a living or to help their parents keep the house. Even of this class, how- ever, some attend the continuation schools. The middle and wealthy classes usually carry their studies farther and are in some cases as far advanced as their brethren who attend the classical schools and the universities. All of them, to whatever class of society they belong, are adepts in housekeeping, as, besides the practical instruction their mothers insist on at home, there are admirable special classes in housework connected with all schools. Well frequented household economy schools for women have been established in Prussia, Bavaria, Baden and Wiirttemberg, where girls and women receive instruction in cooking, preserv- ing, washing, ironing, house-cleaning, gardening, poultry, bee and small animal breeding, milking, handwork, clothes-cutting, gymnastics and singing, botany, chemistry, hygiene, and household book-keeping. Even at the theatre and concert 186 Germany of the Germans it is a common sight to see German girls and women knitting stockings or doing crochet work. The accomplishments of the German woman outside of the working class are very varied. Singing and piano-playing are regarded as necessary acquirements, and best opera merely uses it in her home or at the houses of friends. Some kinds of sport are much cultivated by the women of the leisured classes, tennis, swimming, cychng and skating being very general. Until a girl is engaged to be married, she is kept under the strictest supervision by her parents, and treated almost as a child. Her opportunities for intercourse with boys and men are very restricted. A girl cannot marry without her parents' consent, and even with it, if she is a minor at her marriage, she remains under the legal guardianship of her parents, although the duty is usually transferred to her husband. The choice of a husband is almost invariably made by the parents, who in the majority of cases have taken care to ascertain full details of the young man's Husband * fortune or prospects. There is very little sentiment connected with the arrangement of an engagement, but when it has been entered into it is considered almost as binding as a marriage, and may not be broken with impunity. The young couple are then left to become better acquainted in the usually short interval before the solemnization of the wedding, which in Germany is a civil contract, although the majority of people insist on the church ceremony afterwards. Notwithstanding her undoubted qualities in many direc- tions, the German wife does not seem to be gifted with a great amount of self-reliance. Perhaps this lack is a legacy from the period, not so long since, when she was considered in every way inferior to the men. Even at the present day it is a very Woman*s Position and Prospects 187 rare occurrence, although she may possess every aptitude, for her to be permitted to share in the business cares of her husband, who would only as a very last resource turn to her for counsel. Only with the beginning of the twentieth century did the German woman awake to a sense of her own dignity. She had until then been looked down upon by her Recent j^^.^ ^^^ master — for such in verity he was — as an inferior being. Her rights were limited ; her duties manifold. At the present day, when most of her restrictions have been removed, she still remains the unex- acting and often too self-sacrificing being she has always been. She has not quite learned that she is the equal of man, although practically all the professions have been thrown open to her, and she is placed on a theoretically equal standing with the men students at nearly all the universities. When, however, it is considered that until January 1st, 1900, the rights of woman in Germany were restricted to a scarcely conceivable degree, it will be under- R ^S^*^*^ stood why she has not yet taken advantage to the fullest extent of the liberties which have since been accorded to her. Till that date, according to the law of most of the Federal States, a German woman could not act as head of the family, even though her husband was dead. She was only permitted to a limited extent to exercise the duties of a guardian. Without the express permission of a court of law she could not begin legal proceedings of any kind. She was not allowed to serve as legal witness at a marriage and could not sign her name as a witness to a will. However, women who were engaged independently in business were not subjected to all these restrictions. In most instances all the real and personal property of a woman on her marriage passed under the direct control of her husband, although he was forced in the case of real property to obtain her consent if he wished to dispose of or mortgage it. At the present day all this is changed. A married woman 188 Germany of the Germans may enter into contracts in her own right. She must, however > submit to her husband's wishes as to residence. She is bound to look after the household and to assist in Effected^ ^^^ husband's business, if such assistance is necessary and usual in the class to which the persons belong. In return she has the right to be kept by her husband according to his means, and in case of his neglect she may take legal means to attach the necessary money for the purpose from his salary or income. She also retains all rights over her own real and personal property unless the marriage contract expressly stipulates otherwise ; but she may be prevented by her husband from disposing of it in an extravagant manner. Her separate earnings are her own property to dispose of as she desires, but she must, if able, support her husband in case of necessity so as to prevent him becoming a public charge. Formerly only the father had legal authority over his children, but now both parents are placed ^^Equar'^ on an equal footing. Women have also been accorded more free- dom in regard to politics, as they may now attend political meetings, which was forbidden until a few years ago. They may not vote, however, and cannot be elected to a public office, except as guardians of the poor and orphans in some districts. The Imperial statistical office has recently issued a pamphlet dealing with women's organisations in Germany. The figures given do not indicate any formidable movement in favour of an extension of political rights to the sex. The Society for Securing Votes for Women numbers only 2,242 women and 216 men in its membership. There are also a few independent groups of women who have the same object in view. The Women's Navy League and the Women's Colonial League are the only other organisations of women with any sug- gestion of a political object. The first of these comprises 5,500 members and helps considerably in spreading the propaganda for a great navy. Woman's Position and Prospects 189 There exists, however, a large number of women's societies for social and religious work. The Union of Women's Societies, which dates from 1894, comprises over 830 Social^Societies ^^P^^^^^ bodies, with a total membership of over 200,000. They are making rapid pro- gress in influencing the method of carrying out the Poor Law, whose administration, however, is almost entirely in the hands of men, who have hitherto offered strenuous opposition to the selection of women guardians. Other important bodies of women devote their energies to church and charitable work, among the chief organisations being the Red Cross Society, with 452,000 Q^ .^^. members, the German Evangelical Women's Union, with 182,500 members, the Catholic Women's Society and the German Federation for the Improve- ment of Women's Clothing, the German Union for the Protection of Mothers and the Evangelical Girls' Federation. Women's professional societies are represented by the Society for the Welfare of Teachers, with 38,000 female members ; the General Women Teachers' Society with 23,000 ; the Catholic Women and Giri Clerks' Society with 22,000 ; the Catholic Women Workers' Society with 12,000 ; the Commercial Women's Society with 10,000 ; and several others. Social work societies exist for the propagation of abstinence, for the legal protection of women, and for actresses and female theatrical employees. Charitable societies comprise the Deaconesses' Union, the Girls' Homes Society, and many others. Educational work is carried on by the Froebel Society, the Women's Educational Society, and the Society for Women's Schools of Household Economy. Altogether over a million women are organised in one way or another, and, although they have hitherto left politics alone, the Government keeps the future in view, as is shown by the fact that it has begun tQ GOUnt the strength of existing women's societies. 190 Germany of the Germans Women are becoming more prominent in trade and com- merce of late years. The last figures available, those for December, 1907, show that, exclusive of PromSent domestic servants, over 5,700,000 women in Trade. were employed in agriculture, industries and commerce. Of these no fewer than 2,720,000 were engaged in agriculture, 1,577,000 in factories, 512,000 as shopwomen in trade (including the beer and wine trades, where they work as waitresses, etc.), and the remainder as clerks, etc. There were also 1,234,121 women in business for themselves. The liberal professions present many difficulties for women ; but, in spite of these, there are at the present moment between fifty and sixty women doctors in independent practice in Germany, and many more are studying medicine and walking the hospitals. In several municipalities the school and police authorities have engaged lady doctors. Five lady jurists have been admitted to the bar. At Mannheim Commercial High School a lady has recently been appointed to a profes- sorial chair — the first in this country to be occupied by a woman. Lady librarians are rather numerous, counting 206, and are constantly increasing in numbers. In Berlin a lady architect enjoys considerable practice and Hamburg possesses a lady engineer. In the Government service there are also many women employed, more especially in the telephone and telegraph departments. Recently a new departure has been made by engaging female searchers in the police and customs service. This flocking of women into trades is not altogether attri- butable to the greater freedom conferred on the sex. Much of it is occasioned by the ever-increasing cost to^ Work^^^^ ^^ articles of necessity, which have so risen in price that the wages of the working man do not suffice for the needs of his family, and the wife is virtually compelled to go out to work. When the fact is Woman's Position and Prospects 191 mentioned in this connection that according to the Govern- ment's returns the income of 51 per cent, of the men in Germany does not reach £45 annually and of another 40 per cent, ranges between £45 and £150, the need for the women to turn out is quite apparent. A few figures gathered by the Municipal Statistical Office in Berlin in the course of an inquiry as to women's earnings tell a very vivid tale. Women employed in the metal and machine trades were found to average £19 3s. a year ; packers, £20 17s. ; silver polishers, £26 to £32 10s. ; textile workers, £27 12s. ; seamstresses in leather, £13 10s. to £30 ; workers in chocolate factories, £22 5s. to £30 ; mantle sewers, £19; boys' suit makers, £15, and glove-makers, £20. These were all grown women and not girls. A very useful service is being rendered to women by the Society for the Instruction and Study of Women, which has opened in virtually every large city an ^odSv"^ information office, where women may apply for information as to any trade or calling which they desire to take up. The directress of each informa- tion office, on the receipt of an inquiry with return postage paid, gives hints as to where instruction in the branch selected may be had, the cost and length of time for learning, the prospects of receiving positions, and the salary to be expected. It was only in the last decade of the nineteenth century that the higher education of woman received any serious attention. In 1894 the first public schools were founded Education which permitted girls to study for matricula- tion. Then followed, some years later, the promotion of the girls' high schools to the same standing as those for boys. Now virtually all the universities admit female undergraduates, but women are not permitted as yet to occupy the highest teaching posts or professorial chairs. There is at present a movement towards raising the status of the nursing profession, which has hitherto not attracted the women of the better classes. 192 Germany of the Germans The conditions prevailing in the nursing profession in Germany are probably accountable for this. The nurse in the public hospital has not hitherto occupied the high social standing she deserves. She has rather been looked upon as a domestic servant, and consequently highly-educated women would not take up the profession. The work, too, has been made much more severe for her than in other countries, and at the same time the emoluments are low. The better class of women among the Protestants go into deaconesses' homes or become Sisters of the Red Cross, while the Catholic women become nuns, and in this way they ensure themselves far more respect than as ordinary nurses. There are 20,000 nuns, 14,000 deaconesses, and 7,000 other nursing sisters in the German Empire. CHAPTER XXI LITERARY SEARCHINGS It can scarcely be said with any truth of Germany that there is a real school or style of literature at the present day. Much writing is done, many books are read, each S hcT^l^^ author says what he has to say in a more or less interesting way, and — makes as much as he can out of his work. To assert that all writers, without exception, have only a material end in view would, of course, be going much too far. There are naturally many who imagine that they have a mission to tell something to the world, and try to fulfil their task ; but these often find that they have not expressed their thoughts in a way that is appreciated by the public. The direction of modern German literature is not yet fully decided upon. All kinds of currents run through the stream. The influence of Goethe, Schiller, Heine Undecided ^^^ Nietzsche holds much sway. The works of Emile Zola are taken in some quarters as models. Ibsen has had considerable effect. Tolstoi has many followers. Germany is, in fact, with the help of all these masters, seeking to work out a Hterary tendency. In the mass of books offered to the German public in recent times there is certainly much that is unworthy and banal, sensational and unnatural ; but ^Unwortf *^ ^^^^^ ^^ ^^^° ^^^^ ^^^* ^^ interesting and well written. Romantic novels take a leading place in public favour, and are turned out by hundreds. Despite the feebleness of the greater proportion of these works, they are eagerly snapped up. In their general character, although there are brilliant