Ex Libris \ C. K. OGDEN i 7 THE DICTIONARY CHRONOLOGY, HISTORICAL AND STATISTICAL REGISTER. COMPILED AND EDITED BY WILLIAM HENRY OVERALL, F.S.A. LIBRARIAN TO THE CORPORATION OF THB CITY OF LONDON. LONDON: WILLIAM TEGG. 1870. JOHN CHILDS AND SON, PRINTERS. TO THE READER. IN submitting this work in its present form to the public, my apology (if any be necessary) may be thus briefly stated. Having been requested by the publisher of the well-known and popular work entitled " Tegg's Chronology " (the first edition of which was published in 1822), to revise and modernize it for a new edition, I at once en- tered upon the work, but, finding therein so much that was unnecessary to the present generation, and so many additional particulars requisite to bring the work down to the present time, I have, with his consent, attempted a reconstruction of the work. No exertions have been spared to afford correct information on all subjects, the original authorities having been consulted where possible. Considerable care has also been taken with the History of London, and the London Companies, &c., &c. The lists of names having been alphabetically arranged, will, it is hoped, facilitate reference. Craving the indulgence of my readers for the errors which must inevitably have found their way into a work of this magnitude, and compiled from so many sources, and their assistance in pointing them out for correction in any future edition, I beg to subscribe myself, Most respectfully, THE COMPILER. 2000160 DICTIONARY CHRONOLOGY, AALBORG ABBEYS AALBORG, Jutland, taken by the Swedes in 1658 ; and at the peace of Roskild restored, Feb. 25, 1658 ; the Prussians occupied the town during the late cam- paign, 1864. AARHUS, Denmark. The Prussian army defeated here by the Danes, May 31, 1849. AB ANC AY Battles. The Spaniards under Almagno defeated those under Alva- rado, during the Civil War, July 12, 1527. The forces of Pizarro defeated the Peruvians here in 1533. ABATTOIR. The first erected in Paris, 1818. In Edinburgh, 1851. In London, at the New Cattle Market, Copenhagen Fields, Islington, June 13, 1855. ABBAYE PRISON. After the revolt of the regiment of Gardes Fra^aises, some of the mutineers being imprisoned there, they were rescued by the mob, who broke into the prison, 1789. The Revolutionists under Robespierre, Billaud, and the other leaders, broke into this prison and murdered 24 Priests, Sept. 2, 1792 ; a Mock Tribunal, with Maillard as president, tried the Swiss soldiers and other prisoners, who were afterwards given up to the bloodthirsty mob to be murdered. ABBEOKUTA, Guinea, ' Under Stone: The king of Dahomey defeated in an attack upon this town, March 3, 1851 ; he renewed attack with an army of 10,000, many of them being his celebrated Amazons, but they were defeated with great slaughter, nearly 1000 being killed, March 16, 1864. ABBEVILLE, France. The town nearly destroyed by an explosion of gun- powder, 150 persons perished, Nov., 1773. ABBEYS, religious communities presided over by an Abbot or Abbess ; the most splendid was that of Fulda in Franconia, founded, 784 ; the Great Abbeys were the repositories of the laws, edicts of kings, and acts of Parliament. The first estab- lished in Britain, 560. They were pillaged by William I., 1069 ; compelled by him to alter their tenures, 1070. In the 49th Henry III., 1265, 64 abbots and 36 priors had seats in parliament ; this number was reduced to about 30 abbots and 2 priors by Edward III. The following is a list of the mitred abbeys in Eng- land ; those distinguished by * are priories. Abingdon, Berks 'Canterbury, Christ Church, Kent St Albans, Herts Cirencester, Gloucester Bardney, Lincoln Croyland, Lincoln Battle, Sussex *Durham, Durham Bury St Edmonds, Suffolk Evesham, Worcester Canterbury, St Augustine's, Kent Glastonbury, Somerset 2 ABBOT ABERDEEN Gloucester, Gloucester Shrewsbury, Salop Hulme, Norfolk Tavistock, Devon Hyde, Hants Thorney, Cambridge Malmesbury, Wilts Waltham, Essex Peterborough Westminster, Middlesex Ramsey, Hants Winchcomb, Gloucester Reading, Berks *Worcester Selby, York York, St Mary's On July 29, 1539, 31 Henry VIII., a statute passed forthe seizure of the abbeys, which brought a revenue to the king of ,100,000 per annum, besides plate and jewels. The number suppressed in England and Wales was 1643 monasteries, 90 colleges, 2374 churches and free chapels, and no hospitals. The revenues of 193 dissolved at this time, reached ,2,653,000. ABBOT. In the Greek Church the abbot is called archimandrite, or chief monk. Some are mitred, others croziered abbots. In early times secular persons were frequently denominated " field abbots," and "abbot counts," upon whom the sove- reign had bestowed certain abbeys. The number of abbots allowed by Parliament was 25, 20 Rich. II., 1396. ABBOTSBURY, Dorset. The Monastery of St Peter's, founded by Orcus, steward of Canute, 1044. ABBOTSFORD CLUB, founded in 1835, in honour of Sir Walter Scott, from whose residence its name is taken. Its object is the printing of pieces illustrat- ive of history, literature, and antiquities. ABDICATION. Baliol, king of Scotland, 1306 ; Bonaparte, Jerome, king of Westphalia, 1813 ; Bonaparte, Joseph, of Naples, to become king of Spain, 1808 ; the same of the crown of Spain, 1808 ; Bonaparte, Louis, king of Holland, 1810 ; Casimir of Poland, 1669 ; Charles V. of Spain, 1556 ; Charles, king of Naples, 1759; Charles IV. of Spain, 1808; Charles X. of France, 1830; Charles of Bavaria, 1848 ; Charles Albert of Sardinia, 1849 ; Charles Emanuel II., 1802 ; Christina of Sweden, 1654; Christina of Spain, 1840; Don Miguel of Portugal, flying the kingdom, 1834 ; Don Pedro of Portugal, 1826 ; Eric IV., king of Den- mark, 1439 ; Eric XIII. of Sweden, 1441 ; Ferdinand I. of Austria, 1848 ; Francis II. of Germany, becoming Emperor of Austria alone, 1804 ; Frederic Augustus II. of Poland, 1 704 ; James II. of England, 1688 ; Louis Charles of Bavaria, 1848 ; Louis Philippe of France, 1848 ; Leopold 2nd Grand Duke of Tuscany, 1859; Napoleon, Emperor of France, 1814; Otho of Hungary, 1309 ; Pedro of Brazil, 1831 ; Philip V. of Spain, 1724 ; Stanislaus of Poland, I 795 5 Victor Amadeus I. of Sardinia, 1730 ; Victor Emanuel of Sardinia, 1821 ; William I. of Holland, 1840. ABELARD and HELOISE, their amour, 1118; he died, 1142; she, 1163. ABERCONWAY, North Wales. Castle built by Edward I., 1284; suspension bridge constructed, 300 feet span, 1824. The tubular iron bridge across the Menai Straits is near this place. ABERCROMBY, ROBINSON, and WATERLOO transports, lost at the Cape of Good Hope, with 189 souls, 1842. ABERDEEN (OLD), Scotland, is a place of great antiquity. The bishopric was founded in 1004, by Malcolm II., at Mortlach, in Banffshire, and translated to Old Aberdeen, and in 1153 a new charter was granted by Malcolm IV. Its cathedral was called St Machar's. King's College was founded in 1494, by William Elphinston, bishop of this place. ABERDEEN (NEW), Scotland. In 1333 and 1336 the town was burnt by the ABERDEEN ABRAHAMITES 3- fleet of Edward III. ; when rebuilt it was called New Aberdeen. The college called Marischal College was founded by George Keith, earl marshal, 1593 ; the bridge over the river built by Bishop Dunbar, in 1500 ; a statue by Marochetti, to the ate Prince Albert, inaugurated by the Queen, Oct. 13, 1863 ; a statue to the Queen inaugurated by the Prince of Wales, Sept. 20, 1866 ; the water- works for supplying the city, opened by Her Majesty, Oct. 16, 1866. ABERDEEN MINISTRY, formed upon the resignation of Lord Derby's ministry, Dec. 17, 1852; resigned, Feb. I, 1855. ABERDEEN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY, instituted, Jan., 1840, for the discussion of subjects on natural history, physiology, mental sciences, &c. ABERRATIONS of the fixed stars discovered by Dr Bradley, 1727. ABERYSTWITH, Wales. The town incorporated by Edward I. The castle founded 1109; burnt down, 1208; rebuilt, 1211. ABHORRERS, a political party in the reign of Charles II., who denounced the system of petitioning pursued by Shaftesbury and his friends to importune the king to re-assemble Parliament. An address from the grand jury and justices of Essex declared an abhorrence of these petitions : hence they were stigmatized as the Abhorrers. Petitioners and Abhorrers, in 1 680, divided the nation, which a few weeks later received the name of Whigs and Tories. ABINGDON, Berkshire, is supposed to be the Claveshoo of the Saxon annals. Its monastery was founded in 686, destroyed by the Danes in the reign of Alfred, 871. It was rebuilt in the tenth century, and was a mitred abbey, and at its dis- solution its yearly rental was ^1876 lor. <)d. Eldred, grandson of Alfred, laid the first stone of the New Abbey, 955. William I. celebrated his Easter at this town, being entertained by Robert D'Oilly, 1084. The town incorporated, 1557. It was the head-quarters of Charles I. in the civil wars. Captured by the Parliamentarians under Earl of Essex, May 25, 1644, who here placed a garrison for the Parliament, of which General Browne was governor. A cruel custom is said to have prevailed within this garrison of hanging all the Irish prisoners with- out a trial, a practice so notorious that " Abingdon Law" became proverbial. ABJURATION, Oath of, against Popery. First required, 25 Charles II. c. 2, 1672 ; against the Pope and the Pretender, 13 William III. c. 3,. 1 701 ; a Bill introduced by Mr C. W. W. Wynn to repeal the Acts requiring members to take this oath, altered, 21 & 22 Viet. c. 48, July 23, 1858 ; power to modify form for Jews in Parliament, 21 & 22 Viet. c. 49, July 23, 1858 ; amended, 23 & 24 Viet. c. 63, Aug. 6, 1860 ; form of affirmation, 22 Viet. c. IO, April 8, 1859. ABNEY PARK CEMETERY, Stoke Newington, London, opened May 20, 1840. ABO, Finland. The city was founded by Eric II., king of Sweden, 1152 ; cap- tured by the Russians, 1713 ; ceded to the latter power, Sept. 17, 1809 ; treaty ofj 1743 ; the town nearly destroyed by fire, Aug. 22, 1775 ; again, in 1827; the University founded, 1640 ; burnt, Sept 4, 1827. ABOUKIR, Egypt, castle and bay ; near the former was fought a battle between the French under Napoleon I. and the Turks, when the latter were defeated, July 25, 1799; the battle of the Nile fought Aug. I, 1798; on shore, the battle of Alexandria, March 21, 1801, in which General Abercrombie was wounded, he died on the 2gth ; the castle surrendered to the British, March 20, 1801. ABRAHAM, Era of, so called from the patriarch. It was used by Eusebius in 313, and began Oct. i, 2016 B.C. To reduce this era to the Christian era subtract 2015 years and 3 months. Nicolas. ABRAHAMITES, a religious sect, suppressed by a patriarch of Antioch ; it reappeared between 800 and 900, but was annihilated for worshipping images. 4 ABSENTEE-TAX ACADIA ABSENTEE-TAX, levied in Ireland, 1634, on the profits, fees, emoluments, and pensions of absentees, 1715 ; it ceased, 1753; reimposed, 1800, but repealed the next year. ABSTINENTS, a mild sect of religionists, who appeared in France and Spain about the year 300, and repudiated wine, flesh, meat, and marriage. ABYSSINIA, Africa. The Abyssinians under King Elesbaan, defeated and de- stroyed the Homerites, A.D. 522 ; the natives were subsequently expelled their country. The kingdom was restored in 1268. The Portuguese sent several mission- aries into the country, and they converted to the Romish Faith even the Emperor Lusneius, in the I5th century, but they obtained religious liberty in 1631. Major Harris was sent on a political mission to the country, 1841. The Church Mis- sionary Society sent out two missionaries in 1829, but on account of the op- position of the native priests, they were compelled to return, 1838. Mr Plowden, the English Consul, killed, 1860 ; he was succeeded by Captain Cameron, 1861 ; who with several other English subjects were taken prisoners by the Emperor Theodorus, 1863. The English Government determined to send out an expedition to obtain their release, Aug. 1867. ABYSSINIAN ERA is reckoned from the Creation, which they place in the 5493rd year before the Christian era, on the 29th of August, old style ; and their dates will consequently exceed ours by S49 2 years and 125 days. They have 12 months of 30 days each, and 5 days added at the end. To reduce Abyssinian to the Julian year, subtract 5492 years and 125 days. ACACIA brought from North America, 1640. ACADEMY, an association of learned men, and so called from the groves of Academus, in the neighbourhood of Athens. In the I5th century the term Academy was revived in Italy, the first century in which literary and scientific academies were established in the modern form. The popular use of the word is sometimes perplexing ; hence in the voluminous catalogues of the British Museum, all acts, memoirs, transactions, journals, minutes, &c., of academies, institutes, associations, and societies, learned, scientific, or literary, are entered under the general name Academies, according to the county or town at which the society is held. The following are the principal Academies in Europe : Antweip : Academy of Arts, founded, July 6, 1663; enlarged, June 17, 1796. Austtia: Academia Naturae Curiosorum, at Vienna, 1652 ; but in 1687 called Academia Csesareo Leopoldena ; Arts and Sciences of Vienna, 1705; Surgical, 1783. France: Academic Franfaise, 1635 ; Academic Royale des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres, 1663 ; Sciences, 1666 ; National Institute, 1795 ; Celtique, 1807. There are likewise academies in many of the provincial capitals of France. Germany : Royal Society of Gottingen, 1733 ; Electoral Academy of Science at Munich, 1760. Italy: Academy della Crusca, at Florence, 1582; but afterwards called the Royal Florentine : Sciences and Belles Lettres, at Naples, 1779 ; Herculanean, at Naples, 1755 ; Etruscan Antiquities, at Cortona, 1726; Royal Academy of Turin, 1757. Portugal: at Lisbon are three History, 1720; Science and Arts, 1779; Geographical, 1799. Prussia: Science and Belles Lettres of Berlin, 1 700 ; Arts, 1 798 ; Science, at Erfurt, 1 754. Russia and Poland: Imperial, at Petersburg, 1725; Royal, at Warsaw, 1753. Spain: at Madrid are two the Royal Academy of Spain, 1714; and Historical, 1730. There is also one of History and Geography at Valladolid, 1753; a Literary Academy at Seville, 1753. Sweden: at Stockholm are two Scientific, 1739; Belles Lettres, 1753. Copenhagen, Sciences, 1742. Those in the United Kingdom are described under their names. ACADIA, America. Discovered by John Cabot, the Spanish Navigator, in 1497. The French first made a settlement here in 1604. See Nova Scotia. ACAPULCO ACTON BURNEL 5 ACAPULCO, Mexico. A Spanish galleon, Nostra Seigniora de Cabadonga, inter- cepted by Gen. Anson in the Straits of Manilla, June 20, O. S. 1743. It was manned by 600 sailors, and laden with treasure to the value of 313,000, and reached Spithead June 15, 1744. The town bombarded by the troops of Gen. Santa Anna, April 22, 1854; defeated by Gen. Alvarez, May 5, 1854. A severe shock of an earthquake at, the ground opened in the principal square and threw out volumes of smoke, Dec. 4, 1852. ACCLIMATISATION SOCIETY, established in London, June, 1860; branch societies have since been established in several countries. ACHAEAN LEAGUE, a confederacy began B.C. 284, by the inhabitants of Patne, Dyme, and Pharse, which continued for 130 years, till at last they were attacked by the Romans, and the league totally destroyed, B.C. 147. ACHALZIE, battle between the Russians and Turks, Aug. 24, 1828. ACHONRY BISHOPRIC, founded by St Finian, 530, and continued a separate see till 1585. It is now united with Tuam and Killala. ACHROMATIC TELESCOPES, first invented by Mr John Dollond, optician, of London, in 1758. ACOUSTICS. The doctrine of the different sounds of vibrating strings of different lengths, and the communication of sounds to the ear by the vibration of the at- mosphere, probably first explained by Pythagoras, about B. c. 500 ; and mentioned by Aristotle, about B. c. 300. The conj ecture of Aristotle first explained by Galileo, A. D. 1600; investigated by Newton, 1700. Galileo's theorem of the harmonic curve demonstrated by Dr Brooke Taylor, 1714, and further perfected by . D'Alembert, Euler, Bernoulli, and La Grange in the i8th century. ACRE (ST JEAN D'), a town of Syria, anciently called Ptolemais. In the crusades it was taken by Richard I. and Philip Augustus of France, after a siege of two years, July 12, 1191. Taken by Edward I., June 17, 1271. At this place his wife Eleanora gave birth to a Princess, named Joanna of Acre. In 1291 the Sultan Khalil marched against the town at the head of 60,000 horse, and 140,000 foot. After a siege of 33 days the Mamalukes made a general assault, the city was stormed and taken, and 60,000 Christians were put to death or sold into slavery ; the churches and fortifications were destroyed. In the 1 8th century, Sheik Daher fortified the town ; and his successor, Jezzar Pasha, built a new mosque. It was besieged but not taken by Bonaparte in 1799 ; and on July 2, 1832, was taken by Ibrahim Pasha. It was stormed by Admiral Sir R. Stopford, in the Phrenix steamer, Nov. 2, 1840, taken on the 3rd, and is memorable for being the first occasion of the use of steam in battle. Mr Burford, 1841, exhibited a panoramic view of St Jean d'Acre under bombardment by the British fleet. ACROPOLIS of Athens, built and fortified, B.C. 1057 ; partially destroyed, A.D. 1687; taken from the Turks by the Greeks, June 21, 1822; retaken by them, May 17, 1827. ACS, battle between the Austrians, Russians, and the Hungarians, the latter defeated, July 2, 1849. ACTIATIC ERA, founded on the battle of Actium, which rendered Augustus master of the Roman Empire. This event took place on Sept. I, 30 B.C. The Romans commenced this era on ist Jan. A.U.C. 724, and in the i6th of the Julian era. Nicolas. ACTIVE, Indiaman, lost in Margate Roads, 1803. ACTON BURNEL, or Shrewsbury, a parliament held at, OcL 2, when an act was passed, called the "Statute Merchant," against debtors, OcL 12, 1283. 6 ACTRESSES ADMINISTRATIONS ACTRESSES first appeared at the Vere Street Theatre, Dec. 8, 1660. A few days after Pepys has the following entry in his Diary : "Jan. 3, 1660-1. To the Theatre [Lincoln's Inn Fields], where was acted ' Beggar's Bush,' it being very well done ; and here the first time that ever I saw women come upon the stage." In 1656, indeed, Mrs Coleman, wife to Mr Edw. Coleman, represented 'lanthe' in the first part of the ' Siege of Rhodes ; ' but the little she had to say was spoken in recitative. Sir W. Davenant's patent, 1662, contained a clause per- mitting all women's parts to be acted by females. ACTS OF PARLIAMENT. See Statutes. The ancient ceremonial of giving the royal assent to acts was more graceful and significant than the modern practice. It was called " Sceptring the Act;" the sovereign extended the sceptre and touched the Act immediately before the proclamation of " La reine le veult," " the king (or queen) wills it." This practice throws a light on the ancient use of the sceptre. ACTS OF THE APOSTLES, being a continuation of St Luke's Gospel, and supposed to have been written by that evangelist at Rome, before 64 or 65. ACTUARIES. The British Institute of, first established, 1848; in Scotland, 1856. ADAMITES, a sect that arose in 130, and met naked, in imitation of Adam before the fall ; Prodicus was their leader. This sect was introduced into Germany in 1416, revived in Poland in the I5th century. ADDINGTON ADMINISTRATION. On March 17, 1801, Mr Pitt having resigned, was succeeded by the Right Hon. Henry Addington, late Speaker of the Commons, as First Lord of the Treasury and Chancellor of the Exchequer. Terminated May 12, 1804, when Mr Pitt resumed those offices. Mr Addington made a Peer, under the title of Lord Sidmouth. ADDISCOMBE, MILITARY SEMINARY, near Croydon, Surrey, for cadets intended for the East India Company's Service established, 1809 ; extended to candidates for the Infantry, 1829 ; the presentation of pupils by patronage was abolished by 1 6 & 17 Vic. c. xcv., Aug. 20, 1853. ADELAIDE, South Australia. First founded by the early settlers in 1836; officially selected by the Government Surveyor, Colonel Light, 1837. The town extended to 1000 acres in 1843. Copper ore discovered, 1844. The Bishopric founded, 1847. ADELPHI (The), built by the brothers Adam, architects, 1768. ADELPHI THEATRE, built by John Scott, and opened Nov. 27, 1806, as the " Sans Pareil ;" first called Adelphi, 1825 ; present building constructed from the designs of T. H. Wyatt, opened Dec. 27, 1858. ADEN, Arabia. An extensive trade with the East was carried on here in the I3th and I4th centuries. The Portuguese obtained possession of the town and held it until they were expelled by the Turks, in 1538. In the following year the Turks retired, and the Arabians gained possession. The merchant ship Vesta was captured, and the crew ill treated by the natives, at Point Clara, Dec. 28, 1836 ; remonstrances being made in vain, the combined Naval and Military Force, under the command of Capt. H. Smith, arrived off the town, on Jan. 16, 1839, and captured it on the 1 9th. ADMINISTRATIONS OF ENGLAND since the Restoration. In the reign of Charles II. 7 changes, James II. 2, William and Mary 2, Anne 3, George I. 5, George II. 5, George III. 16, George IV. 4. The following are the names and the duration of the various Administrations since the passing of the Reform Act of 1832. The Ministry of the late Earl Grey held office from Nov. , 1 830, to Aug. , 1 834. It was instrumental in carrying the bill for the reform of the representative system. On the resignation of Earl Grey, in ADMINISTRATIONS ADMIRALTY COURT 7 Aug., 1834, the Whig Ministry was modified, and Viscount Melbourne was made First Lord of the Treasury. This Ministry was dissolved by William IV., in Nov., 1834, when Sir Robert Peel formed a new Government on moderate Con- servative principles. Sir Robert's tenure of office, however, was .brief, for, in the following April (1835), the right hon. baronet was defeated on the famous " Ap- propriation Clause" of the Irish Tithe Bill, andLord Melbourne once more resumed the reins of Government. This, the second Melbourne Ministry, endured from April, 1835, to Aug., 1841, or upwards of six years, exclusive of the week's intcrregmim in 1839, when Lord Melbourne temporarily resigned, and was reinstated on the refusal of Sir R. Peel to take office. In the summer of 1841 the Whigs were defeated in two Parliaments elected under their own auspices, and Sir R, Peel formed the Administration which carried the principle of Free Trade, and was eventually upset in 1846 by the secession of its "Protectionist" sup- porters. Lord John Russell's Administration, which succeeded, lasted from June, 1846, to Feb., 1852, when a defeat on the Militia Bill induced his Lordship to resign office. Then came the brief Administration of the Earl of Derby and the " country party," which lasted about nine months. It was disolved just before Christmas, 1852, and the Earl of Aberdeen succeeded as the head of a Coalition Ministry, but on account of the inefficient way in which they had conducted the Crimean war, were defeated, Feb. I, 1855. On Feb. 7, 1855, Lord Palmerston was appointed First Lord of the Treasury (in other respects the chief departments of thelate administration remained undisturbed), but was defeated in 1858 ; followed by Lord Derby, who was in 1859 defeated by Lord Palmerston ; upon whose death Earl Russell once more formed a Cabinet, Nov., 1865 ; but being in a minority upon the Reform Bill, resigned, June 26, 1866, when Lord Derby formed the present Ministry. It will be seen that the second Ministry of Viscount Mel- bourne held office for upwards of six years, that of Sir Robert Peel (the second Ministry) nearly five years, and that of Lord John Russell nearly six years. During the period in question, viz. from 1834 to 1854, three appeals were made by exist- ing Ministries to the public opinion of the nation, by the usual course of a general election : thus, Sir Robert Peel dissolved Parliament in December, 1834, and the result was a considerable, but not adequate, accession of Parliamentary sup- port ; Lord Melbourne dissolved in 1841, but the country returned a majority of 100 against him ; and the Earl of Derby's appeal to the people, in 1852, was similarly unsuccessful. ADMINISTRATIVE REFORM SOCIETY, held their first meeting at the Lon- don Tavern and Guildhall, May 5, 1855. A branch meeting held at Norwich, May 16; at Gloucester, May 18; at Yarmouth, May 17 ; at Finsbury, London, May 22 ; at Birmingham, May 21 ; and their last at Drury Lane Theatre, June 3, I8SS. ADMIRAL. Before the term Admiral was used, there was an officer designated Gustos Marts, or Guardian of the Seas. The title of Admiral of the English Seas was first given to William de Leybourne, 1297, by Edward I. That of Lord High Admiral, 1387, by Richard II. The office was executed by commission from 1708 to 1827, when it was conferred on the Duke of Clarence, who resigned in 1828, when it returned to a commission. Admiral of the Fleet receives $ per day. The Lord High Admiral of Scotland discontinued, 1703. Henry VIII. appointed James Butler Lord High Admiral of Ireland, 1534. The present Admiralty office dates its origin from 1512. ADMIRALTY COURT, instituted by Edward III. and usually held at Doctors' Commons. It consists of the Instance Court, which has a criminal and civil jurisdiction : those of piracy are tried at the Old Bailey : also of the Prize Court, a tribunal for naval captures in war. By 2 & 3 Will. IV. an appeal lies from this court to the king in council. Provision is made for the judge, 8 ADMIRAL ISLANDS VOILES registrar, and marshal of this Court by 3 & 4 Viet. c. 66, Aug. 7, 1840. Judge of Probate Court to be judge of the Admiralty Court on the next vacancy, 20 & 21 Viet. c. 77, s. 10, Aug. 25, 1857. The judge of Admiralty and Probate Court may sit for each other, 21 & 22 Viet. c. 95, s. I, Aug. 2, 1858. Barristers and Attorneys permitted to practise in, 22 & 23 Viet. c. 6, Aug. 8, 1859. The juris- diction extended, and the practice improved, 24 & 25 Viet. c. 10, May 17, 1861. ADMIRAL ISLANDS, Pacific, discovered by the Dutch, 1616 ; visited by Capt. Carteret, 1 760 ; by Morello, the Spanish navigator, 1781 ; and by Entrecasteaux, 1793- ADRIANOPLE, battles by which Constantine won the empire, July 3, 323. Taken by Amurath I., the Turkish sultan, from the Greeks, 1360. The seat of the Ottoman empire removed thence to Constantinople, 1453. Mahomet II. born here, 1430. Enos, its chief port, was taken by the Russians, Aug. 20, I 829, but restored at the close of the war in 1830. ADRIAN'S MOLE at Rome, constructed, 120. ADRIATIC SEA first wedded by the Doge of Venice upon Ascension-Day, 1173 ; discontinued, 1797. ADULTERATION OF WINE, prohibition of, at Nuremberg, 1409 ; in Swabia, Franconia, and Alsace, 1487; at Worms, 1495; at Freyberg, 1498; at Augsburg, 1500, 1548 ; Holland and Zealand, 1327 ; Brussels, 1384 ; Paris, 1371 and 1696. ADULTERY has been punished by most nations, though with different degrees of severity: among the Jews, with death ; by the Athenian law, the husband might kill the adulterer, if detected in the act. Homer speaks of adulterers being stoned to death ; but among the rich Greeks they were allowed to redeem themselves by a pecuniary fine. In Spain it is punished by castration. In England, Canute banished the man, and cut off the nose and ears of the woman. Alfred, however, modified the punishment, for he made the following humorous enactment : "To handle the neck of a ceorl's wife, a fine of 5^ '> to throw her down without further consequences, icw. ; but for a subsequent commission of the crime, 6oj." During the Commonwealth it was made capital felony ; but this law was repealed at the Restoration. At present, adultery comes under the cognizance of the temporal courts in England as a private injury to the husband. The present Divorce and Matrimonial Court was established 20 & 21 Viet. c. 85, Aug. 28, 1857. Sir Cresswell Cressweli appointed the first judge. ADVENT, instituted by the Council of Tours in the sixth century, including four Sundays ; the first is always that nearest to St Andrew's day, Nov. 3Oth. ADVENTURE BAY, Van Diemen's Land, so named by Captain Furneaux, who visited it in 1773 ; called so from his vessel. ADVERTISEMENTS in newspapers first became general, as now used, in the beginning of the eighteenth century. The duty on them reduced to is. 6d. in England, and is. in Ireland, in 1833 ; finally repealed, 16 & 17 Viet. c. 63, Aug. 4, 1853. The use of advertising vehicles prohibited 16 & 17 Viet. c. 33, s. 16, June 28, 1853. ADVOCATE, the King's, an office instituted by Henry III., in Scotland, 1253 ; in England, 1532. ADVOCATES' LIBRARY, Edinburgh, established, 1680. ADVOCATES' COLLEGE, Doctors' Commons, chartered, 1768, for doctors of civil law. ^EDILES, overseers or Magistrates appointed by the Romans to examine weights and measures, repair roads, and watch the erection of all public buildings. The ^ELFRIC SOCIETY AFRICA 9 first two chosen from the Plebeians, B. c. 494 ; two elected from the Patricians, B.C. 365 ; and B.C. 45 Julius Caesar appointed two to regulate the sale of com. ^ELFRIC SOCIETY, established in London, in 1843, for the illustration of Anglo- Saxon and Early English History and Philology. Discontinued in 1856. AEOLIAN HARP, invented by John James Schnell, musical instrument-maker to the Countess of Artois. The sounding of a harp, hung by accident, in a breezy passage, suggested the idea of that instrument, and in 1 789 he first exposed it for sale by the name Anemo C horde. AERONAUTICAL SOCIETY established in London, Jan. 12, 1866. All the specifications relating to Aeronautics from 1617 to the present time, presented to the society by the commissioners of patents, Feb. 12. AERONAUTICS. See Balloon. AFGHANISTAN, Asia, founded B.C., governed by a Tartar, Prince Sebuc- taghi, A.D. 997. The Afghan threw off the Persian yoke in 1720, but the whole country was subdued by the former power, 1737. AFGHANISTAN WAR. Lord Auckland declared war in favour of Shah Shuja, Oct. I, 1838. Kandahar taken, April 20, 1839 ; Ghuznee, July 23 ; Cabul, Aug. 7. Dost Mahomed surrendered himself prisoner. Sir Alexander Burnes and several British officers were massacred at Cabul, Nov. 2, 1841, by the Afghans, headed by the son of Dost Mahomed. Sir W. H. McNaughten murdered in December. The British army evacuated Cabul, and, under promise of protection, directed their march to Jellalabad, but out of an army of 4500 soldiers only one ever reached there alive (Dr Bryden), the whole being murdered on the way, Jan., 1842. An avenging army, under General Pollock and Sale, after forcing their way through the Khyber Pass, took Cabul, Sept. 16, 1842, the fort and fortification being destroyed. The British evacuated the town and the country, Oct., 1842. AFFINITY. The table of kindred and affinity at the end of the Common Prayer Book is founded on Leviticus xviii. , and several previous statutes, and was first published in 1563. By canon 99 this table is ordered to be set up in every church. By 5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 54 (1835), all marriages within prohibited degrees to be void. AFFIRMATION is a solemn asseveration instead of an oath, made by Quakers and Moravians. First granted by 7 & 8 Will. III. c. 34, 1696 ; explained and extended by 8 Geo. I. c. 6, 1721, and 22 Geo. II. c. 46, 1749. These Acts excepted criminal cases, but this was removed by 9 Geo. IV. c. 32, June 27, 1828 ; amended by I & 2 Viet. c. 77, Aug. 10, 1838, and 18 & 19 VicL c. 25, May 25, 1855. AFRICA was given to the posterity of Ham, the youngest son of Noah, and by them alone was this great division of our globe originally peopled. It was known to the Greeks and Romans by the name of Libya. The ancients divided the aboriginal tribes of Africa into two distinct classes, the Libyans and the Ethio- pians. In 600 B. C. Pharaoh Necho circumnavigated Africa, having sailed through the Straits of Babelmandel, returned in the third year through the Straits of Gibraltar. In 13008.0. Sesostris, king of Egypt, sent a great military expedition into the interior of Africa. In A.D. 616, Chosroes II., king of Persia, invaded it ; and in 960, Matz-ad-Din, fourth Fatimate Khalif, subdued the whole of it. Explored by Sieur-Brue, 1697-8; by M. Compagnon, 1714; by Park, 1795-6, ana again 1805; Hornemann, 1799; Capt. Tucker, 1816; Bowdich, 1817; Ritchie and Lyon, 1819 ; Major Denham and Lieut. Clapperton, 1822 ; Major Laing, 1826; Richard Lander, 1831-2. Mr Livingstone and Oswell reached the Lake Ngami 1849, and again in 1850 and in 1855 ; discovered the Falls on the Zambesi River, which he called Victoria ; he received the gold medal for his dis- 10 AFRICA AGNUS DEI coveries from the Geographical Society, Dec. 15, 1856, and the freedom of the city of London, May 21, 1857. Dr Earth and Dr Vogel travelled over part of Africa in 1853-5 > Dr Earth died at Menade, near Sakatee, July 1 8, 1854. Equatorial Africa visited by M. Paul B. du Chaillu, 1856-9. Capt. Burton visited the lakes in l857~8. Capt. Speke discovered the lake which he called Victoria Nyanza, 1858, and in 1862, the source of the Nile, 1863-4. Mr and Mrs Baker discovered the Murchison Falls and the Albert N'Yanza, March 14, 1864. Dr Livingstone again started for the Zambesi River, 1865 ; rumours of his death reached England, June 9, 1867. An expedition sent by the government in search of him, commanded by Mr Young, left Southampton, and on the I5th July arrived at the Cape. The British settlements are, Cape Colony, taken from the Dutch, 1806 ; the Mauritius, taken from the French, 1810 ; the islets of St Helena and Ascen- sion, Fernando Po, Sierra Leone, and Cape Coast. A project was set on foot for exploring and evangelizing Central Africa by means of native agents, in 1855. AFRICAN ASSOCIATION, formed in London, June 9, 1788, by Sir Joseph Banks, to explore the interior of Africa, and to promote its civilization. It sent out Ledyard, Lucas, Major Houghton, Mungo Park, and two Germans, Hornemann and Burckhardt. It merged into the Royal Geographical Society, July 23, 1831. AFRICAN COMPANY, a charter granted by Queen Elizabeth, 1588 ; to a second, 1618; a third, 1631 ; a fourth, 1662, by Charles II. ; and a fifth by letters patent, Sept. 27, 1672 ; remodelled, 1695 ; trade settled, 1698. It would appear that the Government of Charles II. owed this Company ^11,686,800, and their divided capital was .10,780,000. By 23 Geo. II., 1750, the settlements and factories of the Royal African Company became invested in the present Com- pany. The trade thrown open in 1821. AFRICAN INSTITUTION, founded in 1807 for the civilization of Africa, which established schools at Sierra Leone. AGAPEMONE and AGAPEMONIANS, a modern sect, alleged to be founded on brotherly love, and a fancied communion with God. The disciples live in a species of community, and no harm appears to result from the indulgence of this new fancy in creed. One establishment, situated near Bridgewater, in Somerset, founded in 1845, was first brought before the public notice in consequence of Chancery proceedings against Brother Prince, in May, 1850; and in the case Nottidge v. Prince, July 25, 1860. AGE, THE MIDDLE. This portion of history has been divided into five great periods, denoted by the vast changes which took place in the course of that time : viz. A.D. A.D. A.D. A.D. 400 to 800, First Period. 1 066 to 1300, Fourth Period. 800 to 964, Second Period. 1300 to 1500, Fifth Period. 964 to 1066, Third Period. AGHRIM, battle. The French defeated at this place in Ireland, by William of Orange, July 12, 1691. AGINCOURT, a village in the province of Artois, France, and memorable for the victory obtained by Henry V. over a French army, vastly superior in numbers, on Oct. 25, 1415. The loss of the French was about 10,000, including the constable, 3 dukes, 5 counts, and 90 barons. The English lost 1200, including the Duke of York and Earl of Suffolk. AGNACOBITES, a sect that first appeared in 701. AGNUS DEI, a cake of wax used in the Roman Church, stamped with the figure of a lamb supporting the banner of a cross ; first used as an amulet in the 7th century. AGRA AIX-LA-CHAPELLE u AGRA, Hindustan, the seat of the Mogul government until 1647, when Delhi became the capital. The city contains many public baths, caravansaries, and mosques ; also a superb mausoleum, which cost .750,000. It was captured by Lord Lake, Oct. 17, 1803. Insurrection amongst the native troops, and the principal building destroyed, 1857. The troops disarmed on the 1st of June; the rebels defeated by Gen. Greathed, Oct. 10. AGRARIAN LAW. The first Agrarian law in Rome for a general and equal distribution of conquered lands, after the conquest of the Hernici by Spurius Cassius, 486 B.C. Renewed 123 B.C., but evaded by a repeal of the law pro- hibiting the transfer of lands already divided, and by stopping all further divisions. AGRICOLA, the Roman general, born A. D. 37. He commanded the army in England, and erected a rampart and chain of forts between the Clyde and Forth to keep out the northern barbarians, 8l ; circumnavigated Great Britain, 85 ; poisoned by Domitian, 86. AGRICULTURAL HALL, Islington. Company formed, April, 1860. The Hall built from the design of Frederick Peek, architect. The first stone laid by Lord Berners, Nov. 5, 1861. First dog show held, June 24, 1862 ; first cattle show, Dec. 8, 1862 ; first horse show, July I, 1864. See Smithfield Club. AGRICULTURAL LABOURERS in Great Britain in 1841, 1,499,278; in 1851, 1,077,627. AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES instituted in Scotland, 1723; in Ireland, 1747 and 1841 ; in England, at Bath, 1777 ; Highland of Scotland, 1784 ; the London Board of Agriculture, 1793 ; Royal Agricultural Society of England, 1838. AHMEDABAD, Hindustan. The handsomest city in the world. It was founded in 1412, by Ahmed Shah ; subjugated by Akbar, 1572 ; governed by various chiefs until 1780, when it was stormed and captured by the British ; it was after- wards restored to the Mahrattas ; taken again by the English, 1818. AHMEDNUGGER, Hindustan. Fortified by Ahmud Nizam Shah, 1494 ; annexed to Delhi in 1634 ; English factory established, 1612 ; the king of Beejapoor defeated Nizam Shah, 1546 ; the Mahrattas captured it, 1707; taken by Wellington, Aug. 12, 1803 ; annexed to the Anglo-Indian Empire, June 13, 1817. AGYNIANI, a sect about 694, who condemned all use of flesh and marriage. Their tenets coincide with those of Abelians and Gnostics. AIR. The ancients thought that air constituted one of the four elements from which all things originate ; and this doctrine continued prevalent till 1774, when Dr Priestley discovered oxygen gas, and showed it to be a constituent of air. Scheele about the same time found that it consisted of two distinct elastic fluids, oxygen and azote. In 1646, Torricelli produced the first vacuum ; but Otto Von Guericke made the first air-pump, 1654, which has since been im- proved by Boyle, Hawksbee, and in 1830 by Perkins. Leopold, a German, first applied the air-chamber to fire-engines, 1 720. AIRE, France, captured by the Spaniards in 1641 ; and ceded by the treaty of Utrecht, March 31, 1713. The town captured by the British army under Lord Hill, March 2, 1814. A1X, France. Founded by the Roman Consul, C. Sextius Calvinus, B.C. 124. AIX ROADS, naval battle. Lord Cochrane attacked and partially destroyed the French fleet here, April u, 1809. AIX-LA-CHAPELLE, a city of Rhenish Prussia, founded 125. Charlemagne, in 12 AJZNADIN ALBANS 768, built a Palace and founded the Cathedral ; ravaged by the Normans, 882. It is celebrated for concluding the following treaties : that of 1668 (O.S. May 2), between France and Spain, which terminated the war respecting the possession of the Spanish Netherlands (now Belgium), by which France gained Lille, Armen- tieres, &c. The second was that of Oct. 18, 1748, between England, France, Holland, Austria, Spain, Sardinia, and Modena, and terminated the war respect- ing the succession of Maria Theresa to the empire. The Congress of 1818 regu- lated the affairs of Europe, after the restoration of the Bourbons in France : as- sembled, Sept. 29; separated, Nov. 21. AJZNADIN, battle. The Saracens defeated the Turks here with great loss, July 30, 634. AKERMANN, Bessarabia. This town was captured by the Russians, 1770; after- wards restored ; taken a second time, in 1788 ; ceded to Russia, by treaty, 1812. AKHALZIKH, a fortress in Turkish Georgia. Captured by the Russians, Aug. 27, 18285 was ceded to that power, Sept. 14, 1829; but on Nov. 25, 1853, a desperate conflict took place here between the Russians, commanded by Gen. Andronckoff, and the Turks, the latter leaving 4000 dead on the field. ALABAMA, N. America. Made a separate State, 1 798 ; joined the Union, March 3, 1819. The capital destroyed by fire, 1849 ; rebuilt, 1851. Became one of the Southern Confederacy in 1861 ; returned to its allegiance, 1865. ALABAMA, Confederate steam sloop of war, commanded by Captain Semmes, left Liverpool, July 29, 1862, and for two years was the terror and destroyer of the Federal Merchant Service, of which she captured over 60. She engaged the United States ship of warKearsage, at Cherbourg, June 19, 1864, when, after a brave defence, she sunk. The loss in killed, wounded, and drowned was 47 ; the captain and part of the crew were bravely rescued by Mr Lancaster, in his yacht, the Deerhound, and landed at Southampton the following day. ALAND ISLES. Aland means country of rivers, and these islands became memorable in the late war, and are very important, in a political and military point of view, to Russia. They consist of seven islands, which lie across the mouth of the Gulf of Bothnia, at the extremity of the Baltic, and close to the Gulf of Finland. In the I4th century this group of islands is mentioned as an earldom belonging to Sweden. In 1742 and 1808, the Russians took possession of these islands, but in the latter year the Alanders surprised the Russian com- mander, Major Neidhart, and took him prisoner. In 1809 they were retaken by Russia, and since then remained in its possession. The allied army landed on them, August 8, 1854, and destroyed the fortifications. Restored to Russia by treaty, April 27, 1856, but not to be re-fortified. ALANS, or ALANI, a people like the Huns, who overran the whole of Europe in A.D. 130. They established themselves upon the banks of the Danube in 406 ; they crossed the Rhine and settled in Spain, 411; war was their chief occupation. ALBA - LONGA, a powerful wealthy state, which became in after-times the mother city of Rome, and supposed to have been founded by Ascanius, 400 years before the foundation of Rome itself. It was destroyed, and its in- habitants brought to Rome, 642 B.C. ALBANIA, Turkey. This place was known to Ptolemy. Included in the great Bulgarian kingdom in the loth century. The Turks defeated them in 1388, and again in 1478. Ali Pasha made this state almost independent ; he defeated the Pashas of Berat and Delvino in 1811-12; subdued by the Turks, 1822; insurrection in 1843; the inhabitants revolted against the Turks, Jan. 10, 1854. ALBANS (ST), the ancient Verulam, and the site of the martyrdom of St Alban. ALBANS ALBION 13 A synod held here by Germanus, 429. In 1250 a great earthquake was felt in this town. In 1553 it obtained a charter of incorporation from Edward VI. ; but was disfranchised for bribery, by 15 Viet. c. 9, May 23, 1851. ALBAXS (ST) ABBEY, founded by Offa, king of Mercia, 793; and as an entire structure, is the most ancient in England. As the saint of this church was the first martyr in England, its abbot had a superiority over all others. Its revenues at the dissolution were estimated at ^2100 ; but the townsmen preserved the abbey from ruin by a purchase of ^400. The site of the abbot's dwelling and of the domiciles of the monks is now occupied by the Abbey Grammar School, en- dowed by Edward VI., 1549- In 1257 was dug up this old inscription : 'In this mausoleum was found the venerable corpse of St Alban, the protomartyr of Britain ; ' it was in lead, and supposed to have been laid in King Offa's time. 'The Golden Book of St Albans,' in the British Museum (Cotton. MS., Nero, D. Vll.), is a conventual album, in which are entered the portraits of all the benefactors of the abbey, with an abstract of their donations. 'The Book of St Albans ' is another literary curiosity, and was so called because printed in that monastery, soon after the introduction of printing into England, 1486. It is at- tributed to Dame Julian Barnes, prioress of Sopewall Convent, in Hertfordshire. ALBANS, ST, battles. The first battle between the houses of York and Lan- caster fought May 23, 1455, in which the Yorkists were successful ; the Duke of Somerset being slain and Henry VI. wounded and taken prisoner. The second battle was fought on Shrove Tuesday, Feb. 17, 1461, when the Yorkists were de- feated by the Lancastrians under Queen Margaret, and Henry VI. was rescued. ALBERT MEDAL for saving life from shipwreck, instituted by Her Majesty, March 7, 1866. ALBERT, PRINCE. Francis-Albert-Augustus-Charles-Emanuel, Duke of Sax- ony, Prince of Coburg and Gotha, was the second son of Ernest-Frederick- Anthony-Charles-Louis, late reigning Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. Prince Albert was born Aug. 26, 1819, and married to Queen Victoria at the Chapel Royal, St James's Palace, Feb. IO, 1840. H.R.H. was naturalized 3 & 4 Viet, c. I & 2, and by c. 3, received an annuity of .30,000. Made Prince Consort, June 25, 1857 ; died at Windsor, aged 43, Dec. 14, 1861 ; buried in St George's Chapel, Dec. 23. The first stone of a Mausoleum in Frogmore Gardens to re- ceive the remains of, laid by the Queen, March 15, 1862 j remains removed to, Dec. 1 8. ALBERT MEMORIAL. (On the site of the Great Exhibition of 185 1. ) A meeting of merchants and citizens was called by Cubitt, Lord Mayor of London, at the Mansion House, when it was determined to erect a memorial to commemorate the services Prince Albert had rendered to this country, Jan. 14, 1862. The sum of ,12,000 was subscribed at the first meeting, and a committee appointed to carry out the same. The erection begun in 1864. ALBIGENSES, a name formerly given indiscriminately to all the Cathari, or pure ; but in a more extended sense applied in the I2th century to a sect in the south of France charged with holding Manicheism. In 1209 Pope Innocent III. pro- claimed a crusade against them, and against Raymond VI., Count of Toulouse, who supported them. The war began in 1209, and lasted many years. Raymond VI. died in 1222 ; but the war was resumed by his son, whose successes so alarmed Honorius III. that the pontiff induced Louis VIII. to take the field ; and Ray- mond VII., pressed on all sides, made peace with the king, April, 1229. This was a mortal blow to the Albigenses. ALBION, the name by which Great Britain was known to the Greeks and Romans. The earliest notice of the word occurs in a work attributed to Aristotle, De Mundo, sec. 3, who wrote, B.C. 340, 'beyond the Pillars of Hercules is the I 4 ALBION ALCHEMY ocean which flows round the earth. In it are two very large islands, called Britannic ; these are Albion and lerne.' Csesar's name for England is Britannia : he does not use the word Albion. Pliny says (lib. iv. c. 16), 'the name of the island was Albion ; the whole set of islands being called Britannic. ' ALBION, NEW, a name given by Sir Francis Drake to the province of California and part of the north-west coast of America, which he visited June, 1 5 79. Explored by Vancouver, in April, 1792. Cook stopped here during his third voyage, 1778. ALBUERA, Spain, a village situated on the main road from Seville to Badajoz, and the scene of a severe conflict on May 16, 1811. Marshal Soult, advancing to the relief of Badajoz, besieged by the British troops, made a vigorous attack on the allied army of British, Portuguese, and Spanish, under Marshal Beresford ; but after a severe contest he was repulsed with great slaughter. Soult retreated to- wards Seville. ALBUFERA, battle. The French under Marshal Suchet, afterwards Duke of Albufera, and the Spaniards, who were defeated Jan. 4, 1812. ALBUM. The earliest notice of this friendly memorial book is to be traced to the registers of the deceased formerly kept in every church and monastery, called the album, i.e. the blank book, in which the names of the benefactors to the church or monastery were recorded, that they might be prayed for at their decease, and on their anniversaries. The earliest writer who uses the word is the Venerable Bede, who in his preface to his prose life of St Cuthbert, 721, reminds Bishop Eadfrith that his name was registered in the album at Lindisfarne, ' in albo vestrse sanctte congregationis.' (Bedce Opera Minora, p. 47, ed. Stevenson.) Elsewhere Bede calls this book 'theannal' (Hist. Eccles.,\\b. iv. c. 14). At a later period it was called, both in England and abroad, the Liber Vita, or Book of Life, a name borrowed from St Paul (Philippians iv. 3). A beautiful specimen of an English album may be seen in the British Museum, Cotton. MS. D. vil. : it is the Album, or Book of Life, of the monastery of Durham. Izaak Walton tells us that Sir Henry Wotton, when ambassador at Venice, wrote in the album of Christopher Flecamore, a Latin sentence to the effect that ' an ambassador is an honest man sent to lie abroad for the good of his country.' ALCANTARA, Spain, founded in 1156 ; taken from the Moors by Alphonso IX., king of Castile, 1214 ; given to the knights of Calatrava ; captured by the Portu- guese, April, 1 706. The French burnt the bridge over the Tagus, built by Trajan, 1836. The town taken by the English, April 25, 1706. ALCANTARA, Order of, a company of knights founded to protect Spain against the Moors, 1 156-7, raised by Pope Alexander III. to a knightly order, 1 1 77 ; confirmed by Pope Lucius, 1183; the grand mastership vested in the Crown, 1495; the knights obtained the privilege of marriage, 154- ALCHEMY, the pretended art of making gold and silver by means of the philoso- pher's stone. It is sometimes called the Hermetic philosophy, from Hermes Trismegistus, one of the earliest alchemists. The first writer who speaks of making gold is Zosimus, the panapolite, A.D. 412, who has left a treatise in MS. of the divine art of making gold and silver. Among the early celebrated alchemists were Albert Groot, called Albertus Magnus, a German, born in 1282 ; Raymond Lully, 1315 ; Roger Bacon, 1285 ; Arnoldus de Villa Nova, 1313. Edward III. personally interested himself [1329] in the experiments of Rouse and Dalby, two professors of the philosopher's stone. Henry IV. made the multipli- cation of metals felony ; yet Henry VI. not only encouraged John Cobb, by licence, to transubstantiate metals into gold, but granted commissions [1444] for the promotion of an art that promised to replenish the royal coffers, in which he was followed by Edward IV., 1476. Queen Elizabeth was not a whit behind her ALCOCK ALE 15 predecessors in credulity, by patronizing Dr Dee. In later times, Peter Woulfe, who died 1805, is said to have been a believer in alchemy ; and Dr Price, of Guildford, professed to convert mercury into gold and silver. At the present time, some of the disciples of Jacob Bb'hme are still searching for the substance capable of transmuting the baser metals ; although the majority are more content to seek their wealth by the humbler means of commerce and industry. ALCOCK, Mr, and Mr Colclough, fought a duel ; the latter killed, and the former lost his reason, June 21, 1807. ALCORAN, the divine book, as pretended, of the Mahometans, and the standard of the Arabic language. It was composed by Mahomet about the year 610 : the prophet was said to have had assistants in the labour. ALDERMAN, from the Saxon eolderman, a general term for any civil dignity. The alderman of the hundred was elected by the people, and was inferior to the king's alderman, who presided in the County Court. There were also aldermen of guilds, hospitals, &c. Ralph Brooke, York Herald, states that King John first ordained the aldermen of London ; and Fabyan thus notices their first appoint- ment as justices : 'This year [1242] were aldermen first chosen, which then had the rule of the city and the wards, and were then yearly changed, as now the sheriffs be changed.' But by 17 Richard II., 1394, each of the 26 wards elects one alderman for life, or during good behaviour. In some cases the wards were the aldermen's heritable property, such as Farringdon, bought by Nicholas de Farndone, 1279. ALDERNEY, an island in the English Channel, and celebrated for a dangerous strait, called the 'Race of Alderney.' Here, Nov. 26, 1120, was wrecked the 'Blanche Nef,' the finest vessel in the Norman navy, having on board Prince William, eldest son of Henry I. , and his young bride ; and of the 300 persons who embarked in 'the white ship,' but one escaped to tell the dismal tale. In 1692 the remnant of the French fleet escaped through the 'Race of Alderney' after the defeat of Tourville by the combined navies under Admiral Russell ; and in July, 1774, the 'Victory,' of no guns, was lost here, with noo men. ALDERSGATE, one of the four gates in the city wall. The old gate was improved by Daye the printer, in the reign of Elizabeth, but was taken down in 1616, and rebuilt 1617. It stood near to the church of St Botolph, and was destroyed in 1761. ALDERSHOTT, Famham. A camp formed here, 1854. The troops reviewed by the Queen after the Crimean War, July 7, 1856. ALDGATE, or Old Gate, another of the London gates, first noticed in the reign of Edgar, 963. In 1606 it was taken down, and rebuilt by Martin Bond. After this gate was taken down in 1 760, Sir Walter Blackett, of Wallington, North- umberland, obtained some of the ornamental stones (part of the city arms, heads and wings of dragons, apparently cut in Portland stone, and probably set up when the gate was rebuilt, 1606), and used them in decorating Rothley Castle. ALE. Herodotus (B.C. 440) tells us that the Egyptians used a liquor made of barley, and attributes the first discovery of the art of brewing it to Isis, the wife of Osiris. Ale was also the favourite liquor of the Anglo-Saxons and Danes, so much so, that St Dunstan introduced an ingenious custom of pegging their cups at certain distances ; hence the origin of peg-tankards, or drinking to pegs. In 1266, 51 Henry III., a graduated scale was established for the price of ale ; but in 1531, 23 Henry VIII. c. 4, the members of the Cooper's Company were ap- pointed to gauge and mark all ale barrels and to fix its price. In the city of London ale-conners were appointed in the reign of Henry I. ; Chaucer described them in 1348. The old ale-gallon abolished by 5 Geo. IV. c. 74, June 17, 1824 ; an alteration made in the duties by i Will. IV. c. 51, July 16, 1830. 16 ALE ALEXANDRA THEATRE ALE. Festive meetings of the country were formerly called ales ; as leet-ale, lamb-ale, Whitsun-ale, clerk-ale, bride-ale, church-ale, Scot-ale, Midsummer-ale, &c/ At all these feasts ale was the predominant liquor. ALE HOUSES. These houses are mentioned in the laws of Ina, A.D. 728, and have been under legislative regulations for the last 400 years. In 1490 no one was permitted to brew ale as long as any church ale remained unsold ; and, in 1494, II Henry VII., an act was passed to stop the common selling of ale. In 1589 all persons selling ale had both to hang out a sign (an ale stake), and to get a license. In 1590 they had to enter into a bond for .10, and give surety for ^"5, to keep order in their houses. It was further restrained in 1604, by 2 James I. c. 9 ; 4 James I. c. 4, 5 ; I Car. I. c. 4 ; 26 Geo. II. c. 31, 1753 ; 48 Geo. III. c. 143, July 2, 1808 ; and the hours fixed for selling it on Sundays, by 18 & 19 Viet. c. 118, Aug. 14, 1855. ALEMANNI, a people of Germany, descended from the Suevi, who inhabited the country between the Neckar and the upper Rhine. This name, Alemanni, or Ale-man t signifies a multitude of men, indicating the various tribes of which they were composed. They are first mentioned in the reign of Caracalla, A. D. 214, who was named Alemannicus, from a victory obtained over them. Gallienus at the head of only 10,000 Romans vanquished 300,000 of this warlike people near Milan ; after which he formed an alliance with the Alemanni. In after-times they made frequent inroads upon Gaul and Italy, and at last finally submitted to the Franks, and with them consolidated into a dukedom, called the Duchy of Alemannia. ALEPPO, more correctly Haleb, the capital of a pashalik of Asiatic Turkey, and one of the five pashaliks of Syria. The Arabian writers trace the origin of this city to the migration of Abraham into Canaan, who rested on the hill where the castle of Aleppo now stands. In 638 it was conquered by the Arabs ; in 1260 plundered by the Moguls, and again in 1401 by Timur. It was conquered by Selim I. and became subject to the sultans of Constantinople, Aug. 24, 1516. Almost destroyed by an earthquake, Aug., 1822. On Oct. 14, 1850, the Mahometans destroyed three Christian churches ; but the rebels received a severe chastisement on Nov. 7, when Kerim Pasha, at the head of 4000 imperial troops, charged 10,000 of them : the combat was desperate, and lasted 24 hours, the loss to the rebels was 1800. Massacre of the Christians at, Oct. 16, 1850. ALERT, Dublin Packet, lost with all on board, March 26, 1803. ALESSANDRIA, a town and fortress in Piedmont, built, 1168 ; in 1174 besieged by Frederic Barbarossa. Captured by the French under Bonaparte, 1 796. On July 21, 1799, General Suwarroff defeated the French under General Moreau near to this town ; ceded to the French, June, 1800 ; fortified by them, 1803-5 > surrendered by the treaty of Paris, May 30, 1814 ; taken by the Austrians, April 19, 1821. ALEUTIAN ISLANDS in the North Pacific; discovered by Behring, 1728; surveyed by two Russian officers, 1 768 ; fortifications built by Russian adven- turers, 1 785. Capt. Cook in his third voyage visited them. ALEXANDRA, PRINCESS. Treaty between Her Majesty and the King of Denmark for the marriage of, to the Prince of Wales, Jan. 15, 1863. Royal pro- cession through the city of London on her arrival, March 7, 1863. The corpora- tion of London presented to her a diamond necklace and earrings valued at ;io,ooo, March 8. Married at the Chapel Royal, Windsor, March 10. En- tertained by the corporation at the Guildhall, June 8. ALEXANDRA THEATRE, Highbury Barn Tavern, Highbury, built by M. Gio- vannelli, and opened May 20, 1865. ALEXANDRIA ALGERIA 17 ALEXANDRIA, ANCIENT, owes its origin to Alexander the Great, B.C. 332 ; besieged by Antiochus IV., B.C. 169 ; sustained some damage in Caesar's cam- paigns, B. c. 48 ; captured by Amru, A. u. 640. Before the discovery of the passage round Africa by the Cape of Good Hope, Alexandria was the great mart for all the merchandise between Europe and the East Indies, which was trans- ported from thence to Suez, and so to India. The modern Alexandria stands on an artificial neck of land, which joins the peninsula of Pharos. Taken by Bona- parte, July 4, 1 798, who killed about 300 Arabs and Mamalukes. On March 21, 1801, the British army was attacked here by General Menou, but repulsed with great slaughter; near 4000 French were killed and wounded. General Abercrombie received a mortal wound, and was succeeded by General Hutchin- son. Taken by the English from the French, when an immense quantity of arms and stores was captured, Sept. 2, 1801. Alexandria surrendered again to the British troops, commanded by Major Fraser, March 21, 1807. Some singular objects of stone found in excavations at Alexandria were submitted to the Archaeological Institute, Nov. 7, 1851. Visited by the Sultan, April 7, 1863. ALEXANDRIAN CODEX. A MS. of the Old and New Testament in Greek, preserved in the British Museum. It was sent by Cyrellus Lucaris, patriarch of Constantinople, to Charles L, 1628, who placed it in the Royal library. ALEXANDRIAN ERA. This fixed the creation of the world B.C. 5502 ; so that the year of our Lord I corresponded with the Alexandrian year of the creation 5503. This computation was continued until A.D. 284, or of the Alexandrian era 5786; but in A.D. 285, or A. Alex. 5787, ten years were subtracted, and that year was called 5777. To reduce the Alex, to the Christian era, 5502 must be subtracted from the Alex, era until A. Alex. 5786, and after that year by sub- tracting 5429- To ascertain the year of the Alexandrian era of any year of our Lord after A. D. 285, 5492 must be added to the year of Christ, and if before A.D. 285, 5502 must be added. Sir H. Nicolas. ALEXANDRIAN LIBRARY, formed by the first Ptolemy, king of Egypt, B.C. 284. In the siege of Caesar, B.C. 48, the library, which was at Bruchion, was burnt by a fire which spread from the shipping to the town, and 400,000 volumes perished. The library was subsequently re-established, and this place continued one of the chief seats of literature till conquered by the Arabs, under Omar I., A. D. Dec. 22, 640, which dispersed, if not destroyed, its literary treasures. ALFORD, battle. The Marquess of Montrose defeated the Covenanters, July 2, 1645. ALFRED THE GREAT, born, 849; ascended the throne, 872; defeated 300 Danish pirates, with ten galleys, on the coast of Dorset, 897 ; died, Oct. 28, 904. ALFRED CLUB, established 1808, was held at 23, Albemarle Street. It pos- sessed in its day many celebrated members, such as Byron, Peel, and Ward Lord Dudley. In 1854 it coalesced with the Oriental Club. ALGEBRA. The earliest work on algebra is that of Diophantus, an Alexandrine Greek, who lived about the middle of the 2nd century. The Persians and Arabs derived their knowledge of it from the Hindoos ; introduced into Italy by Leo- nardo Bonacci, of Pisa, about 1203. In the middle of the i6th century it was made known in France, England, and Germany, by Paletarius, Robert Recorde, and Stefelius. Vieta, a Frenchman, who died 1603, first used symbols for quantities; and in England, Harriot, who died 1621, extended his discoveries, and compiled a complete theory of equations. Newton invented the method of series and fluxions, 1665; indefinite division and quotients, by Mercator, 1 666. ALGERIA, Africa, taken by the French, June 14, 1830 ; treaty concluded, ceding the town to the French, July 4 ; insurrection under Abd-el-Kader, 1833 ; 2 1 8 ALGESIRAS ALIENS upwards of 500 Arabs, with their wives and children, suffocated in a cavern by the French troops under Pelissier, June 20, 1845 ; Abd-el-Kader surrendered himself to the French, Dec. 22, 1847 ; the town of Lahou taken, Dec. 4, 1852 ; the emperor and empress visited the colony, 1860; insurrection in 1864; second visit of the Emperor Napoleon in May, 1865. ALGESIRAS, Spain, or OLD GIBRALTAR, a maritime city of Spain. By this city the Moors entered Spain in 7 X 3 5 from whom it was not recovered till 1344, after a long siege, memorable for the first use of cannon. On July 6, 1801, Sir James Saumarez, with six sail of the line, attacked three French line of battle ships and a frigate ; and on the I3th of the same month, Sir James, with a British squadron, attacked the French and Spanish fleets on their return to Cadiz ; two Spanish ships of 112 guns each were burnt, and the St Antonio, 74 guns, struck her colours. ALGIERS, Africa. This territory includes the divisions of the ancient Numidia, and was conquered successively by the Romans, Vandals, Byzantine Greeks, and by the Arabs in the 8th century. The city of Algiers was built about 935, by an Arabian chief, Jussuf Zeri. In the nth century was founded the empire of the Morabites. In 1516, Aroodje-Barbarossa was proclaimed sultan of Algiers, and in 1533 it finally submitted to the Turks. In 1541 Charles V. was baffled in his ill-fated armament against it. In April, 1654, Admiral Blake taught the Al- gerines to respect the English flag. In 1682-3 it was bombarded by Du Quesne ; and again in 1688 by d'Istrees. In 1774 Charles III. made an unsuccessful attack, as did France in 1783-4. Lord Exmouth bombarded it, and abolished slavery, Aug. 27, 1816. On the 4th of July, 1830, it surrendered to a French army of 30,000, under Bourmont. On May 20, 1834, the French government, having determined to retain Algiers, was, after some opposition, sanctioned by the Chamber of Deputies. On Nov. 22, 1836, the French arms, under General Clausel, sustained a serious defeat here, by the loss of 55 mer >- On Oct. 13, 1837, General Damremont successfully assaulted it, but was killed by a cannon- ball. The celebrated prince Abd-el-Kader surrendered to the Duke d'Aumale, Dec. 22, 1847 ; he left Amboise for Brusa, in Asia Minor, Dec. n, 1852. On July 5, 1854, was concluded the French campaign against the Kabyles, after the severe engagements of the previous month. On Nov. 20, 1854, an engagement took place at Meggarin between Com. Marmier and the unsubdued Arabs ; and on Dec. 2 the Arabs abandoned Tuggart, and was taken by the French. ALT, sect of Mahometans, so called from this chief, the son-in-law of Mahomet, 642. He was assassinated in 660. ALIEN PRIORIES, seized by the crown in 1414. ALIENS. An alien is a person bora out of the jurisdiction of a country. In France a residence of ten years gives to the alien all the rights of a citizen. In the United States an alien must have resided five years, and two years before he is naturalized he must abjure all allegiance to other powers. In England the Alien Act, 33 Geo. III. c. 4, 1793, arose from the influx of strangers at the French revolution. In 1827, May 26, 7 Geo. IV. c. 54, an act was passed for their registration; but this was repealed by 6 & 7 Will. IV. c. n, May 19, 1836, when new provisions were introduced. Persons born abroad of a mother being a natural-born subject, may hold real or personal property, certificate of Natural- ization to be obtained from a Secretary of State, 7 & 8 Viet. c. 66, Aug. 6, 1844 ; legalizing act of colonial legislature, 10 & II Viet. c. 83, July 22, 1847. A denizen is in a kind of middle state between an alien and a natural-born subject, and must obtain letters patent to make him an English subject. Naturalization can only be obtained by Act of Parliament. ALIWAL ALMANACS 19 ALIWAL, battle, between the Sikhs and English, Jan. 28, 1846. The loss of the Sikhs was estimated at 6000 killed, wounded, and drowned in the Sutlej. ALLEGIANCE. There are several statutes requiring the oath of allegiance and supremacy, I Eliz. c. I, 1558; I Will, and Mary, c. I, 8, 1689; and I Anne, stat. I, c. 22, 1701 ; substituting one oath for the oath of allegiance, supremacy, and abjuration, 21 & 22 Viet c. 48, July 23, 1858 ; power to modify the oath to enable Jews to sit in Parliament, 21 & 22 Viet. c. 49, July 23, 1858 ; amended by 23 & 24 Viet. c. 63, Aug. 6, 1860 ; form of affirmation in lieu of oath, 22 Viet. c. 10, April 8, 1859. ALLER MOOR, co. Somerset ; battle between the Royalists and Parliament- arians, 1645. ALLIANCE. The Grand Alliance, May 12, 1689, signed at Vienna between England, the Emperor, and the States-General, to which Spain and the Duke of Savoy acceded. The Second Grand Alliance signed at the Hague against the power of France, Sept., 1701. The Holy Alliance, concluded at Paris, Sept. 26, 1815, Between the Emperors of Russia and Austria, and the King of Prussia. The Quadruple Alliance, guaranteeing the succession of the crowns of France and Spain, according to the terms of the treaty of Utrecht, Aug. 2, 1718. The Triple Alliance, ratified Jan. 28, 1668, between the States-General and England against France, for the protection of the Spanish Netherlands ; Sweden also joined the league. ALL SAINTS, or ALL HALLOWS, instituted 607. In 835, Gregory IV. altered this feast from May I to Nov. I, as at present. In Great Britain there are 33 churches dedicated to All Saints, and 13 to All Hallows. ALL SOULS, a festival observed in the Roman Church, Nov. 2 ; introduced into England, 816 ; the Council of Oxford declared it a holy day, 1222 ; abolished by the English Church at the Reformation. All Souls', Marylebone, is the only church in England with this dedication. ALL SOULS' COLLEGE, Oxford, founded by Henry Chicheley, Archbishop of Canterbury, 1437. The first stone laid by the founder, Feb. IO, 1438. The first stone of the library was laid, June 20, 1 720. ALL-SPICE, introduced into England from Carolina, 1726. ALLYGHUR, Hindustan, the fort of, taken by the English under Lieut. -Col. Monson after the French under M. Perron had bravely defended it, Sept. 24, 1803. A medal struck to commemorate the victory in 1851. The Sepoys mutinied, May 20, 1857. The town recaptured by the English, Oct. 5, 1857. ALMA, battle of the, in the Crimea, between the Allied Forces and the Russians, Sept. 20, 1854, when the former gained a decisive victory. The British loss was 353 killed, 1612 wounded, the French loss about the same number, and the Rus- sians had about 5000 killed and wounded. ALMACKS' ASSEMBLY ROOMS, King Street, St James's, built from the designs of Mr Mylne, and opened Feb. 12, 1765. ALMANACS. The earliest are those called Clog Almanacs, or Runic calendars, in use during Canute's reign. It was a square piece of wood, containing three months on each of the four edges. The days are expressed by notches, and every seventh day by a larger notch. On the left hand are symbols for the golden number, or cycle of the moon. The festivals are marked by symbols of the saints. There are many splendid MS. almanacs of the I4th century in the British Museum : among others, the Calendar of John Somers, 1380 ; another in Cottonian MS. 1450. In Lambeth library is an English calendar, 1460. At Oxford is one by Peter de Dacia, 1300. The earliest printed almanac in England is the ' Sheapeheard's Kalendar,' by Pynson, 1497; then followed Mayster John Thy- 20 ALMANZA ALPHABET bault's, 1533; Nostrodamus's, 1566; Mounslowe's, i$79; Lilly's Ephemeris, 1644; Poor Robin's, 1652; Lady's Diary, 1705; Moore's, 1713; Gentleman's Diary, 1741 ; Partridge's, 1705 ; the Nautical, edited for 48 years by Dr Maske- lyne, first appeared 1767. The first printed in Ireland, 1587; in Scotland, 1677. In 1600 a licence was granted to Richard Watkins and James Roberts, wardens of the Stationers' Company, to print almanacs ; but this exclusive right was abolished, June 2, 1775. Stamp duties repealed by 3 & 4 Will. IV., 1834. ALMANZA, battle, April 25, 1707, when the French and Spaniards, under the command of James Fitz-James, Duke of Berwick, entirely defeated the confeder- ates, commanded by the Marquis das Minas and the Earl of Galway. ALMARANTE, a Swedish order of knighthood, instituted 1653. ALMAREZ, Spain. The Tagus is crossed at this place by a bridge built by Charles V., in 1552. The French were surprised and defeated with great loss by the English under Lord Hill, at this town, May 19, 1812. ALMEIDA, Portugal, celebrated in the Peninsular War. In Aug., 1810, it was invested by Massena and Col. Cox, the English governor ; surrendered on the 27th ; but on May 10, 1811, it was evacuated by the French, and taken by the British. ALMERIA, Spain, taken from the Moors by the Emperor of Spain, Don Alonso, Oct. 1 6, 1147. The cathedral built, 1524. ALMONDS came from the East, and were introduced into England, 1570. ALMONER, in its primitive sense, denoted an officer in religious houses, who dis- tributed the alms. By an ancient canon all bishops are required to keep an almoner. The almoner of France (la grand aiimonier} was the highest ecclesi- astical dignity there before the revolution. In 1804 Napoleon restored the office, which was continued till the time of Charles X. The Lord High Almoner of England was instituted as early, if not before, the time of Edward I., and was long held by the Archbishop of York ; at present the Bishop of Oxford holds it, and has under him a sub-almoner, a yeoman, and two grooms. ALMORA, Hindustan. Taken by the Ghorkhas, 1790; captured by the British under Colonel Nicolls, April 25, 1815. ALMORAVIDES, a family of Mahometan princes. They reigned in Spain and Africa. Abdallah, the most renowned of all the princes over the whole of Spain and the shores of the Mediterranean, died 1058. ALMSHOUSES. The earliest was founded by Lady Margaret, mother of Henry VII., at Westminster, and taken down in 1800. Red Lion Almshouses, York- street, Westminster, founded, 1577 ; Emmanuel, James-street, 1601. ALNEY, combat of, between Edmund Ironside and Canute the Great, in sight of the hostile armies, in which Canute was wounded, 1016. In 1017, the following year, Edmund being murdered at Oxford, Canute became lord of the whole kingdom. ALNWICK, a town in Northumberland, celebrated for its stately castle, the seat of the Percies. It was a strong fortress in the time of the Saxons. Malcolm III. besieged it in 1093, and was killed. In 1135, captured by David I. In 1174 William the Lion again besieged it, and was taken prisoner. The present castle was erected between 1140 and 1180. It was sold to Henry de Percy, 1310. In 1411, Alnwick was a walled town, and a gateway called Bondgate was built. Alnwick was an abbey of Premonstratensian canons, the revenue at the dissolution was ALPHABET. According to Astle, the Phoenicians have the best claim to the in- vention of an alphabet, and from them descended the Pelasgian, whence the Greek, ALPINE CLUB AMARYLLIS 21 Etruscan, Latin, &c. The Hebrew, Samaritan, and Syriac alphabets have 22 letters ; English, 26 ; Arabic, 28 ; Persian and Egyptian or Coptic, 32 ; the present Russian, 41 j Sanscrit, 50 ; the Cashmirian and Malabaric are still more numer- ous. ALPINE CLUB, formed in London for the encouragement of information of the various Alps, 1858 ; first work upon the Glaciers published by members of the club, and edited by the president, 1859. ALPS. The Carthaginian forces under Hannibal crossed, B.C. 218 ; the French army under Napoleon I., May 20, 1800. ALSATIA, a name given to the precinct of Whitefriars, near the Temple, London : it was called Alsatia the higher, to distinguish it from the Mint in Southwark, which was called Alsatia the lower. Both these places obtained certain privileges, particularly arrest from civil process, and in consequence became the resort of the profligate and abandoned of both sexes. By an act, 8 & 9 Will. III. c. 27, 1697, these and several other privileged places were put down. Shadwell has dramatized the manners and language of the Alsatians, in a satirical comedy called The Squire of Alsatia, acted in 1688. ALSEN, Denmark. The Prussians attacked the fortifications, which were defended by the Danes, June 26, 1864 ; who surrendered on the 2gth. ALTAR. The eucharist in the early Church was commonly celebrated on tables of wood. Stone altars probably began to be erected about the time of Constantine. The council of Epone, A. D. 51 7, ordained that none but stone altars should be consecrated (Can. 26). Even the wooden table was however generally called an altar, and the word Table, according to Wheatly, was introduced into our rubrics in consequence of an order from Edward VI. in council. After the third century both names (altar and table) came to be promiscuously used ; the one having re- spect to the oblation of the eucharist, the other to the participation. The Fathers seldom call it Table without some distinctive epithet, as ' The Lord's Table,' the ' Mystical,' ' Holy,' &c. ALTORF UNIVERSITY, founded 1581. ALT-RANSTADT, peace of, between Charles XII. of Sweden and the king of Poland, signed Sept. 24, 1706. Another between Louis XIV. and Charles VI. was signed here, March 17, I7 I 4- ALUM is noticed by Pliny, xxxv. 15 ; the best was obtained from Egypt and the island of Melos. In the middle ages it was manufactured in Roccha, whence comes the name Rock alum, and also at La Tolfa. Sir Thomas Chaloner, the younger, in 1595, discovered atWhitby, in Yorkshire, the first alum mines known in England. In 1625 Charles I. prohibited the importation of it. At Hurlett, near Paisley, and Campsie, near Glasgow, are alum mines. In 1828 Mr Strachan took out a patent for improving it. ALUMBAGH, Lucknow, captured by the British army under Generals Havelock and Outram, Sept. 23, 1857 ; twice attacked by the Sepoys in revolts, but each time defeated them, Jan. 12 and Feb. 21, 1858. ALUMINIUM. This metal was discovered by Sir H. Davy in 1808 ; Oersted endeavoured to get the metal in a detached form a few years afterwards ; M. Wohler discovered it in clay, 1828-1846. The first bar of this metal was made by M. St Clair Deville in France, in the Emperor's laboratory, and presented by Napoleon to Mr Pepper, 1855. AM ALIA steam-packet lost on the same day as the "London," the crew and passengers saved, Jan. 12, 1866. AMARYLLIS FORMOSISSIMA, brought from South America, 1593. 22 AMAZON AMERICA AMAZON, South America, river and country of, discovered by Orellana, 1541. AMAZON, Mail Steamship, burnt in the Bay of Biscay ; upwards of IOO passengers were lost, Jan. 4, 1852. AMBASSADORS, amongst the Romans, were sent to foreign nations, and received by them (Livy vi. 1 7). In England in the time of the Tudors, it became the custom to have resident ambassadors, or liegers, as they were named, at the differ- ent courts, in order to obtain correct information of the state of affairs in them. Baron de Forquevaux de Pavie was sent to Spain as ambassador to the court of Philip II. by Charles IX. of France, 1565. In later times they are distinguished as ordinary or extraordinary : an ordinary is one who constantly resides at a foreign court ; an extraordinary is sent on a special occasion. By 7 Anne, c. 12, 1708, an ambassador cannot be arrested, nor his goods distrained. There are four classes in England : I. Ambassadors ; 2. Envoys, or Ministers Plenipotentiary ; 3. Resident Ministers ; 4. Charges d'affaires, whose salaries are regulated by 2 & 3 Will. IV. c. 1 1 6, Aug. 1 6, 1832. Power given to administer oaths, 18 & 19 Viet. c. 42, July 2, 1855. AMBER. The origin of amber has baffled poets and chemists from the days of ancient Greece to the present. Its property, when rubbed, to attract light sub- stances was first observed by Thales, B.C. 660, who attributed a certain life to it. By some it is held to be a vegetable resin or gum ; others consider it a mineral oil. It is mostly found in the southern coasts of the Baltic Sea, where it is thrown up between Konigsberg and Memel. It is now used for ornamental pur- poses, such as necklaces, snuff-boxes, &c. AMBERLEY CASTLE, Sussex, built 1374. AMBERSBURY NUNNERY, founded 976. AMBOYNA, one of the Molucca or Spice Islands, first visited by the Portuguese, 1511, and claimed by them, 1521. Early in the 1 7th century it was taken by the Dutch. In 1604 the ships of the East India Company traded here ; and in 1612 they formed a settlement at Cambello, but were expelled in June, 1614. In Feb., 1623, was the memorable massacre of the English by the Dutch, on an accusation of a conspiracy to expel them from the island, where the two nations resided in pursuance of the treaty of 1619. In 1796 it was captured by the British under Adm. Rainier; but was restored, 1801 ; taken again by the British, Feb. 17, 1810, and again given up to Holland in 1814. AMBROSIAN LIBRARY at Milan, founded by Card. Borromeo, 1602 ; opened, 1609. It contains 40,000 printed volumes, and 15,000 MSS. AMERICA, named from Amerigo Vespucci, a Florentine gentleman ; first dis- covered by Columbus, who landed at San Salvador, Oct. 12, 1492, where he left a few men as the ground-work of a colony. In 1497 the two Cabots explored the North American coast ; and in 1498 Sebastian Cabot visited Newfoundland. South America was not discovered by Columbus until May 30, 1498. In 1500, Caspar Cortereal, a Portuguese, touched at Labrador. In 1501, Bastidas, a Spaniard, visited Cape de Vela to the Gulf of Darien. Yucatan discovered by Diaz de Solis and Penzon, 1508 ; and Florida by Ponce de Leon, 1512. The Pacific, or Southern Ocean, discovered by Balboa, 1513. See California. Sir Humphrey Gilbert first attempted colonization at Newfoundland, 1583, which was finally effected in 1607, and in New England, 1620. The west coast explored by Capt. Cook, 1773, and by Capt. Colnett, 1789. The Duke of Clarence, afterwards William IV., the first prince of the blood-royal that ever landed on that continent, 1781. (For other discoveries see the respective places. ) Sept. 5, 1774, was a general congress of 13 provinces, and the great war of American in- dependence declared. The revolutionary war commenced at Lexington, April AMERICA AMIENS 23 *9> I 77S- The colonies agreed to unite and confederate, May 20, 1775. Wash- ington appointed commander-in-chief, June 16, 1775. On July 4, 1776, the United States of North America declared independent. In 1778, alliance between France and the United States. Their independence acknowledged by England, Nov. 30, 1782. John Adams received as ambassador at St James's, June 2, 1785. The first English ambassador sent to the United States, 1791. In 1794, American minister received at Paris. In 1806, British manufactures prohibited. In 1812, war between England and North America. On March 8, 1822, the United States of North America acknowledge the inde- pendence of those of South America. Oct. 36, 1823, England sends consuls to the new states of South America. Virginia first settled by the English, 1607 ; New York first settled by the Dutch, 1614 ; Massachusetts first settled by the Puritans, 1620 ; New Hampshire settled by Puritans, 1623 ; New Jersey settled by the Dutch, 1624 ; Delaware settled by Swedes and Fins, 1627 ; Maryland settled by Irish Catholics, 1635 ; Connecticut settled by the Puritans, 1635 ; R. Island settled by Roger Williams, 1636 ; North Carolina settled by the English, 1650 ; South Carolina settled by Huguenots, 1670 ; Pennsylvania settled by Wm. Penn, 1682; Georgia settled by General Oglethorpe, 1733. Vermont admitted into the Union, 1791 ; Kentucky, 1722 ; Tennessee, 1796 ; Ohio, 1802 ; Louisiana, l8n ; Indiana, 1816 ; Mississippi, 1819; Illinois, 1818 ; Alabama, 1819; Maine, 1820 ; Missouri, 1821 ; Michigan, 1836 ; Arkansas, 1836 ; Florida, 1845 ; Texas, 1845; Iowa, 1 846 ; Wisconsin, 1848; and California, 1850. See United States. AMERICA, BRITISH NORTH. Meeting of Delegates at Quebec to discuss the union of, Oct. 10, 1864; agreed to by a congress, Oct. 30, 1864; an act of Parliament passed for the confederation, March 29, 1867. The senate appointed by proclamation, May 22, 1867. AMERICA. The Pony Express over the Rocky Mountains invented and carried out by Messrs Russell & Co., April 9, 1860. AMERICAN COMPANY, the Russian, established, 1785. AMERICAN CONGRESS first assembled at Philadelphia, Sept 5, 1774 ; again met and passed the Act of Independence, July 4, 1776 ; met at Baltimore, 1776 ; at New York, 1789 ; Philadelphia, 1790 ; and transferred to Washington, 1800. See United States. AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY instituted, Jan. 2, 1762. AMERICAN RAILWAYS. In 1848, only 5565 miles were open, at a cost of .6000 per mile ; profits, "]~ percent. Open, 1852, 13,315 miles; 12, 029 contracted for: total, 25,344 miles. Of these 2501 were opened in 1852 j at work, Jan. I, 1852, 10,814 rniles. AMERICAN TELEGRAPH. The first line was constructed between Washington and Baltimore, 1844. AMETHYST, a gem of a violet colour, the ninth in order upon the high-priest's breast-plate, Ex. xxviii. 19 ; xxxix. 12. Pliny says it resists drunkenness, which Plutarch rejects. It is found in the East and West Indies, and in several parts of Europe. De Boot (Hist. Gemmarum) mentions an amethyst, rendered colour- less, estimated at 200 rix-dollars, which being cut to the same pattern as a diamond of the value of 18,000 gold crowns, so equalled it in lustre, that he could not tell the difference. They are frequently counterfeited by spars and crystals tinged red and yellow. Discovered at Kerry in Ireland, 1755. AMICABLE SOCIETY, Sergeants' Inn, incorporated by Queen Anne, 1706. AMIENS, France. A congress held here, when Louis annulled the provisions of Oxford against the barons, 1264. The preliminary treaty of, between England, 24 AMONTILLADO WINE AMULETS Holland, France, and Spain, signed, Oct. I, iSoi, and definitive treaty, March 28, 1802. AMONTILLADO WINE, first imported into England in 1811. It is called Amontillado sherry, from the grape being grown on the mountains. It has a peculiar flavour, slightly aromatic, and answers admirably to the improved taste of the present age. AMORIUM WAR (A.D. 838) between Theophilus and Motassem, the latter suc- cessful. Sosopetra, the native place of Motassem, having been razed by The- ophilus, Motassem in revenge attacked Amorium, the birth-place of Theophilus, and destroyed it. These wars, between the Christians and Arabs, were conducted with the most savage spirit. AMOY, China. A trade with this town permitted in 1676. The fort destroyed by the English, July, 1840. The town captured, Aug. 26, 1841. The port opened for trade by treaty, Aug. 26, 1842. The town fell under the assault of the insurgents, 1853 ; but was retaken the same year. AMPHICTYONIC COUNCIL, instituted in Greece, B.C. 1000, as a federative tribunal for settling the disputes of the Greek states with one another. It usually sat twice a year : in spring at the temple of Apollo, at Delphi ; and autumn at the temple of Demeter (Ceres), at Thermopylae. The decisions of this council were held as final and sacred. AMPHION frigate blown up at Plymouth, when 250 persons perished, Sept. 22, 1796. AMPHITHEATRE, or two theatres joined together for seeing sights. The stadium of the Greeks was the ancestor of the Roman amphitheatre. In B. c. 60, M. ^imilius Scaurus built an amphitheatre of wood, at Rome, to hold 30,000 spectators ; it was supported by 360 columns of marble, of 38 feet high, and adorned with 3000 brazen statues. The first stone one was built by Pompey the Great the present palace of Ursini at Rome stands upon its ruins it held 40,000 spectators. The naumachia of Caesar, an enlarged circus, B. c. 39. The colosseum of Vespasian, now one of the greatest ruins of Europe, A. D. 69. The amphi- theatre at Verona, ascribed to Domitian (A.D.82), held 22,000 men. AMPHITRITE, a convict ship, wrecked on Boulogne sands, with 103 female convicts, 12 children, and a crew of 16 persons, all except three drowned, Aug. 31, 1833. AMPLI, battle, between the Greeks and Turks, in which the former were victors, 1821. AMSTERDAM, Holland. In 1204 on its site was nothing but a small castle called Amstel. In the I4th century it rose into a commercial town, and in 1490 was surrounded with a brick wall. In 1525 an Anabaptist leader, with 600 of his fol- lowers, took possession of the town-house ; and ten years afterwards these fanatics ran about the streets naked ! It was attacked by the Hollanders, 1578, and sub- mitted after a siege of ten months. The House of Correction built, 1595; and its Bank erected, 1609. Hotel de Ville built by Van Campen, 1646. In 1787 it surrendered to the Prussians, and Jan. 20, 1795, received the French with open arms, and was the capital of the Batavian republic. In 1806 it was the seat of government under Louis Bonaparte, and incorporated into the French empire, July, 1810. On Nov. 18, 1813, a provisional government was formed, and in May, 1815, William Frederic, Prince, of Nassau and Orange, was declared sovereign prince. AMULETS. Most nations believed in the efficacy of amulets as charms or pre- servatives against witchcraft and infection. The Egyptians had a great variety, and the Jews early used them, Deut. xviii. 10 ; Jer. viii. 17 ; and in later times ANABAPTISTS ANCHORETS 25 their phylacteries. The superstitious use of them still surrives in the anodyne necklace to assist infants in their teething, the child's caul on board of ship, &c. ANABAPTISTS, or those who baptize a second time. This sect sprung up in 1521, at Wittenberg in Saxony, under Storck, Stubner, and Cellarius. In 1532 a mob of these fanatics, led by John Matthias, attacked Munster, which they called Mount Zion. Several laws were enacted against them from 1525 to 1534, in Saxony, Switzerland, and other parts of Germany. They held the nullity of infant baptism ; that the church stood in no need of ministers, nor the state of civil magistrates ; and that God revealed his will by dreams and visions to chosen individuals. ANACREONTIC VERSE, a kind of measure adopted by Anacreon, the Greek poet, B.C. 525, whose poetry, for the most part, was in praise of wine. In this verse the accent is placed on the first, third, and fifth syllables. ANAGRAM, the transposition of the letters of words so as to form other words of a different meaning. The Roman anagram was confined to the dividing one word into two or more, retaining their original order ; but the modems transpose the entire of the letters in any way to answer their purpose. The appointment of anagrammatist to Louis XIII. was worth 12,000 livres per annum ; and the art, as now practised, was introduced into France in the reign of Charles IX., and into England soon after. Randle Holme, a quaint writer on heraldry, was addressed in this complimentary anagram, ' Lo, Men's Herald ! ' and ' Horatio Nelson,' the immortal hero of the Nile, is aptly converted into 'Honor est a Nilo.' ANASTATIC Printing, invented 1841. This process depends mainly on the an- tagonism of oil and water. A printed sheet of paper is moistened with diluted phosphoric acid, and is pressed on a clean surface of zinc ; and by this contact the acid of the unprinted part etches the zinc beneath, while the printed part sets offon the zinc ; thus producing a reverse copy of the printing on the zinc. The plate is washed with an acid solution of gum, and is then inked ; the affinities in some instances, and the repulsions in others, cause the lines of the device (what- ever it may be) to take the ink, but the other parts of the plate to remain clean ; and the printing then follows. Dodd. ANATOMY, or dissection, first practised by Hippocrates, B. c. 400 ; cultivated in Alexandria by Erasistratus and Herophilus, B.C. 296; Galen, AD. 161. Mon- dinius, a professor in Bologna, was the first person who publicly dissected, 1315, and published anatomical plates of the human body ; but Vesalius was the first great anatomist, 1540 ; he published several anatomical works. Dr Harvey, his researches, 1616 ; Assellius on lacteals, 1627; and Picquet's discoveries, 1651. Laws to regulate, enacted, 1540 ; new statute respecting, 3 Will. IV. c. 75, 1832. Malefactors to be dissected, by 9 Geo. IV. c. 31, s. 5, June 27, 1828 ; this was repealed by 2 & 3 Will. IV. c. 75, Aug. i. 1832, entitled ' An Act for regulating Schools of Anatomy.' Anatomy of plants discovered, 1680. Modern comparative anatomy founded by John Hunter, 1793. Medical diplomas to candidates were first given at Salerno. ANCHOR. The invention of it is ascribed by Pliny to the Tuscans, and by Pausanias to Midas, who built Ancyra. The most ancient were of stone, some- times of wood inlaid with lead, and had a fluke on one side only. Eupalamus first made them fluked both ways. Sir Samuel Morland, 1661, invented the drum capstan. In 1809 Mr Hemman, of Chatham, invented the mooring anchor. Trotman patented his anchors in 1852, which were afterwards approved of by the Government Hunter, in 1856, made several improvements. ANCHORETS, or ANCHORITES, who lived in caves and cells, originated with Paul, Antony, and Hilarion, in the third century. 26 ANCONA ANGEL ANCONA, Italy; the Romans established a colony here, B. c. 170. The Lombards established themselves in this town about 590. Taken by the Saracens in 839. The Germans obtained possession in 1 1 74, but were expelled a few years after- wards. In 1532 Clement VII. took possession of it, and it remained under the dominion of the popes, until the French captured it in 1 796. Revolts from Rome, 1797 ; taken by the Russians, Nov. 13, 1799 > restored to the papal power, 1802. Taken again by the French, Feb. 23, 1832, and made a free port. The Austrians took it, June 14, 1849 ; the Sardinians, Sept. 29, 1860. ANDAMAN ISLANDS, Bengal, first explored circa 1607 ; became a refuge for shipwrecked mariners in 1791. They were surveyed by Capt. Blair and Col. Colebrooke for the East India Company in June, 1789 ; Capt. Blair sailed from Calcutta to erect a convict settlement upon the island called Port Cornwallis and Chatham Island, Sept., 1789; convicts arrived, Nov. 22, 1794; the settlement was visited by Col. Symes in 1 795 ; abandoned in 1 796 ; the Fleet assembled here in the Burmese war, 1824. The troop ships the Briton and Runnymede were driven upon these islands in 1844. The islands visited by Dr Mouat, Dec., 1857. Dr Motiat. ANDERSONIAN Institution, Glasgow, founded, 1795, for popular and scientific lectures in natural philosophy. ANDREANOSSY Isles, between Asia and America, discovered, 1760. ANDREW (ST), the son of Jonas of Bethsaida ; exercised his apostolic office in Scythia ; martyred, Nov. 30, 69 ; festival instituted, 359. ANDREW'S (ST), bishopric, founded 370, by St Regulus, called St Rule, at Abernethy. In 972 Kenneth III. translated the see to St Andrew's ; and it was erected into an archbishopric in 1470. Arthur Ross was bishop in 1688, when this see was deprived of its temporalities. ^ It is at present united with the sees of Dunkeld and Dunblane. Its cathedral was nearly 160 years in building (1161 1318), and was demolished, June, 1559, by the followers of John Knox. ANDREW'S (ST), Cross. In 819 there was a battle between Athelstan, king of England, and Hungus, king of the Picts, when a bright cross, like St Andrew's (X), appeared to Hungus, who, having obtained the victory, ever after bore that figure. ANDREW'S (ST), Order, founded by the emperor of Russia, Peter I., Dec. 20, 1698, and is second in rank of the Russian orders. The English order, founded by James V. of Scotland, 1540 ; it having fallen in disuse, was revived by James II. of England, May 29, 1687, and by Queen Anne, Dec. 31, 1703. . ANDREW'S (ST), University, Scotland, founded, 141 1 ; St Salvator's College, founded by James Kennedy, Bishop of St Andrew's, 1455 '> St Leonard's College, founded by Alex. Stuart, Abp of St Andrew's, and John Hepburn, prior, 1512 ; St Mary's College, founded by James Beaton, Abp of St Andrew's, 1537 ; St Salvator's and St Leonard's united, 1747. An annual grant of ,1009 igj. ^d. is voted for the professors, &c., in this university. ANEMOMETER, or wind-measurer, invented by Wolf, 1709. See Dr Lind's in- genious method in Philosophical Trans, vol. Ixxv. ANGEL, a coin first issued in France, 1340; in England, with its subdivisions, by Edward IV., 1465 ; its value then 6s. 8 to the Mitre Tavern, Fleet- street, 1718 ; minutes kept, 1718 ; met in Gray's Inn, 1727 ; in 1728 met at the Mitre Tavern, Fleet-street ; in 1 750 removed to a house in Chancery-lane, and petitioned for a charter of incorporation, which was granted, Nov. 2, 1751 ; two secretaries appointed, 1754 ; in 1780 the society removed to Somerset House. Admission fee, $ $s. and 2 2s. annually, or an additional sum of 25 guinea!; to the admission fee, to be constituted a member for life. The initials of the fellows are F.S.A. ANTIQUARIES' SOCIETY OF SCOTLAND, founded, 1780. Fellows pay on admission 2 2s., and others i is. annually, or 1$ 15^. for life compo- sition. ANTOINE, ST, battle, between the Prince of Conde and the Royalists under Turenne, when the latter were defeated, July 2, 1652. ANTONINE COLUMN, erected at Rome about the year A.D. 161, to Marcus Aurelius Antoninus ; the column of Antoninus Pius, during 138 ; in their re- spective reigns. The former emperor died, 180; the latter, 161. ANTONINES, a religious sect that first appeared in 329. ANTONINUS' WALL, the third rampart built to check the inroads of the northern barbarians into England, in A.D. 140, by Lollius Urbicus. ANTONY, an Austrian military order founded by Albert Duke of Bavaria, 1382. ANTWERP, Belgium, in the I ith century was a small republic. The city was built by the Duke of Alva, 1568; pillaged by the Spaniards, 1576; taken by the Prince of Parma, Aug. 17, 1585; evacuated by the French, 1793; but retaken, July 23, 1794; capture of the citadel by the French, Dec. 23,1832. The Cathe- dral built, 1422; the Exchange, 1531; the Academy of Arts founded by Philip IV. King of Spain, July 6, 1663; extended, June 17, 179^5 a triumphal arch erected 1853 on the Place de Meir, on occasion of a visit of the King of the Belgians; visited by Queen Victoria, 1852; the Exchange burnt, Aug. I, 1858; the entrepot and other large buildings destroyed by fire and 12 persons killed, Dec. 2, 1 86 1. APOCALYPSE APOTHECARIES 31 APOCALYPSE means uncovering, and is applied to the Revelation of St John, written about A. D. 96. Its canonicity has been questioned in all ages ; but there is no doubt that Irenseus, who died Bishop of Lyons, 202, believed it to have been written by St John ; and, moreover, most of the writers in the 4th and 5th centuries quote it as a canonical book. Erasmus doubted, and Luther altogether rejected it; Calvin and Beza seem to be more in favour of its canonicity. Dr Leonhard Twells', in his 'Critical Examination,' 1732, is the most able defence of it. APOCALYPTIC KNIGHT, a secret society founded by Agostino Gabrino, 1693, for the defence of the Roman Church against antichrist ; suppressed by the In- quisition, 1694. APOCRYPHA, books appended to the sacred writings of doubtful authority. The Church of England permits them to be read ' for example, and instruction of manners,' Art. VI. At the 4th session of the Trent Council, 1545, the Roman Church admitted them to be of .equal authority with Scripture. Since 1826 these books have not been circulated by the British and Foreign Bible Society. APOLLINARISTS, a sect named from Apollinaris, who taught (A.D. 371) that the Divine Logos occupied in the person of Christ the place of the human soul. His doctrine was condemned at a Roman synod, 375. This sect is also called Vitalians and Dimoerites. APOLLO, frigate, and forty sail of outward-bound Indiamen, lost on the coast of Portugal, with numerous lives, April 2, 1804. APOLLO, the Grecian deity of archery, prophecy, and music. His principal temples were at Delos, Delphi, Tenedos, Patara, Claros, &c. APOLLO BELVEDERE. This famed statue, placed in the Vatican at Rome by Julius II., 1511, was brought from the ruins of Antium, 1503. The French, during their occupation of Rome, transported it to France, 1 797, but it was re- stored to its former position in 1815. APOLLONICON, or chamber organ, invented by Flight and Robson, of St Mar- lin's-lane, 1817. APOSTASY, law enacted against, 9 & 10 Will. III. c. 32, 1697. APOSTLES' CREED. This primitive symbol of the Christian faith has long been used by the Church of England in nearly the same position it now occupies. Before the reformation under Edward VI. it followed the Lord's Prayer amongst those prayers which it now precedes. APOSTOLICI, a sect in the 3rd century who condemned marriage as unlawful. In the middle ages they were called Cathari. Another sect of this name was founded by Gerhard Segarelli of Parma, 1260. The synod of Lavaur, 1368, notices them for the last time. APOTHECARIES anciently dealt in sweetmeats, spices, and confectionery ; they first obtained their legal establishment as dispensers of drugs by edict of Frederick II. in the 1 3th century. John Falcourt, of Lucca, in Italy, was *he first apothecary in England, 1362. In 1511 they were licensed by the Bishop of London or the Dean of St Paul's. The apothecaries of London were incorporated by James I., 1606, and united with the grocers; incorporated as a separate company by James II., Dec. 6, 1615. This charter and the privilege of examining and licensing apothecaries vested in them by 55 Geo. III. c. 194, July 12, 1815; upwards of 400 are annually examined. Extensive laboratories were built in 1671 ; Sir Hans Sloane conveyed to them his Botanical Gardens at Chelsea by indenture, Feb. 20, 1721-2. Their hall in Water-lane built, and a dispensary founded, in 1623; destroyed in the fire of 1666, and rebuilt, 1670-6; arms granted to, 1617. Dub- lin company incorporated, 1791; Liverpool company, 1837; hall erected, 1838. 32 APPARITORS AQUEDUCT APPARITORS, officers in a spiritual court, recognized by the I38th English canon; first instituted, 1234. APPEAL of murder, the last, Ashford v. Thornton, April 16, 1818; act to repeal the old law, in consequence, 59 George III. c. 46, June 22, 1819. APPEALS to Rome. The custom of direct and indiscriminate appeals to Rome was introduced by the false decretals. In 1532 it was enacted that all causes concerning wills, divorces, and tithes, should be determined within the realm of England; and in 1533, 24 Henry VIII. c. 12, it was ordered that no manner of appeals should be made to the Bishop of Rome ; repealed by I & 2 Phil, and Mary, c. 8, 1554; re-enacted by I Eliz. c. I, 1559. APPLE. This fruit is noticed by Homer as cultivated in the gardens of Alcinous and of Laertes ; it was also a favourite fruit of the Romans, who had many varieties. The apple-tree brought from Syria into Italy, B.C. 10. In 1629 it was cultivated in Massachusetts, the seed having been imported from England. The famous Baldwin apple originated in that portion of the State known as Somer- ville. APPRAISERS, as valuers of property, are noticed in n Edward I., 1283 ; first re- quired to take out a license by 46 Geo. III. c. 43, 1806. The duty upon, fixed at ios., 55 Geo. III. c. 184, July u, 1815 ; increased to 2, 8 & 9 Viet. c. 76, Aug. 4, 1845. APPRENTICES, first incidentally noticed in 12 Rich. II. c. 5, 1388; by 7 Hen. IV. c. 17, 1405-6, no one could bind his son or daughter apprentice unless he have land or rent to the value of 2Oj. per year. By 5 Eliz. c. 4, 1563, any person under 21, is compellable to be bound apprentice if so required by any householder using half a plough of land in tillage ; the same act provides that the binding must be by indenture. These restrictions were felt to be so injurious that they were re- pealed by 54 Geo. III. c. 96, July 18, 1814. Better regulations passed by the legislature for their protection, 14 & 15 Viet. c. n, May 20, 1851 ; repealed, but again re-enacted, Aug. 6, 1861. The London apprentices were often a for- midable body; thus the fatal riot on 'Evil May-day,' 1517, again in 1595 and 1668, caused several to be punished. APRICOT. Columella, in the first century, mentions the apricot as cultivated in Italy. Martial, in an epigram, speaks of the apricot as inferior to the peach, and as a stock on which the peach was grafted. Some writers state it was brought from Italy to England by Wolf, the king's gardener, 1524; others, that it was in- troduced 1562. APRIL-FOOL. The origin of this joke has puzzled antiquaries, but the most probable conjecture is, that All, or Old, Fools' Day, is derived from the Feast of Fools, a mockery of the Druids, and the Huli Festival of India in celebration of the vernal equinox. In Scotland, the sending any one on a nonsensical errand is called ' Hunting the gowk ' gowk being synonymous with a cuckoo, one of the most silly of the feathered tribe ; whereas, in France, the butt of ridicule is styled ' Un Poisson tfAvril,' an 'April Fish,' the mackerel being a fish easily caught by deception. AQUATINTA Engraving discovered by Le Prince, who was born at Metz, in 1723. AQUA TOFFANA, a liquid poison discovered by an Italian woman named Toffana, 1659, and used with deadly effect upon 600 persons in a few years. AQUEDUCT. The first Roman aqueduct by the censor Appius, B.C. 312 ; the aqueduct of the Emperor Claudius, A.D. 50, of which a considerable portion is still standing. Sixtus V., 1586, repaired the Roman aqueducts. Louis XIV. built 'one near Maintenon, 7000 fathoms in length, and containing 242 arcades. The AQUITAINE ARCHBISHOP 33 stupendous aqueduct upon the Ellesmere canal was opened Nov. 26, 1805, and is 1007 feet in length, and 126 feet high. AQUITAINE, France, one of the ancient divisions of ancient Gaul. Julius Caesar calls the south of Gaul, Aquitaine ; and the poetical population of this district adopted the name for their dukedom from the classics. It was conquered by the Franks, A. D. 506 ; and became a separate state under its own dukes, 700. By the marriage of Henry II. with Eleanora of Aquitaine, 1152, the district belonged to the English crown ; but was recovered by Charles VII., 1451-2. ARABIA, Asia, consists of three divisions : I. Arabia Deserta, which comprehends the Syrian desert, as far as the Euphrates, where we find Palmyra. 2. Arabia Petrtfa, between the Red and the Dead Sea, bordering upon Palestine and Egypt. 3. Arabia Felix, to the south of the Deserta, bounded on the east by the Persian Gulf, on the south by the ocean, and on the west by the Red Sea. Mahomet opened a new era on the day of his flight from Mecca to Medina, July 16, 622. See Hegira. ARABICI, a sect that sprung up in Arabia about A.D. 207, whose distinguishing tenet was, that the soul died with the body, and also rose again with it. ARABLE land restrained, and pasture enforced, 1534. ARAGON, Spain, colonized by the Carthaginians, B.C. 300; they were expelled by the Romans. Ramiro I. elected the first king, A.D. 1035 ; united to Castile, 1479. ARAM, Eugene, tried for the murder of Daniel Clark, Aug. 3, 1759, committed 14 years before, in Yorkshire, and executed Aug. 6. ARANJUEZ, Spain. During the Peninsula War this place suffered severely from the French. The treaty between France and Spain against England concluded here, 1772. The insurrection which led to the abdication of Charles IV. in favour of his son Ferdinand broke out, March 18, 1808 ; railway opened at, Dec. 12, 1850. ARBUTUS tree brought to England from the Levant, 1724. ARCADES. The principal of these covered passages in London are : I. The Piazza or Arcade of Covent Garden, built by Inigo Jones, about 1633 ; 2. Burlington Arcade, built by Samuel Ware, 1819 ; 3. Lowther Arcade, designed by Witherden Young, 1829-30. Royal Arcade, Dublin, 1820 ; burned down, 1837- ARCH, Marble, at Cumberland Gate, modelled on that of Constantine, 1828, and set up first in St James's Park ; removed in 1851. The Corinthian, at Hyde Park corner, built by Burton, 1828 ; the colossal statue of the Duke of Wellington placed upon it, Sept. 30, 1846. ARCHAEOLOGICAL, The British, Association, established Dec. 5, 1843. The first number of the Journal published in March, 1844. ARCHAEOLOGICAL INSTITUTE, separated from the Association and took the name of Institute, Sept. 9, 1845. ARCHANGEL, Russia, the passage to, by sea, discovered by the English, 1553 > the town founded in 1584 ; the only Russian sea-port until 1703 ; a fire doing much damage broke out here, Oct. 17, 1762 ; a serious fire happened which destroyed 3000 houses, June 26, 1793 ; blockaded by the English fleet, 1854. ARCHBISHOP, a dignity conferred upon the clergy ; first established in the East, 320, and a century later at Rome. St Augustine appointed Abp of Canterbury, 597 ; York made an Archbishopric, 625 ; St Andrew and Glasgow, 1476 ; four constituted in Ireland, 1151 ; reduced to two by the statute 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 37, s. 46, Aug. 14, 1833. 3 34 ARCHCHAMBERLAINSHIP ARCOT ARCHCHAMBERLAINSHIP of the German empire conferred on the Elector of Brandenburg, by a gold bull of Charles IV., 1356. ARCHDEACONS appointed in the 4th century. The first English archdeacon was appointed by Stephen Langton, Abp of Canterbury, in 1075. The number increased and their jurisdiction fixed by statute 6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 77, Aug. 13, 1836; subsequently increased. ARCHERY. The use of the bow is said by Verstegan to be of Saxon origin ; it was, however, discontinued. William the Conqueror re-introduced the use of the arrow at the battle of Hastings, Oct. 14, 1066 ; its use was forbidden by the 2nd Lateran Council, 1139 ; revived by Richard I. in France. By the statute of Winton, persons having 40^. in land, might keep a sword, bow and arrows, and a dagger, 13 Edward I. c. 6, 1285. A body of English archers, 4000 strong, was in the army of Edward III., 1327, and a force of 2000 fought in the battle of Cayent, r 337 > the city of London provided 5 archers in the French wars, 1355 ; Edward III., in an epistle to the sheriffs of London, sets forth how the citizens shall exercise themselves in shooting with arrows, June 12, 1349 ; in the battles of Poictiers, 1356, and Agincourt, 1417, the English archers destroyed the French cavalry. In the reign of Edward IV. it was enacted that every Englishman should own a bow his own height and keep it ready for use, and it further directed that he should train his sons to the same art from the age of seven years ; butts were also provided. Henry VIII., who was himself a good archer, made one of his attendants the Ditke of Shoreditch, for his knowledge in the use of the bow ; established the Artillery Company by charter, Aug. 25, 1537 ; 3000 archers met at Hoxton to shoot for prizes, Sept. 17, 1583 ; the citizens formed a corps of archers, 1538 ; they were afterwards incorporated ; Queen Elizabeth passed a statute to protect this arm of her service, 13 Elizabeth, c. 14, 1570; crossbows were in use as late as 1627 ; Charles I. & II. ordered the long bow to be especially practised ; the latter monarch reviewed the Finsbury Archers in 1682 ; the Toxopholite Society formed at Leicester House, London, in 1781. ARCHES Court. The name of this court is derived from the Arches below St Mary le Bow Church, Cheapside ; all ecclesiastical suits were held here until the removal of the court to Doctors' Commons in the middle of the i6th century, but occasional courts were held at Bow Church down to the year 1825. ARCHITECTURE Styles. The duration of the Early English was from 1200 to 1300, comprehending the reigns of John, Henry III., and Edward I. It was suc- ceeded by the Ornamented English, which continued from 1300 to 1460, compre- hending part of the reign of Edward I., and the reign of Edward II., Edward III., Richard II., Henry IV., Henry V. and VI. Then followed the Florid English, which prevailed from 1460 to 1537, comprehending the reigns of Edward IV. and V., Richard III., Henry VII. and VIII. ARCHON. The title of the highest magistrates at Athens. The first elected was Medon, B.C. noo. The number of years of office limited to 10, B.C. 752. ARCHONTICS, a sect of Christian heretics, who pretended that God engendered the devil, who begot Abel and Cain of Eve, and that woman was the work of Satan ; arose into notice, 203. ARCIS SUR AUBE, battle. In this fiercely-contested battle Napoleon was de- feated by the allies, March 20, 1814. ARCOLE, battle. The Austrian army, under Marshal Alvinzi, defeated by the French, commanded by Napoleon. After a series of struggles almost unequalled, the Austrians lost 18,000 men, Nov. 14, 15, 17, 1796. ARCOS, Spain, evacuated by the French, Aug. 28, 1812. ARCOT, Hindustan, founded in 1716; taken by Colonel Clive, Aug. 31, 1751 ; re- ARCTIC ARGONAUTIC EXPEDITION 35 taken by the French, 1758; surrendered to Colonel Coote, Feb. 10, 1760; be- sieged by Hyder Ali, and taken Oct. 31, 1780; ceded to the East India Com- pany, 1 80 1. ARCTIC Regions. Several attempts have been made from time to time by the voyagers of different nations to discover the north-west passage, but with indif- ferent success. . A settlement was formed at Greenland as early as the loth century. The following are some of the principal expeditions : Sir Hugh Wil- loughby set out May 20, 1553, returned the following year; Martin Frobisher, 1576 ; Captain Davis made three voyages, 1585-6-7 ; Barentsz, 1594-5 ; Weymouth and Knight, 1602 ; Hudson made four attempts during the years 1607-10 ; Bylot and Baffin, 1616 ; Fox's expedition, 1631 ; Middleton's, 1742 ; Moore and Smith's, 1746 ; Hearne's land expedition, 1769 ; Commodore Phipps', 1773 ; Capt. Cook, 1 776 ; Mackenzie's, 1 789 ; Capt. Duncan's, 1 790 ; Vancouver, 1 795 ; Lieut. Kotzebue's, 1815; Capt. Buchan and Lieut. Franklin, 1818; Capt. Ross and Lieut. Parry, 1818 ; Lieuts Parry and Liddon, 1819 ; return of, 1820; Capts Parry and Lyon, 1821 ; Capts Franklin and Lyon, by land, 1825 ; Capt. Parry, in the Hecla, 1827, March 25, return Oct. 6 ; Capt. Ross' return, after four years' absence, Oct. 18, 1833 ; Capt. Back's arctic land expedition to the Polar Sea, return Sept. 8, 1835 ; Capt. Back sailed to Wager River, June 21, 1836 ; Sir John Franklin and Capt. Crozier sailed in the Erebus and Terror, May 23, 1845 > n t returning for seven years, various expeditions sent in pursuit, but un- successfully ; the last sailed in 1852 : one was commanded by Sir J. Ross, who relumed Nov. 3, 1849 ; the Enterprise and Investigator sailed Jan. 10, 1850, and returned unsuccessfully ; in 1850, ^"20,000 was offered to any vessel that afforded them efficient assistance ; Capt. Collinson returned in the Enterprise, May 5, 1855 ; Dr Kane's expedition, returned to America after an ineffectual search for Sir John Franklin, Oct., 1855 ; Dr Rae and his companions received the Government reward of ^10,000 for first ascertaining the fate of Sir John Franklin and his companions, July 26, 1856 ; arrival of the Resolute discovery ship, which had been abandoned in the ice and discovered by an American ship and restored by that Government to Great Britain, Dec. 12, 1856. The Fox Screw Steamer, fitted out by Lady Franklin, and commanded by Capt. MacClintock, sailed in search of the remains of the Franklin Expedition, July I, 1857 ; returned, Sept. 18, 1857, bringing intelligence of Sir John Franklin's death, which took place June II, 1847. ARGAND Lamps invented by M. Argand, a native of Geneva, 1785 ; greatly im- proved by M. Carcel of Paris, 1800 ; introduced in London, 1801. ARGAUM, battle, the Mahrattas defeated by Wellington, Nov. 29, 1803. ARGENTARIA, battle, between the Alemanni and the Romans, 378 ; the.former defeated, with the loss of 32,000 men, near Alsace. ARGENTEUS CODEX, or the silver book of the Gothic Gospels, discovered in Westphalia in 1597; first printed, 1665 ; at Stockholm, 1672; at Oxford, 1750; and at Weissenfels, 1805. ARGENTINE CONFEDERATION. Republic established, 1816 ; the cities of San Juan, San Louis, and Mendoza, destroyed by an earthquake, 15,000 persons crushed to death, March 20, 1861 ; Don Bartolome Mitre elected president, Oct. 5, 1862 ; constitution agreed to, May 15, 1853. See Buenos Ayres. ARGO, the first long ship built by the Greeks to carry the Argonauts, B.C. 1263. ARGONAUTIC EXPEDITION, B.C. 1263, 48 years before the taking of Troy. The Golden Fleece means the treasure of the king of Colchis, pillaged by the Argonauts, the Syriac word Gaza meaning fleece ; but it is more generally ad- mitted that Argo was the name of the first ship that was built (except the ark), and that it was therefore made a sign in the heavens ; that the fable of the Fleece 36 ARGONAUTS ARMADA originated in the fleeces sunk in the river Xanthus, to collect the alluvial gold washed into that river from the adjacent mines. ARGONAUTS, of St Nicholas, the order of knighthood instituted at Naples, by Charles III., 1382. ARGOS, Greece, made the first state in the Peloponnesus, B.C. 747 ; the Argeians defeated at Mantinea, B.C. 418; Pyrrhus made an unsuccessful attempt to take the town, B. c. 272 ; several battles subsequently took place here, in the last the Ambraciots were defeated by Demosthenes, B. c. 426. ARGURI, Armenia. The village with the monastery and chapel of St James and all the inhabitants destroyed by an eruption of Mount Ararat, July 2, 1840. ARGYLE, Scotland. In the middle ages the territories of Argyle were subject to powerful and independent Thanes. The McDonalds rose in insurrection against the Argylists, but were defeated in 1614. Made a bishopric in 1200 ; abolished, 1688 ; restored in 1847. ARGYLE, Marquis of, beheaded, May 27, 1661 ; Duke of, executed at Edinburgh, June 17, 1685. ARIANS, the followers of Arius, who deny the Divinity of Christ, arose, 320 ; con- demned by the Council of Nice, July 14 Sept. 9, 325 ; ordered by Constantine to be re-admitted, 332. Servetus supported the doctrine, 1531. Arius poisoned, 336 ; Servetus was burned, at Calvin's instigation, 1553. ARITHMETIC brought from Arabia to Europe, in the iith century ; Jordanus wrote his work upon, 1200 ; used in England soon after ; the invention of deci- mals, by Regiomontanus, 1464. ARKADI, The. This celebrated Greek blockade-runner, engaged in the Cretan insurrection, on making her 24th voyage was attacked by the Turkish steam yacht Izeddin, commanded by Hassan Bey, and running aground, was destroyed by fire, Aug. 19, 1867. ARKANSAS, America. A colony formed here by the French, 1685 ; ceded to Spain, 1763; restored to France, 1800; purchased by the United States, 1803; admitted into the Union, 1836 ; seceded, May 6, 1861. ARKLOW, battle, between the English and Irish, June 10, 1798. ARLES, France. A Roman colony formed here by Augustus, in the reign of Con- stantine ; it was partly destroyed, 270. Constantine II. was born in this town. A council held, in which three British Bishops took part, 314. Subsequently plun- dered by the Saracens, 850; annexed to France, 1487; Hotel de Ville built, 1673- ARMADA, the Spanish, or the Invincible. The Fleet consisted of 136 vessels, some of immense size, and with crews numbering in all over 10,000 men, under the command of Duke Medina Sidonia ; and 20,000 soldiers under the Duke of Parma, quitted Lisbon, May 30, 1588. The English Fleet under Lord Howard, Admiral Drake, Sir John Hawkins, and Frobisher, consisted of small ships and lesser crews, and was only half the tonnage of the Spaniards, and with half the number of guns. A storm off Cape Finisterre did the Spanish ships so much damage that they were forced to put into Corunna to refit, from whence they sailed on July 12, 1588, and arrived off the Lizard on the igth. Howard put off from Plymouth with 67 vessels to meet the Armada, and came up with them on the 2ist, and kept up a running fight until they reached the Isle of Wight on the 25th. The Armada anchored in Calais roads on the 27th. Fire ships were sent by the English into the midst of the fleet, which caused such confusion and loss that the Armada begun to retreat towards Dunkirk. Howard pursued them till Aug. 22, and inflicted upon ARMADA ARMOURERS 37 them a severe defeat, and a storm coming on, many of them were lost on the coast of Norway. 80 vessels and 20,000 men were lost before they reached Spain. ARMADA, Spanish (so called), defeated by the Dutch off Dunkirk, 1630. ARMAGH, Ireland, celebrated in the 5th and following centuries as a seat of learning; made the metropolitan see of Ireland by Cardinal Paparon, 1152; suffered from the incursions of the Danes, who destroyed the city in 852 ; the town burnt by the O'Neils, 1564; the cathedral founded, 450 ; destroyed, 1564; afterwards rebuilt, and again destroyed, 1642. ARMED NEUTRALITY, a confederacy of the northern powers against England, commenced by Russia, 1780; its objects defeated, 1781; renewed, Dec. 16, 1800 ; dissolved after Nelson's victory at Copenhagen, Dec. 16, 1801. ARMENIA, Asia. It is stated by native historians that the city was founded B. c. 1800. The country early submitted to the Romans, and became a Roman pro- vince under Trajan. Alphabet invented by Masdoty, 466. The inhabitants em- braced Christianity in the 4th century, and separated from the Greek Church, 536. Sapor, king of Persia, attempted its subjugation in vain, and it remained free until 650, when it was conquered by the Arabians ; taken by Selim II. from the Persians, 1552, and remained under the Turkish rule until the country submitted to the Persians, 1604 ; the Russians overran Armenia, 1828, and Erzeroum sub- mitted to them, 1829. ARMENIAN ERA commenced, Tuesday, July 9, 552; the ecclesiastical year, Aug. 1 1. To reduce to present time, add 551 years and 222 days, and in leap year sub- tract one day from March I to Aug. 10. ARMENIAN MONKS, the order of St Basil, first established, 1173. ARMINIAN sect founded, 1591, by James Arminius, of Holland, who died, 1609 ; the doctrine condemned at the Synod of Dort, 1619 ; taught, too, by Vorstius, the disciple of Arminius, 1611. ARMORIAL BEARINGS. The use of them can be traced, as hereditary in England, as far back as the time of King Stephen, for in that reign Robert Eudo sealed with his coat of arms. This Robert was the son of Hugh, and grandson of Eudo, a Norman noble, to whom William the Conqueror gave, for his good services, the lordship of Tattershall in Lincolnshire, and many other estates. Robert used his seal when he granted a formal charter to the monks of Kirkstead Abbey, in the reign of King Stephen, ' to which charter (bearing his arms, "chequy or and gules, a chief ermine") are witnesses, William Fitz Hugh and William de Dentume, his brothers.' First worn upon the surcoat and banners of the Crusaders to distinguish the leaders in battle ; assumed a definite character during the reign of Henry III., 1216 to 1272. During the war of the Roses armorial bearings maintained their reputation. The citizens granted arms, circa 1371 ; visits of heralds to families to sanction the legitimacy of their arms ceased, 1609 ; arms given since 1609, of no moment in considering ancestry or gentle blood ; taxed, 1708 and 1808. ARMOUR. Gen. iv. 22 calls Tubal-cain the father or instructor of every artificer in brass and iron. The helmet and breastplate were always the principal pieces of armour amongst the Greeks and Romans. Herodotus describes the battles of the ancient Egyptians as having been fought in armour. Our Anglo- Saxon ancestors fully appreciated the important labours of the smithery. This important branch of art had reached a high degree of excellence in the reign of William II., and flourished in its maturity under the auspices of Edward the Black Prince. ARMOURERS AND BRAZIERS' ALMSHOUSES, founded by Lady Eliza- beth Morrice, 1554. 38 ARMOURERS ARRAS ARMOURERS AND BRAZIERS' COMPANY. The Armourers' incorporated, 31 Henry VI., May 8, 1452; confirmed, 17 James I., Sept. 29, 1619; united with the Braziers', 7 Anne, June 17, 1708; arms granted to, Oct. 15, 1556 ; a new coat granted upon their uniting, 1708. Hall, site of, purchased, Nov. 25, 1428 ; built, circa 1430 ; rebuilt by J. H. Good, 1840-2. ARMOUR PLATES. The first rolled plates used for plating Iron-clads, 1858 ; the largest plate rolled at the Atlas Works, Sheffield (20 feet long, 4 feet broad, and 15 inches thick), Sept. 6, 1867. ARMS of England and France claimed and quartered by Edward III., 1330; dis- continued at the Irish Union, Jan. I. 1801 ; crowns of England and Hanover separated in 1837; the lions now in the arms were originally leopards, according to a record of 1252. ARMSTRONG gun first introduced into the artillery service of Great Britain, Feb. 26, 1^59. ARMY. Stipendiary troops were raised and commanded by the Bishop of Nor- wich, 6 Richard II., 1382 ; the first standing army maintained by France, under Charles VII., 1445 ; introduced into England by Charles I., 1638; two regiments of Guards raised by Charles II. in 1660, one of horse and one of foot, formed the commencement of our present army ; in 1684 the number of troops was 8000 ; in 1717, 16,000; in 1840, 84,362; in 1859, 229,557; and in 1867, 138,117. An act passed, limiting the period of service, &c., 30 Viet. c. 34, June 20, 1867. The royal warrant for increasing the pay of the, signed, June 29, 1.867. Armies of Europe : Capt. Petrie, in 1861, stated that the total number of troops in the following countries were Austria 738,344 men, 1088 guns France 626,482 men, 1000 guns Prussia 719,092 1444 Great Britain 534,527 672 Russia 850,000 1 1 60 ARMY AND NAVY CLUB, Pall Mall, designed by Messrs Parnell and Smith, and opened, Feb., 1851 ; cost of the ground, ^52,000, and the building,-^35,ooo. ARNHEM, Holland, taken by the Spaniards in 1585 ; Sir Philip Sydney died here of wounds received in the battle of Zutphen, Oct. 17, 1586; fortified by Coehorn, 1 702 ; captured by the French, 1 795 ; retaken by the Prussians, com- manded by Gen. Bulow, Nov. 30, 1813. ARQUES, battle. Here the royal army under Henry IV. sustained a series of vigorous attacks by a superior force under the Duke of Mayenne, who was de- feated, Sept. 13 to 28, 1589. ARRAGON, Spain, kingdom of, separated from Navarre, 1035, under King Rameiro ; succeeded by Sancho, 1063 ; the last by Pedro, 1094 ; Alonzo, brother of Pedro, 1104 ; Rameiro II., 1134 ; Petronilla, daughter of Rameiro II., when Arragon and Catalonia were united, 1137 ; Alfonso II., 1162; Pedro II., 1196; Jayme, 1213; Pedro III., 1276; Alfonso III., 1285; Jayme II., 1291; Alonzo IV., 1327; Pedro IV., 1336; Juan, 1387 ; Martin, brother of Juan, 1395 ; Fernando, 1412 ; Alfonso V., 1416; Juan II., 1458; Fernando II., married Isabella of Castile, and united Arragon and Castile under one sceptre, 1479. ARRAS, France. The Franks seized this town but were driven out by the Romans. The Vandals ravaged it, 407 ; the Northmen, 880 ; afterwards deserted for 30 years ; fortified, 1353. Louis XI. took possession of, 1477. The Burgun- dians revolted against the king, besieged the town, and under Conde took it by assault. The Spaniards held the town until 1640, when the French again be- came masters of it ; again besieged by Conde, but the French under Turenne de- feated the Spanish army, taking all their guns, Aug. 25, 1654 ; ceded to the latter country soon afterwards. An ancient Bishopric, the first appointment dating from 390. ARRAS ARTILLERY 39 ARRAS, treaty of, between France and Burgundy, Sept 21, 1435; a second, when Burgundy and Artois were given to the Dauphin, Dec. 23, 1482. ARRAY for raising the militia first commissioned, 1422. ARREST for debt, peers and members of parliament protected ; also, clergymen performing divine service, 1375 ; seamen privileged under 20, 1756 ; vexatious arrests prevented, May 17, 1733; for less than 10 forbidden, 1779 ; for less than 20, 1827 ; for less than 20 on mesne process forbidden in Ireland, 1829 ; abolished altogether on mesne process in civil actions, except it be shown that the defendant intends leaving the country, I & 2 Viet. c. no, Aug. 16, 1838; further provisions made 24 & 25 Viet. c. 134, Aug. 6, 1861 ; arrest of ab- sconding debtors, 14 & 15 Viet. c. 52, Aug. I, 1851. ARRETIUM, Italy, made a Roman colony ; attacked by the Senones, B.C. 285 ; sold to Florence, 1384 ; made part of Tuscany, 1581 ; occupied by the French, Oct. 19, 1800. ARSON punished with death by the Saxon laws, and continued until the reign of Edward VI., 1547 ; made felony in 1827, and 1853 ; penal servitude or 3 years' imprisonment, 24 & 25 Viet c. 97, Aug. 6, 1861. ART. An act passed for the facilitating the public exhibition of works of, 29 & 30 Viet c. 1 6, April 30, 1866. ARTESIAN WELLS, long known in the province of Artois in France, from whence they derive the name ; one sunk at Sheerness, 1781 ; two at Portsmouth Docks in 1828-29; the first in London, 1794; the deepest was sunk at Kis- singen, 1852 ; a new method of boring invented by a Frenchman in 1867. ARTHUR, king of Britain, bom in Cornwall ; first mentioned in history, 467 ; de- feated the Saxons, 493 ; besieged York, 497 ; defeated the Saxons again, 504 ; again, near Bath, 511 ; assumed the purple, 528; wounded in battle, near Camel- ford, and died ; buried at Glastonbury, 535. ARTICHOKE, native of Italy, brought to England in the i6th century. ARTICLES of Religion and of the Clergy. A statute made in the reign of Edward II. for settling ecclesiastical disputes, 1316. This statute pleaded in favour of the Bishop of Hereford when accused of high treason, and admitted, 1324. A book compiled by Henry VIII. with the help of the theologians, and presented to the convocation by Cromwell, 1536. The six articles upon the Eucharist brought before parliament, May 18, 1539 ; 42 published without the consent of parliament, 1552; Cranmer ordered to prepare articles, 1562; reduced to 39, and agreed to by convocation, Jan. 12, 1562 ; received the royal assent, 1571 ; 104 drawn up for Ireland by Abp Usher, 1614 ; established, 1634 ; the 39 adopted upon the Union, Jan. I, 1801. ARTIFICERS. The Roman artificers had many peculiar privileges; they were held to be one degree lower than merchants. By the English laws no person could keep more than two strangers, but as many English as he wished ; these were not per- mitted to leave the kingdom, 1470. ARTILLERY. The earliest military engines seem hinted at in Deut. xx. 20 ; but the earliest precise mention of artillery is in 2 Chron. xxvi. 15. The Romans employed artillery in many attacks ; used in India in the 1 2th century!; by the Moors, in 1 1 18 ; used against Cordova, 1306. Edward III. first used it in his Scotch campaign, 1327. The French first made use of this weapon, at the siege of Puy Guillaume, in 1338 ; at the siege of Crecy and Calais in 1346. First used at sea in 1377, by the Venetians. Brass guns cast in England, 1521 ; iron, 1547; mortars invented, 1543; howitzers, 1697; rifles, 1850. ARTILLERY Company of London, established in 1585, formed from the city trained bands ; discontinued a few years afterwards ; a patent granted to, by James 40 ARTISTS ASHANTEE I., Feb. I, 1606; removed from Bishopsgate to Finsbury Fields, 1610; new armoury built, and 500 sets of arms furnished, 1622 ; chartered by Charles I., Dec. 20, 1633 ; the present grounds provided for, 1640 ; a new armoury erected, 1674; improved, 1859; the Prince of Wales appointed Colonel, July 7, 1863 ; presented with new colours by, June 29, 1864. ARTISTS, Society of, Great Britain. First exhibition, April 2 1, 1 760 ; incorporated, Jan. 26, 1765 ; exhibited its paintings at Somerset House, 1783 ; removed to Trafalgar Square, 1838. ARTISTS, Society of British, instituted, May 21, 1823 ; its first exhibition, April 19, 1824. ARTISTS' ANNUITY FUND established, March 22, 1810. ARTISTS' BENEVOLENT FUND established, Aug. 2, 1827. ARTS, the Society of, established, March 29, 1754; first public exhibition held, 17605 first exhibition of useful inventions held, 1761 ; removed to the Adelphi, 1774; incorporated, 1847 ; the Prince of Wales elected president, Oct. 22, 1863. The Royal Scottish Society instituted, 1821 ; incorporated, 1841. ARTS AND SCIENCES, HALL OF, Kensington, the first stone of, laid by her Majesty Victoria, May 20, 1867. ARTS AND SCIENCES, New York, U. S., Society of, established, 1765. ART UNION of London, established for the promotion of the Fine Arts, Feb. 14, 1837 ; incorporated 9 & 10 Viet. c. 48, Dec. I, 1846 ; established in Ireland, 1858. ARUNDEL, Sussex. The castle built by the Saxons in 800 ; bequeathed by Alfred to his nephew Athelm ; rebuilt by Roger de Montgomery after the Conquest ; be- sieged in Henry I.'s reign by his son Robert de Belesme ; a conspiracy to de- throne Richard II. and to murder the Lords of the Council, held here, 1397 ; in the Parliamentary struggle it was fortified by Sir R. Hopton, 1644; retaken two months afterwards by Sir Wm. Waller. Town incorporated by Queen Elizabeth. ARUNDELIAN MARBLES. These marbles, in their perfect state, contained a chronological detail of the principal events of Greece during a period of 1318 years, extending from the commencement of the reign of Cecrops, B.C. 1582, to the close of the Archonate of Diognetus, B.C. 264 ; but the last 90 years are lost, so that it terminates B.C. 354. These valuable and ancient relics were purchased in Asia Minor, Greece, and the islands of the Archipelago, by W. Petty in 1624, for Thomas Earl of Arundel (whence their name) ; they were brought to Arundel House, London, in 1627 ; after they had suffered considerable damage they were presented by the Hon. Henry Howard to the University of Oxford, 1667 ; the Greek characters translated by Selden, 1628 ; by Prideaux, 1676. ASAPH, ST, North Wales, a church built at, 560 ; rebuilt, 1402 ; cathedral, 1469, of Gothic order, 1 79 feet long, 68 broad ; choir rebuilt, 1 780. ASBESTOS, cloth and paper made of it, A.D. 74; spun at Venice, 1500. ASCALON, Syria, besieged and taken by Baldwin III., 1157 ; retaken by Saladin, 1187 ; and the fortifications destroyed by Richard I. after a series of battles ex- tending over eleven days, 1191 ; the ramparts restored the next year. ASCENSION DAY, so called in commemoration of our Saviour's ascension, sometimes called Holy Thursday, commemorated in the first century. ASCENSION ISLAND, so called from being discovered on Holy Thursday by the Portuguese, May 20, 1501 ; made a military station by the English, 1815. ASHANTEE, or ASIENTE, Africa. The English defeated in 1807 and 1816, and again in 1824 ; the natives were defeated by the English with great loss, ASHBURNIIAM HOUSE ASPERN 41 Aug. 7, 1826 ; an expedition 1 200 strong met with a series of disasters, and lost half their number by fever, Feb. 12, 1864. ASHBURNHAM HOUSE, Westminster, built by Inigo Jones. Here the Cotton- ian library was deposited. A fire broke out which destroyed some of the MSS., Oct. 23, 1731. ASHBURTON TREATY, settling the boundary line between the English posses- sions and the American, concluded, Aug. 9, 1842. ASHBY-DE-LA-ZOUCH, Leicester. This old Saxon town was in the possession of the family of La Zouch to the close of the I4th century. William Hastings built the castle in the reign of Edward IV. Mary, Queen of Scots, was confined in this fortress. Anne, consort of James I., entertained here in 1603. In the Parliamentary contest this town took the side of the king, and the castle sustained a siege of several months ; capitulated to Col. Needham, Feb., 1646. The castle destroyed by order of the Commons, 1649 j the town partially destroyed by fire, 1753- ASHDOWN, battle. The Danes, under Canute, defeated the forces of Edmund Ironside, who was betrayed by Edric, 1016. ASHDOWN CHURCH, built by Canute the Great, on the spot where he had fought Edmund Ironside, 1020. ASHMOLEAN LIBRARY, Oxford, founded by John Tradescant (Museum Tradescantianum), was the most curious show of the day, 1650; left by his son to Elias Ashmole, who presented it to the University, March 20, 1682 ; he died at Lambeth, May 18, 1692. The Ashmolean Society established, 1828. ASH WEDNESDAY, instituted by Popes Felix III., 487, and Gregory the Great, 600. ASIA. The early history of this country is the history of the world. The Romans held it to the period of the Mahometan conquest, 638. The Crusades carried civilization into this kingdom. Two Venetian gentlemen visited Asia, 1250, Nicolo and Maffio Polo ; Vasco de Gama made a voyage to, 1498 ; the Portuguese formed several settlements, 1509 1511; the Dutch formed a few settlements, 1640 ; the Russians extended their sway in the North as far as the mouth of the Amoor, 1648; the East India Company established the British power in the East, 1600, and during the wars with the French settlers, gradually extended their territories; Bengal added, 1757- ASIATIC SOCIETIES. The first founded at Calcutta by Sir William Jones in 1784; one formed in Paris in 1822; the Royal Asiatic Society established in London in 1823 ; incorporated, 1824 ; one formed at Ceylon, 1845. ASKE'S HOSPITAL, founded by Robert Aske, Jan. 18, 1688 ; incorporated, Dec. 20, 1690 ; erected by the Haberdashers' Company, 1692, from designs by Robert Hooke. ASKE REBELLION. The insurgents, to the number of 40,000, commanded by Aske, calling their enterprise the Pilgrimage of Grace, captured both Hull and York as well as Pomfret Castle, 1536 ; they were at length defeated by the royal forces commanded by the Duke of Norfolk, Feb., 1537, and the leaders executed. ASKEW, Anne, burned for heresy, 1546. ASPARAGUS first produced in England, 1608. ASPERN, battle, between Napoleon Bonaparte and the Archduke Charles, in which the former was repulsed, owing to the loss of a bridge, May 21, 22, and 23, 1809 ; 30,000 men killed and wounded on the side of the French, and 20,000 Austrians ; the French retreated ; Marshal Launes received a mortal wound, from which he died. 42 ASPROMONTE ASSIZE ASPROMONTE, Engagement at. The Sardinian forces under Gen. Pallavicino captured Garibaldi, who with his son Menotti were wounded, Aug. 29, 1862. ASSAM conquered by the East India Company, and annexed to their territory, 1825 ; the tea-plant discovered there, by Mr Bruce, 1823 ; a superintendent of tea appointed in 1836 ; tea first sent to England, 1838 ; a company established in 1839 ; and a considerable quantity consumed in England, 1841 ; several com- panies established since. ASSASSINATION plot against William III. of England, discovered by Pender- grass, Feb. 25, 1696. ASSASSINS, a military or religious order of Mahometans established in Persia, 1090 ; they assassinated the Marquis of Tyre and Montferrat, in the market-place of Tyre, 1192; Lewis of Bavaria, 1213 ; the Khan of Tartary, 1254; conquered, 1257; exterminated by the Tartars, 1272. ASSAY of gold and silver established in England, 1248 ; the privilege of assay- ing granted to the Goldsmiths' Company, 130x3 ; regulated, 1700 and 1705 ; assay masters appointed at Sheffield and Birmingham, 1773 ; the laws of, amended by 18 & 19 Viet. c. 60, July 23, 1855. ASSAYE, battle, between the English under Gen. Wellesley, and the Mahrattas under Scindiah, Sept. 23, 1803 ; the latter were ten times the number of the English. ASSES, Feast of, in France, held in honour of Balaam's ass, when the clergy walked in procession at Christmas, dressed to represent prophets ; it was suppressed be- fore 1445. ASSESSED TAXES date as early as 991, according to some ; others, to Henry VIII., 1522 ; William III., 1689. By George III. they were much advanced, in 1797 and in 1801, and reduced in 1816, 1823, and 1834; amended by 19 & 20 Viet. c. 80, July 29, 1856. ASSIENTO, a disgraceful contract between Spain and other powers, to furnish her dominions with negro slaves, begun in 1530 ; it was vested here in the South Sea Company, May, 1713 ; they were to furnish annually 4800 slaves to the Spanish colonies. The contract was given up to Spain, Oct. 5, 1 750. ASSIGN ATS, a paper currency made to support the credit of the French republic, April, 1 790 ; forged in England, 1 793, to send into France ; abandoned, and the plates broken up, March, 1 796. This led to a general bankruptcy. ASSIZE COURTS appointed and regulated by 12 art. of Magna Charta, 1215, and confirmed by Henry III., 1225 ; at present, by the statute of Westminster, 13 Edward I., 1284 ; no lord or other person to sit on the bench with justices of assizes, 20 Rich. II., 1396. ASSIZE OF BREAD AND ALE, established in England, 51 Henry III., 1266, st. I & 6, and 2 & 3 Edw. VI. c. 15. The Assisa Pants Temp., Edward I., now kept at Guildhall, gives in detail the whole assize, and the punishment. Additional regulations made by 31 Geo. II. c. 29, 1758 ; and 45 Geo. III. c. 23, 1804; repeal of the assize, 55 Geo. III. c. 99, June 22, 1815; regulated in Ireland by statutes of 1832 and 1836 ; made the same as England, 1838; the several acts repealed and other regulations provided, 6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 37, July 28, 1836; Bakers' Company incorporated by Edward II. , 1307. ASSIZE OF WOOD AND COAL. The coal trade was originally in the hands of the Woodmongers' Company, but power was given to the Lord Mayor to hold the Assize of Fuel, 7 Edw. VI. c. 7, 1553, and 43 Eliz. c. 14, 1601. The Fuel Assize altered, so far as concerned the Billet. The size fixed, 9 Anne, c. ASSOCIATION ASTRONOMY 43 15, 1710 ; repealed by 5 Geo. IV. c. 74, June 17, 1824. The sale of coal regulated by I & 2 Will. IV. c. 76, Oct. 5, 1831. ASSOCIATION, ship of war, with the Eagle, of Romney, wrecked on the Scilly Islands, and Sir Cloudesley Shovel, with all their crews, lost, Oct. 22, 1707. ASSUMPTION OF THE VIRGIN, festival of her being taken up into heaven, Aug. 15, 45 A.D., in her 75th year, instituted, 813. ASSURANCES of vessels, regulations respecting, in the Lex Oleron, generally known in Europe, 1194; first statute to prevent frauds, 43 Eliz. c. 12, 1601. ASSURANCE, Royal Exchange, first established to assure ships and goods at sea, 6 Geo. I. c. 18, 1719 ; and by charter, June 22, 1720. See Insurance. ASSYRIA, Asia. This country is very early mentioned in Scripture history ; it was evidently known to Moses (Gen. ii. 14, xxv. 18 ; its downfall prophesied by Isaiah, x. 5 19) ; but it does not appear in Jewish history until 770 B.C. Heze- kiah rebelled against Sennacherib, who was of Lord Russell, July 21, 1683 (reversed, 1689) ; acts of, under James II., publicly burned, Oct. 2, 1695 ; against the Scotch rebels passed, May 15, 1746; that of Lord Edward Fitzgerald, July I, 1819, who was implicated hi acts of rebellion in Ireland, but never tried, in 1798. ATTILA of the Huns, called the Scourge of God, ravaged Europe in 447, at the head of 500,000 Huns, penetrating the Roman empire ; he died on his nuptial night, oppressed with wine, about 453. ATTORNEYS were first recognized by the statute of Merton, 20 Hen. III., 1235 ; by an ordinance of parliament, 20 Edw. I., De Attornalis et Apprenticiis, were ordered to be provided for ; in this reign the number of Attorneys was fixed at 140 ; the number reduced again in the next reign ; limited to 400 in the reign of Edw. III. They were not mentioned as solicitors till 3 James I. ; taxed in 1785 ; acts relating to, repealed and consolidated, 6 & 7 Viet. c. 73, Aug. 22, 1843 ; amended, 23 & 24 Viet. c. 127, Aug. 28, 1860. The laws for the regulation of, in Ireland assimilated to the English, 29 & 30 Viet c. 84, Aug. 6, 1866. ATTORNEY-GENERAL. This office was created in the reign of Edw. I. ; William Bonneville and William de Giselham were the first appointed, 1278. ATTRACTION, believed in by Anaxagoras, B.C. 500 ; described by Copernicus in 1520 ; by Newton, as the power which restores lost motion, drawing bodies to- wards each other, 1705. AUBURN, Wilts, 72 houses burned at, Sept. 12, 1760. AUCKLAND, New Zealand, founded, Sept. 19, 1840. The seat of Government removed to Wellington, Dec., 1864. AUCTION MART, London, built by Walters, and opened in 1810 ; pulled down in 1865 ; removed to Token-house Yard, and opened, Aug. I, 1866. The first sales by auction in England in 1700 ; taxed in 1777 ; tax repealed, May 8, 1845, and a 10 license imposed. AUDIT OFFICE, established at Somerset House, 1785 ; further regulations made, 1832 ; Act for consolidating the office of Comptroller-General of the Exchequer and the chairman of the commissioners of, 28 & 29 Viet. c. 93, July 5, 1865. AUERSTADT, battle, the French under Marshal Davoust defeated the Prussian armies, taking 200 pieces of cannon, 30 standards, and 28,000 prisoners, Oct. 14, 1806. AUGMENTATION of the revenue. A court erected by act of Parliament, 1535, o secure the plunder of the monasteries for the crown, by 27 Hen. VIII. c. 18 ; new, of poor livings office, 1 704. AUGSBURG, Bavaria, destroyed by Charlemagne, 788 ; restored to a free city, 1276; captured by the French, Sept. 8, 1703 ; retaken by the Duke of Marl- borough in 1704; taken again by the French, Oct. IO, 1805 ; restored to the Bavarian Government the next year. AUGSBURG Confession of Faith, drawn up by Melancthon, and by him and Luther presented to the Emperor Charles V., June 25, 1530. AUGSBURG, battle, between the French, under Moreau, and the Austrians, Aug. 29, 1795, and won by the former, when the cities of Augsburg and Munich opened their gates to them. AUGSBURG, treaty of, between Holland and the other European powers, for causing the treaties of Munster and Nimeguen to be repealed, July 9, 1686. 46 AUGSBURG AUSTRALASIA AUGSBURG Council, for confirming the celibacy of the priesthood, held 952. AUGUSTINE (ST), the father of the Latin Church, born in Numidia, A.D. 354 ; died, Aug., 430; also the name of the first Abp of Canterbury, sometimes called St Austin, landed in the Isle of Thanet, 597 ; baptized King Ethelbert, June 2, 597; died, Aug. 23, 607. AUGUSTINE (ST), abbey of, Canterbury, built about 605. AULIC COUNCIL, the sovereign court of Austria, established by Maximilian I., Emperor of Germany, in 1512 ; it is divided into two courts, one of which is called the Imperial Chamber ; subsequently modified in 1609 ; abolished, 1806. AURICULA imported into England from the Alps, I59- AURICULAR confession first enjoined, 1215. AURIFLAMME, or Oriflamme, the holy banner mentioned so often in French history: it belonged to the abbey of St Denis, being suspended over the tomb of that saint in 1 140. Louis le Gros took it witli him to battle ; and it appeared for the last time on the field of Agincourt, 1415 ; though some assert it re-appeared under Louis, 1465. AURORA frigate never heard of after leaving the shore of England in 1771 ; many persons of note were on board, and among them was Falconer, the sailor poet. AURORA BOREALIS. The first was seen in London, on Jan. 30, 1560; the next, according to Stow, was on Oct. 7, 1564 ; it was seen on Nov. 14, 15, 1574; one was seen in Brabant, on Feb. 13, and Sept. 28, 1575 ; one of great brilliancy appeared and attracted much attention in March, 1716. One of these meteors appeared on Jan. 7, 1831. Electricity of, discovered at Jena in 1 789. AUSTERLITZ, battle, in Moravia, fought Dec. 2, 1805, between the emperors of Russia and Austria, and Napoleon, who became the conqueror ; the killed and wounded on the side of the allies were 30,000, besides the capture of 40 standards, 150 pieces of cannon, and 20,000 prisoners : it led to the peace of Presburg. AUSTIN-FRIARS Church, founded by Humphrey Bohun, 1243 ; surrendered to Henry VIII., Nov. 12, 1539; given at the dissolution to William Paulet, first Marquis of Winchester, and Sir Thomas Wriothesley, 1540; the church was given by Edward VI. to the Dutch in London, June 29, 1550 ; burnt, Nov. 22, 1862 ; rebuilt and opened, Sept., 1865. AUSTRALASIA, or Australia, includes New Holland, New Guinea, New Zealand, New Britain, and Van Diemen's Land. First discovered by the Dutch, 1606 ; further discoveries were made by the Spaniards under the command of Pedro Fernandez, 1607. Hartog explored a part of the west coast, 1618 ; he dis- covered and named Van Diemen's Land in 1618. The Gulf of Carpentaria was first explored, 1628. Abel Jansen Tasman completed the exploration of Van Diemen's Land and that part now called Tasmania. The first Englishman who explored part of the coast of this continent was Capt. Dampier, 1686; Capt. Cook discovered the eastern coast from Cape Howe to Cape York, which he called New South Wales, 1770 ; Bass and Flinders discovered the strait separating Van Diemen's Land from the continent, 1798 ; colonized by English convicts, Jan., 1788; the first governor, Capt. Philip, founded Sydney, Jan. 26, 1788; subse- quently divided into West and South Australia and Van Diemen's Land, 1829, 1834, and 1842, by acts of the British legislature. The salaries of the governors are as under : New South Wales, ^7000 ; Victoria, ,10,000 ; Tasmania, ^6500; South Australia, ^"4000; Western Australia, ,1800; and New Zealand, ^"3500. Gold was first discovered at Bathurst, by Mr E. Hargreaves, April 12, 1851 ; the gold fever raged for two or three years, immense quantities of gold AUSTRALIA AUSTRIA 47 being found. The South Australian constitution decreed, Oct. 27, 1856 ; the Victoria Parliament opened at Melbourne, Jan. 17,1867. AUSTRALIA, THE EXPLORATION OF. At a public meeting at Melbourne, a sum of ^3000 was raised for this purpose, Sept., 1858 ; the Government after- wards increased the sum to j 10,000 ; an expedition commanded by Robert O'Hara Burke and W. J. Wills, started Aug. 20, 1860 ; they reached Cooper's Creek, Nov. 20 ; Burke and Wills set out to cross the great Sahara Desert, Dec. 16; they reached the Gulf of Carpentaria, Feb. n, 1861 ; they returned to Cooper's Creek, April 21, just seven hours after Brahe and his party started for Menindie ; Burke and Wills died in June, 1861, King only escaping death through the kindness of a party of natives ; he was rescued by the relieving party under Mr Alfred Howett, Sept., 1861. AUSTRALIA, SOUTH. Capt. Hindmarsh, the first governor of South Australia, arrived with a staff of officers and a few immigrants in Holdfast Bay, and pro- claimed the colony, Dec. 28, 1836 ; he had been preceded by Col. Light, Surveyor-General, who had reported favourably of this port. Adelaide was laid out, 1838; Capt. Gawler succeeded to the Governorship, 1838, and was succeeded by Capt. (now Sir Geo.) Grey, May, 1841 ; the Legislative Council first met, June 20, 1843 ; the revenue of the colony was only ,30,000 a year, while the ex- penditure was ; 1 50,000 ; the Great Burra Burra copper mines discovered, Aug. 1 6, 1845 ; Col. Rohe was the next governor, Oct., 1845, and afterwards Sir Henry Young, 1851 ; the Legislative Council elected by I3& 14 Viet. c. 59, Aug. 5> 1850; a Parliament granted and proclaimed, Oct., 1856 ; the elections took place in March, 1857 ; the Constitution proclaimed, Oct. 27, 1856; Sir Richard MacDon- nell appointed governor, June, 1855; the telegraph established, 1855; communi- cation made between Adelaide and Melbourne, about 700 miles, July, 1857 ; the post-office, 1850 ; the institute opened, Jan., 1861 ; the parliament-house built by Mr Hays, 1855 ; the custom-house, 1861 ; Governor Daly appointed, Nov., 1861. AUSTRIA. Charlemagne erected the German empire in the 9th century, after he had subdued the inhabitants of the south bank of the Danube to the east of the river Ens, and successfully repelled the incursions of the Huns and other barbar- ous nations. It was then called Ost-reich, or the East Country. Upper and Lower Austria were joined together in the 1 2th century, and the title of Margrave merged into that of Duke. The House of Bamberg became extinct, 1273, and the House of Hapsburg began to reign ; Albert II. of this house was made emperor, 1430 ; the Hungarians invaded the country, 1446 ; Hungary and Bohemia united to Austria, 1526 ; the 30 Years' War commenced, 1618 ; ended, 1648 ; Mantua ceded to Austria, 1708; Milan, Naples, and the Netherlands added to these dominions, 1715 ; the male line of Hapsburg became extinct, 1740, succeeded by Maria Theresa ; Venice annexed to France, 1801 ; Francis II. assumed the title of Kaiser, Emperor of Austria, Aug. n, 1804; Napoleon entered Vienna, Nov. 14, 1805; congress of Vienna, 1814; treaty of, 1815; the Emperor declared head of the Germanic Confederation, 181$ ; the Austrians driven out of Milan, 1848; abdication of Ferdinand, Dec. 2, 1848; peace concluded, 1849; made a Constitutional Monarchy, 1849 ; first constitution granted, March 4, 1849 ; re- pealed, Dec. 31, 1851, and a more absolute form of government adopted; re- established, Feb. 26, 1861 ; 920 miles of railways opened, 1850; attempt upon the life of the Emperor by a Hungarian, Libeny, Feb. 18, 1853 ; Concordat pro- claimed, Aug. 18, 1855 ; Napoleon joins Sardinia against Austria, 1859 ; war declared, May 3 ; battle of Montebello, May 20 ; Palestro, May 30 ; Magenta, June 4 ; Malegnano, the Austrians being defeated, June 7 ; Solferino, the Aus- trians suffering another defeat, June 24 ; Treaty of Villafranca, July 1 1 ; constitu- tion granted, Oct. 20, 1860; the meeting and power of the Reichsrath confirmed, 48 AUSTRIA AUSTRIAN-PRUSSIAN WAR Feb. 26, 1 86 1 ; opened by the Emperor at Vienna, May I ; campaign in Den- mark, 1864; Gastein Convention signed, Aug. 14, 1865; the Emperor crowned King of Hungary, June 18 ; the Order of the Garter conferred upon the Emperor, July 25, 1867 ; the Council decided not to be bound by the Concordat, July 26 ; the Sultan visited the Emperor at Vienna, July 27, departed the 31 ; treaty with France relating to the coinage, July 31 ; meeting of the Emperor with the Em- peror Napoleon at Salzburg, Aug. 18. See Austrian- Prussian War, Denmark, and Hungary. EMPERORS OF AUSTRIA : HOUSE OF HAPSBURG. Rudolph III., 1576 Rudolph I., 1273 Matthias, 1 61 1 Albert I., 1291 Ferdinand II., 1619 Frederick the Handsome, 1308 Ferdinand III., 1637 Albert II., 1330 Leopold I., 1657 Rudolph II, 1358 Joseph!., 1705 Albert III., 1365 Charles II., 1711 Albert IV., 1395 Maria Theresa, 1740 Albert V., 1404 HOUSE OF HAPSBURG-LSRRAINE. Frederick II., 1439 Joseph II., 1780 Maximilian I. , 1493 Leopold II., 1790 Charles I., 1519 Francis I., 1792 Ferdinand I., 1556 Ferdinand, 1835 Maximilian II., 1564 Francis Joseph I., Dec. 2, 1848 AUSTRIA, steam ship, destroyed by fire, upwards of 450 persons being lost, Sept. 13, 1858. AUSTRIAN-PRUSSIAN WAR. The Gastein Convention agreed to by the Emperor of Austria and the King of Prussia for the government of the Elbe Duchies, Aug. 14, 1865. The Prussian government complained to Austria of their management, and of their permitting large political meetings to assemble in Hoi- stein, Jan. 30, 1866 ; this was replied to by the Austrian minister, refusing to be dictated to by Count Bismark, Feb. 9, 1866. A council of war was held by the King of Prussia, Feb. 28, 1866. A council of war was held at Vienna, March 10. Count Bismark sent a despatch to Vienna, directing them to disarm, April 15. Austria proposed to submit the question of the Duchies to the Germanic Confederation, April 26. Prussia declined, May 7. The Prussian army mobil- ized, May 7. The Austrian army concentrated in Bohemia, May 13. Benedek made the commander-in-chief, May 18. The Estates of Hoist ein summoned by the Austrian commissioner, Gen. Von Gablenz, to meet at Itzehoe, June II. Prussia protested against these proceedings, and occupied the Duchies, June 8, and prevented the meeting of the Holstein Estates by taking military possession of the town. Gen. Gablenz, assailed by superior forces, retired to Hamburg, June 12, from whence they went by train to Bohemia. At an Extraordinary Assembly of the Diet, the question of the breaking of the Gastein Convention was brought forward by Austria, June II, and carried on the I4th, when the representative of Prussia retired from the assembly, and so broke up the Germanic Confederation in consequence. Prussia sent summonses to Hanover, Saxony, and Hesse, to reduce their armies to a peace footing, June 14. These States making no reply, Prussia declared war against them, June 15. The Austrian war mani- festo published, June 17; the Prussian on the 1 8th, and Italy on the 2Oth. Prussian troops occupied Hanover, June 17. Hesse-Cassel occupied, June 19. Jerome, king of Westphalia, taken prisoner, June 22. Saxony occupied, June 18. The first Prussian army, commanded by Prince Frederick Charles, crossed the Elbe into Bohemia, June 23. Combat at Liebenau, June 25. Action of Podoll, the Austrians defeated, June 26-27. Miinchengratz taken, June 28 ; Gitschin, AUTO-DA-FE AUTUN 49 Prince. The second army, under the Crown Prince, crossed the river Metau, and occupied the town of Nachod, June 26. Severe action at Trautenau, the Prussian division compelled to retreat, June 27. The Austrians, under Gen. Gablenz, de- feated with a loss of 3 standards, 10 guns, and 5000 prisoners ; the Prussians lost 1 100 men in killed and wounded, at Soor, June 28. Koniginhof was captured on the 29th. The left column of the second army, commanded by Gen. Stein- metz, defeated the Austrians under Gen. Ramming : in this action the Prussian cavalry inflicted a severe defeat upon the flower of the Austrian cavalry; the Austrians lost 900 men in killed and wounded, 2000 prisoners, five guns, and four sets of colours, June 27. The Austrians were again defeated at Skalitz, June 28, and Schweinschadel. On the 29th of June the King of Prussia left Berlin, and on the 1st of July arrived at Gitschin, when he assumed command of the army. The united army, under the king, totally defeated the Austrians under Field-Marshal Benedek, with great loss, at Koniggratz ; the conquerors took 174 guns, 20,000 prisoners, and II standards, while their killed and wounded numbered 40,000; the Prussians lost 10,000 men, July 3. On the 4th of July Field-Marshal Gablen/. visited the Prussian head-quarters at Horitz, to treat for an armistice, but without success. The Prussian army advanced towards Briinn, July 5. The Austrian cavalry defeated at Saar, July 10. The Saxon prisoners released by the Prussians, July IO. Another cavalry skirmish at Tischnowitz, July 1 1. The advance guard reached Briinn, July 12. 18 guns, 7 waggons, 68 horses, and 170 prisoners were captured by the 5th Cuirassiers, under Col. Bredow, at Tobitschau, July 15. Advance to the Danube, a severe action fought at Blumenau, July 22. Armistice agreed to, July 22. On the Maine, the Prussian army, under Gen. Von Falcken- stein, was defeated at Langensalza by the Hanoverians, June 27 ; but they were surrounded by the Prussians, and the whole army compelled to surrender, June 29. The Bavarians, under Prince Charles of Hesse, defeated at Kissingen, July 10, and at Aschaffenburg, July 14. The Archives of the Bund removed to Augs- burg, July 13. Frankfort occupied, July 16. Lieut. -Gen. Von Manteuffel as- sumed the command, and Wiesbaden was occupied on the 1 8th ; the Tauber passed, July 24 ; and the Bavarians defeated before Neubrunn, July 25. The city of Niirnberg occupied, July 31. An armistice concluded, Aug. 2. Baden declared, as no longer belonging to the late Confederation, July 31. An armistice concluded with Wiirtemberg, Aug. I ; with Hesse-Darmstadt, Aug. I ; and Baden, Aug. 3. The last sitting of the Germanic Confederation, Aug. 4. Treaty of Peace with Austria signed at Prague, Aug. 23 ; with Bavaria, at Berlin, Aug. 22 ; with Wiirtemberg, Aug. 13 ; and with Saxony, Oct. 21. The Prussian army began to withdraw from Austria, July 29. The first corps of the Prussian army reviewed by the king, on the Marchfield, 15 miles only from Vienna, July 31. The Prus- sians liberated, on the 27th of August, 523 Austrian officers, and 35,036 non- commissioned officers and men ; 13,000 wounded still remained in the hos- pitals. The Austrians released 450 Prussians, and 120 wounded remained. AUTO-DA-FE, the public punishment of heretics, established, 1203. Upwards of 100,000 persons have been sacrificed in Spain, Portugal, and other countries. In 1 787, 20 persons were burned at Goa in the East Indies, under the sentence of this infamous tribunal. AUTOMATON FIGURES, called also Androides. The first was a flying dove, reported to be made by Archytas, B.C. 408. Friar Bacon made a brazen head that could speak, 1264. Vaucanson made an artificial duck, that ate, drank, and quacked, and also a flute-player, 1738. M. Kempelen's Chess-player finished, Oct. 10, 1796. M. Koppen's Mechanical Orchestra (The Componium) exhibited at Paris, 1829. AUTUN, France. This is one of the most ancient cities in France, it having been in existence before the Roman Conquest ; it was known under the name of 4 50 AUXONNE AZOF Biracte. It suffered very much in the 3rd century from war ; Constantine after- wards repaired the town ; the town was burnt by the Saracens, 73 * AUXONNE, bridge of, constructed by Margaret of Bavaria, 1405. AVA, Asia, made the capital of Burmah in 1822 ; visited by an earthquake, which destroyed part of the city, March, 1839. AVALANCHE, fall of one on the village of Ruerns, 1749, when, out of 100 per- sons, 60 were dug alive out of the snow ; another fell, 1806. In 1820, 64 persons were killed by one at Fettars ; and in the same year, 84 persons and 400 head of cattle, in Obergestelen. The village of Briel covered with one, 1827. AVEBURY, Wiltshire. This village is built upon a hill called Abury, supposed to have been constructed by the Britons ; it consists of an extensive ditch and rampart, including double circles of large unhewn stones, either Celtic or Druid- ical. Dr Stukeley examined these remains in 1720, and Sir Richard Hoare in 1812. AVELLINO, a city of Naples, destroyed by an earthquake, Nov. 29, 1 732. AVIGNON, France, founded by the Greeks. It was captured by the Saracens, A.D. 730, but in 737 Charles Martel wrested it from them ; besieged by the royal army, but defended with determined bravery by Count Raymond, it was taken, Sept. 12, 1226 ; ceded to the pope, 1271. The popes resided here for 70 years. University of, founded, 1 388 ; taken from the pope by France, 1 769 ; restored on the suppression of the Jesuits, 1773 ; claimed by the French national assembly, 1791 ; ceded to France, 1797. Numerous councils have been held here. AVIS, order of, instituted by Alfonso I. of Portugal, 1 142 ; confirmed by Innocent III., 1204. AVRANCHES, Normandy. The ancient name of this province was Ingena or Abrincatui ; it formed one of the bulwarks of Normandy against the Bretons, who took it, 1203, and destroyed the castle ; Louis IX. of France restored it soon afterwards ; Henry II. did penance, and received absolution from the pope's legate for the murder of Thos. a Becket here, 1172 ; it fell under the dominion of England, 1415 ; retaken by France, 1450 ; the town was taken and pillaged by the Huguenots, 1520. AXMINSTER, Sir R. Cholmondley killed at, in an action during the civil war, 1644. AYACHUCHO, battle of, in South America, Dec. 9, 1824, in which the Royalists were routed, with the loss of 1400 killed, 700 wounded, and their whole army prisoners. AYAMONTE, Spain, conquered by the Moorish king of Grenada, 1406. AYLESBURY, Bucks. This town was strongly fortified by the ancient Biitons, from whom it was taken, 571, by Catwulph, brother of Ceawlin, king of the West Saxons ; a monastery was founded here, and dedicated to St Osyth, 600 , gar- risoned for the parliament, 1644-5 > ^ house of grey friars at, founded, 1387 ; dilapidated in the civil war of Charles I. AYLESFORD, Kent, battle between the Saxons and Britons, the latter being defeated, Horsa was slain, 455. AYLMOUTH CASTLE, Northumberland, built, 559. AYRSHIRE, invaded by the Norwegians, who were driven to their vessels, 1263. AZOF, in Russia, built by the Genoese, 1261 ; taken by Tamerlane, 1392 ; possessed by Turkey, 1471; the fortifications demolished, 1739; ceded to Russia, 1774; operation against, during the Crimean war; Kertch taken, May 25, 1855; the Russians destroying their stores and several vessels ; and Yenikale occupied. AZORES ISLANDS BACKGAMMON 51 AZORES ISLANDS, discovered by the Flemish merchant, Vander Berg, 1439 ; settled, 1459 ; taken by Spain, 1580; Sir Walter Raleigh attacked the fleet of Spanish galleons off here, 1586; Sir Francis Drake captured an East India carack off here, 1587 ; the Earl of Cumberland took several prizes at this island, 1589-90. An earthquake in these islands for 12 days, 1591 ; another, 1557. A volcano destroyed the town of Ursulina, May, 1808 ; in 181 1, a volcano appeared in the sea near St Michaels, where the water was 80 fathoms deep, and an island arose called Sabrina, which gradually disappeared, Dec., 1812. AZTECS. This tribe migrated from Aztlau to Tula, 1196; they afterwards founded their capital at Mexico, but were defeated and dispersed by the Spaniards, under the command of Cortes, 1519. B BAALBEC, or Heliopolis ^gypte, called by Macrobius the city of the Sun, an im- portant city in the time of Caesar. A garrison was stationed here by Augustus, A.D. 138. The population in 1751 amounted to 5000; in 1835 the number had fallen to 200. Destroyed by an earthquake, Dec. 5, 1759. BABEL, tower of, built by Noah's posterity in the plain of Shinar, B.C. 2247; described in Gen. xi. I 9. Although its exact situation has been much doubted, it is now generally believed that ancient Babylon was erected on its ruins. Rees. BABBAGE'S statement of difference of prices in 1812 and 1832, thus anvils costing 25-r. in 1812, cost only 14^. in 1832 ; locks, i6s. at the former period, only 2s. 6d. at the latter, or 85 per cent, less; trace-chains of iron, 46^. 9/l selling even the bells. BANGOR, or Benchor, Abbey, Ireland, founded by St Comgall in the 6th century j Cormac, king of Leinster, died there, 567; restored by St Malachy, 1120. BANGOR COLLEGE, United States, founded, 1833. BANGORIAN CONTROVERSY begun, March 31, 1717. BANISHMENT of Ovid to Tomos, A.D. 8. BANISHMENT of mathematicians and astronomers from Rome, A.D. 89. BANJARMASSIN, Borneo, first settlement, 1803 ; afterwards abandoned; gar- risoned by the English, i8ii;made a settlement, 1817; the Dutch settled here, 1848. Coal mines have since been discovered. BANK (the term) is derived from Banco or Bench, on which moneys were ex- changed, in the market-places, in the time of Charles I. The merchants de- posited their cash and securities at the Mint, then kept in the Tower ; but as that monarch appropriated them to his own purposes in 1638, the Goldsmiths' Com- pany in Lombard Street were obliged to keep places of security for their own valuable goods. At home, those merchants and dealers were liable to be robbed by their apprentices, who found impunity and security with the army. The gold- smiths paid 4 an d m J 864 a new cupola was erected and the room re-decorated, by Charles John Shoppee. The old entrance erected in 1671 is still preserved ; the paving of the entrance with black and white marble was done at the expense of Mr Lawrence Loe, surgeon, in 1646. BARBOU. The name of a family of printers, long famous : John resided at Lyons, 1539; Hugh at Limoges, 1580; John Joseph at Paris, 1704; Joseph, his brother, 1 723 ; Joseph Gerard, who printed the classics bearing his name, 1 750 ; his nephew succeeded him, 1 789. BARBUDA, island of, first colonized by the English, 1628; granted to Colonel Codrington. BARCELONA, Spain, founded by Hamilcar Barcas, B.C. 235; the Carthaginians expelled by the Romans ; the Goths took it, A. D. 411 ; it fell under the power of the Mahometans, 718; retaken by the Catalonians and Charlemagne, 80 1 ; taken by Abderhaman II., 833, afterwards by the Christians, 852 ; held by the Counts of Barcelona until circa 1131; besieged by Don Juan II., 1471; capitulated, 1472; taken by the French, 1640, and again in 1647; restored at the peace of Ryswick ; Lord Peterborough besieged it, Oct. 9, 1 705 ; the town surrendered to him, Sept. 13, 1706; taken by Marshal Berwick with 20,000 French soldiers, Sept. 12, 1714; taken again upon the French invading Spain, Feb. 28, 1808; declared for Espartero in 1841, against him, 1842; bombarded by him; yellow BARCELONA BARKING ABBEY 61 fever at, 300 persons died on Oct. 19, 1821. The convent of St Francis forcibly dissolved, Nov. 5, 1822. Bank established at, 1844. Insurrection in, martial law proclaimed, Aug. 19, 1867. BARCELONA, S. America, founded, 1634 ; made one of the Venezuela con- federation, 1810. BARCLAY, Captain, walked a thousand miles in a thousand successive hours, each mile within the hour, July 10, 1809; hundreds of thousands of pounds de- pended upon this race ; forty-two days and nighjts, less eight hours. A lady was said to have ridden a thousand miles in a thousand hours, which she performed May 3, 1758. BARCLAY & CO.'S BREWERY, Southwark, stands upon a part of the site of the old Globe Theatre; Mr Halsey held it, 1690 ; enlarged by Ralph Thrale, and after his death came into the possession of Mr H. Thrale, the husband of Mrs Piozzi ; sold to Messrs Barclay & Co. for .135,000, in 1781 ; escaped in the Gordon riots; burnt down, May 22, 1758; rebuilt, and partially destroyed in 1832 ; since rebuilt. BARDS, in ancient times, poets or prophets, regarded with great veneration, traced from the earliest records, in the northern as well as the southern nations, among the Druids and the Welsh, as well as the Jews and Greeks. The bard was a domestic officer in Wales, 940 ; the bards of Wales were regulated by the King of Wales, Griffyth ap Conan, 1078; all the bards of Wales invited to a grand festival given by Lord Rhys, 1176; meeting of the bards or Eisteddfod, held at Caerwys, May 26, 1568; another held at Brecon, Sept. 25, 1822. In Ireland, a harp is yet preserved that is said belonged to one of their wild race of king-bards, Brian Boroihme, 1014. BAREBONE'S PARLIAMENT, so called from a person of that name, a cord- wainer of Fleet-street, met by the command of Cromwell, July 4, 1653, and dis- solved, Dec. 12, the same year. BAREILLY, East Indies. Near this town the British forces obtained two victories over the Rohillas, in 1774 and 1796; insurrection at, in consequence of the method of taxation, April 16, 1816; revolt of the Sepoys who murdered their officers, May 31, 1857 ; escaped to Delhi, July 2 ; retaken by the English, May 7, 1858. BARFLEUR, Normandy, the town reduced by the pirate Hastings, 888; part of the fleet prepared by William the Conqueror left here to invade England, 1066. Prince William, son of Henry I., embarked from here on his ill-fated voyage, shipwrecked with 300 of his companions in the Blanch-Nef, Nov. 25, 1120. Taken by Edward III. of England, 1346. BARHAM, 74 guns, foundered off Corsica, July 29, 1811. BARI, Naples, plundered by the Saracens, 860 ; taken from them by the Emperor Louis II., 871 ; by the Normans, 1070; re-taken by Lotharus, 1137; and again by Roger of Sicily. The priory of St Nicola built, 1087; in this church was erected the splendid monument to Bona Sforza, queen of Poland, 1557. BARK, the virtue of, first discovered by the Jesuits in 1500. Peruvian, brought to Europe, 1649; used in France, 1680; yellow, first used in England, 1790; Sir Hans Sloane introduced it into practice, 1 700. BARKING ABBEY, founded, 677 ; burned by the Danes, 870 ; governed by Maude, queen of Henry I., afterwards by Maud, the CjUeen of Stephen; pe- titioned to be excused from contributing an aid to the king, on account of the expenses of repairing Dagenham breach, 1376 80 82. The revenue of the con- vent so impaired from this cause, that the ladies had only fourteen shillings a-year 62 BARKING ALLEY BARODA each, for clothes and necessaries, 1410. The nuns were Benedictine. In 1200, the abbess' election vested in the convent; convent surrendered to Henry VIII., Nov. 14, 1539; the possessions valued at ^1084 6s. 2%d. ; the abbey sold by Edward VI. to Lord Clinton, 1551 ; manor of, sold by Charles I. to Sir F. Fanshawe, for ^2000, receiving a fee farm rent of 160 ; workhouse built, 1787. BARKING ALLEY, London. A house fell with 1000 people in it, by the Ship alehouse, at the execution of Lord Lovat, April 9, 1747; by which ten persons were killed on the spot, and numbers injured so that they lost their lives. BARKWAY greatly injured by fire, Aug. 18, 1748. BARLETTA, in the Two Sicilies, invaded by the French and Spaniards, 1501 ; blockaded by the French forces under the Duke de Nemours, 1502 ; the French defeated in two battles, Seminara, April 21, 1503, and on the 28th, Cerignola ; the French lost 3000 men. This place was the scene of the celebrated engage- ment between eleven French and the same number of Spanish cavaliers. Among the persons engaged were the famous Bayard and Don Alonzo Sotomayor : the French through the bravery of Bayard obtained the victory, Feb. 16, 1503. 13 Protestants were murdered by the Romanists, March 20, 1866. BARLING ABBEY, Lincolnshire, built, 1180. BARNABA CHIARAMONTI, elected pope, at Venice, March 13, 1800, as Pius VII. , through the interest of Napoleon Bonaparte ; signed the concordat terminating the schism with the Gallican Church, July 15, 1801 ; crowned Napoleon in Paris, 1804, but refused to go there to crown Louis XVIII. Napoleon put an end to the temporal reign of the pope, May 17, 1809; Pius refused to resign, and was taken to Fontainbleau, until 1814, when the Allies restored him to power. BARNARD'S INN, Holborn, anciently called Mackworth's ; a Chancery Inn founded, 1445. BARNARD'S STATUE, Sir John, erected in the Royal Exchange, May 23, 1747- BARNARDISTON, Sir Samuel, fined ^"10,000, for stating that the plot of which Lord Russell and others were accused was a sham, Feb. 14, 1684. BARNET, or CHIPPING BARNET. The church built, 1400, by John Moot ; Queen Elizabeth's free school, 1573; Mrs Allen's school, 1725; mineral spring discovered, 1652. BARNET. Battle between York and Lancaster, Edward IV. gaining a complete victory over Warwick, April 14, 1471; obelisk to commemorate, erected, 1740. BARNETT, George, fired at Miss Kelly on the stage of Drury Lane Theatre, Feb. 17, 1816; tried April 8, and found insane. BARNSLEY, extensive damage at Hoyle Mill, by the bursting of the canal banks, Feb. n, 1859. BARNWELL, near Cambridge, destroyed by fire, Sept. 30, 1751; again, Dec. 16, 1757- BARNWELL ABBEY, founded, 1298. BARNWELL CASTLE, built, 1132. BAROACH, Hindustan, taken by the British in 1781 ; the whole district trans- ferred to Madhajee Scindia, 1782 ; came under the dominion of the British by treaty, in 1803. BARODA, India, governed by the Guicowar family ; a treaty of amity made with the East India Company in 1780; the assistance of the British was asked for, BAROMETER BARRISTERS 63 against internal dissension, 1802 ; other arrangements were afterwards made with the British in 1805, 1817, 1820. BAROMETER invented by Torricelli, a Florentine, 1643 ; wheel barometer con- trived, 1668; pendant, 1678; marine, 1700. BARON OF RENFREW, a timber ship of 9000 tons, lost between Calais and Dunkirk, Oct. 23, 1825, from Quebec to London. BARON. The origin of the title, in England, is said to have been Vassour, changed by the Saxons into Thane, and by the Normans into Baron. From Magna Charta all Lords of Manors had seats in parliament. The first precept is 49 Henry III., 1265 ; Richard II. made it a mere title of honour; Charles II. granted them a coronet bearing six large pearls ; John de Beauchamp raised by patent by Richard II. , 1387. The barons refused to attend King John, 1201 ; first summoned to parliament, 1205, and heavily taxed; made war against the king, 1213 ; made the king sign Magna Charta, June 19, 1215 ; interdicted by the pope, I2l6; did homage to the French dauphin, 1216; defeated, May 19, 1217; com- pelled the king to delegate his regal power, 1258 ; civil war between, and the king, broke out, June II, 1258 ; agreed to submit their disputes to the arbitration of Louis of France, who annulled the statutes, Jan. 22, 1264 ; defeated the king at Lewes, May 14, 1264 ; defeated by the king at Evesham, De Montfort being killed, Aug. 4, 1265 ; Ely surrendered to the king, and the war ended, July 25, 1267. BARONET, an order of knighthood instituted, for money to pay his troops, by James I., May 22, 1611, and made hereditary. Instituted hi Ireland, Sept. 30, 1619 ; to be gentleman bom, and have an estate of .1000 per annum ; the patents sold for .1095 each, hence the bloody hand of Ulster upon their shields. The first made was Sir Nicholas Bacon, May, 1611. Baronets of Nova Scotia, made, May 28, 1625. Appeared at court in the badges of their order, for the first time for a long period, Nov. 30, 1775. BARONIES by writ. The following are all in existence at present : De Roos, 1264 ; Le Despenser, 1264 ; Clinton, 1299 ; Ferrers, 1299 ; De Clifford, 1299 ; Multon ofGillesland (not claimed), 1307; Botetourt, 1308; Zouche, 1308; Audley, 1313; Willoughby of Eresby, 1313; Dacre, 1321 ; Grey of Ruthyn, 1324; Molines, 1347; Beauchamp of Bletsho, 1363; Botreaux, 1368; Scrope of Bolton (not claimed), 1371 ; Hungerford, 1426 ; Say and Sele, 1447 ; Hastings, 1461 ; Willoughby de Broke, 1492 ; Conyers, 1509 ; Windsor, 1529 ; Mordaunt, 1532 ; Paget, 1550 ; Compton, 1572 ; Norris, 1572 ; Howard of Walden, 1579 ; Clifton, 1608 ; Strange, 1628. BARRACKPORE, Hindustan, in the province of Bengal ; mutiny of the Sepoys, Oct. 30, 1824 ; rebellion of the native troops in reference to the cartridges, March 29, 1857. BARRACKS, expenses of. Within the last 20 years there has been expended on barracks, huts, &c. : At Colchester, ^117,757; at Pembroke, ^16,241 ; at Shoeburyness, 84,927 ; at Shomcliffe, 210,292 ; at Hythe, 26,864 ; at Fleet- wood, ,18,380. Much further expenditure is proposed, and has been approved by the Government 50,000 for cavalry barracks at Colchester ; 27,000 for additional accommodation and works and a church at Shoeburyness ; .4000 at Shomcliffe, and about the same sum at Hythe, and at Fleetwood 10,000 for purchase and alteration of bath-house, &c. ; nearly 10,000 more for hut encamp- ment, and in a future year .18,000 for permanent barracks and hospital. BARRIER, Treaty, ceding the Low Countries to the Emperor Charles IV. of Austria, signed Nov. 15, 1715. BARRISTERS appointed by parliament, 20 Edward I., 1293. 64 BARROSA BASS'S STRAITS BARROSA, battle, between the English under General Graham, with an army of 4000 men, and the French, commanded by Marshal Victor, 8000 men and a formidable artillery, when the latter were defeated, March 6, 1811. BARROWS. These tumuli, found in various parts of England, aresaid bysomewriters to have been the burial-places of the ancient Britons. One discovered at Stone- henge, containing Celtic ornaments in wood, amber, and gold, Nov., 1808. BARROW'S Straits, discovered by Captain Parry, Aug. 2, 1819. BARTHOLOMEW Act. By this act all clergymen who did not assent to the re- vised Book of Prayers upon Aug. 24, 1662, were ejected from their livings. BARTHOLOMEW FAIR, charter granted by Henry I., 1133 ; held in the Priory Garden, afterwards in Smithfield ; Phillips' booth fell, killed two persons and wounded several, Aug. 23, 1749 ; tolls abolished, 1755 ; Mr Aid. Musgrove the last mayor who proclaimed the fair, 1850 ; the last proclamation made by an official, 1855 ; the Pye Powder Court held its last sittings, Sept. 3, 1853. BARTHOLOMEW, ST, island of, first founded by the French, 1648; taken by the English, 1689 ; restored to France, 1746 ; granted by France to Sweden, 1785. BARTHOLOMEW, ST, Massacre of, by the secret orders of Charles IX. of France, perpetrated by the Catholics on the Huguenots, when upwards of 500 nobles and 20,000 persons were murdered, Aug. 24, 1572. BARTHOLOMEW, ST, Hospital of the monastery of, founded by Rahere for the Austin Friars, 1102 ; the hospital enlarged, 1539 ; incorporated, by Henry VIII. , Jan. 13, 1547 j partially rebuilt, 1702 ; the first stone laid of the Quadrangle, June 9, 1730. BARTHOLOMITES, a religious order founded at Genoa, 1307. BARTOLINI, Thomas, his account of a double man published, 1654, named John Baptist and Lazarus Colleredo. BARTON, Eliza, the holy maid of Kent, executed, 1534. BARTON, S., Hants, 27 houses at, destroyed by fire, May 8, 1792. BASEL, Switzerland, destroyed in 450 ; and again destroyed by the Magyars, 917; the whole town burnt, 1336 ; entered into the Swiss Confederacy, 1501 ; a council was held in this town, from July 23, 1431, to May 16, 1448 ; a treaty concluded between France, Prussia, and Spain, April 5, 1795. BASHAW of Scutari revolted against Turkey, and was defeated, 1786. BASILIANS, the order of St Basil, established, 318 ; introduced into the West, 1057 ; there were 90,000 monks of this order when it was reformed, 1569. Also a sect who had all things, even their wives, in common, 1 1 10 ; Basil, their founder, was burned alive, 1118. BASING-WERKE Abbey, Flintshire, built, 1131. BASKET'S Printing-office, Blackfriars, the finest in the world, burned, Dec. 14, 1737- BASQUE PROVINCES. The origin of these provinces is obscure ; they were known to the Romans, and for a long while resisted the Goths, but succumbed to them, 585. BASQUE ROADS. The French fleet, attacked by Lord Cochrane, in the Im- ptrieuse, with several fire-ships and gun-boats, four sail of the line, and numerous merchant vessels, destroyed, April n, 1809; the next morning, the Admiral, Lord Gambier, was signaled to send a part of the fleet to complete the victoiy, but he refused; he was afterwards tried by a court martial, July 26, 1809, and acquitted. BASS'S STRAITS, discovered between New Holland and Van Diemen's Land, by Lieut. Flinders, and called after the surgeon of the ship, George Bass, Dec., 1797. BASS BATH 65 BASS Rock, in the Firth of Forth, purchased by Charles II., 1671 ; made a' state prison ; some of the adherents of King James held possession of this rock in his name, after Great Britain had submitted. BASSETERRE, the capital of St Christopher, West Indies, founded 1623. The British Fleet attacked by the French Fleet upon three occasions, and were repulsed, Jan. 26, 1782. BASSORAH, Turkey, taken by the Turkish army, 1668; captured by the Persians, April 16, 1776 ; retaken by the Turks, 1778. ];. \STARD CHILDREN, not made legitimate by marriage of parents, 20 Henry III., c. 9, 1235 ; proclamation of, to be made, 9 Henry VI. c. n, 1430. The number of bastard children born in the workhouses of England and Wales, in 1862, was 8115. BASTIA, Corsica, a fortified town, taken by the English, 1745, and again, 1794. BASTILLE. Three of these fortified prisons formerly existed in France. The Bastile du Temple St Denis, St Antonie, the most notorious in history, was built by Charles V. ; first stone laid, April 22, 1369 ; completed in the next reign, 1383 ; afterwards strengthened by a fosse 12 feet wide, and bounded by a wall 36 feet high. Henry IV. gave the command of the, to his minister Sully, and it became the depository of his wealth. Besieged by the Bourgignons, 1418; by Henry IV., 1594 ; Fronde invested this prison, and it capitulated, Jan. 13, 1649, and retained possession until Oct. 21, 1651 ; taken by the Revolutionists, the governor being killed, and the prisoners, seven in number, released, July 14, 1789 ; ordered to be razed to the ground by the committee, the same month. BATAVIA, Java. The Dutch, under Gen. Coen, took the town of Jacatra Assa in 1619, and established a factory here, 1612 ; the town built, 1619 ; received a new constitution, Sept. 14, 1801 ; expelled by the British, Aug. 8, 1811 ; re- stored to the Dutch, May 30, 1814 ; annexed by France, June 5, 1806; slavery abolished, July I, 1860 ; great floods in, killing hundreds of the inhabitants, March I, 1861. The great church of, built, 1760, at a cost of .80,000, the foundations of which have given way, and the edifice has been taken down. BATH, Somerset, founded B.C. 863; inhabited by the Romans, whose baths, fitted up with great magnificence, were discovered, 1755 ; held by King Arthur to the year 576, when the Saxons obtained possession ; King Edgar was crowned here, 973 ; plundered and burnt in the reign of Rufus ; rebuilt by John de Villula, 1090; visited by Queen Elizabeth, 1590; this queen granted a charter, making it a city, 1590; a new charter granted, 1794; fortified by Charles I., 1643 ; battle of, July 5, 1643 ; Abbey Church, building of, commenced, 1499, completed, 1606, 236 feet long, 72 wide ; hospital built, July 6, 1738 ; assembly rooms built, 1710; destroyed by fire, 1820; Beau Nash, master of the cere- monies from 1710 to 1760; Pump Rooms built, 1706 1797 ; theatre built from the design of Mr G. Dance, R.A., 1768; re-opened, 1805; burnt, April |8, 1862 ; philosophical society founded, 1799 ; Victoria Park opened, 1830 ; Bath stage-waggon took fire on Salisbury Plain, May 20, 1 758. BATH and WELLS. The Collegiate Church founded by Ina, the Saxon king, 704 ; Wells made a bishopric, 1078 ; the present cathedral begun by Bishop Jocelyne Trotman, 1214; consecrated, 1239; the bishop styled of both places, 1 1 36, Bath having the precedency. BATH, Order of, instituted, 1204 ; the knight created was Sir Thomas Esturmy, July 17, 1204; at the coronation of Henry IV., 46 Esquires, who had watched the night before and bathed, were enrolled in the order. The institution of this order may be divided into three periods : the first ending with the coronation of Charles II., when, for the last time, knights of this order were made according to 5 66 BATHS BATTLEFIELD the ancient forms ; the second commencing from the revival of the order by George I., May 18, 1725 ; and the third on its re-organization and enlargement by His Royal Highness the Prince Regent, Jan. 2, 1815, in the reign of George III. In the first period, it was only customary to make knights of the Bath at the coronation of sovereigns, or their queen-consort, on the creation of the Prince of Wales, or the Duke of York. There was a creation of knights on the marriage of the Duke of York, 1477 ; and again, 1501, on the marriage of the Prince of Wales. Queen Mary and Elizabeth made by deputy 30 knights ; King James appointed 62; Charles I., 59; and Charles II., 68. Her present Majesty en- larged the order, and divided it into three classes, and directed the order to consist of the sovereign, and a great master, and 952 companions. The number was again enlarged to 985 ; 75 members of the first class, to be designated Knights Grand Cross ; 160 of the second class, styled Knights Commanders ; and 750 of the third class, designated Companions of the order, Jan. 31, 1859. The first notice of any insignia or badge being worn was in 1614. The banner of -Sir Thomas Cochrane (commonly called Lord Cochrane) kicked out of Henry VIII. 's chapel, Westminster, by the king-at-arms, Aug. 12, 1814. BATHS and Wash-houses for the poor, established under an act of the 9 & 10 Viet, c-74, Aug. 26, 1846 ; amended, io& 11 Viet. c. 61, and c. 34, s. 136, 1847 ; Turkish baths introduced into England, 1860. BATHURST, Mr, the English Envoy at Vienna, murdered near Perleberg, 1810. BATHURST, N. S. Wales, colony founded, 1815 ; gold first discovered at Ophir, 1851 ; the diggings became very popular, 1852 ; licenses issued to diggers by the government. BATON ROUGE, Louisiana. During the Civil War, the town was captured by the Federals, May 7, 1862 ; the Confederates under Gen. Breckenridge defeated, Aug. 5 ; evacuated, Aug. 6. BATTERING-RAM, invented B.C. 441 ; used by Dionysius at the sieges of Rhe- gium and Moytya, B.C. 370, 388 ; by Polycrates at the siege of Rhodes, B.C. 303; Hannibal used them at the siege of Saguntum, B.C. 219; used by the Romans at the siege of Jerusalem. BATTERSEA BRIDGE, built, 1770 ; suspension bridge opened, March 28, 1858. BATTERSEA CHURCH, rebuilt, 1776, and opened Nov. 17, 1777. BATTERSEA FIELDS, the duel between the Duke of Wellington and Lord Winchelsea was fought here, March 21, 1829. BATTERSEA HOUSE, formerly the residence of Lord Bolingbroke, pulled down, 1775. BATTERSEA PARK, established by Act of Parliament, 9 & 10 Viet. c. 38, Aug. 2, 1846, the names of the occupiers of the land are given ; powers enlarged by II & 12 Viet. c. 102, Sept. 4, 1848; again in 1851 and 1853; opened, 1858. BATTLE ABBEY, founded by William I., on the spot where the battle of Hastings was fought, Oct. 14, 1066. BATTLE BRIDGE, so called to commemorate the battle between the Romans, under Suetonius Paulinus, and the Britons, under Boadicea, queen of the Iceni, A.D. 61 ; a fort constructed for the defence of the metropolis against Charles I., 1643. BATTLE BRIDGE, Southwark, fire at, destroying ^"50,000 of property, Aug. 12, 1749. BATTLEFIELD, battle of, near Shrewsbury, between Henry IV. and Hotspur. 