exceptions, they display a tendency to gross exag- geration in the direction of reahsm and to the destruction of 193 13— {2391) 194 Germany of the Germans idealism. Most of the writers have drawn their original inspiration from French, Russian and Norwegian sources ; but it must be said that their efforts to walk in the same lines as their masters are not very successful. Their so-called realism nearly always overflows into impossible distortion. There are, however, now signs of a better conception of nature among the leading writers of romance and thus there is hope for better things in store. The authors in many, if not most, instances make the mistake of dealing with problems which interest their own little sphere, but do not affect the rest of the "probkml"^ world one atom. Some of the many books of this kind are read by the general public from a feeling of curiosity, but that is all. The solution of the problems dealt with does not lead anywhere in the world at large. The modern reader is more interested in the move- ments going on around him, in the strivings towards advance- ment of the millions who form the various great classes which make up the world. The exotic cliques so often dealt with in books offer him only a momentary and undesirable distraction. Until late in the eighties, German modern literature was, with very few exceptions, worthy of very little notice. Most of the productions were very poor imitations of old classics. The few authors who showed any signs of individuality were lost in the crowd. Ernst von Wildenbruch, Wilhelm Busch, Theodor Fontane and Wilhelm Raabe were among the limited number of stars visible in the literary firmament. Then literature began to emerge from the depths of deca- dence into which it had sunk and to shake itself free of the weeds which had coiled themselves around it. %*epthr* "^^^ public demanded something fresh and tangible, and received in response many realistic works, which soon, however, went beyond the bounds. The literary market was flooded with problem novels, dealing with medical and psychological studies, many of them Literary Searchings 195 to the utmost degree crude and in some instances absolutely repulsive. The new movement, however, produced two men at least who stand out above all others at the present moment in German literature — ^namely, Gerhard Haupt- Result of the ^^^^^ ^nd Hermann Sudermann, both of New Movement. n ,• whom are dramatists as well as novehsts. Sudermann is probably the best story-teller in modem German Hterature, and has well earned the laurels with which he has been crowned both for his novels and his plays. He leaned towards the modernist school some time before the new movement took definite shape. " lolanthe's Hochzeit " is one of his masterpieces, but in nearly all of his works he reaches a very high standard of merit. Some of them indicate that he sits at the feet of the great French romancists, but what he has learnt from them he has known how to fit in with his own ideas, which are abundant and varied. Gerhard Hauptmann is more of a dramatist than a novelist, and his many excellent plays are dealt with in connection with the progress of the German theatre. ^"^ Authl^rs!*^" Several other authors soon found consider- able fame after the ball of the modern movement had been set rolling. Arno Holz was one of the first to fall into line with the new school. He has had considerable success with some of his novels, but he is much more at home in his lyrics, which give evidence of great power. Johannes Schlaf is also a modernist, and one of the ultra- realistic school. He is poet as well as novelist, and has also written drama, but it is as novelist that he has made his name. Michael Georg Conrad was the leader of the Southern German modern literary revolt. His ideas are extremely "^^^RevolT^^" advanced. This is shown in the many novels and romances he has written, most of them dealing with imaginary future states and human conditions. Among writers of the less modem school Wilhelm Raabe 196 Germany of the Germans secured a considerable army of followers. His works are imitations of Dickens. He shows extraordinary versatility in his productions, which, although full of pessimistic thought, are crammed with good-humour. The recently deceased Ernst von Wildenbruch enjoyed widespread popularity. He was a very prolific author of epics find lyrics, novels and plays, several ^Writer^^ of which have been translated into other languages. The late Georg Ebers, whose romances deal mostly with Egyptian themes, was and still is widely read. Theodor Fontane wrote many vigorous romantic novels, which are still read with the greatest interest. Wilhelm Busch made a great name as a humourist. His ** Max and Moritz " is known the world over. It would be impossible to mention all the books he has "writer?'' published, all of which are filled with the same spirit of humour or satire. Hans Hoffmann's novels are full of quiet humour and excellent descriptions of nature. Heinrich Seidel also holds a proud position among humorous writers. His best-known work, " Suburban Stories," is overflowing with wit and sparkles with intelligence. Other of his books enjoy widespread popularity. Kurt Aram is a writer of satirical sketches, and also author of several humorous works. He has produced a comedy, " The Agrarian Committee," which met with great success. Detlev von Liliencron attained much success in latter years with his books of verse ; but, although many of his poems make pretty reading, it is to be feared that ▼on Lmen^cron. ^^^^ ^^^^ "°* ^^^^ ^°"^- ^^^ romances, many of which are of a military character, as beseems a former army officer, are extremely well written. Franz Adam Beyerlein achieved remarkable popularity with his " Jena oder Sedan," which has many literary qualities besides that of holding the public interest. HERR HERMANN SUDERMANN >^ rue T-uc Of THE UN £>i SVERSITY OF Literary Searchings 197 Otto Ernst is at once poet, dramatist and novelist. He has a pretty touch of humour in many of his works and at times waxes very satirical. Gustav Freytag, who started out to write works dealing with social questions, of which his " Soil und Haben " is a good example, turned later to historical A^ Historical romance. His " Ahnen " and " Bilder aus KOmanClSt. , , , xr ^ -. ,, ^ der deutschen Vergangenheit were perhaps his best efforts. In the latter series he foreshadowed the future of the German Empire in a remarkable way. Professor Felix Dahn devoted himself to the historical novel, and his " Kampf um Rom " has become a German classic. His other efforts have not, however, reached any- thing like the same degree of talent. Some of his verse at the time of the French war found great admiration. Gustav Frenssen, a Protestant pastor, is a religious author whose stories have brought him an enormous following from end to end of Germany. Some of his ^orks"^ works have run into editions of hundreds of thousands, the most popular of them being " Jom Uhl." Wilhelm Bolsche is a philosophical writer of capital style and diction, who has attracted much attention by his scientific studies of nature. Otto Julius Bierbaum, who died early in 1910, was more of a critic and essayist than a novelist. His smaller efforts are remarkably clever and entertaining. Stories of war are not very numerous by modem German writers, but Carl Bleibtreu gained much note for his excellent _ efforts in that branch of literature. He has written, besides his works on " Cromwell," " The German Arms in Spain," and a book on " Frederick the Great," several novels and dramas, all of which display power. He was one of the leaders of the modern movement. Ernst von Wildenbruch also published some books of military adventure, such as " VionviUe " and " Sedan," 198 Germany of the Germans Heinrich von Kleist, too, in his " Prince of Homburg " and " Hermannschlacht," dealt with deeds of war. Dietrich Grabbe's " Duke of Gothland," " Kaiser Friedrich Barbarossa," " Kaiser Heinrich der Sechste " and " Napoleon, or the 100 Days," are stirring tales. Paul Heyse, even as an octogenarian, had a heart that was always young. He idolises woman in all his works and recognises her strength. He was ever an One of the best society novelists is Karl Bulcke, who is a State attorney. He is rather impressionist, but very romantic. Walter Bloem, Rudolf Herzog, and Joseph Lauff have all gained laurels in romantic literature, and their works are eagerly read throughout Germany. The list of less-known authors is almost endless. A few of those who stand out as having acquired a more or less lasting reputation are Stefan George, S. Friedlander, Max Dauthendey, Gustav Schiiler, and Georg von Ompteda. A real army of women has of recent years taken up the pen, but until now few of them have won leading Writers. positions in the literary field. Helene Bohlau is the authoress of numerous novels, some of which are well worthy of the popularity they have acquired. Her principal romance is " Der Rangierbahn- hof," and in this, as in most of the others, she gives a vivid picture of the strivings of womankind towards emancipation. Frida, Freiin von Biilow is a hard-working novelist, who is always before the public eye. Her works are noted for their fine studies of aristocratic characters. Ida Boy-Ed, another voluminous writer, confines her attention entirely to love stories. Elizabeth von Heyking has gathered a circle of admirers through several artistically written books. Johanna Ambrosius's works are very good examples of real womanliness. Literary Searchings 199 The spirit of the times, which has been so much occupied with material progress, has rather left lyrical art out in the cold and neglect. The demand for poetry has in ^"*^ * recent years been so small that poets have been discouraged. The poetical nature of the German is not dead, however ; it is only sleeping until the strivings necessitated by the universal struggle for commercial supremacy slacken. Shortly after the war of 1870 poets broke loose in every part of the Empire and in every class of society with patriotic verse, which at the time was received with jubilation ; but much of it had only a short life and has since been forgotten. Rudolf Baumbach, Julius Sturm, Theodor Fontane, Oskar von Redwitz, Ernst Curtius and Heinrich von Treitschke were among the best known of these poets. Martin Greif stands in a class by himself as a modern lyric poet. His verses are full of colour and fire. They are written A L d" p t ^^^^ ^ certainty, a naturalness and a fineness not attained by any other German poet of the present day. He expresses the sentiments of love, desire, passion, triumph, sorrow and sympathy in a remarkable manner. His ballads appeal to a large circle. His Hterary activity in his later years has somewhat declined. He has never accomplished any work of great dramatic note. Julius Wolff is also a widely read poet. Among his best- known works are " Eulenspiegel Redivivus," ** Der Wilde Jager " and " Der Rat tenf anger von Hameln." Gustav Schiller is the author of a number of volumes of verse, much of which is devoted to folk-song, in which he expresses himself with admirable clearness and force. Much of his poetry is of a deep religious character. Levin Ludwig Schiicking is the worthy scion of a poetical family. His grandfather. Levin Schiicking, FamUv*^ had made the name well known many years ago. Many of the young poet's verses show remarkable talent, especially those descriptive of his native province of Westphalia. 200 Germany of the Germans Ferdinand Avenarius, as a writer of lyrics, has won con- siderable fame. His " Stimmen und Bilder " is perhaps his best work. Richard Dehmel is a poet rather inclined to the decadent school, but whose writings show immense variety and a splendid mastery of language. Gustav Falke has published several striking volumes of verse, remarkable for their simplicity and beauty. One of the coming poets is a young man named Alfons Paquet, who has already published several volumes of talented verse. He has written many songs and also a series of poems on life in a great city, which reproduce in a remarkable manner scenes which he has witnessed. The immense production of books and periodical works in Germany can be judged from the statistics pubHshed by the Booksellers' Exchange, which states ^'"^Biokr °^ *^^* ^^^"^ J^^y ^' ^^^^' ^^ J^^^ ^^' ^^^' ^^ fewer than 30,718 books and other pubHca- tions were issued in the German Empire. In BerHn alone during that period 7,775 works were published, in Leipzig 6,070, in Stuttgart 1,832 and in Munich 1,505. The extent to which books are sold in Germany by house- to-house colporteurs is enormous. There are on the official registers no less than 80,000 of these persons who make a permanent profession of calling from door to door for orders for books on the instalment system, and, according to different estimates, they succeed in making sales to the value of from ;f2,500,000 to ;f4,000,000 annually. Most of the so-called " hterary " matter thus spread among the people is of the paltriest kind, and many efforts have been made to stop its circulation by means of cheap editions of good authors. The evil continues, however, to spread, and it has much to answer for in connection with the demoralization of the youth of both sexes. Despite the fact that Germany is such a land of books, the smallness of the number of public libraries is somewhat V<3F THE Literary Searchings 201 surprising. If statistics are correct, there are only 190 of these useful institutions in the Empire. The total number of volumes contained therein is 23,456,200, L'br^^'^ or about one volume to every three inhabi- tants. The reason of this poverty of libraries is the small amounts placed at their disposal by the State and municipal authorities, which limits their extension and the acquisition of new works. CHAPTER XXir THE PRESS- AND ITS INFLUENCE In spite of the facts that the art of printing was originated in Germany and that the first newspaper was certainly printed there, it cannot be said that the German Press Position^ * ^^^ holds such an important position in the world as that of several other countries. What it lacks in quality, however, it makes up for by its ample quantity, for the number of newspapers and periodicals is very considerable. The last figures to hand show that there are 7,748 newspapers on the postal Hst, 4,336 of which are dailies and 3,412 weeklies or monthlies. The first real newspaper published under that title appeared in Augsburg in 1505 with the name of Copia der Newen Zeitung aus Bresilg Land. This, however, l^wspaper. ^^^ ^^^ preceded by many " Fly Leaves." Strassburg possessed a newspaper in 1609, Frankfort-on-Main in 1615, Berlin in 1617, Nuremberg in 1620, Hildesheim in 1621, Augsburg and Munich in 1627 and Hamburg in 1628. The enterprise then shown has not, as a rule, extended to the present day. This is perhaps accounted for by the fact that until late last century — till 1889, to be exact — the Press was subject to repressive surveillance by the authorities, who feared its enlightening influence. Socialist papers were forbidden altogether, but they filtered through from England and Switzerland and made more converts to the party in consequence of the prohibition than if they had been entirely free, for they passed from hand to hand in secret and were read with much zest by the working classes, who were told by the writers that they were being oppressed. 