24,000 troops engaged in this battle ; the shock was most terrific ; Percy being slam, the loss on both sides was very severe, July 23, 1403. BATTLE ROLL BATTLES 67 BATTLE ROLL, a list of the chiefs of the Norman army of William I., 1066 ; the number is 629. BATTLES, losses in. The Military Gazette of Vienna makes the following com- Earisons of the forces engaged in the battle of Solferino and in former great allies : ' At the late batlle Ihere were more than 300,000 soldiers in the field, and the losses musl have amounled to at least from 30,000 to 37,000. At the batlle of Leipsic, which lasted for three days, the 330,000 allies had against them 260,000 French; the latler lost 30,000 prisoners and 45,000 killed and wounded, and the former 48,000 killed and wounded. After Leipsic, the most sanguinary battle was that of Moscow, Sept. 7, 1812. The Russians had 130,000 men and 600 pieces of cannon, the French 134,000 men and 587 cannon ; the former lost 58,000 and the latler 50,000 ; the losses were, therefore, 40 per cent. At Bautzen, on May 21, 1813, there were 110,000 Russians and Prussians opposed to 150,000 French ; the latter lost 20,000 men and the allies 15,000, and not a single cannon. At Wagram, on July 5-6, 1809, we had 137,000 men, and Napoleon 170,000 ; we lost 20,000 men and the enemy 22,000. At Esling we were 75,ooo against 85,000 ; we had 20,000 killed and wounded, the enemy 13,000 killed; but he left in our hands 3000 prisoners, and was obliged to send 30,000 to Vienna to have their wounds attended to, so lhat out of the 160,000 men engaged aboul one-half were put hors de combat. At Austerlitz there were 70,000 French, as many Russians, and 13,000 Austrians ; Ihe losses were 21,000 Russians, wilh 160 pieces of cannon, 5800 Auslrians, and 10,000 French. At Jena there were 142,000 French against 150,000 Prussians. At Waterloo there were 170,000 men, of whom 70,000 were French, who lost 25,000 men and 250 cannon, whilst the allies lost 31,000 men. On an average the losses in all Ihese bailies amounted to from 20 to 25 per cent., whilst in the late batlle Ihey did not exceed 15 per cent." AN ALPHABETICAL LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL BATTLES Abancay, July 12, 1537 Antoine, July 2, 1652 Aboukir, July 25, 1798 Arbela, Oct. I, B.C. 331 Abeufera, Jan. 4, 1812 Arcis sur Aube, March 20, 1814 Achalzie, Aug. 24, 1828 Arcole, Nov. 14 17, 1796 Acs, July 2, 1849 Argentaria, 373 Adrianople, first, July 3, 323 ; second, Arguam, Nov. 29, 1803 Aug. 9, 378 ; third, Aug. 20, 1829 Arklow, June 10, 1798 Aghrim, July 12, 1691 Arques, Sept 13 28, 1589 Agincourt, Oct. 25, 1415 Ashdown, 1016 Agnadel, May 14, 1509 Aspern, May 22 23, 1809 Aiznadin, July 30, 634 Assaye, Sept. 23, 1803 Albans, Si, first, May 23, 1455 Atherton Moor, June 30, 1643 ,, ,, second, Feb. 17, 1461 Auerstadt, Oct. 14, 1806 Albuera, May 16, 1811 Augsburg, Aug. 29, 1795 Alford, July 2, 1645 Austerlilz, Dec. 2, 1805 Aliwal, Jan. 28, 1846 Ayachucho, Dec. 9, 1824 Aller Moor, 1645 Aylesford, 455 Alma, Sept. 20, 1854 Balaklava, Oct. 26, 1854 Almanza, April 25, 1707 Bannockburn, June 25, 1314 Almenara, July 28, 1710 Barbout, Sept. 28, 1829 Altivia, June 25, 1838 Barrosa, March 6, 1811 Angora, July 28, 1402 Battlefield, July 23, 1403 Anjou, March 22, 1421 Bautzen, May 20 21^ 1813 Anneau, Nov. 24, 1587 Baylen, July 20, 1808 Antietam, Sept. 16, 1862 Beague. See Anjou Antioch, June 28, 1098 Belgrade, Sept. 4, 1456 68 BATTLES Bergen, first, April 13, 1759; second, Sept. 19, 1799; third, Oct. 2, 1799 Beresina, Nov. 26 28, 1812 Bethel, Great, May ro, 1861 Bitonto, May 27, 1734 Blenheim, Aug. 13, 1704 Bloreheath, Sept. 23, 1459 Blumenau, July 22, 1866 Borodino, Sept. 7, 1812 Borrisow, Nov. 27, 1812 Bosworth Field, Aug. 22, 1485 Bothwell Bridge, June 22, 1679 Boxtel, Sept. 17, 1794 Boyne, July I, 1690 Brailow, June 19, 1773 Brandywine, Sept. II, 1777 Brechin, 1452 Brentford, Nov. 12, 1642 Breslau, Nov. 22, 1757 Briars Creek, March, 1779; second time, May 3, 1779 Brienne, Feb. I and 2, 1814 Bruanburg, 938 Bull's Run, first, July 21, 1861 ; second, Aug. 28 and 29, 1862 Bunker's Hill, June 17, 1775 Burlington Heights, June 6, 1813 Busaco, Sept. 27, 1810 Camden, first, Aug. 16, 1780, second, April 25, 1781 Cannas, Aug. 2, B.C. 216 Cassano, first, Aug. 16, 1705 ; second, April 27-29, 1799 Castella, April 13, 1813 Castelnuovo, Nov. 21, 1796 Castillon, July 7, 1453 Castlebar, Aug. 2, 1798 Cateau, March 28, 1794 Cawnpore, first, July 16, 1857 ; second, Nov. 27 ; third, Dec. 5. Cedar Mountain, Aug. 9, 1862 Chaeronea, Aug. 7, B.C. 338 Chalgrave, June 18, 1643 Chancellorsville, first, May 1-3, 1863; second, May 5 and 6, 1864 Chattanooga, Nov. 25, 1863 Chicahominy, June 25 July I, 1862 Chicamauga, Sept. 19 and 20, 1863 Chilliamvallah, Jan. 13, 1849 Chippewa, first, Julys, 1814; second, July 25, 1814 Citate, Jan. 6, 1854 Clifton Moor, Dec. 18, 1745 Clontarf, 1039 Coal Harbour, June I, 1864 Corinth, Oct. 4, 1862 Corunna, Jan. 16, 1809 Cozitate, Jan. 6, 1854 Craon, March 7, 1814 Crecy, Aug. 26, 1346 Cropedy Bridge, June 29, 1644 Culloden, April 16, 1746 Cunnersdorf, Aug. 12, 1759 Custozza, June 24, 1866 Czaslau, May 17, 1742 Danewirke, April 23, 1848 Denis, St, Nov. 10, 1567 Dennewitz, Sept. 6, 1813 Dettingen, June 27, 1743 Devizes, July 13, 1643 Donington, March 21, 1645 Douro, May 12, 1809 Dresden, Aug. 26 and 27, 1813 Druex, Dec. 19, 1562 Dunbar, first, April 27, 1296 ; second, Sept. 3, 1650 Dungan Hill, July 10, 1647 Dunes, June 14, 1658 Eckmuhl, April 22, 1809 Edgehill, Oct. 23, 1642 Elchingen, Oct. 14, 1805 Enghein, Aug. 3, 1692 Espierres, May 22, 1 794 Essling, May 21 and 22, 1809 Eutan, Sept. 8, 1781 Evesham, Aug. 4, 1265 Eylau, Feb. 8, 1807 Fair Oaks, May 31, 1862 Falkirk, first, July 22, 1298; second, Jan. 17, 1746 Famars, May 23, 1 793 Ferozeshah, Dec. 21, 1845 Fleurus, first, June 30, 1690; second, June 26, 1794 Flodden Field, Sept. 9, 1513 Fontenoy, May n, 1745 Fornovo, July 6, 1495 Fortenay, June 25, 841 Fredericksburg, first, Dec. 13, 1862 ; second, May 3 and 4, 1863 Friedland, June 14, 1807 Fuentes d' Onoro, May 3 and 5, 1811 Gaugamela, Oct., B.C. 331 Germantown, Oct. 4, 1777 Gettysburg, July 1-3, 1863 Gitschin, June 29, 1866 Goojerat, Feb. 21, 1849 Gorey, Jan. 4, 1798 Grandella, Feb. 27, 1266 Granson, March 2, 1476 BATTLES 69 Grochow, Feb. 20, 1831 Guinegate, Aug. 16, 1513 Halidon Hill, July 13, 1333 Hanau, Oct. 30, 1813 Harlaw, July 24, 141 1 Hasbain, Sept. 23, 1408 Hastings, Oct. 14, 1066 Herrara, Aug. 24, 1837 Hexham, May 15, 1464 Hohenlinden, Dec. 2, 1800 Homildon, Sept. 14, 1462 Idstedt, July 25, 1850 Ingour, Nov. 6, 1855 Inkermann, Nov. 5, 1854 Ipsus, B.C. 301 Ivry, March 14, 1590 Janvilliers, Feb. 14, 1814 Jarnac, March 13, 1569 Jemmappes, Nov. 6, 1792 Jena, Oct. 14, 1806 Kalitsch, Feb. 13, 1813 Katzbach, Aug. 26, 1813 Khart, July 19, 1829 Killiecrankie, July 17, 1689 Kilsyth, Aug. 15, 1645 Kissingen, July 10, 1866 Koniah, Dec. 21, 1821 Koniggratz, July 3, 1866 Krasnoi, Nov. 17, 1812 Kunnersdorf, Aug. 12, 1759 Kurekdere, Aug. 6, 1854 Laffeldt, July 2, 1747 La Hogue, May 19, 1692 Landen, July 29, 1693 Langside, May 13, 1568 Laon, March 9, 1814 Lansdown, July 5, 1643 Leipsic, Oct. 16 -18, 1813 Lens, Aug. 20, 1648 Langensalza, June 27, 1866 Leuctra, B.C. 371 Leuthen, Dec. 5, 1757 Lewes, May 13, 1264 Lexington, April 19, 1775 Liebenau, June 25, 1866 Ligny, June 1 6, 1815 Lincelles, Aug. 18, 1793 Lincoln, first, Feb. 2, 1121 ; second, 1217 Linlithgow Bridge, 1525 Lioppo, May 16, 1 860 Lipstadt, Nov. 6, 1632 Lodi, May 10, 1796 Lutterberg, Oct. 7, 1758 Lutzen, first, Nov. 6, 1632 ; second, May 2, 1813 Magenta, June 4, 1859 Magnano, April 5, 1799 Maharagpore, Dec. 29, 1843 Maida, July 6, 1806 Malavelly, March 27, 1799 Maleguano, first, Sept. 13-14, 1515 ; second, Feb. 23, 1525 ; third, June 8, 1859. Malplaquet, Sept. u, 1709 Mantinea, first, B.C. June, 418 ; second, 362 ; third, 207 Marathon, B.C. Sept. 28, 490 Marengo, June 14, 1800 Margus, first, 285 ; second, 505 Marignano, Sept. 13, 1515 Marston Moor, July 2, 1644 Matamoras, May 8, 1846 Meanee, Feb. 17, 1843 Melazzo, June 20, 1860 Millesimo, April 13, 1796 Milliduse, July 2, 1829 Mincio, first, May 29, 1796 ; second, Feb. 8, 1814 Minden, Aug. I, 1759 Mockern, first, April 13, 1813 ; second, Oct. 16, 1813 Mceskirch, May 3, 1 800 Mohatz, first, Aug. 10, 1526; second, 1687 Mohilow, July 23, 1812 Molwitz, April 10, 1741 Montebello, first, June 9, 1 800 ; second, May 21, 1859 Montenotte, April 12, 1796 Montereau, Feb. 18, 1814 Moodkee, Dec. 18, 1845 Mooltan, Nov. 7, 1848 Morat, April 2, 1476 Morgarten, Nov. 15, 1315 Mortimer's Cross, Feb. 2, 1461 Moskwa, Sept. 7, 1812 Mount Tabor, April 16, 1799 Miinchengratz, June 28, 1866 Muret, Sept. 12, 1213 Murfreesborough, first, Dec. 31, 1862 ; second, Jan. 2, 1863 Naas, May 24, 1798 Nachod, June 26, 1866 Najfara, April 3, 1367 Nantwich, Jan. 25, 1644 Narva, Nov. 30, 1 700 Naseby, June 14, 1645 BATTLES. Neerwinden, March 18, 1793 Neubrunn, June 25, 1866 NevilFs Cross, Oct. 12, 1346 Newburn, Aug. 27, 1640 Newbury, first, Sept. 20, 1643 ; second, Oct. 27, 1644 Newton, Aug. I, 1689 Nisbet, May 7, 1402 Nive, Dec. 9 13, 1813 Niville, Nov. 10, 1813 Nordlingen, first, Aug., 1634; second, Aug. 7, 1645 Northallerton, Aug. 22, 1138 Northampton, July 10, 1460 Novara, March 23, 1849 Novi, first, Aug. 1 6, 1799; second, Jan. 8, 1800 Obidos, Aug. 17, 1808 Oltenitza, Nov. 4, 1853 Orthez, Feb. 27, 1814 Ostroleuka, May 26, 1831 Otterbourne, Aug. 15, 1388 Oudenarde, July II, 1708 Oulart, May 27, 1798 Ourique, July 25, 1139 Palestro, May 31, 1859 Parma, June 29, 1734 Patiay, June 18, 1429 Pavia, Sept. 24, 1525 Pfaffendorf, Aug. 15, 1760 Pharsalus, June 6, B. c. 48 Piacenza, June 1 6, 1746 Pinkie, Sept. IO, 1547 Pirmaseus, Sept. 14, 1793 Plassey, June 23, 1757 Podoll, June 26-27, I ^66 Poitiers, Sept. 19, 1356 Polotzk, July 30-31, 1812 Porto Novo, July I, 1781 Prague, first, May 5, 1757; second, Oct. 10, 1794; third, Feb. 24-25, 1831 ; fourth, March 31, 1831 Preston, Nov. 12, 1715 Prestonpans, Sept. 21, 1745 Pultowa, July 8, 1709 Pultusk, Dec. 26, 1806 Pyramids, July 21, 1798 Pyrenees, July 28, 1813 Quatre Bras, June 16, 1815 Quintin, Aug. IO, 1557 Ramilies, May 23, 1706 Rathmines, Aug. 2, 1649 Raucoux, Oct. II, 1746 Ravenna, April n, 1512 Redhina, March 12, 1812 Rheinfeld, March 3, 1638 Rio Seco, July 13, 1808 Rivoli, Jan. 14, 1797 Rocroi, May 19, 1643 Roli9a, Aug. 9, 1808 Rosbach, first, Nov. 17, 1352 second, Nov. 5, 1757 Rosebecque, Nov. 28, 1382 Ross, June 4, 1 798 Roveredo, Sept. 4, 1796 Ruremonde, Oct. 5> 1794 Ruti, March 7, 1821 Sadowa, July 3, 1866 Saguntum, Oct. 25, 1811 Saintes, July 22, 1242 Salamanca, July 22, 1812 Sampach, July 9, 1386 Santa Lucia, May 6, 1848 Saragossa, Aug. 9, 1710 Saratoga, Oct. 7, 1/77 Secessionville, June 16, 1862 Sedgmoor, July 6, 1685 Seidlitz, April 10, 1831 Selby, April II, 1644 Semincas, 938 Seneffe, Aug. II, 1674 Seringapatam, first, May 15, 1791 second, Feb. 6, 1792 Sheriffmuir, Nov. 13, 1715 Shrewsbury, July 21, 1403 Skalitz, June 28, 1866 Smolensko, Aug. 17, 1812 Smoliantzy, Nov. 14, 1812 Sobraon, Feb. 10, 1846 Solferino, June 24, 1859 Solway Moss, Nov. 25, 1542 Soor, June 28, 1866 Soraoren, July 28, 1813 Spurs, see Guinegate St Dizier, Jan. 27, 1814 St Sebastian, May 5, 1836 Standard, Aug. 22, 1138 Steinkirk, July 24, 1692 Stoke, June 16, 1487 Szegedin, Aug. 4, 1849 Talavera, July 27-28, 1809 Tara, May 26, 1798 Tarbes, March 21, 1814 Tchernaya, Aug. 16, 1855 Tewkesbury, May 4, 1471 Thabor, April, 1799 Tinchebrai, Sept. 27, 1106 Toplitz, Aug. 30, 1813 Torgau, Nov. n, 1760 Toulouse, April 10, 1814 BATTLES Tournay, May 8, 1793 Tours, Oct. 10, 732 Towton, March 29, 1461 Trebbia, June 20, 1799 Truellas, Sept. 22, 1793 Tudela, Sept. 22, 1808 Ucles, Jan. 13, 1809 Valeggio, July 25, 1848 Valteline, Aug. 19, 1812 Valtezza, May 27, 1821 Vauchamps, Feb. 13, 1814 Villa Franca, April 10, 1812 Vimiera, Aug. 21, 1808 Vittoria, June 21, 1813 Volturno, Oct. I, 1 860 Wagram, July 6, 1809 Waitzen, July 16, 1849 Wakefield, Dec. 30, 1460 BAVARIA 5 Waterloo, June 18, 181$ Wavre, June 18, 1815 Wawz, March 31, 1831 White Oak Swamp, June 30, 1862 White Oaks, June 26, 1862 White Plains, Nov. 30, 1796 Wilderness, May 5-6, 1864 Wilna, June 18, 1831 Williamsburg, May II, 1862 Witepsk, Nov. 14, 1812 Wiirtzburg, Sept. 3, 1796 Wiirtzchen, May 20, 1813 Ximera, Sept. 10, 1811 Zelichow, April 6, 1831 Zeuta, 1697 Zorndorf, Aug. 25 and 26, 1758 Zullichan, June 4, 1799 Zurich, Sept. 24, 1799 BATTLES, NAVAL I Acre, Nov. 2, 1840 Aix Roads, April II, 12, 1809 Algesiras Bay, July, 1801 Algiers bombarded, Aug. 27, 1816 Armada, July 21 28, 1588 Beachy Head, June 30, 1690 Bellair, Aug. 30, 1814 Brest, Oct. 14, 1747 Camperdown, Oct. II, 1797 Copenhagen, first, April 2, 1801 ; second, Sept. 5, 1807 Dogger Bank, Aug. 5, 1781 Dominica, April 12, 1782 Dover, off, May 19, 1652 ; June 2, 3 1653 Finisterre, Cape of, May 3, 1 747 Guadaloupe, April 12, 1782 Hampton Roads, March 8, 9, 1862 Hango, July 27, 1714 Howe's victory, June I, 1794 Lagos, Aug. 1 8, 1759 La Hogue, Feb. 18, 165-2 ; May 23, 1692 Lepanto, Oct. 7, 1571 Lissa, July 20, 1866 Malaga, Aug. 13, 1704 Navarino, Oct. 20, 1827 Negapatam, July 3, 1782 Nile, Aug. I, 1798 Passaro, Aug. n, 1718 Portland, off, Feb. 1 8 2O, 1653 Salamis, B.C. 480 Samos, Aug. 17, 1824 Sebastopol, bombardment of, Oct. 17, 1854 Sinope, Nov. 30, 1853 Sluys, June 24, 1340 Solebay, May 28, 1672 Soor, June 28, 1866 St Vincent, Cape of, June 16, 1693 ,, ,, second, Jan. 16, 1780 ,, ,, third, Feb. 14, 1797 Tchesme, July 7 9, 1770 Trafalgar, Oct. 21, 1805 Trautenau, June 27, 1866 Ushant, July 27, 1778 BAVARIA, Germany, formed part of Rhaetia, Vindelicia, and Noricum of the Romans ; the Margrave raised to the title of Duke, 920; made an Electorate, 1620 ; driven from his kingdom, 1704; reinstated, Jan. 25, 1714; Maximilian Joseph made the first king by Napoleon I., Dec. 26, 1805 ; Louis Charles succeeded to the throne, 1825; abdicated, March 21, 1848; Maximilian II. succeeded his father, received the Tyrol and Voralberg from Austria, 1806; joined the allies against France, Oct. 17, 1813; the constitution granted, May 25, 1818. A court of honour was established by the state of, to prevent duelling, April 14, 1819; modified in 1848-9. Maximilian II. king of, died and succeeded by Lndwig II., March 10, 1864. 72 BAUTZEN BEACHYHEAD BAUTZEN, battle between Napoleon I. and the Allies, the latter defeated with great loss, May 20-21, 1813. BAY ISLANDS. The island of Ruatan and certain other islands on the coast of Central America formed into a colony, under the name of 'Bay Islands,' to be administered by the Governor of Jamaica. The warrant was issued on March 20, 1852, and the right of revoking it is reserved to the Crown. The islands are those of Ruatan, Bonacca, Utilla, Helene, Barbaret, and Moxat, ceded to Hon- duras by treaty, 1860. BAY WINDOWS, invented about a century before the Tudor age. In a MS. at the Heralds' College relating to an entertainment given at Richmond by Henry VII., the following passage occurs, and may be taken as descriptive of one of the purposes to which it was applied : ' Agaynst that his grace had supped, the hall was dressed and goodlie to be scene, and a rich cupboard sett thereup in a baye window of ix or x stages and haunces of hight, furnissed and fulfilled with plate of gold, silver, and regilte.' Carved wainscoting in panels, generally of oak, lined the lower part of the halls with greater unity of design and execution than heretofore ; and it now found its way into parlours and presence-chambers with every variety of ciphers, cognizances, chimeras, and mottoes, which in the castles of France, about the age of Francis I., were called Boisseries. Of these some curious specimens still remain in the hall and chambers of the dilapidated man- sion of the Lords de la Warre, at Halnacre, in Suffolk. ' BAYAZID, Armenia. The Turks defeated by the Russians, losing 2000 men, July 20, 1824. BAYEUX, France, destroyed by Henry I., 1105. Tapestry, a roll of linen mea- suring 19 inches in breadth and 2ii feet in length, said to have been worked by Queen Matilda, wife of the Conqueror, in which is depicted the Norman Invasion, 1066; discovered in the cathedral, 1767; published by the Society of Antiquaries by Stothard in the ' Vetusta Monumenta,' 1819. BAYLEN, battle. The French army under Marshal Dumont, defeated by the Spaniards, the French surrendering, July 20, 1808. BAYNARD'S CASTLE built, mi ; used as a Royal Palace by Henry VII. ; Charles II. supped here, June 19, 1660 ; destroyed in the great fire. BAYONETS reputed to have been invented at Bayonne, in France ; first recorded use of, in 1647 ; introduced into the English army, 1672 ; ringed bayonet, 1689 ; first used in the battle of Margsaglia by the French, 1693 ; socket bayonet, 1703. BAYONNE, France, in possession of the English, 1155 ; it was here that the plot to massacre the Huguenots was planned ; continued in the charge of the English to 1453 > chapel of the new castle blown up, 100 persons killed, July 10, 1793 ; Joseph, the brother of Napoleon I., acknowledged by the Cortes as the king of Spain, May 25, 1808. BAYREUTH, Germany. The Margravite abdicated in favour of Prussia, 1791 ; treaty between France and Prussia conferred it upon the former country, Dec. 15, 1805 ; ceded to Bohemia, 1860. BAZAARS. One opened in Soho-square, by a man of the name of Trotter, 1806 ; the Queen's, in Oxford-street, burned down, May 28, 1829 ; St James's, built by Crockford, 1832 ; the Pantheon, built by Sydney Smirke, 1834 ; London ' Crystal Palace,' Oxford-street, opened, 1858. BEACHY HEAD, naval engagement off, between the English and French ; the former suffered greatly from the fire of the latter, June 30, 1690. The English lost two ships and 400 men ; the Dutch, their allies, two ships and 500 men, besides several ships sunk. BEADS BEDFORD 73 BEACON NEWSPAPER, printer of, Edinburgh, tried for libel, and fined ^"500, Dec. 9, 1822. BEADS, in general use among the Roman Catholics, 1213. BEAGUE, battle, commonly called the battle of Anjou, between the French and English, the latter defeated, April 3, 1421. BEAM AND SCALES. A public beam set up in London, under a weigh-master, 3 Edw. II., 1309. BEAN, John William, aged 17, presented a pistol at Her Majesty Victoria, July 3, 1842 ; sentenced to 1 8 months' imprisonment, Aug. 29. BEAR, the order of, instituted by Frederick II., king of. Sicily, in honour of St Ursus, 1213. BEAR-BAITING, a popular game of the ancient citizens of London ; it is noticed by Fitzstephen, and Stow. Robert Laneham, in his account of the festivities at Kenilworth Castle, gives a description of the combat between the bear and dog, July 14, 1575. Erasmus, in the reign of Henry VIII., speaks of the trained bears censured by Edward III. Prohibited from exhibition, 1835. BEARDS, worn by the nations of antiquity ; the clergy ordered to shave their beards, 1146 ; not fashionable in England until after the Conquest, 1250. By an order of the Court of Aldermen, July 10, 1543, it was decreed that no citizen or inhabitant of the city, wearing a beard, should have the custody of any orphan of the city, or become surety, or be admitted to the freedom of the said city so long as he shall wear any such beard. BEATALL, Edward, steward to the corporation of the Shrewsbury poor, with his clerk, transported for 14 years, for embezzling nearly ^3000 of the funds, 1824. BEATON, Cardinal, murdered at the castle of St Andrews, May 28, 1546. BEAUCHIEF ABBEY, Derbyshire, built, 1183. BEAULIEU ABBEY, Hants, founded by King John, 1204. Margaret of Anjou was sheltered here after the battle of Bamet, April 14, 1471 ; Richard of York, also, Sept. 21, 1497. BEAUMONT, M., and M. Manuel, fought a duel in Paris, and the latter killed, April n, 1821. BEAUVAIS, France, attacked by the English forces, June 7, 1433 ; siege of, under Charles the Bold, when the women, under Jeanne de la Hachette, heroically dis- tinguished themselves, July IO, 1472. BECCLES, Suffolk, partly burned down, Nov. 29, 1586. BECKET, or Thomas a Becket, killed at the altar in Canterbury cathedral, Dec. 29, 1170. His bones were enshrined in gold by the Romish devotees in 1220, but were taken up and burned in 1539. This haughty prelate was born, 1119 ; became chancellor to Henry II., 1157; Archbishop of Canterbury, 1162; was impeached, 1164; retired to France, but returned, and was reconciled to Henry, June 2, 1170. BECKFORD, Alderman died, June 21, 1770, in which year a monument was placed to his memory in the Guildhall, London, in remembrance of his undaunted con- duct in defence of the rights of the subject, and particularly for his memorable speech to George III. on presenting a petition from London, May 23, 1770. BEDFORD, England, or the fortress of the Ford. A battle was fought here, be- tween the Britons and Saxons, 572 ; the Danes attacked the town, but were de- feated, 911 ; castle built, 929 ; Stephen besieged the castle, and took it, 1137 ; besieged by Henry III. for 60 days, the castle demolished ; the town made a borough ; taken by John, 1216. The celebrated Bunyan preached here, 1671-88; 74 BEDFORD BEER he is said to have wrote his Pilgrim's Progress in the gaol of this town. School founded, Aug. 15, 1552. 60 houses at, destroyed by fire, May 25, 1812. BEDFORD, statue of Duke of, by Westmacott, set up in Russell-square, Aug. 4, 1809. BEDFORD AND. BUCKINGHAM, Dukes of, fought a duel in Kensington Gardens, May 2, 1822. BEDLOE'S plot and accusation against Prance, as a murderer of Sir Edmondbury Godfrey, Dec. 23, 1678 ; died at Bristol, Aug. 20, 1680. BEE, the order of, instituted by Louis of Bourbon, at Sceaux, in France, June 4, 1703. BEER. The manufactory of ale or beer is of great antiquity. Herodotus tells us of the Egyptians, owing to a want of wine, drinking a liquor fermented from barley. It was in common use in Germany in the time of Tacitus. The Saxons and Danes were passionately fond of beer ; it was early introduced into England, and it is mentioned in the laws of Ina, king of Wessex. The price of ale regulated, 1272. Porter was first made about 1730, to unite the flavour of ale, beer, and twopenny, which were used before that ; and it was called porter because it was drunk by porters principally. The licensing system came in about 1 736. Beer was known in Scotland and England as early as 1 100 ; a rich brewer is mentioned in 1414, by Stow, and his gold trappings, 1482 and 1492. A quart of the best beer or ale was sold by statute in the reign of James I. for id. , and two quarts of small beer for the same money. Before 1552 anybody might sell ale or beer. There is no mode of knowing the amount of gallons or barrels of beer brewed in England. There were 60,000 retailers of beer in England in 1834, when the acts I Will. IV. and 4 Will. IV. were passed ; and about 1600 public brewers in England, 136 in Scotland, and 263 in Ireland ; 28,000 victuallers brewed their own ale. In 1829, there were brewed 5,949,290 barrels of strong, and 1,330,467 of table-beer. In Scotland, 110,952 of strong, and 39,387 of table-beer. The quantity brewed in London varies. In 1823, it was 1,829,940 barrels, of which 71,828 were ex- ported. The malt liquor brewed in private houses is unknown in respect to quantity, and can only be loosely estimated by the total malt consumed, which the revenue returns furnish. London engrosses nearly one-third of the whole brewing business of England. In the year 1760, the largest brewer returned 74,734 barrels; and in 1815, the largest house returned 337,621 barrels; in 1840, 361,321 barrels. The excise on malt established in 1667, 1697. The tax was increased 1 760, and new modelled, 1 766. Malt spirits also pay a duty. Important acts for regulating these articles are numerous; one passed, 8 Geo. IV., 1827, and II Geo. IV., 1830. Act regulating malsters, I Viet., July 12, 1837. Porter was raised 2d. per gallon, Jan. 10, 1762, and again, 1801. The different quantities of porter brewed will show the increase and decrease at the times stated, in the returns of 12 principal brewers in London. Barrels. . Barrels. From July 5, 1807, to July 5, 1808. From July 5, 1811, to July 5, 1812. Meux & Co. .. .. 190,160 Barclay & Co 270,259 Barclay & Perkins .. 184,196 Meux, Reid, & Co. .. 188,078 Brown & Parry . . . . 131,647 Hanbury & Co 160,164 Hanbury & Co 117,574 Whitbread & Co 122,446 Whitbread&Co "1,485 Calvert & Co 108,212 Coombe & Co. ... .. 70,561 H. Meux & Co 102,493 Goodwyn & Co 70,232 Coombe & Co. . . . . 100,824 F. Calvert & Co 68,924 Goodwyn & Co 81,022 Elliot & Co 48,669 Elliot & Co 58,035 Biley&Co 38,030 Cocks & Campbell (Golden P. Calvert & Co 38,002 Lane) 51,274 Taylor & Co 32,800 Taylor 51,220 Clowes & Co 34,oio BEEF-STEAK CLUB Barrels. From July 5, 1815, to July 5, 1816. BEETROOT 75 Whitbread & Co Meux, Reid, & Co. Coombe, Delafield, & Co. F. Calvert&Co. Henry Meux & Co. Goodwyn & Co. Elliot & Co Taylor & Co Cross & Co. In seven principal houses, 1840. Barrels. 213,841 190,078 140,209 107,858 103,499 72,076 61,649 58,763 19,501 Barclay, Perkins, & Co. Truman, Hanbury, & Co. Whitbread & Co. Reid & Co. Coombe, Delafield, & Co. Felix, Calvert, & Co. Sir H. Meux & Co. 361,321 263,235 218,828 196,442 177,542 136,387 116,547 Barclay & Perkins . . 330,200 Meux, Reid, & Co. . . 189,020 Truman, Hanbury, & Co. 185,041 Whitbread & Co 168,855 Henry Meux & Co. . . 114,277 Coombe, Delafield, & Co. 100,655 F. Calvert & Co 85,925 Goodwyn & Co 77,249 Taylor & Co 5, 533 Elliot & Co 46,567 Cocks & Campbell . . 36, 101 Hollingworth & Co. . . 31,273 Brewed by the II principal brewers, from July 5, 1822, to July 5, 1823. Barclay & Perkins . . 351,474 Truman, Hanbury, & Co. 219,127 The number of brewers in the united kingdom in 1866 was 37,776 ; the number of licensed victuallers, 95,743 ; and of persons licensed (in England) to sell beer to be drunk on the premises, 44,607 ; licensed not to be drunk on the premises, 3,063. In the year ending the 1st of October, 1866, 574,872 barrels of beer were exported, of the declared value of .2,055,479, a smaller quantity than in the previous year. Our chief customersare Australia, which took 150,364 barrels, and India, which took 201,674, the latter quantity considerably less than in the year before. A porter cask, belonging to Whitbread & Co., 65 feet in diameter, 25 feet high, with 56 hoops, weighing from one to three tons each, contains 20,000 barrels ; and cost four years' making. At the brewery of Meux & Co. two large vats suddenly burst, Oct. 17, 1814, and between 8000 and 9000 barrels were lost. The brew- ing business is engrossed by a few firms of gigantic capital, that expend large sums in purchasing public-houses, and exercise the despotic influence of great capital too often to the disadvantage of the community at large. The hops used by the brewers of London are of home growth. Parliament was at first petitioned against their growth as a deleterious weed, 1428. First used in malt liquors, 1525 as a bitter narcotic. The average quantity grown for 22 years, from 1785 to 1803, was 22, 538, ooo Ibs. weight. Duty of those of Kent and Sussex in 1 792 was 1 7, J in 1793, 162,112 gs. s supreme court formed, 1773 ; Pitt's India bill, Aug. 13, 1784; courts of law for civil causes established, Feb. u, 1793 ; Bishopric founded, July 21, 1813. BENGAL, Indiaman, burned with 20 persons, Jan. 19, 1815. BENNET FINK, church of, London, destroyed, 1666, and rebuilt, 1673. BENNET (ST), Paul's Wharf, burnt hi the great fire; rebuilt by Wren, 1683. BENNET (St) Gracechurch-street, rebuilt by Wren, 1685. BERBICE, South America, first discovered by the Spaniards, 1500; the Dutch settled here, 1626 ; attacked by the French, 1690 and 1712 ; the negroes revolted in 1763, destroying a part of the settlement ; taken by the English, May 2, 1796 ; restored by treaty, 1802 ; retaken, 1803 ; ceded to England by the treaty of Paris, 1814. BERGEN, battles fought at, between the allied English and Russian armies, and the French : the former retired, April 13, 1759. The allies, commanded by the Duke of York, were unsuccessful in an attack upon the French, under Gen. Bnme, Sept. 19, 1799 ; in the next battle the allies were successful, Oct. 2, 1799. 8o BERGEN BERNE BERGEN, Norway, founded, 1070 ; a commercial treaty made with England, 1217. The Hanse merchants obtained the privilege of erecting factories here, 1278, superseding the English and Scotch merchants ; a law passed to define their privileges, July 25, 1 560. A great fishing trade is carried on in this town. A black pestilence, 1348 and 1350, almost depopulated the town ; and it has also suffered by fire on several occasions. A great part of the town and 1 1 churches destroyed in 1488; the town was nearly destroyed in 1702; 1660 families ren- dered homeless. BERGEN-OP-ZOOM, Holland. This sea-port town was first walled in, 1287 ; made a marquisate by Charles V., 1533. It was regularly fortified by the cele- brated engineer, Coehorn, 1629. It was unsuccessfully assaulted by the Prince of Parma, 1588, and also by the Marquis of Spinola, 1622. The French, under Lowendahl, besieged and took it, Sept. , 1 747 ; restored the next year. The French again obtained possession, 1795. The English, under Sir Thomas Graham, at- tempted to carry it by storm, but were unsuccessful, March 8, 1814; restored, May, 1814. BERGHAM ABBEY, Sussex, built, 1160. BERKELEY CASTLE, begun by Roger, Earl of Berkeley, 17 Hen. I., 1117; finished, 1 142 ; repaired and enlarged in the reign of Henry II. King Edward II. murdered here, Sept. 22, 1327. Cromwell took it, Sept. 21, 1645. Rudders Gloucester. BERKHAMSTED, Hertfordshire. A castle built here by the King of Mercia. Wihtaed, king of Kent, held a council at this place, 697. There was a castle built here in the reign of Edward the Confessor ; free grammar-school founded, 1530. BERLIN, Prussia, founded by Albert the Bear, Count of Anhalt, who took the title of Margrave of Brandenburg, 1163 ; it became of considerable importance under Waldemar of Anhalt, 1315 ; a pestilence ravaged the city, 1582; greatly im- proved in the reigns of Frederick William and Frederick the Great ; observatory erected, 1711 ; treaty signed here, July 28, 1742, giving Silesia to Prussia ; taken by the Austrian army, Oct. 17, 1757 ; occupied by them, Oct. 9, 1760 ; Napoleon took the town after the battle of Jena, Oct. 21, 1806 ; the celebrated decree re- lating to commerce issued from here by Napoleon, Nov. 2O, 1806 ; declared in a state of siege, Nov. 12, 1848 ; the Upper Parliament House destroyed by fire, March 10, 1851. BERMONDSEY ABBEY built, 1082. Katharine of France, widow of Henry V., died here, Jan. 3, 1437. BERMUDAS, or Somers' Islands, discovered by the Spaniards while searching for the body of a drowned seaman, named Juan Bermudas, 1522. Sir George Somers shipwrecked on the rocks in his passage to Virginia in 1609 ; he claimed them for the Virginia Company, who established a colony. A charter of settlement granted by James I., 1615. College erected, 1725. An attempt of the negroes to poison the inhabitants proved unsuccessful, Nov., 1830. Made a Bishopric, 1839. A severe hurricane visited the island, Oct. 31, 1780; another, which destroyed a part of the town, and drove the shipping ashore, July 20, 1813. The yellow fever raged here with fearful violence, 1853. BERNARD, Mount St, passed by Napoleon before the battle of Marengo, June 14, 1800 ; its loftiest peak is 11,006 feet high. BERNARD CASTLE, Durham, built, 1270. BERNE, Switzerland, founded by Duke Berchtold of Zahringen in 1191, and be- came a refuge for the oppressed. Made an imperial city by the Emperor Frederick, 1218; attacked by the neighbouring States, but defeated them at Laupen, June 2I > J 339 > joined the Swiss Confederation, 1352. The city destroyed by fire, BERRI BEVERLEY 81 1405, but afterwards rebuilt. Made the capital city, 1848. In 1834 a university was founded. The cathedral founded, 1421 ; finished, 1502. Hospital estab- lished, 1718. The House of Correction finished, 1833. BERRI, Duke of, assassinated at the door of the opera-house in Paris, by Louvel, Feb. 13, 1820. BERTON, General, insurrection of, in France defeated, Feb. 26, 1822 ; executed at Poitiers, Sept. 16, 1822. BERTRAN DE ZARA, an ambassador from Morocco, died in London, and \vas buried hi Westminster Abbey, at the public charge, Aug. 17, 1715. BERWICK-U PON-TWEED. The Danes, under Hubba, landed at this town upon, invading England, 867. It was sold by Eadulf-Cudel, Earl of Northumber- land, to Malcolm II. of Scotland, 1020. The town given as hostage by William the Lion in 1176 to Henry II., after the battle of Alnwick, 1174. King John burnt the town, 1291. Edward I. stormed it, 1296. Wallace took the town, but failed to capture the castle. Robert Bruce obtained possession, 1318 ; he raised and strengthened the walls, and resisted several attacks from Edward II. and III.; he surrendered the town after the battle of Hallidown Hill, July 19, 1333. Ceded to Edward IV. ; made a free town by Edward VI., May 10, 1551 ; taken by Crom- well, 1648, and by Gen. Monk in Oct. the next year. BESANON, France, known to the Romans under the name of Vesentis ; held by them in the time of Csesar, B.C. 56. It has been several times besieged, de- stroyed, and rebuilt. Taken by Louis XIV., 1660. Palais de Justice built, 1749. The allies made an unsuccessful attack upon it, 1814. BESSARABIA, the Isle of Serpents and the Delta of the Danube. The frontier of, settled by treaty between Great Britain, Austria, France, Prussia, Russia, Sardinia, and Turkey, June 19, 1857. BETHANY, Mount of Olives, about 15 stadia from Jerusalem ; it was here that Jesus passed his last days, Mark xi. I ; Luke xix. 29, et seq. BETHEL, GREAT, battle of. The Federals defeated by the Confederates, May 10, 1861. BETHLEHEM, Syria. Rachael buried here by Jacob, who erected a pillar to mark the spot, Gen. xxxv. 19, 20 ; rebuilt by Rehoboam, 2 Chron. xi. 6. Jesus (The Saviour) born at this town, Matt. ii. I. The Church of the Nativity erected, A.D. 325-6 ; destroyed, 1236 ; restored by the Crusaders. BETHLEHEM HOSPITAL, St Mary of Bethlehem, founded by Simon Fitz- mary, sheriff, 1247. It is described as an hospital in 1330. Purchased by the City of Henry VIII., 1546, and incorporated by 38 Hen. VIII., Jan. 13, 1547. The old hospital, at Moorfields, erected at a cost of .17,000, by Robert Hooke, 1675 ; two wings added, 1733 ; pulled down, 1815. The first stone of the New Bethlehem laid, April, 1812; completed, Aug., 1815, at the cost of .122,572. First stone laid of additional buildings, July 26, 1838. BETHNAL GREEN, Middlesex, made a parish, April, 1743 ; Market for the Poor erected by Miss Burdett Coutts at, under 29 & 30 Viet. c. ii, April 30, 1866. BETTING MEN. A penalty of $ to be inflicted upon any persons meeting in the streets of the Metropolis for the purposes of betting, by the Street Traffic Act, 30 & 31 Viet c. cxxiv. s. 23, Aug. 20, 1867. To come into operation, Nov. I, 1867. BEVERLEY, Yorkshire, St John's church founded, 700 ; subsequently converted into a monastery ; destroyed by the Danes. The standard of St John borne before Athelstan. Kinsy, the Archbishop of York, rebuilt the church, 1060. 6 82 BEYROUT BIBLE HISTORY Made a borough by Edward I. ; confirmed by Elizabeth. Charles I. fixed his head-quarters at this town during the siege of Hull, 1643. BEYROUT, Syria. A school of jurisprudence, founded here in the 3rd century, long maintained its repute. The town nearly destroyed by an earthquake, 551. The school transferred to Sidon. Taken by Ibrahim Pacha, 1832. Ibrahim defeated by the British, Austrian, and Turkish forces, with the loss of Jooo men and 20 pieces of cannon, Oct. 10, 1840. BIIURTPOOR, Hindustan, a town of considerable strength. Gen. Lake con- cluded a treaty of friendship, 1803. Five times attacked by the British, under Gen. Lake, unsuccessfully, between Jan. 3 and March 21, 1805, losing a great number of men. It was stormed by Lord Combermere, Jan. 1 8, 1826; and the rightful heir placed upon the throne by him, Feb. 4. BIBLE, translated into the Saxon language between 707 and 930. Wickliffe trans- lated some parts of the Bible, 1375. Tyndale's translation begun, 1526; finished, 1535 ; published, 1536 ; revised, 1537-8. Coverdale's version of the whole Bible printed, 1535. Cranmer's, or the Great Bible, printed, 1539. The first authorized edition prepared by Matthew, 1540. The first printed in Roman letters, and divided into verses, called the Geneva Bible, 1557 ; begun by Archbishop Lang- ton, and completed by Robert Stephens. The Bishops' Bible printed, 1568 ; King James's edition, 1611. The Septuagint version found, 217. The original translation made from the Hebrew into Greek completed, B.C. 277 or 284; divided into chapters, 1253 ; permitted by the Pope to be translated into all languages of the Catholic, Feb. 28, 1759. The Douay edition printed, 1582. Permitted to be read by the laity, 1543. The old copies in the hands of the Christian community of both the Old and New Testament, are preserved in the Vatican, written in the 4th or 5th century, and published in 1587. The next in date is supposed to be the Alexandrian MS. in the British Museum, presented by the Greek patriots to Charles I., nearly of the same age. The most ancient copy of the Old Testament existed at Toledo, in Spain, in 1000. The copy of Ben Asnur, of Jerusalem, was made about 1 100. The Hebrew Bible of the Jews was divided into chapters by the Rabbi Nathan, about 1450. The Vulgate Latin edition was made by St Jerome, 405 ; is acknowledged by the Romish Church to be authentic ; first printed, 1462. The first part of the Greek Testament printed, 1486. The first Elzevir edition, 1624. The first Hebrew Bible printed, 1486. The polyglot Bible edited by Walton, Bishop of Chester, in Hebrew, Syriac, Chaldee, Sama- ritan, Arabic, Ethiopic, Persic, Greek, and Latin, 1657. Of the earlier editions in different languages: African, 1816; North American, 1685; Arabic, 1700; Bengalee, 1801 ; Chinese, 1820; Danish, 1550; Dutch, 1560; English, 1534; Flemish, 1548; French, 1498; Gaelic, 1767; German, 1524; modern Greek, 1638; Hungarian, 1589; Irish, 1685; Italian, 1532; Persian, 1815; Polish, 1596; Portuguese, 1748; Russian, 1581; Spanish, 1471; Swedish, 1534; Tartar, 1813; Turkish, 1626; Welch, 1563. BIBLE HISTORY, ceased 430 years before Christ. In the Old Testament, books 39, chapters 929, verses 23,214, words 592,493, letters 2,728,100; in the New, books 27, chapters 260, verses 7959, words 181,253, letters 838,380; total, books 66, chapters 1189, verses 31,173, words 773,746, letters 3,566,480. The Apocrypha has 183 chapters, 6081 verses, and 125,185 words. The middle chapter, and the least in the Bible, is the 1 1 7th psalm ; the middle verse is the 8th of 1 1 8th psalm ; the middle line is the 2nd Book of the Chronicles, 4th chapter, and i6th verse; the word and occurs in the OJd Testament 35,535 times; the same word in the New Testament occurs 10,684 times ; the word Jehovah occurs 6855. Old Testament: the middle book is Proverbs ; the middle chapter is the 2gth of Job ; the middle verse is the 2nd Book of Chronicles, 2oth chapter, and the i8th verse ; the least verse is the ist Book of Chronicles, 1st chapter and ist BIBLE SOCIETIES BILLINGSGATE 83 verse. Nau Testament: the middle book is the Thessalonians, 2nd; the middle chapter is between the I3th and I4th of the Romans ; the middle verse is the I7th of the 1 7th chapter of the Acts; the least verse is the 35th verse of the nth chapter of the Gospel by St John. The 2ist verse of the 7th chapter of Ezra has all the letters of the alphabet in it. The igth chapter of the Second Book of Kings, and the 37th chapter of Isaiah, are alike. The book of Esther has 10 chapters, but neither the words Lord nor God in it BIBLE SOCIETIES. Naval and Military, 1780; French Bible Society, 1792; British and Foreign Bible Society, 1804 ; Hibernian, 1806 ; City of London Auxiliary, 1812 ; London Bible and Domestic Female Mission, 1857 ; Trinitarian, 1831. A bull from the Pope against, June, 1816. Other societies distributing the Bible not exclusively are numerous : one, the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, was established in 1698 ; a Society for the Translation of the Bible established, 1840. BIBLE SOCIETY in Schleswig and Holstein. The distribution of Bibles in 1834 was 3647. First distributed in France, by the Bishop of Rhodez, 1718 ; it was opposed, but second and third editions appeared in 1725, 1731, 1732, and 1735 ; it began to excite opposition, but all trace of it was lost in 1 750. BIDASOA, Spain. Wellington crossed this river and defeated the French army, Oct. 7, 1813. BIDDENDEN MAIDS, cakes so named, given away at Biddenden, Kent, on Easter Sunday, impressed with the figure of two females, who, tradition states, were joined in one at the hips and shoulders, in 1 100, lived 34 years in that state, and died within six hours of each other : some state the story to be fabulous. BIDDLES, JOHN, a noted miser, who died in 1833, and left a million sterling, having supported himself upon 6d. per day. BIDEFORD, Devon, a town of considerable importance in Saxon times ; made a borough by Edward I. ; Queen Elizabeth made it a free borough in 1573 ; Sir Walter Raleigh made it a commercial port ; the forts taken by Col. Digby for Charles I. after the battle of Torrington, Sept. 2, 1643. The weaving of silk was introduced 1650. Many French Protestants found refuge here, 1685. The bridge erected in the fourteenth century. Exportation of potatoes from, prevented, May 20, 1816. BIGAMY, declared a felony, 9 Geo. IV. c. 31, June 27, 1828; sentence of penal servitude inflicted, 24 & 25 Viet. c. 100, Aug. 6, 1861. BIGGLESWADE, Bedfordshire, nearly destroyed by fire, 1785 ; shock of an earth- quake felt at, March I, 1791 ; the waggon from London took fire on the road and was burned with much valuable property, March 30, 1 780. BILBAO, Spain, founded 1356, by Don Diego Lopez de Haro ; taken by the French, 1808 ; by Wellington, June 21, 1813 ; the Carlists besieged the town, Tune 10, 1835 ; again, Oct. 23 ; relieved by the British and the troops under Espartero, 1836. BILLIARDS. The game of ground billiards early played in England. The in- vention of billiards and billiard tables attributed to Henrique Devigne, a French artist, A.D. 1560 74, BILLING, LITTLE, Priory, Northampton, built, 1076. BILLINGSGATE, made a market and customs levied in the reign of Ethelred II. ; appointed as a fish, com, and salt market, by Eliz. ; made a free market for the sale of fish, 10 & II Will. III. c. 24, May 10, 1699; hours fixed for the market to be opened, 1710 ; burnt down, Jan. 13, 1715 ; again in 1755 and 1809 ; afterwards rebuilt. The control and regulation of the market is vested in the 84 BILL OF RIGHTS BILLS OF SALE Lord Mayor and commonalty of London, by act of parliament, 9 & IO Viet, cccxlvi., Aug. 3, 1846. The present market built, 1854; cost, ,10,340. BILL OF RIGHTS extorted from Charles I., June 7, 1628; a declaratory bill for the same purpose passed I & 2 Will, and Mary, c. 2, Feb., 1689. BILLS OF EXCHANGE, the invention of, has been assigned to the Arabians and Jews of the Middle Ages. Introduced into China, 1236 ; the first one mentioned in history by Matthew Paris, 1235 ; order passed by the city of Barcelona, that they should be accepted in 24 hours after presentation, 1394; used among the merchant adventurers at Amsterdam and other places, 1622. The present form is attributable to the goldsmiths of London : declared a legal tender, 1697; regulated, 1698; first stamped, 1782; duty advanced, 1797, and June, 1801. Stealing or forging made felony, 7 Geo. II. c. 22, 1734; the acceptor must endorse the bill, 19 & 20 Viet. c. 97, s. 6, July 29, 1856. See John (now Sir) Barnard Byles's work upon, first edition, 1829 ; 8th, 1862. BILLS OF LADING, an act passed to amend the custom r-elating to, 18 & 19 Viet. c. n, Aug. 14, 1855. BILLS OF MORTALITY. Parish registers were first kept in England, 1538 ; adopted generally in 1592. Graunt's observations upon the Bills of Mortality, 1662. In 1604, the burials in 97 parishes, 16 out-parishes, and in the outer parishes, were 4322 ; also 896 of plague ; 545^ christened. In 1619, 7999 were buried, and 8127 christened. In 1627, 7711 were buried, and 8408 christened. In 1635, 10,651 buried, and 10,034 christened. In 1643, 12,216 buried, and 9410 christened. In 1651, 10,804 were buried, and 6071 christ- ened. In 1659, 14,720 were buried, and only 5690 christened ; the plague that year being very fatal. In 1664, 15,488 were buried, and 11,722 christ- ened. Great years of mortality in London were 1592, 1603, 1625, 1636. In 1603 and 1625, eight times more died in London than were born, and a fifth part of all. The plague of 1603 lasted eight years, and that of 1636 no less than 1 2 years. In 1665 the funerals in the parishes within the walls, were 15,207, of which number 9837 died of the plague. Of the 1 6 parishes without the walls, 41,351 died, and of the plague, 28,888. In the 12 parishes in the out parts, 28,554 died ; of the plague, 21,420. In the five parishes of the city and liberties of Westminster, 12, 194 died; of the plague, 8403. The funerals in 1665 were 97, 306, and out of this number, 68, 596 died of plague, the last time it ever visited the metropolis. The late act of parliament for the registration of deaths, births, and marriages, at last fixed the returns nearer a certainty, prior to which they were very carelessly recorded. In 1780 they were given as 16,634 births, and 20, 507 burials ; in 1800, 19, 176 births, to 23,068 burials ; in 1820, 26, 158 births, to 19,348 burials ; in 1840, at 30,387 births, to 26, 774 burials ; and in 1850, at 39,973 births, to 36,947 burials. Including the suburbs of London within the registrar-general's district, the number of births for the year ending Jan., 1850, was 72,662 ; and of deaths, 61,423. The most fatal diseases are those of the respiratory organs. Of 100,000 born in London, 31,671 die under five years old; from five to ten, 3408 ; loto 15, 1381 ; 15 to 20, 1856; 20 to 30, 5016 ; 30 to 40, 6816 5401050, 8543 ; 50 to 60, 11,470 ; 60 to 70, 13,495 ; 70 to 80, 11,842 ; 80 to 90, 4142 ; above 90, 360 ; so that nearly one in ten lives to 80. The mortality of some towns is much greater in proportion than that of the metropolis : of these, Liverpool shows the highest rate of mortality. The country is healthier than the towns ; and in the Southern counties, a greater number live to the commonly allotted age of man than in the northern, in the hilly than in the flat counties. The pursuits of life too have a considerable effect in the increase or decrease of mortality in particular districts. BILLS OF SALE. An act passed for preventing frauds upon creditors by secret bills, void unless registered, 17 & 18 Viet. c. 36, July 10, 1854; amended by BINDON ABBEY BISHOP 85 29 & 30 Viet. c. 96, Aug. ro, 1866 j to be stamped, 24 & 25 Viet. c. 91, s. 34, Aug. 6, 1 86 1. BINDON ABBEY, Dorset, built, 1172. BINGHAM CASTLE, in Ireland, burned, Nov. II, 1755, damage done to the extent of 50,000. BINGHAM PRIORY, Norfolk, built, 1206. BIRCH TREE, black, brought from America, 1736 ; another variety, the Betula Pumila, introduced, 1762. BIRD, Mr, and his servant, murdered at Greenwich, Feb. 12, 1816. BIRKENHEAD, Cheshire. The town founded in the reign of Henry II. Priory erected, 1189. St Aidan's College built, 1846. The first stone of the docks laid by Mr Laird, Oct. 23, 1844. The docks opened, April 5, 1847. Riot at, among the Irish labourers at a public meeting, Nov. 27, 1850. BIRKENHEAD, steam vessel, wrecked off the Cape of Good Hope, 450 of the troops lost, Feb. 25, 1852. BIRMINGHAM, Warwickshire. This was a market town anterior to the Norman Conquest. During the Civil War, the town sided with the Parliamentarians, and supplied them with weapons, 1642. They opposed the entrance of Prince Rupert, but were defeated with considerable loss, 1643. A plague desolated the town in 1665. Population in 1685, 4000. The Roman Catholic church and convent destroyed in the revolution of 1688. The Blue Coat School founded, 1724. Canals introduced in 1 767. Coventry canal completed, July 6, 1 790. Dr Priest- ley's library and philosophical instruments, as well as the residences of Messrs Ryland, Russell, Hutton, and others, and the dissenting chapels, destroyed by a mob of rioters at the commemoration dinner of the French revolution, July 14, 1791. Theatre destroyed by fire, Aug. 17, 1792. The town first lighted with gas, 1819. Society of Arts established, Feb. 7, 1821. Birmingham coach robbed of 8000, Dec. 12, 1822. Queen's College founded, 1828; incorporated, 1846. Town-hall begun, 1832; opened, Oct., 1834; finished, 1850; cost 52,000. New market opened, 1834, The Grand Junction railway opened, July, 1837. The London and Birmingham railway opened, Sept. 17, 1838. Town incor- porated, Oct. Chartist riots at, property to the value of 30,000 destroyed, July 15, 1839. Strike of nail-makers at, April 25, 1842. Gillott made 90 tons of steel pens in 1853. The People's Park, the gift of Lord Adderley, opened, April, 1057. The opening of Calthorpe Park, the gift of Lord Calthorpe, by the Duke of Cambridge, June I, 1857. Meeting of the Social Science Association at, Oct. 12, 1857. Ashton Park opened by Her Majesty, June 15, 1858. 2O persons killed by an explosion in a percussion-cap manufactory, Sept. 27, 1859. The town council completed the purchase of Ashton Park, Sept. 12, 1864. The Exchange opened, Jan. 2, 1865. Industrial Exhibition opened, Aug. 28. The British Association held their Congress here, Sept. 6. Birmingham Banking Company stopped payment, July 13, 1866. Anti-Popish riots at, June 1 6, 17, and 18, 1867. Musical Festival held at, Aug. 29. BIRON, Duke of, sent as ambassador to Queen Elizabeth, discovered engaged in a conspiracy in France, and executed in the Bastille, at Paris, July 31, 1602. BIRTHS of children taxed in England, 1695 and 1783; the birth of a duke, 30 ; of a plebeian, 2s. Woman at Konigsburg delivered of five children, Sept. 3, 1 783. The wife of Neilson, a tailor, of Oxford market, London, delivered of five, Oct., 1800. BISHAM ABBEY, Bucks, built, 1338. BISHOP and Williams, tried and found guilty, Dec. 2, for murdering an Italian boy; executed, Dec. 5, 1831. 86 BISHOP-AUCKLAND BISHOrS BISHOP-AUCKLAND, palace rebuilt, 1665. BISHOPS, the successors of the Apostles, are spoken of by St Paul in his Epistle to the Philippians, and to Timothy, whom he appointed first Bishop of Ephesus ; he also ordained Titus Bishop of Crete, 2 Tim. i. 6, Titus i. 5. By the loth canon of the Council of Sardis it was ordered that no one should be rashly ap- Sointed to that office, A.D. 347. Theanus ordained Bishop of London, having is seat at St Peter's, Cornhill, 179- Sampson ordained Bishop of York, 180; Irenyeus, of Lyons, 202 ; and Lucius, of Llandaff, 187. Three British Bishops were present at the Synod of Aries, 341 ; and 400 Bishops were present at the council of Ariminum in Italy, 359. The Catholic Church in the Temp, of Con- stantine was administered by 1800 Bishops, 100 in Rome and Soo in the Latin provinces of the Empire. St Augustine consecrated Bishop of the English at Aries, 597. In England during the Saxon times all ecclesiastical dignities were conferred by the king, but in 1 106, Hen. I. abrogated this custom in England ; they were elected by the monks or canons. King John established the Conge d'Jilire, by which leave was given to the dean and chapter to elect. This was confirmed by Magna Charta, 1215 ; and again confirmed by statute, 25 Edw. III. stat. 6, s. 3, 1361. The right of nomination restored to the Crown by 25 Hen. VIII. c. 20, 1533-4. Held their sees during pleasure, 1547 ; seven deprived from being married, 1554 ; their lands taken into the hands of the Crown, and im> propriate tithes substituted for them, June 24, 1559 > refused to take the oath of supremacy to Queen Elizabeth, and imprisoned, 1559 ; expelled Scotland, 1639 ; deprived of the right of voting in parliament and of temporal jurisdiction, Feb. 14, 1641 ; the whole order abolished, Oct. 9, 1646, after ten had protested against the proceedings of parliament, and had been sent to the Tower, Dec. 30, 1641 ; re- stored by 13 Charles II., 1662 ; seven sent to the Tower for not reading the king's declaration for liberty of conscience, acquitted, June 30, 1688 ; six suspended for not taking the oaths to King William, Feb., 1690 ; deprived, 1690 ; sees of Bristol and Gloucester united, and that of Ripon created, 1836 ; an order in council, Oct., 1838, ordered the sees of Bangor and St Asaph to be united ; rescinded, and a new see created at Manchester, 10 & n Viet. c. 108, July 23, 1847. BISHOPS, Colonial, first constituted in 1784, in the person of the Bishop of Con- necticut, consecrated by three Scotch nonjuring prelates. The Bishops of New York and Pennsylvania consecrated in London, Feb. 4, 1787 ; of Nova Scotia, Aug. I, 1787; the Bishop of Virginia, 1790. The first Roman Catholic bishop in the United States was Dr Carroll, of Maryland, 1789 ; Canada, 1793. A Bishop of Calcutta appointed, July, 1813 ; and of Madras, and Bombay, 1833. Colonial Bishops and their salaries Adelaide 800 Newcastle . . . . 850 Antigua 2000 Newfoundland . . . . 1200 Barbadoes 2500 New Zealand . . . . 1200 Cape Town . . . . 800 Nova Scotia . . . . 550 Colombo . . . . . . 2000 Quebec . . . . . . 1990 Frederick ton . . . . 1000 Rupert's Land . . . . 700 Gibraltar 1200 Sydney 1500 Guiana 2000 Tasmania 1000 Jamaica 3000 Toronto 1250 Melbourne 800 Victoria 1000 Montreal 800 BISHOPS in Ireland lay claim to an earlier appointment than those of England, which is doubtful. The bishopric of Ossory is said to have been founded, 402 ; that of Trim, 432 ; prelacies there were constituted, 1151 ; several were deprived by Queen Mary, 1554 ; Atherton put to death ignominiously, 1640 ; two bishops deprived for not taking the oath to King William, 1691 ; one of Clogher de- BISHOPS BITONTO prived, 1322. Church Temporalities Act, reducing the Irish bishoprics, passed, Aug. 14, 1833 ; of five archbishoprics, two were abolished, and eight of the 1 8 bishops were, as they fell vacant, to be united to other sees, so that the Irish Church should consist, as at present, of two abps and ten bishops, which number, by the lapses named, became existent, 1850. BISHOPS, Scotch, said to have been constituted in the 4th century. Episco- pacy severed from the state in Scotland, 1688-9. There are seven nominal bishops, called post-revolution bishops, at present in Scotland. BISHOPRICS in England and Wales, their institution and present income. Bristol founded, 1542 ; united to Gloucester, 1836 ; Man founded, 447 ; united to Sodor, 1109 ; Bath founded, 1078 ; united to Wells, 1135 j Westminster founded, 1540 ; united to London, 1550. BISHOPRICS, incomes of Incomes. Irish Bishops, before the reduction, had revenues as follow, besides large tracts of land, by the leases of which enor- mous sums were realized : Bishoprics. Incomes. Armagh 8000 Dublin . . . . . . 5000 Tuam . . . . . . 4000 Cashel 4000 Deny 7000 Clonfert 2400 Clogher 4000 Kilmore . . . . . . 2600 Elphin 3700 Killala . . . . . . 2900 Limerick 35oo Cork 2700 Cloyne 2500 Down 2300 Dromore 2000 Leigh and Ferns . . . . 2200 Kildare 2600 Raphoe 2600 Meath 3200 Killaloe 2300 Ossory 2000 Waterford 2600 BISHOPS GATE. First Gate erected by Bishop Erkenwald, A.D. 675 ; the second erected in the reign of Henry II. ; a grant of money to keep it in repair, 1210 ; the Hanse merchants ordered to keep it in repair, 1282 ; rebuilt, 1479, and again in the reign of James I. ; taken down and sold, 1761. The present church of St Botolph erected and opened, 1728. BITHYNIA, Asia, incorporated with the Lydian empire in the reign of Croesus, B.C. 560 ; it was afterwards taken by the Persians ; and by Alexander the Great, when it became at the later part of his reign an independent state. BITONTO, battle, between the Carlists and the Imperial troops, the latter were defeated, May 27, 1734. Institution. Bishoprics. Incomes. 547 St Asaph ^4200 1092 Bangor 420O "35 Bath and Wells . . 50OO 597. Canterbury . . 15,000 "33 Carlisle 4500 1541 Chester 4500 1070 Chichester .-, 42OO 577 St David's 4500 690 Durham 8000 1136 Ely 5500 909 Exeter 2700 i54i Gloucester 5000 680 Hereford 42OO 655 Lichfield & Coventry 4500 678 Lincoln 5OOO i85 Llandaff 4200 179 London 10,000 1847 Manchester 4500 630 Norwich 4500 1542 Oxford 5000 i54i Peterborough 4500 1836 Ripon 4500 604 Rochester 5000 705 Salisbury 5000 1109 Sodor & Man 2000 635 Winchester. . 10,500 680 Worcester 50OO 180 York 10,000 88 BLACAS BLACK MONDAY BLACAS Collection of Antiquities, purchased by the English Government, and deposited in the British Museum, Feb. 18, 1867, cost ^48,000. BLACK ACT, passed against a society of persons associated under the names of ' Blacks,' who with their faces blacked and in various disguises committed serious depredations, 9 Geo. I. c. 22, 1722. BLACK-BOOK OF THE EXCHEQUER, containing the history of the Court of Exchequer ; the duty of the several officers ; the manner of stating the accounts, and collecting rents; supposed to have been written 22 Hen. II., 1176 ; open for the inspection of visitors, I535> i n order, by blackening the monastic institu- tions, to render their spoliations more popular. A work of the same name, developing the sinecures, pensions, and abuses in the English State and Church, was published, 1822. BLACKBURN, Lancashire. A castle built hereby the Romans ; made a market town by Queen Elizabeth ; the church partially burnt, Jan. 6, 1831 ; made a borough, 2 Will. IV. c. 45, 1832 ; riots at, Nov. 17, 1857. James Hargreave, the inventor of the Spinning Jenny, resided here. BLACK-DEATH, the disease so called, visited London, not a tenth part of the citizens being left alive, 1341. Maitland's London. A pestilence of this nature broke out at Oxford, July 6, 1577, when upwards of 500 persons died. BLACK EAGLE, order of, instituted in Prussia by Frederic I., Jan. 14, 1701. BLACKFRIARS. Black or Preaching Friars. This order sanctioned by Pope Innocent III., in 1215 ; re-introduced into England, 1863. Monastery of this order opened at Haverstock Hill, Sept. 10, 1867. BLACKFRIARS. A church and sanctuary founded by Hubert de Burgh, Earl of Kent, 1221, in Holborn near Lincoln's Inn; removed to monastery at Blackfriars, 1276; Henry VIII. held a parliament here for the trial of Katherine of Arragon, and the parliament in which Cardinal Wolsey was condemned also began here ; surrendered to the king, Nov. 12, 1538 ; Edward VI. sold it to Sir Francis Bryan. The Earl of Leicester built a theatre here, 1576- Upwards of 90 persons killed by the falling of the floor of the building during a sermon preached by Father Drury, called The fatal Vespers, Oct. 26, 1623. BLACKFRIARS BRIDGE. An Act of Parliament passed for the building of, 29 Geo. II. c. 86, 1756; built by Robert Mylne, a Scotchman ; the first pile driven, June 7, 1760; the first stone laid, Oct. 31, 1760; opened, Nov. 19, 1769; a toll of a halfpenny levied on foot passengers until June 22, 1785 ; repaired, 1840 ; plan for the rebuilding of, by Joseph Cubitt, adopted by the Corporation of London, July 3, 1863; temporary bridge opened, June I, 1864; first stone of the new bridge laid by the Lord Mayor (Hale), July 20, 1865. BLACKFRIARS PIER for steamboats. The wooden pier gave way, drowning five persons, July 22, 1844 ; new pier opened, Oct. 21, 1845 ; closed, 1864. BLACKFRIARS THEATRE was built by the Earl of Leicester, 1576; rebuilt, 1596, when Shakespeare had a share in it ; pulled down, Aug. 6, 1655. BLACKHEATH insurrection, under Wat Tyler, June 12, 1381. Jack Cade en- camped here with 20,000 men, 1451. Battle of Blackheath, in which the Cornish insurgents were defeated, June 22, 1497. The cavern on the ascent of the hill to Blackheath discovered, 1780. BLACK HOLE, at Calcutta, 123 Englishmen suffocated in, June 20, 1756. BLACK-LEAD, or Plumbago, for pencils. Le Moine quotes a document ruled with lead pencil, 1387 ; first noticed at Zurich, 1565 ; mines of, in Cumberland, noticed by Merret, 1667 ; an inferior kind imported from Mexico and Ceylon. BLACK MONDAY, qr Easter Monday, April 14, 1360, when hailstones fell that BLACK MONEY BLENDENHALL 89 killed both horses and men in the army of Edward III., before the city of Paris, the weather being exceedingly cold. The same name is given in Ireland to the day when a number of English were slaughtered at a village near Dublin, 1209. BLACK MONEY, or Foreign coin, prohibited in England, 1335. BLACK PRINCE entered London with his prisoner John, King of France, May 2 4> I 357 entertained by the late Mayor of London (Henry Picard), together with the kings of England, Scotland, France, and Cyprus, in 1363. BLACK-RENT, established in Ireland, 1412. BLACK SEA, or EUXINE. The commerce of this sea was carried on by the Phoenicians and Egyptians ; the Greeks carried on a considerable trade here, B.C. 700 ; the Genoese founded a colony at Caffa, and conducted an extensive com- merce, 1280. The Venetians, having obtained a concession from the Turkish government for the consideration of a large sum of money, carried on the trade, 1476. By the treaty of Kamardgy, in 1774, the Russians obtained the right to trade in this sea ; the Austrians had the privilege extended to them in 1784 ; and the English in 1799. After the Russians had destroyed the Turkish fleet at Sinope, the English and French fleet entered the sea, Jan. 3, 1854; storm and fearful destruction of life and stores at Balaklava, Nov. II 14, 1854. BLACKSMITHS' COMPANY, incorporated by Edward III. ; united with the Spurriers' Company, 13 Eliz., April 20, 1571 ; confirmed, 2 James I., March 21, 1604 ; and by 14 Charles I., Feb. 15, 1639 ; arms granted to, June 24, 1610. BLACKWALL DOCK begun to be excavated, and hedges with trees found be- neath strata of clay and sand, March 20, 1 790. The West India Docks at, the first stone laid, 1800, by William Pitt ; opened, Aug. 27, 1802. The East India, opened, Aug. 4, 1806. The Brunswick Wharf opened, July 6, 1840. Railway opened, July 4, 1840. BLACKWELL HALL, or BAKEWELL, established as a weekly market for woollen cloths, 1397, 20 Rich. II. ; rebuilt, 1588 ; destroyed in the fire of 1666 ; rebuilt, 1672 ; taken down in 1820. BLACKWOOD'S MAGAZINE first published, 1817, fined jioo for a libel upon Professor Leslie of Edinburgh, July 22, 1822. BLAIZE, ST, an order of knighthood at Aeon, begun, 1252. BLAKE, the celebrated and noble-minded admiral, born, 1589 ; died, Aug. 17, 1657 ; buried in Westminster Abbey, Sept. 4. His remains dug up three years after- wards, by order of Charles II., and buried under the Tyburn gibbet. BLANCHARD, Madame, killed in Paris, by falling from a balloon which had taken fire, July 6, 1819. BLANCO CAPE, Africa, discovered by the Portuguese, 1441. BLAND Y, Miss, hanged at Oxford, April 6, 1752, for poisoning her father. BLANKETS, first made in England by Thomas Blanket and his brother, 1337-40. BLANTYRE PRIORY, Scotland, built, 1296. JLANDFORD, Dorsetshire, nearly destroyed by an accidental fire, 15 79 ; plun- dered by the parliamentary forces, 1644 ; the judges of assize, sheriff, and others died of the jail-fever, 1730 ; town burned, June 4, 1731, 300 houses destroyed ; town again burnt, 1775. BLASTING introduced in the 14* century ; extensively used by Brindley in mak- ing the Bridgewater canal, 1774. BLEACHING, the art of, introduced into England, March, 1787; chemical process by Berthollet, 1795 ; by vapour first tried, 1805. BLENDENHALL, East Indiaman, news received of its loss, April 20, 1822. 90 BLENHEIM BLOW PIPE BLENHEIM, battle, fought, Aug. 13, 1704, between Marlborough and Marshal Tallard. The French and Bavarians lost 27,000 men killed, 13,000 prisoners. BLENHEIM PALACE. The estate presented to the Duke of Marlborough by Queen Anne ; the palace ordered to be built, and ^"500,000 granted for that pur- pose ; erected from the design of Sir John Vanbrough, 1713-15. An act for re- pairing the palace, 3 & 4 Viet. c. 43, Aug. 4, 1840. The picture gallery in the north-eastern wing destroyed by fire, Feb. 5, 1861. BLIBURGH PRIORY, Suffolk, built, mo. BLIND. The first hospital founded in France, 1260 ; Dublin, 1781. First school established in Paris, 1784; in St George's-Fields, London, 1799; amended 28 & 29 Viet. c. Ixxii., June 2, 1865 ; in Scotland, 1824. After this date they became general. Raised letters for the instruction of, invented in France by Valentine Haiiy, in 1 784. Dr Gall made his first experiment with raised letters in the Edinburgh school, Sept. 28, 1827. The first books with raised letters printed in English, Oct., 1834 ; the whole of the New Testament printed in 1836. There are numerous charities for the support and education of ; West's gift to the Clothworkers' Company is among the earliest, Dec. 23, 1719. The most important is that founded by the Rev. William Hetherington, March 20, 1774. Game's Charity for the Blind is administered by the Cordwainers' Company, by will, dated Aug. 12, 1782. The Painters' and Stainers' Company administers Shanks' charity, left July 7, 1795 ; and Stocks', 1780. Mr Charles Day, of the firm of Day and Martin, Blacking manufacturers, left by will ^"100,000 to be given to the blind, 1836. There were 30,000 blind persons in Great Britain in 1864. In the United States, 12,635. Piedmont 5,683. France, 38,413. Belgium, 3,675. Prussia, 10,205. Holland, 1,990. BLIS WORTH, near Northampton, nearly destroyed by fire, May 28, 1799, 50 houses and offices being burned. BLONDE frigate lost on the Seal Islands, Sept. 3, 1784. BLOOD, circulation of, through the lungs, made known by Servetus, a Spanish physician, 1553 > other partial discoveries tending to lead to the same fact were made by Paul Sarpi and others, but the real discovery belongs to the illustrious Harvey, who proved it and published his discovery, 1628. BLOOD, transfusion of, attempted in France with no great success, when it was suppressed by the government. Again attempted in France, 1797, and tried in England, in a few instances with success, since 1823. An English surgeon is said to have practised it in 1691. BLOOD OF CHRIST, an order begun in Mantua, 1608. BLOOD, Colonel, seized the Duke of Ormond, intending to hang him at Tyburn, but was prevented, Dec. 6, 1670 ; attempted to steal the crown jewels, May 9, 1671 ; he died Aug. 24, 1680. BLOODY ASSIZES, held by Judge Jeffreys after the suppression of the Monmouth rebellion ; over 300 persons were hung in Taunton and the Western counties, Aug. and Sept., 1685. BLOOMER COSTUME, first worn in America by Mrs Bloomer, 1848 ; attempt made to introduce the fashion into England, but failed, 1852. BLOREHEATH, battle. The Lancastrians defeated by the Yorkist troops, Sept. 23, 1459, with a loss of 2400 men. BLOW PIPE, first used for analyzing minerals, by Swab, in Sweden, 1738. BLUCHER BOGS 91 BLUCHER, Marshal, defeated at Ligny by the French, June 16, 1815 ; died, Sept. 12, 1819. BLUE, Prussian, discovered at Berlin, 1704. BLUE-COAT SCHOOL, or Christ's Hospital, founded by Edward VI., June 26, '553 J tne branch school at Hereford erected, 1683 ; first stone of the New Hall' in London, laid April 28, 1825 ; opened, May 29, 1829. BLUE-STOCKING CLUB. Literary meetings were held by Mrs Montague at her house in Portman Square, and at Mrs Vesey"s residence, 1776-77. The name is attributed to the fact that the grandson of Bishop Stillingfleet declined attending one of these re-unions on account of his being in morning dress, when one of the ladies remarked, ' never mind, come in your blue stockings. ' The club declined about 1 800. Notes and Queries. BLUMENAU, battle. The last action in the seven weeks' war was fought at this place, when the Austrians were only saved from a defeat by an armistice being proclaimed, the army being entirely surrounded. They lost 600 men, July 22, 1866. BLYTHE DRY DOCK opened, Sept. u, 1811. BOADICEA, queen of the Britons, burned London, and killed 70,000 of the in- habitants, to resent the treatment she had received from the Romans, 61 ; defeated by Suetonius, 62. BOADICEA transport run aground near Kinsale, Ireland, when 200 of the 82nd regiment perished, Jan. 31, 1816. BOARD OF CONTROL for Indian affairs, established by Pitt, 1784; altered, 1788; again, 1793; abolished, Aug. 10, 1858. BOARD OF GREEN CLOTH, the jurisdiction fixed, 1390 ; abolished, 1828. BOARD OF HEALTH, established, 1845 5 re-constituted by act of parliament, Aug. 10, 1854; abolished four years afterwards. BOARD OF TRADE AND PLANTATIONS. Special council appointed by Charles II., 1660, but afterwards laid aside ; renewed in 1672 ; William III. made the board permanent for settling all disputes, 1696; abolished, 1782. Pre- sent board established, Sept. 5, 1786. The office of vice-president abolished, and a secretary appointed, with a seat in parliament, 30 & 31 Viet. c. 72, Aug. 12, 1867. BOARD WAGES, first commenced with the king's servants, 1629. BOAR'S HEAD TAVERN, Eastcheap. Riot caused here by the sons of Henry IV., Thomas and John, in 1410 ; destroyed in the great fire of 1666, but after- wards restored ; finally pulled down in making the approaches to new London Bridge. The site of the old building is now pointed out by the statue of William IV. ; the sign is deposited in the Guildhall Library. BOATS. The use of boats can be traced back to the remotest antiquity. The boats, or coracles, of the Britons, were described by Caesar, B. c. 54- Flat-bottomed boats invented in the reign of William the Conqueror, who used them in the Isle of Ely. Iron boats first made, 1776 ; one to hold 15 persons launched at Foss, in Yorkshire, May 20, 1777. BODLEIAN LIBRARY, Oxford, built and finished by Sir T. Bodley, 1598 ; first opened to the public, Nov. 8, 1602. The foundation-stone of a new library laid by the founder, July 19, 1610 ; subsequently enlarged, 1634. The first catalogue published, 1605. BOGS, IRISH, calculated at three millions of acres. One of them, near Poulenard, in Louth, Ireland, Dec. 20, 1793, moved from its original situation some miles, 92 BOHEMIA BOLTON ABBEY crossed a high road, and overturned all in its way. Drainage acts for bogs passed, 1830. BOHEMIA, Germany. A settlement was formed here by the Boii, under their leader Segovesus, B.C. 59- Czechius with many followers emigrated to this place from Croatia, A.D. 550. Christianity introduced at the close of the gth century. The first duke was Przenislas, 632. In 1061 the Emperor Henry IV. gave the royal title to the Dukes of. By the extinction of the male line the crown went to the house of Luxemburg, 1310, when Charles IV. united Bohemia with the German Empire. King John of, slain at the battle of Crecy, 1346. Battle at the White Mountains destroyed the hopes of the people and reduced them under the power of Austria, Nov., 1620. The crown secured to the Austrian family, 1648. In- vaded by Frederick the Great, 1744. Famine desolated the country, 1772; slavery abolished, 1781. BOKHARA, Asia. Capt. Conolly and Stoddart, envoys from England to the Khan of, murdered; their death ascertained by Dr Wolff, 1843. The Russians defeated the army of the Khan, and captured the fortified town of Nias-Bek, May 8, 1865 ; and took Taschkent, June 27, 1865 ; again defeated them in 1866 ; defeated by the Russians under Col. Abramow at Yani-Kourgane, July 5, (17), 1867; peace concluded with the Emir of, July n ; confirmed, Aug. 9. BOIS-LE-DUC, Netherlands, founded by Godfrey III., Duke of Brabant, 1104; the cathedral built, 1366 ; besieged and taken by the Dutch, 1629. A battle between the English and French, Sept. 14, 1794; the English commanded by the Duke of York. The town taken by the French, Oct. 6, 1 794 ; by the Prussians, 1814. . BOLINGBROKE CASTLE, Lincolnshire, the birthplace of Henry IV. j the re- mains fell down, May, 1815. BOLINGBROKE, Lord, impeached, June 10, 1715, after his dismissal from power, and withdrew to France. Discarded by the Pretender for neglect, to whom he acted as secretary, Feb. 25, 1715-16; pardoned by George I., April 26, 1723; returned home, May, 1724. BOLIVIA, S. America. War of Independence began in 1810 ; declared a free state in 1825. The first assembly of deputies dissolved themselves, Oct. 6, 1825. A congress to consider the constitution proposed by Gen. Bolivar, May 25, 1826. Gen. Sucre chosen president for life, but would only accept it for two years. Mutiny of the Columbian troops, Dec. 23, 1827. Gen. Santa Cruz elected presi- dent, Aug. 1 8, 1828. BOLOGNA, Italy. Its ancient name was Felsina, Made a Roman colony, B.C. 187 ; annexed to the Papal dominions by Pope Julian II., and entered with great pomp, Nov. 10, 1506; captured by the French forces, June, 1796; made the capital of the Cispadane Republic by Napoleon I., Feb., 1797 ; taken by the Austrians, 1814, but restored to Rome, 1815. A revolt broke out in 1831, and a provisional government appointed ; quelled by the Austrians the same year ; the Austrian Gen. Welden attacked the city, but was gallantly repulsed by the in- habitants, 1848 ; surrendered to the Austrians, May 16, 1849 ; united to Italy, 1859. BOLOGNA STONE, discovered before the year 1602, by Casciorolus. Bartholo- mew Zanichelli was said to be the only person to whom this art was known, 1690. BOLTON ABBEY, Yorkshire, built 1120; the Castle, 1297. Queen Mary con- fined in, escaped from, 1568. Made a borough, 1832. The extensive bleach works of Messrs Hardcastle & Co. destroyed by fire, Oct. 27, 1825. The mill BOMARSUND BONAPARTE 93 of Messrs Haslam and Co. destroyed by fire, several persons injured, and pro- perty lost valued at .30,000, Oct. II, 1867. BOMARSUND, in the Gulf of Bothnia, taken in 1809 from the Swedes by the Russians ; first attacked by the English fleet, June 21, 1854. The English fleet under the command of Sir Charles Napier, in conjunction with the French troops, attacked and took the town, Aug. 1 6, 1854. BOMBAY, India, formed part of the dominions of Guzerat, 1429; visited by the Portuguese, 1508 ; built a factory there, 1534 ; the King of Guzerat ceded the Is- land of Bassein to them, 1534. The first establishment of the English was made at Surat, 1601. The greater part of Bombay re-united to the realm of Delhi, 1620. Given with Tangier, in Africa, and ^300,000 in money, to Charles II., as the marriage portion of Catherine of Portugal, 1661 ; granted to the East India Company, 1669 ; permission given to the Company to establish a Mint, 1676 ; made the seat of the presidency and the principal station in the East Indies, 1683 ; confirmed by William III., 1689; now one of the three Indian presidencies ; nearly destroyed by fire, and many lives lost, Feb. 27, 1803 ; Elphinstone College founded, 1837 ; great fire at, 200 houses burnt, Oct., 1845 > th fi nrst railway opened, 1853 ; cotton crisis, 1865, several failures declared. BOMBAY, H. M. ship, destroyed by fire at Monte Video, when 90 of the crew were lost, Dec. 14, 1864. BOMBS are said to have been used at the siege of Naples, in 1434 ; in 1 543 mortars for bomb-shells were cast at Buckstead, Sussex (Rymi>s Fcedera) ; used at the siege of Watchtendouch, in 1588. The first bomb-vessel invented by the French in 1681. BONAPARTE family, the great name of modem history ; this name, Italianized, is written Buonaparte. Carlo Buonaparte was bom at Ajaccio, in Corsica, 1 744, of one of the best families in the city ; educated in Tuscany, he returned home and married Letitia Ramolini, aged 1 7, being born at Ajaccio, 1 750 ; she died Feb. 2, 1836; she had five sons and three daughters. Her husband took part with Pascal Paoli in 1768, reluctantly submitting afterwards to live under French rule, though named royal counsellor and assessor under it ; chosen deputy to the French court, 1777 ; one of the council of 12 nobles, 1781 ; he went to Marseilles, 1785, about his health, and died there, Feb. 24, 1785. Joseph, the elder (successively King of Naples and of Spain, in 1 808), Napoleon, Lucien, Louis, and Jerome, were the five sons ; of the daughters, Pauline became Princess Borghese; Caroline, wife of Murat, King of Naples ; and the other sister, Madame Bacciocci. Napoleon, born Aug. 15, 1769, distinguished himself at the military school of artillery, in 1 784 ; was appointed to the artillery in the regiment of La Fere, 1785 ; distinguished himself greatly at the siege of Toulon, by superior skill in directing the batteries ; rose to be a general of brigade, 1 794 ; commanded the troops, Oct. 4, who were employed to defend the Convention ; made deputy in- spector of fortifications ; defeated the Parisians ; married, March 9, 1796, Madame Josephine Beauharnois, whose husband had been one of Robespierre's victims ; 12 days after his marriage, he quitted his bride for Nice, to command the army there, found it in a state of destitution, but, not discouraged, he out- manoeuvred the Austrians, and in April won the battles of Montenotte, Millesimo, Dego, and Mondovi ; May 10, 1796, he gained the field of Lodi, and quickly became master of Piedmont and the Milanese ; fought the battle of Lonato, Aug. 3, 1 796 ; that of Castiglione, Aug. 5 ; the battle of Roveredo, Sept. 4 ; of Bassano, Sept. 8 ; of San Giorgo, Sept. 13 ; of Arcola, Nov. 15, 16, & 17 ; in 1797, Jan. 14, gained the battle of Rivoli ; Jan. 16, of La Favorite; Mantua surrendered, Feb. 2 ; gained the fight of the Tagliamento, March 16 ; of Levis, March 29; March 23, Trieste surrendered to him ; April 18, he signed thepre- 94 BONAPARTE liminary treaty of Leoben, with Austria ; May 16, took possession of Venice ; signed the treaty of Campo Formio, May 24 ; set sail for Egypt, May 19, 1798 ; took Jaffa, March 7 ; fought the battle of the Pyramids, July 21 ; the battle of El Arich, Feb. 15, 1799 ; of Nazareth, April 8 ; of Mount Tabor, April ; besieged Acre, May 21 (siege raised by Sir S. Smith) ; battle of Aboukir, with the Turks, July 25 ; sailed for France, Aug. 23 ; landed at Frejus, Oct. 6 ; dissolved the Convention, Nov. 9 ; was declared First Consul, Nov. 10 ; made peace with the Chouans, Feb. 15, 1800; crossed the Alps, and fought the Austrians at Romano, May 26 ; Fort St Bard taken, June I ; at Montebello, June 9 ; and at Marengo, June 14 ; preliminaries of peace signed with Austria ; an infernal machine ex- ploded, to destroy him, Oct. 10 ; treaty of Luneville, with the Austrians, Feb. 9, 1801 ; preliminaries with England, Oct. 10 ; the Cisalpine republic placed under Bonaparte; definitive treaty with England signed, March 25, 1802; he instituted the Legion of Honour, May 19 ; declared Consul for life, Aug. 2 ; Gen. Moreau arrested for plotting against him, Feb. 5, 1804 ; Due D'Enghien shot, March 21 ; made Emperor, May 1 8 ; crowned by the Pope, Nov. 19 ; wrote a pacific letter to the King of England, Jan. 2, 1805 ; crowned with the iron crown, King of Italy, May 26 ; marched against Austria, Sept. 24; won the battle of Werthingen, Oct. 8; of Gunzbourg, Oct. 9; of Memmingen, Oct. 13; of Elchingen, Oct. 15; Gen. Mack surrendered at Ulm, Oct. 19 ; Vienna taken, Nov. 13 ; battle of Dierne- stein, Nov. 21 ; of Austerlitz, Dec. 2; treaty of Presburg signed, Dec. 26; Louis Bonaparte made King of Holland, June 5, 1 806 ; convoked the Jews, July 26 ; published the Confederation of the Rhine ; gained the battle of SaalfLeld, Oct. 10 ; of Weimar, Oct. 13; of Jena, Oct. 14; Auerstadt, Oct. 14; Erfurth, Oct. 15 ; of Halle, Oct. 17 ; Zeydenick, Oct. 26 ; of Prentzlow, Oct. 26 ; of Jabel, Nov. 2 ; issued the Berlin decree, Nov. 19 ; gained the battle of Czarnowo, Dec. 23 ; of Pultusk, Dec. 26 ; of Mohrungen, Jan. 26, 1807 ; of Benningen, Jan. 27 ; of Eylau, Feb. 8 ; of Ostrolenska, Feb. 19 ; of Weiskelmonde, Aug. 15 ; of Fried- land, June 14 ; signed the treaty of Tilsit, July 7 ; Joseph Bonaparte declared King of Spain, July 7 ; battle of Valmaceda, Oct. 8 ; of Gamenal, Oct. 10 ; of Burgos, Oct. 1 6 ; conference at Erfurt, Sept. 26 ; Bonaparte arrived at Vittoria, Nov. 7 ; battle of St Ander, Nov. 18 ; surrender of Madrid, Dec. 4 ; of Santa Cruz, Dec. 8. Bonaparte returned to Paris, Jan. 23, 1809. War declared against Austria, April 6 ; marched against Austria, April 13 ; battle of Landshut, April 21 ; of Eckmuhl, April 22 ; of Ratisbon, April 25 ; of Newmarkt, April 26 ; Bonaparte entered Vienna a second time, May 13 ; battle of Vienna, May II ; Rome annexed to the French Empire, May 17 ; of Gapick, May 18 ; of Essling, May 22 ; of Raab, June 14 ; of Engersdorf, July 5 ; of Wagram, July 6 ; treaty of Vienna, Oct. 14 ; his marriage with Josephine dissolved, Dec. 16 ; he married Maria Louisa, daughter of Francis II., March u, 1810 ; Holland and the Hanse towns annexed to France, July 10 ; Bernadotte elected crown prince of Sweden, Aug. 21 ; Hamburg annexed to the French empire, Jan. I, 1811 ; the Empress of France delivered of a son, styled King of Rome, March 20 ; Napoleon led his army against Russia, May 9, 1812 ; reached Konigsberg, June n ; entered Wilna, June 28 ; battle of Kosnoi, Aug. 14; of Smolensko, Aug. 17 ; Smolensko taken, Aug. 18 ; battle of Mojaisk, Sept. 5 ; of Moskwa, Sept. 7 ; Moscow entered, Sept. 14; evacuated, Oct. 19 ; battle of Malojawslavetz, Oct. 24; of Wop, Nov. 8 ; of Krasnoi, Nov. 17 ; of the Beresina, Nov. 27 ; he left the army for Paris, Dec. 5 > reached Paris and raised new levies, Dec. 18 ; took the command of the army on the Elbe, April 15, 1813 ; battle of Lutzen, May 2 ; of Bautzen, May 20 ; of Wurchen, May 26 ; armistice agreed on, June 4 ; hostilities recommenced, Aug. 10 ; battle of Dresden, Moreau killed, Aug. 25, 26, 27 ; Dresden evacuated, Sept. 28 ; battle of Leipsic, Oct. 16, 1 8, 19 ; the Allies published a declaration against him, Dec. I ; his enemies cross the Rhine, Dec. 21 ; battle of St Dizier, Jan. 27 j of Brienne, Jan. 29 ; of Champ Aubert,Feb. 9 ; of Montmirail, Feb. u ; BONAPARTE BOOKS 95 of Vauchamp, Feb. 14 ; of Montereau, Feb. 17 ; of Croane, March 7 ; the Allies entered Paris, March 31 ; Napoleon abdicated the throne, April 14; took leave of his old guard, April 20 ; sailed for Elba, arrived there, May 4 ; sailed from Elba to France, Feb. 26, 1815 ; arrived at Cannes, March I ; at Paris, and re- ascended the throne, March 20 ; declared an outlaw by the Allies, March 25 ; called a new house of peers and of representatives of the people, in April ; also a. Champ de Mai, June I ; battle of Fleurus gained, June 14 ; defeated the Prussians at Ligny, June 16; Quatre-Bras, same day, drawn battle ; defeated at Waterloo, June 1 8 ; abdicated the throne in favour of his son, June 22 ; surrendered himself to the English captain, Maitland, of the Bellerophon, July 15 ; entered Torbay, July 24; sailed to St Helena, Aug., n ; arrived, Oct. r6 ; expired there, of a cancer in the stomach, at ten minutes before six p.m., on May 5, 1821, and was interred on May 8, in a spot chosen by himself ; his will registered in England, at Canterbury, Aug., 1824 ; given to the French nation, 1853. The French Chambers decreed that, with the consent of England, his remains should be re- moved to France ; they arrived at Cherbourg, Dec. 8, 1840, and were interred at the Invalides, with great solemnity, Dec. 15, 1840. BONAPARTE, Joseph, crowned King of Naples, Dec., 1805. BONAPARTE, Louis, crowned King of Holland, June 5, 1806 ; resigned the crown, 1810 ; died at Leghorn, 1846. BONAPARTE, Jerome, made King of Westphalia, Dec. r, 1807. BONAPARTE, Lucien, born at Ajaccio, 1775 ; arrived in England, Dec. 18, 1810 ; created a Roman prince by the Pope, Aug., 1814 ; refused passports for himself and family to North America by the allied sovereigns, March 18, 1817 ; died, 1840, leaving several literary works. He was the patron of the French poet Beranger. BONAPARTE, Napoleon Francis Alexander Joseph, DukeofReichstadt, the only son of the French Emperor Napoleon I., born, March 20, 1811 ; brought up at the court of Vienna, where he was a sort of prisoner at large ; died at Schcenbrunn, July 22, 1832. BONAPARTE, Charles Louis, Napoleon III., born at the Tuileries, April 20, 1808 ; conspiracy at Strasburg, headed by (when prince), to overthrow the govern- ment of Louis Philippe ; declared their intention, Oct. 30, 1836 ; sent to America, Nov. 15 ; arrived at Boulogne, Aug. 6, 1840, and arrested ; imprisoned at Ham ; escaped disguised as a workman, May 24, 1846 ; elected President, Dec. 10, 1848; coup (Tttat, Dec. 2, 1851 ; elected Emperor, Nov. 21, 1852 ; made his public, entry into Paris, Dec. 2 ; married Eugenie Countess Teba, Jan. 29, 1853 ; Prince Imperial born, March 16, 1856. BON-HOMMES, an order of Friars instituted in France, 1209; came to England in 1240. College of, founded at Buckingham, 1244. BONN, Prussia, anciently a Roman province, taken by the Prince of Orange, Oct. , 11673 ; by the Duke of Brandenburg, Oct. 7, 1687 ; besieged by the Duke of Marlborough for three weeks ; taken in 1703 ; the troops of the French Republic entered, Oct. 6, 1794. The palace of the Prince of Cologne burned down, June J 5 ! 777 J a shower of stones fell here, July 13, 1816 ; an academy established, 1778 ; incorporated, 1784 ; Prince Albert was a student here, 1837 ; suppressed, but re-established, 1818. OOKS. The first form of writing was upon blocks and tablets, inlaid with wax : afterwards upon a flexible material, and made into rolls. Books in their present form are said to have been invented by Attalus, King of Pergamos. Job expressed a wish that his words might be written in a book. In the early Greek and Hebrew manuscripts the words were not separated, and in the Oriental countries the lines 96 BOOKS BOOKS BINDING OF began from right to left ; in the northern and western nations, from left to right. In China the letters ran from top to bottom. The oldest profane books extant are Homer's Poems, and the prose writings of Herodotus. The earliest printed books known are the Latin Bible, printed at Mentz, in 145055 ; ' Cicero de Officiis,' 1466. Pagination and runningtitles introduced at Cologne by Arnold Therhoernen, 1470. The first book printed in English was ' The Recuyell,' by Caxton, at Bruges, 1474. The Game of Chess was printed by him at the same place, 1475. He printed the 'Dictes and Sayings,' at Westminster, Nov., 1477 ; this was the first book printed in England. The first Greek book printed in England, 1543. The first classical book printed in Russia was 'Cornelius Nepos,' April 29, 1762. Roger de Insula, Dean of York, gave several Latin Bibles to the University of Oxford, for the use of the students, 1225. A Countess of Anjou, in the I5th century, paid for one book, 200 sheep, five quarters of wheat, and the same quantity of rye and millet ; and in early times, the loan of a book was con- sidered to be an affair of such importance, that in 1299, the Bishop of Winchester, on borrowing a Bible from a convent in that city, was obliged to give a bond for its restoration, drawn up in the most solemn manner ; and Louis XL, in 1471, was compelled to deposit a large quantity of plate, and to get some of his nobles to join with him in a bond, under a high penalty, to restore it, before he could pro- cure the loan of a book which he borrowed from the faculty of medicine at Paris. Bede's Homilies sold for twelve measures of barley, 1 1 74 ; John of Meun's Roman de la Rose sold in Paris for ^33, 1400 ; in 1812, the Duke of Devonshire gave ;io6o los. for Caxton's first edition of the Recuyell, from the Duke of Roxburghe's collection, and ^"173 for the Game of Chess in 1813. The privilege of printing Books first granted by Henry, Bishop of Bamberg, 1490. The oldest Venetian privilege dates from 1491 ; the oldest Papal, 1505 ; one was granted in 1495, by Duke Louis Sforza of Milan; a Papal one in 1506, to Tosino, a bookseller of Rome ; in 1507, one to Verard, by Louis XII. ; the first imperial, 1510; and in 1527, one from the Duke of Saxony, to the edition of the New Testament by Emser ; in 1590, one was granted in England, by Queen Elizabeth, to one Weight, of Oxford, for a translation of Tacitus ; but the oldest was in 1510, for the history of King Boccus. Foreign merchants were allowed to import books and manuscripts or to print them here, 1484 ; but Henry VIII. revoked the liberty in 1534. In 1538, the same king issued an order respecting the printing of Bibles ; and in 1542, gave an exclusive privilege for the purpose, to last four years. Exclusive privileges afterwards became numerous. During the Common- wealth the privilege was abolished, but in the 27th Charles II., restored ; the same in Queen Anne's reign, in that of George I. and George III ; the existing patent was conferred in 1830, Jan. 21, for printing the Bible ; this terminated in 1860. In Scotland, before 1700, various licences were granted : to one Basket, July 6, 1716 ; Alexander Kincaird, 1749 ', to Blair and Bruce, 1798 ; the patent ceased in 1833. In Ireland, George III. granted a patent to one Grierson, for 40 years ; it was renewed by his son, 1811. 48,441 cwt. of books was exported in 1866. BOOKS, BINDING OF. The earliest bound book known is the volume of St Cuthbert, circa 650. Ivory was used in the 8th century ; oak in the 9th. The Evangelists, on which the English kings took the coronation oath, was bound in oak boards, Iioo. In the I5th century impressed leather was used, and hog- skin rudely ornamented. In Germany a finer pig-skin or vellum was used in the l6th century, the portraits of the reformers and others being finely pressed on the covers. Calf leather came into use for fine work in 1550. The Missale Romanum, bound for Cardinal Sigismond Gonzaga, 1505, is a fine specimen of Bibliopegistic skill. Grolier's work, in 1525, is very superior. In the reign of Elizabeth velvet and silk came into fashion, being ornamented by the ladies with gold threads and spangles. Cloth binding superseded plain boards about 1823. India rubber backs were introduced in 1841. Bound in tortoiseshell, by Hartfield, 1856. BOOKS BURNT BOROUGHBRIDGE 97 BOOKS BURNT. Books to the extent of 200,000 volumes burned at Constanti- nople. There were 4,194,412 volumes in the suppressed monasteries of France in 1790 ; 2,000,000 of these were upon theology ; the MSS. were 26,000 ; in the city of Paris alone there were 808, 120 volumes. Books of astronomy and geometry were destroyed in England in the reign of Edward VI., 1552, being accused of a taint of magic. The Book of Sports ordered to be burnt in Cheapside, 1643. BOOK CENSORS first appointed by Berthold, Abp of Mayence, 1486 ; this was followed by a mandate of Pope Alexander VI., in 1501, with the same object ; in 1515, the Council of the Lateran at Rome appointed ecclesiastical censors. In the reign of Elizabeth no person was allowed to print any works without the royal licence. The Press was afterwards regulated by the Long Parliament, 1643. Abolished in England in 1694. BOOK-KEEPING by double entry, introduced into England hi 1543 ; improved by Peele, in 1569. BOOTHIA FELIX discovered in 1830, by Sir J. Ross. BOOTS. The Romans were expert in the art of boot-making. They were in general use in the reign of William II. High boots were worn in England, 1484. BORAX first brought into England from India, 1713. BORDEAUX, France, destroyed by fire in 260; rebuilt by the Romans; the amphitheatre of Gallienus erected, 261 ; taken by the Goths, 412 ; taken by the Saracens, 529 ; made the capital of Gascogne, 850 ; plundered by the Northmen the next century ; given as the dower of Eleanor of Aquitaine to Henry II., 1151 ; became an English possession, 1154; treaty signed here between England and France, March 25, 1357. The Black Prince resided here for II years ; his son, Richard II., was born here in 1366. Upon the decline of the English power the city submitted to Count Dunois, 145 1. Upon the arrival of Earl Talbot with fresh forces, the English authority was restored, 1452 ; taken by the French, 1453. La Tour Peyberland built, 1430 ; it was 300 feet high. St Michael Church erected, 1840. Insurrection broke out, 1548. Town fortified by Vauban, 1677. The Parliament met here in 1690. The Chateau Royal built, 1778. The magistrates of, fined 1,000,000 francs for assisting the revolutionists, March 10, 1793 ; the town given up to the Bourbons, Feb. 13, 1814. The bridge commenced, 1810 ; completed, 1811, cost ^"260,000. BORGIA, Cardinal, the noted Csesare, after a profligate life, was shot at Vienna, 1507- BORGO ST SEPOLCRO, Tuscany, had its cathedral and 150 houses destroyed by an earthquake, Sept. 30, 1789. BORNEO, E. Archipelago discovered by the Portuguese in 1526. The English and Dutch built several factories upon the islands in 1609 and I77 2 - Mr James Brooke made Rajah of Sarawak, 1839 ; appointed Her Majesty's Regent, Feb., 1845. Made an English colony, Mr Brooke being appointed governor, Oct. 2, 1848 ; first Bishop appointed to Labuan, 1855. Insurrection of Chinese at, and massacre of the inhabitants, Feb. 17, 1857. BORODINO, sanguinary battle between Napoleon and the Russians, Sept. ^, 1812. The loss on both sides was enormous, 240,000 men being engaged. The victory was with the French emperor, who afterwards marched into Moscow, Sept. 14. BOROUGHBRIDGE, York, burned by the Scots under the Earl Douglass, 1318. Battle of, between Edward II. and the Earls of Hereford and Lancaster ; the latter were defeated, March 16, 1322, and beheaded with the greatest insults near Ponte- fract, March 23 ; a great number of weapons and military relics were discovered in 1792. 7 98 BOROUGH-ENGLISH BOTTLES OF GLASS BOROUGH-ENGLISH, a mode of tenure by which the younger son inherits, existed as early as 834. j. It was abolished in Scotland in 1062. BOROUGHS, towns which send members to parliament, so named since Burgesses were returned in the reign of Henry III., 1265 ; first admitted into the Scotch parliament by Robert Bruce, 1326 j into the Irish, 1365. BORRISOW, Russia, battle between the French under Gen. Portonneaux and the Russians ; the former surrendered, Nov. 27, 1812. BOSCOBEL OAK, Staffordshire, in which Charles IL concealed himself after the battle of Worcester, Sept. 3, 1651. BOSPHORUS, Turkey, founded, B.C. 490; made a Roman province by Pompey, B.C. 63 ; taken by the Turks, A.D. 545. BOSTON, Lincolnshire. St Botolph Monastery founded in 650. The Romans erected a fort at the mouth of the river Witham. The church destroyed by the Danes. The black friary established, 1288. The town inundated, 1285. Church built, 1309 ; damaged by fire, May 23, 1803. Iron bridge erected, 1807. BOSTON, United States, founded in 1630. Benjamin Franklin born here, Jan. 6, 1706. A riot broke out through the enforcement of the celebrated but iniquitous Stamp Act, Oct. 31, 1765. During the War of Independence, the battle of Bunker's Hill was fought here, 1775 ; the town taken by the English, March 25, 1775 ; the town evacuated by the English, March 17, 1776. Several fires at, 1763. Serious riots consequent upon the seizure of a fugitive slave, May 24, 1854. BOSWELL, SIR ALEXANDER, killed in a duel by Mr James Stuart, for a libel which he had written in a paper called ' The Sentinel,' March 26, 1822. BOSWORTH FIELD, battle, the closing battle of the White and Red Roses, or the houses of York and Lancaster ; Richard III. was slain, and the Earl of Richmond proclaimed King Henry VII., Aug. 22, 1485. BOTANICAL GARDENS. .. The Jardin des Plantes was founded at Paris, 1610; at Oxford, 1632; at Edinburgh, 1680; at Dublin, 1789; at Chiswick, 1821 ; at Chelsea, 1679 ; at Regent's Park, 1833, opened, 1839. BOTANY. The earliest writer upon this branch of science was Theophrastus, B.C. 320. Dodoens, Otto, Brunfels, Banlieu, and Coesalpinus, published several works upon the same subject during the I5th century. Dr William Turner has justly been called the Father of English Botany. He published his ' New Herbal, 1 1551 and 1568. Morison of Aberdeen, Ray, and Haller of Switzerland, after- wards improved upon this system, but Linnaeus published a more extended system in his 'Systema Naturae,' 1750. BOTANY BAY, discovered by Capt. Cook, April 20, 1770; first settlement made in, 1788. BOTHAL CASTLE, Northumberland, built by Robert Bertram, 1342. BOTHWELL BRIDGE, battle of. The Duke of Monmouth defeated the army of the Covenanters, June 22, 1679. BOTOLPH CHURCH, Aldgate, built, 1749; Bishopsgate, 1728; Aldersgate, partly rebuilt, 1820. BOTOLPH'S, ST, PRIORY, Colchester, built, 1109. BOTTLE CONJUROR. This infamous deception resulted in the destruction of the interior of the Haymarket Theatre by the disappointed audience, Jan. 16, 1749 (O.S.). BOTTLE-MAKERS' COMPANY, incorporated 13 Car. I., Jan. 12, 1638. BOTTLES OF GLASS, of great antiquity ; many found in the ruins of Pompeii ; BOUCHAIN BOURBONS 99 made in England in the isth century. Stone bottles taxed in 1695 > tax repealed, 1698. One to hold two hogsheads blown at Leith, Scotland, Jan., 1748. BOUCHAIN, France, invested by the Duke of Marlborough ; surrendered, Sept. 14, 1711 ; retaken by the French under Marshal Villars, Oct. 10, 1712; occupied by the Allies, 1815. BOUGHTON, near Canterbury, riot at, Thorn the lunatic killed, May 31, 1838. BOULOGNE, France. The northern pirates obtained possession and sacked this town, 882. Assailed by Henry III. Henry VIII. took it after a siege of six weeks' duration, Sept. 13, 1544; he improved the defences of the fortification ; restored to France, by Edward, upon payment of 400,000 crowns, 1550. Henry of France made his public entry into this town, March 24, 1550. The castle was built in the 1 3th century. The fleet under Nelson attacked the French fleet off this place, Aug. 3, 1801 ; the town set on fire by the fleet, Oct. 8, 1806. Louis Napoleon, with a few followers, landed here, when he made his descent upon France, Aug. 6, 1840. The King of the Belgians visited Napoleon III. at this town, Sept. 4, 1854; and Prince Albert visited, Sept. 5, 1854; and was again present at a grand review held here, Sept. 8, 1854. BOULOGNE FLOTILLA, fitted out to invade England, July, 1804, consisting of 1300 vessels, 17,000 seamen, 160,000 soldiers, 10,000 horse, and proportionate artillery ; frustrated by Nelson's destruction of the combined fleets of France and Spain, which Napoleon had designed to double upon Cornwallis, off Brest, and a portion to sweep the Channel at the same time, 1805. BOUNTIES for the exportation of goods first given in 1688 ; given in America for raising naval stores, 1703 ; subsequently for other articles. BOUNTY, Mutiny of. This armed ship proceeded from England in 1787, for the West Indies, in order to transplant bread-fruit trees. Owing to the tyranny of the commander, Capt. Bligh, the crew mutinied, April 28, 1789. The captain and 1 8 men of the ship's company arrived in the ship's boats, at Otaheite, April 30, but the natives appearing hostile, they proceeded to Timor, and landed there June 12, a distance of 4000 miles. Ten of the mutineers were tried at Portsmouth, Sept. 12, 1792; others of the mutineers, 10 in number, reached and colonized Pitcairn Island, where their descendants were discovered, 1814. BOURBON, Isle of, discovered by the Portuguese navigator, Mascarenhas, 1542 ; taken by the French under De Prony, 1646 ; first made a penal settlement, 1654 ; made over by Louis XIV. to the East India Company, 1661 ; made a regular colony, 1710 ; fortified by the governor La Bourdonnais, and successfully resisted the English fleet under Boscawen, 1735 ; taken by the English, July 8, 1810 ; restored at the Peace of 1814 ; retaken by them, 1815 j visited by a hurri- cane, which destroyed part of the town, Feb., 1829. BOURBON, Louis the Good, Duke of, Knights of the Thistle instituted by, 1370. BOURBONNE LES BAINES, France, taken by Pepin and his followers, in 759. A military hospital founded, 1732 ; it is noted for its bathing. The vault under the church gave way during mass, Sept. 14, 1778, when 600 persons were killed. BOURBONS. The house of, founded by Anthony, Duke of Vendome, in 1548 ; made King of Navarre in 1555 ; succeeded by his son Henry of Navarre, 1589, who was murdered by Ravaillic, May 19, 1610. Louis the Just, son of the pre- ceding king, ascended the throne, 1610. Louis XIV., the Great, noted for his long and splendid reign, 1643. Louis XV., the Well-beloved, began to reign, 1715. The crown of Spain settled on a younger branch of the family, 1713 ; family compact made in 1761. Louis XVI. succeeded to the throne, 1774 ; de- throned, 1789 ; guillotined, Jan. 21, 1793, and his Queen, Oct. 16. The Bour- bons restored to the throne of France by the allied powers : Louis XVIIL, May 3, loo SOURCES BOYNE .1814; expelled, March 20, 1815 ; restored, July 8. Charles X. ascended the throne, 1824; deposed and expelled from France, July 30, 1830; succeeded by the Orleans branch, Louis Philippe, Aug. 9, 1830 ; expelled, Feb. 24, 1848 ; died in England, Aug. 26, 1850. BOURGES, France, besieged and taken by Julius Csesar ; taken by the Goths, 475. Louis VIII. assembled an army of 50,0x20 troops to attack Avignon in 1226. The Pragmatic Sanction was accepted by the clergy, 1483. Besieged by Charles VI. ; garrisoned by the Huguenots, who were driven out by the Royalists, Sept. I, 1562. Notre Dame founded, 1157 ; destroyed by fire, 1487 ; rebuilt, 1520. The church of St Bonet founded, 1250 ; destroyed by the same fire, 1487 ; rebuilt, 1510. In the fire of 1487, 3000 houses were destroyed. Visited by the plague, I 5^3 > S persons perished. BOURIGNONISTS, a sect founded by Antoinette Bourignon, 1658 ; her sup- porters increased to thousands, 16,70 ; many works published before her death in 1680. BOUSKY, GEORGE, and two other assassins, tried at the Old Bailey for the murder of Mr Thynne in Pall Mall, together with Count Koningsmark, who had hired them to commit the crime, Feb. 28, 1682. Bousky and his two companions executed in Pall Mall, March 10 ; but Count Koningsmark was favoured by the court and escaped. He was afterwards assassinated himself, by order of George I., when Elector of Hanover. BOUVINES, battle. The allied army of the English and the Germans, commanded by Otho, Emperor of Germany, defeated by the French under Philip II. ; five Counts and the Earl of Salisbury taken prisoners, Aug. 27, 1214. King John of England obtained a truce for five years by the payment of 60,000 marks. Otho retired to Brunswick and resigned his crown. BOW AND ARROW CASTLE, Isle of Portland, built by William Rufus ; taken from King Stephen, 1 142 ; destroyed in the Parliamentary War. BOW BRIDGE, Middlesex, first built, 1087 ; new bridge opened, 1839. BOW CHURCH, Cheapside, one of the earliest Norman churches. A part of the steeple fell and killed several citizens, 1271 ; rebuilt, 1469. The present structure built by Wren after the fire of 1666 ; completed, 1671 ; the spire repaired by Sir W. Staines when a young stonemason ; again repaired by Mr J. Gwilt, 1820. BOWLER, JOHN, a farmer of good property, convicted of shooting Mr Burrows near Harrow, and wounding him, May 30, 1812 ; executed, Aug. 21. BOWS AND ARROWS introduced into England a second time, by William the Conqueror, 1066 ; they were known before 420. BOWYER'S COMPANY, incorporated, 1 8 James I., May 25, 1621; confirmed, 18 Charles II., Nov. 17, 1667 ; their hall in Noble-street destroyed in 1666. BOXTEL, battle, Sept. 14, 1794, between the English under the Duke of York and the French ; Wellington commanded the 33rd regiment ; the English were defeated, losing eight pieces of cannon. BOYD, CAPTAIN, and Major Campbell, fought a duel in Ireland ; the latter found guilty of murder, and executed, Aug. 24, 1 808. BOYLE LECTURES instituted, Dec. 30, 1691, by Robert Boyle, son of the great Earl of Cork. Dr Bentley gave the first the next year. BOYNE, battle of the, fought July I, 1690, between William III. and James II., in Ireland ; the latter defeated, losing 1500 men. BOYNE man-of-war burned at Portsmouth, May 4, 1 795, when numbers of persons perished by the explosion of the magazine. BRABANT BRASENOSE COLLEGE 101 BRABANT, Netherlands. First erected into a duchy in the 7th century. The last Duke of, of the race of Charlemagne, was Otto, upon whose death in 1005 the crown descended to Lambert I., Count of Louvain. By his posterity it de- scended to Philip II., Duke of Burgundy, and from him to Charles V., Emperor of Germany, who afterwards became King of Spain, 1516. The Austrian part of the duchy taken possession of after the battle of Ramillies by Charles III., 1706 ; united to France, 1793 ; made a separate kingdom under Louis Bonaparte, 1806 ; re-united to France, 1810 ; ceded to Holland in 1815, and to Belgium, 1830. BRACCIARA, Italy, 200 houses destroyed by an earthquake at, 1782. BRADENSTOKE PRIORY built, 1076. BRADFIELD RESERVOIR, near Sheffield, burst through the embankment which had fallen into decay, when several villages were overflowed, and their in- habitants, numbering nearly 300, were drowned, March 11, 1864. BRADFORD, Wilts. A battle was fought here during the Heptarchy, the West Saxons being under the command of their King, Cenwalch, 670 ; the Abbey of St Lawrence destroyed by the Danes, rebuilt by Ethelred, 1001 ; much injured by fire, April 30, 1740. BRADFORD, Yorkshire. This town embraced the Parliamentary cause in the Civil War, and repulsed upon two occasions the Royal troops. The Earl of New- castle invested and stormed the town, July, 1643. Made a borough, 1832. 