202 The Press and its Influence 203 Newspapers are still placed under many restrictions as to what they may publish, and the decision as to the news given does not rest in all cases in the hands of the Re ^^^ns editors. They are prohibited, for instance, under severe penalties, from giving reports of divorce cases and of military and naval arrangements, the publication of which might divulge to a possible enemy the Governmental plans. These restrictions are for the good of the nation from several points of view, and it would be well if they were extended lo reports of immoral scandals, which cannot effect any good purpose. This latter point has recently been taken into consideration by the Ministry, and a 'bill has been introduced deahng with the matter, for it has been found that the long detailed descriptions of vicious practices given by the journals tend to their spread instead of leading to their extinction. The development of the Press has been greatly retarded by the lack of a Press tariff for telegrams. News which in other countries would be immediately telegraphed Tar'ff^ at full length by special correspondents from the provinces and abroad is in many cases sent by letter, so that the public often waits twenty-four hours and longer for the details of events which have occurred in the country itself, not to mention the delay that occurs in the arrival of news from distant lands. Hitherto, however, the German public has not expressed any great desire for " hot " telegraphic news. The average German is usually content to wait and may often be seen reading the newspaper of yesterday with apparent relish. It must be said that there are several brilliant exceptions from the general tardiness of the German Press. The Lokal Anzeiger and the Tagehlatt of Berlin, the Some Brilliant Cologne Gazette, the Frankfurt Gazette, and Newspapers. o ' / » newspapers in Leipzig, Hamburg and Munich may be reckoned as really up-to-date newspapers, which spend enormous amounts on obtaining rapid news services 204 Germany of the Germans and maintain brilliant correspondents in all parts of the world. They have launched out in a manner which would not have been dreamed of a few years ago. The circulation of German newspapers in general has not attained very great proportions. This is accounted for by the fact that most of them are sold by sub- Smalf °" scription. Until very recent years there was scarcely any street sale, but this is now being changed by the erection of newspaper kiosks at the busiest points of the great cities. Even at the present day newspaper publishers have experienced that when they issue a special edition recording the happening of an event which interests the whole world they find very few purchasers, and, as a matter of fact, the " extras " are nearly always given away. The standing of the Press in the opinion of the public authori- ties is not very high. It is said that the Emperor ^^^* Pr s holds the German newspapers and journalists in small esteem, but he frequently receives and converses freely with foreign journalists of distinction. The leading statesmen of Germany have in many instances utilised the Press to put their views before the world. Bis- marck was, for instance, closely identified with the Hamburger Nachrichten throughout his career. Von Bulow inspired many articles of political importance, which appeared over the names of well-known journalists, but whose contents were recognised as emanating from the late Chancellor. The Foreign Office has an organ of the Press always at its disposal in the Norddeutsche Allgemeine Zeitung, and much of the political information, more particularly in reference to foreign affairs, that appears in the Koelnische Zeitung emanates directly from high official quarters. The Press Bureau of the Foreign Office, which always obtains its orders from the Imperial Chancellor, ^ mifau^ directly or indirectly, does not enjoy the entire confidence of either Press or public, which have both come to regard the information given out by it The Press and its Influence 205 as tainted with the intention of leading pubHc opinion to the view desired by the Government, and not giving the news to the public as news on which the people themselves should form an opinion. Another organ for the dissemination of official views is the Berlin Correspondence, which is edited in the Ministries and contains official information, besides correcting assertions made by the daily newspapers. This sheet is forwarded free to any newspaper applying for it. The only news agency in Germany worthy of serious con- sideration is that known as Wolff's Telegraphic Bureau, which holds a semi-official position and is closely connected with the great news agencies of every country in the world. It is in reality the only source of foreign news for the majority of the newspapers, to which it supplies a very extensive news service. German journalists, as a rule, are not well known in foreign countries, although they usually sign their articles. Maxi- milian Harden's name is, however, known in TournaHsts virtually every quarter of the globe as that of a brilliant journalist who, when he tackles a problem of public interest, whether political or otherwise, thrashes it out without fear or favour. In his periodical. Die Zukunft, he deals with all public questions in a way that can only be recognised as masterful. His political standpoint is that of Bismarck, with whom he was on the most intimate terms. He is popularly supposed to have brought about the fall of the Imperial Chancellor, Count von Capri vi, by his writings. He is a critic who strikes hard, and the sting of his pen is feared greatly by those who put themselves in a position open to an attack. There are, of course, many other excellent journalists on the various newspapers, but their fame is mostly local. Pro- fessor Schiemann, who writes almost exclu- Locaf"^^ sively on foreign affairs, is often quoted when an international crisis is raging. The German journalist is a very hard worker and, having in most cases enjoyed a university education, is also a good 206 Germany of the Germans writer. His ideas on the subject of news-getting are, however, somewhat different from those obtaining in other countries. In recording the news of the day he is incHned to put far more of his own personahty into the report than is really warranted. He labours under difficulties which are not met with by his colleagues in other countries. The police of Germany afford him absolutely no facilities for carrying Difficulties ^^* ^^^ work. He is rather considered as a very unwelcome intruder into the public domain, and not as a representative of the public interests. He is received with suspicion by most officials, who at once place themselves on their guard, as though a spy from the enemy's camp were endeavouring to pry out secrets. Public opinion, the officials consider, is a thing apart from the carrying out of their duties, and often they manifest a decided dis- inclination to enlighten the people through the Press concerning a point at issue. The career of the German journalist, too, is a restricted one. It does not lead, as in some other countries, to public positions. In the Government service or in Restrfdied *^^ Ministries there is no opening for him — he has not gone through the regular bureau- cratic mill. He might be never such a clever man and possess all kinds of knowledge useful to an administrator of public affairs, but he cannot obtain any footing. As regards the periodical Press, the German reviews are noted for their remarkable articles on scientific subjects and on philosophy, but their political influence is regarded as very small. Most of the writers are professors, whose style is inclined to the dogmatic and does not admit of argument. The illustrated periodicals hold an important position in the German Press. Many of them are real "pa^rs!^ works of art. Among the best known are the Illustrierte Zeitung, Vom Pels zum Meet, Moderne Kunst, Fiir alle Welt and Die Woche, but there are many others which are very popular. The Press and its Influence 207 The ordinary daily and weekly newspapers, too, are now making extensive use of illustrations, and the tendency seems to be in the direction of giving additional interest to the news of the day by illustrating it with photographs and drawings. The German satirical and comic papers have probably attained as great renown as those of any other country, and in most cases they are fully entitled to it. Humorous Many of them are liable, however, at times to overstep the bounds of good taste and decency. A certain licence is, of course, permissible in a comic paper, but some of the drawings dealing with public events are, to say the least, unsuitable to be placed in the hands of minors. Humour surely can be illustrated without bestiality ! The drawings produced in the humorous periodicals are, as a rule, remarkably, good, and many of them are really witty without the fault of tastelessness and abuse of artistic freedom ; but, on the other hand, at times their so-called wit is accompanied by such horrors that they arouse a feeling of disgust. The titles of some of the humorous papers, such as Fliegende Blatter, Lustige Blatter, Jugend, Kladderadatsch and Simplicis- simus, are known as well outside of Germany as within, and pictures from them are widely reproduced abroad. The postal arrangements for forwarding and subscription to newspapers are excellent. The postal authorities issue a list of all the papers with their subscription Arrangements P^^^^ dehvered in the house, and a would-be subscriber has only to inform the postman of his desire to subscribe and pay the sum noted and the paper is regularly delivered. CHAPTER XXIII " INTENSE " MUSIC When music is under discussion in any part of the globe, it is almost inevitable that Germany should be mentioned in the course of the conversation, for Germany Music* °^ ^^^ come to be regarded as the modern home of music. It cannot be disputed that the Germans are musical : probably the most musical nation the world has known, with the exception of the Jews. The musical life of the country is " intense " in the most extended signification of the word. In whatever class of society one moves, whether among the wealthy or the poor, music has a place, and a high one, in the people's thoughts. Grand opera, high-class orchestral concerts, popular choral evenings, the public performances of military bands — all are certain of overflowing patronage at all times. Virtually every club, whatever its purpose, has its favourite songs, which the members sing together on all kinds of occa- sions. University students always foregather ^^Sinzs^^ to the accompaniment of song. Workmen at their political demonstrations sing. The peasants sing going to and from their work. Even the soldiers are encouraged to sing on the march outside of the cities, one of the officers with musical talent being specially appointed in each battalion, battery or regiment to teach the men patriotic marching songs. The German folk-songs, which everybody in the Empire sings, and which are carried into foreign lands in the farthest parts of the earth by thousands of emigrants, will probably never lose their hold on the people. The Emperor recognises their great value as an element in the maintenance and furtherance of patriotism. He offers much personal encouragement to choral societies 208 "Intense*' Music 209 which practise these simple melodies, which really express the sentiment of the people, and makes it his duty to attend from time to time their singing competitions. He is not sparing in his criticisms when composers attempt to inflict ornamental variations on the simple words. Latterly, as head of the Army, he has given orders that all soldiers shall be taught the best of these songs, old and new, so that when they return home from their military service they shall spread them among their families. Musical education and comprehension in Germany have, with the spread of general instruction, made extraordinary strides. Many millions of people who were. Musical before the compulsory school attendance, as Httle interested in artistic music as in any other kind of art have now, by reason of the broadening of their minds, developed a desire for more intellectual food. Yet, with all this encouragement and all this desire for music, modem composers of real genius are very few. There seems for the moment to be a period of stagna- ^°^^g^^^"^^5 tion. Many of the younger men take up a position very similar to that of the impres- sionist painter, and offer to the waiting world a discordant mixture of a few tones hashed and rehashed. They will tell you it represents a ship in a tempest with the winds howling through the rigging and the cries of men washed overboard, or else a storm hurtling through a forest with old oaks and elms cracking and falling before its fury. The music might be intended to represent these things and might even do so in the mind of the composer ; but it might also represent the sounds arising from a catastrophe in the kitchen. That is a matter of opinion. The worst compli- ment one can pay this kind of composer is to tell him he has written something pleasant, harmonious and comprehensible to all. He stands, in his own opinion, upon a plane much higher than that. A charitable view of his position is that he is fishing in the sea of sound without much success. 14— <339i) 210 Germany of the Germans It is probably as difficult for composers as for artists and authors to give expression to the " hustle " of to-day's stream of thought ; but, as in other branches of life Hustle^ the demand for modernity has produced a supply, so it may be in music, and the near future may provide a style which combines art in its best form with up-to-date methods of expression. It remains a fact that, during the past twenty years, no German composer has given the world anything that could for a moment bear comparison with the works of Schubert, Schumann, Weber, Mendelssohn, Haydn, Bach, Beethoven, Brahms and Wagner. All these masters continue to maintain their hold on the public, and latterly have even increased their popularity. Richard Wagner, the operatic master of Germany, who invented what is now considered a really national music, was one of those exceptions who, hke a Goethe Wagner °^ ^ Shakespeare, appear only once in a nation's history. He was at first regarded as an impossible revolutionary, but his ideas gained ground and, even before his sudden death in Vienna in 1883, he had become the nation's idol. His plan of making Bayreuth the home for model performances of all operatic works was never carried out and the little Bavarian town has become simply a Wagner centre. Richard Strauss, Engelbert Humperdinck and August Bungert are the only operatic composers who have of late years gained the approval of the public. Recent Opera Wagnerian influence preponderates in most of the opera music of the present day, in some instances in extremely exaggerated form ; but none of the modem composers have been able to approach the skilful musicianship of the great German master. Other composers than the three named have from time to time had passing success. In the lighter kinds of opera the works of Albert Lortzing "Intense'' Music 211 have usually been adopted as examples to be imitated by other composers. Some of the newer works have achieved momen- tary success, but few possess any lasting worth. Perhaps among the best liked and most musical is " The Taming of the Shrew," by Hermann Gotz. German chamber music stands out to-day from all other kinds owing to its excellence. In this branch of composition the real musician comes to the front, without any technical frills and ornaments to aid his efforts. Berlin has become the central point of musical Hfe. It has grown in this respect in the same proportion as it has increased in importance as a political centre. ^""^Berirn^ °^ '^^^ Kaiser, who personally takes great interest, both as music lover and financially, in the Royal Opera, has always desired to make the Berlin Opera House the musical headquarters of Germany. It is, however, rare for an opera to be produced there for the first time. The Dresden Court Opera holds indubitably the first rank in Germany. Ready at all times to welcome novelties, it has been the scene of the first performances of many renowned works — Wagner, Richard Strauss, etc. Concert music, in which Leipzig, the home of music dealers, once took the lead, is better represented in Beriin since the Saxon city has become more of an industrial Concert centre. It is still, however, customary for new-comers to seek the approval of the Leipzig musical critics, as well as those of Berlin, before launching out on a professional career. Orchestral concerts are given in enormous quantities throughout the autumn and winter in all the big cities. There are several world-famed orchestras — the Royal, the Philharmonic and Panzner — all of which attract large audiences. One of the most widely known and at the same time justly renowned musical societies is the Philharmonic of Berhn, 212 Germany of the Germans which in 1909 celebrated its twenty-fifth birthday. It may be said that anything of importance in the musical world, not only of Berhn, but of the Empire, "^^^ ^sidety"''''^'' centres in this society. It has done wonders for the musical education of the country, bringing to Berlin the greatest musicians in the world. Even in the smaller cities and towns concerts of high-class music are given with notable frequency, under the directorship of excellent conductors. Musical festivals are held in many of the great towns every year and attract enormous audiences. Richard Strauss without doubt occupies the leading position in the German musical world of to-day. His works certainly give rise to a great amount Richard ^ criticism on account of their unwonted Strauss. , , , , • i • i ^ tendency, but everybody recognises his talent and earnest purpose. Many of his compositions are full of difficulties for conductors. Strauss himself is a wonderful orchestral leader. He began composing music when he was only six years old, and at twenty-one had become Court musical director in Meiningen. A year later he took a similar position in Munich ; from 1889 to 1894 he was Court con- ductor in Weimar ; from 1894 to 1898 he was again in Munich, and then was given the succession to Felix Weingartner as Court conductor in Berlin. Strauss represents in himself the new Romantic school of music, to which he gives expression in his two remarkable operas, " Salome " and " Elektra," both of ^^^S^h"^r"^*^ which are notable for their extraordinarily exaggerated and eccentric effects. The com- poser has developed in them hitherto undreamt-of methods of composition. He varies mystic passages with reahstic rallies in such a way, and with such masterly technique, that the hearer is to a certain extent hypnotised. Of Strauss's compositions the best known are "Don Juan," " Macbeth," " Don Quixote," " Till Eulenspiegel," "Intense'* Music 213 " Feuersnot," " Tod und Verklarung," " Salome " and " Elektra," the last two S3miphonic poems. It is generally said that he makes too much of details and that his compositions lack proper light and shade. Engelbert Humperdinck is also reckoned in the first rank of German musical composers of the day. With his " Hansel und Gretel," founded on the fairy F^^^^t^Rajik story, he achieved immediate success in 1894. He has also produced a number of other fairy tale operas, including " Sieben Geislein," " Konigs- kinder," and " Domroschen," the latter of which was well received. Siegfried Wagner, son of the great Wagner, who lives in Bayreuth and conducts the Wagner festivals, has written a number of operatic works, only one of which, " Die Barenhauter," has met with popular approval. August Bungert, who is both pianist and composer, brought out an opera, " The Homerian World," with but moderate success. He has better results with his songs and chamber music, s)miphonies, etc. Max Bruch's operas, " Loreley '* and " Hermione," are enjoyable works. He has also composed a number of choral works and concertos. Of other recent operas, " Tiefland," by Eugen d' Albert ; " Der Rattenf anger von Hameln," by Paul Geissler ; " Edda," by Karl Reinthaler ; " Till Eulenspiegel," Other Recent . y^^^ Reznicek, attracted some attention, UpercLs. -^ but not of an enduring kind. Arnold Mendelssohn, who is a relative of the great Mendelssohn, displays talent in a very marked degree. Max Reger, of Leipzig, who confines himself principally to chamber music and piano pieces, is a consistent disciple of Bach. He has composed much for the organ and has produced several choral works. Philip Scharwenka has also produced som^ excellent chamber music, 214 Germany of the Germans Joseph Joachim, who was as well known in London as in Berlin in the latter part of last century, was the recognised master of the violin. His works for that ^^V'^l*n *^^ instrument are almost innumerable. Many modern music composers have at the same time been authors of no mean repute. Engelbert Humperdinck was for a period a critic of great renown in Frankfort. Richard Strauss and Max Reger have also published excellently written works. Hans Pfitzner, a composer who sticks to the old school, is co-editor of a South German monthly periodical. Among the host of well-known conductors, many of whom deserve more praise than they obtain for their help in making musical productions successful, is Siegfried DTnduSoTs" ^^^^' ^^^ brought the wonderful Philhar- monic choir to its present state of perfection. Then there are Max Fiedler, who also composes orchestral and chamber music ; Felix Mottl, who is one of the best of Beethoven conductors ; and Franz Fischer, who has con- ducted in Bayreuth. Of course there are many others whose names are equally familiar both in Germany and England. Noted German instrumentalists, who are also in most cases composers, include : Moritz Moszkowski, Otto Neitzel, Heinrich Barth, Hans von Bronsart, all of whom are pianists who have played in various countries, including England ; Gustav Hollander, Willy Burmeister and Bernhard Dessau, violinists ; Robert Haussmann (of the Joachim quartett), Hugo Becker and Hugo Dechert, violoncellists, and Wilhelm Posse, harpist. Germany has, as is only to be expected from SHch a musical nation, produced many singers of world-wide repute. Emma Destinn, the soprano of Berhn, sSeers* where she is a member of the Royal Opera Company, was born in Prague, Bohemia, but is generally looked upon as a German. She has sung in aU ^e leading capitals. E. DESTINN ''Intense" Music 215 Lilli Lehmann-Kalisch, Mathilde de Castrone Marchesi, Marie Dietrich, Ottilie Froitzheim-Metzger and Marie Gotze are names on everybody's lips. They are mentioned here without any prejudice towards the many other distinguished women who have achieved fame as operatic and concert singers. It would require several pages to reproduce the names of German men vocalists who are known outside as well as inside of Germany, but a few who have earned laurels in England may be mentioned. For instance, Georg Henschel, Karl Scheidemantel, Theodor Bertram, Franz von Dulong, Andreas Dippel, Karl Dietrich and Ludwig Hess. Where the great singers come from and how their gift was first discovered are interesting questions, which can be answered in some cases in connection with German Where Singers gi^^ers Come From, ^^^^f^^' ,„,,,, Theodor Wachtel, the operatic tenor, was originally a coachman in Hamburg. It is stated that one evening, as he was driving a wealthy wine merchant home from the opera, his customer overheard him singing some notes from an aria. Wachtel's artistic career began soon afterwards. Anton Schott was a captain of artillery in the Wiirttemberg army and had fought through the Franco-German war before he learned that he possessed a splendid tenor voice. He then went on to the stage and reaped triumphs in England and America as well as in his native land. Otto Briesemeister, also a great tenor, was a practising physician before he went in for opera, while ^^^Singrr.^""* Paul Kniipfer, the concert singer, studied for the same profession. Karl Burrian, the dramatic tenor of the Dresden Opera, is a lawyer. Franz Betz, once the leading baritone of the Berlin Opera, was a technical student in Stuttgart, and Marian Alma, the lyric tenor at the same theatre, also studied at a technical school. 216 Germany of the Germans Albert Niemann, the wonderful Tannhauser, was a locksmith. Georg Anthes, dramatic tenor in the Dresden Opera, was a violinist at Homburg, while Otto Brucks, the baritone, was a contra-bass player. Ernst Kraus, one of the leading Wagnerian tenors, was a brewer's drayman. Max Alvary, the great Wagner singer, was ^ TeSr."^" *^^ ^^^ °^ *^^ well-known landscape artist, Andreas Achenbach. He also wanted to be a painter, but his father apprenticed him to a business career, which he left to become a builder. His gift was discovered while he was at work in Milan. There are no fewer than 50,000 professional musicians in Germany, most of whom rely on teaching and occasional engagements, as only 2,500 are employed in State and muni- cipal theatre orchestras, and another 10,000 in private orchestras. Their earnings are, as a rule, extremely moderate. CHAPTER XXIV DRAMATIC FARE Drama comes after music in the intellectual fare of Germany, but only occasionally of recent years has a new and really appetizing dish been placed before playgoers. ^°^ f"w^^^^^ In other words, successful modem plays have been few and far between for a decade. In this period neither the older school of modern play- wrights, comprising such brilliant men as Hermann Suder- mann and Gerhard Hauptmann, Ludwig Fulda and Fritz Engel, George Hirschfeld and Max Halbe, nor the younger school, comprising, to mention a few names, Frank Wedekind, Herbert Eulenberg and Otto Falckenberg, has given much of note to the stage. In some quarters this dramatic dullness is attributed to the scathing criticisms to which pla5nvrights and plays are sub- jected in the press. Perhaps the critics have Scathing succeeded in the same way as the surgeon who announced that ** the operation itself was quite successful, but the patient has unfortunately died." Whatever is the cause, authors seem to hesitate now to write for the stage. Dramatic critics in Germany, it is true, deal with plays in a terribly earnest manner. They never look at a piece from the point of view of the public, but analyse it and dissect it from the literary and schoolmasterly standpoints. This, of course, is all well and good ! Everybody desires to have passable literature presented to him from the stage, and nobody would wish for illiterate nonsense ; but it is a fact that ninety-nine people out of every hundred go to the theatre to be entertained, and do not regard the play from the hterary and schoolmasterly standpoints at all, but from the point of view of its human interest. 217 218 Germany of the Germans Without endeavouring to cast the entire blame for the present dullness on the critics, it must be confessed that the playgoer of to-day is greatly influenced ^Playgoers'" ^^ criticism in his morning newspaper of a new piece. This was not so when the plays now regarded as classics were written. These were made successful or unsuccessful by the direct verdict of the play- goers of the period. Professional critics had not been evolved then ! That the popular verdict of those days was reliable is proved by the fact that the classics still attract, despite some of them containing defects which would prove their undoing if they were to be produced for the first time to-day. Schiller, Goethe, Lessing, Hebbel, Kleist and Grillparzer maintain their position as providers of the real stock-in-trade of the German theatre. Shakespeare, too, holds a place — in fact, he is more often played in Germany than in England. Twenty years ago, following the long period of depression succeeding the war, there was a great revival of the drama. The foundation of the " Free Theatre " was Vl^ " Free ^j^^ ^j.g^ movement towards introducing fresh Theatre. r ■, -i life. The undertakmg, which was founded in 1889, was under the auspices of Maximilian Harden, Leo Berg, Otto Brahm, and a number of authors, journalists and others who desired to have a stage on which all kinds of plays would have a hearing, and also to provide a stepping-off place for the new naturalistic literary school. The venture was a great success and play after play of real merit was introduced to the public, until German drama really began to occupy a high place once more. Then the German public began to backslide and a more degenerate taste became apparent. The production of good new plays began to decrease, until the call in the capital was almost entirely for light and sensational works in preference to more substantial pieces. It became old-fashioned to express a liking for the more serious works. Dramatic Fare 219 Another theatrical novelty introduced at about the same period as the " Free Theatre " was the " Free People's Stage," which was an effort on the part of the working " ^^|f ^*^?P^^'' classes to develop a theatre of their own, in which they could satisfy their longing to enjoy at least some of the culture of the