20 persons killed through eating poisoned sweetmeats, Oct. 30, 1858. Lord Pal- merston laid the foundation-stone of the new Exchange, Aug. 9, 1864 ; opened, March 13, 1867. BRADSHAW, JOHN, President of the High Court of Justice, who died Nov. 22, 1659 ; taken out of his grave and hanged at Tyburn, by Charles II., on his restoration, Dec. 3, 1660. BRADSOLE ABBEY, Kent, built, 1191. BRADSTOW PIER destroyed by a storm, Jan. 2, 1767. BRAGANZA, House of; John, Duke of, made King of Portugal, 1640; deposed by Napoleon, 1801 ; resumed, 1821 ; transferred to Maria II., daughter of the Emperor of Brazil, 1821-6. , BRAGANZA, Portugal, founded, and the castle of, built, 1187; made a duchy, 1442. BRAILOW, battle. The Turks defeated by the Russians, June 19, 1773; the town besieged and taken by the latter, June 18, 1828 ; restored, 1829. BRAMBER CASTLE AND CHURCH, Sussex, built before the Conquest. BRANCEPETH CASTLE, Durham, built, 1140; rebuilt by Hamilton Russell, 1850. BRANDENBURG HOUSE, Hammersmith, the residence of Queen Caroline, 1820, who died there, Aug. 7, 1821 ; demolished, 1823. BRANDY first used, circa 1667 ; first distilled from potatoes, 1748 ; first extracted from the dried fruit of the caroba tree, 1805 ; the duty on, reduced to 4*. &/. per gallon, May 10, 1787 ; since increased to icw. per gallon. BRANDYWINE, battle, in Pennsylvania, the colonists defeated by the army under Lord Cornwallis, and Philadelphia taken, Sept. II, 1777. BRASENOSE COLLEGE, Oxford, known in the reign of Hen. III. and 6 Edw. I., 1278 ; founded by William Smyth, Bishop of Lincoln, and Sir R. Sutton ; the foundation-stone laid, June I, 1509; incorporated, 3 Hen. VIII., Jan. 15, 1512. The library built from the design of Sir C. Wren, and completed, 1663 ; the chapel consecrated, Nov. 17, 1666. 102 BRASS BREAD BRASS. This metal was worked by the ancients. The monuments of Henry III. and Queen Eleanor, in Westminster, were made by William Torrel, with brass introduced from Germany. The Founders' Company of London first mentioned, 1365. Brass guns first made in England in the reign of Henry VII. A patent granted to Humphrey and Shutz, giving them the exclusive right to manufacture this metal in England, Sept. 17, 15^5 5 confirmed, May 28, 1566. Brass works established by Jacob Monimia, at Esher, Surrey, 1649. Brass exported in 1799 amounted to 77,033 cwt. 3qr. i61bs., at "j 145-. 8d. per cwt, amounting to ^595,728 15-r. 5^. ; in 1864 the exports reached .3,313,406. Brass money called in, 1560. BRAY, the Rev. Symon Symonds, Vicar of. This notorious turncoat became twice Papist and twice Protestant, in the reigns of Henry VIII. and Elizabeth, between 1533 and 1588, in order that he might adhere to his 'one principle,' which was ' to live and die Vicar of Bray J whence the well-known song. BRAZIL, South America, discovered by Vincent Yanez Pingon, a Spaniard, 1499 ; explored by the Portuguese, they made their first settlement, 1529. Bahia built, 1549. Rio Janeiro colonized by the French, 1558 ; Spanish, 1578. Gold mines discovered in the i7th century. The Dutch invaded this country unsuccessfully, 1625 ; Olinda taken by them, 1630 ; insurrection, 1645. Invaded by France, 1710; and again in 1711. United to Portugal, Jan. 15, 1816; declared inde- pendent, Oct. 12, 1822. The constitution granted, Dec. n, 1823; acknow- ledged by Portugal, 1825. Don Pedro abdicated in favour of his son, April 7, 1831 ; slave trade abolished, 1832 ; Pedro II. crowned, July 18, 1841. A British merchant vessel shipwrecked on the coast was plundered by the Brazilians, an indemnity was demanded by the English, Jan. 2, 1863 ; the question referred to the arbitration of the King of Belgium, who decided against England, June 1 8. War declared against Uruguay, Aug. 9, 1864; peace restored, May, 1865. BREAD. The assay of bread, according to the custom of the city of London, the bakers to present their loaves to the mayor and aldermen to be weighed, and the price to be fixed ; the seals of the bakers in each ward to be examined by the aldermen of the ward ; bakers giving short weight to be drawn on a hurdle through the city and to stand in the pillory. -Liber Allnis. The first assize of bread fixed by Act of Parliament, 51 Hen. III., 1266 ; regulated according to the price of corn, 8 Anne, c. 18, 1709 ; extended to Scotland, 12 Geo. II., 1739 ; price of, fixed by the Lord Mayor, 3 Geo. II. c. 29, 1 730 ; marks to be set upon each loaf of, 22 Geo. II. c. 46, 1779 ; to be sold only by weight, 3 Geo. IV. c. cvi., Sept. 29, 1822 ; the assize of, abolished, 6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 37 ; came in force, Oct. I, 1836. Bakers' Company incorporated, 1307. Bread not allowed to be sold in bakers' shops until 1302. Bread made with yeast by the English bakers, 1634. Sale of bread as at present authorized, 1815 ; sale of, in Ireland, regulated by statute, May 23, 1832. In 1754, the quartern loaf was $d. ; in 1757, lod. ; in March, 1800, 17^., and new bread forbidden under the penalty of $s. the loaf, if sold under 24 hours old ; in Jan., 1801, the quartern loaf was is. I id. ; in July, 1810, 2s. $d. ; in July, 1823, it was lod. ; and in 1833, % l /2d. The following shows the highest and lowest prices of bread (best and seconds) and wheat for the last 21 years, that is, from Jan. i, 1835, to Dec. 31, 1855. The lowest prices of bread were in 1850 and 1851, namely, "jd. per quartern for best, and $d. for seconds, flour being 40^. to 32^. per sack, and wheat 44?. \ l /zd. to 35^. fxl. per quarter. The highest price was in 1847, when best bread was is. o l /2.d. per quartern, flour being 75 s. to 44^. a sack, and wheat iO2s. 6d. to 49^. 6d. a quarter. Taking the maxima of each, the prices of bread, flour, and wheat do not appear to constantly observe the same proportion. Thus, in 1847, when wheat was !O2s. 6d. a quarter, and bread is. o l /2d. a loaf, flour was 75-r. a sack ; BREAD-FRUIT TREE BRESLAU 103 while in 1855, when wheat was 83*. id. a quarter, and bread is. a loaf, both lower than in 1847, flour was 77*. a sack, or 2s. higher. Again, we find best flour quoted at 6or. in five several years, with best wheat varying from j8s. i,Ytd. in one year to 6or. id. in another ; lod. a loaf for best bread however, invariably corresponding with the 6oc. for the sack of flour. BREAD-FRUIT TREE brought to the West Indies by Capt. Bligh, Jan., 1793 ; 1151 were brought from Otaheite ; introduced at St Helena, 1793 ; 352 left at Jamaica ; 5 reserved for Kew Gardens ; cultivated successfully in Guinea, 1802. BREAKWATER at Cherbourg, begun, June, 1784; not completed until 1858. At Plymouth, begun, Aug. 10, 1812 ; finished, 1841 ; it is 5280 feet long, 360 broad at the bottom, and 30 at the top ; it took 3,666,000 tons of marble blocks, from one to five tons each, and cost ^ 1,500,000. At Portland, begun, 1849. BREASTPLATE ARMOUR invented, B.C. 397. BRECHIN, Scotland, burnt by the Danes, 1012; made a Bishopric, 1150; sup- pressed, 1689; re-established, 1731 ; besieged by Edward III., 1333. Battle of, 1452 ; burnt by the Duke of Montrose, 1645. BRECKNOCK CANAL opened, June 28, 1802. BRECKNOCK CASTLE, Wales, built, 1089; priory, iioo. BREDA, Holland, made a Bishopric by Charlemagne, 788 ; joined the Hanseatic League, 1283 ; taken from the Spaniards by stratagem, March 3, 1590 ; besieged and retaken by the Spaniards under Spinola, 1625 ; ceded to Holland, 1648 ; taken by Denmark and sold to the Elector of Hanover, 1716; confirmed by the diet, 1732 ; taken by the French, Feb. 25, 1793 ; expelled in 1813 ; restored, 1815 ; Charles II. resided here whilst an exile, 1660; the castle built, 1350; re- built by William III., 1680. BREHON LAW, the ancient law of Ireland, abolished by Edward III., 1366. BREMEN, Germany, made a Bishopric by Charlemagne, 788 j fortified, 1010 ; joined the Hanseatic League, 1283; made an Imperial city, 1690; ceded to Sweden, 1648 ; taken by Denmark and sold to the Elector of Hanover, 1716; confirmed by the diet, 1 732 ; damaged by an explosion of ,'powder, looo houses injured, and 40 persons killed, Sept. 10, 1739; taken by the French, 1757; the French expelled by the Hanoverians, 1758 ; seized by the French, 1806; annexed by Napoleon to the French empire, 1810; restored to independence, 1813. The territory of Bremerhaven purchased from-the Hanoverians, for 77,200 thalers, in 1827. BRENTFORD, battles. The Danes defeated by the Britons, 1016. The Parlia- mentary army defeated by the Royalists under Charles I., and 500 prisoners taken, Nov. 12, 1642. BRESCIA, Italy, founded by the Etruscans, made a free town under the Romans ; burnt by Radagassus, King of the Goths, in 412 ; re-established by Attila, 452. Charlemagne, having defeated King Didier, 771, entered this town and built the church of St Denis ; surrendered itself to the republic of Venice, 1426 ; surrender- ed to the French, 1509 ; taken by the Venetians, 1512 ; retaken by the French under Gaston de Foix the same year ; restored to the Venetians, 1517 ; a dreadful plague in 1478, which swept away 25,000 persons ; nearly destroyed by an explo- sion of gunpowder, July 8, 1779 ; revolution in 1848, and the Austrians expelled ; bombarded by the Austrian army under Gen. Haynau, the city destroyed and many of the inhabitants slaughtered, March 30, 1849; nearly all the crops de- stroyed by an inundation, Aug. 15, 1850. BRESLAU, battle, between the Austrians and the Prussians, the latter defeated, Nov. 22, 1757; city of, surrendered to the King of Prussia, Dec. 8, 1740; to the French, Jan. 5, 1807 ; again, 1813. 104 BREST BRIDEWELL PALACE BREST, France, ceded by the Comte de Leon to the first Duke of Bretagne, 1240 ; given up to the English, 1372, to be returned at the end of the war ; returned, 1390 ; the English captured the town again, 1391 ; ransomed by the Duke of Bretagne, 1395 ; a harbour made, 1631 ; fortified by Vauban, 1688 ; the British forces under Lord Berkeley repulsed with considerable loss, June 8, 1694 ; the magazine, 400 yards long, destroyed by fire, and 7000 crowns in stores destroyed, Jan. 19, 1 7/1/1 ; Adm. Hawke defeated and captured nearly the whole of the French fleet off this port, Oct. 14, 1747 ; marine hospital and fifty galley slaves burned, Dec. i, 1766 ; magazine of, destroyed by fire, July 10, 1784 ; the French fleet defeated by Adm. Howe off, June I, 1794 ; the English fleet visited, Aug. 21, 1865. B-RETFORD NUNNERY, Warwickshire, founded by Geoffrey Clinton, 1301. BRETIGNY, Peace of, with France, by which England regained Gascony and Guienne, and acquired Saintonge, Agenois, Perigord, Limousin, Bigorre, An- goumais, and Rovergue ; England renouncing Maine, Anjou, Touraine, and Normandy, and receiving 3,000,000 crowns to release King John, long a prisoner in London, May 8, 1360. BREVIARIES. This office first introduced into the Church of Rome, 1080. BREWERS AND BREWING. This art was known in the middle ages. In the reign of Edward I. and III. rules were made for their government, and the assize held. The trade was carried on principally by females. Liber Albus. Fines inflicted by statute of Henry III., 1267. Several enactments have since been made for the better regulation of this craft. Licences first granted for public-houses, 1621; licences taxed, 1781. See Alehouses, and Beer. BREWERS' COMPANY, incorporated by charter of 6 Hen. VI., Feb. 22, 1438 ; confirmed by Queen Elizabeth, at Greenwich, Aug. 29, 1562. A second charter granted, giving them additional powers, July 13, 1579; confirmed by 15 Charles I., April 6, 1639. BRIARS' CREEK, battle, between the Americans and the English, under Gen. Prevost, when the former were defeated, March 3, 1779; again defeated at the same place, May 3, 1779. BRIBERY. The first person tried for receiving bribes in cases of public justice was Judge Weyland, 1288. William de Thorpe, chief justice of the King's Bench, hanged for this offence, 1351.' Lord Bacon, convicted for the same, sentenced to pay a fine of ^"40,000, and imprisoned in the Tower, May 3, 1621. Thomas Long charged with bribery at an election for Westbury, May 10, 1571 ; Mr Wai- pole sent to the Tower for the same offence, 1712. BRICKLAYERS' AND TILERS' COMPANY, incorporated by Queen Eliza- beth, Aug. 3, 1568 ; regulations made for the trade by the Lord Keeper, July 14, 1570. Their charter confirmed by James I., April 30, 1604; this was surren- dered to James II., who granted a new charter, Feb. 18, 1685. BRICKLAYERS' ARMS RAILWAY STATION. The cast-iron roof, 400 feet in length, fell down, injuring several of the officials, Aug. 21, 1850. BRICKS. The art of brick-making was well known in the early hislory of the world, the tower of Babel being built with burnt bricks. The bricks used in the various buildings at Rome 1700 years ago are still in a perfect state of preserva- tion. First used in England by the Romans. There are several specimens of Norman brickwork still extant. Size regulated by statute of Charles I., 1625; first taxed by George III., 1784 ; rate fixed at 5-r. \vd. per looo, 2 & 3 Viet. c. 24, July 19, 1839; afterwards repealed, 13 & 14 Viet. c. 9, 1850. BRIDEWELL PALACE. Inhabited by some of the kings of England before the Conquest. King John held a council here in 1210. Henry I. gave some stone for the rebuilding this palace. At the downfall of Wolsey it reverted to the BRIDGENORTH BRIDGEWATER CANAL 105 crown ; Henry VIII. rebuilt it for the reception of Charles V., 1522 ; held a parliament here, 1525 ; Queen Katherine resided in, 1529 ; given to the citizens by Edward VI. for charitable purposes, June 26, 1553 ; converted into an hos- pital, 1558; partially burnt in the fire of 1666; rebuilt, 1668-9; subsequently used as a house of correction by the mayor and corporation of London ; the number of prisoners is in general about 1300. Other places of restraint from this adopted the name of Bridewell : as in Westminster, the act for which was passed in 1826 ; the new Bridewell, 1829 ; that in Tothill-fields, rebuilt, 1831. BRIDGENORTH, Shropshire, founded by Ethelfleda, daughter of Alfred the Great. The castle built by Robert de Belesme, Earl of Shrewsbury, and the town fortified with walls and six gates ; besieged and taken by Henry I. in 1 102 ; again be- sieged by Henry II., and the castle demolished. During the civil war this town was a royal garrison ; it was attacked by the Parliamentary forces, and after a siege of three weeks, surrendered; made a borough, 23 Edw. I., 1295. The hospital of St Leonard's was founded, 1687. BRIDGES. The most celebrated of the bridges of antiquity was that built by Trajan over the Danube ; the whole length was 4770 feet ; breadth, 103. The Narni, built by Augustus, was 637 feet long, 102 feet broad. The Pont du Gard, built of stone. The Pont St Esprit, near Lyons, one of the boldest of the Roman bridges constructed in France, was 800 yards in length. In the middle ages the art of bridge-building was reckoned among the acts of religion, and a regular order of monks, called Pontifices, was founded by St Benezet. The bridge of Avignon, built in 1176, consisted of 18 arches, and was about 1000 yards in length. The Rialto, at Venice, 1591, cost 250,000 ducats. The aqueduct bridge of Alcantra, near Lisbon, finished, Aug. 6, 1 732. The first Gothic bridge built in England was the triangular bridge of Croyland, in Lincolnshire, erected, 860. The first iron bridge built, 1777; Aberconway Tubular, 1848; Battersea, 1771; Blackfriars, 1769; Blackfriars Bridge (New), first stone laid, July 20, 1865 ; Bow, 1087 ; Chelsea New Suspension Bridge, March 28, 1858 ; Clifton Suspension, 1864; Hammersmith, 1827; Hungerford, 1845; Kew, 1789; Lam- beth New Suspension, Nov. n, 1862; London, of wood, 994; stone, 1176; the present, 1831; Menai Strait, 1825; the Tubular, 1850; Putney, 1729; Rich- mond, 1819; Vauxhall, 1816 ; Westminster, 1750; New, the first half opened, March I, 1860; completely opened, Saturday, May 24, 1862; Waterloo, 1817. Bridge of the Puerto de Santa Maria, near the town of Cadiz, fell as soon as completed, and killed several hundred persons, Feb. 22, 1779. A chain bridge made for the French government by Mr Brunei, July, 1822. BRIDGETOWN, Barbadoes, destroyed by fire, 1668 ; 160 houses destroyed by a second fire, Feb. 8, 1756; again, Feb. 14, 1758; again, May 14, 1766, and Dec. 27, 1767 ; half ruined by hurricanes in 1780 and 1831. BRIDGET, ST, order of knighthood founded by Henry V., 1420. BRIDGEWATER, Somersetshire, bestowed by William the Conqueror upon Walter de Douay. The castle built by William de Brimere, 1204 ; he also con- structed the stone bridge over the river Garret, 1206. Grey Friars monastery founded, 1230 ; the barons in revolt against Henry III. took possession of the town, 1260; the Parliamentarians, under Fairfax, after a close siege, took the castle and 1000 of the Royalists prisoners, July 22, 1645 ; it was demolished at the close of the year. Incorporated in the reign of John ; confirmed subsequently by Edward IV., Elizabeth, and Charles II. BRIDGEWATER CANAL, begun by Brindley the engineer, at the expense of the Duke of Bridgewater, 1758; opened, June 17, 1761 ; an irruption of, at Lump Brook, March u, 1861. 106 BRIDGEWATER HOUSE BRISTOL BRIDGEWATER HOUSE erected, in the Green Park, temp. Charles I., rebuilt from the design of Sir C . Barry, 1 848. BRIDGEWATER TREATISES. ,8000 left by the last Earl of, for writing and publishing of, 1829 ; first published on the Hand, by Dr Bell, 1833. BRIDLE, for guiding horses, is said by Pliny to have been invented by Pelethro- nius, king of Lapithas. The Lorimers' or Bridle-bit Makers' Company established, 1488; incorporated by Queen Anne, Dec. 3, 1712. The brank or scold's bridle in use, at Walton-on-Thames, 1633. The witches' bridle known, 1661. BRIDPORT, Dorsetshire. In the reign of Edward the Confessor a mint was estab- lished here ; the town was first incorporated by Henry III. 1253 ; during the civil war it was frequently in possession of both parties ; riot at, on account of the high price of bread, May 4, 1816. BRIENNE, battle, between the French and the allies, Feb. I and 2, 1814; the allies were defeated with great loss. BRIGHT, Mr, of Maldon, Essex, died, Nov. 10, 1755, aged 29, weighing 44 stone. BRIGHTON, or Brighthelmstone, Sussex, fortified by the Romans, but thinly populated by fishermen after the Conquest ; the French fleet, under D'Aunebalte, plundered and burnt the town, 1545 ; Claarles II. embarked here for France after the battle of Worcester, 1651 ; the sea destroyed a great part of the town, 1665 and 1669; inundated in 1703-5-6; the Prince of Wales built a marine residence here, 1 784 ; block-house swept away by the sea, March 26, 1 786 ; part of the cliff fell with great damage, Nov. 16, 1807. Chain-pier erected at, 1134 feet long, 213 feet wide; opened, Nov. 25, 1823; cost ,30,000; seriously in- jured by a storm, Oct. 15, 1833. Made a borough in 1832. An act passed author- izing the sale of the Pavilion and the grounds, 12 & 13 Viet. c. 102, Aug. I, 1849 ; purchased by the corporation in 1850 for .53,000. BRIGHTWELL, Berks. The castle built, 1153; demolished in the reign of Henry II.; the town greatly damaged by fire, May 13, 1740. BRISTOL, Somersetshire, city of, built before the Christian era. Harold set sail from this port for the subjugation of Wales, 1063 ; the traffic in English slaves from this port abolished by William I. ; Geoffrey, bishop of Constance, fortified the town, 1089 ; the castle built by Robert Consul, Earl of Gloucester, 1 120 ; King Stephen confined in, 1 140 ; Owen, son of Archbishop Griffin, confined here in a cage, 1304; Lords de Willington and Mumford executed here, 1304; demolished by Crom- well, 1645. Prince Henry, afterwards Henry II., resided here for four years, 1 142 ; Edward I. kept his Christmas at this town, 1285 ; Edward III. granted a charter, making it a separate county, 1373 ; besieged and taken by the Duke of Lancaster, afterwards Henry IV., 1399 ; the Duke of Somerset and the other nobles in the in- terest of the Lancastrians assembled their forces here before their attempt to replace Henry VI. upon the throne, 1470 ; upon the visit of Henry VII. the citizens dressed out in their best apparel in order to greet him, but he, thinking their wives too richly apparelled, imposed a fine of 2or. upon each citizen ; obtained a new charter, 1581 ; taken by Prince Rupert, July 26, 1643 ; attacked by Cromwell, .Sept., 1645 ; seven persons apprehended for attempting to seize the town on behalf of the Pretender, Oct. 18, 1715 ; act for a new Exchange passed, 1723; built, 1741 ; bridge built, 1760; attempt to set the shipping on fire, Jan. 22, 1777 ; riot at, on account of a toll, Oct. 25, 1773, the people fired upon ; docks formed at, 1807 ; the merchants of, petition parliament against the intolerable oppression of extents in aid, May 8, 1817 ; riot at, warehouses plundered, prison forced, nearly 100 houses burned, inactivity of the mayor and magistrates, and many lives lost, Oct. 29, 1831 ; rioters tried, Jan. 2, 1832; four executed, and 24 transported. Suicide of Col. Breretonat, Jan. 9, 1832. Cathedral built, 1311 ; St BRISTOW B. AND F. BIBLE SOC. 107 Mary's Church built, 1292 ; see of Bristol united with Gloucester, 1836 ; Bristol cross built, 1373; removed to Stourhead, 1760; the Avon Bridge, 1 8 feet span of cast-iron, fell, wounding several persons, March 20, 1855 ; mutiny and riot of the Land Transport Corps stationed at Horfield barracks, Oct. 24, 1855. BRISTOW, Captain, discovered a group of islands in south latitude 50 46', long. E. 166 35', and named them Lord Auckland's Islands, 1809. BRITAIN, island of Great, the earliest mention of which is in the account of the voyage of Hamilcar, or Hamilcon, preserved by Festus Avienus, to the islands of ./Estryminion, or Cassiterides, in search of tin ; to which the Carthaginians, being the marine carriers for the Phoenicians, used to sail for that purpose, by way of Gades or Cadiz. The description given of the locality whence the tin was ob- tained is also found in the early Roman writers. Julius Caesar first visited Britain, Aug. 26, B.C. 55; Claudius arrived in the island, A.D. 40; London fortified by the Romans, 50; Caractacus taken and carried to Rome, 51; the Romans defeated by Boadicea, 61 ; Suetonius defeated a large army of the Britons, 6l ; the conquest completed by Agricola, 85 ; the Caledonians attacked and destroyed part of the boundary forts, 88 ; the Emperor Hadrian landed, 117, and erected a second wall, 120 ; 50,000 of Severus's troops died of pestilence, 207; Severus occupied York with his court, 207; died there, 21 1; Carausius ruled Britain, 284 ; was killed by Alectus, who still usurped the supreme power, 293 ; Constantius, the emperor, recovered Britain, defeating Alectus, 296 ; he died at York, 306 ; the Romans finally withdrew from England, 410. The Saxons called in to aid the natives in their defence against the Picts, 450 ; the new allies of the Britons drove them into Wales and the west, 455 ; Hengist took the title of King of Kent ; he defeated Vortimer at Crayford, in Kent, 457. The Saxons divided the kingdom into seven independent states, called the Heptarchy : Cantia, or Kent, founded by Hengist, 457 ; South Saxony, Sussex, and Surrey, by Ella, 490 ; West Saxony, or Wessex, Hants, Berks, Wilts, Dorset, Somerset, and Devonshire, by Cerdic, 519 ; East Saxony, Essex, Middlesex, and a part of Herts, by Ercenwin, 527 ; Northumbria, Northumberland, Cumberland, Westmoreland, Durham, Yorkshire, Lancaster, and a part of Scotland, by Ida, 547 ; East Anglia, Norfolk, Suffolk, and Cambridge, by Uffa, 575 ; Mercia, all the middle counties, Cheshire, Stafford, Derby, Warwick, Worcester, Shropshire, Hereford, Gloucester, Oxford, Buckingham, Bedford, Huntingdon, Northampton, Rutland, Leicester, Nottingham, Lincoln, and part of Herts, by Cridda, 582. The hept- archy united under Egbert, 827, when he was crowned at Winchester, then con- sidered the capital of England. The Danes, who first appeared in the island at Teignmouth in 787, made several attacks, but were totally routed at Hengesdown, in Cornwall, 855. See England. BRITANNIA METAL. The manufacture of this metal first carried on at Shef- field, 1770. BRITANNIA THEATRE, Hoxton, rebuilt and opened, Nov. 8, 1858. BRITANNIA TUBULAR BRIDGE. The foundation-stone laid by Mr Frank Forster, April 10, 1846 ; 1500 men employed. The central tower is 230 feet high ; it has four spans, two of 460 feet, and two of 230. The first tube floated, March 6, 1848 ; the last raised to its place, Jan. 7, 1850 ; opened, March 18. The cost of the whole work was ^234,450. The first train passed through, drawn by three engines, Mr Stephenson driving the first ; Mr Mare drove the last bolt, finishing the bridge, March 6, 1850. BRITISH AMERICA. See America. BRITISH AND FOREIGN ANTI-SLAVERY SOCIETY, for the abolition of slavery throughout the world, instituted, 1839. BRITISH AND FOREIGN BIBLE SOCIETY instituted, 1804. io8 B. AND F. SCHOOL SOC. BRITISH COLUMBIA BRITISH AND FOREIGN SCHOOL SOCIETY instituted, 1815 ; numbered in 1834 no less than 166,600 scholars, in 3445 schools. BRITISH ARCHAEOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION, for researches into the arts and monuments of the middle ages, established, 1843 ; the Institute established, 1843 ; formerly part of the Association, its names changed, 1845. BRITISH ARTISTS, Society of, instituted, April 14, 1824. BRITISH ASSOCIATION for the Advancement of Science established, Sept. 27, 1831. The last meeting held at Belfast, Sept. 18, 1867. Year 1831 1832 1833 1834 1835 1836 1837 1838 1839 1840 1841 1842 1843 1844 1846 1847 1848 1849 1850 1851 1852 1853 1854 1855 1856 1857 1858 1859 1860 1861 1862 1863 1864 1865 1866 1867 Place of meeting York Oxford Cambridge Edinburgh Dublin Bristol Liverpool Newcastle Birmingham Glasgow Plymouth Manchester Cork York Cambridge Southampton Oxford Swansea Birmingham Edinburgh Ipswich Belfast Hull Liverpool Glasgow Cheltenham Dublin Leeds Aberdeen Oxford Manchester Cambridge Newcastle Bath Birmingham Nottingham Belfast President Earl Fitzwilliam Rev. W. Buckland Rev. Adam Sedgwick Sir T. M. Brisbane Rev. Provost Lloyd Marquis of Lansdowne Earl of Burlington Duke of Northumberland Rev. W. Vernon Harcourt Marquis of Breadalbane Rev. Dr Whewell Lord Francis Egerton Earl of Rosse Rev. G. Peacock Sir J. F. W. Herschel Sir Roderick Murchison Sir Robert Harry Inglis Marquis of Northampton Rev. Dr Robinson Sir David Brewster G. B. Airy, Esq. Col. Sabine William Hopkins, Esq. Earl of Harrowby Duke of Argyle Dr C. G. B. Daubeney Rev. Humphrey Lloyd Professor Owen The Prince Consort Lord Wrottesley W. Fairbairn, Esq. Rev. Professor Willis Sir W. Armstrong Sir Charles Lyell Professor Phillips W. R. Grove, Esq. Lord Dufferin BRITISH BANK, The Royal, established, 1849. Owing to the mismanagement of the directors and the manager, the bank stopped payment, Sept. 3, 1856. The directors were prosecuted in the Court of Queen's Bench, and found guilty, Feb. 27, 1858. Humphrey Brown, Hugh Innes Cameron, and Edward Esdaile sentenced to one year's imprisonment, and Mr Alderman Kennedy to nine months', W. D. Owen to six months', and H. D. Macleod to three months'. BRITISH COLUMBIA, discovered by the Spaniards in the i6th century ; a BRITISH GUIANA BROCADE 109 settlement formed, 1 806 ; gold first discovered, 1850; the Frazer diggings dis- covered, 1858; made a Bishopric, 1858. BRITISH GUIANA, S. America. A colony founded, 1831 ; slavery abolished, 1834. BRITISH HERRING FISHERY incorporated, 1750. BRITISH INSTITUTION founded, June 4, 1805 ; opened, Jan. 18, '1806, for the encouragement of art BRITISH LINEN COMPANY formed, 1746. BRITISH LYING-IN HOSPITAL established in Bro\vnlow-street, 1749. BRITISH MANUFACTURES prohibited in France, Oct. 9, 1793. BRITISH MINERALOGICAL SOCIETY instituted, 1799. BRITISH MUSEUM founded on a grant of parliament of ^"20,000 to the daughters of Sir Hans Sloane, 26 Geo. II. c. 22, April 5, 1753 ; opened, Jan. 15, 1759 ; the collections of books, MSS., and articles of veitu, cost him ; 50,000 ; the library consisted of 3556 manuscripts and 50,000 volumes, and the different articles were 69,352 in number. By the same act was purchased for ,10,000 the Harleian Library of MSS., and the Cottonian MSS. added, and trustees had power to raise 100,000 by lottery for the purchase of Montague House and the various MSS. George IV. gave the library formed by George III., 63,000 volumes, 1823. The Grenville Library purchased by him for ^54,000; bequeathed, 1845. By the Copyright Act a copy of every book, plan, &c., must be de- posited here, 5 & 6 Viet. c. 45, July I, 1842. Annual grants for important ad- ditions to the Library, Museum, and buildings have been since made. The present building commenced from the designs of Sir Robert Smirke, 1823, and carried out by his brother Sydney, 1846 ; the portico finished, April 19, 1847. The new Reading-room suggested by Mr Panizzi, May 5, 1852; opened, May II, 1857; cost .150,000. Refreshment-room opened, 1864. The Book-binders' workshops destroyed, with several MSS., July 10, 1865 ; Mr W. Jones appointed Librarian. BRITISH NAUTICAL SOCIETY founded, 1815. BRITISH ORPHAN ASYLUM instituted, 1827. Opening of the new building at Slough, by the Prince of Wales, June 24, 1863. BRITISH PORTRAIT GALLERY established, Feb. 6, 1857. BRITISH QUEEN, from Ostend to Margate, wrecked on the Goodwin Sands, and all on board perished, Dec. 16, 1814, BRITISH SOCIETY incorporated for the extension of the fisheries, 1786. BRITTANY, or Bretagne, France, founded, 383 ; made a British colony in the 6th century ; subdued by Charlemagne, but afterwards revolted. Charles the Bold made several attempts to subdue the Britons, but did not succeed until 852. Ceded to the Danes, 921 ; Rollo recognized, 922 ; annexed to Normandy, 932 ; invaded by William the Conqueror, but unsuccessfully, 1076 ; Prince Arthur acknowledged duke of, 1196; war declared against England, 1426; annexed to France, 1532. Silver mine discovered in, Nov., 1730. BROAD-BOTTOM ADMINISTRATION, so called because it was formed out of a coalition of parties, Nov. 24, 1744 ; dissolved by the death of Mr Pelham, March 6, 1 754. BROAD SEAL OF ENGLAND first used, 1050. BROADSWORDS forbidden to be worn in Edinburgh, July 26, 1724. BROCADE, brought from the East ; the first manufactory established at Lyons, '757- no BROCAS BROWNE BROCAS, Sir Pecksael, did penance for adultery, at St Paul's Cross, Oct. 24, 1612. BROCCOLI, an Italian plant, brought into England, 1603 ; much cultivated here, 1680. BRODERERS' COMPANY, incorporated by Queen Elizabeth, Oct. 25, 1561 ; confirmed by James I., April 20, 1609 ; re-incorporated by James II., April 14, 1687. BRODIE CASTLE, Scotland, built, 1113. BRODY, in Galicia, 1500 houses burned at, May 5, 1801. BROKERS. No persons allowed to act as brokers in the City of London without being first admitted and sworn before the mayor and aldermen, 13 Edw. I., 1285. Regulation made and the form of oath used in the reign of Edward I. and Rich- ard II. Liber Albus. Further regulation made by Edward III. in 1376 ; only 30 brokers in London in 1574. Stow. An act of parliament passed for regulating, 8 & 9 Will. III. c. 32, 1697, and 6 Anne, c. 16, 1707. Fees of brokers in stocks limited, 10 Anne, c. 19, 1711 J 736; again regulated by 57 Geo. III. c. 60, June 27, 1817. An act passed to prevent frauds by, and for the punishing of, 20 & 21 Viet. c. 54, Aug. 17, 1857; repealed and re-enacted, 24 & 25 Viet. c. 96, s. 75, et seq., Aug. 6, 1861. BROMSGROVE, Worcestershire, nearly destroyed by an inundation from a waterspout, April 12, 1792. BROOKES'S CLUB, established by several influential Whig members, in Pall Mall, in 1764; removed to St James' -street, 1778. BROOM FLOWER IN THE HUSK, order of knighthood, instituted by Louis IX., at Sens, 1234. BROOMHOLME PRIORY, Norfolk, founded by William de Glanville, 1113. BROTHELS allowed in London, 1162. Penalties against infected or married women, 1162, under the jurisdiction of the Bishop of Winchester, at the stews in Southwark. No brothel-keeper allowed to reside in the city of London, under pain of imprisonment, in the reign of Edward I., 1275. BROTHERLY LOVE, order of knighthood, begun, 1708. BROTHERS, a pretended religious prophet, who, as with all similar characters, declared he had particular revelations from heaven ; was really imprisoned under the fear of creating political disaffection, March 6, 1 794. BROUGH CASTLE, Westmoreland, built, 1070 ; partially destroyed by William, king of Scotland, 1174 ; restored and nearly destroyed by fire, 1521. BROUGHAM CASTLE, Cumberland, built by Lord Clifford, 1270 ; demolished by the Scots, 1412; rebuilt by John de Clifford, 1412-22; James I. entertained here, 1617; dismantled by order of parliament, 1645. BROUGHTON, Lancashire, a suburb of Manchester. The making of cog-ware encouraged, 7 Jac. I. c. 16, 1609. Bridge broke down while the 6oth Rifles were marching over, and six were much injured, April II, 1831. BROUGHTON CASTLE, Oxfordshire, built by John de Broughton, 1297 ; re- paired by William of Wykeham, 1398; rebuilt, 1609; surrendered to Charles I., 1642. BROUSSA, Turkey, destroyed by an earthquake ; 125 mosques and almost all the public buildings were destroyed ; 600 of the inhabitants were killed, Feb. 28, 1855- BROWNE, Major Archibald, sentenced to pay a fine of ,^100, to be imprisoned BROWNISTS BRUSSELS ill six months, and to find security to keep the peace for five years, for sending a challenge to a person named Archer, Feb. 10, 1785. BROWNISTS, a religious sect, founded in Southwell by Robert Browne, 1615. BRUANBURGH, battle. The English under Athelstan defeated the five Con- federate nations, Norwegians, Danes, Irish, Scots, and Britons, with great slaughter, upon the river Humber, 938. BRUCE, the traveller, left Sidon to find the source of the Nile, June 15, 1768; reached Gondar, Feb. 15, 1770; returned to England, 1773. BRUCE CASTLE, near Tottenham, said to have been built by Earl Waltheof, 1069. BRUGES, Belgium, founded, 760 ; fortified by Count Baldwin of the Iron Arm, 837 ; walled-in, 1053, and again, 1270 ; nearly destroyed by fire, 1280 ; restored by Philip the Handsome, 1299. Philip the Good instituted the order of the Golden Fleece, 1430. The centre of the Hanseatic League, bombarded by the Dutch, 1704; taken by the French, 1708 and 1745 ; annexed to France, 1794. In 1814 it became part of the United Netherlands. The cathedral founded, 646 ; destroyed by fire, 1358 ; the present building raised shortly after. BRUNSWICK, Germany, founded, 261. Bruno I., Margrave of Saxony, enlarged the city, 955 ; enclosed with fortifications, 1177. The citizens held possession of the town against the duke, who took it after a long siege, 1671 ; taken by the French, July 28, 1757 ; again attacked by them, 1761 ; the fortifications destroyed, 1794; insurrection in, Sept. 7, 1830; William I. succeeded to the throne, April 25, 1831 ; constitution proclaimed, Oct. 12, 1832; modified, Nov. 22, 1851. BRUNSWICK, battle. Otho, Duke of, defeated Philip, Duke of Swabia, 1200. BRUNSWICK, House of, originated with Azo of Este, who died, 1055, and left a son, who was Guelph IV., great-grandfather of Henry the Lion, who married Maud, daughter of Henry II., king of England. Henry the Lion is regarded as the founder of the family ; he was proscribed in the diet of Wurtzburg, 1180 ; Otho, his son, first Duke of, 1235. The house of Brunswick became divided into several branches. The royal family of England sprung from the Duke of Bruns- wick-Zell. Duke Augustus left three sons, two of whom succeeded him, Ro- dolphus Augustus, 1 666, and Anthony Ulrick, 1704. Augustus William, son of Ulrick, 1714, was succeeded in 1731 by Ludowick Rodolphus, who died without male issue, 1735, and was succeeded by Ferdinand Albrecht, who, dying the same year, was succeeded by his son Charles, who transferred the ducal residence to Brunswick, and in 1780 was succeeded by his son Charles William Ferdinand, killed at Jena, Oct. 14, 1806. He was succeeded by his fourth son, his eldest son being blind, who abdicated in his favour, Charles William ; this last fell at Quatre Bras, commanding the advanced guard, June 16, 1815. He was suc- ceeded by his eldest son, Frederick William, Oct. 30, 1823; who was deposed by his younger brother, William Maximilian, Sept. 7, 1830, in consequence of a revolu- tion at Brunswick in 1830, and the elder brother sought, when the ducal palace was burned, a refuge in England, BRUNSWICK CLUBS. Several formed in Ireland, Oct and Nov., 1828. BRUNSWICK THEATRE burnt down, April II, 1826; rebuilt, and fell down, injuring several persons, Feb. 29, 1828. BRUSSELS, Belgium, founded, 670 ; visited by the plague, 1489, and again, 1578, followed by a famine, which lasted four years. The Duke of Alva attempted to establish the Inquisition, 1567 ; a civil warfollowed. The Dukes Egmont and Horn beheaded, 1568. The city besieged and the greater part destroyed by Marshal Villeroy, 1695. The Duke of Marlborough entered the city after the battle of Blenheim, Oct. 12, 1706, and again in 1708. Upwards of 400x3 houses, 14 churches, ducal palace and records, destroyed by fire, 1730. Surrendered to the H2 BRYANITES BUCKINGHAM HOUSE French under Marshal Saxe, after a three-weeks' siege, Feb. 1 6, 1746 ; taken by the Austrians, 1790 ; by the French under Dumourier, Nov. 14, 1792 ; Napoleon entered the city, July 21, 1803 ; revolution at, Sept. 23, 1830; made the capital of Belgium, Leopold elected king, June 4, 1831 ; riot at, April 5, 1834, in con- sequence of certain displays of attachment to the house of Orange, the furniture of 16 houses was demolished. The Chamber of Deputies voted in favouf of the fortification of Antwerp, Aug. 31, 1859 ; ordered to be erected, Sept. 8. The Bishop of Oxford laid the foundation-stone of the English church, April 6, 1864. BRYANITES, a new sect, like the Southcotians and Mormons, recently appeared, to teach mankind that they alone are favoured by Heaven. They pretend to cast out devils, to heal the sick, and to know the lot of man in a future state. William O'Bryan published the rules of this society, Aug. 12, 1818. They appeared first at Millbrook, Oct., 1824. BUBBLE COMPANIES. Several formed in London, 1719 ; act to punish the founders of these unprincipled schemes, 6 Geo. I. c. 18, 1719. The South Sea scheme involved capital to the amount of 30x3 millions. The number formed in London in 1824 was 243, with the amount of capital proposed to be subscribed, .248, 000,000 ; the actual amount paid up reached ^43, 062, 608. If this bubble mania had been carried into execution the sum required would have reached ^350,000,000 sterling. In the years 1844 and 1845 a railway mania broke out very similar to the foregoing speculations, which was carried to a fearful extent, and was the ruin of thousands. BUCCANEERS OF AMERICA, a set of daring pirates of all countries, who com- mitted depredations upon the Spanish colonies on the American continent and the West Indies. Murder and plunder to an extent frightful to record took place. Mansfield, the leader, died in 1668, and was succeeded by Morgan, who captured Panama in 1664 ; the booty taken to Jamaica. Carthagena taken and sacked by Pointis, 1697, and many of the inhabitants murdered. Morgan actually became the Lieut. -Governor of Jamaica, and received the honour of knighthood, 1675. BUCHANITES, a religious sect, followers of Mrs Buchan and Hugh White, in Scotland, who promised their disciples to lead them to the New Jerusalem, 1 772. She died in 1791, and her doctrines were soon after forgotten. BUCHAREST, Wallachia, taken by the Russians, 1769; the Austrians captured it, 1789 ; taken by the Russians again, 1853. Treaty of, signed, May 28, 1812 ; the Pruth was to be deemed thereby the limit of the Russian and Turkish empires. BUCKFASTLEIGH ABBEY, Devon, built, 918. BUCKINGHAM, Bucks. The remains of the Roman station, Magiowintum, are still to be seen ; castle of, built, 918 ; tower at, fell down and destroyed the church, March 26, 1776. BUCKINGHAM, Duke of, stabbed by Felton, at Portsmouth, Aug. 23, 1628. George Villiers, Duke of, died, 1640. Duke of, betrayed by his servant, 1483. The Duke of, drove six horses in his carriage, in England, 1619 ; in ridicule, the Duke of Northumberland harnessed eight. BUCKINGHAM HOUSE, or Palace, St James's Park, built by Capt. Wynne, 1703, for John Sheffield, Duke of Buckingham ; purchased by George III., 1761, for j2l,ooo; taken down by George IV., 1825, and rebuilt by John Nash, and completed in the reign of William IV. ; altered by Mr Blore, and her present Majesty entered into her new palace on the I3th of July, 1837. New wing built, 1847. The royal mews built from the design of Sir W. Chambers, 1762 ; cost ,7661. The boy Jones discovered in the queen's apartments for the third time, March 15, 1841. BUCKINGHAMSHIRE, East Indiaman, burnt in the Hooghly, March 4, 1851. BUCKLAND ABBEY, Devonshire, built by the Countess of Devon, 1278. BUCKLES BUDGETS BUCKLES worn in shoes in the I4th century, but fell into disuse. Charles II. attempted to introduce shoe buckles in 1666, but failed. The fops of 1775 wore them of enormous size. The republican, Roland, was the first person who ventured to court without buckles. BUCKWHEAT brought into Europe from Greece and Asia, about 1530 ; well known and cultivated in England, 1597. BUDA, Hungary, founded, 1240 ; captured, 1541, by the Turks under Sultan the Magnificent, who introduced 12,000 Janissaries into it, and made it a Turkish province ; retaken by the Austrians, 1686. The seat of government transferred hither by Joseph II., 1784 ; taken again by the Austrians from the Hungarians, Jan. 5, 1849. The suspension bridge completed, 1849, at an expense of .650,000. BUDE LIGHT, patented by Mr Gurney of Bude, Cornwall, June 8, 1839. BUDGETS. The following 32 show the estimate made on each budget of a sur- plus or deficiency at the end of the current financial year, and the actual surplus or deficiency at the end of that year : Date of Budget Estir Surplus. rated Deficiency. Act Surplus. ual Deficiency. May 8, 1829 ^3,013,407 ;l,7II,548 March 15, 1830 2,137,000 . . 2,913,673 Feb. II and Oct. 3, 1831. . 493,479 ^698,857 July 27, 1832 773,624 1,487,143 April 19, 1833 515,909 . . 1,952,361 Feb. 14 and July 25, 1834 977,373 902,063 August 14, 1835 185,000 1,376,307 May 6, 1836 3",330 1,862,823 June 30, 1837 384,673 . . . . . 1,428,532 May 18, 1838 207,197 430,326 July 5, 1839 935,000 1,457,223 May 15, 1840 841,000 . . . 1,851,997 April 30 and Sept. 27, 1841 2,421,776 2,139,984 March n, 1842 631,000 . . . . . 2,421,776 May 8, 1843- 762,355 . . 2,095,427 April 29, 1844 2,746,830 6,342,436 Feb. 14, 1845 672,000 * \ 2,380,600 May 29, 1846 777,000 2,765,191 Feb. 22, 1847 332,000 . . , . . . 3,092,285 Feb. 1 8 and Aug. 25, 1848 . . 2,031,256 269,378 June 22, 1849 104,304 2,538,502 March 15, 1850 771,418 3,174,731 Feb. 17 and April 4, 1851 925,000 2,176,996 April 30, 1852 461,000 . . 2,460,742 April 1 8, 1853 495,000 . . 3,524,785 March 6 and May 8, 1854 3,543,000 6,196,808 April 20 and Aug. 2, 1855 19,895,000 . . 22,723,854 May 19, 1856 9,373,000 . . . . 3,254,600 Feb. 13 and July 17, 1857 931,000 247,346 April 19, 1858 310,000 813,401 July 18, 1859 Feb. 10 and July 16, 1860 253,000 1,286,000 1,587,380 2,558,385 The following are the dates since 1860, when and by whom the budgets were presented to Parliament. By the Hon. W. E. Gladstone, Monday, April 15, 1861 ; April 3, 1862 ; April 16, 1863 ; April 7, 1864 ; April 27, 1865 ; May 3, 1866. By the Hon. B. Disraeli, April 4, 1867. 8 ii 4 BUENOS-AYRES BULGARIA BUENOS-AYRES, S. America, founded by Mendoza, 1535 ; first establishment created by Juan de Garay in 1580 ; became the seat of the new government, 1620. After a few years it became the rendezvous for the smugglers of all coun- tries. Invaded by the English, June 27, 1 806, and the treasure taken brought to London, Sept. 20, 1806 ; retaken from Gen. Whitelock, Aug. 12 ; declared inde- pendent, July 19, 1816 ; treaty with, 1822 ; Gen. Rosas defeated by Urguiza, Feb. 3, 1852 ; the town capitulated, Feb. 4; the Brazilians entered the town on the igth; opening of the rivers Rio de la Plata, the Parana, and the Uruguay to foreign vessels, Oct. I ; Urguiza deposed, whilst on his way to open the National Congress of the Argentine Confederation, Sept. 10 ; invested by the troops of Gen. Urquiza under Col. Lagos, Dec. 28 ; the siege suspended after three months' duration, March 2, 1853; war with the Argentine republic, 1859 ; united to the confederation, June, 1860 ; Gen. Mitre defeated the troops of the confederation, Sept. 17, 1861 ; and elected president, Oct. 12, 1862; war declared against Paraguay, 1865. BUFFOONS. It is said of Gallienus that he never sat down to meat without a second table of buffoons by him. The shows of the buffoons (pantomimes) were taken away by Domitian, restored by Nerva, and abolished by Trajan. Court jester kept by the Tudor kings in England. BUFFS, The. At the battle of Albuera, May 16, 1811, after conduct which proved them in every way worthy of their old renown, the Buffs (now the 3rd regiment of foot) were taken in the rear by four regiments of the enemy's Polish lancers and hussars, who had been mistaken in the fog for Spanish cavalry. (See Marshal Beresford's despatch. ) A dreadful massacre ensued. The Buffs were, in military phraseology, ' rolled up ; ' and the report of the day was, that all were wounded or killed. Next morning, however, a portion of the regiment appeared at muster probably not only the few who had escaped unhurt, but some of the sufferers who were least disabled by their wounds. This unexpected re-appearance obtained for the regiment the sobriquet of 'The Resurrectionists.' We had the foregoing explanation from a gallant major who was present at Albuera. The attitude of the enemy menaced a second attack on the 1 7th (Napier), which may account for the slaughtered regiments making so respectable a muster after the disaster of the day before. The sobriquet, therefore, is commendatory, and highly honourable to the corps. BUHL. Inlaying furniture with metal or enamel, invented by Andre Buhl, an Italian, circa 1670. BUILDEWAS ABBEY, Shropshire, built by Roger, Bishop of Chester, 1135. BUILDING. The ancient mode of building was with wood and wattle. Stone first used, 670 ; bricks were used by the Romans as well as stone. Vitruvius describes the different materials used. The oldest building in London is West- minster Hall, built by William Rufus. The little chapel at Coggeshall, Essex, built of red brick, 1150 ; Little Wenham Hall, Suffolk, built of Flemish bricks, 1260. Fitz-Alwyne's assize of buildings, I Richard I., 1189. Dwelling-houses ordered to be erected of free-stone. Liber Aldus. Many houses constructed of wood in the I5th century. Building Societies regulated by 6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 32, July 14, 1836. BULGANAK, Crimea. The villages destroyed by the Cossacks ; Cavalry skirmish between the Cossacks and the British, the former defeated, Sept. 19, 1854. BULGARIA, Turkey, taken by the Bulgarians, 650 ; defeated by Basilius II., 1014. This tyrant put out the eyes of 15,000 prisoners, leaving one eye to each hundredth man that he might conduct his countrymen home. Conquered by the Sultan Bajazet, and united to Turkey, 1396. Insurrection in, 1850. BULKLEY HILL BURFORD HOUSE 115 BULKLEY HILL, Cheshire, with all its trees, sunk down into a pit of water, July 8, 1657. BULL, a Popish edict, derived from the word bulla, a seal issued at a very early date by the -Popes. King John interdicted, March, 1208; excommunicated, 1209. Henry VIII. made defender of the Faith by the bull of Pope Adrian VI., Oct. II, 1521. One issued against Queen Elizabeth by Pius V., April 25, 1570 ; Fenton executed for posting it upon the Bishop of London's Palace, May, 1570 ; made high treason, 1570. BULL-BAITING, a favourite sport of the Londoners in the I2th century. Bull ring at Bankside, erected in the reign of Edward III. ; exhibited at Stamford in 1209. The French ambassador entertained by Queen Elizabeth with this sport, May 25, 1559. Mr Pepys went to Paris Gardens and saw some good baiting, Aug. 14, 1666. Hockley in the Hole, Clerkenwell, once famed for this sport, Aug. II, 1711. Bill to abolish, thrown out in 1802, by Mr Windham's influ- ence ; finally abolished, 5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 59, Sept. 9, 1835. Bull-fights in Spain first practised, 1560 ; a bull-fight at Lisbon, attended by 10,000 persons, Sunday, June 14, 1840. BULLDOG, H.M. Ship, blown up at Cape Haytien, Oct, 23, 1865. BULLETS, 7000 ordered to be made of stone, from the quarries at Maidstone, 1418 ; those of iron are first mentioned in Ryder's Fcedera, 1550 ; several invented for the rifle, 1850-60. BULL, JOHN, Newspaper, proprietors of, brought before the House of Commons, for a breach of privilege, May 10, 1821 ; sentenced to nine months' imprisonment, and a fine of i 100. - BULL'S RUN, battle. The Federals under >well, 18,000 strong, defeated by the Confederates, 15,000 strong, unde: with a loss of 462 men and 19 officers killed, and"947men and 64offi' with all their artillery and baggage, July 21, 1861. The Federals again defeated under Gen. Pope, Aug. 28, 29, 1862. BUNGAY CASTLE, Suffolk, built by King Stephen ; demolished in the reign of Henry I. ; rebuilt by Roger Bigod, 22 Edward I. A nunnery built by Roger de Glanvill, 1160. The church destroyed, Aug. 4, 1577; the town destroyed by fire, 1688; rebuilt, 1689-91. BUNHILL FIELDS Burying-ground leased to the Corporation of London in 1315 ; renewed, 1553, and in Feb., 1568 ; the manorial rites purchased by them in 1650 ; inclosed by them as a burial-ground, in the plague of 1665 ; gates added, 1666; lease renewed to the city by 9 Geo. III., April 18, 1769. The registers deposited at Somerset House, April I, 1713 ; closed in 1852. The lease expires in 1867. Act of Parliament passed to preserve the ground from desecra- tion, 30 & 31 Viet. c. 38, July 15, 1867. BUNKERS' HILL, battle. The Americans, 5000 strong, entrenched at Breed's Hill, defeated by the English army, commanded by Gen. Howe, June 17, 1775- BURDETT, SIR FRANCIS, and Mr Paul, fought a duel in Combe Wood, Sir Francis wounded, May 5, 1807; liberated from the Tower, June 2 1, 1810. Lost his cause against the speaker and serjeant-at-arms of the House of Commons, April 22, 1812. Presented petitions to parliament, from Manchester, Salford, and Leeds, praying for reform, the last signed by 7000 persons, Feb., 1817 ; motion of, for reform in parliament, rejected by 265 to 77, May 20, 1817. Sentenced to three months' imprisonment, and ^2000 fine, for reprehending the disgraceful massacre at Manchester by undisciplined yeomanry, Feb. 8, 1821. BURFORD HOUSE, Windsor, the residence of Nell Gwyn, from which is dated the only letter known of hers, April 14, 1684. u6 BURGESSES BURLINGTON HEIGHTS BURGESSES first summoned to parliament, Jan. 20, 1265 ; the second parlia- ment summoned by writ, 23 Edward I., 1295 ; must be residents of the boroughs they represent, I Henry V., 1413. BURGH CASTLE, Staffordshire, built by the Romans, about 380. BURGHERS, seceders dissenting from the Church of Scotland about the form of the burgess oath, 174- BURGLARY punished with death, and he who obtained a conviction was exempted from parish offices, 1699 ; rewards on convictions, 5 Anne, c. 31, 1706 and 1720; punished with death, 7 & 8 Geo. IV. c. 29, June 21, 1827 ; with penal servitude for life, or not less than three years, 24 & 25 Viet. c. 96, s. 52, Aug. 6, 1861. BURGOS, Spain, founded by Diego de Porcelos, 884. Ferdinand I. of Castile united the kingdoms of Leon and Castile, 1067 ; the court removed to Madrid, in the middle of the i6th century. The French entered and sacked the city, Nov. 10, 1808 ; the whole Spanish army under Belveder having turned and fled with- out losing 50 men. Wellington besieged it, but failed to carry the place by storm, Oct. 22, 1812. The French blew up the fortifications, June 12, 1813. BURGUNDIAN CROSS, order of knighthood instituted by Charles V., Em- peror of Germany, July 22, 1535. BURGUNDIANS, a warlike people who obtained a permanent seat and dominion in Gaul upon the decline of the Roman Empire in 275. They con- quered the greater part of Gaul before 370. An army of 80,000 men appeared on the banks of the Rhine, but retired to Savoy, 438 ; defeated by the Franks, and their king, Sigismund, killed, 523 ; the kingdom subdued and annexed to the Franks, 534 ; made a duchy and bestowed upon Philip the Bold, who became the second founder r.f th?s h^';se, 1364; defeat of the army and death of the duke, Jan. 4, 1477 ; annexed to France, 1479. BURGUNDY formed into three provinces in the 5th century. Burgundy proper founded in 888 ; Aries founded, 930 ; united, 928 ; dismembered, and the king- dom of Burgundy formed of part of Switzerland, Provence, Dauphiny, Bergez, La Bresse, Lionnois and Franche Compte, Velas, &c., 1034 ; dismembered and united to the Germans, 1035 ; revolts, 1074 ; dukes extinct, 1361 ; becomes united to France, 1479 ; becomes a part of the German empire, 1512 ; then of Spain, 1555 ; conquered by France, 1676. BURIALS. The Britons followed the custom of the Romans and buried their dead in coffins and placed their head to the east, 596. The oldest Saxon coffin known was that of Etheldreda, in 695. In Norman times it was the custom to bury in the bare ground. Warm, Abbot of St Albans, ordered the monks to be buried in stone coffins, 1195. The practice to bury in vaults under the churches began by Lanfranc, Abp of Canterbury, 750 ; in churchyards, 780. The practice to bury the body immediately after death, 1655 ; not permitted to be buried in linen, 30 Charles II., 1677 ; taxed, 1695 > a scale fixed by 8 & 9 Will. III. c. 20, 1697. BURKING, a term derived from one Burke, a resurrection man, executed at Edin- burgh, Jan. 28, 1829, who murdered individuals by pressure, that he might sell their bodies for dissection. Two other persons, named Williams and Bishop, were executed, Dec. 5, 1831, having murdered an Italian boy for the same pur- pose ; 30,000 persons were present. BURLINGTON ARCADE built, and opened by Samuel Ware, March 20, 1819. BURLINGTON FINE ART CLUB established, 1867. BURLINGTON HEIGHTS, battle. A strong force of Americans defeated by the English, June 6, 1813. BURLINGTON HOUSE BURY ST EDMUNDS 117 BURLINGTON HOUSE, Piccadilly, erected by Lord Burlington, 1664; the colonnade by Campbell, 1718. BURMAH, Asia, founded at a very early period. The English first visited and took possession of the Island of Negrais, 1687 ; taken by the Peguans, 1752 ; retaken by the Burmese, commanded by Alompra, 1753. The Peguans defeated in an attempt to capture Ava, 1754. The Siamese conquered, 1765 ; revolted, 1771 ; peace concluded, 1793. Dispute with the East India Company, 1795 ; again, 1819 ; war declared by the British government upon, March 5, 1824 ; Rangoon captured by them, May 10, 1824: Assam taken, Feb., 1825; Donabew captured, April 2 ; the British army, 5000 str-- i by the Burmese, 60,000 st the latter defeated, Dec. 7, 1825 ; the am whole army of Ava, Dec. i ; peace stroyed by fire, Dec. 28, 1850 ; war again broke out, 1852 ; M;u Ran- goon taken, April 14; Pegu, Nov. 21, and annexed to India, Dec. 28; peace again concluded, June 30, 1853. BURNHAM ABBEY, Bucks, built by Richard, King of the Romans, 1265. BURNING ALIVE was a punishment among the ancient Britons ; it was also in- flicted for witchcraft, in the middle ages. William Sautre, the first religious martyr, burned in London, Feb. 9, 1401 ; many suffered at a later period for the same offence. Eleanor Elsam was burned at Lincoln for murdering her husband, 1 722 ; and in April, 1 747, Mary Johnson was burned at the same place, for poisoning her husband. The last woman burnt (Murphy), 1 786, at the corner of Newgate-street, for coining ; this punishment abolished, 1 790. BURNING GLASSES improved by Setalla and by Tschirnhausen, 1680, and by Buffon, 1 747 ; the burning mirror of Parker fused ten grains of pumice in 24 seconds, 1802. BURSE. See Exchange. BURTON-UPON-TRENT MONASTERY built by Wulfric Spott, 1002. BURWELL FIRE. A number of persons assembled at this place at a puppet-show in a barn, Sept. 8, 1727, when a heap of straw taking fire, 76 perished on the spot, or subsequently expired of the injuries they received. Several were young ladies of fortune, and many children. The bodies were buried promiscuously in two pits in the churchyard. BURY, Lancashire ; the theatre, containing about 300 persons, fell during the performance, July I, 1787, when five persons were killed, and numbers wounded ; two reservoirs burst, doing considerable damage, Dec. 5, 1852. BURY ST EDMUNDS, Suffolk, named from King Edmund, who was crowned here, Dec., 856 ; murdered by the Danes, Nov. 20, 870 ; a noble abbey erected over his tomb, by Sigebert, A. D. 603; the town and Abbey church nearly de- stroyed by Sweyn, king of Denmark, 1010 ; restored by Canute ; the shrine re- paired by Henry I. upon his return from Chartres; Henry II. assembled his troops here, and ordered the sacred banner of St Edmund to be borne before them, Oct. 27, 1173; the barons assembled their forces at this place, and agreed upon the demands to be made to the king, 1214 ; Henry III. held a par- liament here, 1272, which may be regarded as the first British House of Commons ; Edward I. ordered the parliament to meet here, 1296 ; again by Henry VI., Feb. 10, 1447 ; riots at, the citizens attempted to set the abbey on fire, Jan. 12, 1327 ; an insurrection broke out, and the insurgents beheaded Sir John Cavendish, and afterwards attacked the abbey and executed the prior, 1381 ; Lady Jarie Grey first proclaimed successor to the throne of England at this town, 1553 ; nearly con- sumed by fire, 1608 ; desolated by the plague, 1636. The tower of Thurston church fell down, destroying the roof of the nave, March 1 8, 1 860. uS BUSACO BYZANTIUM BUS AGO, battle, between the forces under Wellington and the French commanded by Gen. Massena, when the latter were repulsed with a loss of 5000 men, Sept. 27, 1810 ; and the British fell back to their lines of Torres Vedras. BUSHEL to be eight gallons of wheat, 1520 ; the legal Winchester bushel regu- lated, 1697 ; the imperial corn bushel of 22i8'i92 cubic inches, to the Winchester of 2150-42, as 32 to 31, regulated by 5 Geo. IV. c. 74, June 17, 1824, and came into operation, May I, 1825; altered again, 4&5 Will. IV. c. 49, Aug. 13, 1834. BUTCHERS. In the middle ages this trade was confined to a few. Various regulations were made : no large beast allowed to be slaughtered in London nearer than Stratford to the east, and Knightsbridge to the west, 1361, and again ordered to be enforced by Richard II. in 1380 ; regulations made by statute, 1531; meat ordered to be sold by weight, 1532. BUTCHERS' COMPANY first incorporated by 3 James I., Sept. 16, 1605 ; con- firmed by 13 Charles I., July I, 1637; re-incorporated, 23 Geo. II., July 10, 1749. Hall destroyed by fire, 1829; rebuilt, 1831. BUTE ADMINISTRATION IN ENGLAND began, May 28, 1762; after in- curring popular odium, terminated, April 8, 1763. BUTTONS manufactured in England at an early period. The importation of foreign hair buttons prohibited, 1692 ; those covered with cloth prohibited, 7 Geo. I., 1721 ; gilt buttons invented by John Taylor, of Birmingham, 1768 ; improved, 1790; made in papier-mache, 1778; covered buttons invented by Mr Sanders with flexible shanks, 1809 ; the art arrived to great perfection, 1818 ; fancy silk buttons patented by Mr Elliot, 1837 ; the three-fold linen, invented by Jeffries, 1841 ; vegetable ivory, invented, 1860. BUTTON'S COFFEE HOUSE, Russell Street, Covent Garden, established, 1712. BUXAR, battle. The English under Col. Munro defeated the united forces of the King of Oude and the Emperor of Delhi commanded by Sujah Dowlah, with great loss, and captured 150 pieces of cannon, and totally destroyed the native power, Oct. 23, 1764. BYLAND ABBEY, Yorkshire, built by Roger de Mowbray, 1 143. BYNG, Admiral, accused of misbehaviour off Minorca; May 20, 1756 ; brought a prisoner to Greenwich, Aug. 9, 1756 ; tried at Portsmouth and condemned to be shot, Jan. 28, 1757 ; executed at Portsmouth, the victim of cabinet animosity, March 14, 1757 ; commemorated by an inscription on his tomb, at South Hill, Bedfordshire : ' To the perpetual disgrace of public justice, the Hon. John Byng fell a martyr to political persecution, March 14, 1757.' BYRON, JOHN, sailed from England in the Dolphin, on a voyage round the world, June 21, 1764; returned, May 9, 1766; discovered the island in the Pacific named after him, Aug. 16, 1765; he died, April 10, 1786. BYWELL CASTLE, Northumberland, built by Ralph de Nevill, 1472-85. BYZANTIUM, the ancient name of Constantinople, called Stamboul by the Turks, founded, B.C. 656 ; taken by the Persians, B.C. 55 > besieged and taken by the Athenians under Alcibiades, B.C. 408; became a Roman colony, A. D. 71 ; cap- tured after a three years' siege by Severus, and devastated, 196 ; taken by Con- stantine/324 ; rebuilt and consecrated by him, May n, 337, from whom it de- rived the name of Constantinople. CABAL CACHET 119 CABAL, a noted council formed after the fall of the Earl of Clarendon in 1667, and so called from the initial letters of these names forming that word : Sir T. Clifford, Lord Ashley, the Duke of Buckingham, Lord Arlington, and the Duke of Lauder- dale ; fully formed, 1670, and dissolved, 1674. CABBAGES first brought over from Holland, 1510 ; introduced into Scotland by the soldiers of the Parliamentary army in the civil war of Charles I. ; the culti- vation of, first introduced into England by Sir Anthony Ashley, who died Tan. 13, 1628. CABINET COUNCILS, as now understood, were instituted, 1640; they com- monly consisted of 12 members of the government ; in 1851 they were extended to 15. CABLES, made of hemp and other materials, were used in the most ancient times ; a machine was invented for making the large-size cables, 1 792 ; iron substituted for hemp, 1808 ; chain cables generally adopted in the royal and merchant service, 1812. CABOCHIENS. These revolutionists were composed of the dregs of the populace, and commanded by the butcher Legoix, the skinner, Caboche, and others ; their reign was marked by the most hideous atrocities. 1200 knights attacked, and many killed, at St Cloud, 1411 ; they again rose in Paris, 1412 ; and again, for three days, Paris was given up to these cut-throats, June, 1418. CABS, or Cabriolets, first introduced for hire into the streets of London, April 23, 1823, 50 only being first started ; the parliament reduced the fare from %d. to 6-"e portion of the remainder came to London, viz. ,756,200 ; the rest foiu^. way to Panama, Chili, China, Calcutta, CALirPIC CAMBRIDGE 123 Manilla, and the Sandwich Islands. Upwards of a million and a half pounds of quick-silver had been exported. Agriculture had advanced rapidly, 135, 024 acres having been sown with wheat. Mining occupies about 100,000 people, that is, rather more than a fourth of the population, and the yield is abundant. Canals and aqueducts employ a large capital. In March, 1855, there was a commercial panic, and a run upon the banks. CALIPPIC period invented by Calippus ; a series of 76 years, at the expiration of which he imagined the new and full moon returned to the same day of the solar year an erroneous notion ; the period began about the end of June, in the third year of the H2th Olympiad, in the year of Rome 424, and 329 B.C. CALIXTINS, a branch of the Hussite sect in the middle of the 1 5th century ; Calixtus the founder died, 1566. CALIYUGAERA, or the Chinese, beginning 3101 B.C., with the entrance of the sun into the sign Aswin, the nth April, N.S. In the year 1600, the year began on the 7th April, N. S. ; subtracting 3102 from any given year of this era will give the Christian year answerable. CALLAO, Peru, destroyed by an earthquake, 1687 ; again in 1746, when the sea destroyed the town ; besieged, and after two years' struggle capitulated, Jan. 23, 1826 ; bombarded by a Spanish fleet, but they were repulsed after four hours' fighting, May 2, 1866. CALMAR, Sweden, treaty of, called the Union, Sweden, Norway, and Denmark united under Queen Margaret, June, 1397 ; destroyed by Gustavus Vasa, 1523 ; the town nearly destroyed by fire and many lives lost, Oct., 1765. CALOMEL, the first preparation of, on record, announced, 1608. CALPEE, Hindustan, taken by the English, 1778; ceded to them, Dec. 31, 1802 ; besieged and captured, Dec., 1803. Sir Hugh Rose defeated the rebel force near this town, May 22, 1858, and captured the town the next day. CALSHOT CASTLE, Hants, built, 1342 ; rebuilt by Henry VIII., 1540. CALVENT, Bernard, of Andover, went from Southwark to Calais and back again in one day, thought an extraordinary feat, July 17, 1820. CALVES' HEAD CLUB, the first instituted in Suffolk-street, Strand, Jan. 30, 1735. CALVI, Corsica, surrendered to the English, under Lord Hood, June 12, 1784 ; to the French, 1796. CALVINISTS, sect of, founded by John Calvin, at Geneva, who died there, May 27, 1564, aged 55- He was intolerant, and caused Michael Servetus to be burned, Oct. 27, 1553, while he attacked the Roman Church for its persecuting spirit. CAMBERWELL Old Church, Surrey, destroyed by fire, Feb. 7, 1841 ; rebuilt, Nov. 21, 1844. CAMERA Y, France, taken by the Spaniards, 1595, and several times subsequently ; attacked by the Austrians, Aug. 8, 1793 ; taken by Sir Charles Colville and the British, June 24, 1815 ; the citadel surrendering the next day, was occupied by the Bourbon court, under the protection of the enemies of France : it was oc- cupied by the allies until 1818. League of Cambray signed, Dec. 10, 1508 ; also, Aug. 5 1529 ; and treaty of, between Charles VI. and Philip of Spain, 1724. CAMBRIC, made at Cambray, early in the i6th century ; much valued in the time of Elizabeth, 1580 ; in 1671 it was prohibited, with all French goods, because it was thought the balance of trade with France was against England. In 1685 the commodities of France were again admitted ; in 1 688-9 prohibitions ensued again* and remained until 1713; prohibited again, 1745 : -eadmitted, 1786. CAMBRIDGE, England, the site of the Rorr. 1749 > statue of the Duke of Somerset erected in the Senate House, July 14, 1756; paved and lighted, 1789; the statutes of the university con- firmed, July 31, 1858 ; the Prince and Princess of Wales visited the university, June 2, 4, 1864. Colleges and Halls Founded Colleges and Halls Founded Catherine Hall . . . . 1473 Magdalene 1519 Christ's 1442 Pembroke 1347 Clare Hall . . . . 1341 Peterhouse 1257 Corpus Christi . . . . 1352 Queen's 1448 Downing . . . . 1717 Sidney 1598 Emmanuel . . . . 1584 St John's 1511 Gonville and Caius . . 1347 Trinity Hall . . . . 1350 Jesus 1496 Trinity College . . . . 1546 King's 1441 CAMDEN, battle, in the American War, between the English under Lord Corn- wallis and the Americans commanded by Gen. Gates, the latter defeated, Aug. 1 6, 1780 ; a second, but the same result, between Lord Raw don and Gen. Green, April 25, 1781 ; Camden town evacuated and burned by the English, May 13, 1781. CAMDEN SOCIETY established for the publication of historical documents, 1838. CAMDEN TOWN was so called after William Camden, the author of the Britan- nia, begun, 1791. The Cantelow Archers established their shooting-ground in Camden Square, 1849. CAMELFORD, Cornwall, battle between King Arthur and his nephew Mordred, 542. A battle was also fought here between the Saxons and Britons, 823 ; sent two members to the parliament of Edward VI. , 1547; disfranchised, 1832. CAMEOS first carved and used in rings by the Greeks, B.C. 522. CAMERA OBSCURA first invented by Friar Bacon, 1515. CAMERON, Mary, died at Inverness, May 17, 1783, aged 130. CAMERONIANS, a sect founded by Richard Cameron, 1680; became Presbyte-- rians, 1743- CAMILLA, H.M. ship, foundered at sea on her voyage to Yeddo, every soul perish- ed, Sept. I 9, 1860. CAMLET, a stuff made of silk, hair, and wool ; the Oriental it imitates brought from India, 1660. CAMPANIA, Italy. The towns of Herculaneum and Pompeii totally over- whelmed by an eruption of Vesuvius, 79. CAMPANILE CANALS 125 CAMPANILE of Cremona is 396 feet high ; at Venice, built, 1134. CAMPDEN HOUSE, Kensington, formerly the residence of Baptist Hickes, founder of Hickes's Hall, Clerkenwell, containing a valuable collection of pictures, &c., destroyed by fire, March 23, 1862 ; trial of Mr Wolley for wilfully setting it on fire, by the Insurance Companies ; verdict in favour of Wolley, Aug. 29, 1863. CAM PEACHY BAY, Mexico, discovered by Cordova, 1517 ; the town founded by the Spaniards, 1540 ; taken by the English, 1659 ; burned by the Buccaneers, 1678 ; by St Domingo freebooters, 168$ ; English logwood-cutters settled here, 1665. CAMPERDOWN, Holland. A naval battle fought here between the English under Admiral Duncan and the Dutch commanded by Admiral de Winter, in which the English were successful in capturing 9 ships of the line, Oct II, 1797. CAMPHOR introduced into Europe from Arabia ; properties discovered by Neumann, 1725. CAMPO FORMIO, treaty of, between France and Austria, Oct. 17, 1797. CANADA, N. America, discovered by Sebastian and John Cabot, 1497 ; the French formed a settlement here, and founded the city of Quebec, 1608 ; taken by the English, 1629, and immediately restored to the French ; made a royal government, 1663 ; Quebec captured by the English under Gen. Wolfe, Sept. 13, 1759 ; ceded to England by the treaty of Paris, Feb. 10, 1763; the first legislative council appointed, 1774; the Americans land and take St John's, Nov. 3, 1775 ; Montreal taken, Nov. 12 ; the Americans defeated at the close of the year and leave the country, 1776 ; divided into Upper and Lower, and a constitution granted, 31 Geo. III. c. 31, I79 1 > the parliament met in the fol- lowing year ; made a bishopric, 1793 ; a war broke out on the frontier and the American invaders defeated, 1812 ; in the following year they took York, April 27 ; Fort George, May 27 ; defeated at Stone Creek, June 6 ; are again success- ful and gain the battle of Longwood, March 4, 1814, and capture Fort Erie, July 3, but shortly afterwards the American Gen., Winchester, and all his forces taken prisoners ; the war ended by the peace of Ghent, Dec. 24, 1814 ; insurrection in, defeated near Toronto, Dec. 14, 1837, and again repulsed at Toronto, Jan. 5, 1838 ; act for the provisional government of Lower Canada passed, Feb., 1838 ; amend- ed, 1839 ; Upper and Lower Canada united by 3 & 4 Viet. c. 35, 1840 ; the seat of government removed to Toronto, 1844 ; the House of Representatives burnt by rioters, 1849 ; removed to Quebec, 1856; removed to Ottawa, 1858 ; the par- liament of, passed a resolution disagreeing with Her Majesty's government, on removing the capital, July 28, 1858 ; visited by the Prince of Wales, July, 1860 ; Viscount Monck appointed Governor-Gen., Oct. 15, 1861 ; several Con- federate refugees from South America attacked St Albans, Oct. 19, 1864 ; tried and discharged, Dec. 15 ; Confederation of British North America agreed to by the Congress assembled at Quebec, Oct. 30, 1864 ; ^50,000 voted by England for the defences of the country, March 23, 1 865 ; the civil code of Lower Canada amended, 29 Viet. c. 41, 1865 ; the first parliament of, opened by Gen. Monck, at Ottawa, June 8, 1 866 ; the Fenians, or discontented Irishmen, caused consider- able excitement by threatening to invade the country ; preparations made by calling out the Volunteers ; they crossed the Niagara river at Fort Erie, under Gen. O'Neill, but were defeated, 1866 ; a second attempt suffered the same fate at Highgate, Serment, June 6 ; Act of Parliament passed for the confederation of the States, 30 & 31 Viet. c. 3, March 29, 1867 ; loan raised for constructing a rail- way to connect Quebec with Halifax, April 12 ; the Senate appointed by pro- clamation, May 22 ; the new form of government inaugurated by Lord Monck, July I ; the parliament opened at Ottawa, Nov. 6. CANALS, the most celebrated in Europe, that of Languedoc, joining the Atlantic 126 CANARY ISLANDS CANDLES and the Mediterranean, began, 1666. The canal in China from Canton to Pckin is 806 miles long, having 75 locks, 30,0x20 workmen being employed 43 years in its construction, it was completed in 880. The principal canals are alphabetically arranged: Aberdare, Glamorganshire, began, 1793; Aberdeen, opened, 1807; Arragon, Spain, began, 1785 ; Ashby-de-la-Zouch, opened, 1805 ; Ashton-under- Lyne, opened, 1803 ; Astracan to St Petersburg, began, 1434 ; Barnsley Cut, began, 1794-5; Basingstoke, began, 1772 ; Belfast to Lough Neagh, began, 1783; Birmingham to Bilston, began, 1768; Birmingham to Coventry, began, 1790; Birmingham to Liverpool, opened, 1826; Bradford, opened, 1790; Brecknock, opened, 1802 ; Bridgewater, The Duke of, canal, began, 1758, opened, 17 June, 1761; Bristol, Liverpool, and Hull, opened, July, 1790; Brussels to Antwerp, began, 1560; Bushey canal opened, 1801 ; Caermarthenshire, opened, 1756; Caledonian, began, 1803, completed to the Frith of Mull, 1824 ; Chesterfield to the Trent, began, 1777; Coventry to Oxford, began, 1769 ; Dogs, the Isle of, began, 1809, sold to the East India Docks, 1829; Droitwich to the Severn, com- menced, 1756 ; Dublin to the Shannon, opened, 1765 ; Edinburgh and Glasgow Union, opened, 1818 ; Ellesmere to Chester, began, 1772 ; Ellesmere. Aqueduct opened, 1805; Erie canal in America, 330 miles long, began, 1817 ; Forth to the Clyde, began, 1768; Ganges canal opened, 1854; Glasgow and Ardrossan, opened, 181 1; Glasgow to Bowling Bay, opened, July, 1799; Gloucester and Berkeley Ship canal completed, April, 1827 ; Grand Junction, began, 1790; Grand Surrey, act for, passed, 1827 ; Grand Union made navigable to Welford, Oct. I, 1813 ; Here- ford and Gloucester, opened, 1796 ; Huddersfield, an act passed for making, 1794; Kennet and Avon, opened, July 7, 1799; Kiel, joining the Baltic and North Sea, opened to all nations, May 14, 1785; Lea, the River, made navigable from Hertford to Ware, 1739, to London, 1770; Leeds to Liverpool, began, 1770, consolidated, 1783, completed, 1816, extended, 1819; Liverpool to Wigan, began, 1774; Loire to the Seine, opened, 1678; Manchester, Bolton to Bury, began, 1791; Monasteveren to Athy, began, 1791, to Sallins, 1786; Monkland, Scotland, commenced, 1790; New River, began, 1608, opened, Sept. 29, 1613; Northampton Navigation, began, Aug. 7, 1 761 ; Norwich and Lowestoft Navi- gation, opened, 1831; Paddington to the Grand Junction, began, 1798, opened, June, 1801; Peak Forest, opened, 1800; Reading, began, 1715; Regent's Canal completed, 1820; Rochdale, act for, passed, 1794; Runcorn to Manchester, began, 1776; Seine and Oise united, 1790; Severn to Leachlade, completed, 1789; Sheffield, opened, 1819; Stafford to Worcester, 1765; Staffordshire, completed, 1776; Stockholm to Gottenburg, began, 1751; Stroud to the Severn, began, 1775; Stourbridge, completed, 1785; Suez, began, 1860, opened, 1869; Thames and Fenny Stratford, opened, 1800; Trent to Withiam, 1134, the oldest in England, made by order of Henry I.; Trent and Mersey, opened, 17775 Warwick and Birmingham, began, 1793; Wey and Avon, opened, 1826; Worcester and Bir- mingham, began, 1791; Vishnei Volasnock, from the Caspian to St Petersburg, 1708-10. CANARY ISLANDS discovered (they being known to the Phoenicians) by a French vessel, 1330; plundered by. Spanish pirates, 1396; taken possession of, on behalf of Spain, by Jean de Bethencourt, a Norman, 1402 ; granted to him, 1404; vines planted, 1420; conquered, 1500. CANDIA, Mediterranean, seized by the Saracens, 808 ; taken by the Greeks, 961 ; subdued by the Genoese, 1207; sold to the Venetians, 1211 ; surrendered to the Turks, 1669; made themselves masters of the whole island, 1715; ceded to Egypt, 1830, but restored to Turkey, 1840; insurrection, 1841, and in 1866-7. CANDLES, the Roman, were at first little strings or rushes dipped in pitch. Tallow came into use, 1290. Splinters of wood or rushes dipped in tallow were used about 1300, and are still used in poor farm-houses in remote places. A patent granted to Mr W. Bolts for improving the form and quality of, 1 799 ; many laws were made for the guidance of, during the reign of the Georges. Candles or lights CANDLEBERRY MYRTLE CANON OF SCRIPTURE 127 of wax first used in churches, 274 ; Wax-Chandlers' Company established, 1483 ; and the Tallow-Chandlers' Company, 1462 ; previously to its abolition the duty upon, amounted to ^"500,000; repealed, 1831. CANDLEBERRY MYRTLE, imported from North America, 1699, a Chinese plant, supplying a species of vegetable wax. CANDLEMAS DAY, a festival of the Roman Catholic and Reformed churches on the Purification of the Virgin, Feb. 2. Lighting up the churches on this day pro- hibited by order of council, 1548. CANDLESTICKS. The one which Moses was commanded to make for the taber- nacle is described Ex. xxv. 31 37 ; called the Pure in Lev. xxiv. 4 ; the Holy, Ecclus. xxvi. 17 ; ten golden candlesticks provided for Solomon's Temple, I Kings vii. 49. CANDY, Ceylon ; Capt. Percival visited, 1800; the British took possession of, Feb. 20, 1803 ; a British detachment massacred at, Feb. 20, 1803 ; war renewed against the natives, 1814 ; the king conquered and made prisoner, Feb. 19, 1815; deposed, and the whole sovereignty vested in his conquerors, March 2, 1815. CANNING ADMINISTRATION terminated by the death of that statesman ; formed, April 12, 1827 ; closed, Aug. 8, the same year ; statue of, erected in Palace-yard, Westminster, May 2, 1832. CANNING, THE GEORGE, wrecked off Heligoland, when 96 of the passengers were lost, Jan. I, 1855. CANNON. Machines answering this description used for throwing stones at a very early period in China, mostly made of wood ; the first made of metal and em- ployed by Edward III. against the Scots, 1327 ; they were formed of tubes of iron strengthened with iron bands, used at the battle of Cressy, 1346 ; first made by the French, 1338 ; used by the English at the siege of Calais, 1347, and in the Baltic Sea, 1350 ; used by the English at the siege of Mont St Michel, in Nor- mandy, 1423 ; the two which were taken by the French are still preserved in the Castle ; they afterwards came into general use. James II. of Scotland killed by the bursting of one at Roxburgh, 1460 ; up to this date they were bound with iron hoops. Cast-iron guns made at Rackstadt, 1540 ; the largest cast in India, 1685 ; first forged in Paris, 1753 > first cast in England at Buxstead, in Sussex, 1543 ; the rifle cannon introduced by Sir W. Armstrong, Feb. n, 1857; Whitworth guns invented, 1860. See also Artillery. CANNON STREET, City, built under 10 & II Viet. c. cclxxx, July 22, 1847 ; and the west side to St Paul's, 13 & 14 Viet c. Ivi., July 15, 1850 ; the first portion opened to King-street, the second to St Paul's. The terminus of the Charing- cross Railway opened, Sept I, 1866. CANON LAW, the first drawn up by Clement, bishop of Rome, A.D. 93 ; pro- mulgated, 380 ; the first collection made by Dionysius Exiguus, 520 ; the canons of the four councils sanctioned by Justinian, 545 ; introduced into Europe by the author Gratian, 1151 ; into England, 1154; several attempts made to revise them but none were adopted. CANONIZATION of Romish martyrs and saints, instituted by Leo III., 800 ; Ulric, Bishop of Augsburg, canonized by the Lateran Council, Jan. 31, 993 ; this is the first act of canonization known of which a papal bull is extant ; before that time all bishops could make canonizations of whom they pleased. CANON OF SCRIPTURE, The, a collection of books which form the original and authoritative written rule of faith and practice of the Christian Church. First termed so by Amphilochius, A. D. 380 ; and a list of the books is given. The com- plete canon of the New Testament was ratified at the third Council of Carthage, A.D. 397. 128 CANTERBURY CAPE COAST CASTLE CANTERBURY, Kent, known to the Romans ; the capital of Ethelbert, King of Kent, 560 ; nearly destroyed by fire, 754; taken by the Danes, 851, and again, ion, when they partially destroyed it. Castle built, 1075; strengthened and enlarged by Hen. II., 1174; defended successfully by Hugh de Burge, Earl of Kent, 1239-40. Edmund Ironsides contributed greatly to the rebuilding of the city ; Edward I. kept his nuptials here, 1299; Charles I., the like, 1625 ; Charles II. held his court here for three days, 1676, and re-incorporated the town. CANTERBURY CATHEDRAL, founded by St Augustine, in the 6th century ; finished by Archbishop Odo, about 946 ; nearly destroyed by the Danes, 1011 ; completely burnt down, 1067 ; rebuilt by Archbishop Lanfranc, 1079 ; finished, 1130 ; the choir rebuilt, 1104 ; destroyed by fire, 1130; rebuilt by William Sens, 1174 84; Saxon Gothic, 514 feet long, 71 wide, 130 high ; chapter-house rebuilt, 1400; west gate built, 1387; palace robbed, Oct. n, 1778; revenues of the see of, seized by the king, 1096 ; used as a stable for Cromwell's troops, 1651 ; St Augustine made the first archbishop, 602 ; St Thomas a Becket massacred in the Cathedral, by William.de Tracy, Reginald Fitz-Urse, Richard de Brito, and Hugh de Morville, Dec. 29, 1170 ; canonized by Pope Alexander III., March 13, 1173; Henry II. visited the tomb, July 12, 1174 ; the king paid another visit, 1176 ; the body of the saint was translated, July 7, 1220 ; the shrine of the saint was destroyed by order of Henry VIII., Aug. 19, 1538 ; the see furnished the Roman Catholic Church with 18 saints and nine cardinals, and the state of Eng- land with 12 lord-chancellors and four treasurers. The see made superior to York, 1073. The present Archbishop appointed, 1862 -(Charles Thomas Longley). CANTERBURY, New Zealand, a Religious Society of the Church of England founded a settlement here, 1850. CANTON, China, known to the Portuguese, 1517 ; the English first attempted to open an intercourse with the Chinese, 1576, but the ships were lost ; a further attempt to trade caused a rupture and the city was destroyed, 1650 ; a factory established at Amoy, 1677 > the East India Company established a factory here, 1680 ; destroyed by the Tartars, 1680 ; trade prohibited by the Emperor until 1685 ; tea first imported, 1667 ; a fire which destroyed 3000 houses, Dec. 6, 1835 ; the English imprisoned by commissioner Lin, 1839 ; the town besieged and taken, May 30, 1841 ; made one of the five ports, Aug. 29, 1842 ; burnt down, April 6, 1847; six Englishmen murdered at, Dec. 5, 1847; the town taken by the allied forces, Dec. 29, 1857 ; Yeh taken prisoner, Jan. 5, 1858 ; the town captured, Jan. 14, 1858. CAP came into general use in England, 1449, being made of cloth or velvet ; a law enacted that every person above seven years of age should wear on Sundays and holidays a cap of wool, knit made, thickened and dressed in England by some of the trade of cappers, under the forfeiture of three farthings for every day's neglect, excepting maids, ladies, and gentlewomen, and every lord, knight, and gentle- man of 20 marks of land, and their heirs, and such as have borne office of wor- ship in any city, town, or place, and the wardens of the London company, 1571. In some countries they were used as a mark of infamy : in Italy the Jews were dis- tinguished by a yellow cap, at Lucca by an orange ; bankrupts in France were obliged to wear a green cap to show that they were persons unworthy to be trusted. CAPE BRETON, N. America, discovered by Cabot, 1497 ; first occupied by the French, 1712; Louisbourg fortified, 1720; taken by the English, June 15, 1745; restored to France, 1748 ; retaken by the English, July, 1758; ceded to England by treaty, signed at Paris, Feb. 10, 1763. CAPE COAST CASTLE, Africa, first colonized by the Portuguese, 1610 ; taken by the Dutch, 1644; the British settlement destroyed, 1665 ; ceded to England, 1667 ; the English still hold the Castle. CAPE COD CARACAS 129 CAPE COD, America, visited by Capt Gosnold, 1602 ; by the Pilgrim Fathers in the Mayflower, 1620 ; declared themselves neutral in the war of 1812. CAPE FINISTERRE, the English fleet commanded by Adm. Anson defeated a French fleet off, taking six men-of-war and four East Indiamen, May 13, 1747. Adm. Sir Robert Calder attacked the French and Spanish fleet and took two Spanish men-of-war oft" this Cape, July 22, 1805. CAPE OF GOOD HOPE, Africa, discovered by Bartholomew Diaz, a Portu- guese, 1486. Vasco de Gama doubled the Cape, Nov. 20, 1497, and carried the trade of Portugal to the east ; colonized by the Dutch, 1650 ; revolution among the colonists, the British interfered to restore the authority of the Prince of Orange, Sept. 16, 1795 ; held by them until 1802, when it was restored to Holland ; on the renewal of the war it was again taken by the English, 1806 ; ceded to them by the King of the Netherlands, 1815 ; the emancipation of the slaves, 1834; Natal established by the Dutch, 1836; taken by the English, 1842 ; the Orange free state constituted, 1854 ; the present form of government established, 1852 ; Sir P. E. Woodehouse appointed governor, 1861 ; the forti- fied town of Kalikaia taken, June, 1863 ; 200 rebel prisoners escaped from the Island of Kawan, Sept. 10, 1863 ; the Duke of Edinburgh arrived at, in H.M. ship 'Galatea,' Aug. 15, 1867 ; left for Australia, Sept. 28. CAPE HORN or HOORN, S. America, discovered by the Dutch navigator Schouten, 1616, who named it after his native town. CAPE TOWN, S. Africa, founded by the Dutch, 1650 ; taken by the English, Sept. 1 6, 1795 ; restored to the Dutch, 1802 ; and again taken by the English, Jan., 1806 ; ceded to them by treaty, Aug., 1814 ; Bishopric established, 1847 ; constitution granted, 1853. CAPE BLANCO, Africa, discovered, 1441. CAPE CAPRI, Cephalonia Island, ceded to England at the peace of 1814, with the Ionian Islands. CAPE DE VERD ISLANDS discovered, 1449. CAPE ST VINCENT, battle between the French fleet under Adm. de Tourville, 1 20 vessels, and Adm. Rooke, with 20 English and Dutch men-of-war, and the Anglo-Turkish fleet of merchantmen under convoy ; the French took or destroyed 12 English and Dutch ships, and 80 merchantmen, June 16, 1693 ; again, Feb. 14, 1797, when Sir John Jervis, with 15 sail, engaged the combined French and Spanish with 27, and captured four line-of-battle ships. CAPET, French royal house of, and the third race of French monarchs ; the first line expired with Charles IV., 1328, when the branch of Valois ascended the throne. CAPITOLINE games instituted by Domitian, 86. CAPPADOCIA, Asia Minor, founded, B.C. 744; made a Roman province by Tiberius, A.D. 17 ; annexed to the Turkish Empire, 1360. CAPPER or Hatter, rules made for the carrying on of this trade, 1489, and sub- sequently. CAPUA, Naples, taken by the Romans, B.C. 211 ; and made a Roman colony, B.C. 59 ; taken by the Vandals, A. D. 456 ; burnt by the Saracens, 840 ; captured, July 24, 1501, by Caesar Borgia ; taken by the French, July 23, 1799 ; retaken by the English the same year ; captured by Sardinia, Nov. 2, 1860, and united to Italy. CAPUCHIN FRIARS, founded by Baschi, 1525 ; confirmed by Pope Paul III., 1536 ; introduced into France about 1574 ; Spain, 1606 ; England, 1630. CARACAS, S. America, discovered by Columbus, 1498 ; sold by Charles V. to a 9 130 CARACTACUS CARLILE company of German merchants, called the Welsers, disposed for tyranny to the colonists, 1550; declared its independence, May 9, 1810 ; acknowledged by Spain, July 5, i8n ; several towns destroyed by an earthquake, March 26, 1812, and again 1826. CARACTACUS, king of the Britons, defeated, 46 ; led a captive to Rome, 51. CARAVAN, one consisting of 2000 persons on the return from Mecca, all de- stroyed, save 20, by the Karamsin wind from the desert of Arabia, Aug. 12, 1812. CARBONARI, a secret society in Italy, formed, if possible, to free that country from the yoke of foreigners, and particularly from the despotism of Austria, 1819, 1820. They brought about the revolution in Piedmont and Naples, 1821. CARBUNCLE. This stone was used in the breastplate of the high priest in the first row, Ex. xxviii. 1 7. CARDIFF, Wales, a place of considerable importance, possessing a fortified castle, embattled walls, with a moat and ramparts begun by Jestyn ap Gwrgan, 1090 ; completed, mo; priory built by Robert, Earl of Gloucester, 1147; Edward III. granted a charter to the town, 1338 ; Oliver Cromwell took the castle by the treachery of one of its guards, whom he hung afterwards, 1648 ; a French force landed in the bay and were captured without striking a blow, Feb. 22, 1797; the Taff Railway opened, 1840; St Mary's church opened, 1843. CARDIGAN, Wales, castle founded by Gilbert de Clare, 1160; town fortified by Gilbert Marshall, 1240 ; priory founded, 1291 ; grammar school established, 1653- CARDINALS, the ecclesiastical princes of the Roman Church so declared, 1243, and the council of the pope, but only principal priests in Rome till 1 100 ; ob- tained the power of electing the pope, 1160 ; wore the red hat first, 1245 ; the scarlet dress, 1464; and had the title of Eminence, Jan., 1631. CARDMAKERS' COMPANY incorporated 5 Car. I., 1629. CARDS, of early origin ; interdicted, 1254 ; forbidden by the Council of Cologne, 1281 ; printed at Venice from wood-blocks, 1341 ; used in Germany, 1275 ; in Italy, 1299 ; introduced into England in the I4th century ; taxed in England, 1710 ; stamped, 1775 ; the laws relating to, amended and consolidated, and duty fixed at a shilling a pack, 9 Geo. IV. c. 18, May 9, 1828 ; a statute passed, re- pealing and altering the duty upon, 25 & 26 Viet. c. 22, June 3, 1862. CARENTON, in Germany, 100 houses burned, July, 1800. CAREW CASTLE, Pembroke, built, iioo. CARIBBEE ISLANDS, Atlantic, discovered, 1595. CARICATURES, of Italian origin, labels being put into the mouths of the figures delineated, 1330; became popular in England, 1720. CARISBROOKE CASTLE, Isle of Wight, of remote antiquity ; besieged and taken by Cerdric, 530; captured by Stephen, 1136; successfully resisted an attack of the French in the reign of Richard II., 1366 ; rebuilt by Earl Rivers in the reign of Henry I. ; repaired by Queen Elizabeth, 1598, and again repaired, 1610 ; Charles I. was confined here for 13 months, Nov. 14, 1647 ; he tried to escape, Dec. 28 ; the children of this monarch were brought to the castle, Aug. 16, 1650 ; Princess Elizabeth died here, Sept. 8, 1650 ; the Duke of Gloucester kept a prisoner in this castle till 1652. CARLAVEROCK CASTLE, Scotland, besieged and taken by Edward I., 1300. CARLILE, Richard, convicted of publishing Paine's Age of Reason and Palmer's Principles of Nature, Oct. 15, 1819 ; sentenced to pay a fine of ^1500, and to be imprisoned two years in Dorchester gaol, Nov. 16, 1819. CARLISLE. CARPENTERS' COMPANY. 