time, which was denied to them owing to the high prices of the ordinary theatre. The idea was so fruitful that the society now numbers some 16,000 or 17,000 members. The principles on which the society works are of the most democratic kind. The membership fees are extremely moderate. Various theatres are rented, generally on Sunday afternoons, but also at other times when they are free, and the seats are distributed by lot to the members. Some of the best actors are engaged and the best plays are produced in excellent style. Members of the society are chosen to carry out the necessary service in the theatres, where, owing to the fact that the society is strictly private and the audiences confined to its members, the police censorship on plays cannot be exercised. There is never any disturbance, because of the admirable arrange- ments for order, and the movement has had a wonderful effect on the working classes in consequence of its offering them sensible amusement and an opportunity of improving themselves during a time which might otherwise have been devoted to less elevating pursuits. Berlin, by reason of its rapid increase in population in the meantime and the number of theatres it possesses, had developed into a theatrical centre. Its word Berlin a j^a.s become law for the German drama, so that Centre. every play produced in the country must obtain the approval of the capital. The taste of Berlin having, as has been seen, turned to farce and musical comedy, the rest of the country, with a few exceptions, where the municipalities maintain the theatres and regular stock companies, has taken to the same dishes. Authors, therefore, have not obtained much encouragement 220 Germany of the Germans to provide other fare, and the art of play-writing has declined to a great extent. One great lack of the modern German stage is historical drama, depicting the story of the nation in recent times. The esteem in which absolute exactitude of Lack of detail is held is probably responsible for this Drama. ^^^k, so little room being left for the imagina- tion of the author that he fears to venture on this line of play. Another reason is the prohibition in Ger- many against presenting on the stage anything in reference to princely personages who have lived since Frederick the Great. Dramatists are thus greatly restricted and, in fact, since Schiller no great dramatist has entered this field. Society and problem plays, on the other hand, are presented in abundance. French plays or adaptations of French plays are more favoured in Germany than those written by German drama- tists, because the French playwrights are not so artificial as their German colleagues. The French take an incident in real life and work it up into a play or they select a subject in which everybody is interested at the moment and write a play round it, and by putting it on the stage bring the subject better home to the auditors than it would be brought by reading about it in the journals. As to the position of the theatre in the eyes of the public authorities, there is a strong feeling in favour of creating a State Theatre and also a real national l^har?Hel dramatic school. Autnorities. __ ..-..., , , . ,, , The municipalities have already shown their faith in the theatre as a factor in the culture of the people. In Prussia alone thirty-nine cities own municipal theatres of their own or grant subsidies to existing private theatres. The sums spent on the drama by the civic representative bodies vary greatly. In Siegen, for instance, a subvention of only ;f50 annually is given ; while in Cologne, which has two municipal theatres, the yearly cost to the ratepayers is Dramatic Fare 221 jf24,895. Frankfort-on-the-Main, whose opera-house and principal theatre are public property, spends £13,650 out of the town's budget on providing entertainment. Barmen's city theatre costs ;f5,950 a year to maintain, and Dortmund expends £6,242 yearly on its theatre. Other notable sub- ventions for dramatic purposes are granted by Essen, £3,900 ; Elberfeld, £3,830; Aix-la-Chapelle, £3,455; Diisseldorf, £2,556 ; Magdeburg, £2,517 ; Wiesbaden, £4,352 ; Breslau, £3,132; Posen, £1,280, and Bromberg, £1,569. Berlin possesses at the present moment twenty-five theatres, which attract on weekdays an average total audience of from 12,000 to 15,000, and on Sunday afternoons and evenings about 20,000. The model theatre of Germany is that of Cassel, in the neighbourhood of which city lies Wilhelmshohe, the country seat of the Emperor. His Majesty opened Th^^e^ the theatre himself in August, 1909. It was built at a cost of £150,000, of which the city subscribed £65,000. All the most modern improvements connected with acoustics, stage machinery and Hghting have been incorporated. The stage is surrounded by a framework which gives every scene the appearance of a painted picture. The building itself is a delightful specimen of the Baroque style of architecture. The favourite classical plays of the German stage are those of Schiller, whose dramas were produced no fewer than 1,441 times in the winter season of 1908-9. " William Tell " was the most popular of his works, and was performed on 292 occasions. Goethe, whose works were produced 705 times during the same period, occupies the next place among native authors. His ** Faust " was billed 213 times. Shakespeare, however, was played 945 times, " The Merchant of Venice," which was produced 120 times, being the work for which most preference was shown. Lessing, with 376 ; Hebbel, with 409 ; Grillparzer, with 369 ; Moli^re, with 185 performances, all enjoy prominent places among the classics in Germany. 222 Germany of the Germans Among modem authors Sudermann took the lead during the same season with 1,202 performances. Ibsen was pro- duced 876 ; Gerhard Hauptmann, 476 ; Abhors. Blumenthal, 1,021; Frau von Schonthan, 931, and L'Arronge, 684 times. The three last-mentioned are on the repertory of all the municipal and royal theatres. The individual pieces which enjoyed the longest runs, not always consecutive, were Wildenbruch's " Rabensteinerin," with 938 performances ; the translation of the French comedy, " Mademoiselle Josette, ma femme," which appeared 812 times ; H. Bernstein's " The Thief," which was produced on 510 occasions, and " Old Heidelberg," 477 times. The person most in view among modern dramatic authors is Gerhard Hauptmann, who was born in 1862 in Silesia. His first leaning as a youth was not towards the Gerhard stage, but to sculpture. He for a time had xlauptmann. ,. t-» i • ^ a studio m Rome, whither he had gone to study the ancient masterpieces. It was during this period that he made his first literary efforts, in the shape of poetry. The year 1886 was the turning-point of his life, for then he came into touch with some of the pioneers of the new Hterary movement towards naturalism. In the following year he published a realistic novel, " Bahnwarter Thiel," which at once showed the world the stuff that was in the young author. His first play, " Before Sunrise," produced privately in 1889, awakened the interest of wide circles in the problem of alco- holism. He was at that time greatly influenced by Ibsen, and in his following plays this influence comes well to the fore. His " Einsame Menschen " is regarded as one of the pearls of German drama. " The Weavers," however, brought him most renown. It appeals to every class for its truth and its dramatic effect. It won success at once. So many triumphs has he had that it is only necessary to repeat a list of his works. " Hanneles Himmelfahrt " and " Biberpelz " were succeeded by a historical drama, " Florian Geyer," in 1895, Phoio by HERR HAUPTMANN ''' ^' OF THE . \ \ OF I Dramatic Fare 223 which, although treated in his inimitable style, was rather too long to please the public taste. A fairy tale, " The Sunken Bell," brought him almost as much fame as " The Weavers." His beautifully written " Fuhrmann Henschel " is a piece of great worth. Other plays of less attraction, but generally possessing splendid technique, have since been pro- duced, and more may yet be awaited from this versatile and masterful author. Hermann Sudermann's renown as a dramatist equals his fame as a story-writer. He was one of the first to break away from the current of uninteresting reiteration and°Dr^atist. '^^^^^ ^^^ cramping Germany's literature and drama. " Die Ehre," founded on the real life of the big Germany city and telling a story that at once appealed to all Germany — of the gulf between rich and poor — made his name. Some of his other most successful plays are " Das Gliick im Winkel," " Heimat," " Sodom's Ende," and the more recent rather French " Es lebe das Leben." Max Halbe, with his " Jugend," had one of the greatest theatrical successes in Germany in the last half-century. It deals with a problem certainly, but so interestingly and deli- cately handled that it cannot offend anyone's susceptibilities. Other of Max Halbe's plays have also been well received. Ernst von Wildenbruch, the recently deceased author, gave to Germany a considerable number of romantic plays, in which the clash of weapons mingled with heroic words. Almost all of his work, however, is devoted to a glorification of the House of HohenzoUern, Brandenburg and Berlin. Among his best and most often produced works are " Die Quitzows " and " Die Haubenlerche." Ludwig Fulda has won more success as an adapter of Rostand and Molidre than as an inde- ^apter pendent dramatist, although some of his plays — for instance, " Unter Vier Augen " — have taken the public fancy. All his writings are clever, and their dramatic form leaves little to be desired. I 224 Germany of the Germans Richard Voss, who was born m 1851, in Pomerania, under- took the handling for the stage of social problems long before the movement was taken up by other authors. He did his work very well at the beginning, especially in " Eva," but later fell off greatly, and from his prolific pen very little of value remains to the stage. Frank Wedekind, a sceptic and cynic, has attracted much attention by the manner in which he deals with life's problems. His satires of men and women are clever, but far-fetched. ** Friihlingserwachen " is his best-known work. Leo Berg was one of the founders of the " Free Theatre," which has helped so much to bring modem authors to the front. He is imbued with a thorough literary tlie^Moderns ^P^^^^ ^^^ ^^^ published a number of serious critical works. Friedrich Spielhagen deals well with themes in which democracy and aristocracy are involved, and in which he takes up the cudgels for the proletariat. Max Dreyer has given the stage many trivial but attractive pieces, full of local colour. Georg Engel is one of the " modern " dramatists who has had much success. Otto Brahm is recognised as Germany's leading theatrical director. He was in the advance guard of the reform move- ment in hterature and the drama, which led to the foundation of the " Free Theatre," under the auspices of Maximilian Harden, Leo Berg, Otto Brahm and others. He has published studies on Ibsen, Gottfried Keller, etc., which are full of talent. Although German actors and actresses, as a general rule, are very conscientious and play their roles in the most efficient _ . manner, great genius is at the present time German Actors. -xur j xi./- x i-u not to be found on the German stage. The basis of their art is thoroughly sound, but is not seconded by any really striking talent. The system of engaging the actors for a period of years at most of the theatres makes for a better general company Dramatic Fare 225 than is the case in countries where an actor-manager or actress-manageress merely engages other people to fill the stage, while he or she takes the only real role in a piece specially written for the purpose. In Germany the players work much more together and consequently the performances are always up to a good average, the smaller parts being studied just as carefully in regard to detail as the more important ones. The actors are much more true to nature than they were at one time, and they are assisted generally by excellent costuming and stage decoration. It is really remarkable to discover on investigation how many of the leading players are of Austrian birth. Agnes Sorma stands out as the leading actress of Germany of recent years. She has scored many triumphs during her career, creating characters in numerous plays ^Ac?e^i*"* of aU the modem dramatists. Richard Alexander, of the Residenz Theatre in Berlin, is among the leading humorous actors of Germany. He has no rival in his rendering of the comic characters in the Hght French pieces so much in favour. Alexander Barthel, of Frankfort-on-Main, holds a high position as a portrayer of dramatic heroes and ideal characters. Among the other players of German birth who have had considerable success in the various cities of the Empire in recent times may be mentioned Adalbert Matkowsky, Rosa Bertens, Ferdinand Bonn, Albert Bozenhard, Paula Conrad, Carl Grube, Gertrud Giers, Johanna Hanfstangl, Otto Sommer- storff, Meta Illing, Else Lehmann, Ludwig Stahl, Elise Sauer, Arthur Vollmer, Ernst Kraus, Emanuel Reicher, Irene Triesch, Paul Lindau and Rudolf Schildkraut. There are many others, probably equally good in their profession and equally popular with the public. According to the ofiicial statistics, no fewer than 90,699 persons gain a living from the theatre and music and public performances of aU kinds in Germany. 