131 CARLISLE, Cumberland, rebuilt by Agricola, and fortified ; destroyed by Egfrid, king of Northumbria, in the 7th century ; demolished by the Danes, 875 ; gram- mar-school founded by St Cuthbert, 686 ; refounded by William Rufus, and en- dowed by Henry VIII., 1542 ; the castle rebuilt by William Rufus, 1092; finished by David, king of Scotland, 1135 ; the castle and town ceded to the Scots, 1136 ; besieged by William the Lion, 1173 ; surrendered to the English, 1292; destroyed by fire the same year ; besieged unsuccessfully by Wallace, 1297 ; Edward I. held a parliament here, Sept, 1298; besieged by Robert Bruce, 1315; repaired by Richard III. , 1483 ; city burned, 1345 ; Mary Queen of Scots kept a prisoner in the castle, 1596; resigned to the Parliamentary forces, June 25, 1645; surrendered to the Pretender, Nov. 15,1 745 ; retaken the Dec. following. The manufacture of woollens established, 1747; the town drained, 1853-5, cost ^23,000 ; cemetery opened, 1854. CARLISLE, priory founded by St Cuthbert, 686; see of, erected by Henry I., 1133; the cathedral founded by Walter, a Norman, in the reign of William Rufus; completed between 1133 and 1350; Saxon pillars, pointed arches, 180 feet long and 71 broad ; partially destroyed, 1648 ; restored, 1856. CARLISLE ADMINISTRATION formed, May 23, 1715 ; dissolved the follow- ing October. CARLOW CASTLE, Ireland, erected by King John in the I3th century ; surren- dered to Oge O'Moore, 1577 ; to the Parliamentary army, 1650 ; a battle here, May 27, 1798, between the rebels and royal troops, in which the former were defeated. CARLSBAD, Bohemia, known for its mineral springs. Congress of, at which resolutions were passed by the allied sovereigns inimical to constitutional monarchs and human freedom, Aug. i, 1819. CARLSCRONA, Sweden, made a marine station and arsenal by Charles XL, 1680 ; nearly all burnt down, 1067 houses, two churches, and all the merchants' dwellings and magazines except two, June 17, 1790. CARLTON CLUB, Pall Mall, a Tory and Conservative club-house, founded by the Duke of Wellington, 1831 ; present establishment built by Sir Sydney Smirke, 1855. CARLTON HOUSE, erected 1709 ; purchased for the Prince of W r ales, father of George III., 1732; fete given at, June 20, 1811; another to the Duke of Wellington, 2500 persons being present, July 21, 1814 ; taken down 1827, and the columns transferred to the National Gallery. CARMEL. The order of knights of Mount Carmel founded in 1607 by Henry IV. of France. CARMELITES, or White Friars order, founded before 1098; established in England by Richard I., 1240; in France, 1252 ; moderated their previous aus- terities, 1540; massacre of 200 priests of this order at Abbaye, in France, Sept. 2, 1792. CARMEN'S COMPANY, a fellowship granted to, with the privilege of working carts in the City of London, June 21, 1669. CARNATIC, South Hindustan, invaded by the Mohammedans, 1310; the suc- cession of Walla-Jah disputed, 1 749 ; supported by the English, and made Nabob ; Hyder AH defeated, July I and Aug. 27, 1781 ; Tippoo Sahib overran this pro- vince, 1799 ; conquered by the British, 1783 ; ceded to England, 1801. CARNATION FLOWER first introduced into England about 1697. CARPENTERS' COMPANY, incorporated, 17 Edw. IV., July 7, 1477; con- firmed, 5 & 6 Philip and Mary, and by James I., 1607 ; reincorporated by Charles 1 32 CAROLINA. CARRON IRON WORKS. II., 1673. Hall built, 1429; enlarged, 1664-5 > escaped the fire of 1666; re- paired, 1671; repaired and beautified, 1718; staircase erected, 1780. CAROLINA, N. America, discovered, 1497 ; granted to Sir Walter Raleigh to colonize ; he took possession of a site on the Roanoke, June, 1585 ; re-embarked for England, July 27, 1586 ; a new colony established, 1587, but they were all killed by the Indians ; the first permanent settlement was made, 1650; granted to Lord Clarendon by Charles II., March 24, 1663; a government appointed, 1667; insurrection of the negroes, 1739; declared independent, Nov. 30, 1782. CAROLINA, S. America. First settlement upon the site of Charleston, 1680; separated from North Carolina, 1719. The seat of the Confederate government in the war for independence ; taken by the Federals under Gen. Grant, April 3, 1865. CAROLINE, Queen of George IV., her arrival in England, June 6, 1820, demand- ing an open trial ; proceedings against, in the House of Lords, Aug. 19, 1820, lasting to Nov. 10; went to St Paul's, Nov. 29 ; protested against her exclusion from the coronation, July 1 8, 1821 ; taken ill at Drury Lane Theatre, July 30; died at Brandenburgh House, after an illness of eight days, Aug. 7 ; her remains removed thence for interment in Brunswick, Aug. 14 ; interred there, Aug. 25. CAROLINE, Princess, daughter of the Prince of Wales, died, Sept. 4, 1759. CAROLINE ISLANDS discovered by the Spaniards, 1686. CARP first brought to England about 1500. CARPETS, articles of luxury, came from the East, 1300 ; introduced into France from Persia, between 1589 and 1610; manufacture of, introduced into England, 1685 ; Brussels carpets introduced into Kidderminster from Tournay, 1745. CARRIAGES, known under the name of Chares (chariots), 1294 ; used in France, 1250 ; an ordinance was issued by Philip the Fair, forbidding citizens wives' to use carriages, 1294; introduced into Vienna, 1474 or 1509; into England, 1555; Queen Mary rode through London to Westminster in a chariot, 1553 ; in the reign of Elizabeth called ' whirlicotes ; ' in 1619 driven in ostentation with six horses ; first let for hire in Paris, 1650, at the Hotel Fiacre, by one Sauvage ; only used by women of rank in the beginning of the i6th century ; in 1681 there were 50 gilt, with six horses each, at the court of Hanover ; Frederick III. visited Frankfort in a close carriage, 1474; used in Spain, 1546 ; post-chaises invented in France, 1664 ; Hackney coaches for hire first let out in London, 1625 ; in 1637 there were 50 in London ; in 1652, above 200 ; in 1654, about 300, employing 600 horses ; in 1694, amounted to 700 ; in 1715, to 800 ; to 1000 in 1771 ; to 1200 in 1799 ; hackney chariots, 200 licensed in 1814 ; the coaches and cabriolets in- creased 2650 in 1846. Hackney coaches introduced into Edinburgh, 1673, but only 20 in number, which fell in I75 2 to 14, and in 1778 to nine ; introduced into Warsaw, 1778 ; in Copenhagen there are 100 ; in Amsterdam, in 1663, they were forbidden, lest the wheels should injure the pavements, and are now in winter, as those of St Petersburg are, placed upon sledges. Carriages first taxed, March 25, 1747 ; in 1785 the duty was ^"154,988 ; in 1856-7 there were 3227 stage car- riages licensed, the duty was .10,695 ; the duty upon, amended, May 3, 1866. See Cabs, Omnibus. CARRICKFERGUS, Ireland, built by De Courcy, 1182 ; besieged and taken by Brace, 1315 ; again besieged by MacDonnell, 1556, but unsuccessfully; the town burnt, 1573 ; taken possession of, for the Parliament, 1648 ; surrendered to the Duke of Schomberg, Aug. 29, 1689 ; William III. landed at, June 14, 1690 ; surrendered to the French under Adm. Thurot, Feb. 21, 1760. CARRON IRON WORKS, Stirlingshire, established, 1760, employing 1600 persons ; all the ponderous ordnance used in war, including shot and shell, were here manufactured. CARRONADES CASSANO 133 CARRONADES, short pieces of artillery, invented by Gen. Robert Melville, and cast at the Carron foundry, 1779 ; first used by Lord Rodney in an engagement with Count de Grasse, April 12, 1782 ; first used by the United States in the action between the frigate Constellation and La Vengeance, Feb. i, 1800. CARROTS first introduced into England from the Low Countries, 1540. CARTHAGE, Africa, founded by the Phoenicians, B.C. 814; destroyed by Scipio ^Emilianus, B.C. 146 ; rebuilt by C. Gracchus and made a Roman colony, B.C. 122 : taken by Genseric and made the capital of the Vandal kingdom, A.D. 439 ; retaken by Belisarius, and named Justiniana, 533 ; captured and destroyed by the Arabs, 647 ; and by the Saracens, 698. CARTHAGENA, Spain, founded byHasdrubal, a Carthaginian general, B.C. 242; taken by Scipio Africanus, B.C. 210; ravaged by the Vandals, A.D. 428 ; destroyed by the Goths in the 6th century. CARTHAGENA, NEW GRANADA, S. America, discovered by Roderigo de Bastidas, 1502 ; the Indians subdued and the country colonized by Spain, 1533 ; taken and pillaged by Sir Francis Drake, 1586 ; invaded by the French, 1597 ; attacked by the English under Adm. Vernon, March, 1741 ; partially destroyed by an earthquake, Nov. 9, 1761 ; taken by the royalists, Dec. 6, 1815 ; retaken by the republicans, Sept. 25, 1821. CARTHUSIANS, an order of monks founded by St Bruno at Chartreux, in France, 1080; the first establishment founded at the Chartreux or Charter-house, London, 1181. Their code was first established in 1228; modified, 1581 ; confirmed by Pope Innocent XL, 1682 ; their property seized by Henry VIII. and the monasteries closed, 1530. CARTMEL MONASTERY, Lancashire, built, 1188. CARTOONS. The most famous executed by Raphael for Leo X., 1519; seven purchased for Charles I. in Flanders, 1629. CARTS. This ancient mode of conveyance first mentioned, I Samuel vi. 8 14 ; they had two wheels of solid wood ; in the monuments of ancient Egypt they had four or six spokes ; the city of London issued orders for the size of the tire of wheels at an early period. CARVING in marble, or sculpture, invented, B.C. 722; practised in the highest perfection in Greece, B.C. 440; in modern Italy, about A.D. 1500. Carving by machinery first invented in the i8th century. CASHEL, Ireland. The cathedral built by Cormac MacCarthy, king of Munster, 1127 ; the abbey founded, 1260 ; Earl of Kildare ravaged the town and partially destroyed the cathedral, 1498; incorporated by Charles I., 1640; declared for the Parliament, 1647 ; the see changed to a bishopric, 1838. CASHMAN, John, executed for stealing arms from the shop of Beckwith, Snow Hill, during what were called the Spa Fields riots, March 12, 1817. CASHMERE, Asia, subdued by the Mohammedans, IOI2 ; invaded by an army of 70,000 Tartars, 1323 ; betrayed by the governor, and annexed to the Affghan em- pire, 1754; conquered by the Sikhs, 1819, and ceded to the English, March 9, 1846 ; transferred to Gholab Singh by treaty, March 16, 1846. CASHMERE SHAWLS first brought to England, 1666 ; imitated at the looms of Bradford and Huddersfield, 1820; some of the genuine drawn through a ring, and valued at 1000 rupees each ; the common cost 150 rupees, 1650; sold in England from .100 to .500. CASSANO, battles. The French defeated by Prince Eugene, Aug. 16, 1705 ; the Russians under Suwarrow defeated the French, and took 3050 prisoners and 30 guns, April 27 29, 1799. 134 CASSATION CAT CASSATION, the Court of, established by the National Assembly at Paris, Nov. 27, 1790. CASSEL, Germany, abandoned by the Hanoverians, July 31, 1760 ; taken by the French the same year ; retaken, Nov. i, 1762; the fortification destroyed, 1767; captured by the French, 1806, and made the capital of. Westphalia by Napoleon I., 1807. CASTELLA, battle. The allied troops of England and Spain attacked by the French under Marshal Suchet, the latter were defeated, April 13, 1813. CASTELNANDERY, France, battle between the forces under Louis XIII. and Gaston Due D'Orleans, in which the Duke of Montmorency was surrounded and made a prisoner, 1632. CASTELNUOVO, nearly destroyed by an earthquake, 1783, 40x30 persons perished ; the rear-guard of the Austrian army defeated by the French, Nov. 21, 1796 ; the Russians defeated by the French under Marmont, Sept. 29, 1806. CASTIGLIONE, battle, one of Bonaparte's most brilliant victories over the Aus- trians under Gen. Wurmser, Aug. 5 8, 1796 ; all the cannon and 1 3, ooo prisoners were the rewards of the victorious force. CASTILE, Spain, invaded by the Saracens in the 8th century ; subject to the King of Leon, 1028 ; made a kingdom, 1039 > Ferdinand and Isabella made sovereigns of, 1474; annexed to the Spanish crown, 1504. CASTILLON, battle, between the English and French, July 7, 1453 ; the former were defeated, and John Talbot, Earl of Shrewsbury, slain, and lost all their do- minions in France except Calais. CASTLE AND SWORD, the order of, established in Portugal, 1807. CASTLEACRE PRIORY, Norfolk, built by William Warrenne, first Earl of Surrey, 1080. CASTLEBAR, Ireland, battle, in which a body of French troops defeated the English army, which was much more numerous, and forced it to retreat, Aug. 27, 1798 ; the French army was afterwards surrounded and surrendered, Sept. 8. CASTLE-CORNET, Guernsey, built, uoo. CASTLE-RISING CASTLE, Norfolk, built by William de Albini, first Earl of Sussex, 1107. Isabella, Queen of Edward II., imprisoned 28 years, and died here, 1358. CASTLE-RUSHEN CASTLE, Isle of Man, built by the Danes, 960. CASTLES. The ancient Britons and Saxons built fortified towers or castles. The rage for building these edifices prevailed greatly in the reign of Rufus and Stephen ; they numbered 1115. The conduct of the barons became so insolent, that in the reign of Henry II. upwards of 1000 were demolished, 1154- The royal licence to fortify was necessary after this date. The White Tower of London is a paral- ellogram of 116 ft by 96, and 69 ft high. Gundulph's Keep, Rochester, is 70 ft square, and 104 ft high. An Inquisition on Castles, with a view of putting them in a defensive state, was held in the reign of Edward III., and another in that of Henry VIII. Many were ordered to be dismantled by the parliament, temp. Cromwell. CASTOR CHURCH destroyed by lightning, June 5, 1795. CASWELL, Sir George, expelled the House of Commons for his conduct in the South Sea affair, March 20, 1 720. CAT, the domestic, considered to have been introduced into England from Egypt at an early date. CATACOiMB CATHEDRAL CHURCHES 135 CATACOMB first applied to the chapel of St Sebastian, at Rome, in which the body of St Peter was deposited. The most extensive are those in the Via Apfia, which extend for six miles. The earliest tablets discovered are dated A.D. 71 ; the latest date, 410. CATALOGUES : the earliest by Gesner, 1565 ; the first published in England, 1595. Catalogues Raisonnes: the greatest is that of the French ' Bibliotheque Royal,' 1739. CATALONIA, Spain, taken from the Romans by the Goths, A.I). 410 ; captured by the Saracens, 712 ; the sovereignty became hereditary, 1040, and united to Arragon by the marriage of Ramon Berenguer to the Queen Petronilla, 1137; rebelled against Pedro III., 1277 and 1287 ; revolted against Juan II., 1460 ; taken by Louis XIII., 1640 ; Arragon and Catalonia united to the kingdom of Castile, 1469 ; insurrection against the French, 1808 ; annexed to France, 1812 ; that power expelled, 1814. CATANIA, Sicily, founded by the Chalcidians of Naxos, B.C. 730; Dionysius took the city, B.C. 403; the Carthaginians captured it, B.C. 396; a flourishing city in Cicero's time, but afterwards ravaged by Sextius Pompeius ; destroyed by an earthquake, 1693, when 18,000 of the inhabitants are said to have perished; again, Feb. 22, 1817, many persons being destroyed ; and again, July 18, 1865 ; captured by the forces under Garibaldi, Aug. 20, 1862 ; and now united to Italy. The university founded, 1445. CATEAU, battle, in which the allies under Prince Coburg defeated the French, March 28, 1794. CATEAU CAMBRESIS, peace of, between France and Spain : to the last were ceded Savoy, Corsica, and nearly 200 places in Italy and the Low Countries, 1559. CATECHISM first published in English, 1552; a short one by the Bishop of Winchester, 1604 ; ordered by James I. to be enlarged, 1612, by adding the doc- trinal points of the Church of England ; this was completed 1647. CATHEDRALS : CATHEDRAL CHURCHES OF ENGLAND. DATE. STYLE. DIMENSIONS. Length. Breadth. Height. St Asaph . . Choir, ditto Bangor . . Bath Bristol Canterbury Carlisle . . Chester . . Chichester St David's Durham . . Ely Exeter Gloucester Hereford . . Landaff . . Lincoln . . Lichfield . . Norwich . . Oxford . 1469 Rebuilt 1780 1496 1530 West fron f Gothic > \ Gothic / Gothic t Gothic /' 179 214 2'5 ft. 68 60 72 ft. Spire 162 311 Gothic 73 184 411 Saxon Gothic 53 ext 514 int. r Spire 229 '33 ( Saxon pillars, ) 35 \ pointed arches j 2IX 7 1 120 Part Saxon 350 74 '99 Saxon and Gothic 386 92 Spire 271 180 Part Saxon 290 76 127 1093 to 1126 {Saxon, pointed ) windows ) 473 81 Tower 215 1087 Saxon 5'7 75 1138 to 1369 {Saxon, Gothic ) windows f 383 72 140 1220 tO 1460 f Saxon pillars, \ (. Gothic windows i 423 ext. 408 int. } * 3 f Tower ("176 ( built 1460 (. 225 1079 Saxon 35 74 Tower 144 f Pointed arches, > II2O 270 70 ( in ruins J 1088 to 1324 Gothic 463 So I Cent. tow. 300 1 West. do. 262 1238 Gothic 379 66 Spire 252 1096 Saxon and Gothic 408 70 Steeple 309 Part 1 1 19, Part u6o, Saxon '55 54 '44 1675 to 1710 Grecian ! Length. ft- 500 E. to W. 240 N. to S. Bread [ 94 970 170 f Saxon j t Gothic f 426 79 130 Saxon 310 68 22O Gothic 45 82 2 39 Gothic 388 69 079 366 ( Part Saxon, ) ^ Part Gothic J 53 85 084 218 Gothic 387 78 327 Gothic 486 IO2 136 CATHERINE CATTLE PLAGUE DATE. STYLE. DIMENSIONS. Height. ft- St Paul's, London 1675101710 Grecian -j ^ N.To's.' !" 94 3 6 5 Peterborough Rochester . . _ . Salisbury.. .. 220 Gothic 450 82 | N P ave 4 8i' Wells . . . . 239 Gothic 388 69 Tower 166 Winchester ..] 9 J Part Saxon, | ^ ^ ?8 Worcester York . . . . 327 uouiic 480 102 213 CATHERINE, order of knighthood established in Palestine, 1063 ; order of nuns of St Catherine, 1373 ; order of ladies of the highest rank in Russia, founded by the empress of Peter the Great, 1714. CATHERINE-CREE CHURCH, London, rebuilt, 1629 ; consecrated, 1630. CATHERINE HALL, Cambridge, founded by Dr Woodlarke, 1473. CATHERINE-HILL CHAPEL, Surrey, built, 1230. CATHERINE of Arragon, Queen of Henry VIII. ; married, June 7, 1509 ; di- vorced, May 23, 1533. CATHERINE HOWARD, Queen of Henry VIII. ; married, July 28, 1540 ; di- vorced and beheaded, Feb. 13, 1541. CATHERINE PARR, married to Henry VIII., July 12, 1543 ; again to Admiral Seymour, 1548 ; died in childbed, Sept. 7> 1548. CATHOLIC, a name given to the Universal Church ; ' Catholic Majesty,' a title given first by Pope Gregory III. to Alphonso I. of Spain, 739 ; bestowed on Ferdinand V., 1474, on account of his zeal for the Papal faith. CATILINE. The conspiracy of, to murder Cicero, the consul, and to burn the city, discovered, B.C. 63. Driven from Rome, Nov. 8 ; several of the leaders exe- cuted, Dec. 5. The consul Antonius sent against Catiline, who attempted to escape into Cisalpine Gaul, but was defeated and slain, with 3000 followers, early in the year B. c. 62. CAT ISLAND, one of the Bahamas, discovered by Columbus, 1492. CATO-STREET, Edgeware-road, Paddington, a diabolical conspiracy formed here by Thistlewood, having for its object the murder of the cabinet ministers who were expected to dine at Lord Harrowby's, 39, Grosvenor Square ; the plot was di- vulged by Edwards, and the destruction of the ministers prevented, Feb. 23, 1820; Thistlewood executed at the Old Bailey, May I, 1820, with Ings, Brunt, Tidd, and Davison. CATSKILL MOUNTAINS, United States, woods in, between Ulster and Sul- livan counties, consumed, 1816. CATTLE, importation of, from Ireland or Scotland into England, forbidden, 1663 ; admitted into England by statute, July 9, 1842, at a moderate duty from any country. Imports from Ireland, 1846, black cattle, 81,592 ; sheep, 100,366 ; swine, 381,744. CATTLE MARKET, Metropolitan, opened by Prince Albert, in Copenhagen Fields, June 13, 1855. CATTLE PLAGUE. A murrain broke out amongst the cattle in England, and thousands perished, 1348-9 ; a second broke out, 1480 ; a serious distemper which destroyed a great number of cattle visited this country, 1715, and again CATWORTH CAYENNE 137 from 1745 1757 ; commission appointed, Nov. 25, 1745 ; an act was passed to prevent the spread of the malady, 19 Geo. II. c. 5, Feb. 13, 1746; regulations by the council, March 12, 1746 ; an act passed to amend the former, 20 Geo. II. c. 4, Feb. 13, 1 747 ; various regulations made to prevent contagious and infectious disorders among cattle, II & 12 Viet. c. 107, Sept 4, 1848 ; amended 29 & 30 Viet. c. 15, April 23, 1866. The Black Death broke out in Austria, 1862; in Hungary, 1863 ; a serious murrain broke out in England, June 19, 1865 ; several orders in council passed to prevent the spread of the malady, Aug. 1 1, 18, and 26 ; consolidated order, Sept 22, 1865; commission appointed to inquire into its origin, Sept 29, 1865 ; made their first report, Oct. 31, 1865 ; second report, Feb. 6, 1866 ; last act passed, 29 & 30 Viet. c. 2, Feb. 20, 1866 ; and for Ireland, c. 4, March 6 ; an act passed giving further facilities for the establishment of societies for the as- surance of cattle, 29 & 30 Viet. c. 34, June 1 1, 1866 ; first broke out in Ireland, at Drennan, May 14, 1866 ; partially disappeared, Dec., 1866; reappeared at Isling- ton, Feb. 1, 1867. The Contagious Disease Act, 30 & 31 Viet c. 25, Aug. 20, 1867. CATWORTH, Huntingdon, greatly damaged by fire, Aug. 3, 1753. CAULIFLOWERS, first introduced and cultivated in England, 1603 ; brought from Italy, but not naturalized until 1670. CAUTIONARY TOWNS of the Dutch pledged to Queen Elizabeth, 1585; re- stored, May 27, 1616. CAVALIERS, the adherents to the Stuarts in the war between Charles I. and his people, thus named in opposition to the Roundheads, or adherents of parliament, from 1642 to 1649. CAVALRY, used by the ancients ; first employed by the English, 1324; adopted by the French, 1445 ; the oldest regiment of cavalry in the English army is the Scotch Greys, raised, 1681 ; the battle of Rosbach, Nov. 5, 1757, and Wurzburg, July 25, 1 796, were decided by this arm. CAVAN, Ireland, formerly held by the Danes ; castle and monastery built by the O'Reilleys ; the town nearly destroyed by fire, 1690 ; a cavalry battle took place here between the troops of King James and the Enniskilleners, in which the latter were successful ; made a bishopric, 1454. CAVENDISH, set out on his voyage to circumnavigate the globe, July 29, 1586 ; returned, Sept. 9, 1588. CAVENDISH SOCIETY instituted, for the publication of works upon chemistry and its allied sciences, 1846. C AWN PORE, Hindustan, ceded to the English government, 1801 ; the Sepoys revolted from their allegiance and committed fearful ravages upon the English residents, June 5-6, 1857 ; the English forces under Gen. Wheeler were besieged by the Sepoys under Nana Sahib, after an heroic resistance a treaty was signed permitting them to proceed to Allahabad, but upon their quitting their entrench- ments they were barbarously murdered, June 27 ; the rebels defeated by Gen. Havelock, July 16 ; Gen. Windham defeated by the Gwalior rebels, Nov. 27, 28 ; the rebels completely defeated by Sir Colin Campbell, Dec. 5> 6. CAWOOD CASTLE, Yorkshire, given by King Athelstan to Archbishop Wulstan, circa 930-2, the residence of the archbishops of York ; Cardinal Wolsey arrested here, 1530; destroyed by the Parliamentarians, 1645. CAXTON SOCIETY instituted, for the publication of chronicles and general literature of the middle ages, 1845. CAYENNE, or French Guiana, S. America, first settled by the French, 1635 ; abandoned by them, 1654, when the Dutch took possession, but were expelled by the French, 1677 ; taken by the British, Jan. 12, 1809 ; restored to the French at the treaty of Paris, May 30, 1814. I 3 8 CECILIA CEMETERIES CECILIA, ST, musical festival established in Rome by Clement VIII., 1599. CEDAR CREEK, battle. The Confederates defeated the Federals with the loss of 24 guns, but later in the day Gen. Sheridan renewed the battle and defeated the Confederates, capturing 54 guns and taking 1300 prisoners, Oct. 19, 1864. CEDAR MOUNTAIN, battle. The Confederates under Gen. Ewell and Jack- son defeated the Federal army under Gen. Pope, Aug. 9, 1862. CEDAR TREE, introduced into England, 1638 ; the red from N. America soon afterwards. The grove of trees known as the Cedars of Lebanon consisted of about 400 trees, 1 739, above 6400 ft above the level of the sea ; one measured 36 ft in circumference. The largest in England in the domain of the Earl of Pem- broke, 26 ft in circumference, planted, 1665. CELANO, Naples, inhabited by the Marsi, a most warlike people, and acknow- ledged to be the best soldiers in the Roman army ; they headed tne Social War against Rome, B. c. 92. The Emissarium or drain begun by Claudius, who em- ployed 30,000 men at his own cost, was finished and opened, 1240; restored by Mr Gregory, 1854-60, at a cost of ^2 17,000. CELEBES, E. Archipelago, colonized by the Portuguese, 1512, who were driven out by the Dutch, 1660 ; taken by the English, 1811 ; ceded to the Dutch, 1816. CELERY, said to have been introduced into England by Count Tallard, when a prisoner in England after the battle of Blenheim, 1 704. CELESTINES, a religious order founded by Celestine V., 1254; suppressed, 1778. CELIBACY, enjoined by St Anthony in the Christian Church, 305 ; the doctrine rejected by the council of Nice, 325 ; taught by Bishop Oswald, in England, 972 ; enforced at a synod held by Pope Gregory VII., 1074 ; the interdiction confined to Presbyteri, Diaconi, et Subdiaconi, in England, 1108 ; the penalty of disobedi- ence was made deprivation, 1138; confirmed, 1175. CELTIC SOCIETY instituted at Dublin, for the publication of ancient Celtic literature, 1845. CELTS, the aboriginal inhabitants of Gaul and Britain, described by Caesar. CEMETERIES, or public burying-places, established in London : Abney Park, 30 acres, opened, May 20, 1840. Bunhill Fields opened, 1665, and closed, 1852. General Cemetery Company established under the provisions of the 2 & 3 Will. IV. c. ex, July ii, 1832 ; amended, 2 & 3 Viet. c. v., May 14, 1839. Great Northern established, 18 & 19 Viet. c. clix, July 23, 1855. Highgate, 22 acres, consecrated and opened, May 20, 1839. Kensal Green, 53 acres, consecrated and opened, Nov. 2, 1832. London Necropolis and National Mausoleum Company, 350 acres, incorporated for establishing a cemetery at Woking, 15 & 16 Viet. c. cxlix., June 30, 1852 j amended, 18 & 19 Viet. c. clxiii, July 23, 1855. London Cemetery Company established, 6 & 7 Will. IV. c. cxxxvi., Aug. 17, 1836 ; amended, 6 & 7 Viet. c. xxxvi., May 31, 1843. London, the City of, at Ilford, erected pursuant to the 15 & 16 Viet. c. 85, July I, 1852 ; amended by the 20 & 21 Viet. c. 35, Aug. 10, 1857 ; laid out under the directions of Wm. Hay wood ; unconsecrated ground opened, June 24, 1856 ; consecrated, Nov. 16, 1857 ; additional ground consecrated, Aug. 5, 1862. Nunhead, Peckham, 50 acres, consecrated, July 29, 1840. Norwood, or the South Metropolitan, established, 6 & 7 Will. IV. c. cxxix., July 28, 1836; consecrated and opened, Dec. 6, 1837. Tower Hamlets, or the St Dunstan, Stepney, and St Leonards, Bromley, 30 acres, established, 4 & 5 Viet. c. Ixiii., June 21, 1841 ; consecrated and opened, Sept. 4, 1841. CENSORS CHALK FARM 139 Westminster and West London, Earl's Court, 39 acres, established, I Viet. c. cxxx, July 15, 1837 ; consecrated and opened, June 15, 1840. CENSORS. The first two created at Rome for five years, B.C. 442 ; reduced to one year and a half, B.C. 433 ; chosen from the plebeians, B.C. 131 ; next in rank to the dictator. CENSUS, the, established by Servius Tullus at Rome, B.C. circa 570. An act of parliament passed, 41 Geo. III. c. 15, Dec. 31, 1800, directed a census to be taken in England, 1801. CENTRAL CRIMINAL COURT, established for the trial of offenders, 4 & 5 Will. IV. c. 36, July 25, 1834, including Middlesex, and parts of Essex, Kent, and Surrey. Court House built, 1773 ; destroyed by the rioters, June 6, 1780; rebuilt, 1809; subsequently remodelled. CENTURY, a computation of time observed in ecclesiastical history, from the year of Christ I. First adopted in chronological history in France. CEPHALONIA, Mediterranean, taken by the Venetians, 1224 ; captured by the Turks, 1479 ; retaken by the Venetians, 1489; taken by the English, 1809. CEREMONIES, Master of the, an officer appointed to regulate court and public re- ceptions, 1627 ; Sir John Finett appointed by the King ; Beau Nash appointed to that office at Bath, 1 704. CEUTA, Africa, taken by John I., King of Portugal, from the Moors, 1415 ; an- nexed to the Spanish dominions, 1580; 200 houses blown down, Feb. 15, 1751. CEYLON, Indian Ocean. This island early known to the Greeks and Romans ; discovered by the Portuguese, 1506; the first settlement made by them, 1517; the Dutch attacked the settlement, 1630, and again, 1638, defeating the Portu- guese ; the island captured by the English, 1 795 ; the Dutch ceded the island to the English, 1796; massacre of the British at, June 26, 1803 ; the present form of government established, April, 1831, and March, 1833 ; rebellion broke out and suppressed with difficulty, 1843, and again, 1848; Sir Hercules G. R. Robin- son, knt. appointed governor, 1864. CH^RONEA, Greece. This town is celebrated in history as being the scene of three great battles : first, the Athenians defeated by the Boaotians, B.C. 447 ; second, the combined Athenians and Boeotians defeated by Philip, B.C. 338 ; third, the victory of Sulla, B. C. 86. CHAIN-BRIDGES, the first erected in England over the Tees, 1741 ; the finest specimen of this description of bridge built by Telford over the Menai Straits, 1820. CHAIN-CABLES, first used in the royal navy, 1812. CHAIN-PIER, the first erected at Brighton, by CapL Brown, 1822. CHAIN- PUMPS, first used on board ship, 1787. CHAIN-SHOT, invented by the Dutch admiral De Witt, 1666. CHAINS, hanging in, a punishment which came down among the rrrational customs which disgraced the Saxon ancestry of England ; it was abolished by William IV., 1834. CHAIRS, Sedan, covered vehicles for holding a single person ; introduced in Lon- don by Sir Sanders Duncomb, 1634 ; the sole privilege of making, using, and selling them granted to him for 14 years ; used by the Duke of Buckingham ; taxed, 1694 ; the number increased to 300, 10 Anne ; also by George I. to 400 ; several acts passed for the regulation of the chair-men, 1772, 1786, and 1787. CHALK FARM, Hampstead, Sir Edmundsbury Godfrey murdered in the fields at, 1678 ; Moore and Jeffrey fought a duel here, 1806. I 4 o CHALGRAVE LORD HIGH CHANCELLOR CHALGRAVE, Oxfordshire, battle. Made memorable by the death of the famous Hampden in a skirmish, June 18, 1643. CHALON-SUR-SAONE, France, Edward I., attended by 1000 men .at arms, was present at a tournament held here on his return from Palestine, 1273 ; dis- putes arising, the English attacked and defeated the French. The town invaded by the allies, 1814. CHALONS-SUR-MARNE, France, fortified by the Romans ; Tetricus defeated by Aurelian at this town, 273 ; Attila, king of the Huns, defeated by Ae'tius, 451; from the loth century formed a kind of independent state till 1360; cathedral built, 450 ; destroyed by fire and rebuilt, 1672. CHALUS, France. Richard I. was wounded in his shoulder with an arrow whilst besieging the castle of, March 26, 1199 ; died, April 8. CHAMBERLAIN. The office of Lord Chamberlain made hereditary in the family of De Vere in the reign of Henry I., noo ; descended to the family of D'Eresby, 1625. Chamberlain of the Household appointed, 1485. CHAMBER OF DEPUTIES, in France, established by Louis XVIII., June 4, 1814; dissolved, Sept. 5, 1816. CHAMBERY, Savoy, founded in the loth century ; remained under the feudal lords till 1230, when it was ceded to Thomas, first Count of Savoy, who built the castle, 1240; burnt, 1745, and again, 1798 ; restored, 1803 ; the town taken by the French, 1689 ; restored to Savoy, 1713 ; annexed to France, 1792 ; cap- tured by the Austrian s, 1814; restored, 1815 ; ceded to France with Savoy by treaty, March 24, 1860. CHAMBRE ARDENTE, in France, for the verification of all claims upon the government by public creditors, 1715; abolished, March, 1717- CHAMBRE DES COMPTES, appointed for financial business by Philip IV. of France ; became sedentary at Paris, 1319 ; suppressed, 1790- CHAMBRE DE L'EDIT, established by virtue of the edict of Nantes, 1598, to determine all causes between Protestants and Catholics ; suppressed by Louis XIV., 1669. CHAMOUNIX, Savoy, the village of, destroyed by fire, July 19, 1855. CHAMPION OF ENGLAND, anciently hereditary in the Marmion family; transferred to the Dymocke family by Richard II., 1377- CHANCELLOR, LORD HIGH, of England, the first lay office of the state after the royal blood. This office in ancient times was generally filled by an ecclesiastic. Maurice, Bishop of London, appointed Lord Chancellor, 1078 ; Sir Thomas More, the first who decided causes upon his own judgment, 1530 ; Sir Christopher Hatton, 1587 ; Lord Burleigh, 1591 ; Sir Francis Bacon, 1617: 1700 Sir Nathan Wright 1778 Lord Thurlow 1705 Hon. William Cowper 1793 Lord Loughborough 1707 Lord Cowper 1801 Lord Eldon 1710 Sir Simon Harcourt 1806 Hon. Thomas Erskine 1713 Lord Harcourt 1807 Lord Eldon 1718 Lord Parker 1827 Lord Lyndhurst 1725 Lord King 1830 Lord Brougham 1733 Hon. Charles Talbot 1834 Lord Lyndhurst 1737 Lord Hardwicke 1836 Lord Cottenham 1757 Lord Henley 1841 Lord Lyndhurst 1762 Lord Camden 1846 Lord Cottenham 1770 Hon. Charles Yorke 1850 Lord Truro 1771 Hon. Henry Bathurst 1852 Lord St Leonards LORD HIGH CHANCELLOR CHAPEL 141 1852 Lord Cranworth 1861 Lord Westbury 1858 Lord Chelmsford 1865 Lord Cranworth 1859 Lord Campbell 1 866 Lord Chelmsford The office of Lord Keeper and Chancellor united, 1562 ; Vice Chancellors appointed, 1813. CHANCELLOR, LORD HIGH, of Ireland, the first created by Richard I., 1186, Stephen Ridel. 1702 John Methuen 1 806 Hon. George Ponsonby 1703 Sir Richard Cox 1807 Lord Manners 1707 Richard Freeman 1827 Sir Anthony Hart 1714 Alan Brodrick 1830 Lord Plunket 1725 Richard West 1841 Baron Campbell 1726 Thomas Wyndham 1846 Hon. M. Brady 1739 Robert Jocelyn 1852 Hon. F. Blackburne 1757 Lord Bowes 1853 Hon. M. Brady 1761 James Hewitt 1858 Joseph Napier 1789 John Fitzgibbon, Earl of Clare 1859 Hon. M. Brady 1802 Baron Redesdale 1866 Hon. F. Blackburne CHANCELLORSHIP, LORD, of Scotland, abolished, 1708. CHANCELLORS of Oxford and Cambridge since the Revolution. Of Oxford: James Duke of Ormond, 1688; Earl of Arran, 1715 ; Earl of Westmoreland, 1759 ; Earl of Lichfield, 1762; Lord North, Earl of Guildford, 1772; Duke of Portland, 1792; Lord Grenville, 1809; Duke of Wellington, 1834; Earl of Derby, 1852. Of Cambridge: Duke of Somerset, 1688 ; Duke of Newcastle, 1748; Duke of Grafton, 1768; Duke of Gloucester, 1811 ; Prince Albert, 1847; Duke of Devonshire, 1861. CHANCELLORS OF THE EXCHEQUER. See Exchequer. CHANCELLORSVILLE, battle. The Confederates under Gen. R, E. Lee defeated the Federals, 80,000 strong, under Gen. Hooker ; in this battle Gen. Stonewall Jackson was killed ; the Federals lost 28,000 men, May I 3, 1863 ; again defeated, with great loss, May 5, 6, 1864. CHANCERY. A court for the petitions and supplication of the king's subjects, and to make out writs, &c., under the king's seal, established in the reign of King Ethelbert, 605. Sdden. But the reign of Alfred is more generally considered to be the more correct date. In the time of William I. it was a college of clerks, instituted to form and enrol the king's writs, patents, and commissions ; abolished by the Barebone's Parliament, 1653. The court remodelled by 15 & 16 Viet. c. 86, July I, 1852 ; and its practice amended, 16 & 17 Viet c. 98, Aug. 20, 1853. An act passed to facilitate the business in the chambers of the judges and the offices of the registrars and accountant-general, 30 & 31 Viet. c. 87, Aug. 12, 1867. CHANCERY, Masters in, appointed in the reign of Richard I.; abolished by 15 & 16 Viet. c. 80, June 30, 1852. CHANDERNAGORE, Hindustan, a factory established by the French, 1676 ; taken by Clive, March 23, 1757 ; restored, 1763 ; retaken, 1778 and 1793, and again, 1803 ; restored, 1814. CHANTING psalms in churches adopted, in imitation of the Temple worship in primitive times ; introduced into the Roman Catholic service by Gregory the Great, 602. CI \ APEL, Knights of the, the poor knights of Windsor, instituted by Edward III., 1348; re-established by Henry VIII., 1546; Elizabeth reconstructed the order, '559 > ^e name changed to the Military Knights of Windsor, 1833. i 4 2 CHAPLET CHARLESTON CHAPLET, a string of beads first used by the Romanists in reciting their prayers, 1094, and came into general use about 1213. CHARING, a small village, 1353 ; first joined by streets to London, about 1678 ; new buildings where it stood commenced, 1829. The Cross, in the village of Charing, one of the crosses Edward I. erected where the body of Queen Eleanor rested on its way to interment, 1291 ; it was destroyed by the Long Parliament, 1641 ; re-erected, 1865, by Barry. The statue of Charles I. placed at this spot, 1633 ; taken down, 1641 ; restored by Charles II. CHARING CROSS HOSPITAL, instituted, 1818; built, Sept. 15, 1831. CHARING CROSS RAILWAY, opened to Greenwich, Dec. i, 1863. CHARITABLE CORPORATION, the, instituted, 1708; abolished, 1734; bequests to aid to enforce fulfilment of, formed by statute, 1764; the present under an act of 1800 ; board of commissioners in Ireland for, 1825 the Roman Catholic board for, act passed, 1844. CHARITIES OF ENGLAND, endowed and known to exist, amounted to ji, 500,000 per annum, 1840. See Lowe's Charities. CHARITY COMMISSIONERS, appointed to inquire into the various charities of England, 1601 and 1853; the act amended, 1855. CHARITY SCHOOLS, in London, public, first founded, 1688; 6000 children assembled at St Paul's, May 2, 1782 ; 160 schools established within the bills of mortality between 1688 and 1767. CHARLEROI, Belgium, a Spanish fortress erected to overawe the Low Coun- tries, 1666-7; ceded to France, 1668; the Lower Town built by Louis XIV., 1676; the town besieged by the Prince of Orange, 1672, and again, 1677; restored to Spain, Sept. 17, 1678 ; captured by the French, June 26, 1794 ; near this place, at Ligny, Bonaparte drove back the Prussians upon Wavre, just before the battle of Waterloo, June 16, 1815. CHARLES I., the son of James I., born at Dunfermline, Nov. 19, 1600 ; ascended the throne, March 27, 1625 ; married Henrietta Maria, a French princess, June 13 ; conducted to England by the Duke of Buckingham, June 22 ; erected his standard at Nottingham, the signal of the civil war, Aug. 22, 1642 ; delivered by the Scots to the English commissioners, Jan. 30, 1647 ; beheaded before the banqueting-house, Whitehall, Jan. 30, 1648-9 ; buried at Windsor, Feb. 8. Public fast to be held annually on Jan. 30, in humiliation for the murder of, 12 Car. II. c. 30, 1660; repealed, 22 Viet. c. 2, March 25, 1859. CHARLES II., eldest son of the above, born at St James's Palace, May 29, 1630; succeeded to the throne de facto, May 29, 1660 ; married the Princess of Portugal, May 21, 1662 ; died, Feb. 2, 1685 ; buried at Westminster Abbey, Feb. 14. CHARLES III. of Spain, order of, founded by that king, 1771 ; confirmed by Pope Clement XIV., Feb. 21, 1772; abolished by Joseph Bonaparte, 1808; restored, 1814. CHARLESTON, Massachusetts, America, colonized by the English and French, 1680-90; injured by a storm, 1761; burned by the British, Jan. 17, 1775; British fleet repulsed with loss at, June 28, 1776 ; taken by the British, May 7, 1779; incorporated, 1847. CHARLESTON, S. Carolina, America, founded, 1672 ; chartered as a city, 1783 ; in- jured by an explosion, Aug. n, 1762; destroyed by a hurricane, Sept. 15, 1753; 250 houses burned, and the town much damaged, Jan. 15, 1778; taken by the English, May n, 1780; evacuated by them, 1783; partially destroyed by fire, May, 1796 ; negro insurrection at, 1822 ; the Federals attempted to block up the harbour by sinking 1 6 vessels laden with blocks of stone, Dec. 28, 1 86 1 ; Fort CHARLOTTE CHATHAM DOCKYARD 143 Sumter surrendered to the South, Jan. 13, 1861 ; first attack upon, by the Federal fleet commanded by Commodore Ingraham, they were driven off, Feb., 1863 ; a second attack was made by Adm. Dupont, unsuccessfully, April 7 ; third attack under Gen. Gilmore, Morris Island taken, July 13, 1863 ; Fort Wagner bom- barded by the fleet for 12 hours; the assaults of the army defeated with a loss of 2000 killed and wounded, July 18 ; Fort Sumter bombarded by the fleet and batteries on Morris Island, and reduced to a ruin, but the Federals failed to capture it, Aug. 1 7 22 ; Greek fire thrown five miles into the city, Aug. 24 ; Forts Wagner and Gregg evacuated, Sept. 6 ; occupied by the Federals, 200 guns and a large quantity of cotton captured, Feb. 17, 1865 ; a fire broke out, which destroyed 500 bales of cotton and several hundred prisoners, Feb. 17, 1865. CHARLOTTE, the Royal, a man-of-war of 100 guns, burned by accident at Leg- horn, and only 150 of the crew saved, March 1 6, 1800. CHARLOTTE'S, Queen, Island, S. Pacific, discovered by Capt. Wallis, 1767; a cluster with the same name discovered by Capt. Cartaret, 1767. CHARTA, MAGNA, the great charter, extorted by the barons from King John, at a spot called Runnemede, five miles east of Windsor, June 5, 1215. CHARTER-HOUSE, or Chartreuse, founded by Sir Walter Manny, Knt., as a monastery of Carthusian monks, 1341 ; dissolved by Henry VI II.; sold by Lord Suffolk to Thomas Sutton, May 9, 1611, for .13,000; instituted as a hospital and school by Thomas Sutton, June 22, 1611 ; first meeting of the governors, June 30, 1613 ; opened, Oct., 1614 ; an act passed for removing the school into the country, 30 & 31 Viet. c. viii., Aug. 17, 1867. CHARTERS, the first granted by English kings to their subjects were those called ' of rights,' by Edward the Confessor and Henry I., 1 100. The rights and privi- leges of Magna Charta renewed by Henry IV., and many times confirmed. Charters to corporations were given by William I., 1067. CHARTISTS, the name of a party of political agitators in a humble way of life, whose views were developed in a document called 'The People's Charter,' which was agreed to by them, Aug. 6, 1838 ; presented to parliament, June 14, 1839 ; various disturbances occurred, 1848 ; meeting called at Kennington Common, April 10, 1848, but prevented by the authorities ; the Duke of Wellington in command of the forces to be employed in case of riot ; arrest of 20 of the ringleaders, Aug. 1 6 ; trial of, at the Old Bailey, Dowling, Cufley, Fay, and others, transported for life, Sept. 30, 1848. CHARTRES, France, the ancient capital of the Camutes and Celtic Gauls, at the Roman invasion; fortified in the nth century; taken by the English, and held by them until 1432; taken by Henri IV., 1591. CHARTS, first introduced into the marine service by Prince Henry, son of John I., king of Portugal, about 1400 ; brought to England by Bartholomew Columbus, 1489 ; Mercator published a chart showing the meridians and parallels of latitude, 1556. CHASSEPOT RIFLE, invented by M. Alphonse Antoine Chassepot, 1866 ; the French army ordered to be armed with them, Aug. 30. CHATHAM ADMINISTRATIONS, the first formed, 1757 ; the second formed, July 30, 1766 ; terminated, Dec., 1767. Statue erected to the Earl, in the Guild- hall of the city of London, 1 782. CHATHAM DOCKYARD, begun by Queen Elizabeth, circa 1580; removed to its present situation by Charles I., 1622. The Dutch fleet under Adm. De Ruyter attacked Upnor Castle, and attempted to get into Chatham, but failed, after burn- ing several vessels, June 10, 1667. A number of houses destroyed by fire, May II, 144 CHATHAM ISLANDS CHEMISTRY AND DISTILLATION 1774. A charitable foundation, called the Sea Chest, instituted by Queen Eliza- beth, for the relief of wounded seamen, 1558 ; removed, July, 1803. CHATHAM ISLANDS, discovered by Capt. Broughton of His Majesty's ship Chatham, Nov., 1791. CHATILLON, Congress of, held by the four great powers allied against France, Feb. 4, 1814 ; negotiations broken off, March 18. CHATSWORTH, Derby. The castle built by William Cavendish, 1580 ; Mary Queen of Scots confined in, 1570 ; Sir John Gell held it for the Parliament, but capitulated, Dec., 1643 ; it withstood the siege of 400 Parliamentarians under Col. Gell, for 14 days, Oct., 1645. The princely mansion of the Duke of Devon- shire was begun, April 12, 1687, and completed, 1706 ; upon the site of the castle the waterworks constructed, 169093 ; entertained the King of Denmark here, Sept. 3, 1768, and Duke Nicholas of Russia, Dec. 8 and 9, 1816. CHATTANOOGA, America, evacuated by the Confederates, Sept. 10, 1863 ; the Federals defeated at, with a loss of 10,000 men, Sept. 19 21, 1863 : this is called the battle of Chicamauga. CHAUCER SOCIETY, established for the publication of the text of this poet's works, Jan., 1867. CHAUMONT, treaty of, concluded between the allies and Napoleon, March I, 1814. CHEAPSIDE CROSS, one of Queen Eleanor's crosses, built by Alexander Abing- don ; re-edified by John Hatherly, 1441 ; regilt, 1522 ; demolished, May 2, 1643. CHEATS, law enacted against, 1542 ; at play, to be punished as in cases of per- jury, 9 Anne, 1711. CHEESE. By the statute 9 Hen. VI. c. 8, 1430-31, the weight of a wey of cheese was ordered to contain 32 cloves, and every clove to contain 7 Ib. CHELM, Poland, 375 houses and warehouses burned, May 4, 1788. CHELMSFORD, Essex, bridge built over the Chelmer by Bishop Maurice, lioo ; church fell down, Jan. 17, 1800; prison built, 1777. CHELSEA, Middlesex. Pope Adrian's legates assembled a synod here upon the question of religious reformation in England, 785. The hospital built from the designs of Sir C. Wren; the foundation-stone was laid by Charles II., March, 1682; cost ,150,000. The college founded by King James I., May 8, 1610. The garden of physic given by Sir Hans Sloane to the Apothecaries' Company, 1721. The water- works incorporated, 1 722. The Military Asylum founded by the Duke of York, June 19, 1801. Suspension bridge, leading to Battersea Park, opened, March 28, 1858. CHELTENHAM, Gloucester, derives its importance from the mineral springs ; the oldest discovered, 1716 ; the old chalybeate spa opened, 1803 ; the Cambray dis- covered, 1807 ; the Alstone spa opened, 1809. The town of, injured by a storm, June, 1731 ; visited by George III., July 12, 1788; new theatre erected, 1804; new wells sunk by Thompson, 1806 ; magnesian salt discovered at, 1811 ; made a borough under the Reform Bill, 1832 ; the grand stand broke down on the race- course at the spring meeting, April 13, 1866, when 300 persons were buried in the debris, many being severely wounded. CHEMISTRY AND DISTILLATION, introduced into Europe by the Moors, 1 1 50, who obtained the art from Egypt. Hydraulic chemistry invented, 1 746. Many important discoveries since made ; the latest by Messrs Bunsen and Kirch- hofif, by means of the spectrum analysis. Dr Miller's recent publication of the Elements of, 1862, and Watts's Dictionary, 1866, are the best works upon this im- portant branch of science. The Royal College of, instituted, 1845. The Chemical Society of London, instituted, 1841. Journal of the Society published, 1842. CHEPSTOW CHESTER 145 CHEPSTOW, Monmouthshire. The castle built by William Fitzosbome, Earl of Hereford, 1070 ; besieged but not taken by the Parliamentarians, 1645 ; Henry Martin, the regicide, imprisoned here. Boat near the town upset, and five ladies and gentlemen drowned, Sept. 22, 1812 ; Howick farm, near, burned, Oct., 1815. C H ERBOU RG, France, captured by the English under Henry V. after a three months' siege, 1418 ; retaken by Charles VII., 1450 ; naval engagement between the English and French, May 19, 1692, off Cape la Hogue, the latter defeated, losing 21 vessels ; forts and arsenal of, destroyed, June 7, 1758 ; works at, resumed by Louis XVI. ; breakwater at, begun, 1781. Napoleon I. converted the bay into an arsenal of the highest rank ; opened by the Empress Maria Louisa, 1813 ; works of, proof against any armament whatever, 1850 ; further strengthened by Napoleon III., and the docks opened, Aug. 5, 1858, in the presence of the Queen and Prince Albert ; naval action off, between the Kearsage and the Alabama, June 20, 1864 ; visit of the English Fleet to, Aug. 14, 1865 ; banquet to, Aug. 15. CHEROKEES, a nation of Indians in N. America ; their territories surrendered by treaty, 1 729 ; seven chiefs visited England, 1 730 ; three in 1 762. CHERRIES, introduced from Pontus to Rome, B.C. 70 ; first planted in England, loo ; peculiar kind brought from Flanders into Kent, 1540, from the Canary Is- lands to Affane, in Ireland, by Sir Walter Raleigh. CHERTSEY ABBEY, Surrey, founded by Frithwald, Earl of Surrey, 666. CHESAPEAKE BAY, N. America, first settlement founded, 1607. CHESAPEAKE, battle, between the British and French, when the former were forced to retire, 1781 ; bay of, blockaded by the English, 1812 ; American frigate so called, struck to the Shannon, June I, 1813. CHESS, game of, invented by the Hindoos at a very early period ; afterwards adopted by the Persians, B. C. 680 ; introduced into England in the 5th century. Caxton's Game of Chess published, 1474 ; the celebrated Philidor, who played two games at once blindfolded, died in London, 1 795 ; automaton chess-player exhibited in London, 1822 ; a game played by telegraph between Mr Staunton in Gosport and several players in London, April 10, 1845. CHESS CLUBS. The first met at Slaughter's coffee-house, St Martin's Lane, 1 747 ; shortly after another was founded at the Salopian coffee-house, Charing Cross ; and a few years later another at the Thatched House Tavern, St James's Street. The London Chess Club (1807) formerly met at Tom's coffee-house, Birchin Lane, Comhill. St George's Club in Cavendish Square, 1841, since re- moved to 53, St James's Street. CHESTER, Bishopric ; a bishop of Lichfield once removed to Chester, 1072, and occasioned his successors to be called bishops of Chester and Coventry ; not made a distinct bishopric till the dissolution of the monasteries, 1541. Cathedral part of the abbey church of St Werburgh founded, 670 ; enlarged, 1120, part Saxon, 372 ft long, 74 ft broad. CHESTER, England. The Roman occupation began, A.D. 46, and ceased, 446, when it reverted to the Britons ; taken by the Saxons, 828 ; destroyed by the Danes, 895. The castle built by Hugh de Lupus, 1080 ; the Earl of Derby after- wards ; Henry IV. confined in, 1580-99 ; Richard II., and also Margaret, Count- ess of Richmond, confined here ; rebuilt, 1790 ; suffered greatly from the plague, 1634 ; besieged by Sir W. Brereton, 1645, the garrison being commanded by Lord Byron ; the Royalists under Sir Marmaduke Langdale defeated, Feb. 3, 1646 ; surprised by Sir George Booth, 1659. St John's church built, 689 ; water tower, 1322 ; nearly destroyed by fire, 1471 ; fatal gunpowder explosion at, Nov. 5, 1 772, by which many persons were killed ; the Exchange and Town-hall erected, 1695-8 ; burnt, Dec. 30, 1862 ; threatened attack by the Fenians upon the castle defeated, Feb. u, 1867 ; opening of Grosvenor Park, by the Marquis of West- 10 146 .CHETHAM SOCIETY CHILTERN HUNDREDS minster, who presented it to the town with a rent charge of a .100 a year to keep it in repair, Nov. 6, 1867 ; the courts of, regulated by 30 & 31 Viet. c. 36, July IS, 1867. CHETHAM SOCIETY, instituted for the publication of historical and literary re- mains connected with the Palatine counties of Lancaster and Chester, 1843. First work published in 1844. CHEVAUX DE FRISE, first employed at the siege of Grcningen, 165^. CHICAHOMINY, battles. The Federal army under Gen. McClellan, and the Confederate commanded by Gen. Lee ; the former defeated in five battles, losing 20,000 men, killed and wounded, 53 pieces of artillery, and immense stores of every description, June 25, 26, 29, 30, and July I, 1862. CHICAMAUGA, battles. The Federals under Gen. Rosencrans were defeated by the Confederates commanded by Gen. Bragg, with a loss of 10,000 men, Sept. 19, 20, 1863 ; the Confederates captured 7000 prisoners, 36 pieces of artillery, and 15,000 small arms. CHICHESTER, Sussex, a city of remote antiquity, destroyed by the Saxons, 491 ; rebuilt by Cissa, 540 ; the city taken by the Parliamentarians, 1643 ; the fortifi- cations destroyed by order of the Long Parliament, 1648 ; the cathedral erected, 1108 ; destroyed by fire, 1114 ; rebuilt, 1125 ; again burned with the city, 1189 ; rebuilt by Seffrid, 1199; the central tower erected by Bishop Neville, 1222; Saxon and Gothic, 386 ft long, 92 ft broad ; spire 271 ft high, erected, 1387 ; blown down, Feb. 21, 1861 ; and rebuilt by Gilbert Scott, 1865-6 ; made a bishopric at Selsey, 709 ; removed by Stigand, the 23rd bishop, to Chichester, 1070. CHICCJRY came into use in Germany and France in the I7th century ; introduced into England, 1808 ; import duty the same as colonial coffee, 1832 ; permitted to be sold mixed with coffee, 1840 ; soon after cultivated in England ; permission to sell mixed with coffee rescinded, 1852, but ultimately allowed to be mixed, but to be labelled a mixture of chicory and coffee ; the duty upon, fixed at 6s. per cwt, 1860; increased to 12s., 1861. CHIGNONS, a description of how to fasten on this false hair published in 1782. This barbarous fashion revived in 1 866. CHILDREN, English, forbidden to be sold by their parents for slaves, by Canute, 1017. Hospital for, instituted, 1851. Home for convalescent, opened, 1858. CHILHAM CASTLE, Kent, built by Fulbert, 1085, and rebuilt by Sir Dudley Digges, 1616. CHILI, S. America, discovered by Almagro, 1535 j partly subdued, 1546; the struggle with the Spaniards closed by a treaty, 1722 ; revolted against the Spanish power, 1772; declared their independence, Sept. 18, 1810 ; invaded by the Royal troops, 1813 ; defeated these forces, Feb. 12, 1817 ; their independence recog- nized, 1823; fresh outbreak of factions, 1826; peace restored, 1852; commercial treaty with Gt Britain, Oct. 4, 1856 ; Don Perez elected president, Sept. 7, 1861 ; declared war against Spain, Sept. 29, 1865 ; the church of La Compania, at San- tiago, burnt with 2000 persons, Dec. 8, 1865. CHILLI AN WALL AH, battle, in India, Jan. 13, 1849 ; the Sikhs were beaten, but not without prodigious loss on the part of the British army, from an attack made too precipitately ; 26 officers were killed, 66 wounded, and 73 1 men killed, and 1446 wounded.; the Sikh loss was far more considerable. CHILLINGHAM CASTLE, Northumberland. The seat of the Hebburns, temp. John, 1200; three of the towers rebuilt, temp. Henry III., 1230. Altered by Inigo Jones, about 1652 ; it passed into the possession of Lord Ossulton by mar- riage, 1695. CHILTERN HUNDREDS. The Chiltern Hills are a range of chalk eminences, CHIMNEYS CHINA 147 separating the counties of Bedford and Hertford, passing through the middle of Bucks, from Tring in Hertfordshire to Henley in Oxfordshire. An officer, called the Steward, appointed to put down the robbers who took up their abode here, in later years ; a member of the House of Commons, not in any respect disqualified, can only vacate his seat by accepting some nominal office ; hence the Stewardship of the Chiltern Hundreds, in the gift of the Chancellor of the Exchequer, is given to a member who desires to vacate his seat. The practice begun about 1 750. CHIMNEYS, first introduced into England, 1200, and confined to kitchen and hall, there often being but one, and that generally in the middle of the building, in 1300, after which they became more common. A tax levied upon, called hearth-money, 13 & 14 Car. II. c. 10, 1662 ; abolished, I Will & Mary, c. IO, 1688. CHIMNEY-SWEEPERS, act to regulate the trade, 1789; the statute repealed, and regulations passed respecting, 1834 ; no apprentices to be taken by masters under sixteen years of age, 3 & 4 Viet. c. 85, Aug. 7, 1840; after July, 1842, no one to enter a chimney under 21 years of age ; more stringent regulation made by 27 & 28 Viet. c. 37, June 30, 1864. CHINA, Asia. This ancient kingdom visited by the Portuguese, 1517 ; 15 times as large as England and Ireland, with as many inhabitants as all Europe ; said to have been an empire 2500 years before Christ ; the history becomes distinct, B.C. 700, or about 651 ; Confucius flourished there, B.C. 551 ; great wall completed, B.C. 211 ; the art of block printing known, B.C. 202 ; creed of Tao-tsi general, B.C. 15 ; religion of Fo introduced, A.D. 65 ; Nankin the capital, 420 ; Nestorian Christians admitted, 635 ; extirpated, 845 ; seat of government transferred to Pekin, 1260 ; the great Yu Ho canal commented, 1400 ; Europeans arrived at Canton, 1517 ; Macao granted as a settlement to the Portuguese, 1537 ; Jesuit missionaries sent there by the pope, 1576 ; conquered by the Eastern Tartars, 1649 ; earth- quake at Pekin destroys 300,00x3 persons, 1662 ; the Jesuits preach Christianity, 1662 ; are expelled, 1724; Russia permitted to trade, 1689; a Russian embassy visited, 1693; the East India Company settled a factory here, 1699; a treaty concluded with Russia, 1727 ; a second earthquake destroying 100,000 persons at Pekin, and 80,000 in a suburb ; a shot from one of the India ships was accidentally fired and a native killed, the gunner was demanded, given up, and strangled, 1785 ; Macartney's embassy to, Sept. 14, 1793 ; ordered away, Oct. 3, 1 793 ; reached England, Sept. 6, 1 794 ; the first American Consul received at Canton, 1802; edict against Christians, 1812 ; Lord Amherst's embassy, 1816 ; refused the court ceremony of the Kou-tou, and returned ; exclusive rights of East India Company to cease, April 22, 1834 ; free-trade ships first sail for England with tea, April 25, 1834 ; Lord Napier arrived as a resident superintendent, July 25, 1834 ; died Oct. II ; affray between two English vessels and natives, several Chinese killed, Sept. 5, 1834 ; opium trade interdicted by the Chinese, Nov. 3, 1834 ; Argyle ship and crew seized by the Chinese, Jan. 31, 1835 ; opium burned at Canton by the Chinese, Feb. 23, 1835 ; Sir F. Maitland arrived at Macao, July 12, 1838; an edict issued to seize opium, by Lin, March 18, 1839 ; British residents forbidden to leave Canton, March 19, 1839 ; factories outraged, March 24, 1839; the resident, Capt. Elliot, required British subjects to deliver to him all their opium, promising full value for it from the government, March 27, 1839 ; half is given up as contraband to the Chinese, April 20, 1839, and the rest, 20,283 chests, afterwards surrendered, May 21 ; the resident and merchants left Canton, May 24, 1839 ; a native killed in an affray between the natives and the British and American seamen, July 7, 1839 ; a British boat attacked by the natives, and the crew murdered, Aug. 24, 1839 ; British merchants left Macao, Aug. 26, 1839 ; Junks, 28 in all, attacked two British frigates, and several blown up, Nov. 3, 1839 ; British trade stopped by an imperial edict, Dec. 6, 1839, and for ever, Jan. 148 CHINA 5, 1840 ; Hellas ship of war attacked, May 22, 1840; fire-rafts sent against the British vessels, June 9, 1840; Canton blockaded by the British, June 28, 1840; city and island of Chusan captured by the English forces under Gen. Burrell, Aug. 5, 1840 ; Mr Stanton seized and carried to Canton, Aug. 6, 1840 ; Capt. Elliot, in a steamer, entered the Pei-ho river, near Pekin, Aug. II, 1840 ; crew of the Kite shipwrecked, with captain's wife on board, and confined in cages, Sept. 15, 1840 ; the mandarin Lin degraded ; negotiations commenced, Nov. 6, 1840 ; Mr Stanton released, Nov. 10, 1840 ; negotiations broken off, Jan. 6, 1841 ; Chu-en- pe and Tae-coc-tow taken with 173 guns ; Hong-kong ceded to the English, and 6,000,000 of dollars agreed to be paid to England within ten days, Jan. 20, 1841 ; formal possession of Hong-kong taken, Jan. 26, 1841 ; the treaty rejected at Pekin, Feb. u, 1841 ; hostilities resumed, Feb. 22, 1841 ; Bogue Forts taken, with 459 guns, and Adm. Kwan killed ; the British sail up to Canton, March I, 1841 ; the commissioner Keshen degraded, March 12, 1841 ; a Chinese boat flotilla destroyed ; Canton threatened ; the foreign factories seized, and 461 guns taken, March 18, 1841 ; new commissioners arrived from Pekin at Canton, April 14, 1841 ; Canton taken, and ransomed for 6,000,000 dollars, 5,000,000 paid down, and the British forces withdrawn, June I, 1841 ; trade re-opened, July 16, 1841 ; Sir Henry Pottinger arrived ; Capt. Elliot superseded, Aug. 10, 1841 ; Amoy taken, and 296 guns destroyed, Aug. 26, 1841 ; Bogue Forts destroyed, Sept. 14, 1841 ; city of Zing-hae taken, and Chusan occupied, Oct. I, 1841 ; Chin-hae taken, Oct. 10, and Ning-po, Oct. 13, 1841 ; three other towns cap- tured, Dec. 28 ; a Chinese army of 12,000 men attacked Ning-po, and were routed, March 10, 1842; again Sooo near Tsze-kee, March 15, 1842; Chapoo defences destroyed, May 18, 1842 ; the British ships enter the river Kiang, June 13, 1842 ; Woosung taken, June 16, 1842, and Shang-hai, June 19 ; the squad- ron anchored near the Golden Island, July 20, 1842 ; the city of Chin-keang-foo taken, where the Tartar general and many of his garrison committed suicide, July 21, 1842 ; the advanced ships reach the city of Nankin, Aug. 4, 1842 ; and the disembarkation of troops commenced, Aug. 9, 1842 ; Key-ing arrived to treat for peace, Aug. 15, 1842 ; treaty of peace signed before Nankin, on board the Corn- wallis, by Sir H. Pottinger for England, Key-ing, and Neu-kian for China, Aug. 29, 1842 ; China to pay 21,000,000 of dollars, part down, and the rest within three years, and the island of Hong-kong ceded in perpetuity ; five ports of China to be open to England, &c., and ratified by the emperor, Sept. 8, 1842 ; by Queen Victoria exchanged with the emperor, July 22, 1 843 ; the commercial treaty or tariff adjusted, Oct. 8, 1843 ; a supplementary treaty signed, April 4, 1846 ; Hong- Kong made the government station, June 26, 1843 ; Bougue Forts taken by the British to obtain redress for insults, April 5, 1847 ; a dreadful typhoon visited Hong- Kong, looo boat-dwellers drowned in the Canton river, Oct., 1848 ; a great piratical fleet of 37 sail under Shapng-tsai, destroyed by the fleet under Com- mander Hayes, Jan. 21, 1850 ; death of the Emperor Faou-kwan, Feb. 25, 1850 ; the steam-ship Medea destroyed 13 pirate junks in the Chinese seas, March 4, 1850; the Taeping rebellion broke out, Oct. 3, 1850; a fleet of pirate junks destroyed by H.M.S. Columbine and Fury, in the Bay of Tonquin ; the Tae- ping rebels defeated, April II, 1851 ; they took Woo-chang, Jan. 12, 1853, and Amoy, March 18 ; captured Shang-hai, Sept. 7 ; defeated by the Imperialists at Canton, March 6, 1854 ; Woo-chang taken, June 26, 1856 ; a Lorcha, or small trading vessel under the British flag, seized by the Chinese authorities ; this led to the second war, Oct. 8, 1 856 ; Canton attacked by the English on account of the seizure of this vessel, Oct. 24, 1856 ; the city taken, but the troops withdrawn at sunset, Oct. 29 ; bombarded by the fleet, Nov. 8 ; the Bogue Forts taken, Nov. 13 ; the Anhunghoy Fort, Nov. 13 ; the factories destroyed, Dec. 14, by the natives ; Canton burnt by the Chinese, Jan. 6, 1857 ; an attempt to destroy all the Europeans with poisoned bread at Hong-Kong, Jan. 15 j the celebrated CHINA CHITORE 149 Porcelain tower destroyed, Feb. 10 ; the whole fleet of war junks destroyed in the Canton river, May 14 ; Canton attacked by the fleet, June 12 ; the Earl of Elgin appointed special Ambassador, April 21, 1857; arrived at Hong-Kong, July ; the French Ambassador, Baron Gros, arrived on Dec. 28 ; Canton captured by the allied fleets, Dec. 29 ; Commissioner Yeh taken prisoner, Jan. 5 ; arrived at Calcutta, March 19, 1858; conference at Shanghai, of the representatives of Great Britain, France, Russia, and the United States, the reply of the Chinese govern- mentnot being satisfactory it was resolved to proceed to Tien-tsin, March 30, 1858; forts at the mouth of the Peiho taken by the allies, May 19, 1858 ; the passage of the river forced, May 21 ; the city of Ningpo taken by the rebels, May 31, 1858 ; treaty of Tien-tsin signed, June 26 ; Fort Namtow destroyed, Aug. 1 1 ; treaty with Russia signed, June 13, 1859 ; the allied fleet repulsed at the entrance of the Peiho river, on their way to Pekin, and lost 450 men, June 25, 1859 ; Baron Gros and Lord Elgin arrived at Hong-Kong, June 21 ; the Taku forts at the mouth of the Peiho taken by the allies, Aug. 21 ; Tien-tsin occupied, Aug. 23 ; the army proceeded to Pekin, Sept. 9 ; Commissioner Parkes, de Norman, and Bowlley ( Times' correspondent), and party of 26, treacherously made prisoners under a flag of truce, Sept. 18 ; their release demanded ; the Summer Palace of the emperor sacked, Oct. 6 ; Mr Parkes and 1 7 prisoners given up, Oct. 8, and the bodies of de Norman, Anderson, and the Times' correspondent, Oct 1 6 ; the allies arrived before Pekin, Oct. 12 ; the Chinese Government submits and peace concluded, Oct. 24 ; the allied forces left Pekin, Nov. 5 ; treaty concluded between China and Russia, Nov. 14 ; Mr Bruce took up his residence at Pekin ; the Imperialists defeated with a loss of 10,000 men, May, 1860 ; Soo-chow cap- tured by the Tae-pings, under Chung- Wang, May 24 ; and Hang-chow taken ; proclamation of the English consul to defend Shanghai, May 26 ; the rebels defeat a small European force under Ward, Aug. 2 ; attacked Shanghai, Aug. 18, 19, unsuccessfully ; Hwang-chow captured by them, March 18, 1861 ; the Emperor Hein-fung died at Je-hol, Tartary, Aug. 21 ; Ki-Tsiang succeeded to the throne, Aug. 22, 1861 ; the coup d'etat of Prince Kung, Nov. 2 ; the rebels capture Ningpo, Dec. 9 ; an allied force proceeded against the Tae-pings and de- feated them at Shanghai, March I, 1862; they retake Nekio, May 17; Macao ceded to the Portuguese, Aug. 13 ; the rebels defeated with great loss at Nakin, their leader Tieng-wang killed, July 19, 1864; Sir Richard R. Alcock, K.C.B., appointed Envoy Extraordinary and chief superintendent of British trade, April II, 1865 ; the Imperialsts defeated the rebels with great loss, 1866. CHINA APPLE, brought to England, 1780. CHINA ROSE, or Rosa Indica, first planted successfully in England, 1786, being brought from Asia. CHIN-KEANG-FOO, China, captured by the English, July 21, 1842 ; taken by the Tae-pings, April i, 1853. CHINSURA, Hindustan, taken by the English, 1795 ; restored to the Dutch, 1814 ; ceded to England, March 17, 1824. CHIPPEWA, battle of, the British troops under Gen. Riall defeated by the Americans under Gen. Browne, July 5, 1814 ; the Americans defeated by the British, July 25. CHIPPENHAM, Wilts, seized by the Danes, 878 ; made a chartered town, 1554 ; its privileges taken away by Charles II., 1684 ; restored by James II., 1685. CHISHALL, or Great Chishall, Essex, upwards of 100 houses damaged at, Feb. 22, 1798. CHITORE, Hindustan, taken by the Emperor of Delhi, 1303 ; surrendered to Bahadur Shah, King of Guzerat, 1533 ; captured by the Emperor Akbar, 1567, after the defenders had sacrificed their women and children j retaken by the 150 CHITTLEDROOG CHOLERA MORBUS chief of Odeypoor, 1680 ; 63 temples being destroyed, taken and held by the Bheem Singh for some years afterwards ; restored to the Rana of Odeypoor, 1790. CHITTLEDROOG, Hindustan, Hyder Ali besieged this town, but unsuccessfully, 1776, but obtained possession by bribery, 1779. CHITTOOR, Hindustan, assaulted and taken by Hyder Ali, 1780; retaken by Sir Eyre Coote, Nov. 10, 1781 ; ceded to the British, 1801. CHIVALRY, its connection with the crusades, noo; it declined very much during the reigns of King John and Henry III., but revived under Edward I., 1274; courts of, established in Europe as early as 900, and extended their jurisdiction over all matters of courtesy, and honour, and knighthood ; authority denned by 13 Rich. II., 1389. CHLORINE, discovered by Scheele, 1774; Gay Lussac and Thenard published their experiments, 1809 ; Mr F. Smith invented an apparatus for making it, 1847. CHLOROFORM, discovered, 1832 ; first used by Dr Simpson, of Edinburgh, as an anaesthetic agent, 1848. CHOBHAM, Surrey, Camp at, first formed, June 14, 1853 ; the troops reviewed at, by Her Majesty Victoria and the King of Hanover, June 21. CHOCOLATE, introduced into Europe, from Mexico, 1520 ; sold in the London coffee-houses, 1650. CHOCOPE, S. America. A violent rain visited this town for 40 nights, from five o'clock in the evening till about the same hour in the morning, 1 726 ; a similar phenomenon occurred for 12 days, 1728. CHOLERA MORBUS, or 'Indian Cholera,' to distinguish it from the English dis- ease called Cholera, is said to have appeared first at Jessore, in Bengal, 1817 ; from thence it travelled south-\vest to the Mauritius, 1819 ; south-east to Timor, which it reached, 1823, by Rangoon, Sumatra, and Java ; Manilla, 1820; Pekin, 1821, by way of Tonkin, Canton, and Nankin ; visiting most of the large towns of Hindustan, it reached Lahore by Delhi, 1827 ; and thence through Cabul to Oranburg, which it visited, 1823, 1827, 1829, and 1830, but does not appear to have passed westward from thence. From Bombay, 1818 and 1830, it was traced up the Persian Gulf to Ispahan and Yezd in one direction, and so north- wards to Teflis, 1830, and to Astracan, 1823 and 1830; whence it travelled to Odessa, 1830; to Moscow, 1830; to Dantzic and Warsaw, 1831 ; and from Dantzic to Hamburg. A second branch of its Bombay career passed to Bassora, 1821, Bagdad, Aleppo,- and Damascus. In England it appeared first at Sunder- land, as supposed via Hamburg, Oct. 26, 1831 ; vessels from Sunderland arriv- ing at the Nore were ridiculously ordered to perform quarantine, Dec. 4, 1831, while the roads on shore were open for passengers as usual ; the disease appeared in Edinburgh first on Feb. 6, 1832 ; it was first observed at Rotherhithe and Limehouse, in London, Feb. 13, and in Dublin, March 3, 1832 : the mortality was considerable, but not at all equal to that on the Continent. It reached Paris between March and Aug., 1832, and 18,000 were destroyed by it. It raged in Rome, the Two Sicilies, Genoa, Berlin, and other European localities, July and Aug., 1837. In 1848-9, the cholera again visited England ; the number of deaths in London for the week ending Sept. 15, 1849, was 3183, the average being only 1008 ; the number of deaths by cholera alone, from June 17 to Oct. 2, in the same year, was in London, 13,161 ; then the mortality sank and finally terminated about Oct. 13, 1849 ; total number of deaths 14,497 ; visited England, 1853-4 > finally ceased, 1856 ; Paris, 1865 ; revisited London with great violence, ,70,000 collected by the Lord Mayor for the relief of the sufferers, July and Aug., 1866. In Sicily, 1837, the 7th of June to 6th of Aug., the number of deaths amounted to 23,546; till the 1st of July an account was kept of the number of cases, but CHRISM CHRISTIANITY 151 after that the disorder raged with such fury that it was scarcely possible to register even the deaths. At the first appearance of the pestilence, Palermo contained 200,000 inhabitants, including strangers ; about 40,000 fled, so that if the deaths are considered with respect to the 160,000 souls that remained, it appears that in two months more than a seventh part of the whole population died. Of the higher classes and church dignitaries, 120 fell victims ; among these were Marchese Artale, President of the Supreme Court of Appeal, and the celebrated Abbate Scina ; of the parochial clergymen of Palermo only one survived, and of the nuns of the convent of Martorana not one remained alive. CHRISM, the consecrated oil used in the Primitive Church, St James v. 14 ; certain perfumes were infused in the liquid, 1541 ; it was ordered at one time that oil and balsam alone should be used, the one to represent Christ's human nature, the other his divine, 1596. CHRIST, order of knighthood of, in Portugal, 1317 ; confirmed by Pope John XXII., March 14, 1319. CHRIST'S COLLEGE, Oxford, founded by Cardinal Wolsey, 1524; the library completed, 1761 ; damaged by fire to the extent of ^12,000, March 3, 1809; several ordinances made for the government of, repealed by 30 & 31 Viet. c. 76, Aug. 12, 1867. CHRIST'S COLLEGE, Cambridge, founded 1442 ; endowed by Margaret, Countess of Richmond, 1505. CHRIST'S HOSPITAL, London, founded, 1552, upon the site of the monastery of the Grey Friars ; the charter of, foundation of Edward VI., is dated June 26, 1553 ; a mathematical ward added by Charles II., 1673. The Hertford branch- school founded, 1683 ; the New Infirmary, London, added, 1822 ; the first stone of the New Hall laid by the Duke of York, April 28, 1825 ; the site of Giltspur- street Compter purchased for a playground, 1858. See Bluecoat School. CHRIST'S PRIORY, Hants, built, 1060 ; converted from a secular canonry by Earl Baldwin, 1150. CHRIST'S THORN, a shrub brought from the south of Europe before 1596 ; by the superstitious believed to be of the same kind with which the Saviour was crowned. CHRISTIAN, the name first given to the followers of the disciples of Christ, at Antioch, 42. Acts xi. 26. CHRISTIAN, and Most Christian, King, the title given by Pope Paul II. to Louis XI. of France, 1469. CHRISTIAN CHARITY, order of, begun in France, 1690. CHRISTIAN ERA, dating from Jan. I, in the middle of the 4th year of the I94th Olympiad ; in the 753rd from the building of Rome ; and of the 4714th of the Julian period. It was introduced into Italy in the 6th century, but was not gener- ally used at first ; used in France in the 7th century ; in Portugal, 1415 ; and in the Eastern Empire, 1453. For modern chronology it began to be used, 516. CHRISTIANITY, founded by the apostles of Christ, who suffered under Pilate, as supposed, in his 33rd year. The persecution of, commenced, 64. It is said to have been propagated in Britain, 60 ; as well as in the reign of King Lucius as a Christian king, 80. Its introduction into Ireland, 402 ; and Scotland, 412. Constantine the Great embraced Christianity, 312 ; Clovis, in France, 496 ; Switzerland, 643 ; Denmark, under Harold, 827 ; Bohemia, 894 ; Russia, 940 ; Poland, 992 ; Hungary, 994 ; Norway and Iceland, 1000 ; Prussia, 1227 ; Lithu- ania, 1386; Pomerania and Norway, 1200; reinstated in Greece in the i6th century. 152 CHRISTIAN KNOWLEDGE CHUMLEIGH CHRISTIAN KNOWLEDGE SOCIETY, founded for distributing books of knowledge, 1698. CHRISTIANIA, Nonvay, founded, 1624; castle built, 1300; besieged, 1716; one quarter of the city destroyed by fire, April 9, 1787 ; a great part of the city, with Exchange and Bank, destroyed by fire, April 13, 1858. CHRISTMAS BOXES, originated in the Roman Paganalia, instituted by Servius Tullius, B.C. 560, and celebrated in the beginning of the year, when an altar was erected in every village, where persons gave money ; two of these Paganalian boxes, found under Mount Cselius, at Rome, are described by Count Caylus ; they were used by the Roman apprentices, like those of our times, to collect their yearly . gifts, and were made of pottery ; in one of them some denarii were found. The heathen plan was commuted, about 760, to collect alms for masses, in order to absolve the debaucheries of the season, which servants were unable to pay. CHRISTMAS-DAY. This festival celebrated by some Christians on Jan. i, and 6, others on March 29 ; the Eastern Church observed it on Jan. 6, and the Western Dec. 25 ; the date fixed by an act of Julius I., Pope of Rome, A.D. 337 352 ; holly and mistletoe introduced into it in this country, from the usages of the Druids. The real Christmas-day is unknown, or at least conjectural ; some au- thorities state that it is probable Christ was born in April or May of the Julian year 4709. St Chrysostorn says, that in primitive times Christmas and Epiphany were celebrated at one and the same feast ; separated by the Council of Nice, 325 ; a little time before that, Christmas had been celebrated at Antioch on Dec. 25, as a distinct feast, the usage came from the west ; as late as the I2th century, the Armenians made but one feast of both days. CHRISTMAS ISLAND, Pacific Ocean, so named by Capt. Cook, from having landed upon it on Christmas-day, 1777. CHRISTOPHER'S, ST, West India Islands, discovered by Columbus, 1493 ', the English first settled under Warner upon the island, 1623 ; the French laid waste the island, 1705 ; England distributed 100,000 amongst the sufferers ; ceded to England, April II, 1713 ; taken by the French, Feb. 13, 1723 ; restored to England, 1 724 ; retaken by the French, 1 782 ; restored the following year. CHRONOLOGY, or events in the order of their time, in some form of record, common to most nations. The Chinese believe in the remotest antiquity. The Jewish is probably that which is most to be depended upon, as far back as the reigns of Rehoboam and Solomon, but not farther, without corroborative aids. The Jewish chronology commences with the creation of the world, B.C. 4004; the deluge, 2400 ; death of Abraham, 1821 ; the Exodus, 1491 ; death of Moses, 1451 ; death of David, 1015 ; revolt of the ten tribes, 975 ; kingdom of Israel overthrown, 721 ; Daniel carried to Babylon, 607 ; Judas Maccabeus restored the city, 165 ; united to the Roman empire, 63 ; Herodes I. rebuilds the temple, 40. Chronological Institute of London founded, A.D. 1850. CHRONOMETER. The first person who proposed to ascertain the relative longi- tude of any place or ship at sea was Gemma Frisius, 1530 ; Dr Hooke afterwards made some improvements, 1660; Christian Huygens contrived a timekeeper actuated by a spring and regulated by a pendulum, 1664-75 '> Henry Sully, an English clockmaker, invented a marine timepiece, 1721 ; John Harrison obtained a reward from the government of ^5000 to proceed with his discoveries, 1736 ; he completed three in 1761 ; he made two voyages with them to test their accuracy and obtain the government reward of ^10,000, Aug. 22, I765 and the final ;io,ooo in 1773. Frodsham and Dent have greatly improved the instruments since. Musical chronometers invented in 1630. CHUDLEIGH, Devon, nearly all destroyed by a fire, May 22, 1807. CHUMLEIGH, Devon, almost all consumed by a fire, Aug. 19, 1803. CHUNAR CHURCHYARDS 153 CHUNAR, Hindustan. The fortress is very ancient ; it is first mentioned in his- tory, 1491 ; garrisoned by Baber, 1529 ; taken by Shere Khan, 1530; recovered by Akbar, after a siege of six months, 1538 ; besieged by the Nabob of Oude, 1763 ; the English defeated in attempting its capture in the same year ; ceded to them, 1768 ; treaty between the Nabob of Oude and Warren Hastings, the former be- ing relieved of his debts to the East India Company, he giving up his ancestral property, Sept 19, 1781. CHURCH, the term for an assembly of good men, not of ecclesiastics exclusively ; applied subsequently to the place of meeting, 214. Most of the earlier churches were of wood. The first of stone by St Ninian, Galloway, 448 ; the ancient church of St Piran, Cornwall, built in the 5th century, partially of stone ; there were 1700 in England at the Norman invasion ; the first built in London of stone, 1087, and the first in Ireland, at Bangor, Down county, 1134. CHURCH OF ENGLAND. The early British Church established in this country in the 2nd century. York was made a bishopric, 180. There were 17 dioceses in England in 731 ; church benefices were not allowed to be held by foreigners. In the reign of Henry VIII. the Established Church was the richest in the world. The King empowered to erect sees, by 31 Hen. VIII. c. 9, 1539. The Church now consists of two archbishops, 25 bishops, exclusive of Sodor and Man. The other dignitaries are chancellors, deans, archdeacons, prebendaries, canons, minor canons, and priest vicars ; these, and the incumbents of rectories, vicarages, and chapelries, make the number of preferments about 12,397. The churches for worship in 1818 were 11,742, to which several hundred have been added, 1866 ; act for building new churches, passed, 9 Geo. IV. c. 42, July 15, 1828 ; Church Building Society established, 1818 ; incorporated, 1828 ; Church Building Amend- ment Act, I & 2 Viet. c. 107, Aug. 15, 1838. CHURCH OF IRELAND. From the Irish annals it appears that several Christian churches had been founded in the South of Ireland, A. D. 402. Palladius was con- secrated Bishop to the converted Scots in Ireland, 431. St Patrick gained many converts to the faith at Munster and other places, 450 ; he died, March 1 7, 493 ; he founded altogether 365 churches, and ordained 300 bishops and 3000 clergy. CHURCH OF SCOTLAND : this is Presbyterian, originating in the creed of John Knox, 1560; ratified, 1567 ; settled by the Scotch parliament, 1696 ; secured at the Union, 1 707. This Church is regulated by four courts the general as- sembly, the synod, the presbytery, and kirk-session. CHURCHING OF WOMEN, derived from the Jewish rite of purification, 214. CHURCH MUSIC. Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, introduced a model of church melody, 374 397 ; choir music introduced, 677 ; church organs used, 1000 ; service first performed in English, 1559 ; Gregory the Great introduced the Gregorian, 1600. See Chanting. CHURCH RATES. Canon relating to, 970 ; divided by Athelred, 1014 ; ordered to be assessed in the reign of Edward III., 1285 ; the period of imprisonment for non-payment of, limited to three months, 12 & 13 Viet. c. 14, s. 9, May II, 1849 ; a bill to abolish, passed the House of Commons, July 24, 1867, but thrown out in the House of Lords, Aug. 8. CHURCHWARDENS AND OVERSEERS first appointed at the African Council, circa 423 ; ordered to be chosen at Easter, 1603 ; by 59 Geo. III. c. 12, s. 12, they may hold lands in trust, 1819. CHURCHYARDS first consecrated, 560 ; first admitted into cities, 742 ; fairs and markets were held in, until prohibited by 13 Edw. I. c. 6, 1285 ; the privilege of sanctuary was taken from, by 21 James I. c. 28, 1623 ; closed in the present century ; an act passed as to the consecration of, Aug. 20, 1867. 154 CHUSAN CIRCUMCISION CHUSAN, China, taken by the English, July 5, 1840; abandoned, Feb. 24, 1841 ; retaken, Oct., 1841 ; restored, 1846. CIDER, or CYDER, made in England, and called wine, 1284 ; subjected to ex- cise regulations, 1763 ; repealed, 1830. CIGAR STEAM-YACHT, the Ross Winans, designed by Messrs T. & W. L. Winans, Americans, a cylinder in shape, like a cigar, built by Mr Hepworth, Cubitt Town, Mill wall, launched, Feb. 19, 1866. CIMBRI, an ancient Celtic nation ; they left Jutland with their wives and families to seek a better country, B.C. 113 ; attacked and defeated the Roman army of 80,000 citizens and allies of Rome, with 40,000 servants, B.C. 105 ; they were afterwards defeated in the valley of the Adige by Marius, B.C. 101. CINCHONA, Peruvian bark, its virtues first made known in Europe, 1640; the Dauphin of France cured by it ; only obtained from the forests of Peru, S. America, until Mr Markham succeeded in transporting some young plants to the Neilgherry Hills, India, 1 860. CINCINNATI, Ohio, first settled, Dec., 1788; the city incorporated, 1819. CINCINNATI, order established in America during the war of 1783. CINNAMON, a species of laurel, a native of Ceylon, in which the Dutch first traded, 1506 ; well known to the ancients ; found by Ulloa in the American forests, 1 736 ; the tree transplanted to Jamaica and Dominica, 1 788. CINQUE PORTS. Originally five, their jurisdiction being vested in barons, for the defence of the coast ; two more were added, 1191 ; their liberties and cus- toms confirmed, 1278 ; they were stripped of part of their obsolete privileges, 1832 ; a regiment of fencible Light Dragoons raised, 1794. CINTRA, Convention of, a disgraceful treaty for the evacuation of Portugal, made by Sir Hew Dalrymple with Marshal Junot, the day after the battle of Vimeira, Aug. 22, 1808, signed, Aug. 30, permitting the French army to embark with arms and baggage ; approved of by a Board of Inquiry, Dec. 25. CIRCARS, Hindustan, amongst the earliest of the East India Company's posses- sions, 1 759 ; remained under the rule of a native prince until 1 794 ; Lord Clive obtained a grant of the four Circars, Aug., 1765. CIRCASSIA, Asia, became subject to Georgia in the I2th century ; threw off the Georgian yoke, 1424 ; conquered by the Tartars in the I5th century ; regained by the Circassians, 1705; Russia acquired the Kuban as their possession, 1781; the Turks built the Fort of Anapa, 1784; taken by the Russians, 1807; re- stored to Turkey, 1812 ; incorporated with the Russian Empire, 1830. The Cir- cassians bravely resisted the efforts of Russia to subdue them ; Schamyl, their leader, captured, Sept. 7, 1859 ; the Circassians abandoned their territories and sought refuge in Turkey, June, 1864. Insurrection of the Abkhasians, and mas- sacre of the Russians, Aug. 8, 1866. CIRCUIT, Judiciary, so denominated, established by the Northampton Council, and judges appointed to go, in England, Jan. 26, 1 176 ; in Scotland, 1712 ; Eng- lish, into Wales, extended, 1828. CIRCULATING LIBRARY. The first established in Edinburgh, 1725 ; the first established in London by the Rev. Samuel Fancourt, 1740. CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD discovered and taught by William Harvey, 1616 ; his treatise upon this subject published, 1628. CIRCUMCISION commenced in the time of Abraham, Gen. xvii. 10 14, 23 27, and was, as it were, the seal of a covenant stipulated between him and God in the year of the world 2107, B.C. 1897. CIRCUMNAVIGATION CIVIL LIST 155 CIRCUMNAVIGATION OF THE GLOBE. The first voyage was performed by Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese, in the ship Victoria, 1519 ; he first entered the Pacific Ocean, 1520. The following are the names of the most celebrated commanders of these expeditions since Magellan : Sir Francis Drake, 1577 ; Cavendish, 1586; LeMaire, 1615 ; Quiros, 1625; Tasman, 1642; Cowley, 1683; Dampier, 1703; Cooke, 1708; Clapperton, 1719; Roggewein, 1721; Anson, 1740; Bougainville, 1763; Byron, 1764; Wallis, 1766; Carteret, 1766; Cook, 1768, 1772, 1776; Portlock, 1788. Became the common voyage of merchant- men, 1850. CIRENCESTER, Gloucester, converted into a military station by the Romans ; called by them Corinium, the metropolis of the Dobuni. Canute held a great council here, 1020. In the wars between Stephen and Matilda, the castle was held by Robert, Earl of Gloucester, for the empress ; it was taken and burnt by the king's troops, 1142. The Abbey of Black Canons founded by Henry I., 1117. The town was taken by Prince Rupert, Feb., 1642-3 ; recovered by the Earl of Essex, Sept. 16, 1643. CISALPINE REPUBLIC, founded by the French, June, 1797, by the treaty of Campo Formio ; recognized by Germany, Oct. 17, 1797 > received a new con- stitution, Sept., 1798; merged into the kingdom of Italy, March, 1805. CISBURY FORT, Wiltshire, built by Caesar, 547. CISTERCIANS, a religious order founded by Robert, abbot of Neoles, in Ciseaux, Burgundy, 1098 ; introduced into England, 1128 ; reformed, 1577 ; and again by La Trappe, 1664. CITATE, battle, between the Russian and Turkish troops ; the Turks were suc- cessful in assailing the Russian lines, Jan. 6, 1854. CITIES, first incorporated, 1079 ; first, with boroughs, represented in parliament, 1265. CITIZEN, an individual free to carry on trade in a city ; dress of, regulated by I Eliz., 1558 ; the only title allowed in France at the Revolution of 1792. CITY CLUB, founded, 1832 ; club-house built in Broad-street, from the designs of Philip Hard wick, R.A., 1833; opened, 1834. CIUDAD RODRIGO, Spain; cathedral built, 1190; captured by the English under Lord Galway, June 5, 1706; besieged and taken by the French under Marshal Massena, July n, 1810; invested and carried by assault by the Duke of Wellington, Jan. 19, 1812 ; for which he was made Duke of. CIVIL CROSS OF MERIT, founded in Austria, Feb. 16, 1850. The Civil Cross of Honour founded by the Emperor Francis I. in 1814, and distributed by him, May 26, 1815. The Medal of Civil Merit founded in Bavaria, 1794; and by the Elector Max Joseph, 1805. CIVIL CROWN, Corona Ctvt'ca, a garland of oak-leaves given by the ancient Romans to the soldier who had saved the life of a citizen in battle. CIVIL LAW. Gregorian law compiled, 290 ; Theodosian, 438 ; Justinian, 529 ; introduced into England by Theobald, a Norman abbot, 1 138 ; taught by Vacarius, at Oxford, 1150 ; Stephen prohibited the study of it, "1151 ; fully established by Edward I. See Codes. CIVIL LIST. The royal revenues of England : ^"600,000 in Elizabeth's reign ; ;8oo,ooo in the time of Charles I. ; settled, after 1688, on the new king and queen at ; 700,000, parliament supporting the navy and army ; increased under George II. to j8oo,ooo ; under George III. to .1,030,000. Debts of, paid, 1777. In 1831, under William IV., fixed at .510,000 ; by I & 2 Viet. c. 2, Dec. 23, 1837, fixed at .385,000 Prince Albert having an exclusive ^30,000. 156 CIVIL SERVICE CLARKE CIVIL SERVICE, a commission appointed to examine candidates for, May 21, 1855 ; result of examination first published, May 4, 1856 ; a club established by, 1865. CIVITA VECCHIA, Italy. The port built by the Emperor Trajan, 103 ; the town and fortifications taken and destroyed by the Saracens, circa 813 ; nearly destroyed by an explosion of gunpowder, 1779; captured by the English fleet, Sept. 30, the same year. The French expedition for the protection of Rome arrived here, May 25, 1849 J a g am > Oct. 29, 1867 ; begun to withdraw from, Nov. 26, 1867. CLAIMS OF PRIVILEGE at coronations established, March 30, 1685. CLANDESTINE MARRIAGES forbidden by act of parliament, 26 Geo. II. c. 33, 1753- CLANSHIPS, in Scotland, relics of the barbarous feudal times of 1008, abolished, by 19 Geo. II. c. 39, 1746. CLARE, Suffolk, monastery founded, by Richard de Clare, Earl of Gloucester, 1248; castle built, 1069; strengthened by Earl Clare, the fortifications enclosed 30 acres of land, circa 1083. CLARE, Ireland, granted by Henry III. to Thomas de Clare. Bunvatty Castle built, 1277. There is still visible the remains of upwards of 100 fortified castles in this county. The first place that sent a Roman Catholic to parliament in Ire- land for 160 years, returning O'Connell, July 5, 1828, before the Relief Bill was passed. CLARE, Nuns of St, a sisterhood founded at Assize, Italy, by St Clare, 1212 ; settled in England, under the protection of Blanche, Queen of Navarre, wife of Edmund, Earl of Lancaster, in the Minories, 1293 ; suppressed by Henry VIII., 1539- CLARE COLLEGE, Cambridge. This hall founded, 1326 ; destroyed by fire, 1342 ; rebuilt five years afterwards by the sister of the Earl of Clare ; the hall built, 1638. CLARE MARKET, erected, 1655 ; opened, 1660. CLAREMONT, Surrey. The original mansion was built by Sir John Vanbrugh ; purchased by Lord Clive, 1 769, and the present mansion built. The estate pur- chased by the Crown, as a residence for the Princess Charlotte, for ^66,000, 56 Geo. III. c. 115, July I, 1816 ; occupied by the Princess Charlotte of Wales until her death, Nov. 6, 1817 ; assigned by Leopold of Coburg, her consort, to Prince Albert, 1840; the exiled family of France resided here, March 4, 1848; Louis Philippe, king of the French, died here, Aug. 26, 1850 ; his queen died here also, March 24, 1866. CLARENCE, the Duke of, drowned in the Tower, in a butt of Malmsey, 1478. CLARENDON, Statutes of, passed by a parliament held at Clarendon, Jan. 25, 1164 ; they were 16 in number, and were the ground of the notorious. Becket's quarrel with Henry II., because they tended to prevent ecclesiastical abuses. CLARENDON HOUSE, Piccadilly, the residence of the Lord Chancellor of that name, built, 1664. CLARENDON, HYDE, Earl of, born, 1612; banished the realm, Dec. 12, 1667 ; died, Dec. 7, 1674. Clarendon estate sold for ; 70,000, Dec. n, 1750. CLARENDON PRINTING-PRESS, Oxford, founded, 1672 ; special building erected, 1711 ; the present building erected, 1829; partially destroyed by fire, 1838. CLARION, a species of trumpet, introduced by the Moors into Spain, 800. CLARKE, murder of, by Housman and Eugene Aram, discovered 13 years after- wards, Aug. 17, 1758. CLAVICHORD CLERKENWELL 157 CLAVICHORD, a musical instrument, the forerunner of the pianoforte, 'known in 1210 ; first used at concerts, 1589. CLAYTON RAILWAY TUNNEL, near Brighton, 20 persons killed by a colli- sion, Aug. 25, 1861. CLEH ANGER HOUSE, Herefordshire, destroyed by fire, Jan. 3, 1794. CLEMENT'S INN, established and built, 1471 ; the hall built, 1715. CLEMENTINE'S WRITINGS attributed to Clemens Romanus, a Father of the Church, wholly apocryphal, 102 ; decretals of Pope Clement V., so called, 1312. CLEMENTINES AND URBANISTS, adherents and disputants of Clement VII. and Urban VI. , 1378. CLEOBURY CASTLE, Shropshire, built, 1160. CLERGY, in England. First called clergy in the 3rd century ; increased in the 7th century; drunkenness forbidden them, 747 abridged of their power, 1164; Becket excommunicated them, 1169 ; refused obedience to the pope, 1191 ; en- croached upon the royal power, 1200 ; their lands and goods seized by King John, 1208 ; taxed ^"100,000 in 1210 ; refused the pope's legate-money, 1247 ; their power reduced, 1275 ; refused to contribute to the war, but forced, 1296 ; armed for the war with France, 1369 ; fined .100,000 for refusing the divorce of Henry VIII., 1531 ; first-fruits of, assigned to the king, 1534; excluded from parliament, 1536 ; 12,000 deprived of their livings, and Romanists substituted, 1554; conference between the Protestant and the Protestant Dissenting, 1604; re- deem 175 slaves, 1662 ; 2000 resign their benefices rather than subscribe to the Act of Uniformity, 1661-2 ; no longer to tax themselves, 1664 ; Irish Protest- ants restored to their benefices, 1689 ; the Clergy Incapacitation Act passed, 41 Geo. III. c. 102, July 2, 1801 ; the holding of benefices in plurality abridged, I & 2 Viet, c. 106, Aug. 14, 1838 ; Discipline Act passed, Aug. 7, 1840; report of commissioners upon the oaths and subscription taken by, Feb. 9, 1865. CLERGY, BENEFIT OF, a privilege claimed by them of exemption from secular power, afterwards much abused ; abolished by Sir R. Peel, 8 Geo. IV. c. 28, June 21, 1827. CLERGY, the Corporation of the Sons of, the annual festival at St Paul's, first held, 1655 ; incorporated, July I, 1678. The society for the relief of poor, pious clergymen, instituted, 1788. The London Clergy Widow Fund established, 1791. Bromley College, for the benefit of widows of poor clergymen, founded and en- dowed by Warner, Bishop of Rochester, 1688. CLERGY of France, power abridged, Aug. , 1 749 ; renounced their privileges, May 1 8, 1789. CLERGYMEN'S Widows' and Orphans' Corporation, established in England, July I, 1670 ; incorporated, 1678 ; in Scotland, Oct., 1794. CLERK, the appellation of a clergyman, originated in Normandy ; used in France, 992. CLERKENWELL, Middlesex. The nunnery founded by Briset, 1 100. The Priory of St John of Jerusalem founded, noo ; expelled, 1540. Hicks' Hall built and opened, Jan. 13, 1612 ; pulled down, 1782. Sadlers' Wells Theatre built, 1683 ; first used as a music-hall ; rebuilt, 1 765 ; Joe Grimaldi made his first appearance, 1784; water first introduced into the performances, April 2, 1804 ; discontinued, 1823. The Mulberry Gardens opened, I74 2 - The Pantheon opened, in Ex- mouth-street, 1770 ; closed as a place of amusement, 1776 ; opened as a chapel by the Countess of Huntingdon, July 5, 1777. The old church of St James was taken down, 1 788 ; the building of the present church was commenced, Aug. 25, 1788; first stone laid, Dec. 16, 1788; consecrated, July 10, 1792. Coldbath Fields' prison began, 1 788 ; finished and opened, 1 794. The Middlesex Sessions 158 CLERMONT CLOCKS House, built from the designs of John Rogers ; the first stone laid by the Duke of Northumberland, Aug. 29, 1779 ; finished, 1780. The House of Detention rebuilt, 1846, from the designs of Mr Mosely. An act passed for making a new street from Farringdon-street to Clerk enwell-green, July 23, 1840, but the com- missioners having failed to complete the street, the corporation of London under- took the completion of it, Aug. I, 1851 ; the street completed, Aug., 1856. The Underground Railway opened, Jan. 9, 1863. CLERMONT, Council of, determines the first crusade in the reign of Pope Urban II., Nov., 1095. CLEVE ABBEY, Somerset, founded, 1198. CLEVES, Prussia. The old castle, in which Anne of Cleves, one of the wives of Henry VIII., was born, was built, 1439 ; the district was under the government of Counts from the 7th century till 1417, when it was raised into a Duchy ; ceded to France, 1805 ; bestowed upon Murat by Napoleon, 1806 ; restored to Prussia, 1815. CLIFFORD CASTLE, Herefordshire, built by Lord de Clifford, 1084. Fair Rosamond, the Inamorata of Henry I. lived here, about 1 104. CLIFFORD'S INN SOCIETY, established, 1315. CLIFTON MOOR, battle, the English being repulsed by the Scottish forces near this place, Dec. 18, 1745. CLIFTON SUSPENSION BRIDGE over the river Avon, built under 11 Geo. IV. c. 69, May 29, 1830 ; designed by Mr Brunei ; began, June 26, 1831 ; the first stone laid by Lady Elton, but stopped for want of funds, 1833 ; another act of parliament passed for the completion of, 6 Will. IV. c. 6, March 30, 1836 ; foundation-stone laid, Aug. 27, 1836 ; the chains of, ordered to be completed by 24 & 25 Viet. c. 112, June 28, 1861 ; Hungerford bridge at Charing Cross pur- chased for ;5ooo, and the chains used, the bridge opened, Dec. 8, 1864 ; the span of the bridge is 702 ft ; its height above the water, 260 ft ; the carriage way is 20 ft wide, and the footways 5/^ ft ; suicide of Mr Green from, May n, 1866. CLIPPED MONEY called in, 1696. See Coinage. CLITHEROW CASTLE, Lancashire, built by Robert de Lacy, 1179 ; dismantled by the parliament, 1649 ; given by Charles II. to Gen. Monk, 1660. CLITHEROW, MRS, in Crown court, Moorfields, with n persons, blown up while making fireworks by candle-light, Nov. 3, 1791. CLOCKMAKERS' COMPANY, incorporated, 7 Car. I., Aug. 22, 1631 ; livery granted, 1767; arms granted, 24 Car. II., Jan. 13, 1671-2. CLOCKS. Water clocks, or clepsydra, introduced into Rome by Scipio Nasica, B.C. 595 ; the first supposed then to be known, presented by Pope Paul I. to Pepin, King of France, A.D. 756 ; Abdalla, King of Persia, sent the Emperor Charle- magne one in 807 ; first placed in churches, 913 ; made to strike by the Arabians, 801 ; by the Italians, 1300 ; the keeper of the clock of St Paul's, London, men- tioned, 1286 ; the first one made for Canterbury Cathedral, and cost .30, 1292 ; in .Westminster Abbey, 1368 ; said to be the work of three Dutchmen who were invited to England by Edward III., in the spring of that year ; De Vick made a clock for Charles V. of France, in 1370 ; there is one at Dover Castle bearing date 1348; the great one of Strasburg, 1370; first portable one, 1530; Henry VIII. pre- sented Anne Boleyn with one upon their marriage, 1532 j a t the Strawberry Hill sale it was purchased for Queen Victoria for ^i 10 ; none in England went well till that dated 1540, now at Hampton Court ; an astronomical clock presented to Henry VIII. by the Bishop of Winchester, 1533 ; the celebrated one at St Dun- stan's, Fleet Street, London, was made by Thomas Harris, in 1671 ; Galileo first discovered the theory of the pendulum, 1532 ; Richard Harris made a pendulum CLOGHER CLUNE, MRS 159 clock for St Paul's Church, Covent Garden, 1642 ; pendulums improved by a Dutch- man named Fromantil, 1656. Clocks, watches, and alarms forbidden to be imported by Charles I., 1631. Pinchback invented his celebrated musical clocks, 1721-2. In consequence of the abuse of the trade an act of parliament was passed, obliging every maker to put his name and place of abode on each clock, under a penalty of 20, 9 & 10 Will. III. c. 28, 1698 ; another for the same object, 27 Geo. II. c. 7, 1754. Harrison's gridiron pendulum, 1734. Church clocks first illuminated, St Giles-in-the-Fields, April 23, 1827. The Westminster palace clock made by Mr Dent, 1 8$ 5 ; the dials are considered to be the largest in the world. Electric fluid made a motive power for clocks, 1840. An electro-magnetic clock exhibited by Professor Wheatstone, 1840 ; since improved by Bain and Shepherd. CLOGHER, bishopric, founded by St Macartin, 495 ; cathedral erected, 1041, and rebuilt, 1295 ; merged into the See of Armagh, 1834. CLONDALKIN, Ireland, powder-mills at, blown up, but only two lives lost, April IS, 1785- CLONFERT, Ireland, See of, founded, 558 ; merged into Killaloe, 1839. CLONTARF, battle, fought between the Irish and the Danes, on Good Friday, 1039, in which the invaders were defeated. CLOSTERSEVEN, disgraceful Convention of, between the Duke of Cumberland and the Duke of Richelieu, by which the former, with 38,000 men, laid down their arms, Sept. 10, 1757. CLOTH, first introduced into England from Flanders, circa 1112 ; coarse woollen, 1191 ; 70 clothworkers' families settled here, invited by Edward III., 1331 ; woollen, first made at Kendal, in 1390 ; in 1532 cloth of gold sold at 40?. a yard, and in 1538 cloth of silver for 38^. a yard ; medleys manufactured, 1614 ; fine English broad cloths sent to Holland to be dyed, 1 654 ; in England, dyed and dressed, 1667 ; the manufacture discouraged in Ireland, and that of linen coun- tenanced by parliament, 1698. CLOTH OF GOLD, the Field of, the meeting of Henry VIII. and Francis, June 7, CLOTHWORKERS' COMPANY, incorporated by charter 22 of Edw. IV., July 15, 1365 ; the shermen and fullers incorporated with this company, 19 Hen. VIII., Jan. 18, 1528 ; confirmed, 4 & 5 of Phil, and Mary, June 4, 1558 ; by 2 Eliz., July 8, 1560; by 9 Charles I., April 24, 1634; and by 3 James II., Jan. 19, 1688. Arms granted to, 22 Hen. VIII., 1530; crest and supporters, 29 Eliz., 1587 ; confirmed, 1645. Their first hall erected, 1598 ; destroyed, 1666, it hav- ing burnt for 3 days ; rebuilt, 1668 ; and again rebuilt from the designs of Samuel Angell, 1856-59 ; opened by Prince Albert, March 27, 1860. CLOUD, ST, France, celebrated for its park and palace. Henry IV., King of Navarre, killed by a monk here, 1589 ; Napoleon assembled the council of the Five Hundred in this palace after his return from Egypt, Nov. II, 1799. CLOVIS, King of France, the founder of the monarchy, 481 ; made Paris the capital of the kingdom, 494. CLOWES WOOD, Ireland, of 30 acres in extent, burned, Jan. i, 1805. CLOYNE, Ireland, See of, founded in the 6th century ; united to Cork, 1431 ; to Cork and Ross, 1833. CLUN CASTLE, Shropshire, built, by Richard Fitz Alan, first Earl of Arundell, 1295 ; destroyed by Owen Glendower, 1403. CLUNE, MRS, near Lichfield, died, Jan. 23, 1772, aged 138, having lived 103 years in one house. 160 CLUNIACS COALITIONS CLUNIACS. This order of Monks founded by Odo, Abbot of Cluniac, Burgundy, 912 ; introduced into England, at Lewes, Sussex, 1128. CLUNY, abbey of, founded by the Benedictines, one of the most celebrated founda- tions ever existing, 910; destroyed, 1789. CLYDE CANAL, made by Smeaton, and opened, July 28, 1790, connecting the east and west seas across Scotland. CLYNNOGVAWR ABBEY, South Wales, in Caermarthenshire, built, 1616. COACHES. See Carriages. COACHMAKERS' COMPANY, incorporated, May 21, 1677 ; arms granted, July 17, 1677 ; industrial exhibition of operative coachmakers held at the hall of this company, Feb. I, 1865. COALS, discovered at Newcastle at a very early period ; first used, A.D. 853 ; a charter granted by Hen. III. to the town of Newcastle for digging them, 1239 ; first sold in London, circa 1240 ; smiths obliged to burn wood, 1273, but coal being supposed prejudicial to health, its use was prohibited in and near London, 1306 ; vessels began to bring coals from Newcastle to London, 1325 ; first became an article of trade from Newcastle to London, 1357, 1381 ; generally used in London, 1400 ; a tax of zd. per chaldron payable to the king, 1421 ; the metage and weighing of coals confirmed to the city of London, 3 James I., Aug. 20, 1606, and a duty of 8 nve guineas, 1673 ; half-guineas, 1673 ; a million sterling coined out of French louis-d'or, 1710 ; quarter-guineas, 1716 ; propor- tioned by Sir Isaac Newton, Dec. 22, 1717; the value of the guineas reduced by proclamation to 2ls., 1717; seven-shilling pieces, 1797; sovereigns and halves, 1816 ; florins, 1850; English and Irish coins assimilated, Jan. I, 1826; the broad gold pieces called in by the government, and coined into guineas, 1732 ; COIN COINAGE 163 twopenny pieces in copper coined, 1797; half-farthings coined, 1843; copper money only used in Scotland and Ireland, 1399 ; copper money introduced to displace private leaden tokens, in London especially, 1609 ; there was an ex- tensive silver coinage, 1696 ; six -shilling gold pieces in the reign of Edward III., and nobles at six and eight-pence, with halves and quarters ; sovereigns and half- sovereigns of 20J. value were coined by Henry VIII. ; angels, which bore the effigy of Michael and the dragon, were coined by Henry IV.; in 1347 a pound of silver was coined into 22 shillings, and in 1352 a pound was coined into 25 shillings ; in 1414 they were increased to 30 shillings ; and in 1500 a pound of silver was coined into 40 shillings ; in 1530 extended to 66, 62 are delivered, four being retained for loss, &c. The money in Scotland, till then the same as in England, began to be debased, 1354 ; halfpence were issued for the Isle of Man, 1786 ; dollars by the Bank of England, at 4?. 9 in r 545 it had fallen to l us. id.; io i 2s. lod. in 1613; to 1 is. in 1671 ; in the reign of William III. to 19^. 6y%d., and in 1717 to 1762, reign of George III., it rose to i. Twenty shillings of the reign of William II. answered to 62 of the reign of George III. In 1344 the current value of I Ib. of old standard gold (one-eighth of a carat alloy to 23% carats of fine gold) was i$- It reached 2$ 2s. 6d. in the reign of Hen. VIII., who established a new standard of 22 carat gold, and 2 carat alloy. This standard was confirmed by Charles II., 1570. The present standard legalized by Geo. III., 1817. Silver coin not to be considered a legal tender for more than 2$ in one payment, 14 Geo. III. c. 42, 1774. The present sovereign issued, 1817 ; florins, 1849 ; copper coin called in, a bronze substituted, 1860. Colonial gold coin made a legal tender, 29 & 30 Viet. c. 65, Aug. 6, 1866. COIN, the clipping of. The coin became so debased through this crime, that Henry III. prohibited the circulation of all clipped coin in 1248; and in London alone nearly 300 Jews suffered death for this crime in 1277-8. COINAGE, the manufacture of, vested solely in the crown ; and the making or importing of, punished with transportation, 2 Will. IV. c. 34, May 23, 1832 ; extended to the English colonies by 16 & 17 Viet. c. 48, Aug. 4, 1853 ; con- solidated and amended, 24 & 25 Viet. c. 99, Aug. 6, 1861. The coinage regu- lated by 56 Geo. III. c. 68, June 22, 1816 ; extended by 12 & 13 Viet. c. 41, July 13, 1849; it is now made by machinery at the royal mint, erected on Tower Hill, 1811 ; the charge for coinage in all was 421,000 for .250,000 in copper, ^12,000,000 silver, and ^55,000,000 gold, between i8i6and 1836. The operation was once performed with a hammer, the coin being placed between two steel dies. In 1553 a mill was invented abroad, and introduced into England by one Brucher, 1562 ; a second engine was invented by Balanchier, 1617 ; Boulton and Watt's engine, for the purpose, was introduced 1 788 ; the present mint ma- chinery, 1811 ; the standard, pursuant to mint indenture, is after the rate of 66 shillings to the pound Troy of II ounces, two pennyweights, fine silver, and 18 pennyweights alloy, 1821 ; there are sixpences, twopences, threepences, and four- pences, coined annually for the Queen's Maundy, from 20 Ib. to 24 Ib. of silver each coinage. Within the last 10 years there have been coined at the mint 52,696,355 sovereigns, 12,692,316 half-sovereigns, 466 crowns, 1493 half-crowns, 14,380,157 florins, 24,154,339 shillings, 21,735,183 sixpences, 741,081 groats, 41,580 fourpences, 18,605,101 threepences. The copper and bronze money coined has been 133,445,760 pence, 152,686,237 halfpence, and 4,659,200 farthings. COINAGE, French, very extensive ; copper money first coined there, temp. Henry III., 1580. Gold first coined at Venice, 1476. The mint of the United States of 164 COKESFORD PRIORY COLNE PRIORY America, established 1 793, issued gold and silver coin ; the copper had been de- livered before. The gold coins are eagles, half-eagles, and quarter-eagles. The first is exactly 45^. English money, or 10 dollars American coin. The dollars are coined in the same divisions of half and quarter, which makes the course of ex- change simple, and suits the reckoning to every capacity ; 10 quarter-dollars make the quarter-eagle, 10 half-dollars the half-eagle, and 10 dollars the eagle. There is, beside, one more silver coin, which is called a dime, and is the tenth part of a dollar. The copper coin is called a cent, and is the tenth part of a dime. COKESFORD PRIORY, Norfolk, founded by William Cheyney, 1149. COLAPOORS, Hindustan, overrun by the notorious Sevajee, 1670 ; the pirates ravaged the country and burned the town of Vingorla, 1804; ceded to the British, 1822 ; rebellion at, 1844. COLBERG, Prussia, formerly one of the Hanse towns; fortified, 1774; besieged and taken by Gustavus Adolphus, 1630; besieged, 1758, 1760, and 1761, by the Russians, but unsuccessfully; capitulated, Dec. 16, 1761 ; invested by the French, 1807, but without success. COLCHESTER, Essex. The first charter granted by Richard I., 1189 ; the for- tification improved, 1192. The castle erected by Eudo Dapifer, 1118 ; repaired, 1130 ; fortified, 1199 ; taken by assault by Saher de Quincy, Earl of Winchester, 1215 ; retaken by King John the same year ; again captured by Louis, son of Philip II. of France, upon his invading England, 1216. The barons besieged the town, 1215 ; the Dutch exiles established a trade in woollen goods here, 1574; besieged by the Parliamentarians for three months, under Col. Fairfax ; taken, Aug. 28, 1648 ; Sir Charles Lucas and Sir George Lisle executed ; visited severely by the plague, 1665 and 1666. COLDINGHAM, near Berwick ; a nunnery founded in the 7th century, the nuns at the Abbey of which are said to have cut off their noses and lips to escape vio- lation on the Danish invasion, to avenge which the invaders burned the whole sisterhood, 870 ; King Edgar founded a priory of Benedictines, 1098. COLDSTREAM GUARDS, raised by Gen. Monk in the border town of that name in Scotland, Jan., 1660. COLERAINE, Ireland. The castle of De Courcey erected, 1 197. Granted by James I. to the Irish Society of London, March 29, 1613 ; town incorporated, June 28, 1614; the school founded, 1705; rebuilt, 1821; the town-hall built, 1856 ; Magee College founded by Mrs Magee of Dublin, who left 20,000 for that purpose, June 22, 1846; opened, Oct. 10, 1865. COLLAR, an ornament worn with certain orders of knighthood, as that of S.S. belonging to the Garter, originating 1399 ; one worn in honour of St Simplicius, 1407 ; one given to a Lord Mayor of Dublin by Charles II., 1660. COLLATIONS, so called from the light repasts given in Lent before 1513. COLLECTS, first appointed by Pope Gelasius, 493 ; the council of Agde, 517, appointed them to be repeated after the anthems ; Amalarius, 820, speaks of the collect after the office of matins ; king of England appointed one in Normandy, for the relief of the Holy Land, 1166; those in the Book of Common Prayer introduced, 1548. COLLEGIANTS, a religious sect formed among the Arminians of Holland, 1619. COLLIERIES, an act passed prohibiting the employment of women and girls in, and regulating the employment of boys, 5 & 6 Viet. c. 99, Aug. 10, 1842 ; the inspection of, provided for by 23 & 24 Viet. c. 151, Aug. 28, 1860. COLNE PRIORY, Essex, founded by Aubrey de Vere, circa iioo. COLOGNE COLONIES COLOGNE, Prussia, the chief town of the Ubii, B.C. 37 ; a Roman colony estab- lished by Claudius at the request of his wife, A.D. 51 ; made an imperial town, 957 ; cathedral built, 1248 ; a member of the Hanseatic League, 1260 ; Jews expelled from, 1425 ; the Protestants expelled, 1618 ; taken by the French, Oct. 6, 1794 ; the bridge of, with 100 persons, carried away by a flood, Dec. I, 1747 ; ceded to Prussia, 1814 ; first railway opened, 1841. COLOMBIA, S. America, discovered by Columbus, 1498 ; Caraccas formed into a viceroyalty, 1547; confederation of Venezuela, 1810 ; Bolivar defeated by the Spanish forces, 1816 ; the President conquered the Spaniards at Sombrero, Feb., I Si 8 ; Grenada and Venezuela united under one government, Dec. 17, 1819 ; the forces of Spain overthrown at Carabobo, June 24, 1821 ; Bolivar named dic- tator, Feb. 10, 1824; their independence acknowledged by England, Jan., 1825 ; a treaty made with the United States, May 28 ; congress at Lima selected Bolivar president, Aug. 18, 1826 ; he assumed the dictatorship, Nov. 23 ; conspiracy of Santander against him, Sept. 25, 1828; he resigned the office of president, April 14, 1830; died, Dec. 17, 1830; Venezuela separated, 1829; rejoined in 1830, and again separated, Nov., 1831. COLOMBO, Ceylon, founded by the Portuguese, 1520 ; taken by the Dutch, 1656; surrendered to the British, Feb., 1796 ; British troops murdered at, by the Adigar of Candy, June 6, 1803 ; made a bishopric, 1845. COLONIES. The first colony is mentioned in Acts xvi. 12, Philippi, in Mace- donia. The Greeks and Romans early began to establish colonies or settlements, and in later times the Portuguese, the Dutch, the French, and the English in the reign of James I. The following is an approximation of some of the principal colonies, with the population and extent : NORTH AMERICA. Hudson's Bay territory Arctic territory as far as the 78th degree of latitude Indian territory, from the Frozen Ocean to the Pacific Lower Canada Upper Canada New Brunswick ... Nova Scotia ... Cape Breton ... Prince Edward's Island ... Newfoundland Honduras ... Bermudas . . Supposed Sq. Miles. 525,000 i I,400,OOO I 1,800,000 205,860 141,000 27,704 18,031 ) 3.125 \ 2,159 40,923 13,000 24 Population. Unknown 1,111,566 1,396,091 250,000 Total ... 4,176,826 80,857 122,638 25,000 ",430 3,328,281 1759 1763 1622 1622 I74S 1497 1670 1609 WEST INDIA ISLANDS : Bahama Isles Jamaica Turks Islands 2,921 6,400 35.244 441,264 4,372 1629 1655 1629 Total 9,321 480,880 1 66 COLONIES f Trinidad Tobago Grenada Grenadillas St Vincent Barbadoes -St Lucia f Dominica Antigua I Barbadoes j Anguilla Virgin Isles Tortola St Kitts Montserrat .Nevis ... CARIBBEAN ISLANDS : Supposed Sq. Miles. 1,754 97 133 1 66 250 291 183 1 66 150 57 30 103 47 50 Total 3,608 Population. 84,438 15^10 32,984 31,755 152,727 27,480 25,666 37,125 152,727 2,934 6,051 8,500 24,303 7,645 9,822 619,567 Date of Possession. ... 1797 ... 1763 '" j 1763 ... 1763 1605 ... 1803 ... 1763 ,.. 1632 1605 ... 1632 ... 1665 ... 1623 1632 ... 1628 ( Demerara n . s lEssequibo Guiana (Berbice SOUTH AMERICA : 76,OOO ASIA. HINDUSTAN : British Paramount Possessions : Presidency, Governor-general's district . . . Bengal Madras Bombay Punjaub North-west provinces Total 170,330 280, 200 125,805 137,743 100,406 116,493 155,026 14,165,161 41,498,608 23,127,855 ",937,5 12 14,794,611 30,110,497 933,722 135,634,244 PROVINCES CONQUERED FROM THE BURMESE EMPIRE : Assam Jynteah Cachar Arracan l8,2OO 16,250 STRAITS SETTLEMENTS : Penang and Province Wellesley ... . . . ) Malacca ... ... ... ... ... > i,57o Singapore ... ... ... ) TENASSERIM COAST, &C. : Martaban, Tavoy, and Temegui isles ... 32,500 Island of Ceylon ... 24,500 Scinde ... ... ... ... ... 42,400 602,500 2 7o,ooo 170,000 230,000 154,000 85,000 1,421,000 3,677,627 1803 1765 1640 1661 1849 1826 1786 1795 1820 1826 1796 1748 Total 145,770 6,610,127 COLONIES 167 FORMERLY TRIBUTARY STATES : Travancore and Cochin . Nizam's dominions Rajpoot States . . Supposed Sq. Miles. 9,400 101,800 . . 165,000 Mysore ... 20. 7 SO Berar 64..27O Holkar I7,6OO Guicowar %6.ox>o Coorg 7 27O JCumoo 7, COO Sikkim 4,4.OO Bhopaul 7.760 Sattarah, &c. 21 6OO Cutch 6, IOO Bundelcund I9,OOO Total ... 489,910 Cape of Good Hope Sierra Leone IN AFRICA : ... 104,931 468 Gambia 20 i Gold Coast 6.000 i Isle of Mauritius 708 Isle of St Helena ... 4.7 Isle of Ascension ... 4* Natal 14, ^07 Total ... 126,616 Population. 1,407,789 9,136,929 5,548,431 2,314,602 5,574,554 1,526,562 3,200,575 189,995 272,763 166,038 638,380 2,376,000 205,121 638,900 32,196,639 267,096 42,000 6,939 151,346 332,000 6,860 340,102 1,146,343 Date of Possession. 1802 1806 1787 1631 1661 1810 1651 1810 1838 AUSTRALIA : New South Wales 478,861 Western Australia ... ... ... 45,000 South Australia ... ... 300,000 New Zealand Tasmania Queensland Victoria Total 95,000 22,629 559,000 86,944 1,587,434 348,546 15,593 26,830 39,968 89,977 30,"5 540,322 1787 1829 1836 1839 1803 1859 1836 Hong Kong Labuan Gibraltar . . Malta OTHER BRITISH COLONIES : 29 Total 123,5" 3,345 16,643 143,970 387,469 1843 1704 1800 168 COLOSSUS COMETS COLOSSUS, of Rhodes, a brass statue, 100 feet high, erected across the harbour, B.C. 290; thrown down by an earthquake, B.C. 224; it lay in ruins 900 years, when the Saracens destroyed it, and sold the metal, weighing 720,900 Ibs., to a Jew, who loaded 900 camels with its wrecks, A. D. 672. COLUMBIA, BRITISH, discovery of gold fields at, in the vicinity of Vancouver's Island, April 21, 1858; rush of diggers from San Francisco to, May 31, 1858; Mr J. Douglas, C.B., appointed governor, 1858 ; revenue for the year 1859, jloo,ooo. Vancouver's Island united to, by 29 & 30 Viet. c. 67, Aug. 6, 1866. COMBE ABBEY, built in Warwickshire, founded by Richard de Camvilla, 1150. COMBERMERE ABBEY, Cheshire, founded by Hugh de Malbane, 1134. COMBINATION OF WORKMEN forbidden by law, June 21, 1799 ; and again by statute, 6 Geo. IV. c. 129, July 6, 1825. COMB-MAKERS' COMPANY, incorporated, 12 Car. L, April 4, 1636. COMBWELL PRIORY, Kent, founded by Robert de Thorneham, 1187. COMEDY. These theatrical exhibitions were first introduced into Rome, B.C. 562 ; into Italy, 1495 ; England, 1551 ; France, 1552 ; and into Spain, 1620. COMETS. These constellations are as yet but little known as compared with other astronomical observations ; first noted by Aristotle ; two whose splendour eclipsed the noon-day sun, and occupied a fourth of the heavens, B.C. 134 ; one seen at Rome, 44; Sozomenes described one, A.D. 400; one seen in 1006 by Hali-ben- Rodoan ; a very brilliant one seen, Feb. 7, 1 106 ; remarkable one seen in Eng- land in the reign of Edward III., described by Nicephorus Gregoras, 1337 ; Tycho Brahe discovered a very beautiful one in the Isle of Huen, Nov. 13, 1557 ; he explained their return, Dec., 1577 > Kepler discovered one in Nov. , 1618 ; one visible from Nov. 3, 1679, to March 9, 1680 ; orbits proved by Newton to be parabolical, 1704; one with several tails discovered by Chezeaux, Feb. I, 1744; it equalled Jupiter in brightness, Feb. 28 ; a brilliant one, 1769 ; one more bril- liant still, from March 20, 1811, to Aug., 1812; another appeared, Feb. 28, 1823. Bielas' comet, so called from its discoverer, an Austrian officer, Feb. 27, 1826 ; one of three, whose re-appearance had been predicted, it having a revolu- tion of six years and thirty-eight weeks ; its second appearance was in 1832, when the date of its perihelion was Nov. 27 ; its third appearance was in 1839, and its fourth in 1845. Encke's comet, discovered, Nov. 26, 1818, by Mr Pons, named after Professor Encke for his ascertaining its orbit ; it has appeared according to the law predicted, its revolution being three years and fifteen weeks ; re-dis- covered, Aug. 7, 1858. Mr Pigott discovered one at York, Nov. 17, .1783. Halley's comet is also called the great comet ; he proved that this comet, seen Aug. 23-24, 1682, was the same which had appeared in 1456, 1531, and 1607. He then was the first to fix the identity of comets. Halley's comet has a revo- lution of 76 years. It appeared, March 12, i759> an( i was a ^ its perihelion, March 13 ; it appeared again from Aug. 5, 1835, to May 5, 1836. The great comet of 1843, seen at the Cape in broad day, Feb. 21 ; in India, March 3 ; and in England, March 1 7 ; one discovered to be periodical by M. Faye, of Paris, Nov. 22, 1843 ; one seen at Parma by M. Colla, June 2, 1845 ; M. Brorsen discovered one in Denmark, Feb. 26, 1846 ; M. Peters saw one at Naples, June 26, 1846 ; at Altona Mr Petersen discovered one with a tail several degrees long, May i, 1850 ; one seen at Paris, June 10, 1853 ; Dr Bruhns discovered one in the con- stellation of the Great Bear, at Berlin, Sept. 11-12, 1853 ; one seen at New York, Nov. 25, and at Paris, March 31, 1854 ; in Germany, June 5 ; M. Colla discovered one at Parma, Dec. 24, 1854; M. D. Arrest discovered one at Leipsic, Feb. 22, 1857 ; Dr Donati discovered one in Florence, June 3, 1855 ; seen in Great Britain in Sept. and Oct. ; he discovered another, Nov. 10, 1857 ; Mr Tuttle of Cambridge, U. S., discovered one, Jan. 4, 1858; the elements of, determined by COMET STEAM-BOAT COMMON PLEAS COURT 169 Dr Bruhns ; Dr Winnecke at Bonn, discovered one, March 8, 1858 ; the most splendid one of this century was seen at Florence, June 2, 1858 ; it approached nearest the earth, Oct. II ; one seen by Mr Tuttle at Cambridge, U. S., Sept. 5, 1858 ; one of extraordinary splendour seen in London, Paris, Lisbon, and Rome, June 30, 1 86 1 ; one seen at Berlin by Backer, Jan. I, 1864. COMET STEAM-BOAT, run foul of by the Ayr, near Greenock, and, sinking, 50 out of 60 passengers were drowned, Oct. 21, 1825. COMMANDER-IN-CIIIEF, sometimes called captain-general, and general com- manding-in-chief. Thus, the Duke of Albemarle was captain-general, 1660; the great Duke of Marlborough, 1702 ; and the Duke of York, 1790. The Duke of Monmouth was commander-in-chief, 1674 ; the Duke of Marlborough, 1690 ; the Earl of Stair, 1744; Sir David Dundas, 1809; the Duke of York, 1811 ; the Duke of Wellington, 1827. Lord Hill was addressed as general commanding-in- chief, in 1828, while the Duke of Wellington was minister ; the Duke of Welling- ton again became commander-in-chief, 1842, and continued up to the time of his decease, 1852. Viscount Hardinge, Sept. 28, 1852 ; Duke of Cambridge, July IS, 1856. COMMERCE. The interchange of commodities by different nations is of the highest antiquity ; the caravans of Ishmaelite merchants trading in spices from Gilead into Egypt, to one of whom Joseph was sold, circa B.C. 1886. The trade of tin with Great Britain was considerable before the Roman invasion ; encouraged by Magna Charta, June 19, 1215 ; but Edward III. during his reign greatly extend- ed trade and encouraged foreign workmen to come to this country. The perse- cutions of the Huguenots increased the number of skilled workmen, 1572 1685. COMMERCIAL TREATIES do not seem to have been known to the ancients ; the first English on record was in 1272, with the Flemings ; the second with Por- tugal and Spain, 1308, temp. Edward II. COMMISSIONNAIRES, Corps of, formed of wounded soldiers as messengers in London, Dublin, Edinburgh, Liverpool, Manchester, Birmingham, and Chester, Feb., 1859 ; subsequently a band corps formed for playing in the public parks. COMMITTEE OF SAFETY appointed in England, Oct. 23, 1659; expired, Dec. 24, 1659. COMMITTEE OF SURVEILLANCE, with Murat as president, was appointed by the Girondists in France, Aug. 10, 1792; on Aug. 30 they arrested and im- prisoned 3000 persons, and on Sept. 2 butchered them. COMMITTEES OF COUNCIL, four established, Jan. 21, 1667. COMMON COUNCIL OF THE CITY OF LONDON. The meetings of the citizens in the Saxon times were called Folk-motes ; they were held at the east end of St Paul's Churchyard about 3 or 4 times a year ; 40 good men of the wards sworn to consult with the aldermen on the affairs of the city, 1273 ; 72 elected in 1317 ; two men from, to be elected to each ward, 1322; four to be elected, 7 Rich. II., 1383 ; the numbers increased to 187 in 1549 ; the number of members in Farringdon Without increased to 1 6, and Aldersgate to 8, 1642 ; elected under ii Geo. I. c. 18, 1724 ; the number altered by act of Common Council, May 8, 1840. An act passed to amend the n Geo. I., 12 & 13 Viet c. xciv., Aug. i, 1 849 ; again amended, and the right of voting extended to all persons rated at .10 per annum, 30 Viet. c. i., April 5, 1867. COMMON PLEAS COURT, ordered to be held in one place by Magna Charta, clause 14, June 15, 1215 ; fixed by King John to be held in Westminster Hall ; court of, built, 1741 ; no barrister under the degree of sergeant-at-law could plead in this court until Aug. 18, 1846, by 9 & IO Viet. c. 54 when the restrictions were removed. There is also a court in Ireland of the same name and character. 170 COMMON PRAYER COMPANIES COMMON PRAYER. The first book of, completed, Jan. 15, 1549 ; revised, 1551 ; and again in 1559 and 1661 ; attempted to be enforced in Edinburgh, causing riots, 1637 ; voted useless, 1644 > proclamation against it, 1647 ; the state services omitted in 1859. COMMONS. The Statute of Merton gave extensive rights to the Lords of Manors over common lands, 20 Hen. III., 1235-6. The enclosure statutes confirmed by 3 & 4 Edw. VI. c. 3, 1549. An act passed for the better cultivation, improvement, and regulation of common arable fields, wastes and commons of pasture in England, 13 Geo. III. c. 81, 1773. The General Enclosure Act, 41 Geo. III. c. 109, passed, July 2, 1801 ; intermixed rights provided for by 6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 115, Aug. 20, 1836 (by section 55, commons or pasture lands within 10 miles of the city of London, and within \y z mile of any city or town of 15,000, 2 miles of 30,000, 2/^ miles of 70,000, and 3 miles of 100,000, are not to be enclosed) ; extended to lands commonable during part of the year only, 3 & 4 Viet. c. 31, July 23, 1840. The enclosure and improvement of commons facilitated by 8 & 9 Viet. c. 118, Aug. 8, 1845 ; but by the Amendment Act no land is to be enclosed without the authority of parliament, 15 & 16 Viet. c. 79, June 30, 1852 ; an act passed for the improvement, protection, and better management of commons near London, 29 & 30 Viet. c. 122, Aug. 10, 1866. COMMONS, House of. The first assembly of the representatives of the people was summoned by Henry III. to meet May 2, 1258 ; the barons appeared in complete armour; the king adjourned the meeting to Oxford on June n. The first meet- ing of two Knights from each Shire, and rightly regarded as the first meeting of the House of Commons, Jan. 20, 1265, summoned by Simon de Montfort, Earl of Leicester ; fully recognized as a part of the legislature, and summoned to meet, 22 Edw. I., 1294. The qualification of members fixed by 21 & 22 Viet. c. 26, June 28, 1858. The number of members at present is, County members . . . . 148 Scotch counties . . . . 30 Universities . . . . . . 4 Cities and boroughs . . . . 23 Cities and boroughs . . . . 319 Ireland counties . . . . 64 Welsh members for counties .. 15 University 2 Cities and boroughs .. .. 14 Cities and boroughs .. 39 658 COMMONWEALTH OF ENGLAND, the period between the death of Charles I. and the return of Charles II., or between Jan. 30, 1649, and the Stuart restor- ation, May 29, 1660; Oliver Cromwell being protector, Dec. 13, 1653. COMMONWEALTH OF HOLLAND begun, 1572. COMMUNION, a rite of Christianity early practised among Christians ; bread alone was taken in the West, under Pope Urban II., 1096 ; ordered by the fourth Lateran Council to be taken at least at Easter, 1215 ; the cup denied to the laity by the Council of Constance, 1453 ; the communion in both kinds appointed by the authority of the council, 2 Edw. VI., 1548. COMMUTATION TAX commenced, 1784. COMPANIES connected with trade and commerce existed in London as early as 960. The merchants of the Steel-yard settled in England, 1250. The weavers formed themselves into a society in the reign of Henry I., and 16 of their number were fined by Henry II., 1180. The first 12 of the City Companies styled honourable : COMPANIES 171 Incorporated Incorporated Clothworkers . . 1482 Ironmongers . . 1464 Drapers . . 1439 Mercers . . 1393 Fishmongers salt 1433 ) h , ,, stock 1509 j 1536 Merchant Tailors 1466 Sailers, livery grant- Goldsmiths . . 1327 ed in 1394 . . 1558 Grocers . . 1345 Skinners . . 1327 Haberdashers . . 1407 Vintners . . 1437 Incorporated Incorporated Apothecaries 1617 Innholders . . . . . 1515 Armourers and Braziers . . H23 Joiners . . I5 6 9 Bakers 1307 Leather Sellers . 1442 Barbers 1461 Long-Bow-string Makers . 1440 Basket Makers 1569 Loriners . 1712 Blacksmiths 1571 Makers of Playing Cards . 1629 Bowyers 1620 Masons . 1677 Brewers . . 1438 Musicians . 1604 Broderers 1591 Needle Makers . . . 1656 Butchers 1605 Painter Stainers. . . . 1582 Carmen . . 1606 Parish Clerks . 1011 Carpenters 1344 Patten Makers . . . 1670 Clock Makers . . 1632 Paviors . . . 1480 Coach and Coach Harness Pewterers . 1474 Makers 1677 Pin Makers . 1636 Comb Makers . . 1636 Plasterers 1501 Cooks 1480 Plumbers . . . . . 1611 Coopers 1501 Poulterers Cordwainers 1410 Saddlers . 1280 Curriers . . 1605 Scriveners . I'M.. Cutlers 1417 Shipwrights . I6O5 Distillers 1638 Silk Throwsters . . 1622 Dyers 1472 Soap Makers 1638 Fan Makers 1709 Spectacle Makers . . . 1630 Farriers 1673 Starch Makers . . l622 Felt Makers 1604 Stationers 1557 Fletchers 1536 Tallow Chandlers H63 Founders 1614 Tilers and Bricklayers . . . 1568 Framework Knitters . . 1663 Tin-Plate Workers . 1670 Fruiterers 1605 Tobacco-Pipe Makers . . . I66 3 Gardeners 1616 Turners l6O4 Girdlers . . 1449 Upholders . 1627 Glass Sellers 1664 Watermen 1550 Glaziers . . ^637 Wax Chandlers . 1483 Glovers 1638 Weavers . . . Il64 Gold and Silver Wire Drawers 1623 Wheelwrights . . . 1676 Gun Makers 1638. Woodmongers . . 1605 Hat-band Makers 1638 Woolmen . 1484 Homers . . 1638 COMPANIES for various purposes, an act passed for the incorporation, regulation, and winding up of trading companies and other associations, 25 & 26 Viet. c. 89, Aug. 7, 1862 ; amended by 30 & 31 Viet. c. 131, Aug. 20, 1867. African, 1618, 1672. In 1746, Government owed the Company 11,686,800, and its divided capital amounted to .10,780,000, both of which continued till 1776. African Institution, 1806. Australian Agricultural Company for the cultivation of waste i;2 COMPASS CONCILIATION lands, 1824. Company of Bankers, London, incorporated, 1307. Bank of Amsterdam founded, 1609; of Venice, 1157; of Rotterdam, 1635. Bank of England established, 1693. Bank of Scotland established, 1695. Bank of Copenhagen, 1736. Bank of Berlin, 1765. Bank Casse d'Escompte, in France, 1776. Bank of Petersburg, 1786. British American Land Company incorporated, 1834. British Herring Fishery, incorporated, 1750. British Linen erected, 1746. Canada Company, for the sale of lands purchased of the Government in West Canada, incorporated, 1826. Copper Miners, Company of, incorporated in England, 1691. East India, at Embden, established, 1750. East India, in England, established, 1600 ; a new company established, 1698 ; the old one re- established, and the two united, 1700; Board of Control instituted, 1784; charter renewed, 1813 ; their commercial character relinquished, 1834. East India, of Sweden, erected, March, 1731. East India, of France, established, 1627 ; abolished by the National Assembly, and the trade laid open, Jan. 26, 1791. East India, of Holland, incorporated, 1604. East-land, incorporated, 1579. Herring Fishery, established, Sept. 2, 175- Hamburg, or the Hamburg Com- pany, 1269. Hudson's Bay Company incorporated, 1670. Mines, Royal, estab- lished, 1565. Lead Corporation, for smelting with pit and sea-coal, incorporated, 1692. Royal Miners, incorporated, 1564. Russia Merchants, incorporated, 1555. Scotch Corporation began, 1665. Van Diemen's Land Company, 1825. COMPASS, the Mariner's, the inventor not known ; the Chinese acquainted with it, B.C. 2600 ; according to some, it was discovered by Marco Polo, 1260 ; used and known at Venice, 1262 ; improved by Gioja of Naples, 1302 ; the variation discovered by Columbus, 1492 ; dip, discovered, 1576 ; improved by Barlowe, 1608 ; observations on, by Capt. Flinders, 1801-2 ; erroneous variations of, cor- rected by Mr Barlow, of Woolwich, 1824 ; observations upon, in iron vessels made by Capt. Johnson, 1835 ; by Mr Airy in the Rainbow and Ironsides, 1839 ; published, 1840; committee appointed at Liverpool to consider, 1854. COMPIEGNE, France. This ancient town was rebuilt, 876 ; several parliaments were held here to devise measures to check' the inroads of the Northmen ; a charter granted to the town, 1322 ; taken by the Burgundians, and recaptured by Charles VI., 1415 ; taken by the English, 1417; Joan of Arc made prisoner here by the Burgundians, May 23, 1430. COMPOSTELLA, order of, instituted by the pope, July 5, 1175, for those who protected pilgrims ; seized by Spain, 1493. COMPOUND Waters and Spirits restrained by high duties, May 29, 1729. COMPTER, of London, built in Giltspur-street from the design of G. Dance in 1791, cost ^"20,473 ; taken down, 1853. CONCEPTION, S. America, destroyed by an earthquake, Feb. 20, 1835. CONCEPTION, Feast of the Immaculate, of the Virgin Mary, appointed on Dec. 8, 1389 ; Paul V. forbade anyone to doubt the doctrine, 1488. CONCEPTIONISTS, an order of nuns, in Italy, 1488, confirmed by Popes Gregory XV. and Alexander VII. CONCERT, the first given in England, by subscription, was at Oxford, 1665 ; the first in London, 1678 ; encouraged by the Society of Ancient Music, 1710. The Philharmonic Society's, 1814 ; British concerts, 1823 ; Sacred Harmonic Society's, 1832; promenade concerts, 1844; new Philharmonic Society established, 1852 ; Tonic Sol-fa society, 1853 ; Monday popular concerts, 1859. CONCHOLOGY, reduced to a system by Dr Major, 1674 ; Lister's system pub- lished, 1685 ; that of Languis, 1722. CONCILIATION, Courts of, established in Denmark by Royal decree, July, CONCILIATORY ACT CONGE D'ELIRE 173 1795 ; there is one held in the capital and one in the principal town. Established in France, 1 790. Lord Brougham attempted to introduce them into this country but failed, 1830. Council of Conciliation for adjusting differences between masters' and workmen, established by 30 & 31 Viet. c. 105, Aug. 15, 1867. CONCILIATORY ACT proposed for treating with the American colonies, Feb. 7, 1778; rejected, April 13, 1778. CONCLAVE, for electing a pope, said to have been first ordered by the council of Lyons, 1274; regulated by Urban VIII., 1625. CONCORD, order of knighthood, instituted in Brandenburgh, 1660. CONCORDANCE. That to the Bible first made, 1227 ; that of Cruden, in London, 1737; Buxtorfius's, 1632; Marbeck's, 1550; Nathan's, 1524. Ayscough's Concordance to Shakespeare, published, 1790 ; Mrs Cowden Clark's, 1847. Mr Pendergast's to Milton, published at Madras, 1857. CONCORDAT, a treaty between a temporal prince and the pope, usually so called ; one signed between Bonaparte and Pius VII., July 15, 1801 ; a second between the same princes, at Fontainebleau, June 25, 1813 ; between the pope and the Queen of Spain, March 16, 1851; and between Austria and Pius IX., Aug. 15, 1855. CONCUBINES, allowed to the clergy, 1132 ; denied Christian burial, 1225. CONDUITS. The great conduit of Cheap begun, 1285 ; the little conduit, 1443 > Lamb's conduit, Holborn, begun, 1577. Conduits in London. When built. Conduits in London. When built. Aldgate 1535 Cripplegate 1423 Aldersgate ... ... ... 1610 Dowgate ... 1508 Billingsgate 1423 Fleet Bridge 1478 Bishopsgate ... ... ... 1505 Fleet-street ... 1438 Cheapside ... 1285 Gracechurch-street ... ... 1491 Coleman-street ... 1528 Holborn ... ... ... 1498 Comhill, Inn in 1401 Stocks Market ... ... ... 1500 Comhill, Standard in 1582 CONFECTIONER'S SHOP, the first in England, at Tottenham, Middlesex, kept by Zancher, a Spaniard, 1596. CONFEDERATION of the people at Paris, after the taking of the Bastile, to maintain the new constitution, July 14, 1790. CONFEDERATION of the Rhine, a league of the lesser states of Germany, in alliance, formed by Bonaparte, having a diet at Frankfort, July 12, 1806 ; rati- fied at Munich, July 25 ; broken up, 1813. CONFERENCE, that called the Great, held at Hampton-court, between the pre- lates of the Church and the dissenting ministers, 1604 ; a second conference was held, 1 66 1. CONFESSION, Auricular, instituted in the Church, 1204, and enjoined, 1215. CONFIRMATION, a rite practised by the apostles, Acts viii. 17, and retained by the English Church. CONFISCATION COURT, erected in England, 346. CONFLANS, the treaty of, between Louis XI. of France and the Dukes of Bourbon, Brittany, and Burgundy, Oct' 5, 1465 ; confirmed by the treaty of Crotoy, Oct. 3. H72. CONGE D'ELIRE, granted by Magna Charta, the king's writ or license to a dean and chapter to elect a bishop, 1215. By 25 Hen. VIII. c. 20, the 'leave to elect ' is to be accompanied with a letter containing the name of the person ap- pointed. 174 CONGO CONSERVATORS CONGO, Africa, discovered by the Portuguese, 1484 ; first settlement made, 1490. CONGRESS OF AMERICA formally abolished all English authority there, May 5, 1 776 ; the first federal, held there, under Washington, 1 789. CONGRESS OF POTENTATES : the latest, those of Soissons, 1728 ; Ant- werp, 1793; Radstadt, 1797; Prague, 1813; Chatillon, 1814; Vienna, 1814-15; Aix-la-Chapelle, 1818 ; Carlsbad, 1819 ; Troppau, 1820 ; Laybach, 1821 ; Verona, 1822 ; of the confederated States of Germany, at Frankfort, May 10. 1850; Paris, 1856; Frankfort, 1863. CONGREVE ROCKETS, the Asiatic rocket improved into a formidable instru- ment of war, by Sir William Congreve, 1804 ; employed in setting fire to Bou- logne, Oct. 8, 1806 ; the Emperor of Russia bestowed the order of St Anne upon the inventor, 1813. CONIC SECTIONS, invented by Aristseus, B.C. 240. CONINGSBURGH CASTLE, Yorkshire, built, 489 ; rebuilt in the I2th century. CONJUNCTION of the sun, moon, and planets witnessed, 1186 ; of Saturn and Jupiter, 1394. CONJURATION made felony in England, by James I., 1603 ; the law repealed, 1736. CONNAUGHT, Ireland, a kingdom under the Irish pentarchy, and remained comparatively independent until 1 590, it was then divided into six counties. CONNECTICUT, America. Two settlements formed here, 1633 and 1637 ; charter of, incorporation granted by Charles II., 1665 ; became one of the United States, 1788. CONNOR, bishopric of, in Ireland, united to Down, 1442 ; Connor and Down united with Dromore, Aug. 14, 1833. CONQUEROR, H. M. screw steam ship-of-war, 101 guns, wrecked on a coral reef off the Bahama Bank, Jan. 29, 1862. CONSCIENCE, Court of, established by the Court of Common Council, of Lon- don, 1517 ; confirmed by 3 James I. c. 15, 1604 ; generally adopted throughout the kingdom ; superseded by the County Court, established by 9 & 10 Viet. c. 95, Aug. 28, 1846 ; amended. The city of London also established a County Court by 10 & II Viet. c. Ixxi., July 2, 1847; jurisdiction extended, 30 & 31 Viet. c. 142, 1867. See County Courts. CONSECRATION of Solomon's Temple, I Kings viii. 12, et seq. ; churches consecrated, A- D. 200 ; the sepulchre of Jerusalem, 335 ; churchyards and bury- ing-grounds, 560. Particulars of charges for, in 1828: s. d. Drawing and engrossing petition to the archbishop to consecrate ... i 5 o Drawing the sentence of consecration ... ... ... ... ... 2 2 o Drawing the Act ... ... ... ... ... ... o 13 6 Registering the above instruments and the deed at length, and parch- ment ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...220 The chancellor's fee ... ..." ... ... ... ... ..7 5 o o The principal registrar's fee ... 500 The secretary's fee ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...500 The deputy registrar's attendance and expenses ... ... ... 315 6 The apparitor's fee ... I I o Fee on obtaining the seal ... I I o CONSERVATIVE CLUB, founded, 1840. The club-house erected from the de- sign of Sidney Smirke, and opened, Feb. 19, 1845. CONSERVATORS of the River Thames. See Thames- CONSERVATIVES CONSPIRACIES 175 CONSERVATIVES. This name first applied to the country party who were against the repeal of the corn laws, by Mr Croker, 1830 ; partially broken up, 1843. CONSERVATORS OF PUBLIC LIBERTY, chosen from the barons, to limit the king's power, 1244; of the peace, 1344. CONSISTORY, the Council which meets at the Vatican under the presidency of the Pope for the management of spiritual and temporal affairs- The Consistory Court for hearing and deciding all ecclesiastical suits in England, instituted, 1085 ; an appeal from, to the Abp of the province, provided by 24 Hen. VIII. c. 12, s. 5, 1532 ; proceedings against the clergy taken under I & 2 Viet, c- 106, Aug. 14, 1838, and the 3 & 4 Viet. c. 86, Aug. 7, 1840. CONSOLIDATED FUND, formed of the Aggregate Fund, the General Fund, and the South Sea, 1816, 56 Geo. III. c. 98. In the year ending March 31, 1859, the total payments made out of it amounted to .1,940,655, of which .546,591 referred to Royal establishments and allowances, and .200,395 to pensions of various kinds, while .157,665 was for salaries, and ^1,036,004 for 'other pay- ments. ' CONSOLS. Prices of, in 1852, 100% ; Dec. 24, 1852, 101 ; Dec. 24, 1844, xoifi ; the lowest price, July 4, 1867, 94^ ; in this century was, July, 1803, $0% ; in the 1 8th century the highest price, reached in 1736, was 113; the lowest, in 1798, was 47). In 1865, the number of persons holding consols was 126,331. CONSPIRACIES AND INSURRECTIONS, remarkable. An insurrection in Spain, which cost the lives of 30,000 Spaniards, and double that number of Moors, 1560; at Malta, to destroy the whole order, for which 125 slaves suffered death, June 26, 1 749 ; at Lisbon, by several of the nobility, who shot at the king, 1758 ; at Algiers, on account of tribute, 1761 ; at Madrid, when they obliged the king to banish the Marquis Squillace, 1769 ; at the Brazils, 1772 ; at Palermo, Oct. 26, 1773 ; at Stockholm, 1792, when Gustavus III. was assassinated by Ankerstroem ; at St Domingo, and the other French West India islands, where "near 16,000 negroes were slain, and 400 whites, and 550 plantations destroyed, 1794 ; in Dublin, 1803 ; of the Prince of Asturias against his father, 1807 ; of the inhabitants of Madrid against the French, in which many persons were killed, 1808 ; at Algiers, 1808 ; Orsini and others against the emperor of the French, Jan. 14, 1858. CONSPIRACIES AND INSURRECTIONS in England. A conspiracy of the Norman barons against William I., 1074; against William II., 1088 and 1093; against Henry II., by his queen and children, 1173 5 insurrection of Foulk de Brent against Henry III., 1224 ; a conspiracy against the same king for cancelling Magna Charta, 1227 ; of the barons against Henry III., 1258 ; of the Duke of Exeter and others against the life of Henry IV., dis- covered by dropping a paper accidentally, 1400; against Henry V., by the Earl of Cambridge and others, 1415 ; of Richard, Duke of Gloucester, against his nephews, Edward V. and his brother, whom he caused to be murdered, 1483 ; of Lambert Simnel, 1486 ; of Perkin Warbeck, 1492 ; and of the Earl of Suffolk and others against Henry VII., 1506 ; insurrection of the London ap- prentices, 7th Henry VIII., 1517 ; against Queen Elizabeth, by Dr Story, 1571 ; by the Duke of Norfolk and the Roman Catholic party, 1572 ; by Anthony Babington and others, 1586 ; by Lopez, a Jew, and others, 1593 ; by Patrick York, an Irish fencing-master, employed by the Spaniards to kill the queen, I 5945 f Wai pole, a Jesuit, who engaged one Squires to poison the queen, 1598 ; against James I., by the Marchioness de Verneuil, his mistress, and others, 1604 ; the gunpowder plot for blowing up the House of Commons discovered, Nov. 4-5, 1605 ; conspiracy of the Duke of Somerset and others to murder Sir 176 CONSTABLE CONSTANTINOPLE Thomas Overbury, 1612 ; of Sindercomb and others, to assassinate Oliver Cromwell, discovered by his associates, 1656 ; of the Puritans, 1657 ; of the Fifth Monarchy men, against Charles II., 1660 ; of Blood and his associates, who seized and wounded the Duke of Ormond, 1670 ; of the French, Spanish, and English Jesuits, countenanced by the pope, to assassinate Charles II., discovered by Dr Young and Titus Oates, 1668 ; a supposed Papist conspiracy discovered by Titus Oates and Sir E. Godfrey, who was found dead at Primrose Hill, Oct. 17, 1678 ; another to assassinate him at the Rye-house farm, near Hoddesden, Hert- fordshire, on his way from Newmarket, called the Rye-house Plot, 1683, for which Lord Russell was executed, July 21, 1683 ; of Lord Preston, the Bishop of Ely, and others, to restore King James, 1691 ; of Granvil, a French chevalier, and his associates, to assassinate King William in Flanders, 1692 ; a conspiracy by the Earl of Aylesbury and others to kill the king near Richmond, as he came from hunting, discovered by Pendergrass, called the Assassination Plot, 1696 ; of Simon Frazer, Lord Lovat, in favour of the Pretender, against Queen Anne, 1703; of the Marquis Guiscard, 1710; to assassinate George I., by James Shephard, an enthusiastic youth, who had been educated to consider the king as an usurper, 1718 ; of Counsellor Layer and others to bring in the Pretender, 1722 ; of Col. Despard and his associates to assassinate George III., and to overturn the existing government, 1803 ; of Thistlewood and others, May, 1820; the Fenian in Canada and Ireland, 1865-6. CONSTABLE, Lord High, of England, an ancient office instituted by the Nor- mans in England. "The office became hereditary in the family of the De Bohuns, Earls of Hereford and Essex, afterwards into that of the Stafford?. The Duke of Buckingham executed for treason while holding the office, and it became for- ffeited, 1521. The same office suppressed in France by Louis XIII., 1607. The office in Scotland established by Robert Bruce, 1314, and still remains in the Errol family. CONSTABLES OF HUNDREDS AND FRANCHISES, first instituted in the reign of Edward I., 1285 ; the number increased, 1360 ; special constables appointed by I & 2 Will. IV. c. 41, 1831 ; amended 5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 43, Aug. 3i, 1835. CONSTANCE, a council of priests, which condemned John Huss and Jerome of Prague to the "flames, and denounced Wycliffe, in violation of all considerations of policy and good faith; first sittings, Nov. 16, 1414; last sittings held in 1418. CONSTANTINOPLE, Era of, which was adopted in that city before the 7th cen- tury, commences with the creation of the world, B.C. 5508. The Russians fol- lowed this calculation until the reign of Peter the Great, having received it from the Greek Church. In this era there are two years, the Civil, which begins in the month of Sept., and the Ecclesiastical, which commences March 21, and some- times April I. CONSTANTINOPLE, Turkey, anciently Byzantium, became the seat of empire under Constantine the Great, 323 ; the walls thrown down by an earthquake, 447; re-constructed, 508; besieged by the Saracens, 668 and 716 ; attacked by the Russians, 865 ; taken by them, 941 ; captured by the Latins, 1203 ; again taken by them and partially destroyed, 1204 ; besieged by the Turks, 1422 they take it after a siege of 53 days, May 29, 1453 ; revolt of the Janissaries sup- pressed with considerable slaughter, 1705 ; again, 1822 and 1826; fire destroyed 12,000 houses and 7000 persons, Sept. 27, 1729; damaged by fire, May 31, 1745 ; in June, 1750, 10,000 houses destroyed ; in 1751, a fire consumed 4000 houses, and the plague took off 70,000 souls ; Sept. 2, I754 nearly destroyed by an earthquake, and 3000 persons killed ; July 5, 1756, visited with the plague ; 13,000 houses burned, and above 1000 persons ; the plague again visited, and the heir to the Ottoman empire died of it, 1757 ; dreadful fires in 1761, 5, 7, and 9 ; CONSTITUENTS CONVENTION 177 2OOO houses burned, Sept. 4, 1778 ; 600, Feb. 19, 1782 ; 7000, June IO, follow- ing ; and the next Aug. 10,000 houses, 50 mosques, loo corn-mills, were de- stroyed ; in Aug., 1784, 10,000 houses were destroyed, and 32,000 between March and July, 1791 ; no less than 7000 were destroyed, 1795 ; the suburb of Pera had 1300 houses and fine buildings burned, March 13, 1799. The Janis- saries revolted and attacked the Sultan's guards, Nov. 14, 1808. In 1812 and 1813, 300,000 of the inhabitants were struck down by the plague ; in Aug., 1816, 1 200 houses and 2000 shops were burned ; the Christians massacred without re- gard of sex, March 25, 1822 ; in 1825, 12,000 houses, 30 mosques, 400 boats, and as many people were consumed. The Janissaries again revolted, but were de- feated, and 14,000 slain, June 15, 1826 ; abolished the next day. The Sultan's palace destroyed by fire, Jan. 21, 1839 ; a fire which destroyed 4000 houses took place, Aug. 12, 1852. The treaty signed between England, France, and Turkey, March 12, 1854. An earthquake at, Feb. 28, 1855. The Sultan installed a knight of the Garter by Lord Stratford de Redcliffe, Nov. 5, 1856 ; conference relative to the Montenegrin territories held, 1858. A serious fire broke out, Sept. 5, 1865, and raged till the 8th, 5000 houses destroyed, besides public offices. Many Councils have held their sittings here. CONSTITUENTS, Assembly of, France, established after the dethronement of Louis Philippe, consisting of 900 members, met, May 5, 1848; they proclaimed a republican form of government, Nov. 12 ; suppressed at the coup (Tttat, Dec. 2, 1851. CONSTITUTION, American ship of war, took the British frigate Guerriere, which lost loo men killed and wounded, the Americans losing but 14 killed and wounded, Aug. 20, 1812. CONSTITUTIONAL ASSOCIATION, a clique of persons so calling themselves, prosecuted the publisher of Lord Byron's parody on Southey's ridiculous ' Vision of Judgment,' and got him fined 100, 1824. CONSTITUTIONAL CLUB, The, founded for the city of London in the in- terest of the Conservatives at a meeting held at the London Tavern, Dec. 5, 1867. CONSTITUTIONAL INQUIRER. A proclamation issued by the government of Great Britain, to discover the author, Feb. 5, 1750. CONSULS. Two consuls appointed at Rome, B.C. 509 ; two elected at Milan in 1 107 ; three appointed in France, Napoleon Bonaparte, Cambaceres, and Lebrun, Nov. 10, 1799 ; the first consul took up his residence at the Tuilleries, Feb. 19, 1800 ; proclaimed consul for life, Aug. 2, 1802. CONSULS, mercantile agents of different nations, first appointed to Italy by Rich. III., in 1485 ; one appointed to Portugal, 1633 ; the whole revised by Lord Palmerston in 1831 ; the staff now comprises 22 consuls-general, 137 consuls, and 90 vice-consuls, whose salaries amount to ,141,288. CONTAGIOUS DISEASES, at naval and military stations, becoming a serious cause of weakness to our army and navy, an act was passed to prevent, and for the establishing of Lock Hospitals under medical supervision, 29 & 30 Viet. c. 15, June II, 1866. CONVENTICLES, a term used to describe Dissenting meeting-houses, in the act 35 Eliz. c. I, 1593 ; the Uniformity Act passed, 1662 ; no one to preach in a conventicle under a penalty of ^50, 17 Charles II. c. 2, 1665 ; another passed to suppress seditious conventicles, 22 Charles II. c. I, 1670 ; repealed by i Will. & Mary, c. 18, 1688. CONVENTION between different powers or interests : Closterseven, 1757 ; armed neutrality, 1780; Pilnitz, 1791 ; Paris, the national, 1792 ; Cintra, 1808; Berlin, 1808; Peterswalden, 1813; Paris (allies), 1814; Vienna, 1814; Holland and 12 1 78 CONVENTION PARLIAMENTS COORG England, 1814; Zurich, 1815 ; Capua, 1815 ; St Cloud, 1815 ; Aix la Chapelle, 1818 ; Paris and Allies, 1813 ; Austria with England, in which the latter agreed to compound for ^2,500,000 a just debt of ^30, 000,000 sterling, 1824 ; Russia and England, 1825 ; England and United States of America, 1826 ; France and Brazil, 1828 ; Holland and Belgium, in London, 1839 ; England, Austria, Russia, Prussia, and Turkey, settling the Eastern question, 1840; France and England respecting the slave trade, 1845 ; England and the Argentine republic, 1849 > a t Paris uniting the principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia, Aug. 20, 1858. CONVENTION PARLIAMENTS : one voted the restoration of the Stuarts, met, April 25, 1660 ; a motion for the restoration of Charles II. passed, April 27 ; accepted by the King, May I : the other declared for the abdication of James II. and for William and Mary, Jan. 23, 1689 ; converted into a parliament, Feb. 23, 1689; dissolved, Feb. 6, 1690. CONVENTS, the first in England at Folkestone, 630 ; in Scotland, 670 ; sup- pressed and plundered by Henry VIII. ; suppressed by Murat in the Two Sicilies, 1809; restored, 1815; abolished in Spain, 1811 ; restored, 1814; 187 abolished by the emperor of Russia, July 31, 1832 ; 300 put down by Don Pedro, in Por- tugal, 1834. CONVICTS first transported to America, 1666 ; Governor Philip landed at Botany Bay, Port Philip, with 800 convicts, and founded the colony, Jan. 20, 1788. The establishment of hulks for the reception of convicts, 1776; the last, called the Stirling Castle, abolished, and the system discontinued, Feb. 7, 1859. CONVOCATION OF THE CLERGY, an assembly of clergy so called in the earliest times, summoned to meet in the 23rd Edward I., 1294 ; their power limited by a statute of Henry VIII. ; the clergy relinquished the power of taxing themselves, 1664; censured and dissolved, May 10, 1717, by a special order from the court, and revived again in 1854. CONVOLVULUS FLOWER imported from the Canaries, 1690; the many- flowered, 1779. CONWAY, Wales. A castle erected here by Edward I. in 1283 ; the plague com- mitted dreadful ravages here in 1607 ; the town taken by the Parliamentary forces under Cromwell, Aug. 15, 1646; the castle surrendered, Nov. 10, 1646. The suspension bridge built by Telford, begun, 1822 ; completed in 1826. COOK, the great circumnavigator, made his first voyage, 1768, sailing in the 'En- deavour,' July 30 ; he reached home, July 13, I77 1 > sailed again, July, 1772, and returned July, 1775 ; sailed on his third and last voyage from Plymouth, July, 1776, and was killed at Owyhee, Feb. 14, 1779 ; his ships, the 'Resolution' and 'Discovery,' reaching home, Sept. 22, 1780. COOK, Thomas, hung at Leicester for the murder of Mr Paas of London, whose remains he burned, Aug. 10, 1832. COOKS' COMPANY, incorporated 22 Edw. IV., July n, 1472; reincorporated by ii Charles II., Feb. 16. CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETIES, the first established at Rochdale, 1844 ; since then they have rapidly increased, and an act was passed for their government, 13 & 14 Viet. c. 115, Aug. 15, 1850; and as to the value of shares to be owned by one member, 18 & 19 Viet. c. 63, July 23, 1855. COOPERS' COMPANY, incorporated by 16 Hen. VII., April 29, 1501 ; con- firmed, 13 Charles II., Aug. 30, 1662 ; arms granted to, Sept. 27, 1509 ; Hall rebuilt, 1668-71 ; state lotteries drawn in this hall the last drawn, Oct. 18, 1826 ; hall pulled down, 1865. COORG, Hindustan, remained under the government of native princes till 1773, COPENHAGEN COPYRIGHT 179 when Hyder Ali subdued and took possession of the country, excluding the right- ful heir, whom they imprisoned ; he escaped and recovered his kingdom, 1788 ; annexed to the British possessions, 1834. COPENHAGEN, presented by Waldemar I. to Absolon, Bishop of Roeskilde, who erected a castle here, 1168 ; obtained municipal rights, 1284 ; made a city, 1319 ; and capital of Denmark, 1443; 77 streets burned, 1728; palace destroyed by fire, Feb. 26. 1794, where 20,000,000 of rixdollars, or ,4, 500,000 sterling, of damage was done, and above 100 persons lost their lives ; the arsenal, admiralty, and 50 streets destroyed by fire, with 1363 houses, June 5, 1795 > bombarded by the English, under Lord Nelson, and 18 of the defending vessels out of 23 taken or destroyed, April 2, 1801 ; captured by the English expedition, Sept. 5, 1807 ; the town taken possession of on the 8th, and the fleet sent to England on the 2Oth of Oct., with 250 pieces of artillery. COPERNICUS, of Thorn, in Prussia, born, Jan. 19, 1473 ; died, May 24, 1543 ; disclosed the true solar system, 1530. COPES, first used in the church, 256. COPPER, one of the six primitive metals, very early discovered in many parts of the world. Mentioned in the Bible as being possessed in countless abundance, 2 Chron. iv. 1 8. The importation is also mentioned of copper vessels, Ezek. xxvii. 13. First found in Sweden, 1396 ; in England, 1561 ; regulated and re- vived working, 1689; produce of Cornwall, 11,185 tons; Devonshire, 307; Anglesea, 575 ; Cumberland and other places in Stafford and Lancashire, 120 tons ; other places in Wales, Ireland, &c., 1158 ; total, 1833, 13,345 tons > value of that found in Cornwall for 1833, .1,031,722 ; the export from the united kingdom, 1834, was 7811 tons; discovered in the Anglesea Paris mine, 1768; produced 3000 tons in 1785 ; in 1817, only 350 ; in 1826, 75810115 ; in 1832, 575 ; first imported from Virginia, Oct. , 1 730 ; found in New York, 1 722 ; copper first used to sheathe ships, and copper bolts also used, 1760 ; found in large quantities on the shore of Lake Superior, in the United States, 1835 ; the Burra-Burra mines of Australia discovered, 1843; the duty repealed, 1853. COPPER MONEY coined by the Romans and Greeks. The first coined in Britain by Cunobeline, about A.D. 42 ; circulated in Ireland, 1339 ; in France, 1580 ; in Scotland, about 1600 ; in England the first legal coinage, 1609, 1665, and 1672 ; private traders coined tokens, 1672 ; Wood's copper coinage in Ire- land issued, 1723 ; forbidden to be counterfeited, 1771 ; penny and twopenny pieces coined, July 26, 1797 ; and halfpence, 1800. The present bronze coinage was issued, 1800. COPPERPLATE PRINTING invented in Germany, 1450 ; rolling presses for working, about 1545 ; a mode of engraving on soft steel, invented by Perkins, which he afterwards hardened, 1819. COPPERAS, or sulphate of iron, or green vitriol, first introduced into England as a manufacture, 1587, by one Cornelius de Vos. COPYING PRESS, one patenteed by Mr Brunei, 1820. COPYRIGHT. An order prohibiting works being published without the author's consent, 1649 ; the right fully recognized and confirmed by statute 8 Anne, c. 19, 1709 ; the right vested in the author for 14 years, 1710 ; extended to the United Kingdom by 41 Geo. III. c. 107, July 2, 1801 ; an extension of copyright and further protection granted by 54 Geo. III. c. 156, July 29, 1814 ; dramatic authors protected, 1833 ; lectures without the author's consent to publication protected, 1835 ; acts extended to Ireland, 1836; international copyright passed, July 31, 1838. The right of an author in his works to endure for his life, and seven years after ; but if the term of life expire earlier than 42 years, the right is still to endure l8o CORDELIERS CORINTH for that term ; for which, also, the work of an author published after his death is also to endure, 5 & 6 Viet. c. 45, July i, 1842. Five copies to be sent to the public libraries: the British Museum, the Bodleian, the Public Library at Cambridge, the Faculty of Advocates at Edinburgh, and Trinity College, Dublin ; the follow- ing being discontinued : the Oxford University, Glasgow, Aberdeen, St Andrews, Sion College. Act relating to the colonies, July 22, 1847 ; for manu- facturing designs for three years, 5 & 6 Viet. c. 100, Aug. 10, 1842 ; amended, Aug. 22, 1843, and again, Aug. 14, 1850 ; the International Copyright Act, I & 2 Viet. c. 59, July 31, 1838 ; amended, 7 Viet. c. 12, May 10, 1844; ex- tended, 15 Viet. c. 12, May 28, 1852. CORDELIERS, an order of Franciscan Friars, founded, 1223. CORDELIERS, a club of political revolutionists established in Paris, 1789 or 1790. CORDOVA, Spain, founded by Marcus Marcellus during the war with the Celtiberi, B.C. 152 ; Csesar nearly destroyed the town after the battle of Munda, putting 20,000 of the inhabitants to the sword ; taken by the Moors, 700, and made the capital of Spain, 756; nearly destroyed by fire, 917; the town captured by Ferdinand, King of Castile, 1235 ; the city taken and pillaged by the French, June 7 and two following days, 1808 ; again sacked by the Carlists, Oct. I, 1836. CORDWAINERS' COMPANY existed in the reign of Henry III. ; incorporated by 17 Hen. VI., April 26, 1439 ; confirmed by 4 & 5 Philip and Mary, June 17, 1558 ; by 4 Eliz., Aug. 24, 1562 ; reincorporated by IO James I., June 3, 1613 ; and again by I James II., May 9, 1686. Exeter Incorporated by n Rich. II., 1387 ; confirmed, 1481 and 1555. CORFE CASTLE, Dorsetshire. Edward the Martyr murdered at its gate by order of his mother-in-law, Elfrida, 978 ; rebuilt by William the Conqueror, 1082 ; repaired by King John ; made a prison, 1202 ; besieged by the Parlia- mentarians under Sir Walter Erie, who was defeated by Lady Bankes and the soldiers under her command, 1643 ; taken by the Parliamentary forces under Col. Bingham, Feb. 27, 1645, and partially demolished. CORFU, Ionian Islands, colonized by the Corinthians, B.C. 734 then called Corcyra ; Robert Guiscard seized the Islands, A.D. 1081 ; Richard I. landed here, 1193 ; put themselves under the protection of the Venetians, 1386, who defeated the Turkish fleet of 60 ships of war, with 30,000 troops on board, when after a siege of five weeks they were obliged to retire, losing all their artillery and stores, July 16 Aug. 22, 1716 ; a dreadful explosion took place here, March n, 1789, when 72,ooolb. of powder and 60 bombshells exploded, and destroyed 180 per- sons ; ceded to France, Oct. 17, 1797; retaken, March 3, 1799, and made a republic ; placed under British administration by the treaty of Paris, 1815, with the other six islands. Prince George appointed king of Greece, and these islands given up by England, 1 864 ; visited by a severe hurricane which did considerable damage, Feb. 19, 1865. CORINTH, Greece, kingdom of, established, B.C. 1355 ; destroyed by L. Mummius, B.C. 146 ; rebuilt by Julius Caesar, B.C. 44. One of the first cities that embraced Christianity ; visited by the Apostle Paul about the year A. D. 60 ; taken by the Turks, under Mahomet II., 1459 ; captured by the Venetians, 1698 ; recaptured by the Turks, June 20, 1714; surrendered by the Turks to the Greeks, Oct., 1822 ; the town almost destroyed by an earthquake, Feb. 21, 1858. CORINTH, S. America. Gen. Beauregard retreated after confronting the Federals under Gen. Halleck for several weeks, May 3, 1862 ; taken possession of by the Federals, May 30, 1862 ; the Confederates under Generals Van Dorn and Price attacked this place and defeated the Federals with great loss, Oct. 3, 1864, but CORINTHIAN ORDER CORN 181 the next day they were defeated by the Federals under Gen. Rosencrans, Oct. 4, 1862. CORINTHIAN ORDER OF ARCHITECTURE, especially characterized by its beautiful capital, which is said to have been suggested to the mind of the cele- brated sculptor, Callimachus, by a basket covered by a tile overgrown by the leaves of the Acanthus ; the earliest known example of its use throughout a build- ing is in the monument of Lysicrates, commonly called the Lantern of Demos- thenes, in Greece, built B.C. 335. CORINTHIANS, the First Epistle to the, written by the Apostle St Paul, at Ephesus, Acts xix. 10, xx. 31, A.D. $7-58; the Second Epistle a few months later. CORK, Ireland, founded in the 6th century ; fortified, 1 170 ; surrendered to Henry II. by Dermod McCarthy, 1172 ; a charter granted by King John, 1185 ; deprived of its charter for assisting Perkin Warbeck, 1493 ; restored by King James I., 1609 ; nearly destroyed by fire, 1622 ; taken by the Earl of Marlborough from King James II., 1690, and the Duke of Grafton, son of Charles II. by one of his mis- tresses, was slain ; the cathedral built by a coal duty between 1725 and 1735 ; ex- plosion of gunpowder at, Nov. 10, 1810 ; Queen's College, founded in 1845 ; inaugurated, Nov. 7, 1849 ; food riots, June 10, 1842 ; Queen Victoria visited the town, Aug. 3, 1849 ; exhibition opened, June 10, 1852 ; Fenian outbreak at, 1866-7 ; robbery of 200 guns from a gunsmith's, in Patrick Street, Nov. 29, 1867 ; funeral procession of 12,000 of the inhabitants in honour of the executed Fenians, Allen, Gould, and Larkin, who murdered Brett the constable, Dec. I, 1867. The see of, founded in the 7th century ; united with Cloyne, 1431, and again separ- ated, 1678 ; see of Ross added to it, 1582 ; sees of Cork and Cloyne again united, Aug. 14, 1833. CORK-TREE brought to England, circa 1690. CORN. Wheat, said to have been introduced into England in the 6th century ; the first account of any importation, 1347 ; of export, 1437 ; the first statute passed forbidding the exportation of, 34 Edw. III. c. 20, 1360 ; the importation of, for- bidden unless the price of wheat exceeded 6s. &/. a quarter, 3 Edw. IV. c. 2, 1463 ; 25 Hen. VIII. c. 2, 1436-7, forbidding the exportation of, repealed by I & 2 Philip & Mary, c. 5, 1544 ; bounties upon its importation, 1686 ; value of ex- ported corn, 1745, A 681,000. The first act for regulating the duties was 13 Geo. III. c. 43, 1773. Before that time the price of corn was ruled by circumstances, a larger quantity being grown than was consumed ; the exportation was pro- hibited when scarcity prevailed ; in 1604-5, the introduction of corn when the price was below 32^. the quarter was prohibited by the landowners ; after 1660, the duty laid on foreign wheat was i6\r. ; when the price was 53^. or under, the price in favour of the landowner advanced 2U. in half a century, and the duty was to be &r. when between 53^. and below 63^. ; in 1773, the duty was 24J. yl. when wheat was under 50^., and when at or above SQJ. it was only to be 6d. ; after the commencement of the French revolutionary war, 1 793, when wheat was below 63^., the duty on foreign wheat was to be 3CW. $d., falling to 7J when the price reached 65 s. In 1815 the landowners did not consider this enough ; an act was passed to prohibit all importation until the price in the home-market had been three consecutive months above 8or., and riots and tumults ensued in Westminster ; in 1816 the price rose from 52J-. to IOOJ. a quarter; in 1822, the importation of foreign wheat was prohibited when prices were under 70?. , admitting it between 7OJ. and 8or. at a duty of 12s. ; when between 8or. and 85^. a duty of 5^., and when above 85^. a duty of is. ; this law never operated, for early in 1027, Canning proposed a sliding-scale, which was to a certain extent adopted by the Cabinet of the Duke of Wellington, 9 Geo. IV. c. 60, July 15, 1828, which remained i82 CORN CORNWALL operative uritil Sir Robert Peel's act, 5 Viet. c. 14, April 29, 1842, which last bill disappeared in the annihilation of the corn laws, 9 & 10 Viet. c. 22, June 22, 1846 ; it was a sliding-scale which made the duty 2os. with wheat at 5U. ; the duty reduced to is. per quarter, Feb. I, 1849. CORN. Wheat Prices : 1700, 40^. ; 1706, 26s. ; 1709, 78^. 6d. ; 1712, 26s. $d. ; 1718, 38^. lod. ; 1725, 4&J-. 6d. ; 1730, 36^. 6d. ; 1732, 26s. 8d. ; 1736, 4or. $d. ; 1742, 34$-. ; 1744, 24J-. lod. ; from 1743 to 1762 inclusive, the average was i us. lod. for the 20 years ; after this, prices rose to 41.?. and 48.5-. during the American War ; in 1784 they fluctuated between 4&s. 2d. and q.is. lod. ; in 1785, between 37^. 6d. and 34J-. 6d. ; in 1786, between 36^. 2d. and 33.5-. ; in 1787, from 44J. to 3OJ. id. ; in 1788, 45^. id. to 42^. 9^.; in 1789, the prices varied from 54^. lid. 1047^. ; the fluctuations in the intervening years, down to the repeal of the corn laws, were very various, the extreme (not the average) being in the market as high as 175^. in 1801, and in 1835 as low as 34?. ; a load of wheat sold at Windsor market for 31 a load, May 15, 1847. CORN, foreign prices ; the average prices in France, Belgium, and Prussia, from the year 1828 or 1829 down to 1850. From this it appears that from 1829 to 1850, the average price of wheat in France has been 45 s. "]d. per quarter ; the highest quotation was in 1847, when it was 6"js. 4^.; and the lowest was in 1850, when it was 33-f. 2d. In Belgium, from 1828 to 1850, the average has been 46.5-., the highest being 72^. 2d. in 1847, and the lowest 32J. 2d. in 1834 ; in 1848, yjs. $d. In Prussia, from 1828 to 1850, the average has been 34J. 3^. The highest price in that country, as well as in France and Belgium, was in 1847, when it was 58j., and the lowest was 23^. ^d. in 1836 ; in 1850, it was 3U. 6d. The cost of the imports of grain of all kinds, as well as flour, for the years, 1854, 21,760,283; 1855, 17,508,700; 1856, 23,039,422; 1857, 19,380,567; 1858, 20,152,641 ; 1859, 18,042,063 ; 1860, 31,671,918. CORN EXCHANGE, London, first opened, 1747 ; the new building completed and opened, June 24, 1828, at the cost of 90,000. CORN LAW LEAGUE, a combination of individuals desirous of the repeal of the corn laws, and resolved by all peaceable means to agitate for the same, formed at Manchester, Sept. 18, 1838 ; meetings in different places for the purpose, one held in April, 1841, and at Manchester, May 18, 1841 ; a bazaar was held at Man- chester, by which 10,000 was realized, Feb. 2, 1842 ; above 6000 deputies assembled and held numerous meetings from Feb. to Aug., 1842; the sum of 50,000 raised to depute lecturers and to print pamphlets, Oct. 20, 1842 ; meet- ing at Drury-lane Theatre, March 15, 1843; the same at Covent-garden, Sept. 28 ; great free-trade meeting at Manchester, Nov. 14 ; again, Jan. 22, 1845 > bazaar at Covent-garden opened, May 5, 1845 '> great Manchester meeting, at which the League proposed to raise a million, Dec. 23 ; the corn importation bill > having passed, the League dissolved, July 2, 1846. CORNET, a loud-sounding instrument, made of the horn of a ram, and used by the Hebrews for announcing the Jubilee, Lev. xxv. 9, and for proclaiming the New Year. Brass instrument greatly improved in the igth century by Distin. Cornet, an officer in cavalry regiments, so called after cornetta, a small Italian flag, appointed circa 1597. CORNHILL CASTLE, Northumberland, taken by the Scots and demolished, 1385 ; rebuilt, and again taken by the Scots, 1549. CORNISH, Alderman, of London, hanged and quartered on a false charge for high treason, in Cheapside, opposite his residence, Oct. 19, 1685. CORNWALL, England, the retreat of the ancient Britons beyond the Ex, where they defended themselves from the Saxons until 924, when Athelstan drove them from the Ex to the Tamar, finally subjugating the county ; governed by its own CORONATIONS CORPUS CHRISTI COLLEGE 183 princes or by dukes until Edward III., in 1336, annexed it to the eldest son of the reigning monarch, who is heir to the crown, bom Duke of Cornwall, but Prince of Wales by creation ; the inhabitants of, resisted the taxes, and marched to London, but were defeated at Blackheath, June 22, 1497. The present Prince and Princess of Wales visited Cornwall in 1865 ; the income of the Prince of Wales from, amounted in 1866 to ^53>43- CORONATIONS. Dates of the coronation of English Sovereigns in Westminster Abbey : Harold II., Jan. 5, 1066 ; William I., Dec. 25, 1066; William II., Sept. 26, 1087 ; Henry I.," Aug. 5, noo ; Stephen, Dec. 26, 1135 ; Henry II., Dec. 19, 1 154 ; Richard I., Sept. 3, 1 189 ; John, May 27, 1 199 ; Henry III. (a second time), May 17, 1220; Edward I., Aug. 19, 1274; Edward II., Feb. 23, 1307; Edward III., Feb. 2, 1327; Richard II., July 16, 1377; Henry IV., Oct. 13, 1399; Henry V., April 9, 1413; Henry VI., Nov. 6, 1429; Edward IV., June 29, 1461 ; Richard III., July 6, 1483; Henry VII., Oct. 30, 1485 ; Henry VIII., June 24, 1509; Edward VI., Feb. 20, 1547; Queen Mary, Sept. 30, 1553; Queen Elizabeth, Jan. 15, 1558 ; James I., July 25, 1603 ; Charles I., Feb. 2, 1625 ; Charles II., April 23, 1661 ; James II., April 23, 1685 ; William and Mary, April II, 1689 ; Queen Anne, April 23, 1702; George I., Oct. 20, 1714; George II., Oct n, 1727 ; George III., Sept. 22, 1761 ; George IV., July 19, 1821 ; William IV., Sept. 8, 1831 ; Queen Victoria, June 28, 1838. CORONATION BANQUETS. The first given by Edward I. in 1273 ; discon- tinued by William IV. in 1831. CORONATION OATH first administered in England by Dunstan, Abp of Canter- bury, to King Ethelred, 979 ; the oath of 1377 very nearly resembled that now in use ; it was slightly altered in 1689. CORONATION STONE, Westminster Abbey, brought from Scone in Scotland by Edward I., 1296; said to have been originally at Cashel, Ireland, and being borrowed by one Fergus, a Scotch king, B. c. 330, was not returned, but removed from Dunstaffnage to Scone by Kenneth II., 850, whence Edward I. took it. CORONERS, officers of the realm, in 925, for every county in England. First ap- pointed by statute of Westminster, 4 Edw. I., s. 2, 1276 ; instituted in Scotland, 1004, in the reign of Malcolm II.; appointed for life until 25 Geo. II. c. 29, 1752, when they were to be removed for certain causes. Coroners may appoint deputies in case of illness, 6 & 7 Viet. c. 83, Aug. 22, 1843 ; amended by 7 & 8 Viet. c. 92, Aug. 9, 1844; again amended as to election and duties, 23 & 24 Viet. c. 116, Aug. 28, 1860. CORONETS allowed by the Crown to the nobility, temp. Henry III. Some state- ments give the coronet later to Earls, in 1604, the first being then worn. CORPORATIONS of boroughs in England, or municipal, given by charter as early as Edward the Confessor ; granted by Henry I., noo ; by the Corporation and Test Act, all officers and members in corporations compelled to take the sacrament according to the rites of the Church of England, 13 Charles II. stat. 2, c. I, 1661 ; repealed, 9 Geo. IV. c. 17, May 9, 1828 ; an act for the reform of corporations passed, 5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 76, Sept. 9, 1835 ; Irish municipal act, 3 & 4 Viet. c. 108, Aug. 10, 1840 ; municipal elections regulated by 22 Viet c. 35, April 19, 1859. CORPULENCE. Bright, of Essex, died in his 27th year, Nov., 1750, and weighed 42 stone 12 Ib. Daniel Lambert died at Stamford, in his 4Oth year, June 21, 1809, weighing lolb. more than Bright. CORPUS CHRISTI COLLEGE founded by Bishop Fox at Oxford, 1516; the chapel built in 1517; Turner's buildings erected by Thomas Turner, 1706. Corpus Christi College, called also Benedict's College, founded at Cambridge, 184 CORPUS CHRISTI DAY COTTON 1352; the chapel erected by Sir Nicholas Bacon, 1573; the College partially rebuilt, 1823. CORPUS CHRISTI DAY, May 25 ; appointed a festival by Pope Urban IV., in 1262 1264 ; confirmed by the council of Vienne, 1311. CORSICA, Mediterranean Sea, subjected to the Romans, B.C. 231 ; taken by the Genoese from the Pisans, 1312 ; after defeating the French in 1553, it was secured to the Genoese; in 1559 it revolted; in 1775 Gen. Pascal Paoli chosen general ; defeated and came to England, 1 769 ; renewed efforts made by this brave man, crowned with success, 1 793 ; and the assembly voted the union of the island with Great Britain, June 19, 1794; George III. acknowledged as king, June 17, 1794; a parliament opened, 1795 ; a revolt took place, 1796 ; the English gave up the island, Oct. 22, 1796, when it became subject to France. CORTES, the national assembly of Spain, established in the I4th century, as- sembled after a long interval, Sept. 24, 1810 ; settled a new constitution, March 16, 1812; set aside by Ferdinand VII., May, 1814; opened, 1820; suppressed, Oct., 1823 ; summoned again, July 24, 1834. CORUNNA, battle between the English army of 16,000 infantry under Sir John Moore, who was killed, and the French army of 20,000 men commanded by Mar- shal Soult, Jan. 16, 1809 ; the French were repulsed, and the English embarked. Its arsenal destroyed by fire, March II, 1794. COSSACKS, a semi-civilized race of irregular horsemen in the service of Russia, the confines of which they inhabit ; first embodied in the i6th century ; became a Russian force in 1658 ; revolted in 1708. COSTA RICA, S. America, united to Mexico, 1821 ; it afterwards joined the central American confederation, 1823, but shortly afterwards became a separate state. Treaty of commerce with Great Britain signed at San Jose, Nov. 27, 1849. COTERIE, The, established at Mrs Comely' s, 1771. This was a mixed club of ladies and gentlemen, the ladies balloting for the gents, and the gents for the ladies ; it was composed exclusively of people of the highest fashion. See list, Gent.'s Mag. for 1770, p. 415 ; Massey's Eng. vol. ii. p. 67. COTTON. This plant was cultivated in Egypt, B.C. 567; cotton fabrics known in India and China for many centuries before it was brought to Europe ; Herod- otus called it Tree Wool ; imported from the Levant, 1430 ; exported from Bristol, 1511 ; some plants taken from the Bahamas to Georgia in America, 1786, where they flourished, and that country became the great growers of this plant ; attempts have been made to introduce the culture of this plant into India, with but partial success. The first cotton mill erected at Beverley in America, 1 788 ; visited by Washington, 1789. The trade and manufacture of, encouraged in England in the 1 7th century; first made by machinery (invented by Louis Paul, 1736), in 1740; the spinning jenny invented by Mr Hargreave, and successfully worked, 1767; spunby Arkwright's machinery, 1769; a second engine for, invented, 1775 ; Crompton's mule, 1779; Cartwright's power-loom, 1787? utensils of manufactures of, prohibited from exportation, 1774 ; duty levied on cotton, 1785. In 1791, the quantity manufactured, 32,148,906 Ib. The increase was as follows: 1781, 5,101, 92olb., value ,2,000,000; 1784, u, 280,236 Ib., valued at ^3,950,000; in 1787, 22,6oo,ooolb., valued at .7,500,000. From 1793 to 1824, the cotton manufactures of Great Britain exported, amounted to ,365,500,000 in value, the raw material of which cost 128,000,000. The total amount of the raw cotton imported from 1814 to 1823, or nine of the foregoing years, was i,235,ooo,ooolb. In 1831, the raw material imported reached 280, 249, 600 Ib. ; in 1840, 592,ooo,ooolb. ; in 1843, 669,ooo,ooolb. ; in 1850-1, it reached to 755,000,000 Ib. In 50 years, from 58,000,000 Ib. of cotton to 755,000,000 Ib. COTTON DISTRESS COUNCILS OF THE CHURCH 185 have been annually imported, and of these the United States sent 6oo,ooo,ooolb. ; the rest came from other countries. In 1851, the product of cotton in America was 3,000,000 Ib. In 1841, Brazil and Portugal sent i6,ooo,ooolb. ; East Indies and Ceylon, 97,000,000 Ib. ; Egypt, 8,000,000 Ib., thus supplying a part of the rest. The application of the material, except to spun goods, cannot be accurately ascertained ; but of the power-looms in England in 1835, out f 113,428, 108,632 were employed in cotton ; and in 1850, out of 288,336, no less than 249,627 were worked with cotton. The exports of cotton goods in 1850 reached 1,358,238,837 yards, value ^20,528,150. The cotton yarn exported, 1850, was 131,233, i681b., value .6,380,948. The supply of raw cotton from America in 1850, 663,576,861!^; in 1860, 1,390,938,752!^; from India in 1860, 2O4,i4i,i681b. In 1866, the imports amounted to 1, 377, 129, 936 Ib. A meeting held at Manchester, Jan. 30, 1862, to protest against the Indian pro- tective duties of 10 per cent, on cotton goods, and 5 per cent, on yarns. COTTON DISTRESS. Owing to the Civil War in America, the principal supply of this material failed, and led to the closing of the cotton factories in Manchester, Preston, Rochdale, and other towns. A meeting was held at Manchester at which a central committee for relieving the distress was appointed, April 29, 1862. A meeting of the bankers and merchants of London was held at the Mansion House, London, under the presidency of the Lord Mayor, when a committee was formed to assist in raising funds for the same object, May 10 ; another meeting was held at Bridgewater House, when Lord Derby was chosen president, July 19, .10,000 being subscribed in a few hours. An act of par- liament passed to enable the boards of guardians in the different districts to obtain loans for the relief of the operatives, 25 & 26 Viet. c. no, Aug. 7, 1862. A meet- ing of the landowners and others was held at the Town-hall, Manchester, Lord Derby presiding, when ,130,000 was raised, Dec. 2 ; in this month nearly 5000 operatives were supported by the various funds. In Jan., 1863, in 147 Unions the amount spent in relief amounted to ^"15,612 to 221,945 persons, from the relief fund during the same week .39,474 to 374,630 persons, the total .55,086. The people of the United States fitted out three American vessels with corn and other merchandise for the relief of the distressed ; the George Grisivold arrived at Liverpool, Feb. 9, 1863 ; the Achilles, Feb. 24. Riots at Staleybridge, March 20. The total funds subscribed reached over 2, 000,000. COTTON FACTORIES, acts of parliament relating to, and employment in, 1825, 1831, 1833, 1844. COTTONIAN LIBRARY, the formation of Robert Cotton, 1558-60; purchased for the nation, 12 & 13 Will. III. c. 7, 1700 ; Cotton House purchased, 5 & 6 Anne, c. 30, 1706, for .4500 ; in 1712 the library was removed to Essex House ; and in 1730 to Ashburnham House ; and in 1731 to Westminster School ; part of the books injured by fire, Oct. 23, 1731 ; deposited in the British Museum, under the provisions of 26 Geo. II. c. 22, 1753. COUCHMAN, Lieutenant, of the Chesterfield man-of-war, and Mr Morgan, lieu- tenant of marines, shot on board, at Portsmouth, pursuant to the sentence of a court-martial, July 14, 1749. COUNCIL OF FIVE HUNDRED at St Cloud, France ; dispersed by Bona- parte, Nov. 9, 1799. COUNCILS OF THE CHURCH. The first held at Jerusalem, 48 ; at Antioch, 269 ; at Aries, 314. The following is a list of general councils : A.D. A.D. I. Nice 325 IV. Chalcedon 451 II. Constantinople, I. ... 381 v. Constantinople, II. ... 553 III. Ephesus 431 VI. Constantinople, III. ... 608 i86 COUNSEL COURTS'-LEET A.D. A .D. VII. Nice, II 787 XIV. Lyons, II 1274 vin. Constantinople, IV. ... 869 xv. Vienna 1311 IX. Lateran, I. ... ... 1123 xvi. Constance ... ... 1414 x. Lateran, II. 1139 xvn. Basel 1431 xi. Lateran, III. ... ... 1179 xvm. Florence ... ... 1439 xii. Lateran, IV 1215 xix. Lateran, V 1512 xin. Lyons, I. ... ... ... 1245 xx. Trent ... ... ... 1546 There have been other provincial councils, as that of Avignon, and at Bituria in Tuscany, 1431 ; at Tours in France, 1448 ; at Florence in Italy, 1449 ; at Toledo in Spain, 1473 ; at Augsburghin Germany, 1548 ; at Cologne in Germany, 1548 ; at Treves in Germany, 1548 ; at Cologne in Germany, 1549 ; at Mentz in Ger- many, 1549 ; and at Numantia in Spain, 1550. COUNSEL, or BARRISTERS, referred to the time of Edward I., 1284; allow- ed to persons charged with treason for defence, in 1696 ; allowed in cases of felony, Aug., 1836. COUNTIES, first division of England into, by Alfred, 900 ; first sent members to parliament, 1265. Ireland divided into, 1562. COUNTY COURTS. An act for the recovery of small debts under 20 passed, 9 & 10 Viet. c. 95, Aug. 26, 1846 ; amended, 1849 ; extended to ,50, 13 & 14 Viet. c. 61, Aug. 14, 1850 ; since amended in several minor details ; equitable jurisdiction given to, by 28 & 29 Viet. c. 99, July 5, 1865 ; the jurisdiction amended, 30 & 31 Viet. c. 142, Aug. 20, 1867 ; for city of London, see Court of Conscience. COUNTY JAILS, cost erecting in later years : Gloucester, "18,000, with 170 cells ; Monmouth, 4.000, with 26 cells ; Stafford, 18,000, with 140 cells ; Liverpool, 25,000, with 300 cells ; Dorchester, ,12,000, with 100 cells ; Devon, ,20,000, with 160 cells; Tothill Fields, ,145,750, with 288 cells, 1836; Millbank penitentiary, "550,000, with Iioo cells, 1812 ; Pentonville model prison, ,85,000, with 1000 cells, 1846. COUPLAND CASTLE, Northumberland, built by Sir John de Coupland, circa 1248 ; King David of Scotland brought a prisoner here after the battle of Nevill's Cross, 1346. COURIERS were employed before Christ, in the reign of Augustus Ccesar ; in- stituted, as in modern times, by Charlemagne ; couriers and posts for letters were established by Louis XI. of France, 1463. COURLAND, Russia, made a duchy, 1561 ; annexed to Russia, 1795 ; Serfs liberated by Alexander I., Sept. 24, 1818. COURT BARON. These Manorial Courts established by the Normans ; regu- lated in Scotland by 20 Geo. II. c. 43, s. 17, 1747 ; restricted by 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 27, s. 36, 1833 ; abolished by the County Court Act, 9 & 10 Viet. c. 95, Aug. 28, 1846. COURT OF HONOUR, once belonged to the Court of Chivalry in England, was so called ; one established in Bavaria to prevent duelling, April, 1819. COURTS OF JUDICATURE. Citizens of London allowed to plead their own causes, except in pleas of the Crown, 1257. Courts of England and Ireland separated by law, April, 1 783. COURTS 'OF LAW. A commission appointed to inquire into the constitution of the various courts, Sept. 18, 1867. Fees paid by suitors in the superior courts to provide a fund towards the expenses of building the new Palace of Justice, 30 & 31 Viet. c. 122, Aug. 20, 1867. COURTS'-LEET, established by King Alfred, and improved by Henry III., 1267. COURT-MARTIAL COVENT GARDEN 187 COURT-MARTIAL, established for the army by 2 Will. III. c. 6, 1690 ; for the navy, 22 Geo. II. c. 33, 1749. COURT PARTY, a term used to designate that party in the government opposed to the Tory Country Party, when the latter arose, 1620. Under the first two Georges the Court Party was generally Whig ; the leader of the Country Party most distinguished, Sir Thomas Hanmer, died, 1746. COURTS OF REQUEST, or CONSCIENCE, began under Henry VII., 1493 ; remodelled, 1517 ; they extended to the recovery of 4Oc. only in the country, and loor. in London. They have been superseded by the County Debt Courts, which extend to $o. Courts of Conscience were established for 40*. in Bristol, Gloucester, and Newcastle, Nov. 30, 1680 ; made to extend to $, 1800. COURTRAY, Belgium, made a municipal city in the 7th century ; fortified, 1292. The castle built by Philip the Bold, 1385; enlarged by the French and the citadel built, 1647. The battle of the Spurs was fought here, July n, 1302. The town was taken by the Spaniards, 1683. The fortifications destroyed by the French, 1744. The church of Notre Dame built, 1238. The first cloth manu- facture established, 1260. COURVOISIER, Fran9ois Benjamin, executed at Newgate, July 6, 1840, for the murder of his master, Lord William Russell, May 5. COUTRAS, battle. The Huguenots, under Henry of Navarre, defeated the Catholics under the Duke of Joyeuse, who was slain, with 500 gentlemen and 2000 soldiers, Oct. 20, 1587. COVELL ISLANDS, in the Pacific Ocean, discovered, 1832, 14 in number, 4 deg. 3Q m. N. lat ; 1 68 deg. 40 m. E. long. COVENANT between England and Scotland formed, 1643 ; declared to be illegal, 1662. COVENANTERS, those persons so called, who engaged to resist the aggressions of Charles I., 1638 ; after the Book of Common Prayer had been forcibly read in their churches, refused to conform to the Liturgy, 1637 ; abolished episcopacy, Nov. 21, 1638. Laud persecuted all those who would not conform, 1638 ; Mar- quis of Hamilton sent to Scotland, his propositions rejected, Aug. 8, 1638 ; un- able to pacify the people, the Marquis of Hamilton returned, Dec. 31, 1638 ; the Scotch resolved on war, Feb. 20, 1639 ; the king led an army against Scotland, March 27, 1639 ; commissioners appointed to settle the disputed points, Oct. 29, 1640. The solemn league and covenant agreed to, 1643 ; abolished, 1661. COVENT GARDEN, built, 1633, by Inigo Jones ; the arcade (vulgarly the Piazza or Place) designed by the same architect. The stalls and market rebuilt, 1 829-30, by the Duke of Bedford. St Paul's, built from the design of Inigo Jones, began, 1631 ; consecrated, Sept. 27, 1638 ; destroyed by fire, Sept 17, 1795 ; rebuilt on the former model, 1 798. COVENT GARDEN THEATRE, built by John Rich, and opened, Dec. 7, 1732 ; rebuilt from the designs of Henry Holland, cost .25,000, 1792 ; burnt, Sept. 20, 1808, when 20 lives were lost. The Prince of Wales laid the foundation-stone of the New Theatre, Dec. 31, 1808 ; opened, Sept. 18, 1809 ; built from the de- signs of Sir Robert Smirke at a cost of .150,000 ; remodelled by M. Albano at an expense of .30,000; opened as an Italian opera, April 6, 1847 ; totally de- stroyed by fire, March 5, 1856 ; rebuilt from the designs of Mr E. M. Barry. 'It is about one-fifth larger than the former, and has nearly the same proportions as La Scala, at Milan, the largest theatre in Europe ; it is nearly rectangular ; length 240 feet, breadth 123 feet, height ICO feet. The principal fa$ade in Bow-street has for its chief feature a hexastyle Corinthian portico, 82 feet wide, and 80 feet high ; the columns are 36 feet 6 inches high, and 3 feet 6 inches in diameter. The 1 88 COVENT GARDEN CRAPE statues by Flaxman and Rossi of Melpomene and Thalia, and Flaxman's well- known bassi-relievi which adorned the front of the former building and escaped the fire, are placed in the new facade.' Opened, May 22, 1858. COVENT GARDEN THEATRICAL FUND, instituted, 1765. COVENTRY, Warwickshire, a town of considerable antiquity ; a monastery founded by Leofric, Earl of Mercia, 1044 ; a parliament held in the city by Henry IY- > 1404, from which lawyers were excluded ; the walls, three miles round, with 26 towers, demolished by order of Charles II., 1662. Six men and a woman burned at, by order of Henry VIII., to show his zeal against Luther, Sept., 1519 ; they were charged with teaching their children the Lord's Prayer, the Ten Commandments, and the Apostles' Creed, in their mother tongue. The manufacture of ribbons introduced, 1685 ; great distress amongst the weavers owing to the introduction of French goods, 1860 ; subscription raised for their relief, ^"40,000, Dec. 4, 1860. COVENTRY, Bishopric of, founded, 656, by Oswy, King of Mercia ; the see removed to Chester, 1075 ', in 1086 to Coventry, and united with Lichfield in 1185 ; at the Restoration, 1660, the titles reversed. See Chester. COVENTRY, Peeping Tom of. A tradition that Lady Godiva, wife of Leofric Earl of Mercia, who taxed the citizens so heavily that she interposed in their be- half, when he consented to her prayer if she would ride naked through the streets, not supposing it possible. She consented, the inhabitants all keep to themselves secluded ; but one was struck dead for peeping, 1057. The present procession established by Charles II., 1677. COVENTRY, Sir John, maimed and defaced in London, Dec. 25, 1670, whence the Coventry Act was passed, for the punishment of like outrages, 22 & 23 Charles II. c. I, 1671 ; repealed, 1828. COVERHAM ABBEY, Yorkshire, founded by Helewyse, 1212; partially de- stroyed by the Scots, 1321. COWDLEY HOUSE, Kent, with its valuable paintings, destroyed by fire, Sept. 25, 1793- COWES CASTLE, Isle of Wight, built by Henry VIII., 1540. COWLING CASTLE, Kent, built by John de Cobham, 1580. COW-POX, inoculation for, discovered to be a security against the small-pox, by Dr Jenner, 1796 ; published a treatise upon, June, 1798 ; rewarded by a grant of ; 1 0,000, June 2, 1802, and ^20,000, 1806. COZITATE, battle. The Russians defeated by the Turks, with a loss of 3000 men, Jan. 6, 1854. CRACOW, Poland, founded by Cracus, 700; taken by Charles XII., 1702 ; the sovereigns crowned there till 1 764 ; Kosciusko expelled the Russians from, March 24, 1794 ; surrendered to Prussia, June 15, 1794 ; given to Austria as her blood- money, 1795 ; taken by Napoleon, 1809 ; formed into a republic by the treaty of 1815; occupied by 10,000 Prussians, Sept., 1831 ; insurrection, Feb., 1846; seized and incorporated by the Emperor of Austria, Nov. 6, 1846 ; partially de- stroyed by fire, July 18, 1850. CRANBORNE PRIORY, Dorset, built, 980. CRANGANORE, Hindustan, captured by the Portuguese, 1505; taken and forti- fied by the Dutch, 1663 ; sold by them to the rajah of Travancore, 1788 ; Tippoo captured it, May 8, 1790 ; retaken by the English, 1791 ; ceded to them, 1792. CRANIOLOGY propagated as a doctrine by Dr Gall, a German, 1803. CRAPE, a. species of stuff made of raw silk, said to have been manufactured by St Badour, Queen of France, 680, and to have been made first at Boulogne. CRAWLEY CRESSY 189 CRAWLEY, Lieut.