15— (2391) 228 Germany of the Germans professors filled with historical artistic lore, but with few independent ideas. They regarded the doctrines of the schools as a brake on the wheels of real art. Like most revolutionaries, the secessionists went too far. Their nerves became unstrung, and they could not control themselves. The consequence is that, instead of succeeding in their reforming aim, they have only brought about a state of anarchy. The sudden release from a depressing collectivism has led to an over-driven individualism. Prince Ludwig of Bavaria, at the centenary of the Munich Art Academy in 1909, spoke some very plain words against the exaggeration of some of the German ^"waiS*^^^^ impressionists. He told the artists present that : " Art should be comprehensible to all, but many so-called works of art are mere dabs of colour without form." The Emperor, too, has uttered very severe reproofs on several occasions. Yet this anarchic condition is possibly only a stage on the way to the new, as yet undeveloped national style that the revolutionaries hope to evolve. Its extravagances may be simply the outcome of the striving to attain some- thing of which the producers themselves are not certain ; but which will, when it does take shape, be worthy of their efforts. It is surprising, in the land of traditional sentimentality, that the number of briUiant artists should be so limited, more especially as the people as a whole Artiste Few ^^^ ^^^^ confidence in itself. It is, how- ever, a fact that modern Germany has not produced many artists who have told a story to the world on canvas. With so many centres of art teaching — Munich, Diisseldorf, Carlsruhe, Cassel, Leipzig, Dresden, Frankfort, Konigsberg, Weimar, Hamburg and Berlin — great genius is singularly lacking. Which of these centres is the most important or Art and Architecture 229 the most fruitful is a matter of opinion. Munich and Diissel- dorf are the best known, but each of the others has its devotees. Of late years Northern Germany has gained much ground in artistic repute. Piloty, of Munich, one of the best-known German artists of the nineteenth century, is credited with having taught Germans what they know of painting. He ^'p^nUn"^^* had such a good reputation that he drew pupils from every country, and gave to them an excellent foundation without any limitations of style. Munich's Bohemianism is a catchword in artistic circles, but many a well-known artist has received his training there. Among them are Arnold Bocklin, who was in reality a Swiss. He is generally regarded as a genius in Germany, but there are some who consider him over-rated ^GeS'us^^ and declare that he spoilt his excellent designs by his exaggerated colouring. Franz Stuck, a Munich secessionist, has a very warm imagination, but a peculiar temperament, and his drawing is crude, so that he is sometimes disappointing. Also from the Munich school came Wilhelm von Leibi, one of the best liked of modern German painters. His pictures show a strong love for the reproduction of the truth. No detail seems to have escaped his attention, yet his canvases are delightfully simple. Many of them depict peasant life and hunting scenes. Ferdinand von Reznicek, who started out to be a painter in Munich, soon found out his real bent and became an illus- trator, in which branch of art he rapidly Til ^*5^ attained world-wide renown through his Illustrator. ■ ,< o- ^• - • „ drawmgs m bimplicissmius. Ludwig Thiersch, who died in 1909, was a very prolific historical and religious painter of the Munich school. Churches in practically every European country contain frescoes by him, and the Greek church in London possesses some of his oil paintings. 230 Germany of the Germans Franz von Lenbach, undoubtedly the finest modem por- traitist in Germany, has painted nearly all the crowned heads in the Empire, as well as many of the P^ri^^tist renowned beauties. Fritz von Kaulbach is noted for his great delicacy of handling. He is much sought after as a portraitist. Walter Firle, also of Munich, has turned out many clear and well-coloured pictures of harmonious taste. He has done many portraits. Georg Sauter, who lives in England, is a Bavarian. He is devoted to portraits and figure pictures. He has been much influenced by the Scottish and French schools. From among the Berlin artists several have found con- siderable favour. For instance, Arthur Kaempf, of the Academy of Arts, is a talented portraitist, who has painted the Emperor with much success. A great future is predicted for him. Max Liebermann was first president of the Berlin Secession, of which he soon became the recognised leader, but which he has now deserted. He has executed many fine works, some of which have been acquired for the public museums. Alexander Schmidt-Michelsen, who only recently died, was a very gifted Berlin artist, whose works are distributed over a wide range of public galleries. Walter Leistikow, who died in 1909, was another BerHn secessionist with rare talent. Ferdinand Hodler has carried out some really fine work in the newer style of the Berlin Secession. Willy Hamacher, one of the most promising of the Berlin school, who died in 1909 at the early age of forty, devoted most of his attention to seascapes portraying the life of the North and Baltic seas. His colouring, which he owed to the impressions received during a sojourn in Italy, filled his pictures with a brightness hardly to be seen in northern climes. Art and Architecture 231 Ludwig Knaus, a genre painter of Diisseldorf and Berlin, who combines the hghter touch and sureness of the French school with deep German feeling, has held a high place in art in Germany for many years. His works appear in many public galleries in Germany and America. Count Leopold von Kalckreuth is a very prominent figure in the German art world of to-day. He studied in Diisseldorf, Weimar and Munich. The Carlsruhe school has several representatives who attract the public eye just now. Hans Thoma, a portrait and genre painter as well as a landscapist, excels in the latter branch. His pictures are reproduced in print probably more often than those of any other German painter. Another follower of this school is Edward von Gebhardt, who is classed in the front rank of religious painters. Wilhelm Triibner, of Carlsruhe, a secessionist, is an eminent portraitist. Max Klinger, of the same city, is sculptor, painter and engraver, displaying great talents in all three branches. From Dresden comes Fritz Uhde, a painter of several notable religious pictures. He was almost entirely self-taught. D d Art Ludwig von Hofmann, from the same town, is a colourist, devoted to the newer idealism. Leopold Bode, who died in Frankfort in 1906, was a roman- cist of the greatest distinction. He executed a large number of excellent water-colours and charcoal drawings, depicting German folk-lore, while his oil paintings of forest scenery in Switzerland, the Tyrol and Bavaria are much admired. As in other countries, there are also in Germany hundreds of so-called artists who imagine that by covering a certain space of canvas with a certain quantity of Artiste paint every year they are adding to the artistic production of the nation. This is an unavoidable occurrence, generally brought about by lack of frankness on the part of well-meaning friends. 232 Germany of the Germans As regards sculpture, Germany has suffered from a similar movement of unrest of late years as in painting. The result g . is that, although many hundreds of public monuments and statues have been erected, the artistic eye only finds occasional comfort in the sight of a really excellent work. Many, of course, find admira- tion from the followers of certain schools, and a great number have merits of one kind or another ; but, when the work is considered as a whole, there is much to be desired. Some sculptors of the modern school naturally stand out above their fellows, and this is the case with Robert Diez, of Dresden, and Reinhold Begas, of Berlin, who both have not only done excellent work themselves, but have passed on their ideas to many pupils. Robert Diez, a Saxon, is famed for his monumental foun- tains in Dresden, and as a very successful professor of sculp- . - ture at the Academy there. He has also a fine Bismarck monument in that town and a group representing " The Warrior's Return " in Brunswick. Heinrich Epler, another Dresden professor, displays a remarkably reaHstic talent in some of his works, for instance his group of " Two Mothers " in Dresden. Reinhold Begas, the master of most of the German sculp- tors of the present day, first made his name through his excellent monument of Schiller in front of ^J''^^^^ the Royal Theatre in Berhn. Later he, with Master. , r r i ■, , ^ i xi the assistance of other sculptors, executed the great monument of the Emperor William I in front of the castle. Paul Ludwig Cauer collaborated with Reinhold Begas on the same monument and also executed the monument of Karl V in the Siegesallee. Johannes Gotz also collaborated with Begas on the Emperor WiUiam monument. He has, besides, a statue of Joachim I in the Siegesallee and some works purchased by the National Gallery. PROF. LUDWIG KXAUS Art and Architecture 233 Hans Magnussen, a pupil of Begas, is the sculptor of innumerable Bismarck monuments. Walter Sch'ott is among the most popular sculptors of the capital, where he has made a large number Bismarck ^^ busts of leading men in all branches of public life. Max Baumbach is noted for several fine busts and two monster works, the monument of Emperor Frederick on the battlefield of Worth and an equestrian statue of King Albert of Saxony in Dresden. Hugo Wilhelm Schafer has devoted himself mostly to heroic statues of great men, many of which are to be found in public squares in various cities. Max Kruse is famous for his group of Marathon runners in the Berlin National Gallery. Adolf Hildebrand's fame as a sculptor is widespread. His monumental fountain in Munich is an entirely harmonious composition. He has chiselled many busts ^plmr^"^ of well-known personalities. Fritz Klimpsch is one of the talented younger men, who collaborated in the designs of the Reichstag building. Emil Hundrieser has produced several monuments of former Emperors and great statesmen in different cities. From the Munich school has come, among others, Hermann Hahn, who has done some delightful bronze statuettes, besides excellent monuments of Moltke, Lizst, ^^Sctfoof ""^ and other celebrities. Eduard Beyrer, also of Munich, is much influenced by the classics. He made his name by a memorial to Roon, in Krabnitz. Georg Busch, of Munich, devotes his chisel to groups of children and religious work. Adolf Briitt does a considerable amount of artistic bronze work, but has also carved some excellent monumental works in Kiel, Altona and BerHn. Christian Peter Breuer, who has a statue of the Elector 234 Germany of the Germans Sigismund in the famous Siegesallee of Berlin, has also given excellent specimens of imaginative work. Ludwig Manzel has a monumental fountain in Minden, a national monument of Duke Friedrich of Anhalt-Dessau, and the reliefs of the Emperor William I Tower in Grunewald. Otto Lessing has executed many worthy busts of celebrated men. Many of the younger men have at times done work which displays considerable talent and gives hope for the future. With the spread of education interest in art naturally extends day by day, and the public galleries GaHeries ^^^ museums increase in importance owing to the general taste so rapidly improving. The museums and galleries of Germany have become of international significance, not only for the masterpieces they contain, but as a consequence of the complete- o p^®^* ness of their classification. A great reform has Keiorm. . . , . i t* /• been effected m this respect by Professor Wilhelm Bode and Professor von Tschudi. Professor Bode, director of the Royal Museum in Berlin, is at the present moment one of the leading lights of the art world. He has done much to enrich and develop the German collections, in which he is aided by liberal grants of money from the authorities. Professor von Tschudi, who is now the warden of all the public art treasures of Bavaria, is an Austrian by birth. He had a great deal to do with the organisation of the Berlin art galleries, with which he was connected for more than a quarter of a century. Germany has no great galleries in any way to be compared with the French Louvre, the Italian Palazzo Pitti or the British Museum and National Gallery, but ^cJlfec^fo'Sr^ there are aU over the country innumerable smaller collections with an admirable selection orartistic works. • The collections of Dresden, Munich, Nuremberg, Stuttgart, Frankfort and other cities are world-famous. f^^ "'■ \^w^ OP T OF _^-'' Municipal Activities 259 All these towns are increasing in size and importance and in some places it has been found difficult to harmonize the newer districts with the older, but every effort is made to do so. One interesting problem in connection with town life is its influence on the human physique. The military surgeons find that townsmen are not fitted for hard ^"crtv T"f °^ physical exercise in nearly the same degree as countrymen. At the same time, the towns- man is found to be intellectually much the sharper of the two. Whether the physical deterioration of the townsman will continue or not is an interesting question for the future. Great cities have not yet been long enough in existence for conclusions to be drawn as to their final effect upon mankind. In the meantime, every effort in the way of hygienic improvement is being made by the authorities to assist the citizens in their struggle against the evils of overcrowding and the contamination of the air by the factories. Owing to the widespread system of flats, especially in Berlin, it is difficult for single persons living alone in the cities to find comfortably furnished rooms. ^I)"ffi^°^r"^ Many persons in the poorer quarters let what are called " sleeping places," where these lonely workers for a small rent stay the night. In many cases half a dozen sleep in one room, whence they have to turn out in the morning without breakfast. An attempt is being made to change this condition of things by the erection of bachelors' homes. Charlottenburg has led the way by erecting one with 340 beds, and this has been a great success, both morally and financially. It is to be followed by others, as it is said that in Berlin alone there are 150,000 persons, young men and women, mostly poor respectable workers, who are condemned to exist in " sleeping places." The provision of healthy lodgings for workmen has been taken in hand by the Prussian Government in connection 260 Germany of the Germans with its State employees. The railway administration has spent no less than £3,450,000 on building workmen's dwellings ; the forestry department, £39,325 ; ^wfrkSen°^ and the State mining department, £680,000 ; and a further sum of £800,000 has been voted for the purpose. I CHAPTER XXVIII LIFE AND SOME CUSTOMS Much has been written in reference to the alleged epidemic of prodigality which has affected the Germans in recent years. It does not require a very extended investiga- ProdkSfty ^^^^ ^° prove that the recklessness of expendi- ture is limited to the exotic quarters of one or two of the bigger cities. The true German, as a matter of fact, is just as " careful " as ever he was in his living and, as is proved by the enormous sums deposited in the savings banks, in providing for " a rainy day." If only the people of some of the other nations could be inoculated with the thrift microbe so prevalent in Germany, it would be a good thing for them ! " Society" has not yet succeeded in elbowing the " family " out of the way in Germany, although in some of the great "S • fv " cities the " family " has a hard struggle to fight against its influences. In speaking of the " nation " in general terms, the rich, who form such a small proportion of the population, should really call for small attention. Their doings in " society " are practically the same as those of the same class in any other country and do not affect the life of the great majority of the people. The people who count are the hard-thinking and hard- working professional, commercial and working classes. In Germany the middle-class families are notorious for their economical ways, which