-Col., of the Inniskillen Dragoons, tried by a court-martial, at Aldershot, for falsely arresting Regimental Sergeant Lilley, at Mhow, in Hin- dustan, who died from the effects of the treatment he suffered after a month's close confinement ; and for conduct unbecoming an officer at the trial of Paymaster T. Smales. The trial commenced Nov. 17, 1863 ; the prisoner pleaded not guilty, he was honourably acquitted, Dec. 23 ; the trial formed the subject of several inquiries by members of the House of Commons, in 1864; it cost the country ,18,378 17-r. 6d. CRAYONS, known in France before 1422 ; improved, 1748, when the art of fixing them was discovered. CREATION by patent to titles, first used in England, 1344. CREATION, Era of. The differences of the date assigned for this event amount to 140 in all. Usher, Blair, and Dufresnoy make it 6.0.4004 Josephus 4658 Samaritan Pentateuch ... 4700 Septuagint 5^7 2 Authors of the Talmud ... 5344 Hundred and twenty Chronologists vary from the Septuagint date to ... 3268 Dr Hales 5411 (4000 Catholic Church - < and (4004 The Chinese give the world as some hundreds of thousands of years old ; and the Chaldean records carried back the age of the world to nearly half a million of years. A period much older than that assigned to it has been proved to be cor- rect by geology. The era of the creation being a fixed reckoning, must count from some of the fixed dates above. That of 4004 is of the most general adop- tion. CREDITON, Devonshire, made an episcopal see by King Athelstan, 933 ; de- clared for Charles I., July, 1644 ; 460 houses destroyed by fire, property valued at .53,000, and 16 persons killed, Aug. 14, 1743 ; the larger portion of the same town burned, May 2, 1769; 60 houses burned, 1743 and 1759, May I, 1772. CREED, the Apostles', written long after their time ; translated into Saxon, 746. CREED, the Nicene, so called from the council that composed it, 325 ; the Atha- nasian supposed to have been written about 340. CREMENTZ, in Hungary, totally destroyed by fire, 1777. CREMONA, Italy, colonized by the Romans, B.C. 219; destroyed, A.D. 69; rebuilt, and again destroyed, 605 ; made a republic, 1 107 ; the fortifications de- stroyed, 1311; taken by France, 1499; ceded to Austria, 1814; annexed to Sardinia, Nov. IO, 1859. CREMORNE GARDENS, Chelsea, formerly the residence of Lord Cremome, built in the i6th century ; opened as public gardens, 1847 ; Ashburnham House added, 1860 ; a serious accident at, during a representation of the siege of Sebastopol, when 23 soldiers were wounded, Aug. 13, 1855 ; the wire-rope dancer, Carlo Valerio, killed by a fall from the rope, June 23, 1863 ; visit of the Belgian Volunteers to, July, 1867. CRESCENT, order of knighthood began at Naples, 1448. CRESSY, or CRECY, battle The English army was commanded by Edward IIL and his son, the Black Prince, when the French army was totally defeated ; they igo CRESTS CRISPIN lost three sovereign princes, a number of the French nobility, 1200 knights, and 30,000 private men, Aug. 26, 1346. CRESTS in heraldry, worn on coronets, caps, or helmets, 1189 ; Richard II. wore a lion, 1377 ; James I. of Scotland a lion, 1424. CRETE, island of, now called Candia, conquered by the Saracens, A. D. 808; by the Arabs, 823 ; by the Greeks, under Nicephorus, 961 ; by the Venetians, 1 194 ; and from then; by the Turks, 1669. Insurrection against the Turkish power broke out, Aug., 1866; a general assembly of the islanders decreed the union of the island with Greece, Sept. 2. In 1867 severe righting took place : Omar Pasha appointed to the command of the Ottoman army, in April ; great distress of the islanders ; French and Russian vessels engaged in carrying away Canadian fami- lies, Aug. 8, et seq. ; the Arcadi Greek blockade runner destroyed by the Turkish cruiser, Izeddin, on her 24th voyage, Aug. 19 ; the Turks defeated at Omalos, after three days' fighting, Aug. 29; hostilities suspended for four weeks, Sept. 13 ; a severe shock of an earthquake felt in the island, Sept. 19-20 ; an amnesty pro- claimed by the Porte, Sept. 14 ; a proclamation addressed to the Cretans by the Grand Vizier, warning them that the amnesty had expired, Oct. 3 1 ; Hussein Pasha succeeded Omar Pasha as commander-in- chief, Oct. 31, and resumed the offensive, Nov. 20. CREWE HALL, Cheshire, the seat of Lord Crewe, built between 1615 and 1636; destroyed by fire, Jan. 3, 1866. CRIBBAGE, formerly known under the name of Noddy, and is described circa 1694. CRICKET, the game of single, first mentioned, 1719; the first club formed at the White Conduit House, 1780 ; Mr Lord laid out his ground in St John's Wood Road, about this time. The United Eleven of England invited to and visited the United States, 1849 ; and Australia, 1862. CRICKET HALFPENNY STEAMBOAT exploded on the river Thames, killing five persons, Aug. 27, 1847. CRIMEA, Russia. Colonized by Greeks, B.C. 550 ; in the possession of the Huns for some centuries ; captured by the Mongols under Genghis Khan, circa 1237 ; the Genoese merchants had extensive fortified factories at Kaffa, 1261 ; taken by the Turks, 1475 ; invaded by the Russians, 1736 ; and again, 1770 ; incorporated with the Russian empire, 1783. The united armies landed at Old Ford, Sept. 14, 1854 ; the battle of the Alma, Sept. 20 ; death of Marshal St Arnaud, Sept. 29 ; the allied forces occupied Balaclava, Sept. 28 ; evacuated by the allies, July 12, 1856 ; medals distributed to the soldiers for the campaign by the Queen in St James's Park, May 1 8, 1857. CRIMINAL LAW, a royal commission appointed to inquire into, 1833 ; made their first report, 1 836 ; an act passed to remove some defects in the administra- tion of, 30 & 31 Viet. c. 35, 1867. CRIMPING-HOUSES in London destroyed by the mob, Sept. 16, 1794. CRINAN CANAL, which forms the short cut between the Clyde and the north- west coast of Scotland, destroyed, Feb. 2, 1859. CRIPPLEGATE, London, built, 1010 ; rebuilt by the Brewers' Company, 1244 ; repaired by Edward Shaw, 1491 ; again, 1663 ; pulled down and sold for <)i, July, 1751 ; the church of St Giles erected, circa 1090 ; the present church in the I3th century, partially destroyed by fire, Sept. 12, 1545. Foxe, the martyr- ologist, buried here, 1580 ; John Speed, the chronicler, 1629 ; John Milton, the poet, Nov. 12, 1674 ; and Daniel Defoe, the author of 'Robinson Crusoe,' April 26, 1731. CRISPIN, a Romish saint who travelled as a shoemaker to propagate the Romish faith, 303 ; hence he became the tutelary saint of that trade. CRITICISM CROQUET 191 CRITICISM, legality of, established in a court oflaw, Feb., 1794. CROATIA, Austria, anciently inhabited by the Pannonians ; taken by the Goths, 489 ; incorporated with Hungary, circa 1200 ; severed from that kingdom, 1848. CROCKERYWARE made before the Christian era, by the Egyptians and Etrus- cans. The art revived of fine pottery, at Faenza, Italy, 1310. CROCKFORD'S, St James's. This gambling club was built in 1827 ; closed, 1844. CROMLECH, or Dolmen, is a stone table formed of three, four, or more upright stones, covered with a cap-stone. The most famous in England are : Kit Cottys House, Kent, said to be the monument of Categern, brother to Voltigem ; Stonehenge, Cornwall ; and Wayland Smith's Cave; Berkshire, the work of the ancient Britons. CROMWELL, OLIVER, the great soldier and Protector of England, bom, April 25, 1599 ; was in parliament, 1628 ; reinforced Gainsborough, July 36, 1643 ; raised a regiment of horse, Aug. 10, 1643 ; defeated Charles I. at Marston Moor, July 3, 1644; new modelled the army as Lieut. -Gen., 1645 ; defeated Charles I. at Naseby, June 14, 1645 ; defeated the King's horse at Islip Bridge, April 24, 1645 ; Bristol surrendered to him, Sept. 9 ; Berkeley Castle, Sept. 21, 1646 ; de- feated the Welsh, 1648; and Sir M. Langdon, Aug. 17; and next routed the Scotch at Preston ; marched to Edinburgh, Berwick, and Carlisle, Oct., 1648 ; dispersed the Levellers on Hounslow Heath, and besieged Pontefract, 1648; made Lord-Lieut, of Ireland, and reached Dublin, Aug. 13, 1649 ; took Drogheda by storm, and put the garrison to the sword, Aug. 14, 1649 ; permitted the Irish to serve foreign princes, May, 1650 ; received with state on his return, and made Captain-General, June 26 ; invaded Scotland, July 1 6 ; routed the Scotch at Dunbar, killing 3000 and taking 9000 prisoners, Sept. 3 ; took Edinburgh Castle, before untaken, Dec. 24 ; took Fife and defeated the Scotch, killing 2000 and making 1200 prisoners, June, 1651 ; attacked Charles II. at Worcester, killed 3000 and took 7000 prisoners, with the king's standard and 158 colours, Sept. 3, 1651 ; came to London in triumph, Sept. 12 ; chose Protector of England, Dec. J 3> *653 ; magnificently entertained at Grocers' Hall, in the city, Feb. 8, 1654 ; united Scotland and Ireland into a commonwealth with England, April 12, with one parliament, which met, Sept. 4; voted Protector for life, Oct. 19, 1654; buried his mother in Westminster Abbey, Nov, 17, 1654 ; summoned 60 persons to constitute a House of Lords, Dec. n, 1657 ; died, Sept. 3, 1658, in his 6oth year ; his body exhumed, and hung on a gibbet at Tyburn, by Charles II., Dec. 2, 1660. CROMWELL, RICHARD, made Protector, Sept 4, 1658 ; laid down his authority, Jan., 1659, by order of the army ; died, 1712. CROMWELL, Lord, made Vicar-Gen., Oct., 1535 ; beheaded, July 28, 1540, aged 50 years. CROMWELL, Mrs E., daughter of Richard the Protector, died at her house in Bedford Row, Aug. 8, 1731, aged 82 years ; and Mrs Cromwell, the great -great- grand-daughter of the Protector, Oliver, the last of the name, died at Cheshunt, Feb. 26, 1834, aged 90 years. CRONSTADT, a seaport and fortress of Russia, near Petersburg, founded by Peter the Great, 1703 ; injured by fire, 1741 ; visited by the French and English fleets, June, 1854, who watched it for months. CROOK, Japhet, his ears cut off in the pillory, 1731. CROPREDY BRIDGE, battle between the Royalists, under Charles I., and the Parliamentary forces, under Sir William Waller, the latter being defeated, June 29, 1644. CROQUET. This favourite game was introduced into England from Germany, 192 CROSBY CROWN circa 1830, but did not become general until 1860 ; Mayne Reid's rules published, 1863. CROSBY, BRASS, Lord Mayor of London, committed to the Tower, by the House of Commons, for holding one of its messengers to bail, March 27, 1771. CROSBY HALL, Bishopsgate-street, built by Sir John Crosbie, and called Crosby Place, 1470-1 ; Richard Duke of Gloucester, afterwards Richard III., occupied this mansion, 1483 ; he left it for Westminster, June 27 ; the mayoralty of Sir Bartholomew Reed was celebrated here, 1502; Sir Thomas More, 1523; who sold it to Antonio Bonvisi, Jan. 20, 1523 ; purchased by the Crown, Aug. 28, 1538 ; and sold to Sir Edward North, Aug. 28, 1542 ; William Bond, alderman of London, purchased it, May 15, 1566 ; purchased by Sir John Spencer for ^"2560, 1594 ; the great hall converted into a Presbyterian Meeting-house, 1672 ; it is at present occupied by a wine merchant. CROSIER, the staff with a cross borne before bishops ; sometimes put for the episcopal crook of a bishop, circa 500. CROSS, sign of the, first used by the Christians, A.D. no ; used to perform miracles, 260. CROSS, The Real, pretended to be found by St Helena, at Jerusalem, A. D. 307 ; carried off by Chrosroes II., King of Persia, 614, but recovered by Heraclius, who defeated him, Sept. 14, 615. CROSS BOWS, used by the Normans ; their use and practice anathematized by the Lateran Council, 1139; revived in the reign of Richard I., 1190; in an indenture, dated 1301, of the surrender of the castle of Montgomery, 40 cross bows are mentioned. CROSS, Exaltation of the, a Popish feast, held on the I4th Sept., on the restoration of the true cross to Mount Calvary, 642. CROSS, ST, Hospital of, at Winchester, built, 1132. CROSS, Maids of the, a female community that vowed poverty, chastity, and obedience ; founded in Picardy, 1625 ; removed to Paris, 1636. CROSS, Order of the, instituted by the Empress Eleanora de Gonzaga, the consort of Leopold I., 1668. CROSSED or CRUTCHED FRIARS, instituted by Prior Gerard of Bologna, 1169 ; established in England, at Colchester, 1244. (Habit blue, with a cross of red cloth upon their breasts or backs. ) CROSSES, once erected in all parts of the kingdom. There were 12 erected to the memory of Queen Eleanor, at the following places : St Alban's, Charing, Dun- stable, Geddington, Grantham, Lincoln, Northampton, Stamford, Stony-Strat- ford, Waltham, Westcheap, Woburn. Cheapside boasted a splendid one, it had several storeys, and was much admired ; in the storeys were Scriptural images, and the whole structure was surmounted by a cross, supporting a dove ; the height of it was parallel with the houses forming Goldsmiths' -row, opposite to Wood-street, which street was built by Thomas Wood, goldsmith and sheriff, 1491 ; on May 2, 1643, parliament ordered the cross to be demolished with that at Charing Cross. CROWN. This ornament is most ancient and universal, worn by princes, Eze. xxi. 26 ; a mitre worn by the high priests, Ex. xxviii. 36 ; Ammon's crown, which weighed a talent and ornamented with precious stones, was placed upon the head David, 2 Sam. xii. 30. The iron crown, of the Lombards, presented by Pope Gregory to Theoldolinda, Queen of the Lombards, A.D. 600610. The crown of King Receswinthus made, 653 ; found at Toledo, 1858 ; the first duke of Hungary's crown was presented to him by the Emperor Michael Ducas, 1072 ; the first worn CROWN OF ENGLAND 193 in England by Alfred the Great, 872 ; the first papal cap by Damasius II., 1053 ; a crown put round it by Julius XIX., 1276 ; a second added by Boniface VIII., 1295 ; a third, forming the triple crown, by Benedict XII., 1334. CROWN (The English). King Alfred's crown had two small bells appended ; that of Athelstan was like an earl's coronet in every particular, 929 ; William I. wore his on a cap with points, 1066. Crown jewels of England deposited with the city of London by Richard II., for .2000, 1386 ; Richard III. first used the crosses, 1483 ; and Henry VII. the arches, 1485. ' The crown of Charles II. is the oldest remaining, made 1660 ; stolen from the Tower by Col. Blood, May 9, 1671 ; subsequently recovered. The present crown of England made by Messrs Rundell and Bridge, 1838, with the jewels taken from the earlier crowns. CROWN OF ENGLAND, SUCCESSION : Egbert was sole monarch of Eng- land, 827. From Egbert the crown descended regularly, with little deviation. In the three succeeding reigns it was suspended by force, till the Saxon line was restored in Edward the Confessor, who was not the next heir, because Edmund II. had a son living, Edward, an outlaw in Hungary. On Edward the Confessor's decease, Harold II. usurped the throne, though the right remained in Edgar Atheling, son of Edward the outlaw, and grandson of Edmund II. At this time, William I., Duke of Normandy, claimed a right from a grant of Edward the Con- fessor, and by conquest transferred the crown to a new family. From him it de- scended to his second and third son, William II. and Henry I., his eldest son Robert being kept out of possession by his brothers. Henry I. was succeeded by Stephen, grandson of William I., by his daughter Adelicia, his elder brother Theobald waiving his claim, and Maud, the daughter of Henry I. and grand- daughter of Edward the outlaw, to whom the succession belonged, being excluded by force. Her son, Henry II., as heir to William I., succeeded Stephen ; though the proper heirs in the Saxon line were the sons of Malcolm, king of Scotland, by Margaret, the daughter of Edward the outlaw. Henry I. having married the daughter of Edgar Atheling, by whom he had Maud, and her son Henry II. coming to the crown, in some measure restored the Saxon line. From Henry II. the crown descended to his oldest son then living, Richard I., on whose death it was seized by his brother John, Henry II. 's youngest son, in ex- clusion of his nephew Arthur. On the death of Arthur and his sister Eleanor, without issue, the crown properly descended to Henry III., son of John ; and from Henry III., in an hereditary line of six generations, to Richard II., and this right of succession was declared in parliament by the 25th of Edward III. Richard II. resigned the crown, and the right resulted to the issue of his grandfather Edward III., and should have fallen on the posterity of Lionel, Duke of Clarence, the first son of Edward III. ; but Henry, Duke of Lancaster, descended from the third son of Edward III., usurped it, under the title of Henry IV. Parliament (7 Henry IV. c. 2, 1405-6) settled it on him and his heirs. Henry IV. was regu- larly succeeded by his son and grandson Henry V. and VI. Under Henry VI. the House of York, descended from Lionel, Duke of Clarence, by the mother's side, began to claim their dormant right, and established it in Edward IV., by parlia- ment. This king was succeeded by his eldest son Edward V. , who was deposed and succeeded by his uncle, Richard III., his father's brother, on a pretence of bastardy. During this reign, Henry VII., Earl of Richmond, a descendant of the House of Lancaster, usurped the throne, and got his possession established by parliament, 1485. He marrying Elizabeth of York, Edward IV.'s daughter, the undoubted heiress of William the Conqueror, the families of York and Lancaster were united in Henry VIII., her eldest son, who transmitted the crown in succes- sion to his three children, confirmed by parliament, 25 Hen. VIII. c. 22, 1533-4. This statute was repealed by 28 Hen. VIII. c. 7, 1536, by which, afterthe king's divorce from Anne Boleyn, Mary and Elizabeth were bastardized. They were 13 194 CROWN CRUSADES again legitimated, and the succession restored by 35 Hen. VIII. c. i, 1543-4. Parliament now asserted its right of directing the succession by I Eliz. c. i, 1558. An act of recognition passed, 13 Eliz. c. 3, 1558. On the death of Elizabeth, succeeded James VI. of Scotland, in England James I. (the lineal descendant of Margaret, daughter of Henry VII. and his wife Elizabeth of York, the wife of James IV. of Scotland), and in him were united, not only the different com- petitors since the Conquest, but likewise the right of the Saxon monarchs, he being the direct lineal descendant of Malcolm, who married Margaret, the daughter of Edmund II. From James I. the crown descended to his second son Charles I., his eldest son Arthur being dead. After him the succession was interrupted by the usurpation of Oliver Cromwell and his son Richard, but restored in 1660, in Charles II., eldest son of Charles I. He dying without legitimate issue, it passed to his brother James II., whom parliament excluded, and called in William of Orange, and his wife Mary, the eldest daughter of James II., Jan. 23, 1689, to the exclusion of her father and her brother. On the death of this William III., Anne, second daughter of James II., reigned ; and she leaving no issue, the crown was settled by parliament, 12 & 13 Will. III., on the Princess Sophia of Hanover, the youngest daughter of Elizabeth, Queen of Bohemia, who was the daughter of James I., and her heirs, being Protestants. She dying before Queen Anne, her son George I. succeeded, in which family the crown has regularly descended to the present queen. CROWN, Royal, order of knighthood instituted in France, 802. CROWNS AND HALF-CROWNS coined in England, in gold called the Rose, in the reign of Henry VIII., 1526 ; they were current for qs. 6d. in silver, by Edward VI., 1551. CROWS, an act passed to destroy them, 24 Hen. VIII. c. 10, 1532-3. CROYDON, Surrey. The citizens of London retreated to this town after taking up arms against their sovereign, Henry III., 1264 ; the Archbishop's palace en- larged, 1278; Queen Elizabeth entertained here by Archbishop Parker, 1573; the cavalry barracks erected, 1794 ; the church destroyed by fire, Jan. 5, 1867. CROYLAND ABBEY, Lincolnshire, built by St Ethelbert, 716; destroyed by the Danes, 867; rebuilt, 945; destroyed by fire, 1091 ; rebuilt, 1112; again burnt, about 1142 ; finally rebuilt, 1170. CROXTON ABBEY, Staffordshire, founded by Bertram de Verdun, 1178; built, n 8l ; repaired, 1332. CRUELTY TO ANIMALS, statute to prevent, passed, called Martin's Act, 1822, 1827, 1835 ; extended to Ireland, July 15, 1837 ; Society for Prevention of, formed, 1824. See Animals, Dogs. CRUSADES, or Holy Wars for the recovery of the Holy Land from the infidels. The first set out, Aug. 15, 1096, to drive the Mahometans from Jerusalem ; the crusade was preached by Peter the Hermit, a fanatic, who urged on Pope Urban II., and he convened a council at Placentia to consider it, March, 1095, and another at Clermont in the Nov. following, at which envoys from the Christian princes attended. The first army Godfrey of Bouillon commanded. Antioch taken, June 3, 1098 ; Jerusalem captured, July 15, 1099. The second was preached by St Bernard of Clairvaux, 1 147 ; the army commanded by Louis VII. of France, defeated at Damascus, 1 148, and returned the next year, having suffered great loss. The third, under Philip II. of France, arrived at Acre, in which Richard Coeur de Lion joined, 1 191 ; that place captured, July 12 ; Richard returned, 1192. The fourth and fifth, 1203-18. The sixth was undertaken by Louis IX. of France, in which he was defeated and made a prisoner ; a truce for ten years agreed to, and Louis released ; he returned to France, 1254 ; he embarked in the seventh with Prince Edward, son of Henry III. of England, 1270 j Louis CRYSTAL PALACE CULLEN'S WOOD 195 died at Carthage, Aug. 25 ; but the English prince delivered Acre from a siege, and -marched as far as Nazareth with his army, and extorted by his valour a ten years' truce, 1272. Gibbon. CRUCIFIXION, a punishment in use among the Egyptians, Gen. xl. 19 ; the Carthaginians and the Persians, Esth. vii. 10 ; also practised by the Greeks and Romans. Jesus Christ suffered this punishment, Matt. xxviL 35. CRYSTAL PALACE, Hyde Park, designed by Sir Joseph Paxton, and built by Messrs Fox and Henderson ; length 1851 feet, width 408 ; the transept 108 feet high, 72 feet wide. Contract taken, July IO ; the first column fixed, Sept 26, 1850; opened, May I, 1851, and closed Oct. 2. CRYSTAL PALACE, Sydenham, erected by a company from the materials of the above-named exhibition, which were purchased for .70,000; began, July, 1852 ; opened by the Queen, June 10, 1854 ; visited by the Emperor and Empress of the French, April 20, 1855. The system of water- works and fountains opened in the presence of the Queen, June 18, 1856. The first preliminary performance for the Handel Festival held at, June 15, 17, 19, 1857 ; the second, celebrated in the presence of 20,000 persons, July 2, 1858 ; the Festival held, June 20, 23, 25, 1859. The building seriously damaged by a storm, Feb. 21, 1861. Blondin first appeared upon the high rope, 1861. The Handel Triennial Festival held, June 23, 25, 27, 1862. Garibaldi entertained by the Italians, and a sword of honour presented to him, April 16, 1864. The northern or tropical end destroyed by fire, Dec. 30, 1866. Visited by the Viceroy of Egypt, who presented .500 to the restoration fund, July 13, and by the Sultan, July 16, 1867, who gave jiooo towards the restoration ; a benefit concert given for the restoration, June, 1867. CUBA, one of the West India islands discovered by Columbus, Oct. 28, 1492 ; he again visited the island, 1494 and 1502; colonized by Velasquez ; Baracoa, 1514 ; Havannah burnt by a French privateer, 1538 ; and again, 1554 ; the town fortified, 1666; taken by Adm. Pococke and Lord Albemarle, Aug. 14, 1762; restored, 1763; earthquake at, June 21, 1791, when 3000 persons perished, and 1 1, 700 head of cattle, and 3700 horses ; Jesu Maria, a suburb, destroyed by fire, 1802 ; a piratical expedition fitted out in the United States under a man of colour, named Lopez, attacked the island in order of revolutionize it, and wrest it from Spain, Aug. 12, 1851 ; Lopez executed, Sept. I. CUCKING-STOOL, an instrument for the punishment of scolds in use in the I5th and 1 6th centuries. CUCUMBERS brought to England from the Netherlands, 1538. CUDDALORE, India, reduced by the English, 1681 ; fortified by them, 1702 ; by the French, 1758 and 1781 ; besieged unsuccessfully by the English, 1783 ; peace restored to them, 1 784. CUIRASS, employed for a protection for the breast and back by the Persians and Greeks ; first used by the troops of Edward III.,, 1325 ; revived after the battle of Waterloo in the English army. CULDEES. They were among the first order of monks that settled in the British isles ; their principal monastery was founded at lona in the 6th century ; they re- fused to submit to the authority of the Papal see. The Danes destroyed the monastery of Melrose, 850. The monks of St Andrews, who also preached in Ireland, and had an abbey in Tipperary, 1185, were famed for their learning. CULLEN'S WOOD MASSACRE, Ireland, the slaughter of a great number of the English by the Irish, at Easter, thence called Black Monday, 1209. They were a colony from Bristol, inhabiting Dublin, who went to amuse themselves with women and children in Cullen's Wood, when the O'Brians and O'Tooles 196 CULLERNE CUNNERSDORF from the mountains fell upon them without provocation, destroying, besides women and children, above 500 men. CULLERNE, Wilts, burned, and 32 families reduced to destitution, April i, 1774- CULLODEN, battle, between the Duke of Cumberland and the Pretender. The Scots were beaten, and left 2500 men on the field or precincts, while the English loss was not 200 ; the Duke of Cumberland's troops behaved with great inhumanity, putting even the wounded to death. The Pretender fled to the isle of Uist, and finally escaped, ,30,000 was offered for his person dead or alive, April 16, 1746. CULVERIN, a long piece of ordnance used by the Greeks and Turks at an early period ; by the English, circa 1455 ; there were four culverins and 12 demi-culve- rins on board the Great Harry, 1551 ; the number on board the British navy is given in an Inventory, March 3, 1599. CUM^E, or CUMA, Italy, said by some chronologers to have been founded B.C. 1050. There is little doubt of its great antiquity ; it was in a very high state of prosperity B .c. 700 500 ; it was attacked by the Etruscans, but they were re- pelled by the Cumasans under the leadership of Aristodemus, B.C. 505 ; he afterwards seized the government and held it for 20 years, until he was expelled by the nobles, circa 486 ; Tarquin, the exiled King of Rome, sought refuge here, B. c. 496 ; the Samnites captured the city and murdered and expelled the inhabit- ants and established a Roman colony, B .c. 420 ; permission given to the people to use the Latin language in their public documents, B.C. 180 ; it was noted for a particular kind of red earthenware, and as being the abode of the Sibyl ; it was the last stronghold of the Gothic kings in Italy, taken by Narses, A.D. 552, and partially destroyed . CUMANA VENEZUELA, founded by Diego Castellon, 1523 ; almost destroyed by an earthquake, 1766. CUMBERLAND, England. The earliest inhabitants were the Brigantes, who were conquered by the Romans, 121 ; in the year 875, the whole kingdom was conquered by Halfden the Dane ; the Scotch King Gregory assisted the Britons to expel them, 876-7 ; ceded to Scotland, 880 ; Ethelred invaded the county and defeated Malcolm, 1001 ; granted by Edward the Confessor to Siward, Earl of Northum- berland, 1053; fortified by William I., 1072; the city rebuilt by Rufus, 1092; ceded by Malcolm to Henry II., 1157; after repeated attempts to regain the county by the Scots, it was finally ceded to Henry III., 1237 ; almost depopu- lated by a pestilence. The regular border service and border laws were instituted by Edward I. ; Charles Stuart landed here when he made his last invasion of England, 1745. CUMBERLAND merchant vessel, Captain Barret, with only 26 hands, beat off five privateers, and made those who boarded prisoners, Jan. 16, 1811. CUNEIFORM, or arrow-headed shaped, letters found inscribed on the bricks found at Nineveh and Persia : there are three alphabets ; the Persian, consisting of 36 letters, the Median about 100, and the Assyrian, which is the most simple. Col. Rawlinson has done much to decipher them . Pietro della Valle brought the first specimen to Europe. Le Brun or Bruyn first published a connected inscription at Amsterdam, 1714. Col. Rawlinson sent a communication (on the inscription of Behistan ; it is a rock inscription, and inscribed about 300 feet from the foot of the rock) to the Royal Asiatic Society, Jan. I, 1838; a fac-simile of the inscription issued by them with a translation, 1846 ; an analysis of the Babylonian inscription by Sir Henry Rawlinson, printed by the same society in 1851 ; Dr Hincks and M. Oppert have made several important discoveries in deciphering these in- scriptions. CUNNERSDORF, battle, when the King of Prussia with 50,000 men attacked the CUPER'S GARDEN CUSTOMS' DUTIES 197 Russians with 90,000 in their camp, and routing them for the moment, pursued them too far, when they rallied and retrieved their fortune, taking 200 pieces of cannon and killing and wounding 20,000 Prussians, Aug. 12, 1759. CUPER'S GARDEN, Bankside, opposite Somerset House, built by Boydell Cuper, and opened, 1678 ; made a place of entertainment similar to Vauxhall, 1736 ; closed, 1753. CURACOA, island of, settled by the Spaniards, 1527 ; captured by the Dutch, 1634 ; surrendered to the British, 1798; restored, Aug. 13, 1802; retaken, March 25, 1807 ; restored to the Dutch, Jan. i, 1814. CURATES, known in the Church in the 7th century. By a canon passed by Jac. I., 1603, not permitted to preach until the Bishop of the Diocese has examined them ; by 12 Anne, 2, c. 12, 1713, all curates are to be examined by the Bishop ; an act was passed for the further support and maintenance of, and for making certain regulations respecting their appointment, 36 Geo. III. c. 83, May 14, 1796 ; further regulations made by 53 Geo. III. c. 149, July 20, 1813 ; amended by 57 Geo. III. c. 99, July 10, 1817; the holding of benefices in plurality abridged, I & 2 Viet. c. 106, Aug. 14, 1838 ; perpetual curates appointed, 2 & 3 Viet. c. 49, s. 2, Aug. 17, 1839. CURFEW BELL, established by William I., 1068 ; when it rang, at 8 P.M., all fires and candles were to be extinguished, under a heavy penalty. The custom was abolished by Henry I., noo. CURRANTS first planted in England, originally from the Levant, 1533 ; the haw- thorn currant came from Canada, 1705- The fruit first exported from Corinth, whence their name ; only to be imported in British ships, 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 54, Aug. 28, 1833. The duty was then 44^. $d. a cwt. ; reduced to 15^. acwt., 1844. CURRIERS' COMPANY, founded, 1367 ; incorporated, 3 James 1., April 30, 1606 ; hall built after the fire of 1666, and rebuilt, 1823. CURSITOR BARON, first appointed, May, 1610; office abolished by 19 & 20 Viet. c. 86, July 29, 1856. CURTAIN, Theatre built in Holywell Lane, Shoreditch, in 1576. CUSHEE, piece of ordnance, invented by Richard Leake, governor of the Royal Prince, who nobly distinguished himself against the Dutch admiral, Van Tromp, I673- CUSTOM HOUSE, London, first erected by John Churchman, Sheriff of London, 1385 ; a more spacious building commenced in 1559 ; burnt down, 1666 ; rebuilt by Sir Christopher Wren, 1668; destroyed by fire, 1718; rebuilt by Ripley, 1720; destroyed as before, Feb. 12, 1814. The present building is from the design of David Lang, opened, May 12, 1817 ; the long room, superior to the present, gave way, Jan. 26, 1825, and was reconstructed by Sir Robert Smirke at an expense of 180,000, in addition to the original expenditure of ^255,000. CUSTOM HOUSE, Dublin, a quadrangular building, the finest in the city, com- menced, 1781 ; opened, 1791 ; the St George's Dock in connection with, finished, 1821 ; the large store, erected in 1824, at a cost of ,103,000, 498 feet long by 1 1 1 wide, containing property valued at .480,000, destroyed by fire, Aug. 10, 1833. CUSTOMS' DUTIES, first collected, 979, under King Ethelred II.; the claim of the Crown to them first granted by parliament, 1274, by 3 Edw. I. ; their amount in 1580 was .14,000; farmed for ^20,000 till 1590; in 1592, pro- duced .50,000, and ^148,075 in 1614 ; ,168,222, in 1622 ; ,300,000, in 1642 ; farmed for ^390,000 in 1666 ; fell off in 1675, but reached .557,752 in 1688 ; from 1700 to 1714, on an average returned .1,352,764 ; in 1720, i, 555,600 ; in 1721, t,S93> 00 ; in '744. ji,94,ooo ; 6, 890,000 in 1790; ^"3,412,255 dr. &/. in 1795 ; 1830, .17,894,405 ; 1835, .18,612,906; ^19,915,296 in 1840; ^20,196,856 in 1845 ; 1850, 20,995,132 ; 1851, 22,019,783 igj. 7 finally conquered by them and made a province of Rome, A. D. 9 ; taken successively by the Goths and the Avari ; these were driven out by the Sclavonians in the 7th century ; taken by the Magyars and annexed to Hungary, 1005 ; invaded by the Turks, 1646 ; ceded to Austria, 1797; seized by Napoleon, 1805 ; restored to Austria, 1814. DAMASCUS, Syria, a most ancient city, first mentioned in the history of Abraham's pursuit of the defeated kings, Gen. xiv. 15 ; his steward was a native of that city, xv. 2 ; Josephus ascribes its foundation to Uz, a grandson of Shem. During the period of the Hebrew monarchy it was the head or capital of Syria, Isa. vii. 8 ; and the Syrian king is called King of Damascus, 2 Chron. xviii. 6 ; Jeroboam re- covered the city to Israel, 2 Kings xiv. 28, circa B.C. 822 ; first taken by the Romans, B. c. 64 ; and it was here that the Apostle Paul begun his ministry, Acts ix. 19 ; taken by the Saracens, A. D. 665 ; besieged unsuccessfully by the Crusaders, 1148; taken and almost destroyed by Timour, 1401; added to the Turkish empire, 1516 ; captured by Ibrahim Pasha, 1832 ; granted to Mehemet Ali, 1833 ; a number of Jews tortured and massacred, Feb. i, 1840; restored to Turkey, 1841 ; many Christians perished by the cruelty of the fanatical Druses, 1860. DAMASK CLOTH, cloth or silk first made at Damascus, and brought to Eng- land by the Dutch and Flemings, who fled from the persecutions of the Duke of Alva, at the end of the 1 6th century. DAMASKING. This art of ornamenting iron work invented, B.C. 490. DAMASK ROSE, introduced into England by Dr Linacre, physician to Henry VIII., from the south of Europe, 1540. DAMERHAM, Wiltshire, nearly destroyed by fire, July 14, 1755. DAMIENS attempted the life of Louis XV. by stabbing him with a knife in the right side, Jan. 5, 1757 ; he suffered the most cruel tortures, and was ultimately torn to pieces by four horses, March 28, 1757. DAMIETTA DANTZIC 201 DAMIETTA, Egypt, taken by the Saracens and fortified in the nth century ; be- sieged by the Crusaders, several times taken by them, 1219 ; retaken by the Saracens ; captured by Louis IX. in the 6th crusade, 1249 ; he was taken prisoner shortly afterwards, and purchased his release by surrendering the city ; the old city was destroyed ; Bonaparte fortified the new city, 1798, but evacuated it, 1801 ; it was taken by the English a few years subsequently. DAMPIER'S ISLANDS, discovered by William Dampier, 1699. DANCING, introduced by the Greeks into their comedies, circa B.C. 500 ; several times mentioned in the sacred writings ; dancing by cinque pairs introduced into England from Italy, 1541 ; the country dance ('contre-danse') introduced from France. Hentzner says the English were celebrated for this accomplishment, 1598 ; the schools of London were described by Count Lorenzo Megalotte, 1669. DANEGELT, a tax levied to buy off the Danes, first raised by King Ethelred, 991 ; Hardicanute renewed this tax, 1040 ; William I. re-established it, 1085 ; abolished, 1174; for every hide of land, church lands excepted, is., afterwards 2s. DANES, invasion of, attacked France under Rollo, 895, ravaging to the walls of Paris ; again ravaged France, 896 ; attacked Italy, 903 ; obtained Neustria from France, 912 ; whence Normandy ; appeared first on the English coast, 783 ; landed near Purbeck, Dorset, 787 ; made a descent on Northumberland, and driven back and perished by shipwreck, 794 ; invaded Scotland and Ireland, 798 ; took the Isle of Sheppey, 832 ; defeated in Cornwall, at Hengistdown, by Egbert, 835 ; defeated Ethelwolf at Charmouth, 836 ; landed in Kent, and took Canter- bury and London, 851 ; defeated by Ethelwolf, 852 ; they took York, 867 ; de- feated the Saxons at Merton, 871 ; York conquered, 874; took Wareham and Exeter, and Cambridge, 875 ; took Chippenham, but 120 of their vessels were wrecked at Swansea ; they concluded a peace with Alfred ; renewed their ravages while Alfred was in exile, 877 ; but were afterwards defeated, 878 ; Alfred the Great treated with them, 882, and defeated them at Rochester ; their fleet destroyed by Alfred at Appledore, 894 ; defeated near the Isle of Wight by Alfred, 897 ; they ravaged Anglesey, 900 ; submitted to the Saxons, 921 ; defeated the Irish in Leinster, and killed their king, 956 ; defeated in Ireland, 978 ; invaded Dorset, 982 ; landed in Essex, and were paid 10,000 to depart from England by Ethelred, 991 ; he de- feated them the next year. A large force, under Sweyn, attempted to take London but were defeated, when they captured Essex and Kent ; again bought off for ;l6,ooo, 994 ; again received ,20,000 to retire, 1002 ; massacre of every one in England the same year ; they made new demands, and were paid .36,000, which they demanded as tribute, 1003 ; ravaged Suffolk, and defeated the Saxons, 1010; sacked Canterbury, and put the inhabitants to death, ion ; London taken by Sweyn, 1013 ; the conquest of England completed, 1017 ; settled in Scotland, 1020; defeated at Clontarf, Ireland, 1039 ; driven out of England, 1041 ; landed at Sandwich and carried off their plunder to Flanders, 1047 ; burned York, and put 3000 Normans to the sword, 1069 ; invaded England, but were bribed to depart by William I., 1074. DANEWIRKE, battle, between the Russians and Danes, the latter being defeated, April 23, 1848. In the campaign of 1864, these fortifications were abandoned to the Austrians, Feb. 5. DANNEBROG, the order of, Le. the Banner of the Danes, founded by Waldemar II., 1219; revived by Christian V., Oct. 12, 1671 ; enlarged and extended by Frederick VI., and made an order of merit, June 28, 1 808 ; the order celebrated a festival at the castle of Rosenburg in honour of Christian V., April 15. DANTZIC, Prussia, first known in history in the loth century ; the knights of the Teutonic order held it. for over a century, and founded the cathedral, 1343-4; 202 DANUBIAN PRINCIPALITIES DARMSTADT finished, 1503 ; it was made a free city, 1454 ; surrendered to Prussia, March 8, 1793 ; confirmed to them by the treaty of Basle, 1775 '> besieged by the French, Feb. 22, 1807 ; invested, March 22 ; surrendered with 900 pieces of cannon, March 26 ; restored to Prussia by the treaty of Tilsit, July 9 ; but France retained a garrison of 20,000 soldiers here, and Gen. Rapp was made the commandant ; after the Russian campaign the fortress was besieged by the Russian army under the Duke of Wiirtemberg, Jan., 1813, and taken in the following Dec. ; the King of Prussia recognized as its sovereign, Feb. 3, 1814; 300 persons killed and wounded, and 600 houses destroyed, by an explosion of gunpowder, Dec. 10, 1815 ; the dykes of the Vistula broke, and 10,000 head of cattle, 4000 nouses, and several lives lost, April 9, 1829. DANUBIAN PRINCIPALITIES united, Aug. 19, 1859 ; Col. Couza elected first Hospodar of Moldavia, Jan. 1 7, 1 859 ; and of Wallachia, Feb. 5 ; the two princi- palities united by the Sultan by the name ' Roumania,' Nov. 12, 1861 ; proclaimed at Jassa, Dec. 23, 1861, when Col. Couza proclaimed himself Prince of, Alexander John I. ; he proclaimed a new constitution, May 10, 14, 1864; a revolution broke out and he was compelled to abdicate, Feb. 23, 1866, when Prince Charles of Hohenzollern was elected; he agreed to accept the government, May 10; arrived at Bucharest, May 21 ; recognized by the Sultan, July n ; the Jews treated with great cruelty, July 12, 1867 ; the Sultan visited Rustchuk, Aug. 5, and received Prince Charles with great honours, Aug. 6 ; the resignation of the ministers ac- cepted, Aug. 14. DARDANELLES, Passage of, from the Mediterranean into the Sea of Marmora, defended by two castles built by Mahomet II., in 1465, and two more were added by Mahomet IV., in 1659. The passage forced by the English Fleet under Ad- miral Duckworth, Feb. 19, 1807 ; upon his return his ships sustained consider- able damage, and he had 45 men killed, and more than 200 wounded, March I ; closed by treaty to all vessels of war, July 13, 1841 ; at the breaking out of the Russian War, the Allied Fleets were allowed to pass the Straits, Oct. 14, 1853. The right of excluding vessels of war confirmed by the treaty of Paris, March 30, 1856. DARIEN, Central America, discovered by Columbus, 1502 ; colonized by the Spaniards, 1510 ; William Paterson, the founder of the Bank of England, obtained the royal sanction to form a settlement, June 26, 1695 ; a company formed for carry- ing out the same ; petition to the House of Lords and Commons against the company, Dec. 13, 1695 ; address of the Scotch parliament to the King for his support to the project, Aug. 5, 1698 ; the first expedition of five ships, with 1200 emigrants on board, sailed from the Forth, July 26, 1698 ; they landed at New Caledonia, Nov. I ; the Spanish Ambassador remonstrated against the expedition, May 3, 1698 ; four ships, with 1300 emigrants on board, started from Edinburgh for the new colony, Aug., 1699, but before they arrived out the colonists had been defeated by the Spaniards and had evacuated the fort, March 14, 1700; Mr Cullen surveyed Caledonia harbour and port Escoces for an entrance to the ocean canal, 1854 ; it was again surveyed for the same purpose by Rear- Admiral Davis of the United States, 1866. DARLING RIVER, Australia, discovered by Capt. Sturt, 1829. DARLINGTON, Durham. The Collegiate Church of St Cuthbert founded by Carileph, Bishop of Durham, 1093 ; remodelled by Bishop Pudsey, 1230 ; part of the spire destroyed by fire, 1750. Queen Elizabeth established a Grammar School, 1563 ; and Lady Calverley the Blue Coat School, 1715. The Darlington Private Press established by George Allan at ' The Grange,' in the i8th century. Town incorporated by Queen Victoria, Sept., 1867. DARMSTADT, Germany, the capital of the Grand-Duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt, a DARTFORD DAVY LAMP 203 residence of the Grand Duke ; Louis I. founded an order of merit, Aug. 24, 1807; extended, Dec. 14, 1831 ; and the order of Philippe Le-Bon founded by Louis II., May I, 1840; constitution granted, Dec. 17, 1820, being modified in 1848 and 1856; Louis III., Grand Duke, appointed co-regent, March 5, 1848; succeeded to the throne, June 16 ; in the Austrian Prussian war they made com- mon cause with the Austrians, and by the treaty of Sept. 15, 1866, several districts north of the river Maine were ceded to Prussia. DARTFORD, Kent. Isabella, sister of Henry III., married to Frederick II. of Germany, by proxy, in Dartford church, 1235 ; Edward III. held a tournament here on his return from France, 1331 ; he endowed a convent of. nuns at, 1355, converted by Henry VIII. into a palace ; priory built, 1372 ; the insurrection under "Wat Tyler commenced here, June, 1381 ; first paper-mill in England erected, 1580, by Spilman, a German ; first mill for rolling iron erected by Godfrey Box, 1 590 ; four times the powder magazines in this town blew up between 1 730 and 1795, the last, Jan. I, 1795, causing great destruction ; the cotton mills damaged by fire, Dec. 21, 1795. DARTMOOR, Devon. It was called a forest in 1238 ; first perambulation made by order of Henry III., 1240, and by James I., Aug. 16, 1609 ; a prison erected here for prisoners of war ; first stone laid by Sir Thomas Tyrwhitt, Lord Warden, March 20, 1806 ; built from the design of Mr D. Alexander, and opened, 1809 ; made a School of Industry, May, 1820. DARTMOUTH, Devon. The rendezvous of the fleet assembled to carry the Crusaders to the Holy Land, 1 190 ; burned by the French, who effected a landing here in the reign of Richard I., and again in the reign of Henry IV., but were defeated with great loss, M. de Chastell, three lords, and 32 knights being captured, 1404 ; the town incorporated, 1 226 ; it furnished Edward III. with 3 1 ships, fully armed and manned for the invasion of France, 1338. The exportation of tin confined to this port by 14 Rich. II. c. 7, 1390 ; repealed the next year. The castle built by Henry VII., 1190 ; besieged and taken by the Royalists under Prince Maurice after a siege of 4 weeks, 1643 ; retaken by the Parliamentarians under Gen. Fair- fax, 1646. DATES, these first affixed to grants of land as assignments, 1290, temp. Edward I. DAUPHIN of France, the old title of the king's eldest son, so called from Dauphine, the province ceded by Humber II., Dauphin of Vienne, to Philip on behalf of his grandson Prince Charles, 1349, who upon ascending the throne ordered that the title should be borne by the heir-apparent. The Dauphin of France, 1419, murdered the Duke of Burgundy, and was disinherited of the crown. In- surrection in this province, July, 1789. DAVENTRE PRIORY, Northants, founded by Hugh de Leycester, 1096. DAVID, ST, Pembrokeshire, formerly inhabited by the Druids. The Danes did considerable damage to the ecclesiastical and other buildings, 911; and again visited the town under the command of Sweyn, 993. Cathedral of, built, 1180, partly Saxon, 290 ft long, 76 ft wide, 127 ft high ; the bishopric founded, 520 ; the palace of, built, 1335 ; St Mary's college founded by John of Gaunt, 1365. DAVINGTON NUNNERY, Kent, founded by Fulke de Newenham, 1153. DAVIS' STRAITS, N. America, discovered by John Davis, on a voyage to find the north-west passage, Aug. ki, 1585 ; he was killed by Japanese pirates on the coast of Malacca, Dec. 27, 1605. DAVY LAMP, invented by Sir Humphrey Davy, and explained to the Royal Society, Nov. 9, 1815 ; and on Jan. II, 1816, he read a further paper and ex- hibited a model of the lamp which he had made himself; it is still preserved in the Royal Society's Museum. 204 DAY DEANS DAY, the term anciently for the time of the sun's light only, among the Greeks and Jews ; the Roman began at midnight ; the Italian, from sunset to sunset ; the Chinese, 12 parts of two hours each ; the English civil day, like the Roman, be- gins at midnight ; the astronomical, at noon. In chronology the day is of the ut- most importance as to the duration of time signified. The following are the names of the heathen deities to which each day was de- dicated : Dies Solis . . . Sunday Dies Jovis . . . Thursday Dies Lunae ... Monday Dies Veneris ... Friday Dies Martis ... Tuesday Dies Satumi ... Saturday Dies Mercurii ... Wednesday DEAF AND DUMB. The first successful attempt to instruct persons suffering from this affliction made by Pedro de Ponce, a Benedictine monk of Spain, circa 1570; Bonifacio, a monk at Madrid, published his system, 1620; in 1648 Mr Bulwer published a work in England upon the subject, and in 1652 Mr Wallis taught several persons ; the Abbe de 1'Epee and Sicard were eminent in the work of instruction in France, in the i8th century ; the first school opened in Edinburgh, by Thomas Braidwood, 1773 > removed to London, 1782-3 ; th'e Rev. John Townsend established an asylum for children, 1792 ; the first stone of the new asylum in the Old Kent Road laid by the Duke of Gloucester, July II, 1807 ; Dr Watson was the founder. DEAL, Kent. It is supposed by some to be the place where Cassar landed ; Perkin Warbeck defeated, attempting to land here, July 3, 1495 ; Henry VIII. erected three castles on the coast, 1537 ; incorporated n Will. III., 1699 ; united with Sandwich and Walmer, 1831. The new iron pier designed by Mr E. Birch, is noo ft long by 25 ft wide, opened, Nov. 8, 1864. DEAN FOREST, Gloucestershire, defined in the 12 of Henry III., 1228, to be 23,015 acres; the earliest perambulation of, was in 1282 ; regulations for the miners issued, 1300; William, Earl of Pembroke, obtained a grant of 12,000 cords of wood yearly, Feb. 17, 1612 ; the last Supreme Court of Judicature held at Gloucester Castle, before Henry, Earl of Holland, 1635. Sale of all the mines and timber to Sir John Winter by Charles I., Feb. 20, 1640, which led to serious riots. Upwards of 1000 trees destroyed by a dreadful storm of wind, Feb. 18, 1662. An act passed for the increase and preservation of timber in, 20 Charles II. c. 3, 1668 ; by this act 8487 acres were inclosed and planted. The first mine law court held, March 18, 1663 ; a commission appointed to inquire into the condition and management, 1692 ; an act for the improvement of the roads passed, 1795 ; bread riots in, Oct. 30, 1795, which continued for some days ; several reports made upon the forest, subsequently ; an attempt made to inclose the forest led to serious riots, June 8, 1831. DEANS OF THE CHURCH OF ENGLAND, and their Emoluments. in 1864 ^"1590 1863 535 1864 1165 1864 looo 1862 2049 1863 936 1864 2338 1863 1898 1864 1908 1864 200O Many of them have in addition an official residence. Bath and Wells ... in 1864 1000 Norwich Carlisle. 1863 1116 Oxford Chester 1863 1119 Peterborough Durham 1864 4412 Ripon Ely Exeter 1864 1863 891 15" Rochester Gloucester and Bristol 1864 1607 St Paul's Hereford Lincoln 1866 1863 IOOO 1142 Winchester . . Llandaff 1866 700 York , Manchester ... 1864 1948 DEARTH 205 DEARTH or FAMINE, in Scotland, where thousands were starved, 306 ; in England and Wales, where 40,000 were starved, 319 ; all over Britain, 325 ; at Constantinople, 446 ; in Italy, where parents ate their children, 450 ; in Scotland, 576 ; all over England, Wales, and Scotland, 739 ; another in Wales, 747 ; in Wales and Scotland, 792 ; again in Scotland, 803 ; again in Scotland, when thousands were starved, 823 ; a severe one in Wales, 836 ; in Scotland, which lasted four years, 954 ; famines in England, 864, 974, 976, 1005 ; Scotland, which lasted two years, 1047 ; in England, 1050. In 1069, fourth year of William I., from the Norman waste in England, the dearth was so great, especially in Northumberland and the neighbouring counties, that men ate horses, cats, and dogs in all the land between Durham and York, which lay waste nine years ; 1086, there was a dearth of cattle, a pestilence, and famine, twenty-first year of William I. In 1093, reign of William Rufiis, sixth year, the living were scarce able to bury the dead owing to famine and pestilence. In 1112, the 13 Henry I., a dearth of men, cattle, and fowls, from the mortality. In 24 of the same king, 1124, numbers perished of famine. In 1177, the 23 of Henry II., the royal household victuals reduced, that a measure of wheat made bread for 100 men, \2d. ; a fat ox, I2d. ; a fat sheep, 4//. ; and provender for 20 horses, 4//. In 1205, a frost, so that the ground could not be tilled, and a quarter of wheat sold afterwards for a mark, that had been but I2d. before ; a quarter of beans or peas for a noble ; and a quarter of oats for 3.?. 4 there was a great scarcity for all that had not money. In 1586, the poor were relieved by the government, the price of grain being excessive, and wheat in London 8s. the bushel. In 1594, grain became 8j. the bushel again. In 1595, wheat was from 14^. to four marks the quarter, though some importa- tions occurred ; the London apprentices, being in want, stole food, and were whipped and set in the pillory. In 1596, the last five months of the year were wet, and meal sold for IOT. the bushel ; but corn now flowed in from Dantzic through the merchants, and corn could be had for money with the price high. In 1565, 2,000,000 were expended on the importation of corn ; one in 1748 ; another in 1798. In 1 800- 1, wheat sold in England at the beginning of the year at ^7 and 8 the quarter. The following were the average prices in the counties named, from March 7 to March 14, 1801 : Middlesex, i68.r. lod. ; Surrey, 167^. 2d. ; Hertford, I4&r. lod. ; Bedford, i$os.; Huntingdon, i6os. ; Northamp- ton, 140?.; Rutland, 138.5-. 6d. ; Leicester, I4&r. id. ; Nottingham, 138^. Be/. ; Derby, 145^. 4//. ; Stafford, i6u. <)d. ; Salop, 174?. qd. ; Hereford, 170^. "jd. ; Worcester, 184?. 8d.; Warwick, 178^. id. ; Wilts, i66s. 4^.; Berks, I7OJ-. 6d. ; Oxford, I7U. 6d.; Bucks, 156^.; Essex, 159^.; Kent, i6ls. iod.; Sussex, 164^.; Suffolk, l6os. id. ; Cambridge, ISU. $d. ; Norfolk, 144?.; Lincoln, 129^. lid.; York, 133-r. 2d. ; Durham, igos. yd.; Northumberland, 136^. 8d. ; Cumberland, 145^. $d. ; Westmoreland, I52J. 2d. ; Lancashire, 157-r. ; Cheshire, 156^. ; Gloucester, 187^. id. ; Somerset, 176^. lid. ; Monmouth, I79^ 3^-J Devon, 150^. 2d. ; Cornwall, 137^. $d. ; Dorset, 172^. t)d.; Hants, 170^. 5^.; N. Wales, 136^.; S. Wales, 133^. In the province of Vellore, in India, in 1810, 6000 per- sons perished of famine. In the diocese of Drontheim, Norway, in consequence of Sweden intercepting the supplies, 5 persons perished. In Ireland, in 1845, began the failure of the potato crop, which continued for four years, causing pestilence, fever, and famine, to a degree never before known in these islands ; thousands died, many more emigrated, although ^10,000,000 was voted by England for their relief; but death did its work faster. When the census of 1831 was taken there were in Ireland 7,784,934; in 1841, there were 8,I75> I2 4 per- sons ; and in 1851, the return showed but 6,515,794. Many had emigrated, but famine and pestilence had taken more. At Orissa, Bengal, 1865-6, 700,000 per- sons died ; 1 500 children left orphans ; a subscription set on foot for their support, June 19, 1867. DEATH, PUNISHMENT OF. The Romans inflicted the punishment of the coss, DEATH'S HEAD DEDICATION OF CHURCHES 207 burning, and drowning. Death was also inflicted by the Anglo-Saxons. Hanging, drowning, and quartering was the punishment in England in 1241. The punish- ment of death for many offences was abolished by the acts of 4 & 10 Geo. IV., 1824 and 1829 ; again by acts 2 & 3 Will. IV. c. 123, Aug. 16, 1832 ; but forging wills and powers of attorney to transfer stock were still made capital. Death abolished in all cases of forgery by 7 Will. IV. and I Viet. c. 84, July 17, 1837 ; limited to treason and murder by 4 & 5 Viet. c. 56, June 22, 1841 ; the custom of reporting prisoners under sentence of death to the Crown abolished, 7 Will. IV. and I Viet. c. 77, July 17, 1837. DEATH'S HEAD. This order was instituted by Silvius Nimrod, Duke of Wiirtemberg, 1652 ; it fell into disuse, but was revived, 1709. DEATHS, Parish Register of, established by Cromwell, Earl of Essex, 1536 ; more formally executed, 1593, after the great plague of that year ; taxed in 1783. The Registration Act, 6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 86, passed Aug. 17, 1836, renders the parochial registers of small moment, because all deaths, births, and marriages must be registered by the proper officer, whether of churchmen or dissenters. DEBATES OF PARLIAMENT first published, 1771. DEBENHAM, Suffolk, fire at, and 38 houses burned, March r, 1743-4. DEBTORS, imprisonment of, a practice contrary to Magna Charta. 25,000 in prison, Dec. 6, 1758. In 18 months, subsequent to Dec., 1825, no less than 101,000 writs of arrest for debts were issued. In the year ending Jan. 5, 1830, there were 7114 persons sent to prison in London alone. On Jan. I, 1840, the number of prisoners for debt in England and Wales was 1372 ; in Ireland under 1000 ; in Scotland under 100, in consequence of the beneficial change in the law. In 1858 there were 16,620 persons incarcerated for debt. An act passed for facilitating arrangements between debtors and creditors, 7 & 8 Viet. c. 70, Aug. 6, 1 844 ; ex- tended to persons in custody, 23 & 24 Viet. c. 147, Aug. 28, 1860; arrangements made between, controlled by the Court of Bankruptcy, 24 & 25 Viet. c. 134, s. 185, et seq., Aug. 6, 1861 ; under this act a great number of prisoners were dis- charged who had been in prison for many years. DECEMBER, the (Decem) tenth month of the Roman year as established by Romulus, B.C. 753. DECEMVIRI, ten magistrates, were chosen yearly at Rome, B.C. 450. DECIMAL ARITHMETIC, invented by Simon Steven of Bruges, 1602; adopted in France after the revolution of 1790, the franc being the standard, and the centime, or looth part, the smallest coin ; in America, the dollar, and the cent or looth of the dollar ; Russia, one silver rouble, and the kopeck, looth part. Pro- posed in England, 1852, the pound being the standard ; half-sovereign, O'5 ; florin, O'l ; shilling, -05 ; sixpence, '025 ; fourpence, "020 ; threepence, '015 ; a penny, -005, but in this case the copper coin alone to be altered, and made 1000 farthings, in place of 960, to the pound, as at present ; the government reported favourably upon Laurie's plan in 1853. A commission appointed, 1854; made their report, 1858. An association formed, 1854 ; and the International Associa- tion in Paris, 1055. DECLARATION of American Independence, July 4, 1776. DECLARATION of Rights, bill of, passed Feb. 13, 1668. DECORATIVE ART SOCIETY established in London, 1844; their Transactions published, 1847. DEDICATION OF CHURCHES. This is a most ancient custom both amongst the heathens and Christians. Judas Maccabeus ordered the dedication of the temple, B.C. 164 It is only mentioned once in the canonical Scriptures, John x. 208 DEEDS DELHI 22. Josephus says it was called the feast of lights. Introduced generally in the 4th century. DEEDS were written in the Latin and French languages, the earliest known in English dates 1343 ; this language was ordered to be used in law pleadings, 1364; and in all law suits, 1 73 1 ; by the 7 & 8 Viet. c. 76, an act to simplify the transfer of property, several regulations are made concerning deeds, Aug. 6, 1844. DEEG, Hindustan, occupied and fortified by Soorag Mull, 1760; taken by Nudjiff Khan, 1776. Holkar defeated by the British forces commanded by Gen. Eraser, under the walls of this town, Nov. 13, 1804; Lord Lake captured the fortress, Dec. 23 ; restored to Runjeet Sing ; surrendered to Lord Combermere, 1826. DEERHURST PRIORY, Gloucestershire, founded by Doddo, Duke of Mercia, circa 804 ; rebuilt by Edward the Confessor, 1056. DEFENCE, a British ship-of-war, of 74 guns, stranded on the coast of North Jutland, when all on board, except five seamen and a marine, perished, Dec. 24, 1811. DEFENCE OF THE REALM. An act passed to make better provision for ac- quiring lands for the defence of the realm, 23 & 24 Viet. c. 112, Aug. 28, 1860 ; explained by the 28 & 29 Viet. c. 65, June 29, 1865. DEFENDER OF THE FAITH, a title conferred by Pope Leo X. on Henry VIII. of England, Oct. n, 1521. DEFENDERS, the name of an Irish faction, Romanists and Presbyterians, July 4, 1784. The friends of each party met armed, and gave origin to other factions, that subsequently disturbed the peace of Ireland. DEGRADATION, a punishment awarded to the priests, peers, or knights ; they were stripped of their robes and anathematized. The patriarch Constantine suffered this punishment before execution in the 8th century ; St Andrew |Harcla, Earl of Carlisle, 18 Edw. II., 1324; Cranmer in the reign of Queen Mary; Capt. Fangel, by order of Francis I. DEISTS, or Freethinkers, known in France in the i6th century. Virot speaks of them in his dedication of his 'Instruction Chretienne,' published, 1563; first known in England, 1624. DE LA CALZA, an order of knighthood instituted at Venice, circa 737. DE LA SCAMA, a Spanish order instituted by John II. of Castile, 1320. DELAWARE, N. America, visited by Lord de la War, Governor of Virginia, 1610. The Swedes and Finns made a settlement here under the protection of Gustavus Adolphus, 1627 ; taken by the Dutch, 1655 ; captured by the English, 1664 ; and granted by Charles II. to the Duke of York, who sold it to William Penn, 1682 ; became one of the United States, Dec. 3, 1787. DELEGATES, Court of, formerly the highest ecclesiastical court in England. Causes were heard here, after appeals to the pope were disallowed, 25 Hen. VIII. c. 19, s. 4, 1533 ; it was abolished, 2 & 3 Will. IV. c. 92, Aug. 7, 1833 ; appeals to be made to the judicial committee of the privy council, 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 41, Aug. 14, 1833. DELFT, Holland. The city founded in 1072 ; partially destroyed by fire, 1586 ; William of Orange assassinated here, July 10, 1584. The earliest example of Delft ware known to have been manufactured in this town is dated 1530 ; in the 1 7th century there were nearly 50 manufacturers of pottery residing here. DELHI, Hindustan. This city was founded upon the ruins of a large Hindu town ; it was taken by the Mohammedans in 1193; the present city founded, 1631 ; captured by Nadir Shah, Emperor of Persia, who put to the sword 100,000 of the DELPHI DENMARK 209 inhabitants, and plundered it to the extent of 16,000,000 sterling, 1739 ; again taken by the Mahrattas, 1758, who were entirely defeated and the city captured by the English under Gen. Lake, Sept. II, 1803; besieged by Holkar in 1804, but unsuccessfully ; became the principal seat of the rebel Sepoys, 1857 ; besieged by the English in June, and captured, Sept. 20; the king taken and his two sons shot, Sept. 21. DELPHI, Greece, where the temple of Apollo is said to have been first erected by Trophonius and Agamedes, circa B.C. 900 ; burnt, B.C. 548 ; rebuilt by Spin- tharus at a cost of ji 15,000 sterling ; seized by the Phocians, B.C. 357 ; restored to the Amphictyons, B.C. 346. DELPHIN CLASSICS, a collection of Latin authors printed for the use of the Dauphin, son of Louis XIV., suggested by the Duke de Montausier ; Huet choose 40 editors, and proposed an extensive index. They filled over 60 volumes, and were completed in Oct., 1675. Valpy republished them by subscription, with variorum notes, 1820. DELUGE, the Universal, or Noah's flood, is described by Moses in the Book of Genesis ; chronologers have fixed 1656 from the creation, or B.C. 2293. DEMERARA, S. America, first settlement established by the Dutch ; taken by the English under Gen. White, April 22, 1796 ; again occupied by them in 1800 ; but restored by the treaty signed at Amiens, March 27, 1802 ; again taken by the English in the French war, Sept., 1804; formally ceded to England, 1814. George Town partially destroyed by fire, April 3, 1864 ; the yellow fever broke out hi the 1 6th regiment of foot, and a great many died of that disease, 1864. DENARIUS, a silver coin. It derives its name from 'a denis assibus,' the amount of brass for which it is changeable ; first issued by the Romans, B. c. 269, value about 7%d. The origin of the English penny, and the principal coin down to the reign of King John, 1 199. DENBIGH ABBEY, N. Wales, erected, 1280 ; given by Queen Elizabeth to the Earl of Ix:icester, 1578; taken by the Parliamentarians, 1645. DENIS, ST, France. Pepin crowned by Pope Stephen II., 753 ; the abbey built, 1281 ; suppressed, 1792. The Huguenots and Romanists fought a desperate battle here, Nov. 10, 1567 ; the leader of the latter, Constable Montmorency, was killed. DENIS, ST, the order of, instituted in France, 1267. DENMARK. Canute completed the conquest begun by Sweyn, and united the crown of England to Denmark, 1017; Sweden, Denmark, and Norway united, 1397; separated, 1523. The Reformation begun here, 1525; the palace of Fredericksburg purchased by Frederick II., 1560 ; Copenhagen besieged by Gustavus of Sweden, 1658; the city destroyed by fire, 1728; and again nearly destroyed, 1795 ; a royal establishment for the making of porcelain founded in 1775; Christian VII. became deranged, March, 1784; Prince Frederick made Regent, 1784; liberation of the serfs, 1786; Nelson attacked Copenhagen and the armed neutrality dissolved, April 2, 1801 ; the town surrendered to the Eng- lish, Sept. 5, 1807. For the bravery shown by the Danes in the defence of the town, a medal or decoration of Copenhagen struck, 1801 ; the medal of merit for the workmen in the Royal Dockyards founded by Christian VII., Jan. 29, 1 80 1. Pomerania and RUgen annexed to Denmark in exchange for Norway, 1814 ; these two towns ceded to Prussia in exchange for Lauenburg, June 4, 1815 : a commercial treaty with England signed, June 16, 1824; Jutland made an island by a violent storm, 1825 ; a new medal of honour founded by Christian VIII., July 24, 1845 ; death of Christian VIII., 1848 ; Frederick VII. succeeded to the throne, Jan. 20, 1848, and proclaimed a new constitution, Jan. 28 ; the Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein revolted, March 25 ; the Danes defeated the Holstein 14 210 DENNEWITZ DEODAND and German forces, April IO ; the Danes were defeated by the Prussians, April 23, and Schleswig captured ; the Germans defeated by the Danes, May 28 ; Jut- land captured by the Prussians, and an armistice agreed to, Aug. 26 ; extended for six months, July 10, 1849 ; peace with Prussia agreed to, July 2, 1850 ; the in- tegrity of Denmark guaranteed by England, France, Prussia, and Sweden, July 4 ; the Danes defeated the Holsteiners at Idsledt, July 25 ; Frederickstadt be- sieged by the Schleswig forces, who were defeated by the Danes with great loss, Oct. 4 ; again defeated, Oct. 6 ; convention for the cession of the Danish posses- sions on the coast of Africa to Great Britain, signed in London, Aug. 17, 1850 ; the Duchies submit, Jan. n, 1851 ; the treaty as to the succession of the crown signed, May 8, 1852 ; the Prince of Augustenburg renounced his right of succes- sion, Dec. 30 ; a new constitution published, Oct. 4, 1855 ; agrees to abolish the Sound dues, March 14, 1857. The palace of Fredericksburg built by Frederick II. in 1564 ; rebuilt by Christian IV., 1608 ; the Knights' hall was 154 feet long and 42 broad ; destroyed by fire, Dec. 17, 1859 ; the first submarine telegraph com- pleted between Great Britain this year ; Prussia agrees to assist the Duchies against Denmark, 1860 ; preparation made to resist ; convention for the surrender of criminals made with Great Britain, April, 15, 1862 ; the constitution granted by charter, June 5, 1849 ; modified, Nov. 18, 1863, and the army fixed at 16,630 men ; treaty between Her Majesty Victoria and the King for the marriage of the Princess Alexandra to the Prince of Wales, signed, Jan. 15, 1863 ; public departure of the Princess, Feb. 25-6 ; Prince William agrees to accept the throne of Greece, June 6. Christian IX. appointed to succeed to the throne by the great powers, May 8, 1852; ascended the throne, Nov. 15, 1863; the Augustenburg claim re- vived in Nov. ; the troops of Saxony and Hanover enter the Duchies, Dec. 27 ; proclamation of Prince Augustenburg to the throne, Dec. 27 ; invaded by Austria and Prussia, Jan. 21, 1864 ; Missunde bombarded, Feb. 2, by the Austrians, who seized Konigsberg and Schleswig ; the Danes withdrew from the country ; Gen. de Gerlach appointed commander-in-chief, March I ; Diippel bombarded by the Prussians, March 15 ; the town captured, April 18 ; the Danes retire from Jutland, April 29 ; the Prussian navy defeated, May 9 ; hostilities suspended for a month, May 12 ; resumed, June 26 ; the island of Alsen taken, June 29 ; the peace con- ference closed in London, June 22 ; meeting of, at Vienna, July 26 ; the Princess Dagmar betrothed to the Czarewitch Nicholas, Sept. 29 ; peace signed, Oct. 30, by which Denmark gave up all rights to the Elbe Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, and the Duchy of Lauenberg, in favour of the Emperor of Austria and the King of Prussia ; the troops of Saxony and Hanover retire from the Duchies, Dec. 5 ; Count Bismark informed the Austrian cabinet that Prussia would not accept the Prince Augustenburg as the head of the Duchies, Dec. 13 ; replied to by the Austrian minister, Dec. 21 ; postal convention concluded with Prussia, March 7, 1865 ; the Gastein convention concluded between Austria and Prussia, Aug. 14, 1865 ; the Princess Dagmar embarked from Copenhagen for Russia, Aug. 20, 1866 ; marriage of the Czarewitch with the Princess Dagmar, at Russia, Nov. 9, 1866; Schleswig Holstein incorporated with Prussia, Jan. 12, 1867 ; the 25th anniversary or the silver marriage of the King and Queen held at Copenhagen, May 28, 1867 ; reply to the Prussian note on the settlement of Schleswig, July 25, 1867 ; death of the Landgrave William of Hesse, father of the Queen of Denmark, Sept. 5, 1867. DENNEWITZ, battle. The allies, under the command of Bernadotte, defeated the French, under Marshal Ney, Sept. 6, 1813 ; they followed up their success on the 7th ; the French retreating to Torgau, they lost 13,000 men in killed, wounded, and prisoners, with 43 pieces of cannon, three standards, and 6000 stand of arms ; the allies lost 6000 men, 5000 being Prussians. DEODAND. This ancient custom (Deo Dandum), given to God, abolished by 9 & 10 Viet. c. 62, Sept. i, 1846. D'EON DEVIZES 211 D'EON, the Chevalier, so called, about whose sex for many years the world dis- puted, died, 1810, at the age of 82, and proved to be of the masculine gender. DEPTFORD, Kent. A royal dockyard established here by Henry VIII., circa 1513 ; inundated, 1671 ; enlarged, 1780 ; and again, 1796. The old victualling office consumed by fire, July, 1639 ; again burnt, 1740, and Jan. 16, 1748-9 ; and the king's mill, Dec. I, 1775. The storehouse destroyed, Sept. 2, 1758. The guild of the Holy Trinity founded by Sir Thomas Spert, incorporated by Henry VIII., May 20, 1515; confirmed by James II., July 8, 1685; new church erected, 1699 ; their ancient hall taken down, 1787. Peter the Great resided at Sayes' court while he was visiting the dockyard, Feb. April, 1698. Serious bread riots at, Jan. 23, 1867. DERBY, England, made a royal burgh by Egbert ; occupied by Halfolen, a Danish chief, 874 ; Alfred defeated the Danes and established a colony, 880 ; the Danes afterwards regained possession, but were again defeated, 918 ; invaded by Harold's brother Tostig, 1 066 ; declared for the Royal cause, 1643 ; occupied by Charles James Stuart, son of the Pretender, in the rebellion of 1745 ; lace-making, and the porcelain or china manufacture, founded by William Duesbury and Alderman Heath, 1751 ; the Chelsea works joined to it, Feb. 5, 1770 ; the crown Derby first made, circa 1 780 ; during the Reform riots, the city gaol was broken open and the prisoners escaped, but the rioters were defeated upon an attack upon the county prison, several being killed, Oct. 8, 9, 1831. DERBY, trials for high treason, Oct. 15, 1817, and Brandreth, Turner, and Lud- lam, executed, Nov. 7 ; 21 prisoners tried for the murder of several miners in the Redsoil mine, but acquitted, March 23, 1834. DERBY ADMINISTRATION, the first formed, Feb. 23, 1852 ; Mr Disraeli, Chancellor of the Exchequer, resigned. Dec. 17, 1852 ; the second, Feb. 20, 1858 ; resigned, June n, 1859 ; the third ministry formed, July 9, 1866. DERBY RACE, established at Epsom by Edward Smith Stanley, the I2th Earl of Derby, 1 780 ; the first winner of these stakes was Diomed, a chestnut horse, foaled in 1777, bred by the Hon. Richard Vernon of Newmarket, and sold to Sir C. Bunbury, Bt. DERRY, Ireland. See Londonderry. DERWENTWATER, Earl of, taken at Preston, Nov. 13, 1715, with Lord Ken- mure, for assisting the Pretender ; tried in Westminster Hall, Feb. 9, and found guilty; beheaded on Tower-hill, Feb. 24, 1716 ; his estates given to Greenwich Hospital, 1735. DESEADA ISLAND discovered by Columbus, 1494. DESPARD'S PLOT, a conspiracy headed by Col. Despard, formed to assassinate George III. ; taken, Nov. 14, 1802 ; tried, and he, with six other persons, executed on a charge of high treason, at Horsemonger-lane, Feb. 21, 1803. DESSAU, Germany. The palace built, 1341 ; the whole town destroyed by fire, 1467 ; the ducal palace rebuilt, 1748. DETROIT, United States, founded by the French Canadians, 1683 ; incorporated in the Union, 1815. DETROIT FORT, Canada. The English forces captured this fort with 2500 men and 30 pieces of ordnance, under the American Gen. Hull, Aug. 16, 1812. DETTINGEN, battle, between the Anglo-Hanoverian and the French army, under Marshal Noailles, in which the latter was defeated, losing 6000 men, June 27, 1743. George II. was present in this battle at the head of the British infantry, but Lord Stair commanded the allies. This was the last battle in which a King of England took a personal share. DEVIZES, Wiltshire. A castle built here by Roger, Bishop of Salisbury, in the 212 DEVONPORT DIAMONDS reign of Henry L, 1106; taken by Stephen with the whole of the bishop's treasures and 40,000 marks, 1136 ; Hubert de Burgh, Prime Minister of Henry III., imprisoned here, 1223; repaired by King John, 1216; and by Edward L, 1279; fortified by Charles I., 1643; the Parliamentarians, under Sir William Waller, attacked the town, but were compelled to retire with a loss of 2000 men, July 13, 1643 ; the town was taken by Cromwell, Oct. n, 1645 ; and the castle demolished, 1646. DEVONPORT, Devon. A naval arsenal established here under the name of Ply- mouth Dock, by William III. ; the name changed to Devonport by royal com- mand, 1824; constituted a borough and ordered to return two members to Par- liament, 2 Will. IV. c. 45, June 7, 1832; the Union Dock erected, 1762 ; and the North Dock, 1789. DEVONSHIRE AND PITT'S MINISTRY, The. This is commonly called Lord Chatham's first administration, formed, Nov., 1756; dissolved in the follow- ing April. DEVONSHIRE HOUSE, Piccadilly, built by Wm Kent, cost ^"20,000, upon the site of Berkeley House, which was destroyed by fire, Oct. 16, 1833. DIALS. The earliest mention of a sun-dial is made in 2 Kings xx. u ; and confirmed by Isaiah xxxviii. 8, about 7 B - c - The astronomer Berosus con- structed a hemisphere, B.C. 540 ; the first erected at Rome, B.C. 290 ; Philippus made one at Rome, A.D. 164; an ancient dial, supposed to belong to Cicero, discovered at Tivoli, Italy. DIAMONDS. The third in the second row on the breast-plate of the high priest, Ex. xxviii. 18 ; xxxix. 1 1 ; and mentioned by Ezekiel among the precious stones of the King of Tyre, Ezek. xxviii. 13. Up to the end of the 1 7th century diamonds were wholly derived from India, from the mines of Sumbulpoor and Golconda ; the mine of Sierra do Frio, Brazil, discovered, 1727; some found in the Ural Mountains, 1829 ; declared to be combustible by Newton, 1675 ; and one of four carats was so volatilized with a burning glass at Florence, 1694 ; proved to be pure carbon by Davy, 1800 ; the art of cutting invented by Louis de Berghem, 1475 ; an establishment for the cutting and polishing of, founded at Bruges, 1489 ; used for writing on glass, circa 1560. The largest ever found was sent to the Court of Portugal uncut ; it weighed n oz., found in 1808, said to be worth ^300, 000,000. The AUSTRIAN or MAXIMILIAN diamond weighs 139/4 carats. The HOPE diamond weighs 44 carats. The KOH-I-NOOR, found in Golconda, and purchased by the Emperor Baber, 1526 ; surrendered by Dhuleep Singh to the English, 1849, and presented by the East India Company to the Queen, July 3, 1850 ; shown in the Great Ex- hibition of 1851 ; it weighed 186^ carats ; it was recut at a cost of ^"8000, 1852, and now weighs 102 carats. The ORLOFF diamond bought by Catherine of Russia for ,90,000 and an annuity of .4000, 1775 ; weighs 193 carats. The PiGOT diamond, sold by lottery in London, May 13, 1802, weighs 47^ carats. The REGENT OF FRANCE, weight of, in the rough, 410 carats, purchased by Governor Pitt for ^12,500 ; it occupied two years in cutting, and cost ^5000 ; the Regent Orleans gave .135,000, 1717; its present weight is 136% carats, and it is the most perfect brilliant in existence ; it came from Golconda. The SANCI diamond weighs 55 carats, taken at Morat, 1475, and pledged to M. Sanci, 1589; subsequently sold to France, and was worn at the coronation of Louis XIV. ; it was stolen at the sack of the Tuileries, 1 789, and purchased for Sir Jamsetjee Jejeebhoy of Bombay, for 20,000. The STAR OF THE SOUTH, found in Brazil by a negro, 1853, weighed in the rough, DIANA DILETTANTI SOCIETY 213 254^ carats, was brought to Paris in 1855 ; in its rough state it weighs 807*02 grains ; when cut it will be reduced to about 127 carats, and will therefore ex- ceed the Koh-i-noor in size. DIANA, temple erected in honour of, at Ephesus, B.C. 600; burnt by Heros- tratus, B.C. 356. DIARBEKIR, Asia, enlarged by the Emperor Constantius ; taken by the Persian king Sapor, 359 ; retaken by the Romans, circa 530, and fortified ; Tamerlane pillaged and burnt it, 1393 ; captured by the Sultan Selim, 1515 ; the Persians re- took it, 1605 ; restored to the Turks, 1640. DICE, invented before the Christian era ; played with in England by the kings of Scotland, France, and Cyprus, when on a visit to Edward III., about 1347 ; the game forbidden by 17 Edw. IV. c. 3, 1477 ; stamped in England, 1775 ; act to regulate the licence of makers, sale, and duty of, 9 Geo. IV., c. 18, May 9, 1828. DICTATOR, an officer appointed by the Romans. Titus Lartius first elected one of the patricians, B.C. 499. The first plebeian who held the office was C. Martius Rutilus, B.C. 356. Abolished by Antony, B.C. 44. SmitHs Rome. DICTIONARY, the oldest, that of the Chinese, perfected B.C. uoo, by Pa Out She, contains 40,00x3 characters ; the most ancient in the Latin tongue, com- piled by Solomon, abbot of St Gall, 1409 ; Calepini wrote one in Latin, another in eight languages, 1500 ; the first Latin-English Dictionary published hi England was Sir Thomas Elyot's, in folio, 1538; Castell's Lexicon was published, 1659; Bayle's dictionary, 1695; Chambers', 1728; Johnson's, 1755- The oldest book published in America was a dictionary of the Aztec language, 1571 ; the number since is considerable in all languages. DIEPPE, France, a small fishing village in the loth century ; Henry II. built the castle, 1 1 88 ; the town bombarded by the English, 1694. DIET OF GERMANY, composed of the three colleges of electors, of princes, and of the imperial towns, commenced with an edict of Charles IV., 1356. The Diet of Wurtzburg held, 1179; that of Worms, 1495 anc ^ *5 21 > of Spires, against the Reformers, 1529; of Augsburg, 1530; of Ratisbon, 1541 ; of the Confederation of the Rhine, July 17, 1806. DIEU-DONNE, the name given to Louis XIV. of France, because his mother had been childless 23 years before, 1638. DIEU ET MON DROIT, the motto of the royal arms, was the parole of Richard I. at the battle of Gisors, in which he defeated the French army, Oct. 28, 1 194 ; Queen Elizabeth altered the motto to Semper eadern, 1559, but later in her reign she re- turned to the old motto ; Queen Anne, before the union of Scotland, used Semper eadem, 1702 ; George I. restored the old motto at his accession, 1714. DIGBY, Sir Edward, hanged and embowelled with the others concerned in the popish plot of Jan. 30, 1606. DIGITS, single figures, so called from the numbers expressed originally on count- ing the fingers, originating with the Moors, 900, introduced into Spain, 1050, and England, 1253. DIJON, France, the Roman town of Divio ; enlarged by Aurelian, 274. TheBur- gundians obtained possession of this town ; it was burned, 1137 ; restored by the dukes of Burgundy, 1160; the cathedral founded, 1287. Notre Dame built, 1229 ; the clock erected, 1382. The Hotel de Ville, formerly the ducal palace, built in the I4th century ; it contained the tomb of Philippe le Hardi, 1404, and the tomb of his son Jeans-Sans-Peur, slain in 1419. The roof of the hall burnt, 1502 ; rebuilt, 1504. DILETTANTI SOCIETY OF SAVANTS, established for the purpose of en- 214. DILLINGEN DIRECTORY couraging the Fine Arts, 1734 ; the first work issued by the society was the 'Ionian Antiquities,' 1769. DILLINGEN, Bavaria, formerly the residence of the bishops of Augsburg ; the university founded, I55 2 > abolished, 1802. DINAGEPORE, Hindustan, one of the provinces of Delhi, transferred to the East India Company, 1765. DIN ANT, Belgium, fortified in the I2th century ; the town taken and the fortifica- tions destroyed by Philip the Good, 1466; rebuilt, 1470 ; captured and pillaged by the French, 1554; and again, 1675 ; restored by the treaty of Ryswick, 1697 ; again taken by the French, 1794; restored, 1814. DINDIGUL, Hindustan, conquered by the Mysore government, 1757; taken by the British, 1 783 ; subsequently restored to Tippoo Sultan ; ceded to the British, 1792. DIOCESES, the Roman empire divided into, by Constantine, as some assert, 323. In England, the circuits of the bishops' jurisdiction, of which there are 24, of which 21 are suffragan to Canterbury and three to York. The following are the dioceses in England, with the number of benefices and curates in 1860 : Dioceses. Benefices. Curates. Dioceses. Benefices. Curates. Bath and Wells 462 213 Lincoln 797 309 Canterbury 352 166 London 324 258 Carlisle 137 28 Manchester 317 140 Chester 436 158 Norwich 910 364 Chichester 311 128 Oxford 584 Durham 245 106 Peterborough 536 184 Ely 5 2 9 I 9 I Ripon 410 142 Exeter 657 166 Rochester 564 240 Gloucester and ) o Salisbury 449 196 Bristol | Winchester 523 285 Hereford 358 98 Worcester 417 199 Lichfield 536 154 York 534 205 DIOCLETIAN ERA, or era of the martyrs, used by Christians before the intro- duction of the Christian era in the sixth century ; still employed by the Copts and Abyssinians, dating from the day when Diocletian was proclaimed emperor at Chalcedon, Aug. 29, 284. DIONYSIUS PRIORY, Hants, built, 1124, DIORAMA, invented by an Englishman (Barker), 1796 ; first exhibited in Paris, 1822 ; this well-known place of exhibition in Regent's Park was built from the designs of Morgan and Pugin, architects ; opened, Oct. 6, 1823 ; sold in Sept., 1848, for ^6750, and made a dissenting chapel. DIPHTHERIA, or Boulogne sore-throat, a disease with a new name, appeared with great virulence in England in the winter of 1857-8. DIPPING NEEDLE, invented by Robert Norman, a compass-maker of Radcliffe, circa 1576. DIRECTORY, a body of five members so called in France ; appointed, Aug. 22, 1795 5 installed at the Palace of Luxembourg, Oct. 26, 1795, and held the exe- cutive power four years ; deposed by Bonaparte, Nov. 19, 1799. DIRECTORY for public worship arranged by an assembly of divines at Westmin- ster, 1643, and established by an ordinance of parliament, 1644. DIRECTORY, the London. The first published by Sam Lee, 1677 ; the next arranged by James Brown, a Scotchman, and published by Mr Henry Kent, 1732. The present Post-office Directory first published, 1800. DISCIPLINE DOCKS OF LONDON 215 DISCIPLINE, Book of, drawn up by the ministers of the Church of Scotland, set- ting aside prelacy, 1650. DISPENSARIES for the relief of the sick and the dispensing of medicines, one founded by the College of Physicians, 1696 ; St Marylebone General Dispensary founded, 1785 ; the Surrey, 1777 ; Westminster, 1774, and many subsequently. DISPENSATIONS, first granted by Pope Innocent III., 1200; among other breaches of the law and former Church discipline, this aided in forcing on the Reformation in 1517, in Germany, and elsewhere. Henry VIII. forbade his sub- jects to apply for them,. 25 Hen. VIII. c. 21, s. 3, 1533. DISSENTERS, first separated from the Church of England, 1571 ; their first place of worship established at Wentworth, Nov. 20, 1572 ; persons going to con- venticles to be punished, 35 Eliz. c. I, 1593 ; an act passed to suppress seditious meeting-houses, 22 Charles II. c. I, 1670 ; meeting-houses of, pulled down by the mob, March I, 1709-10 ; in Birmingham, July 14, 1791, by a 'church and king' mob, when a number of private houses were also ravaged. Test and Corpora- tion acts affecting, repealed, May 9, 1828. DISTAFF, spinning with, introduced into England, and first taught to the women of England by an Italian named Bonavisa, 1505. DISTILLATION, originally brought to Spain by the Moors, 1150; introduced into England in the i6th century ; known in Ireland, 1590 ; in France, 1313. DISTILLERS' COMPANY incorporated, 14 Car. I., Aug. 9, 1638, for stilling strong waters and making vinegars ; reincorporated, James II., Sept. 13, 1688 ; arms granted to, March 18, 1638. DIU, Hindustan, captured by the Portuguese, 1515 ; plundered by the Arabs of Muscat, 1670. DIVING-BELL. An invention of this nature was first tried at Cadiz before the Emperor Charles V., 1509 ; used to search for some of the wrecks of the Spanish Armada on the coast of Scotland, 1665-7. Dr Halley greatly improved the supply of fresh air to the diving-bell, 1716. Mr Spalding and his assistants drowned in a diving-bell in Ireland, June I, 1 783 ; the 'Royal George' at Portsmouth surveyed by a diving-bell, May, 1817; used by Smeaton for engineering purposes, 1779; employed in submarine works, general, subsequently. DIVING-DRESS invented by Mr Dean, who surveyed the wreck of the 'Royal George ' in it, 1834. DIVORCES FROM MARRIAGE. Provision made for such cases in the Mosaic and the Mahometan Law. The earliest known at Rome is that of Carvilius Ruga, B.C. 234. The Council of Trent prohibited divorces upon any pretence. Attempt to make divorces more easy of attainment, 1539 ; a bill to prevent women marrying their seducers brought into parliament, 1801. Law establishing a court far, 20 & 21 Viet. c. 85, Aug. 28, 1857 ; amended, 21 & 22 Viet. c. 108, Aug. 2, 1858 ; Sir Cresswell Cresswell appointed first judge, Jan. 5, 1858 ; first sitting of the New Court, May IO, 1858 ; again amended, 22 & 23 Viet. c. 6l, Aug. 13, 1859, and 23 & 24 Viet. c. 144, Aug. 28, 1860; in 1865, 256 causes were tried. DIZIER, S. France, an ancient fortified town ; besieged by the Imperialists under Charles V. of Germany, but bravely resisted for five weeks, July, 1544 ; the town almost destroyed by fire, 1775. Napoleon defeated the allies upon their way to Paris, at this town, Jan. 27, 1814, and again in March, 1814. DOCKS OF LONDON for receiving vessels for commercial purposes : COMMERCIAL DOCKS, Rotherhithe, commenced, 1725; company formed under the provisions of 50 Geo. III. c. ccvii., June 20, i8io; amended by 51 Geo. 216 DOCKYARDS DOGGET COAT AND BADGE III. c. Ixvi., May 14, 1811, and again 57 Geo. III. c. clxii., July 7, 1817 ; pur- chased the East County Docks, 1851. EAST INDIA DOCKS, established by 43 Geo. III. c. cxxvi., July 27, 1803 ; opened, Aug. 4, 1806; united to the West India Docks, 1838. A fire which destroyed much valuable property broke out, April 27, 1866. LONDON DOCKS, established by 39 & 40 Geo. III. c. xlvii., June 20, 1800 ; first stone laid, June 26, 1802 ; opened, July 30, 1805. The Shadwell entrance opened, 1831. ST KATHERINE'S DOCKS, constructed upon the site of St Katherine's Hospital by 6 Geo. IV. c. cv., June 10, 1825, Mr Telford, engineer, and Mr Hard wick, architect; began, May 3, 1827; opened, Oct. 25, 1828 ; amalgamated with the London Docks, 1861 ; several warehouses destroyed by fire, Jan. I, 1866. VICTORIA DOCKS, established by 13 & 14 Viet. c. 1., July 15, 1850 ; opened, Nov., 1855. WEST INDIA DOCKS, established by 39 Geo. III. c. Ixix., s. ^8ei scj., July 12, 1799; commenced, 1800; opened, Aug., 1802. The following are the chief Docks in Liverpool : Blythe Dry Dock, opened, Sept. II, 1811 ; Brunswick, April 13, 1832 ; Canning, 1728 ; Clarence George, 1762 ; King's, 1785 ; Prince's, 1815; Queen's, 1785 ; Salthouse, 1738 ; Waterloo, Aug. 18, 1834. DOCKYARDS, first established by Henry VIII. for the building and protection of our navy : Chatham, established, 1550 ; Deptford, 1513 (it is now devoted to the victualling service) ; Pembroke or Milford Haven, by George III., 1814; Plymouth or Devonport, by William III. ; Portsmouth, by Henry VIII. ; Sheerness, by George IV., 1823 ; Woolwich, 1509. By 12 Geo. III. c. 24, setting fire to the Royal Dockyards was punished by death, 1772. An act was passed for their better protection, 26 & 27 Viet. c. 30, June 22, 1863. Power given to extend several by 28 & 29 Viet. c. 5I> June 29, 1865 ; amended, May 18, 1866 ; again amended, May 31, 1867. DOCTOR OF LAW, title of, conferred by King John, 1207 ; of medicine, in the I4th century, and music in the ifth. DOCTORS' COMMONS, London, founded near St Paul's by Dr Harvey, Dean of the Arches, in the reign of Elizabeth ; destroyed in the fire of 1 666 ; rebuilt, 1672 ; partially destroyed in making the new street from Blackfriars, 1867. DODONA, Greece, the seat of one of the most ancient oracles of Greece ; totally destroyed in the 7th century B. c. DOGE OF VENICE. The title conferred on the chief of the state, the first of whom was Paolo Luca Anafesto of Heraclia, March, 697 ; Faliero I. recognized as the first Doge of Venice, Dalmatia, and Croatia, 1085. The ceremony of the Doge marrying the sea instituted, 1173, and observed annually until 1797. DOGGERBANK, North Sea, the scene of a fierce naval engagement between the English under Adm. Parker and the Dutch under Adm. Zoutman, Aug. 9, 1781. DOGGET COAT AND BADGE. Mr Thomas Dogget, a comedian, left a sum of money to the Fishmongers' Company in order to provide this prize annually, which he established on the accession of George I. of the House of Hanover, Aug. I, 1716. It is an orange-colour livery, with a badge representing liberty. It is to be rowed for by six watermen that are out of their time within the past year, the distance being from London Bridge to Chelsea, and they are to start at four o'clock. The Fishmongers' Company in late years have added a prize for the second and third man. DOGS DOMINGO, ST 217 DOGS. These useful animals are frequently mentioned in Holy Writ. They were used by the Hebrews as a watch for their houses, Is. Ivi. 10, and for guarding their flocks, Job xxx. I. A statute was passed, 1770, 10 Geo. III. c. 18, to prevent the stealing of these useful animals ; amended and extended by 24 & 25 Viet. c. 96, ss. 1 8 20, Aug. 6, 1861. A tax imposed upon persons keeping them, 1796, which was subsequently extended to Ireland, 1808 ; prohibited from draw- ing carts, &c., 2 & 3 Viet. c. 47, Aug. 17, 1839 ; extended to all parts of the king- dom, 17 & 18 Viet. c. 60, July 31, 1854 ; regulations made for the better keeping of, in Ireland, 28 & 29 Viet. c. 50, June 19, 1865. The English act for the regu- lation and keeping of dogs extended to Ireland, 30 & 31 Viet. c. 116, Aug. 20, 1867. A tax of 5-r. imposed and a licence to be applied for every person keeping a dog in England after April 5, 1867, and in Scotland, May 24 ; resolution agreed to by parliament, Feb. 18, 1867, and a bill passed, 30 & 31 Viet. c. 5, March 29, 1867 ; loose dogs to be taken possession of by the police in London, 30 & 31 Viet. c. 134, s. 1 8, Aug. 20, 1867 ; between April 6 and July 31, 1867, 656,977 licenses were issued in England, and 88,481 in Scotland. DOLE, France. The Duke of Bourbon repulsed in an attempt to besiege this town, 1435 ; destroyed by the French, 1479 ; Charles V. of Spain fortified it, 1530; besieged unsuccessfully by Prince Conde, 1636; taken by Louis XIV., 1668 and 1674. DOLOMITE, a magnesian limestone discovered in the mountains of the Tyrol by Buch ; the Houses of Parliament built with it ; the mountains described by J. Gilbert and G. C. Churchhill, 1864. DOLWYDDELLEN CASTLE, Caernarvonshire, erected, 500. DOMESDAY BOOK, wherein are registered the value, and tenure, and service of all land in England, ordered by William I., and Remigius, bishop of Lincoln, Henry de Ferrieres, Adam Dapifer, and Walter Giffard, Earl of Buckingham, appointed to superintend its compilation, 1083 ; completed and ratified at a council held at Old Sarum, 1086. The king retained 1422 manors for his own use. 49 castles are described and 1 1 fortified towns. Printed by order of George III., 1783, and 1816 ; copied in photozincography by Col. James, 1860-5. DOMINGO, ST, Island of, Hayti, discovered by Columbus in his second voyage, Dec. 6, 1492. The city founded, April 24, 1494. The capital pillaged by Sir F. Drake, 1586. The western part of the island ceded to France in the i6th century. The National Assembly passed a decree in 1791, doing away with slavery. The General Assembly of the French colonists held, Aug. 9, 1791. The Mulattoes revolted first, near Cape Town, Aug. 23. Port-au-Prince and the city nearly de- stroyed during the revolt ; 2000 white inhabitants were killed and 10,000 of the negroes ; nearly 200 sugar plantations, besides hundreds of indigo and cotton- fields, were destroyed in Sept., Oct., and Nov. Three commissioners sent out by France, with 8000 soldiers, to restore order, 1 793, but they quarrelled and the commissioners called in the aid of 3000 revolted blacks to assist them in defeating their own countrymen, when the blacks turned round and slaughtered men, women, and children, and the town was almost consumed by the flames. Taken possession of by the British, Sept., 1793 ; Toussaint 1'Ouverture appointed Gen.