permit nothing to be wasted. This is an absolute necessity, because the Econom^^ professional and business men who form this grade of society are not in receipt of anything like the incomes the same class of men would receive in some other countries ; yet at the same time they have to maintain 261 262 Germany of the Germans an equally prosperous outward appearance while paying much higher prices for provisions of all kinds as well as clothing. In the majority of cases theirs is purely a home hfe, except perhaps for the husband's weekly evening set apart for a game of " skat," the national card game, or ^*^^I/f ninepins at a neighbouring cafe, where, in the company of old fellow-students, Army comrades or business companions, he will drink several glasses of excellent beer. Perhaps on another evening he will go to a theatre or a concert, or in the summer with his family to one of the gigantic beer-gardens, where they can listen to admirable music by a military or other band. The younger folks of this class devote themselves to tennis in the summer and to skating and dancing in the winter. As to the working classes, it is sometimes a matter for wonder how they manage ! Perhaps it is because the workmen themselves are unselfish and very considerate "^^^alTse^s"^ to their families. It is the usual thing for the workman to take every penny of his wages home and hand all over to his wife. If then, after reckoning all the family's liabilities, anything is left over it is put aside, and only on rare occasions are the savings drawn upon for amusements or for the purpose of taking a holiday. The Saturday half-holiday is not known in Germany. A long walk with the family on Sunday in the woods, with a modest repast carried from home accompanied by a glass of mild beer, is all the workman demands as recreation, occasion- ally varied by attendance at a meeting of his trade union, which is always of a political nature, or by a game of cards with his fellow- workmen, but without any money stake. Betting on horse-races is virtually unknown among the working classes. They also take very little part in the sports and games which have lately spread so widely among the middle classes. The married women in many cases also go out to work, sometimes in factories, sometimes in private houses. This does not, however, prevent them attending to their household Life and Some Customs 263 work, although no doubt it suffers. They rise very early and are often on the way to the open markets to make their purchases as early as five o'clock in the morning. A glance at some of the festivities of a national character — that is to say, which are general all over the country — shows that the German has his holidays spread F«S. ^q"^"y throughout the year. Christmas is the greatest festivity of the year, and is celebrated with extraordinary fervour, more so perhaps than in any other country — not from a religious point of view, but as a family festival. For weeks beforehand preparations for the great day are going on, parents endea- vouring to find out what their children are desirous of receiving as gifts, children thinking what they shall present to their parents, husbands and wives carrying out Httle deceptions in order to find out what will give pleasure to the other, and finally, when the purchases have all been made in the most utter secrecy, everybody in the house searching for a hiding- place in which to keep the unexpected offering until the glorious moment for handing it over to the joyful recipient shall arrive. Then the Christmas tree ! What a wonderful hold the custom has on the people ! There is probably not a home in Germany that has not a Christmas tree in ^^ xl^e^*""^* ^* °^ Christmas Eve ! Even people hving alone have one. In the evening all are illu- minated and the members of the family gather round while Father Christmas (in Northern Germany) distributes the presents. Everyone obtains a present of some kind and a word or two of praise or blame for his or her conduct during the past year from Father Christmas. In Southern Germany Father Christmas is less known. The presents are distributed amid the recitation of verses dedicated to the parents by the children, while a Christ-Child in a cradle is illuminated on Christmas morning. In every part of the country, too, it is the custom to sing Christmas carols, many of which originated 264 Germany of the Germans in Germany, but are now sung all over the world in different languages. New Year's Eve is a night of great rejoicing. The first day of the year is a national holiday. Watch-night services are virtually unknown. In their place the people \v?^'^ gather in joyous companies either in private houses or in hotels and restaurants, and in riotous merriment await the coming of midnight. In the private gatherings all sorts of games are played, and every imaginable kind of oracle is consulted in reference to the possibilities of marriage of the youths and girls. This period of the year is the recognised time for the announcement of engagements of marriage, which appear in thousands in the newspapers, principally on New Year's Day, but also throughout the week following. Not only young people consult the oracle at this time, but also elderly people, who have dozens of ** infaUible " methods of discovering whether they are going to live finding out the exact number of years they have to live. In restaurants and hotels the guests gather early in the evening and pass the time until midnight in joyous feasting, during which many practical jokes are played and battles royal with confetti, bonbons, etc., are fought. AU this gives occasion for merriment of the most boisterous kind until near twelve o'clock, when all await the stroke of the hour in order to shout '* Happy New Year " and kiss each other heartily. Then, in some parts, the last year's calendars are collected in the streets and made into a great bonfire. All through the winter months dancing proceeds at a terrible pace in every part of Germany. Participation in as many balls as possible is regarded by many Winter German parents as the first step on the way to the altar for their daughters, for it is at balls that most of the young persons become acquainted. In Life and Some Customs 265 Northern Germany the dancing continues even during Lent, when it is forbidden by the Church in Southern Germany, which is Catholic. In the city of Berlin alone there are 1,448 societies, or clubs, which devote their energies to the encouragement of dancing and, as each of them gives a number of public balls every winter, the opportunities for dancing are ample. Prussia, with the exception of the towns on the banks of the Rhine, takes very little part in the great carnivals which are the custom in Continental countries before Q^^ygA the beginning of Lent, but in Cologne, Bonn, Coblence, Mayence and Frankfort the car- nival is a yearly event in which most of the inhabitants take part. The younger people dress in every kind of disguise and go masked through the streets battling with confetti and serpentines until pavements and roadways are covered with heaps of bright coloured paper. Everybody is in good-humour. Even the police take an attack by a group of merry-makers in good part ! In Bavarian cities, more especially in Munich, the carnival period is celebrated more or less within doors — that is to say, in the great dancing halls and ball-rooms, g *° . where masked balls are held under the patronage of art, literary and other societies. The universally recognised good fellowship of the Southern German is on these occasions displayed in its best form and fun and frolic reign supreme. At Eastertide some of the customs handed down from the time of the heathen gods are stiU carried out in many . parts of the country. The fiery wheel, representing the sun, is still rolled down hill in Westphalia as a sign that the sun has come again, while in other districts a dummy representing King Frost is burned or drowned to show that his rule is at an end. Searching in the gardens for Easter eggs, too, is a very wide- spread custom : the red-coloured eggs, representing fruitfulness, 266 Germany of the Germans are supposed to have been laid in the bushes by the hare, one of the most productive animals. At Whitsuntide, even in the great cities, it is the custom to deck the interior of the houses with young branches of birch, as a sign that the earth has again become fruitful. Harvest festivals and the anniversary of the dedication of the village church give occasion for rejoicings among the peasants, who always turn the occurrence F^i^Ss. ^^^^ ^^ opportunity for dancing. At Martinmas, in some of the real country districts, the children go round in groups from house to house singing songs whose origin cannot be traced, but which have passed down from generation to generation until the present day. Apples and nuts are given them by the inhabitants, or else a small money gift with which to purchase them. There are, of course, other festivals in various parts of the country, but those described will serve to show that the German, as a rule, is not difficult to please in his amusements, and that he is, as a rule, content with the " simple life." One of the German customs which many people would like to see suppressed is the compulsory duel among military men, with its occasional sad consequence of the ^ Custom°"^ innocent man suffering while the real offender goes scatheless. As matters stand, two officers who have a difference, whatever it may be, must submit it to the investigation of a so-called " Court of honour," composed of their brother officers, which decides whether they are to fight or not. Oftentimes the conditions of the duel are extremely severe, so much so that a fatal result is almost certain, and the surviving slaughterer is only nominally punished before receiving a clean sheet and being permitted to return to duty. Honour that can thus be satisfied must be a very peculiar sentiment, in the opinion of many ; but, notwithstanding the strong desire expressed in many quarters for the abolition of the duel, the custom survives and will do so until a law is passed to prevent its continuance, or the Life and Some Customs 267 Emperor, as head of the Army, forbids it entirely. One of the worst features of the barbarous custom is that reserve officers and also those who have retired from the service with the honourable distinction of being permitted to wear the uniform are compelled to submit to it. Although this kind of duel is tolerated and, in some quarters, is even considered essential to the " standing " of the officer, yet until very recently it was impossible to Br^af obtain the permission of the authorities for an ordinary exhibition boxing bout — not a match — on account of its ** brutality." A thing that strikes the foreigner in Germany is the number of people who travel on the railways in the third and fourth classes, while the first-class carriages remain I^wav almost entirely empty and the second-class only a Httle less so. One of the reasons is, of course, the prevalent thrifty spirit ; another is the objection to the payment of the railway ticket tax, which amounts in the first-class to 16 per cent, on the price of the ticket, in the second to 8 per cent., and in the third to 4 per cent., while the fourth-class is free of tax. The fares on the State railways are very moderate and the carriages of all classes are extremely good. In the fourth-class, however, there are very few seats, the compartments forming in some cases half of a carriage with seats only round the sides, so that most of the passengers must stand. The official returns of the State railways show that not more than 3 per cent, of the passengers ride first-class. Of these the majority may certainly be reckoned as foreigners. Only about 10 per cent, ride second-class and the remainder third and fourth. It would take a volume to describe even a small proportion of the customs, amusements and habits of this people, who com- bine so many elements, owing to the multitude of small States ; but these will be sufficient to show that, instead of being prodigal, as they have lately been portrayed, the Germans as a nation are as thrifty and simple-minded as ever they were. INDEX Accident Insurance, 134 Stations. 120 Accidents, Compensation for, 134 Actors and Actresses, 224 Actors' Salaries, 226 Actors, their numbers, 225 Agricultural Element, 159 Alexander, Richard, actor, 225 Alsace-Lorraine, 36 Ambrosius, Johanna, author, 198 Amusements, 182 Animal Breeding, 159 Antipathy to Prussia, 30 Aram, Kurt, author, 196 Architects, leading, 237 Architectural styles, 235 Architecture, Ancient, 238 Modem, 235 Army and Clergy, 60 and Navy Burdens, 8 and Sports, 178 Barracks, 61 Cadets, 63 , Cases of Cruelty, 61 Enrolment, 56 Favouritism, 64 Influences, 52 Officers, 62 Officers' Pay, 64 Organisation, 56 Pay, 61 Reserve, 61 Service, 54 Shooting, 61 Stature, 57 Strength, 56 Veterans, 61 Volunteers, 59 Art Centres, 228 Art CoUections, 234 , private, 235 GaUeries, 234 in Berlin, 230 in Carlsnihe, 231 in Dresden, 231 in Dusseldorf, 231 in Germany, 227 in Munich, 229 , Old Masters, 235 Arts and Crafts Schools, 235 Art's Efforts for a Style. 10 Artists, leading, 229 Artists' revolt. 227 Secession. 228 Artists, so-called, 231 Athletic Meetings. 180 Attention to DetaU, 2 Authors, 194 Avenarius, Ferdinand, poet, 200 Baden and Direct Voting, 32 Banking Companies, 158 Bankruptcy cases, 113 Banks and Agriculture. 158 and Commerce, 158 Baths, pubhc, 253 Bavaria's Constitution, 31 Berg, Leo, critic, 224 Berlin the Metropolis, 254 Labour Exchange, 143 Berlin's Poor, 124 Bethmann-Hollweg, Herr Von, 50 Beyerlein, Franz Adam, author, 196 Bierbaum, Otto Julius, author, 197 Bleibtreu, Carl, author, 197 270 Index Blind Schools, 78 Boating in Germany, 178 Bocklin, Arnold, artist, 229 Bohlau, Helene, author, 198 Bolsche, Wilhelm, author, 197 Book Production, 200 Books sold, 200 Boxing called Brutal, 267 Boy-Ed, Ida, author. 198 Brahm, Otto, theatre manager, 224 Britons and Games, 177 Bruch, Max, composer, 213 Budgets of States and Empire, 9 Bulcke, Karl, author, 198 Billow, Freiin Von, author, 198 Bungert, August, composer, 213 Busch, Wilhelm, author, 196 Capital for Enterprises, 158 Carnival in Bavaria, 265 time, 265 Cases in Camera, 108 Catholic Activity. 100 Church, 100 Catholics and Classics. 91 Catholics, liberal, 101 Cattle in Germany. 159 Centre Party. 42, 43 Party's Programme, 45 Chamber Music, 211 Chancellor's Responsibility. 21 Chemical Industry. 155 Children's Walking Tours, 76 Choice of Husband, 186 Christianity's Future, 245 Christmas Festivities. 263 Churches, the. 94 Church Organisation, 95 Reform, 99 Churches, State, 95 Church Taxes, 95 Cities. Picturesque. 236 City Debts, 249 Development. 248 Enterprises, 250 Government, 249 Land Purchase. 254 Life, its influence, 259 City Plans, 254 Rates and Taxes, 251 Trading, 250 Civil Procedure, 112 Class Spirit, 89 Classical Schools, 82 Cleanliness in the Army, 55 Clergy and Schools, 102 Clerical Career, 96 Clerical Desires in Politics, 45 Coal Mining, 153 Collectivism and Individualism, 243 College Life, 93 Cologne Unemployed, 140 Comic Papers, 207 Commercial Germans, 157 Compulsory Apprenticeship, 148 Army Service, 54 Schooling. 81 Sick Insurance. 130 Trade Classes. 149 Concert Music, 211 Conductors. 214 Conquered Provinces. 36 Conrad, Michael Georg, author, 195 Conservative Party, 43 Programme. 44 Conservatives, Free, 43 Constituencies, Antiquated, 39 Constitution, Articles, 22 Constitutional Changes, 29 Constitution of Empire. 20 Consumption of Alcohol, 169 Continuation Schools, 81 Co-operative Movement. 161 Cricket in Germany. 180 Criminal Code. 104 Courts. 105 Offences. 105 Cripples' Homes, 78 Crown and Crime, 106 Crown Prince, 18 Prince and Sport. 174 as Carpenter. 19 Culture. Modern, 240 Cuxhaven. 72 Cycling in Germany. 180 Index 271 Dahn, Felix, author, 197 Dairy Companies' effect on Drink, 170 Dancing in Germany, 264 Danish Question, 37 Deaconesses in Germany, 192 Declaration of War, 25 Dehmel, Richard, poet, 200 Discipline at Play, 176 Discipline's effect on the Nation, 55 Dispensaries and Hospitals, 120 Dissenters, 94 Doctorates, 92 Domicile in Germany, 121 Duels in the Army. 266 Duelling Corps, 88 Diisseldorf Unemployed, 141 Drama in Germany, 217 Dramatic critics, 217 Revival, 218 Taste, 218 Dresden, 257 Dress of Women. 185 Drink in the Country, 169 Drunkards, care of, 168 Drunkards' Homes, 167 Drunkards in Confinement, 167 Drunkenness, 167 Eastern Provinces and Indus- try, 156 Eastertide, 265 Ebers. Georg, author, 196 Edifices, Modem, 236 Educational Efficiency, 6 Expenditure, 74 Frankness, 80 Education, Free, 73 of Women. 185 . Superior, 82 Elberfeld Poor System. 116 Electoral Laws. 31. 32, 33 Electrical Industry, 154 Elementary School Education, 77 Emperor and Art, 17, 228 and Berlin Opera, 12 and Divine Right, 14 Emperor and Navy, 65 and Sport, 174 and Yachting. 179 as a War Lord. 11 as an Artisan. 14 on His Travels. 12 signs all Laws, 25 Emperor's Devorion to Duty. II Devotion to Exercise, 13 Dogmatism, 15 Energy, 11 Good Faith, 15 Love of Power, 11 Love for Soldiering, 16 Popularity, 18 Private Life. 13 Privy Purse, 12 Special Train, 12 Sports, 13 Strong Personality, 14 Versatihty, 17 Virtues and Demerits, 14 Wholeheartedness, 13 Yacht " Meteor," 179 Empire's Enterprises, 9 Rights over Railways, 28 Employers' Associations, 152 Empress as a Woman, 184 Ernst, Otto, author. 197 Eucken. Rudolf, philosopher, 242 Evening Schools. 81 Exercise, 174 , Compulsory, 176 Factory Workers, 150 Farmers and Agriculture, 159 Small, 159 Farm Labourers, 161 Labourers' Earnings, 161 Federal Council, 24 Fencing in Germany, 181 Festivities, National, 263 Feudal Nobles' Sway. 49 Power. 34 Fire Insurance, Compulsory. 135 First Offenders. 108 Fleet Manoeuvres, 72 Flight from the Church. 97 272 Index Folksongs in Germany, 208 Fontane, Theodor, author, 196 Football in Germany, 180 Forest and State, 162 Foresters, their Numbers, 164 their Training, 164 the Lower Ranks of, 165 Forest Land, 162 Produce, 164 Forestry, 162 Forests and Climate, 166 , a Treasure of the Nation, 166 , extent of, 163 Forest trees, 162 For the People, not by the People, 48 Fractions of Parties, 40 Frankfort-on-Main, 256 Frederick the Great and Banks, 158 Free Cities, 255 Conservative Programme, 44 Theatre, 218 Trade Opinion, 160 Frenssen, Gustav, author, 197 Freytag, Gustav, author, 197 Fulda, Ludwig, playwright, 223 Gambling in Germany, 181 Games shown by Britons, 177 Geestemiinde, 72 German Amusements, 182 Comfort and Luxury, 8 Empire's Birth, 23 Forestry, 162 Housewife, 184 Love of Nature, 75 Germans and Customers' Wishes, 157 Germans' Determination, 7 Forethought, 7 Germans Great Walkers, 182 Germany a Power to Reckon with, 7 Germany's Government, 38 Goats in Germany, 159 Golf in Germany, 181 Gotz, Hermann, 211 Government Income from Enter- prises, 9 Grabbe, Dietrich, author, 198 Greif, Martin, poet, 199 Gymnastics for Children, 176 Gymnastic Societies, 175 Tournaments, 175 Haeckel, Ernst, philosopher, 241 Halbe, Max, playwright, 223 Harden, Maximilian, journalist, 205 Harvest Festivals, 266 Hauptmann, Gerhard, 195, 222 Heidelberg, 257 Hehgoland, 72 Heyking, Elizabeth Von, author, 198 Heyse, Paul, author, 198 Higher Officials Obliging, 3 Historical Drama, 220 Hoffmann, Hans, author, 196 Holz, Amo, author, 195 Home Life, 262 Horse-racing in Germany, 181 Horses in Germany, 159 Hospitals, 253 House Accommodation and Drink, 173 Housewives in Germany, 184 Humperdinck, Engelbert, com- poser, 213 Illustrated Papers, 206 Imperial Chancellor, 21, 50 Finances, 28 Idea, 31 Legislation, 23 Parhament, 22 Imports and Exports, 148 Income from State Forests, 162 Incomes, 153 Industrial Branches, 156 Growth, 148 Movement, 147 Success, causes of, 148 Index 273 Industrial System, 147 Industries, Principal, 153 Infirmity Insurance, 126 Influence of Prussia, 30 Insane Asylums, 253 Instrumentalists, 214 Insults and their Punishment, 29 Insurance, GDnditions of, 130 Cost of Management, 132 Exceptions, 128 Extension of, 127 its Immensity, 127 of Drunkards. 169 Table, 129 the amounts paid, 127 State, 125 V. Pauperism, 125 Insured, Numbers of, 127 Interference in Private Affairs, 2 Intoxication, 167 Introduction, 1 Invalids, Chronic, 128 Inventiveness, 157 Irresponsibihty of Officials, 52 Jena Glass Works, 156 Jewish Church, 102 Journalistic DifiSculties, 206 Journalists, 205 Judges, 106 Honorary, 114 Judges' Appointments, 114 Salaries, 114 Kaiser Appoints Ministers, 21 Represents Empire, 21 Kaiser's Powers, 21 Kiel. 72 Yachting. 178 Kitchens, Popular, 120 Kleist, Heinrich Von, author, 198 Koester, Admiral Von, 66 Konigsberg, 256 Labourers and Insurance, 137 Labour Exchanges, 142 Exchange scenes, 144 i8— (ajQi) Land Cultivation. 159 Landowners' Despotism, 39 Law, Civil, 110 Codes, 104 making Institutions, 24 the. 104 Lectures at Universities. 90 Legal anomahes. 113 Appeals. 112 Costs. Ill EquaUty. 107 Fees, 107 Punishments, 108 Leipzig Concerts, 211 Unemployed. 140 Liberal Ideas of Minor States, 31 Liberals. 43 Libraries. PubHc. 200 Liliencron. Detlev Von, author, 196 Literature, 193 at a Standstill, 10 , Unworthy, 193 Litigation, Delays in, 1 1 1 Lodgings for Workmen, 259 Lords in Prussia, 34 Lortzing, Albert, 210 Lyrical Art, 199 Machinery Construction, 154 Making of Treaties, 25 Marriage, 186 Married Women's Work, 262 Martinmas, 266 Matriculation Day, 88 Mayence Unemployed, 141 Mayors of Cities, 249 Members of Parliament, 40 Mendelssohn, Arnold, composer, 213 Merchant Navy. 69 Messel. Alfred, architect, 237 Middle-class Economy, 261 in Trade, 7 Military Compulsion, 28 Cult, 3 Liability, 54 Mines, State, 154 Ministerial Positions. 22 274 Index Ministers and Secretaries of State, 51 not Members of Parlia- ment, 40 Modem Schools, 82 Mortgage Banks, 158 Mortgages on Land, 158 Motorboats in Germany, 179 Motoring in Germany, 181 Miinden, 256 Municipal Activities, 248 Interests, 47 Municipalities and Drunkards, 168 and Unemployed, 141 Music, 208 in Berlin, 211 in Transition Stage, 10 Musical Composers, 209 Conductors, 214 Education, 209 Festivals, 212 Germany, 208 Musicians, Professional, 216 National Character, 5 Nationahties, 36 National Liberals' Programme, 45 — — Questions, 36 Naval Officers, 70 Personnel, 69 Ports, 71 Recruiting, 69 Training, 70 Vessels, 68 Volunteers, 70 Navy, the, 65 Artificers, 69 Development, 67 League, 65 Programme, 67 Yards, 71 " Nevers," the, 121 News Agency, 205 Newspaper Circulation, 204 Kiosks, 204 Newspapers and the Post, 207 in Germany, 202 , Leading, 203 Newspapers, Old, 202 , Socialist, 202 New Year's Celebration, 264 Nietzsche, Friedrich, philoso- pher, 240 Nietzsche's Works, 241 Night Shelters, 119 North German Union, 23 Novels, 193 Nuns in Germany, 192 Nuremberg, 258 Nursing Profession, 191 Offensive Tone of Officials, 52 Officialdom, 47 Satisfies People, 53 Official Fidelity, 52 Officials' Divine Right, 3 Honesty, 38 Influence in Pohtics, 35 Loyalty, 52 Officials, Number of, 47 under Control, 52 Uninfluenced by Parlia- ment, 49 Old- Age Insurance, 126 Open-air Life, 183 Opera in Dresden, 211 Oratorical Talent Lacking, 41 Orphans and Foundlings, 119 Outdoor Athletics, 180 Out-of-Work Insurance, 136 Relief, 141 Papers, Comic, 207 Paquet, Alfons, poet, 200 Parents and Teachers, 78 Parhament, 38 a Passive Organ, 42 Parliamentary Government un- known, 41 Parliament of Empire, 27 Party Programmes, 44 Pastors' Nomination, 96 Patents applied for, 157 Paternal Government, 4 Patriotism Encouraged, 4 Payment of Members, 40 Index 275 People do not Govern, 41 People's Stage, Free, 219 Pessimism, 247 Philharmonic Society, 211 Philosophers, the Older, 247 Philosophy and Church, 240 and Rehgion, 243 in Germany, 240 Philosophy's Tasks, 245 Physique of Germans, 175 Pigs in Germany, 159 Pig-iron production, 154 Piloty, artist, 229 Plays, classical, 221 Playwrights, 217 Poets, 199 Police Word is Law, 3 Polish Question, 37 Political Development Slow, 4 Groups, 46 Oratory, 41 Unripeness, 38 Politics not understood, 5 Poor, Cost of, 122 Deserving, 115 Expenditure on, 123 in Cities, 121 in Germany, 115 Law, 115 and Drunkards, 169 Principles, 124 Wandering, 118 Poors' Doctors, 120 Guardians, 116 Population of Cities, 248 Ports, 248 Posen, 256 Poultry in Germany, 159 Powers of Federal Council, 24 Presidency of German Union, 25 Press and Statesmen, 204 Bureau, 204 Development, 203 in Germany, 202 Periodical, 206 Restrictions, 203 Priests' Popularity, 100 Stipends, 101 Princely Houses dying out, 31 Prisoners and Employment, 109 Prison Confinement, 110 Prisoner's Position, 106 Problem Novels, 194 Prodigahty, 261 Professional Paupers, 121 Professors, 85 Profits from Forests, 163 Prosperity Ousts Politics, 5 Protection and Prices, 160 Protestant Pastor's Stipends, 96 Prussian Administration, 34 Prussia's Mediaeval Suffrage, 32, 33 Preponderance, 30 Role, 31 Public-houses, their numbers, 169 PubHc Servants placed on High Plane, 53 Punishment in Schools, 76 Raabe, Wilhelm, author, 195 Radicals, 43 Radical Programme, 46 Railway riding, 267 Real Rulers of Germany, 20 Reasons of Prosperity, 1 Recruiting Office, 57 Recruits, 57 Recruits' Origin, 57 Redistribution of Seats, 39 Reger, Max, composer, 213 Reichstag Dissolved Peremp- torily, 41 Reigning Princes, 19 Relief Systems for Unemployed, 142 Religious Camps, 94 Indifference, 98 Life. 246 Pessimism, 8 Rothenburg-ob-der-Tauber, 257 Rowing in Germany, 178 Sailing in Germany, 179 Satisfaction with Official System, 53 Savings Banks, l53 276 Index Saxony's Progress, 32 Scharwenka, Philip, composer, 213 Schiemann, Professor, 205 Schlaf, Johannes, author, 195 Schoneberg and Unemployed, 141 School Attendance, 76 Buildings, 79 Dentists and Doctors, 78 Discipline, 75 Fees, 83 Hours, 83 Instruction, 77 Punishments, 76 Syllabus, 75 Teachers, 79 Schools and Temperance, 171 Commercial, 81 Denominational, 73 in Forests, 79 in Germany, 73 Middle. 82 Schiicking, Levin, poet, 199 Schuler, Gustav, poet, 199 Scientific Education, 90 Learning, 8 Sculptors, Leading, 232 Sculpture in Berlin, 232 in Dresden, 232 in Germany, 232 in Munich, 233 Seidel, Heinrich, author, 196 Sentiment and Marriage, 186 Service in Army, 54 Shakespeare in Germany, 218 Sheep in Germany, 159 Shooting in Germany, 182 Shop Hours Regulation, 253 Sick Benefits, 132 Funds, 132 Insurances, number of, 131 Singers in Germany, 214 Singing in Germany, 208 Skating in Germany, 181 Social Problems, 8 Socialists and Church, 97 Crushed by Suffrage Laws, 33 Socialists Excluded from Offices, 49 Socialists' Forward March, 42 Power, 42 Programme, 46 Society v. Family, 261 Soldier Respected, 55 Soldiers as Officials, 52 Soldiers' Education, 58 Sonneberg, 257 Sorma, Agnes, actress, 225 Specialisation and Caste, 6 Spielhagen, Friedrich, drama- tist, 224 Sport and National Defence, 174 for Women, 186 in Germany, 174 in the Army, 178 State and Unemployed, 137 Control, 47 Divisions, 30 Enterprises, 47 Guardianship, 8 Insurance, 125 Production, Dangers of, 48 States and Industries, 9 : Their Position, 30 Strassburg and Unemployed, 139 Strauss, Richard, composer, 212 Student Life. 87 Students, 86 Students' Restrictions, 89 Study, Course of, 88 Duration of, 91 Sudermann, Hermann, author, 195 Suffrage in Various States, 31, 32, 33 Law of Empire, 39 Summer Colonies, 183 Supplies in Reichstag. 41 Swimming in Germany, 181 Tact Lacking, 7 Tariff Laws, 160 Taxable property, 148 Taxation Murmurs, 9 Teachers' Salaries, 79 Index 277 Technical High Schools, 87 Temperance, 167 and Schools, 171 and the Church. 171 Societies, 172 Templars, 172 Territory of German Empire, 23 Theatre, a Model, 221 a State, 220 Theatres, Municipal, 220 Theatrical Centre, Berlin a, 219 Theological Philosophers, 244 Thrift among Workers, 153 in Germany, 267 Tidiness in Germany, 55 Trades Unions, 151 and Drunkenness, 170 Unionists' Temperance, 170 Tram Lines, 254 Treaties, 25 Tulle Indust^>^ 155 Ubiquity of the PoHce, 2 Ulm, 258 Unearned Increment, 254 Unemployed Insurance, 136 in Cologne, 140 in Leipzig, 140 in Mayence, 141 in Schoneberg, 141 in Strassburg, 139 Unemployment among Veterans, 144 Difficulties, 138 in Baden, 145 in Bavaria, 144 in Prussia, 145 in Trades, 146 Uniform's Popularity, 54 Universal Manhood Suffrage, 39 Universities, 86 University Education, 85 Faculties, 86 Upper House in Prussia, 34 Veterans and Unemployment, 144 Veterans of Army, 61 Virihty of the Germans, 2 Vocahsts, 214 their Origin, 215 Volunteers in Army, 58 one-year, 59 Voss, Richard, dramatist. 224 Votes of Federal Councillors, 24 Wages and Hours, 149 Wagner, Richard, 210 Siegfried, composer, 213 Walking in Germany, 182 WaUot, Paul, architect, 237 Wealth, distribution of, 248 Wedekind, Frank, dramatist, 224 Weimar, 257 Whitsuntide, 266 Wildenbruch, Ernst Von, author, 196 Wildenbruch, playwright, 223 Wilhelmshafen, 71 Wilham II as Emperor, 11 as European Arbiter, 11 Witnesses' Payment, 112 Worn. Julius, poet, 199 Woman and Agriculture, 190 and Business, 187 and the Law, 188 and Trade. 190 , Higher Education, 191 Obhged to Work, 190 Woman's Accomplishments, 186 Inferiority, 186 Life, 184 Organisations, 188 Position, 184 Women and Liberal Profesaons, 190 Authors, 198 Doctors, 190 Guardians, 117 in Factories, 190 Lawyers, 190 , Society for Instruction of, 191 Students. 87 C5f TH£ 278 Index Women's Dignity, 187 Education, 185 Prisons, 110 Property, 187 Qualities, 184 Restrictions, 187 Societies, 189 — — Wages, 191 Work Colonies, 118 " Work " Houses, 121 Workers and Higher Education, 92 Workers and the Church, 97 and Unemployment, 138 Workers and Vacations, 152 ' seem to be another race, 6 Workers' Books, 152 Discipline, 149 Life, 153 Welfare, 152 Working Classes, 262 Class's Strivings, 5 Workmen and Gymnastics, 175 Foreign, 150 Workmen's Insurance, 125 Yachting in Germany, 178 Youth of Germany, 73 THE END Press of Isaac Pitman & Sons, Bath, England. (3391) ^^*^^ « T^TTT. 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