- in-Chief of the black armies, 1797, and after a sanguinary war the British forces were withdrawn, 1798; declared independent, July I, 1801. Gen. Le Clerc, with 25,000 troops, endeavoured to recover the island. This led to great slaugh- ter ; Toussaint was treacherously seized and conveyed to France, where he died, April, 1803. Dessalines took command of the blacks, and waged a war of exter- mination against the French, who were compelled to evacuate the whole island, and the standard of the blacks was hoisted on Cape Fran9ois, Nov. 30, 1803. Dessalines elected emperor, and crowned, Oct., 1804 ; Christophe was elected to 218 DOMINGO, ST DONEGAL rule over the southern part, and Petion over the northern, 1805. This led to a civil war, which lasted until 1810, when a truce was made. Christophe was crowned King ofHayti (Henry I.), March, 1811 ; he committed suicide, Oct. 20, 1820. Gen. Boyer became the emperor, 1820 ; declared independent, Nov., 1821. The Haytian flag first displayed in St Domingo, 1822, and the city de- clared to be a part of the kingdom, Jan. 9. France recognized the independence of the country, and an indemnity paid to them for their losses, Dec. 31, 1825. Great destruction of life and property by a hurricane, Oct. 30, 1867. See Hayti. DOMINGO, ST. The French fleet captured hereby the English, June 27, 1747. DOMINICA, Island of, W. Indies, discovered by Columbus, and so called by him because he discovered it upon a Sunday, Nov. 3, 1493 ; taken by the English, 1761, and ceded to them by the French by the treaty of Paris, Feb. 10, 1763 ; taken by the French, 1778. The French fleet of 34 sail, under Adm. de Grasse, defeated by Adm. Rodney off this island, April 12, 1782, and the town taken. The French fleet attacked it unsuccessfully, 1805 ; hurricane at, 1806 ; another one doing considerable damage, July 23, 1813, and one of still greater violence, Sept. 25, 1816 ; an arrangement made, 30 & 31 Viet. c. 191, Aug. 12, 1867, for the payment of their loan to England. DOMINICANS, or Preaching Friars, a religious order of Predicants ; founded by Dominic de Guzman, Archdeacon of Ossuna, Castile, Spain, 1071 ; sanctioned and encouraged by Innocent III., 1215, and confirmed by Honorius III., 1216 ; known in England as the Black Friars ; first residence in Oxford, 1221 ; and in 1276 the corporation of London gave them a place to live in, called after them, the Blackfriars, where they subsequently erected a monastery. Revived in England, 1863. Monastery of the order built at Haverstock Hill, and opened, Sept. 10, 1867. The NUNS of this order founded in 1206. DOMUS DEI, a house so called, erected at Dover, by Henry III., 1227. DONATISTS. This sect arose in 311 ; condemned by the council held at Milan, 316. They were restored by Julian, 362 ; but were again proscribed by Gratian, 377- DONAU WERTH, Bavaria, formerly a free town of the empire ; added to Bava- ria, 1607. The allied army, commanded by the Duke of Maryborough, defeated the Bavarians here, July 2, 1704 ; occupied by the French under Marshal Soult, 1805. DONCASTER, Yorkshire, the Roman Danum, was destroyed by the Danes, circa 794. The cross of Otho de Tilli erected, 1180-1200; pulled down and the present cross erected, 1793. Interview between the Duke of Norfolk, commander of the Royal forces, and the insurgents under Robert Aske (during the Pilgrimage of Grace), Oct. 26, 1536, which terminated the dissatisfaction. The town taken by the Parliamentarians, 1642. The races were established before 1703; Col. St Leger founded the St Leger stakes in 1778 ; the first winner (Allabaculia) was the property of the Marquis of Rockingham ; the Grand Stand was built by the corporation in 1826. The Rev. Dr Cartwright, inventor of the power-loom, established a manufactory here, in 1786. The Town Hall built in 1744, and partially rebuilt in 1800; the Shambles, in 1848 ; St James's church erected at the expense of Mr Denison, 1855 ; School of Industry established in 1801 ; cemetery erected by act of parliament, 17 & 18 Viet. c. clxxxi., July 24, 1854. St George's Church, founded in 1300; finished, 1425; was destroyed by fire, Feb. 28, 1853 ; rebuilt by G. G. Scott ; foundation-stone laid, Feb. 28, 1854 ; the tower is 170 feet high ; the whole having cost .45,000. DONEGAL, Ireland, made a county by Queen Elizabeth, 1585. Abbey founded, 1474- DONELSON FORT DOUAI 219 DONELSON FORT, Kentucky, U. S., fortified by the Confederate army, M-hich was defeated by Gen. Grant, and surrendered, Feb. 16, 1862 ; an attempt to retake it defeated, Feb. 3, 1863. DONIXGTON, battle fought at this village in Gloucestershire, when the Royalists under Lord Ashton were defeated by the Parliamentarians, commanded by Col. Morgan, March 21, 1645. DONINGTON CASTLE, Berks, built in the reign of Edward I. ; purchased by Sir Thomas Abberbury of Edward II., 1327, and castellated by his son, 1385 ; defended successfully for Charles I. by Sir J. Boys against the Parliamentarians under Col. Horton, 1643 ; destroyed by order of parliament, 1646. DONINGTON CASTLE, Leicestershire, built by Henry de Lacy, Earl of Lincoln, 1296 ; purchased by Robert, Earl of Essex ; and from him by Sir William Hast- ings, 1595- DONNA MARIA, frigate, blown up at Macaco, with 200 men, Oct. 29, 1850, only sixteen escaped. DORCHESTER, Dorsetshire, the Roman town of Durnovaria, besieged and burnt by Sweyn, king of Denmark, 1003 ; suffered from the plague of 1595 ; nearly destroyed by fire, 1613 ; fortified by the Parliamentarians, 1643. On the occasion of the Monmouth rebellion the assizes were held by Judge Jefferies, and upwards of 80 persons executed, Sept. 4, 1686. DORCHESTER, Oxfordshire, the ancient Durorina of the Romans. The cathedral built in 1093 ; nave and aisles erected by Bishop Flambard, 1 104-33 > the galilee by Bishop Pudsey, 1180; chapel of the Nine Altars, founded by Bishop Poore, 1242, and made a bishopric ; removed to Lincoln, 1074; the build- ing partially destroyed by fire, Aug. 7, 1613 ; the Abbey church founded by Alexander, Bishop of Lincoln, 1 140 ; school founded by Edward Hardy, Aug. 3, 1579- DORP AT, Russia. The university founded by Gustavus Adolphus, 1632 ; it has a library of 60,000 volumes ; the town destroyed by fire, 1775. DORSET GARDENS THEATRE, Salisbury Court, Fleet-street ; designed by Sir C. Wren ; built and opened, 1671 ; taken down, 1720. DORSINGTON, Warwickshire, greatly injured by fire, Aug. 3, 1759. DORT, Holland, fortified, 1231 ; the sea broke down the dykes at, in the territory of Dordrecht, 10,000 persons perished, and more than 100,000 round Dollnrt, in Zealand and Friesland. In the two last provinces, 300 village towers and steeples were seen with their tops above water, Nov., 1421 ; the town and the cathedral of Notre Dame destroyed by fire, 1457 ; declared independent, 1572. The Pro- testant synod for considering the doctrine of Calvinism and Arminianism was held here, Nov. 13, 1618 ; the sittings ended, May 25, 1619. DORYL^EUM, battle. The Crusaders defeated the Turks, 200,000 strong, com- manded by Kilidge-Arslan, after a severe contest, July 4, 1097. DOUAI, France (Duacum), an ancient fortified town. It was captured by Philip the Fair, 1297, but restored to the Count of Flanders, 1368. A Popish seminary for refugee priests established at, by Philip II., 1568. Louis XIV. took posses- sion of this town in 1667 ; besieged by the allies under the Duke of Marlborough and Prince Eugene, April 23, 1710; the defence was intrusted to the Marquis Al- bergotte and the celebrated Valory, with an army of 8000 men ; they capitulated, June 26, 1710 ; retaken in 1712 ; and* by the treaty of Utrecht restored, April II, 1713. The public library contains more than 35,000 vols., and looo MSS. from the suppressed convents. It was here that the celebrated Roman Catholic trans- lation of the Holy Scriptures was made by the authority of the Pope, and pub- lished, 1609. 220 DOUGLAS CASTLE DOVER CASTLE DOUGLAS CASTLE, near Edinburgh, destroyed by fire, Dec. n, 1758. DOURO, a river in Spain, more than 300 yards wide, crossed by the British army under Wellington in pursuit of the French army, commanded by Marshal Soult. The French, 10,000 strong, were in possession of Oporto. The English had only a few boats, and before 200 men had landed, the alarm was given ; but the troops undei Gen. Hill held their ground. The French lost 500 men killed and wounded, 5 pieces of artillery, 50 guns, and a large quantity of ammunition. The English lost Gen. Paget and 20 men, killed, and 75 wounded. Several hundred French were left in the hospital of the town, May 12, 1809. Napier. DOVE of Castile, order of Knighthood, established, 1379. DOVER, Kent. By the Romans it was called Dubris, and by the Saxons Dofris. Julius Caesar is said to have landed here upon his invasion of Britain, Aug. 30 or 31, li.c. 55. The town was fortified by the Romans upon their second invasion, B.C. 54; made one of the Cinque Ports by William the Conqueror, who fortified and strengthened the castle, and appointed Odo, Bishop of Bayeux, governor, with power to repair the castle ; laws made by Henry III. for its safe custody. The church of St Martin-le-Grand founded by Withred, king of Kent, 696 ; re- built by Bishop Odo, 1068 ; taken down, 1536. King John assembled his army here to oppose the landing of Philip of France, but signed his recantation, May 13, 1213, and formally resigned his kingdom to the pope on the I5th ; Henry III. landed at, from Boulogne, after signing a -peace with Spain, 1255 ; Edward, Prince of Wales, was appointed constable of the castle during the king's absence in Palestine ; Edward II. embarked from this place to celebrate his marriage with Isabella of France, 1308 ; Edward III. resided some time in the castle, 1329 ; Henry V. embarked with his army for France to avenge the death of his brother, the Duke of Clarence, 1421 ; Henry VIII. resided in the castle with Katherine of Arragon for 15 days, June, 1513 ; they received Charles V., Emperor of Germany, at the castle, May 30, 1520 ; Charles I. met the Princess Henrietta Maria upon her landing in England, June 13, 1625. It was taken by surprise by a merchant of the town (Blake), and 10 other republicans, Aug. I, 1642, and de- livered to the Parliamentarians ; Charles II. on his restoration disembarked at this town, May 29, 1660. The castle was repaired, and additional accommodation and fortification ordered by the Duke of Cumberland, 1745-6, and again, 1794, when threats of a French invasion were denounced; ,50,000 was voted to fortify it ; it covers an area of 35 acres. The Fort Barracks burned, July 30 ; a part of the cliff fell down, Nov. 27, 1810 ; Mrs Poole, and five children, and niece, killed by a fall of a further part of the same cliff, Dec. 14, 1810. Louis XVIII. landed at this town after his restoration, when he was received by the Prince Regent with great state, April 23, 1814 ; the allied sovereigns landed, June 6, 1814 ; Queen Caroline, attended by Lady Hamilton and Mr Alderman Wood, landed here from the Continent previous to her trial, June 5> 1820. An act passed, May 15, 1822, for lighting the town with gas [3 Geo. IV. c. xv.] ; and another for enlarging the market and for building a new fish-market, March 22, 1826 [7 Geo. IV. c. v.], and opened, 1827. A pier was begun by the Admiralty, 1844. A satisfactory report of the completion and safety of the South-eastern Railway to Dover, made by Major-Gen. Pasley, inspector, Feb. i, 1844 > opened for traffic, Feb. 7. The Volunteers reviewed by Major-Gen. McCleverty, the army and navy taking part, April 22, 1867. DOVER CASTLE, Kent. St John's Tower built by Adam Fitzwilliam, 1069 ; Constable's Tower built by Gundulf, Bishop of Rochester, 1079 ; Caldescot To'.ver by Fulbert de Lucy, 1120 ; Norfolk's Tower by Hubert de Burgh, before 1216 ; Maunsel's Tower by William Abrincis, 1215, and successfully defended by the Barons of the Cinque Ports against Henry III., 1266. DOVER DRAMA 221 DOVER, naval battle. Adm. Blake, with 23 sail, defeated the Dutch Adm. Van Tromp with a fleet of 40 sail, off here, May 19, 1652 ; Gen. Monk and Adm. Blake again defeated the Dutch fleet under Van Tromp and de Ruyter ; in this battle chain-shot was used for the first time, June 2-3, 1653. DOVER, treaty. Charles II. made a secret treaty with Louis XV. of France, by which Charles engaged to make a public profession of the Roman Catholic reli- gion, and to assist in subjugating Holland, for which he was to receive 3,000,000 livres a-year for the support of the fleet, signed at Dover, May 22, 1670. Jfume's England* DOWER, a Saxon usage ; the widow entitled to a moiety of the husband's property for life, 941 ; confirmed by Magna Charta, June 19, 1215 ; the widows of traitors debarred dower, 1551 ; an act passed for the amendment of the law relating to dower, 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 105, Aug. 29, 1833, to come into operation, Jan. i, 1834. DOWLUTABAD, Hindustan. The fortress taken and plundered, 1203 ; captured by Mallik Naib, 1306 ; by Ahmed Nizam, 1595, and again by the Moguls, 1634. DOWN, Ireland, invaded by the Earl of Ulster, 1177. Cathedral built, 1183; destroyed by Lord Grey, lord-deputy of Ireland, for which he was beheaded, 1541 ; bishopric of, established, 499 ; united to Connor, 1441, and both to Dro- more, 1834. DOWNING COLLEGE, Cambridge, founded by Sir E. Downing, Bt., Dec. 20, 1717; charter granted, Sept. 22, 1800 ; first stone laid, May 18, 1807. DRAGOON GUARDS. The 1st or King's Regiment formed, June 6, 1685 ; the 1st or Royal Regiment of Horse, 1661 ; the Royal Regiment of Scots Dragoons or Scots Greys, 1660 ; the 3rd or King's Own Regiment of Light Dragoons, July 17, 1685 ; the 3rd or Prince of Wales' Regiment of Dragoon Guards raised, June 23, 1685 ; the 4th or Royal Irish Regiment of Dragoon Guards, July 28, 1685 ; the 4th or the Queen's Own Regiment of Light Dragoons, July 27, 1685 ; the 5th or Princess Charlotte of Wales' Regiment, July 29, 1685 ; the 6th Regiment of Dragoon Guards, or 'The Carabineers,' July 30, 1685; the 6th or Inniskillen Regiment of Dragoons, 1 688 ; the 7th or Princess Royal's Regiment of Dragoon Guards, 1688 ; the I3th Regiment of Light Dragoons, July, 1715 ; the I4th or the King's Regiment of Light Dragoons, July 22, 1715. DRAINAGE OF THE METROPOLIS. Inconsequence of the frequent return of the cholera, measures were taken to secure a better system of drainage. The Metropolitan Board of Works was appointed 18 & 19 Viet. c. 120, Aug. 14, 1855, to prevent the sewage from being conveyed into the river Thames. The main system of drainage ordered to be carried out by 21 & 22 Viet. c. 104, Aug. 2, 1858 ; the same act gives them the power to embank the river Thames, and to levy rates for that purpose. The total sum to be assessed at 3 his Grace the Duke of Dorset elected president, Dec. 4, 1731 ; incorporated by Royal Charter, 1750; Dublin University Philosophical Society instituted, 1842 ; their transactions first pub- lished, 1843. DUCAT, first coined in Sicily, 1240: of silver, value qs. 6d. ; of gold, gs. 6d. ; the ducatoon of Italy, 4^. ?>d. DUCKING STOOLS, the ancient punishment for scolds. ' Cuck, or cucking- stool' mentioned in Domesday Book, as being in use in Chester, where it is called ' Cathedra Stercoris.' In the Common Hall accounts of the borough of Leicester DUDLEY DUEL 225 they are mentioned in 1467 ; last inflicted upon the landlady of the Queen's Head, Kingston, April 27, 1745- DUDLEY, Duke of Northumberland, beheaded on Tower Hill, Aug. 23, 1553. Lord Guildford Dudley, the husband of Lady Jane Grey, executed, Feb. 12, I554- DUDLEY CASTLE, Staffordshire built by Duddo, the Saxon, 700 ; restored by Ralph de Paganell, 1130 ; garrisoned for Queen Matilda by Gervase Paganell, circa 1 159 ; taken and destroyed by Henry II., 1 173 ; rebuilt by John de Somerie, 1 176 ; besieged unsuccessfully by the Parliamentarians, 1644 ; destroyed by order of the Long Parliament, 1645 ; serious fire at, doing considerable damage to the ruins, 1750. Dudley and Midland Geological Society instituted, 1842 ; the Geo- logical and Scientific Club established, 1862. DUDLEY PRIORY, Worcestershire, founded by Gervase Paynell before 1 161. DUEL, Trial by. This custom of ending all differences by arms was introduced into England by William the Conqueror. Philip the Fair of France made several ordinances touching this custom, 1306 ; the custom condemned by the council of Valentia, 855. Proclamation of no pardon to any one who killed another in a duel issued, 1679 ; checked in the army and discouraged in society, 1838. A list of some of the most notorious duels : Baddeley, Mr, and George Garrick, 1770. Berkeley, the Hon. Craven, M.P., and Capt. Boldero, M.P., July 15, 1842. Brittlebank, Mr W., and Mr Cuddie, the latter killed, June 10, 1821. Boswell, Sir A., and Mr J. Stuart, the former killed, March 26, 1822. Buckingham, the Duke of, and the Duke of Bedford, May 2, 1822. Burdett, Sir Francis, and Mr Paull, both wounded, May 5, 1807. Byron, Lord, and Mr W. Chaworth, the latter died, Jan. 27, 1765. Camelford, Lord, and Capt. Best, the former killed, March, 1804. Campbell, Major, and Capt. Boyd, who was killed, Aug. 23, 1808. Cardigan, the Earl of, and Lieut. Tucket, the latter wounded, Sept. 15, 1840. Castlereagh, Lord, and Mr Canning, who was wounded, Sept. 21, 1809. Corry, James, and Mr Newburgh, who was shot through the head, May IO, 1800. Fawcett, Col., and Lieut. Munro, the former killed, July I, 1843. Fox, Hon. C. J., and Mr Adams, Nov. 30, 1779. Gourlay, Capt., and Mr Westall, the former killed, Oct. 30, 1824. Grattan, Mr H., and Lord Clare, June II, 1820. Jeffcot, Sir J., and Dr Hennis, who was mortally wounded, May 10, 1833. Hamilton, Duke of, and Lord Mohun, both killed, 1712. Hill, the Rev. Mr, and Cornet Gardiner, the former was killed, 1764. Kemble, Mr, and Mr Aikin, of Drury Lane Theatre, March, 1792. King, Col., and Col. Fitzgerald, after six rounds had been fired the duel was ad- journed, Oct., 1797. Lockyer, Major, and Mr Sutton Cochrane, who was killed, Dec. 12, 1817. Loftus, Lord, and Lord Harley, Dec. IO, 1839. Londonderry, Lord, and Mr H. Grattan, June 13, 1839. Macartney, Lord, and Mr Sadleir, April, 1785. Martin, Mr, and Mr Wilkes, M.P., Nov. 16, 1763. Milton, Lord, and Lord Poulett, Jan. 29, 1771. Montgomery, Col., and Capt. M'Namara, the former killed, April 3, 1803. Napoleon, Louis, and the Compte de Leon, prevented, March 3, 1840. O'Clayton, and Mr Lambrecht, the former killed, Jan. 8, 1830. O'Connell, Mr, and Mr D'Esterre, the latter killed, Feb. I, 1815. O'Callaghan, Theodore, and Lieut. Bailey, who was killed, Jan. 13, 1818. Paget, Lord, and Capt. Cadogan, May, 1809. Payne, George, and Mr Clark, the former killed, Sept. 6, 1810. '5 226 DUKE DUNDEE Pepe, Gen. ; and Gen. Carascosa, who was wounded, Feb. 28, 1823. Purefoy, Ensign, and Col. Roper, who was killed, Aug. 14, 1794. Pitt, Wm., and George Tierney, May 21, 1798. Scott, Mr, and Mr Christie, the former killed, Feb. 18, 1812. Shelburne, the Earl of, and Col. Fullarton, March 28, 1780. Stackpool, Capt, and Lieut. Cecil, the former killed, April, 1814. Sweetman, Major, and Capt. Watson, the former killed, Jan. 12, 1796. Talbot, Earl, and John Wilkes, Oct. 5, 1762. Thomas, Lieut. -Col., and Col. Gordon, the former killed, 1783. Townsend, Lord, and the Earl of Bellamont, who was seriously wounded, Feb. 2, 1773- Wellington, the Duke of, and the Earl of Winchelsea, March 21, 1820. York, the Duke of, and Col. Lennox, 1789. DUKE. The title of duke or dux was first used among the Anglo-Saxons as a title of dignity; first called peers, 1321 ; title given by Edward III. to his son, the Black Prince, as Duke of Cornwall, March 17, 1337 ; Henry Duke of Lancaster, March 6, 1351 ; Robert de Vere made Duke of Ireland, 1385 ; the first in Scot- land given to the king's eldest son, as Duke of Rothsay, 1398 ; became extinct, 1572 ; revived, 1627. DUKE, Grand ; Cosmo de Medicis, the first who bore the title of Grand Duke, received it from Pope Pius V., 1569. DUKE OF CLARENCE ship lost in the Gulf of St Lawrence, 1803. DUKE OF YORK'S ISLAND, discovered by Byron, 1765, then uninhabited. DULWICH COLLEGE, founded by Edward Alleyn, a comedian, called God's Gift College, 1619; he was the first master, and died there, 1626 ; the pictures of Sir Francis Bourgeois bequeathed to it, 1810 ; the building altered by Mr C. Barry, 1831 ; act passed to regulate, 20 & 21 Viet. c. 84, Aug. 25, 1857. DUMBARTON, Scotland, created a royal burgh by Alexander II., 1221 ; the castle is of great antiquity ; visited by Queen Mary, 1563 ; Captain Thomas Crawford and a few soldiers took it one stormy night by escalade, 1571 ; visited by Queen Victoria, Aug. 17, 1847. DUMBLANE, Scotland. In the neighbourhood is the remains of a Roman en- campment for at least 20,000 men. Made a bishopric by David I., who founded the cathedral, 1142. About two miles from, is Sheriffmuir, which gives its name to the battle fought there ; the royal forces under the Duke of Argyle defeat- ing the rebels under the Earl of Mar, Nov. 13, 1715. DUNBAR, Scotland, a place of some importance in the gth century ; it suffered several sieges, but the most memorable was that by the English, when Black Agnes, Countess of Dunbar, in the absence of her husband, held out successfully against the Earl of Salisbury for 19 weeks, 1337 ; an act of parliament passed for its demolition, 1488 ; but it was not destroyed until 1567. DUNBAR, battle. The Scots under Baliol defeated by the English under Earl Warenne with a loss of 10,000 men, April 27, 1296 ; the Scots defeated by Crom- well, 3000 were killed and 9000 taken prisoners, Sept. 3, 1650. DUNCAN, King of Scotland, murdered by Macbeth, 1039. DUNDALK, Ireland. Charters granted, making it a royal town, by Henry III., Richard II., and Henry IV. ; the head-quarters of Edward Brace, 1315 ; he was beheaded here, 1318 ; and 6000 Scots, who had invaded Ireland, lost their lives; walls of, destroyed, 1641 ; the first manufacture of Irish cambric established here, 1728. DUNDEE, Scotland. William the Lion made this town a Royal burgh by charter, DUNES DUNSTAN, ST 227 I2IO ; confirmed, 1651 ; taken twice by the English in the reign of Edward I. ; besieged, taken, and sacked by the Duke of Montrose, 1645 > stormed and taken by Gen. Monk, Sept. I, 1651 ; visited by Queen Victoria, Sept., 1844. The Dundee and Newtyle Railway opened, 1826 ; the Dundee and Arbroath, 1838 ; and the Dundee and Perth, 1847. Boiler explosion at Messrs Edwards' Spinning Works, 19 persons scalded to death, April 15, 1859. Sir David Baxter presented a park to the people of, opened, Sept. 9, 1863. 19 persons crushed to death at the entrance to a music hall in Bell-street, Jan. 2, 1865. By the 30 & 31 Viet c. 79 ; improved arrangement made for the management of the police in this burgh, Aug. 12, 1867. The British Association for the advancement of science held a con- gress at, Sept. 4- 1 1, 1867. DUNES, battle. The allied armies of England and France commanded by Turenne, defeated the Spanish and Austrian forces, under the Prince Conde and Don Juan of Austria, June 24, 1658. DUNFERMLINE, Scotland. The Abbey of the Holy Trinity erected by Malcolm Canmore in the I ith century. Castle built by David I. ; David II. born in ; a parliament held here, 1335 ; Mary Queen of Scots visited, 1561 ; this was de- molished by Edward I., Feb. IO, 1304, and again, 1560. The Guildhall built, 1808. DUNCAN HILL, Ireland, battle between the English and Irish armies, the latter defeated, losing 6000 men, July 16, 1647. DUNKELD, Scotland. A monastery founded by the Culdees, 729 ; the cathedral began by Bishop Sinclair, 1330 ; the nave in 1450 ; the choir repaired in 1845 ; the centre of the nave is 120 feet long by 60 wide ; a body of Lowlanders were attacked in this building, where they had taken refuge, many were killed, 1689 ; the charter-house built, 1469 ; the bridge built, 1809 ; a palace begun by the Duke of Atholl, 1830, but not finished. DUNKERS, a sect of German Baptists, founded, 1708 ; established their first church in America, 1 723. DUNKIRK, France, founded, 965 ; the English driven out by the French, 1558 ; restored to the Spaniards ; the French under the Duke of Enghien captured it from the Spaniards, Oct., 1646 ; taken by Turenne, June 23, 1658 ; delivered to Cromwell, June 24, 1658 ; basely sold by Charles II. to France for .400,000, 1663 ; the works demolished, and basin filled up, under the treaty of Utrecht, March 13, 1713 ; the works rebuilt, but again demolished at the peace of 1763 ; rebuilt again, 1783 ; Duke of York defeated here by Gen. Hoche, Sept. 7, 1793- DUNMOW, Essex. Priory built, 1 1 10. The town is noted for the flitch of bacon ceremony, instituted by Robert de Fitzwalker, temp. Henry III., 1244. There is a record of the flitch being claimed, 1445, and June 20, 1751, by John Shake- shanks and his wife ; the custom revived, 1837. DUNMOW PARVA, or Little Dunmow Priory, Essex, founded by Juga, sister of Ralph Baynard, 1 104. DUNOON CASTLE, Scotland, built, 1334. DUNSTABLE, Bedford. The Priory of Black Canons, founded by Henry I., 1131 ; King John gave his palace to this establishment, 1204 ; a cross erected to commemorate the resting of the corpse of Queen Eleanor in the market-place, 1290 ; the cross pulled down in the Commonwealth. DUNSTAFFNAGE CASTLE, Scotland, built, 1307. DUNSTAN, ST, in the East, the church of, founded, circa 960. It' was described by Stow in 1598 as a ' fair and large church of an ancient building ;' he particu- 228 DUNSTAN, ST DUSSELDORF larized the monuments of John Kennington, 1374, and William Islip, 1382 ; Lord Cobham built a south aisle and a porch in 1381 ; the church escaped the fire of 1666 ; pulled down, 1816, and the first stone of the present building laid by Dr Manners Sutton, Abp of Canterbury, Nov. 26, 1817; opened, Jan. 14, 1821. DUNSTAN, ST, in the West, the church of ; a chapel added by Thomas Duck, or Duke, 1421 ; the building escaped the great fire ; repaired, 1701 ; rebuilt and consecrated, July 31, 1833 ; the clock was purchased and removed to the Marquis of Hertford's mansion, Regent's Park, 1830. DUNSTANBOROUGH CASTLE, Northumberland, built by Thomas Planta- genet, Earl of Lancaster, grandson of Henry III., 1315 ; Queen Margaret took refuge here after the battle of Hexham, May 15, 1464; the castle was besieged and taken by the Lords Wenlock and Hastings. The priory built, 1280. DUPRE'S VILLA, near Beaconfield, once the residence of Edmund Burke, burned down, April 21, 1813. DURAND, M. , a French Protestant clergyman, hanged in France for assembling a congregation of hearers, 1732. DUREN, Prussia. Charlemagne held two diets here, 775 and 779 ; besieged and taken by Charles V., 1543; captured by the French, 1794; ceded to Prussia, 1814. DURHAM, England, the principality of the Brigantes bsfore the arrival of the Romans ; during the heptarchy it formed part of the kingdom of Northumberland, began, 547, and ended, 827 ; many of the inhabitants massacred by the Normans, 1069 ; the castle built by William the Conqueror, 1072 ; rebuilt by Bishop Pudsey, 1 1 74 ; the octagonal keep and great hall by Bishop Hatfield, 1 347-60 ; the gate-house by Bishop Langley, 1417; the chapel by Bishop Ruthall, 1522 ; repaired by Bishop Crewe, 1690 ; converted into the University of Durham, 1837. King John resided here, 1213. The suburbs were reduced to ashes by the Scottish invaders, 1313. The city walls repaired, 1316. Edward III. made this town the head-quarters of his army, 1327. Margaret, daughter of Henry VII., entertained here, I53 j 66 persons executed for the Nevill's rebel- lion, 1600; almost depopulated by a plague, 1640; by 25 Car. II. c. 9, 1672, power was given to this county to elect two members of parliament ; a serious fire at, 1691. Mustard first ground here, the secret being discovered by Mrs Clements, 1720 ; previously it was pounded in a mortar. DURHAM, battle between the English under Queen Philippa and Scots at Nevil's Cross ; 15,000 of the Scots were slain, and David Bruce, with many thousands of private men, nobles, and knights, made prisoners, Oct. 17, 1346. DURHAM, Bishopric of, fixed at Holy Island, 635 ; next at Chester-le-street, 883 ; Aldham, first Bishop of Durham, 990 ; the palatinate jurisdiction of, separated, June 2 1, 1836. DURHAM CATHEDRAL, built by Bishop Carileph, 1093 ; the nave and aisles by Bishop Flambard, 1104; the galilee by Bishop Pudsey, 1180; the chapel of the Nine Altars by Bishop Poore, 1250 ; the west window by Prior Fossor, 1360 ; the building is 507 feet long, 200 feet wide ; tower 214 feet high. DURHAM COLLEGE, Oxford, founded by Richard de Hoton, Prior of Durham, circa, 1290. DURHAM LETTER, or Lord John Russell's No Popery cry, was written against the pope's Bull, for dividing England into bishoprics, Nov. 4, 1850. DURHAM and Northumberland Architectural Society instituted, 1860. DUSSELDORF, Prussia, made a principal town by Adolphus V., 1288 ; the for- tification destroyed, 1802 ; united to Prussia, 1815. DUTCH CHURCH EAGLE 229 DUTCH CHURCH, Austin Friars, founded by Humphrey Bohun for the Augustine Friars, 1253 ; rebuilt by his grandson, 1354 ; surrendered to Henry VIII., Nov. 12, 1539; given by Edward VI. to the Dutch Protestants, June 29, 1550; de- stroyed by fire, Nov. 22, 1862 ; restored and re-opened, Oct. I, 1865. DUXBURGH, near Chorley, 26 persons drowned at, by the bridge breaking down, Dec. 13, 1812. DWARFS. The Romans employed artificial means to check the growth of children whom they intended for Nani or dwarfs. They were also employed in the mid- dle ages as messengers by the knights in France ; they were classed with the Court Jester, at Constantinople ; they are even now held in esteem. The most famous for size and learning in ancient times was Philetus of Cos ; he was also the best poet of his time ; he had to put weights in his pockets to prevent being blown away. Bebe, a dwarf of Stanislaus, King of Poland, died in 1 764. John de Estrix of Mechlin, at 35 years old, 1592, only 3 feet high. Jeffery Hudson, born, 1619 ; when a youth only 18 inches high ; he shot a Mr Crofts dead in a duel, 1626. Count Borowlaski, an accomplished Pole, born Nov., 1739, at 30 years of age was but 39 inches high ; died in England, aged 98, Sept. 7, 1837. Tom Thumb, the American dwarf, Charles S. Stratton, born, Jan. n, 1832; 25 inches high, and weighed 15 pounds at IO years of age ; first exhibited at Barnum's old American Museum, New York, 1843 ; first performed in England at the Princess' Theatre, Feb. 21, 1844 ; first appeared before the Queen at Buckingham Palace, March 23 ; in Feb., 1845, he visited Paris and Spain. Com- modore Nutt first appeared at St James's Hall, London, Dec. 12, 1864, 20 years old, 29 inches high, and 24 pounds weight ; and Miss Minnie Warren, sister of Mrs Stratton, 1 8 years old, 24 inches high, and 19 pounds weight. DYEING. This art is of the greatest antiquity ; Moses speaks of stuffs dyed blue, purple, and scarlet ; the ancients give the date of the discovery, B. c. 500. Flor- ence, in 1338, contained upwards of 100 dye-houses. The first work upon dyeing appeared in Venice, 1429 ('Mariegola del' arte dei Tentori'). Cochineal first used in Spain, 1523; scarlet dye first discovered by Drebbel, 1630; a German chemist, KefBer, first brought it to England, 1643 ; used by Kloecka Fleming in Germany, 1647; improved by Colbert, in France, 1670. A book called Instruc- tion for Dyers published in Paris, 1672. By the Edict of Nantes, 1685, a fatal blow was given to the trade, and the fugitive workmen introduced this art into England. Act passed to prevent the abuse of, 23 Eliz. c. 9, 1581 ; since greatly improved and several new dyes discovered. DYERS' COMPANY, incorporated by Henry VI., Feb. 16, 1471, upon his short re- storation to the throne, which the battle of Tewkesbury cut short ; regranted by Edw. IV. upon his restoration, Dec. 2, 1471 ; confirmed by subsequent monarchs ; reincorporated by 3 Anne, April 26, 1704. This company was formerly one of the 12, but was compelled to give the precedence to the cloth- workers, in 1524; they have the right of keeping swans upon the Thames ; their ancient hall de- stroyed in 1666, and Dyers' Hall Wharf built upon the site ; their hall was rebuilt on Dowgate Hill. E EAGLE, has been borne as an ensign on standards by several nations. The Persians, according to the testimony of Xenophon, first adopted this royal bird. The Romans adopted this custom also ; but it was borne upon the tops of pikes, not 230 EAGLE EARTHENWARE VESSELS upon their standards. Constantine first introduced the double-headed eagle. Russia, Prussia, Austria, and France, still adhere to this sign. EAGLE, an ancient coin of base metal, current in Ireland, circa 1272 ; declared il- legal by statute, 27 Edw. L, 1299 ; an American modern gold coinage of eagles, double-eagles, half-eagles, and quarter-eagles, Dec. 6, 1792 ; the eagle is 10 dollars, 4/84 of which go to the i sterling. EAGLE. Orders of knighthood. The order of the White Eagle, of Poland, in- stituted by Valdimir IV., 1325; statutes confirmed by Pope Urban VIII., 1634 ; refounded, 1713 ; became extinct at the revolution and division of Poland, 1795 5 restored by proclamation, July 21, 1807 ; united to Prussia, March 29, 1835. The order of the Slack, instituted by Frederick, first king of Prussia, Jan. 17, I79 1 - The order of the Red, instituted by George William, Prince of Anspach, Margrave of Bayreuth, founded the ' Ordre de la Sincerite,' 1705 ; the order reorganized by Geo. Frederick Charles, under the title of the Red Eagle, July *3> J 7345 raised by Frederick Wm. II. to the second in rank, 1791 ; he was made Grand Master, June 12, 1792 ; the insignia altered, 1757 ; a second and third class added, Jan. 18, 1810. EARL, title of. An ancient title among the Saxons, etheling or ealderman having charge of a shire. Alfred the Great invested with this dignity by Ethelred I. , 867 ; the Conqueror retained the title but made it hereditary, appointing Hugh Lupus to the county palatine of Chester, and William Fitz-Osbom Earl of Hereford, 1066; Scotland, Earl of Angus, 1937; Ireland, Earl of Ulster, 1181 ; first called peers, 14 Edw. II., 1321, in the award of the exile against the Despensers ; the highest rank of nobility until 1337. EARL MARISCHAL OF SCOTLAND, the commander of the cavalry, attached to the family of Keith in the nth century ; forfeited in the rebellion of 1716. EARL MARSHAL OF ENGLAND. Camden affirms that there was a Marshal of England in the time of the Conqueror, Richard II., Jan. 12, 1386 ; granted the office of Earl Marshal to Thomas Mowbray, Earl of Nottingham ; made hereditary in the Howard family, Oct. 19, 1672. EARTH asserted to be spherical by the Greeks ; the first ship that sailed round the world was Magellan's, in 1519, who did not himself live to return ; Sir Francis Drake was the first commander who circumnavigated the globe and returned with his ship, Nov., 1580 ; Mr Thomas Burnet published the first systematic theory upon, 1680 ; and Mr Whiston's published, 1708; Newton demonstrated that it was an oblate spheroid ; Dr Bradley discovered the variation of its axis, 1 737 j the pope declared it was a plane, and gave all the west of it to Spain, being God's vicegerent, and imprisoned Galileo for asserting that the earth moved round the sun, 1633 ; the earth weighed by Mr Baily, at his residence, Tavistock-place, '6,049,836 millions of tons,' 1838; Mr Airy determined the mean density of the earth by means of the oscillation of a pendulum placed at the top and bottom of a coal mine, 1854 ; several celestial observations have since been made by Colonel James, 1855. EARTHENWARE VESSELS. This art was practised in the earliest times by the Greeks by the Etruscans, B.C. 715 ; in China, B.C. 185 ; Japan, B.C. 27 ; re- vived in Italy, 1310 ; the finest Majolica ware made in 1444 ; known in England, 1586. Wedgwood improved the manufacture of this ware, in Staffordshire, 1760 ; patent granted for, 1762. See Porcelain. The names of countries and the earthenware for the making of which they were noted Avignon, Palissy ware, 1650. England : Chelsea, ware, 1730; Derby, china, 1756; Fulham, white ware, 1642 ; EARTHQUAKES 231 Lambeth, Dutch ware, 1640 ; Leeds, cream ware, 1770 ; Liverpool, blue and white ware, 1752 ; Lowestoft, pottery, 1756 ; Plymouth, china, 1760; Stafford- shire, 1690; Wedgwood's, 1760; Minton, 1791; Worcester china, 1751; York, china ware, 1665. Epernay, enamelled Fayence, 1660. France, Fayence of Henri II. ware, 1520. Germany, Nuremberg ware, 1729. Holland. Delft first made in the I4th century ; the oldest specimen known is 1530. Fayence ware, made at Lille, by the Dutch, 1708. Italy, Majolica ware, 1444. Rouen ; this earthenware was known as early as 1542. Sweden, Rorstand ware, 1727. Wales, Swansea ware, 1 750. EARTHQUAKES. The most terrific of all natural phenomena. The most re- markable one related in the Bible, occurred in the reign of Uzziah, King of Judah, Zech. xiv. 5, and at the crucifixion, Matt, xxvii. 51 54. Josephus records one in which 10,000 people perished, B.C. 31. Mr Mallet, in 1857, made some im- portant discoveries, not only to discover the earth waves, but to ascertain the laws which govern them. The following is a list of some of the principal : Acapulco, a severe shock at, causing serious damage to the principal build- ings, Dec. 4, 1852. Adrianople, the greater part of the city destroyed, Aug. 22, 1752. Algiers, 18,000 persons killed from shocks during the months of May and June, 1716. Antigua, West Indies, great loss of property by several repeated shocks, Feb. 8, 1843. Antioch, overwhelmed, 115; upwards of 1000 houses thrown down, 859. Antioch, Tripoli, and Damascus de- stroyed, and 20,000 lives lost, 1158. Apello, destroyed, and several towns much damaged, and upwards of 20,000 inhabitants killed, Aug. and Sept., 1822. Armenia, near Mount Ararat, 4000 houses destroyed and many lives lost, July, 1840. Asia Minor, 12 cities destroyed, 17. Atlixco, in Mexico, destroyed with most of its inhabitants, Oct. 23, 1847. Attaguia, Syria, destroyed with 3000 inhabitants, May 5, 1796. Brussa, a city in Asia Minor, destroyed by a severe shock, Feb. 28, 1855. Cairo, Grand, two-thirds of the houses and 40,000 lives lost, Sept. 2, 1754. Calabria, Sicily, a city with its inhabit- ants lost in the Adriatic Sea, 1186. Calabria, and 1 80 towns and villages destroyed, March 27, 1638. Calabria, the territory of Nova Casa and Oppido, sunk 29 ft without destroying any of the buildings. The earth opened to the extent of 500 ft, and to a depth of 200 ft, April 18, 1783. Calabria, visited again, but not so severe, April 10, 1785. Calabria, one most destructive in its effects, several towns and upwards of 20,000 people killed, July, 1805. Calabria, a very severe shock which destroyed several towns and 9000 in- habitants, Dec. 1 6, 1859. California suffered from a shock, Feb. 1 6, 1856. Callao, and other parts of Peru, suf- fered from several shocks, April 19, 1860. Caraccas, the city of, and upwards of 30 other towns, scattered over a space of 300 square miles, were de- stroyed, 80,000 persons killed, and thousands more wounded, March 26, 1812. Carthago, Central America, overwhelm- ed, May, 1822. Castiglione, entirely destroyed, Oct. 12, i835- Catania, Sicily, many persons perish- ing, U37- Chili, the whole kingdom, with St Jago, swallowed up, July 30, 1 730. Chili, raised permanently for upwards of 100 miles, Nov., 1822. Chili, Santiago and other towns laid 232 EARTHQUAKES in ruins by a severe shock, Feb. 20, 1835- China, Canton suffered severely from a shock which destroyed most of the public buildings and 5000 inhabitants, May 26-28, 1830. Constantinople, a severe shock, killing thousands of the inhabitants, 557. Constantinople, overthrown, and Greece shaken, 986. Corinth, the temple of Minerva over- thrown, and only six houses left stand- ing, Feb. 21, 1858. Domingo, St, 32 houses overturned, April, 1793. Domingo, St, Cape Haytien, the town nearly destroyed and between 40x20 and 5000 persons, May 7, 1842. Dorsetshire, a considerable piece of land moved by a shock, Jan. 13, 1583. England, Worcester and Derby, and other parts, felt a severe shock, 1043. England, one felt throughout, April 8, 1076 ; and agam, 1081, 1088, and 1089. The most severe known in England, Nov. 14, 1318. England, the shock of one felt from Mil- ford Haven to Burton-on-Trent, and from the Mersey to Plymouth, Oct. 6, 1863. Fonti di Macchia and four other villages almost destroyed, July 18, 19, 1865. France, a severe shock felt along the east coast of, from Valence to Metz, and also in Italy, Switzerland, and Germany, July 25, 1855. Glastonbury, St Michael's on the Hill thrown down, 1247. Guatemala, the city of St Jago buried with 6000 persons, July, 1773. Herculaneum and Pompeii, destroyed by an eruption of Vesuvius, 79. Herefordshire, Kingston chapel over- thrown, Feb. 17, 1571. Hungary, a mountain turned round, Oct. 23, 1736. India, upwards of 180,000 persons killed by an earthquake, 893. Ireland, one destroying five churches and about 100 houses, Aug., 1734. Italy, Crema in Upper ; Minguin was entirely swallowed up in a lake ; Brescia had three churches and twelve houses destroyed ; so violent a shock in Holland, as to cause the chandeliers in Maaslin church to vibrate two or three ft, Jan., 1804. Jamaica, PoVt Royal and a great number of the houses with 3000 of the inhabit- ants overwhelmed by the sea, June 7> 1692. Japan, several cities swallowed up, July, 1596. Japan, the city of Ohasaca destroyed, and a Russian fngate off Simoda wrecked, Dec. 23, 1854. Jeddo, Japan, totally destroyed with its inhabitants to the number of 200,000, I703- Jeddo, Japan, 100,000 houses and 57 temples destroyed, 30,000 persons being killed, Nov. II, 1855. Lahore, India, destroyed, and many of its inhabitants, Nov. 16, 1827. Levant, a severe shock at, March 8, 1867. Lima, 74 churches, 14 monasteries, and 15 hospitals, and the city itself and 5000 persons and an immense amount of property destroyed, Oct. 27 to Nov. 20, 1746. Lima and Callao, much injured, March 30, 1828. Lisbon, where in about eight minutes most of the houses and 30,000 inhabit- ants were destroyed, and whole streets swallowed up ; the cities of Coimbra and Braga suffered, and St Ubes was swallowed up ; at Faro 3000 inhabit- ants were buried, great part of Malaga was destroyed ; one-half of Fez, in Morocco, and 12,000 Arabs, were swallowed up, and above half of the island of Madeira destroyed ; it ex- tended 5000 miles ; at the Azores isles, where 10,000 were buried in the ruins, and the island divided in two, Nov. I, 1755. Lombardy, one lasting for 40 days, 1117. London, Westminster suffered very much, and the same shock was felt at Dover, and in France and Belgium, April 6, 1580. London and the suburbs felt a shock, Feb. 8, and March 8, 1750 ; various other towns felt the same at different periods of the year ; Liverpool and Chester, April 2, 1750. Lucerne, the church of La Tour and EARTHQUAKES 233 most of the houses in, partly de- stroyed, April 2, 1808. Lucia, St, West Indies, 900 persons killed, Aug., 1788. Lyme, Dorsetshire, nearly destroyed, 1689. Macedonia, 150 cities and towns obliter- ated, 357. Manilla, the city of, destroyed by a violent shock, and several shocks felt in the Philippine Island, Sept. 22 to Oct. 11, 1852. Martinique Island, where nearly half of Port-Royal was destroyed, and 700 persons perished, Jan. n, 1839. Mecca, visited by one which destroyed 90 towers and 160 buildings, 867. Melfi and Barile, in Southern Italy, totally destroyed and upwards of 1000 persons, Aug. 14, 1851. Mendoza, in the Argentine Republic, 7000 lives lost and 2000 houses de- stroyed, April 9, 1861. Messina, Sicily, overturned in a moment, and 18,000 persons perished, and in the island 60,000, Jan., 1692. Mexico, the city of, much injured, April ;, 1845. Mileto and Monte Leone, at Lisbon, much damage done, Nov. 27, 1791. Mitylene, in the Archipelago, almost annihilated, May, 1755. Naples, 40,000 persons lost by a severe shock, and many towns injured, Dec. 5, H56. Naples, and 30 towns and villages in Capitanata, with 10,000 persons, de- stroyed, July 30, 1626. Naples, a third part of the city and much shipping destroyed, June 6, 7, 1688. Naples, several shocks felt, great de- struction of life and property, Nov. 29, 1732. Naples, the town of Terre del Grecco, and other towns in Campania, over- whelmed by an eruption of Vesuvius, June 13, 1794. Naples, eruption of Mount Vesuvius, and severe shocks felt for several weeks, 10,000 persons killed, and thousands of residences destroyed, Dec. 16, 1857. Nicomedia, Cesarea, and Nicea, de- stroyed with other cities, 126. Norway, the most violent one ever known there, March 14, 1846. Oppido, Calabria, the earth opened to the extent of 500 ft, and to a depth of 200 ft, April 1 8, 1783. Palermo, Sicily, made a ruin, Sept. i, 1726. Palermo, destroyed several houses, and a convent swallowed up, the monks barely escaping, Feb. 4, 1 739-40. Palestine, 30,000 people destroyed, B.C. 33 ; and again at the crucifixion, A. D. 33- Pekin, China, with 100,000 of its in- habitants, destroyed, Nov. 30, 1731. Peru, Callao overwhelmed and about 5000 of its inhabitants killed, Oct. 28, 1746. Quito, Peru, destroyed, April 24, 1755- Quito, and the whole of the country be- tween Sta Fe and Panama destroyed, and the city of Cuzco, with 40,000 in- habitants, Feb. 4, 1 797 ; again de- stroyed, March 22, 1859. Rajusa, in Illyrium, 6000 of the inhabit- ants perished, and several towns in Dalmatia and Albania, April 6, 1667. Rhodes, the Colossus at, overthrown, B.C. IO5. Rhodes and Macri, much shaken on the mountain of Baba-Dagh fell 2000 ft, destroying the village of Ghedrack ; Bugasi overwhelmed with its inhabit- ants, April 2, 1851 ; a slight shock, which did considerable damage, felt, April, 1863. Rome and its neighbourhood suffered very considerably from a shock which turned a branch of the sea from its course, 365. San Salvador, in Central America, totally destroyed by one in 10 seconds, and 200 people killed, April 16, 1854. Sicily, a severe shock, which destroyed 49 towns and 900 churches and monasteries, 90,000 persons killed, 1693. Smyrna, destroyed, July 10, 1688. Smyrna, nearly destroyed, July, 3, 1778. Spain and Portugal, Lisbon and other towns in ; all the churches were de- stroyed, and 1 200 residences, besides many persons, 1531. St Thomas's, West Indies, a number 234 EAST ANGLES of severe shocks succeeded each other in rapid succession, many of the houses in the town thrown down, and a great number of the inhabitants killed ; the sea retired from the island, and then returned like a wall 30 feet high, and at the rate of 50 miles an hour, which swept everything before it, and destroyed a number of vessels and the lower part of the town, Nov. 18, and Dec. 12,. 1867 ; the shocks were felt at Porto Rico, St Croix, and Tortola. Sumatra, East Indies, 300 persons perished, Feb. 20, 1797. Syria, Palestine, upwards of 550 towns and cities destroyed, 742 ; and again, thousands of lives being sacrificed, 746 ; 20,000 persons are said to have been killed, Oct., 1759. Syria, Saphit and several entire villages with their populations utterly destroy- ed, Jan. I, 1837. Tauris, Persia, where 15,000 houses were thrown down, and great part of the inhabitants perished, March 3, 1780. Teneriffe, visited by a dreadful one, Teniate, a severe shock killing many people, Feb. 14, 1840. Turkey, three towns, containing 10,000 inhabitants, were lost, July 3, 1 794. Turkey, the town of Philippolis entirely destroyed, 1818. Tripoli, Syria, which extended near 10,000 miles, when Damascus lost 6000 inhabitants, and several other cities, with the remains of Balbec, were destroyed, between Oct. and Dec., 1759. Truxillo, Peru, swallowed up, Nov., 1759- Tuscany, the cathedral and the Bishop's Palace, with the adjacent town of Castello, &c., and Borgo di San- Sepolcro itself had 150 houses swal- lowed up by an opening of the earth, Sept. 30, 1789. Verona, greatly damaged, 1187. Yorkshire, Worcestershire, and Glouces- tershire felt a shock, Feb. 26, 1574. Zante, in the Adriatic Sea, many build- ings thrown down, above 60 persons perished, Dec. 2, 1791. Zante, one entire village swallowed up, Oct. 30, 1840. Dec. 24, 1704. EAST ANGLES. . This division of the Anglo-Saxon kingdom, comprising Nor- folk, Suffolk, and Cambridgeshire, was founded by Uffa, the first king, 571 ; the last king was Edmund the martyr, 870 ; first converted to the Christian faith by Felix, a Burgundian, 530 ; the bishoprics of Elmham united, 955 ; removed to Norwich, 1088. EAST GRINSTEAD, tower at, fell down, Nov. 12, 1785 ; borough of, disfran- chised, 1832. EASTER. This festival of the Church, established to commemorate the Resurrec- tion of Christ by the apostles, disputes arising as to the exact day, the council of Nice, in 325, decreed that it should be held on the Sunday following the first full moon after the I4th of March ; but this leading to some confusion, it was fixed to be held on the first Sunday after the full moon following the 2ist of March, by the Gregorian calendar. EASTER DUES OR OFFERINGS are 'customary sums' which have been paid from time immemorial in the Church, and are recoverable as small tithes before two justices of the peace by 7 & 8 Will. III. c. 6, 1690, and subsequent acts. Before the time of King Edward VI., offerings, oblations, and obventions (one and the same thing), constituted the chief revenues of the Church, and were collected at Christmas, Easter, Whitsuntide, and the Feast of the Dedication of the particular parish church ; but by the 2 & 3 Edw. VI. c. 13, 1548, it was enacted that such offerings should thenceforth be paid at Easter a law or rule which is reinforced by the rubric at the end of the Communion Service in our Book of Common Prayer. EASTER ISLAND, discovered by Davis, 1686 ; visited by Roggewein, 1722 ; by Capt. Cook, March II, 1774. EASTERN EMPIRE EAST INDIA HOUSE 235 EASTERN EMPIRE divided from the western, June, 364 ; Valens elected emperor, 364 ; defeat and death of Maximus, by Theodosius, 388 ; he also defeated Eugenius and Arbogastes, with their followers, SepL 6, 394 ; Arcadius elected emperor, 395; Theodosius died, Jan. 17, 395 ; Arcadius died, May I, 408; Theodosius II. elected emperor, 408 ; established public schools in Constantinople, 425 ; Theodosian code published, Jan. 15, 438 ; an abridgment of, by Alaric, published, 506 ; Vitalianus, the Goth, besieged Constantinople, 5 14 ; the Justinian code published, Feb. 13, 529 ; the schools of Athens closed, 529 ; the Roman consulship abolished, 541 ; Constantinople nearly destroyed by fire, 563 ; Constanti- nople taken and pillaged by the Avari, 618 ; the Persians under Khosron besieged Constantinople unsuccessfully, 626 ; the Saracens ravaged the kingdom, 632 ; the Arabs commenced the siege of Constantinople, 668 ; relinquished it, 675 ; the Bulgarians settled on the banks of the Danube, 678 ; Justinian II. mutilated and de- throned by Leontius, 695 ; Leontius dethroned by Tiberius ; Justinian II. restored, 705 ; the second siege of Constantinople by the Saracens, 716 ; the siege raised by Moslemah, Aug. 15, 718 ; monasteries abolished, 770 ; the Emperor Con- stantine assumed the government without his mother Irene, she ordered him to be blinded, 792 ; Dalmatia lost, 825 ; Bulgaria made a province, 1018 ; Constanti- nople taken by the Crusaders, July 18, 1203 ; taken by the French and Venetians, 1204 ; Epirus made a separate kingdom, 1208 ; Michael Palaeologus restored the Greek empire to Constantinople, July 25, 1261 ; the Turks enter Europe, 1352 ; Armenia conquered by the Mamelukes, 1367 ; lost all its Greek possessions in Asia, 1390 ; the battle of Nicopolis and defeat of Sigismund by Bajazet, and massacre of 10,000 prisoners by the Turks, Sept. 28, 1396 ; taken by Mohammed II., and the extinction of the eastern kingdom, May 29, 1453. EAST INDIA COMPANY first founded by charter, Dec. 31, 1600 ; charter re- newed for 15 years by James I., 1609 ; first English factory established at Surat, 1612 ; a rival company was chartered, 1633 ; the two united, 1649 ; charter re- newed by Cromwell, 1657 ; confirmed by Charles II., 1661 ; the trade declared open, 1698 ; a new company started, having purchased a monopoly from the King ; amalgamated, 1702 ; and trade prohibited to any other company, Feb. 22, 1716; Act passed for the better regulation of, 13 Geo. III. c. 63, 1773 ; lent the government ,3,000,000 at 3 per cent., for renewing their charter, Feb., 1743-4; the Board of Control appointed, 24 Geo. III. Sess. 2, c. 25, May 18, 1784; renewal of charter, giving them the exclusive right of trading, abolished, except to China for tea, 53 Geo. III. c. 155, July 21, 1813 ; their commercial charter abolished, 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 85, Aug. 28, 1833 ; the number of direct- ors reduced to 1 8, and their qualifications determined, three to be appointed by the Crown and 15 by the Company, 16 17 Viet. c. 95, Aug. 20, 1853 ; finally transferred to the Queen, 21 & 22 Viet. c. 106, Aug. 2, 1858 ; amended, 22 & 23 Viet. c. 41, Aug. 13, 1859 ; a pension of ^2000 a year granted to Gen. Sir Colin Campbell, and ^1000 to Gen. Sir James Outram, for their eminent services in the Indian Mutiny, May 23, 1858. EAST INDIA COMPANY at Embden, established, 1750; of Sweden, May, 1731 ; Dutch, incorporated, 1604 ; Scotch, incorporated, 1695 ; East India Company of France, established, 1627; incorporated, 1740; abolished by the National Assembly, and the trade opened, Jan. 26, 1791. EAST INDIA AND CHINA ASSOCIATION, for the Protection of Trade, established in London, 1836. EAST INDIA HOUSE, Leadenhall-street, rebuilt by R. Jupp, 1 799 ; subsequently enlarged from the designs of C. R. Cockerell, R.A., and W. Wilkins, R.A.; sold forji55,ooo, and taken down, June 20, 1861. Almshouses founded, 1656 ; college at Ilaileybury established, 1809. 236 EAST INDIA STOCK ECCLESIASTICAL COURTS EAST INDIA STOCK sold from 360 to 500 per cent., 1683 ; Company in great confusion, 1773 ; the stock fell 60 per cent., 1769; estimated revenues, 1830, ,22,054,416 ; charges, ,22,862,985. EAST AND WEST INDIA DOCK COMPANY, London, the West established, 39 Geo. III. c. Ixix. s. 38 e(sey.,]vi[y 12, 1799; commenced, 1800 ; opened, Aug., 1802 ; the East established by 43 Geo. III. c. cxxvi., July 27, 1803 ; opened, Aug. 4, 1806 ; united to the West, 1838. EASTLAND COMPANY, incorporated, 1579. EAST LONDON WATERWORKS COMPANY, incorporated, 1807. EBIONITES, a sect of Christian heretics established by the Jews in the 1st century. ECCENTRIC SOCIETY, a legal debating club, established, 1801. ECCLESIASTES, one of the books of the Old Testament, called the ' Preacher,' written by King Solomon, B.C. 1015 975. ECCLESIASTICAL CENSORSHIP, ordered in Spain by the Bishop of Valencia, under Ferdinand VII., 1828 : ' i. No person shall print any book, pamphlet, or any paper, without special licence from his Excellency, who will himself consult the God-fearing Censors. 2. The Censors will read all MSS. submitted to them, word by word, taking special care that there be no occult meaning, as the human mind becomes daily more and more cunning, and there is often in modern writing a diabolical meaning concealed in seemingly innocent words. 3. No person shall read any book printed out of Spain, nor any work printed in Spain during the years 1820, 1821, 1822, or 1823, without a special licence. As it has been ob- served, that in this wicked age people care but little for excommunication and ec- clesiastical censure, we enjoin and direct all in authority to fine, and enforce pay- ment, one thousand rials (60), all who may read, or even possess any book, &c., forbidden in the third article ; all who print, or assist in printing, any book or paper without licence ; all who possess handkerchiefs with crosses, or lines making crosses (cross-barred or chequered), and use them to wipe their noses, or for any other dirty purpose.' The fine is to be rigidly enforced for a first offence ; and for those obdurate and wicked men who shall sin a second time, ' his Excellency well knows how to deal with them ! ' ECCLESIASTICAL COMMISSION issued, seven commissioners being invested with unlimited authority over the Church of England, July 14, 1686 ; annulled by James II., 1688 ; incorporated by 6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 77, Aug. 13, 1836 ; subse- quently amended, 3 & 4 Viet. c. 113, Aug. n, 1840 ; and June 21, 1841, 4 & 5 Viet. c. 39 ; 23 & 24 Viet. c. 124, Aug. 28, 1860 ; 29 & 30 Viet. c. 3, Aug. 10, 1866 ; power of Church Building Commissioners transferred to, 19 & 20 Viet. c. 5S> J u ty 2I > J 8s6 ; the estates of the Archdeaconry of Rochester vested in, 24 & 25 Viet. c. 131, Aug. 6, 1 86 1 ; act passed, giving them power to superannuate offices, 28 & 29 Viet. c. 68, June 29, 1865. ECCLESIASTICAL CORPORATIONS. Power given them for facilitating the management of episcopal and capitular estates, 14 & 15 Viet. c. 104, Aug. 8, 1851 ; amended, 19 & 20 Viet. c. 74, July 29, 1856 ; 20 & 21 Viet. c. 74, Aug. 2 5 J 857 ; again amended, 22 & 23 Viet. c. 46 ; 23 & 24 Viet. c. 124, s. 28, Aug. 28, 1860; 24 & 25 Viet. c. 131, Aug. 6, 1 86 1. Acts passed for removing doubts as to the enfranchisement of land holden of Ecclesiastical Corporations, 16 & 17 Viet. c. 57, Aug. 4, 1853 ; and 21 & 22 Viet. c. 94, Aug. 2, 1858. ECCLESIASTICAL COURTS, a part of the lay courts until after the Norman in- vasion, 1066 ; William I. appointed this a separate court, 1085 ; Henry I. re- stored the union, but a short time afterwards Stephen separated them ; Court of Appeal established by 23 Hen. VIII. c. 9, 1532 ; the court finally abolished, and the Probate Court established, 20 & 21 Viet. c. 77, Aug. 25, 1857 ; amended, 21 22 Viet. c. 95, Aug. 2, 1858. ECCLESIAST. HIST. SOC. ECNOMUS 237 ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY SOCIETY, instituted in London, 1846; the first work published, 'Five Books of the Church,' by Rich. Field, D.D., Dean of Gloucester, 1847-52. ECCLESIASTICAL STATES, Roman or temporal domains of the Church began, 752 ; taken by the French, and made the Roman republic, 1798 ; Pope Pius VI. forced to remove into Tuscany, and then into France, 1799 ; in 1 800 Pius VII. resumed the government of the Roman States until 1809, when Bonaparte de- prived him of his temporal power; restored by the allies, 1814. Pius IX. fled in disguise to Gaeta, and a provisional government appointed, Nov. 24, 1849 ; they declared the pope divested of all temporal power, Feb. 9, 1850 ; restored by foreign arms, 1851, and Rome garrisoned by French troops ; withdrawal of, Dec. u, 1866; re-occupied by, Oct. 30, 1867. See Rome. ECCLESIASTICAL TITLES ACT, 14 & 15 Viet. c. 49, subsequent to the attempt of the pope to establish a Catholic hierarchy in England ; Lord John Russell in- troduced this measure into parliament, which received the royal assent, Aug. 1, 1851. The committee appointed by the House of Commons to inquire into the working of this act recommended the repeal of the 24 sect, of the 10 Geo. IV. c. 7, and the 14 & 15 Viet. c. 60, by a majority of one, there were six for and six against, and the chairman gave the casting vote in favour, Aug. 2, 1867. ECCLESIASTICUS, one of the Apocryphal Books, composed by Jesus, son of Sirach, B.C. 171, and admitted by the Roman Church into the canon of the Old Testament. ECCLESIOLOGICAL SOCIETY for the Study and Preservation of Ecclesiastical Antiquities, instituted under the name of the Cambridge Camden Society, 1838. ECKMUHL, battle between the French under Napoleon I. and the Austrians under the Archduke Charles, April 22, 1809 ; the Austrians were completely routed. ECLIPSES. The Persians, Egyptians, and Chinese were the first who calculated these phenomena. Dr Hincks fixes the date of an eclipse at Nineveh, Sept. 13, B.C. 701, in the reign of Sennacherib, but Mr Saville thinks the date must be Sept. 12, B.C. 721. The first eclipse of the moon is recorded at Babylon, March 19, B.C. 721 ; the second and third, March 8 and Sept. I, B.C. 720 ; the fourth of the moon, April 22, B.C. 621 ; the fifth lunar eclipse, B.C. 523 ; the sixth, Nov. 19, 502 ; the seventh, April 25, B.C. 491 ; one recorded at Rome, B.C. 413. C. Sul- picius Gallus predicted one before the battle of Pydna, which terrified the Mace- donian army and led to an easy victory, June 21, B.C. 168. Ptolemy noticed one as having taken place B.C. 228. Thales observed one at Sardis, A. D. 535. A total eclipse observed in France, 840 ; at Constantinople, 968. In France, Jan. 29, 1033, dark at noon-day ; in England, March 21, 1140, when it was totally dark at noon-day ; 1191, June 2, in the reign of Richard I., the stars became visible at ten in the morning ; another total eclipse of the sun visible at the North Pole, June, 1295 ; in 1331, the darkness was so great that the stars faintly appeared, and the birds went to roost in the morning ; one visible in Scotland and long re- membered as the black hour, 1433 ; another gave rise to the expression of Mirk Monday, 1652. A total eclipse of the sun visible in London, the stars seen in the day-time, May 3, 1715; the only one visible in London for 575 years before. One visible in the North of Europe, 1733 ; a total one of the sun visible at the Alps, July 8, 1842 ; solar eclipse, May 6, 1845 ; annular one, Oct. 9, 1847 5 total eclipse of the sun, July 28, 1851 ; a nearly total one visible in England, March 15, 1858 ; one the same year visible in South America, Sept. 7 ; a total eclipse observed by a party of English astronomers in Spain, July 18, 1860 ; a lunar one seen in London, June i, 1863, and March 6, 1867. ECNOMUS, battle. M. Regulus and L. Manlius sailed from Italy with a Roman 238 ECUADOR fleet of 330 war-vessels and was attacked by the Carthaginian with a superior force off this place, the Romans gained a complete victory, B.C. 256. ECUADOR, S. America, discovered, 1526, by Pizarro, and remained a portion of the Spanish Empire of the Indies until 1812 ; became a part of the republic of Columbia, 1821 ; separated, 1831. Ecuador, or the ancient kingdom of Quito, has since remained an independent republic. EDDYSTONE LIGHTHOUSE, off Ram Head and the coast of Cornwall, first erected by Winstanley, 1696, and finished, 1699 ; this destroyed by the terrible storm of Nov. 26-7, 1703, and the builder with it ; a second, built by act of parlia- ment, 4 & 5 Anne, c. 20, 1706; burned down, Dec. 4, 175$ ; the present was erected by Smeaton, the engineer, Oct. 9, 1759, of granite externally, and a stone foundation ; its height is 85 feet. EDESSA, Mesopotamia- Noted in history for the memorable part its philosophers took in the Nestorian Controversy, A.D. 449 457 ; the professors were expelled by Martyrus, bishop of Edessa, and the college pulled down, 489, and St Mary's church built upon its ruins. The town nearly destroyed by an earthquake, 718 ; restored by Justinian. Baldwin, Count of Flanders, extended his conquests over Armenia and Mesopotamia, and established the principality of, 1097, which sub- sisted for 47 years ; retaken by the Sultan Zenghi, 1144. EDGAR'S TOWER, Worcester, built, 975. EDGEHILL, battle between Charles I. and the Parliamentary forces under Essex. The king lost 3000 men, but the battle was indecisive, the loss being great on both sides, Oct. 23, 1642. EDICT OF THE POPE first promulgated, 560. EDICT OF NANTES. Henry IV. of France assented to this measure of tolera- tion to his Protestant subjects, April 15, 1598 ; annulled by Louis XIV., Oct. 22, 1685. This measure caused many of their best workmen to seek a refuge in England and elsewhere. EDINBURGH, Scotland, founded, and castle built, 626 ; first noticed, 637 ; in 856 it is described as a considerable village. Eden Town, according to Camden, was abandoned by the Saxons to the Scots, 960. Margaret, the consort of Malcolm Ceanmore, died, 1093. Abbey of Holyrood House, founded by David I., 1128. Castle surrendered to Henry II. of England, 1174. Made a royal burgh in the 1 2th century by William the Lion. The town and castle taken by Edward I., June, 1291 ; recovered by Randolph, Earl of Moray, and 30 men, by surprise, 1313 ; the castle repaired by Edward III. ; besieged by Sir Andrew Moray un- successfully, 1337 ; taken by stratagem by Sir W- Douglas, 1361, for the Scottish patriots ; charter granted by Robert I. giving Leith to that town, May 28, 1329 ; James II. crowned here, 1437, and sanctioned the building of fortifications and bul- warks, 1450 ; a charter granted by James III. erecting this town into the metro- polis of Scotland,. 1482 ; visited by a plague, 1497 ; the first parliament of James III. was held here, 1466 ; the marriage of Margaret, eldest daughter of Henry VII., to James IV. celebrated, Aug. 8, 1502 ; a parliament held, March n, 1503; visited by another dreadful plague, 1513 ; plundered and burnt by the English forces, 1544 ; College of Justice established, 1532 ; the streets paved and lighted, 1534 ; garrisoned by French troops, 1548 ; religious disturbances at, 1556 ; first assembly of the Reformed Kirk, Jan. 15, 1560 ; Mary, Queen of Scots, arrived from France at Leith, Aug. 19, 1561 ; and made her public entry, Sept. I, 1561 ; married Darnley, July 29, 1565 ; Rizzio assassinated at Hob/rood Palace in the presence of the Queen, March 9, 1566 ; James VI. born, June 19, 1566; Darnley blown up, Feb. 10, 1567; the castle attacked by the combined forces of Scots and English, but it was gallantly defended by Sir W. Kirkaldy for Queen Mary for 33 days ; taken and burned, Aug. 3, 1573 ; James VI. EDINBURGH 239 arrived, and held his first parliament, Oct. 17, 1579. James VI. built Holy- rood Palace, 1565 ; university founded, 1581, by James VI., who left Edin- burgh as king of England, March 24, 1603 ; the Canongate Tolbooth erected, 1591; Heriot's Hospital began, 1628, completed, 1660; visited by James, 1617 ; Charles I. crowned at Holyrood, June 18, 1633 ; Parliament House finished, 1640 ; Charles made a second visit, 1641 ; visited by a third plague, 1645 ; castle surrendered to Cromwell, Sept., 1650; bank of Scotland founded at, 1695 ; the last year of the pageant, called the riding to parliament, May 6, 1703; Capt. Porteous hanged by the mob, 1736; the Pretender occupied the city, Sept 17, 1745; took possession of Holyrood House; Royal Exchange completed, 1761 ; North Bridge began, 1763 ; completed, 1769; a part of this structure gave way, killing five persons, Aug. 3, 1769 ; Theatre- royal erected, 1 769 ; South Bridge commenced, 1 785 ; first stone of the present University laid, Nov. 10, 1781 ; Bridewell, Calton Hill, erected, 1796 ; Louis XVIII. and Charles X. of France resided at Holyrood, from 1 795 to 1 799 ; new bank commenced, June 3, 1801 ; Edinburgh Review published, 1802; alarming riots, Dec. n, 1811 ; Union Canal completed, 1822; George IV. visited the city, Aug. 14, 1822 ; Royal Institution erected, 1823; serious fires in High-street, Parliament- square, and Cowgate, 1824; Scottish Academy founded, 1826; Edinburgh and Dalkeith Railway opened, July, 1831 ; statue of George IV. erected, 1832 ; Ed- inburgh, Leith, and Granton Railway began, 1836 ; Society of Arts founded, 1821 ; monument to Sir Walter Scott erected in Princes-street, first stone laid, Aug. 15, 1840 ; finished, 1844 ; railway between Edinburgh and Glasgow opened, Feb. 18, 1842 ; Queen Victoria visited, Aug. 31, 1842 ; held a Court at Dalkeith House, Sept. 5, 1842 ; monument to the political martyrs of 1793, the first stone laid by Mr Hume, 1844 ; visited by Queen Victoria again, Aug. 30, 1850 ; the foundation-stone of the Scotch National Gallery laid by Prince Al- bert, Sept. I, 1850 ; Ramsey Terrace, erected by Lord Murray on the spur of the Castle Hill, fell down, March I, 1860 ; the Rifle Volunteers reviewed by Queen Victoria, 18,000 strong, Aug. 17, 1860 ; Prince Albert laid the foundation-stone of the Museum of Science and Art, Oct. 23, 1861 ; the Theatre-royal destroy ed by fire, Jan. 13, 1865 ; the foundation-stone of the General Post Office laid by Prince Albert, Oct. 23, 1861 ; opened, May 7, 1 866 ; Reform Demonstration at, Nov. 17, 1866 ; explosion at a firework manufactory, six persons killed and several wounded, Oct. 9, 1867; the freedom of, presented to Mr D'Israeli and Mr Lowe, Oct. 29, 1867 ; public banquet given to, in the Corn Exchange, Oct. 29. EDINBURGH, Scotland, See of, founded by Charles I., 1633 ; the sixth and last bishop ejected at the revolution of 1688 ; became a post-revolution bishopric about 1705. EDINBURGH LEARNED SOCIETIES. Edinburgh Botanical Society, estab- lished, 1836; Transactions first published, 1844; Geological Society, instituted, 1834; Harveian Society, 1752 ; Hunterian, 1824; Juridical. Society, 1773; Medi- cal, 1731; Royal Medical, 1737; incorporated, 1778; Philosophical, 1848; Royal College of Physicians, 1681 ; Society of Physicians, 1773 > Royal Physical, instituted, 1771; incorporated, 1788; Plinian Society, 1829; Royal Society, established, 1782; incorporated, 1783; reincorporated, 1811 ; Watt's Institution and School of Arts, 1821 ; Wernerian Natural History Society, instituted, 1808. EDINBURGH REVIEW. This was the earliest review of books published in Gt Britain, 'an historical account of books and transactions in the learned world,' 1688. This was followed by one published in 1755. The first number of the present Review, which was suggested by Sydney Smith to Jeffrey, published in Oct., 1802. EDINBURGH, the University of, founded by James VI., by charter, April 240 EDLINGHAM CASTLE EGYPT 24, 1582. The School of Medicine first came into repute under Dr Monro, 1 720 ; the new building erected by Mr Adams from the designs of Mr Playfair, Carlyle installed as Rector, April 2, 1866. Conferred the title of LLD. upon Mr D'Israeli and Mr Lowe, Oct. 30, 1867. EDLINGHAM CASTLE, Northumberland, erected temp. Henry I., 1100-35. EDMONDSBURY, ST, Monastery of, at Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk, built, 663 ; enlarged, 1031 ; arches near the East Gate, built, 1148. EDMUND HALL, ST, Oxford, founded in 1226, by Edmund le Riche, Archbishop of Canterbury ; refounded in 1559- The chapel consecrated by Bishop Fell, April 7, 1682. EDMUNDS, Mr, Clerk of the Patents, appointed by Lord Chancellor Brougham, in 1833 ; subsequently appointed clerk to the patent commission, Oct , 1852 ; charged with embezzling ^"9000 of the public money, allowed a pension of ^800 a year by the Lords, on the recommendation of Lord Chancellor Westbury, Feb. 17, 1865, who conferred the office upon his son. A committee of the Lords ap- pointed to inquire into the subject, March 7, 1865 ; first sitting of, March 16 ; re- port confirming the charges, May 2 ; the pension rescinded, May 9 ; the report communicated to the Commons, May 1 1 ; vote of censure upon Lord Westbury, moved by Mr Hunt, carried, July 3 ;' resignation of, July 4. EDUCATION. National Schools established upon the principles of Dr Bell, of Madras, 1810 ; the different schools incorporated, 1811. Sunday schools estab- lished, 1781-82. Parochial schools established in Scotland, 1494. The salary of schoolmasters fixed, 1696, and by the 43 Geo. III. c. 54, June n, 1803. The Society for propagating Christian Knowledge, incorporated, 1709 ; encouraged, in Ireland, each incumbent to teach a school, 1537 ; various sums granted to the different societies established for the purpose of education, a board of commissioners appointed for National Education, 1831. The number attending district schools was 33,826 in 1852. Central Society of Education established in London, 1837- EGHAM, Surrey. The manor of, granted by Henry VIII. to Lord Windsor, set- tled by Charles I. upon his Queen, as her jointure ; sold by the commissioners for the Commonwealth for ^1201, in 1653. St John's Church founded by the Nor- mans ; taken down, 1817 ; foundation-stone of the present laid, April 9, 1817; opened, March 16, 1820. The Coopers' school and almshouses, founded by Mr H. Strode, March 16, 1703; built in 1706. The bridge over the Thames at Staines, built, 1796-; cost ^9000; the centre arch gave way, 1797- Iron bridge began, 1801 ; completed, 1803 ; cost .4900 ; this fell down the same year. The present bridge built from the design of Mr G. Rennie, and opened by William IV., April 23, 1832. Magna Charta signed at Runnymede by King John, June I5> I 2I 5- EGLINGTON TOURNAMENT, held by the Earl of, at his castle, Aug. 28, and the four following days, 1839. EGYPT. The first king, of Menes, began to reign B.C. 2717 ; Amenophisl. made king of, 1821 ; the government of Joseph began, 1876 ; Jacob came into the country, 1867 ; the Exodus took place, 1652. King Aahmes founded the i8th dynasty ; Rameses II. began to reign, 1340 ; the kingdom divided between 12 kings, 685 ; Alexander took Egypt, 332 ; Ptolemy succeeded to the kingdom, 323 ; Phoenicia subjected, 314 ; Cyprus reduced, 315 ; Palestine taken by Anti- gonus, 311 ; an embassy sent to Rome, 274 ; the kingdom invaded by Antiochus, 1 68 ; civil war between Physcon and his brother, Philometer, 154; Physcon ascended the throne, 146 ; the kingdom visited by a plague, 145 ; Thebes sacked and destroyed, 88 ; Gabinius, the Roman general, conquered the army and subju- EGYPTIAN ERA EISENACH 241 gated the country, 55 ; Caesar attacked Alexandria and the library destroyed, 48 ; Cleopatra and Antony ruled with great licentiousness, 41 ; defeated at the battle of Actium, Sept. 2, 31 ; Octavius subsequently invaded the country; An- tony and Cleopatra destroyed themselves, and Egypt fell under the power of Au- gustus, 30. Revolt of the Jews, A.D. 115. Hadrian visited here, 130, and again, 134; rebellion, and Avidius Ca'ssius assumed the purple, 175. The Christians per- secuted by Trajanus Decius, 250. Zenobia reduced this country under her rule, 270 ; revolt, and Achilles raised to the purple, 288 ; reduced under the Roman sway, 292 ; Alexandria taken and Achilles slain, 297 ; Diocletian's Edict pub- lished, 303 ; the Persians ravaged the country, 501 ; Chosroes stripped Heraclius of the whole, 616 ; invaded by the Moslems, under Amr-Ibn-El-A, 639 ; Alexan- dria taken after a siege of 14 months, Dec. 22, 640 ; the famous library destroyed ; the foundation of the Ahmad dynasty, 870 ; the Fatimite dynasty began to rule, 970 ; the government seized by the Mamelukes, 1 250 ; these were subdued by Sultan Selim, 1520; the Mamelukes again obtained power, 1798; the French in- vade Egypt, under Napoleon, 1798 ; the English expel the French, 1801 ; Mo- hammed Ali Bey destroyed the power of the Mamelukes, 1811, when many thousands were slain ; declared their independence, 1811; Belzoni makes several valuable discoveries, 1816 ; the Mahmoud canal completed to the Nile, 1820 ; Mohammed revolted against the Porte, 1831 ; defeated the forces of the Sultan, June, 1839, and acknowledged as Viceroy of Egypt ; the revolt of the Egyptians, under Mohammed Ali, 1839 ; they were defeated by the English forces at Bey- rout, 1840 ; the insurrection quelled, 1841 ; Said Pacha succeeds as Viceroy, July 14, 1854 ; the Prince of Wales visits Cairo, March 27, 1862 ; the Viceroy visits England, June 3, 1862 ; Ismail Pasha succeeds as Viceroy, Jan. 18, 1863; the Sultan visits the country, May, 1863. A part of the Suez canal opened, Aug. 15, 1865. The Viceroy visits England, July 6, 1867 ; received by the Queen at Windsor, July 8 ; entertained by the Lord Mayor of London at the Mansion House, July 1 1 ; the Corporation of London present him with an ad- dress at Dudley House, July 16 ; visited the Crystal Palace, and presented .500 towards its restoration, July 13 ; entertained by the United Service Club, July 12 ; left London, July 18 ; returned to Cairo, Sept. 16. EGYPTIAN ERA. The ancient Egyptian year consisted of 365 days ; and a tropical year of 12 months, of 30 days to each month. This was called the 'vague year,' B.C. 1500; abandoned by order of Augustus, B.C. 24, who estab- lished the Julian year. EGYPTIAN SOCIETY, London, instituted for the study of hieroglyphics, 1819 ; the Syro-Egyptian Society instituted, 1844. EHRENBREITSTEIN, Prussia. This celebrated fortress was built by the Romans, and during the Middle Ages was the palace of the electors of Treves ; the French under Marshal Boufflers, aided by the great engineer Vauban, besieged it in vain, 1688 ; they again besieged it and took it after a 14 months' siege, Jan, 24, 1799 ; destroyed the defences, Feb. 9, 1801 ; since 1814 the Prussians have entirely re- fortified it EICHSTADT, Bavaria, a Roman town, and surrounded by walls and fortified, 908 ; the cathedral built, 1259; the Town-hall, 1440; came into possession of the Bavarians, 1805 ; made the capital and bestowed by Napoleon I. on Prince Eugene Beauharnois, Duke of Leuchtenberg, 1807. EINSIEDELN, Switzerland, is annually visited by 150,000 pilgrims to the Bene- dictine abbey; the abbey founded in the loth century ; rebuilt, 1719; Ulrich Zwingli, the Swiss Reformer, preached against the abbey at one of these festivals, 1517; the treasury plundered by the French, 1 798. EISENACH, Germany. The original town founded, 1140 ; the refuge of Luther, 16 242 EISENSTADT ELECTRIC LIGHT 1521 ; an independent principality formerly, but fell to the dukes of Saxe-Weimar, 1741. SENSTADT, Hungary. It is here that the splendid palace of Prince Esterhazy was built by Prince Paul, Palatine of Hungary, 1683 ; enlarged, 1805. EISTEDDFOD, or annual session of the Welsh Bards ; a schism took place amongst them in the 5th century ; they held the session of 1176 at Cardigan Castle ; the last meeting, convened by royal authority, 9 Eliz., Oct. 20, 1567 ; they were revived at the beginning of the present century ; the last was held at Caermarthen, Sept. 4, 1867. ELBA, Mediterranean, has in turn been ruled by Etruscans, Carthaginians, and Romans. Charles V. ceded the territory of Porto Ferrajo to the Duke of Tuscany, 1548; Philip III. of Spain fortified Porto Longone, 1596; the Neapolitans re- mained masters of the island until 1 796 ; taken by the British forces, July, 1 796 ; ceded to France by the treaty of Amiens, 1802 ; reunited to Tuscany, 1807 ; erected into a sovereignty by the treaty of Paris, 1814 ; Napoleon here kept a prisoner from May 3, 1814, to Feb. 26, 1815 ; upon his second abdication it re- verted to Prussia. ELBING, Prussia, founded, 1237, and was one of the most important members of the Hanseatic League ; united to Prussia, 1772 ; convention concluded here be- tween the King of Prussia and Napoleon I., 1807. ELCHINGEN, battle. The French army, under Marshal Ney, defeated the Austrians, Oct. 14, 1805 ; for these services he was created Duke of Elchingen. ELDERS. In Jewish history probably they are the heads of tribes, or great families ; Moses and Aaron treated the elders as representatives of the nation, Exod. xii. 16 21 ; they subsequently became governors over the several tribes, Deut. xxxi. 28 ; magistrates, xvi. 18 ; in the New Testament they are described by St Luke as Presbyters. ELECTION PETITIONS against the return of members of parliament formerly tried by the whole House ; act passed referring them to a select committee chosen by ballot, 1770, 10 Geo. III. c. 16 ; amended by 9 Geo. IV. c. 22, May 23, 1828; election by ballot repealed, 1839 ; acts relating to, consolidated by n & 12 Viet. c. 98, Sept. 4, 1848 ; amended, 28 & 29 Viet. c. 8, April 7, 1865. ELECTORS. Qualifications of persons who had the right of voting for knights of the shire, were declared by 8 Hen. VI. c. 7, 1429, to be freeholders of lands at the annual value of 40?., equivalent to 20 of present value ; amended by 10 Hen. VI. c. 2, 1432 ; further amended by 14 Geo. III. c. 58, 1774 ; every man to have a freehold in counties to the value of 40^. ; the Reform Act, 2 Will. IV. c. 45, June 7, 1842, extended the right of voting ; the numbers of electors largely increased by the Reform Bill of 1867. See Reform. ELECTORS OF GERMANY. The origin of the electoral dignity is somewhat doubtful ; it is traced by some to the loth century. The number of electors was settled by thegolden bull of Charles II., 1356 ; the Abps of Mayence, Treves, and Cologne, the King of Bohemia, the Count Palatine, the Duke of Saxony, and the Margrave of Brandenburg, 1648 ; the Duke of Bavaria was put in the place of the Count Palatine ; he was afterwards reinstated, and a gth added in 1692 ; the num- bers increased to 10 by the Diet of Ratisbon ; the empire declared hereditary, 1804. ELECTRIC CLOCKS. The application of this science to clocks adopted with success by Mr Bain, 1841 ; improved by Mr Shepherd of Leadenhall-street, 1850; the clocks in the Exhibition of 1851, by the same maker, failed. ELECTRIC LIGHT. A lamp upon this principle invented by Messrs Greener and Staite, 1846 ; Dr Watson illuminated Westminster Bridge with this light, 1858 ; the same light was introduced into the South Foreland Lighthouse, 1859. ELECTRICITY ELGIN 243 ELECTRICITY. Thales, the philosopher of Miletus, first noticed that amber rubbed possessed the property of attraction, B.C. 600 ; and Theophrastus and Pliny both mentioned this power; Eustathius also recorded this fact, A.D. 415 ; but Dr Gilbert Colchester discovered and founded this science, 1600 ; the cele- brated Mr Boyle added many new facts, 1675 ; Otto Guericke made some further discoveries. Newton seems to have made the first glass electrical machine ; his ex- periments were tried at the Royal Society, and found successful, Jah. 13, 1676 ; Mr F. Hawksbee communicated several new discoveries in this science, 1705 ; Mr Gray followed, 1720 ; Mr Dufay gives the names of two kinds of electricity, vitreous and resinous ; the Leyden jar or phial invented, 1745 J Dr Franklin raised these discoveries into a science, and conceived the necessity of lightning conductors, 1752 ; Professor Richman killed by an explosion of, Aug. 6, 1753 ; found to con- tain caloric, and that it would inflame spirits, 1756 ; galvanic electricity discovered by Galvani, 1790, but fixed by Volta in the voltaic pile, 1800 ; H. C. Oersted of Copenhagen discovered that a magnetic needle deviated to the right or left, ac- cording to the direction of the current, 1820 ; Dr Faraday discovered the magneto- electricity ; the Hydro-electric machine invented by Mr Armstrong, 1841 ; the Electrical Society founded in London for the study of this science, 1837 ; Trans- actions and Proceedings of, first published, 1841. ELECTRIC TELEGRAPHS. See Telegraph. ELECTRICAL DISPENSARY, founded in London, 1793. ELECTRO-MAGNETISM, discovered by H. C. Oersted of Copenhagen, 1820; M. Arago discovered the power of developing magnetism in iron and steel, Sept. 25, 1820 ; Dr Seebeck subsequently discovered that currents can be produced by heat alone. ELECTROTYPE, discovered by Volta, 1799, and by Messrs Nicholson and Carlisle, May 2, 1800. The earliest instance of the deposition of metals by electrolysis, 1801 ; Mr Henry Bessemer first brought it into practical use, 1834 ; Mr John Wright discovered the process, Dec., 1837 ; Messrs Elkington patented their process, July, 1838 ; amended patent, March 25, 1840 ; magneto-electric machine patented by Mr Wolrich, Aug., 1842; patent granted to Messrs Mill- ward and Lyons, for depositing the silver bright, March, 1847. The first manu- factory of plated goods was established at Soho, Birmingham, by Mr Boulton, 1 764. Printing by electrotype followed plating. ELEPHANT, White, of Denmark, order of knighthood founded by Canute, 1190 ; renewed by Christian L, 1458 ; statutes altered by Christian V., 1693 ; managed by the chapter of the royal order, established at Copenhagen, June 28, 1802. ELEPHANTS, used by Darius against Alexander, B.C. 331 ; and by Porus against the same commander, at the battle of Hydaspes, when Alexander captured up- wards of $o, B.C. 327 ; the Romans first saw them at the battle of Heraclea, B.C. 280. ELEPHANT ERA. This era commenced amongst the Arabs in the year when the Abassines were vanquished in their expedition against Mecca, and in which Mahomet was born, A. D. 578. ELEUSINIAN MYSTERIES, a great festival observed every fourth year by the Celeans and Phliasians, and other nations ; introduced by Eumolpus, at Athens, B.C. 1356. ELEVATION of the Host, introduced by the Pope, 1222. ELGIN, Scotland, a royal burgh ; the cathedral founded, 1224 ; destroyed by fire, 1270, and subsequently rebuilt ; it was again burnt with part of the town, 1390 ; afterwards rebuilt ; the lead stripped off the roof by order of the Privy Council, 1568 ; the great tower fell, 1711, and the whole is now a ruin. 244 ELGIN MARBLES ELY CATHEDRAL ELGIN MARBLES, collected by Lord Elgin, 1801-2, from the Acropolis of Athens, the work of Phidias, B. c. 500 ; the government offered to purchase the collection, 1811, for ^30,000; this was declined, but they were purchased in 1815 for ^"35,000, and deposited in the British Museum. ELIS, Greece. This kingdom was early inhabited by the Pelasgians, who presided over the festivals at Olympia, but were deprived of it, B.C. 747 ; they were the allies of Sparta in the Peloponnesian war to the peace of Nicias, B.C. 421 ; fought against them at the battle of Mantineia, B.C. 418; defeated by the Arcadians, B.C. 365 ; the presidency of the Olympic festival restored to them, B.C. 362 ; the festival abolished by Theodosius, A. D. 394 ; Alaric devastated the country, 396. ELIZABETH CASTLE, Jersey, built, 1586. ELIZABETH, East India ship, wrecked off Dunkirk, and only 22 persons saved, Dec. 30, 1810. ELIZABETH, ST, order of, instituted for ladies at Manheim, Oct. 13, 1766. ELIZABETH THERESE, the order of, founded by Elizabeth, Queen of Charles VI. of Austria, 1750; remodelled, 1771. ELL, a measure fixed by Henry I., noi, a yard and quarter ; the yard was fixed from the length of his arm. ELLIS, ELLEN, of Beaumaris, Anglesey, aged 7 2 > brought to bed of her tenth child, May, 1776. She had been 46 years married, and her eldest child was 45 years old ; she had not borne a child for 25 years previously. ELOPEMENT of a wife from her husband deprived her of dower, unless her hus- band became reconciled to her, 13 Edw. I. c. 34, 1285. ELPHIN, Ireland, Bishopric of, founded in the fifth century ; united with Kilmore, Aug. 14, 1833. ELSINORE, Denmark, created a city by Erick of Pomerania, 1425 ; the castle of Kronborg built by Frederick II., 1580 ; it was here that Caroline Matilda, Queen of Christian VII., was imprisoned on a charge of adultery until the interfer- ence of her brother George III., 1772. The British fleet under Sir Hyde Parker and Nelson forced the passage of the straits, 1801, previous to storming Copenhagen ; Adm. Gambier did the same previous to the siege of 1807. The right to the Sound dues, held by Denmark since the I5th century, abolished, March 14, 1857, an agreement being entered into with the various nations to pay a cer- tain sum as compensation. ELSTREE, Cambridgeshire, almost destroyed by a fire, April 3, 1774. ELTHAM, Kent. The palace built, 1269 ; Henry III. kept a grand festival here, 1270 ; Anthony Bek, bishop of Durham, made considerable improvements, 1302-4; Isabella, Queen of Edward II., was delivered of a son, called John of Eltham, 1315 ; Edward III. held a parliament, 1329, 1375 ; and in 1364 sumptuously entertained his prisoner King John of France here ; repaired by Ed- ward IV., 1482 ; Henry VIII. frequently resided in the Palace, and during the civil war it was occupied by the Earl of Essex, who died here, 1646. ELY, Cambridgeshire. Ethelreda, daughter of Annas, king of the East Angles, founded the monastery, 673 ; destroyed by the Danes, 870 ; rebuilt by Bishop Ethelwold, 970 ; the cathedral founded by Simeon, a Norman abbot, 1083 ; com- pleted, 1189 ; St Mary's Chapel, now Trinity Church, the most elegant structure of its time, founded in the reign of Edward II., 1320 ; made a bishopric by Henry I., 1109. ELY CATHEDRAL. The foundation laid by Simeon, 1083 ; the nave begun, 1093; finished, 1174; the western tower begun, 1174; finished, 1189; the choir ELY HOUSE EMIGRATION 24* finished, 1252 ; whole length, 535 feet ; transept, 190 feet ; ceiling restored by Styleman le Strange, 1863. ELY HOUSE, Holborn, bequeathed by John de Kirkeby, bishop of Ely, to his suc- cessor, 1290; the Gatehouse erected by Thomas de Arundel, 1388; John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, died here, 1399 ; pulled down, 1780. EMANCIPATION ACT, for abolishing slavery throughout the British colonies, and for promoting the industry of the manumitted slaves, and compensating slave- holders, passed, Aug. 28, 1833, 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 73 ; emancipation of slavery in the United States by proclamation of President Lincoln, Jan. I, 1863 ; Roman Catholic Emancipation Act passed, April 13, 1829, 10 Geo. IV. c. 7 ; society founded for the abolition of slavery in America, 1862. See Slavery. EMANUEL COLLEGE, Cambridge, founded by Sir Walter Mildmay, 1584 ; damaged by fire, Oct., 1811. EMANUEL HOSPITAL, Westminster, founded by Lady Anne Dacre, Dec. 20, 1594 ; the charter of incorporation granted, Dec. 17, 1660 ; the management in- vested in the Mayor and Aldermen of London, 1623. EMBALMING practised by the most ancient nations. Many of the mummies found in Egypt are still perfect ; Joseph commanded the physicians and servants to em- balm his father Jacob, and they embalmed Israel in 40 days, Gen. 1. 2, 3 ; and Joseph was embalmed in Egypt, ver. 26. The method described by Herodotus, ii. 86 89. The art of, practised during the American civil war. EMBANKMENTS. The oldest in England is that of Romney Marsh. Under the government of Cromwell upwards of 425,000 acres of fens and morasses were recovered, 1 649-5 1 See Thames. EMBARGO laid in England to prevent the exportation of corn, 1766 ; one for the detention of all Russian, Swedish, and Danish ships, Jan 14, 1801. EMBER WEEKS, established by the Church in the 3rd century, are the Wednes- day, Friday, and Saturday of Quadragesima Sunday after Whit-Sunday, after Holy- rood-day, Sept. 14, and St Lucia's-day, Dec. 13. EMBROIDERERS' COMPANY incorporated, 34 Eliz., Oct. 25, 1591 ; hall built in Guthurun's Lane in the reign of Henry VIII. EMBROIDERY. The art made use of to decorate the tabernacle by Moses, and the artist contrasted to the cunning workman, Exodus xxxv. 35 ; a machine for making, invented at Paris, 1854; not allowed to be imported by 22 Geo. II. c. 36, 1749- EMESA, battle. Zenobia defeated at, 272. EMERALD, one of the precious stones on the breastplate of the high priest Aaron, Exodus xxviii. 18, xxxix. n, B.C. 1491 ; imported to Tyre from Syria, Ezek. xxvii. 16. The emeralds were anciently procured from Ethiopia ; Pope Julius adorned the Papal tiara with an African one, 1510; one belonging to Charlemagne, weighing 28 Ib. , presented to the church ; the one best known in England is in the possession of Mr Hope, it weighs six ounces. EMIGRATION. The Book of Genesis, xiii. 8 u, affords a striking illustration of emigration, Lot taking possession of all the plains of Jordan. The countries to which emigration has mainly extended during the last 50 years, are N. America, United States, Australia, Van Diemen's Land, New Zealand, and the Cape of Good Hope. In 1825 the distress in trade gave an impetus to emigration, and it was intrasted to the colonial office to carry out, 1840 ; commissioners appointed to superintend; an act passed, 1835, for the conveyance of; amended, 1842. The number of emigrants from the United Kingdom from 1815 to 1866 : 246 EMINENCE ENGINEERS To the United States .- 3,758,789 N. American Colonies ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 1,286,020 Australia and New Zealand ... ... ... ... ... ... 929,182 Other places ... ... ... ... ... ... 132,401 6,106,392 EMINENCE, Title of, first borne by cardinals, 1644, by a decree of Pope Urban VIII., Jan. 10, 1631. EMIR. This Eastern title of dignity awarded by Fatima, the daughter of Mahomet, to the descendants of the prophet, 650 ; the Emir wears a green turban. EMLY, Bishopric of, an extinct Irish see, 448 ; incorporated with Cashel, 1568. EMPALEMENT, a punishment of very ancient date ; a stake being passed longi- tudinally through the body, which is then placed upright. The assassin of Gen . Kleber in Egypt was staked or impaled, 1800 ; abolished in England by the statute relating to the interment of the remains of any person found felo de se, but that they should be buried between 9 and 12 o'clock of a night, 4 Geo. IV. c. 52, July 8, 1823. EMPEROR, from the Latin imperator, at first a military title. Augustus Caesar was the first Roman emperor, B.C. 27; Valens, the first Emperor of the East, 364 ; Emperor of the West, Charlemagne, 800 ; Emperor of Russia, Peter the Great, 1721 ; the title has been often adopted in modern times, the last being Napoleon III., Emperor of the French, 1852. ENAMELLING, art of, known in England in the time of Alfred the Great, 837 ; improved subsequently. ENCAUSTIC PAINTING, art restored, 1749, by Count Caylus and others. ENCUMBERED ESTATES, acts passed to facilitate the sale of, in Ireland : n & 12 Viet. c. 48, Aug. 14, 1848 ; 12 & 13 Viet. c. 77, July 28, 1849 ; 15 & 16 Viet. c. 67, June 30, 1852 ; 23 & 24 Viet. c. 82, Aug. 6, 1860. ENDOR in the territory of Issachar possessed by Manasseh, Josh. xvii. 1 1. It was here Saul consulted the witch, I Sam. xxviii. 7 20. ENFIELD, Middlesex. Humphrey de Bohun had the king's permission to fortify his mansion, 1347 ; Princess Elizabeth resided here, and the news of the death of Henry VIII. was brought to Prince Edward, afterwards Edward VI., who was residing at, Jan. 30, 1546-7 ; Queen Elizabeth frequently stayed at Hatfield House during her reign, Sept. 8 12, 1561 ; July 25 30, 1564; Richard Gough, the antiquary, resided here; died at his residence in the town, 1789; visited by the plague, Oct., 1788. Races established, 1789-90; Enfield chase enclosed, 41 Geo. III. c. cxliii., July 2, 1801. The earliest parish register is 1550. ENFIELD RIFLE, adopted by the British Government, 1853 ; works begun at Enfield, 1854 ; first guns produced, 1858 ; they now manufacture 2000 guns per week. ENGHIEN, battle, between William III. of England and Marshal Luxemburg, the English being defeated, Aug. 3, 1692. ENGHIEN, Duke d', arrested at Ettenheim, March 15, 1804 ; condemned after a mock trial at Vincennes on the 2Oth, and shot at six o'clock in the morning of the 2 1 st. ENGINEERS, civil and military ; the latter were once called trench masters, 1622 ; the chief engineer, camp master-general, 1634 ; the corps of the engineers of the army was once a civil corps, but made a military one, and directed to act with the artillery, April 25, 1787. ENGINEERS ENGLAND 247 ENGINEERS, Institution of Civil, in London, established, 1818 ; incorporated, June 3, 1828 ; corps of Royal, instituted in London, 1838 ; Smeatonian Society of Engineers, established in London, 1771 ; the Society of Engineers instituted in London, 1854. ENGLAND, said to have been so named by King Egbert, 829, in an official form ; generally supposed to be derived from the Saxon Angles, and lond or land for country. Originally inhabited by a branch of the Gauls or Celts ; the extreme west, or Cornwall, seems to have been known to the Phoenicians and Carthagin- ians, who traded there from Gades, or Cadiz, for tin, B.C. 1000. The western part, in the time of Julius Caesar, inhabited by the Belgse, the northern by the Brigantes, South Wales by the Silures, and Norfolk and Suffolk by the Iceni. In- vaded by Julius Caesar, Aug. 26, B.C. 55 ; again, 54; subdued by Claudius, A. D. 44; Caractacus taken prisoner to Rome, 52 ; Boadicea defeated by the Romans, previ- ously having burnt London, 61 ; the conquest of England completed by Agricola, 79. Hadrian's Wall erected, 121 ; Antoninus' s, 138. Constantine the Great born at York, 274. St Alban, the first Christian martyr in Britain, suffered at St Al- bans, 304. Constantine raised to the Imperial power, 306. The Romans departed, 418 ; ravaged by the Picts, 448 ; the Saxons invited to aid the Britons, 450 ; con- quered by the Saxons, 455 ; they divided it into seven kingdoms, called the hept- archy ; erected into a kingdom by the union of all the kingdoms of the heptarchy, near 400 years after the arrival of the Saxons, 827 ; it was called England by order of Egbert, the first king of England, in a general council held at Winchester, 829 ; the name of England, and of Englishmen, had been used as far back as 688, but had never been ratified by any assembly of the nation. The Danes first appeared off Teignmouth, 787 ; made several attacks, but were totally routed at Hengestdown, Cornwall, 835. The Danes defeated the Saxons at Merton, Ethelred being killed, 871 ; Mercia taken by them, 872 ; invade Wessex, 876. Alfred driven to seek refuge in the island of Athelney, 878 ; he defeated the Danes, and recovered his kingdom, 880 ; enlarged his navy, 883 ; divided England into counties and hun- dreds, 886 ; published his Code of Laws, 890 ; Hastings repulsed by Alfred at Exeter, 894 ; a general survey made, and the rolls deposited at Winchester, 896 ; the war terminates in England, and the Danes retired, 897 ; a league formed by the Danes, Scots, and other nations ; Athelstan defeated them with great slaughter ; Constantine, king of Scotland, and five other kings slain, 938. Sweyn and Olaus, kings of Denmark and Norway, sail up the Thames with 94 vessels, Sept., 994 ; they harassed the kingdom to such an extent, that Ethelred II. made an inglori- ous peace with them, and agreed to pay tribute annually, besides .10,000 in money, provided they retired and discontinued their invasions. The Danes con- tinuing their depredations, Ethelred devised a scheme for their massacre, which was carried out, Nov. 13, 1002. Sweyn returned to England to revenge this mas- sacre, 1002, but desisted from his purpose, on payment of ,36,000 of silver, 1007 ; this was the origin of a land-tax, called Danegelt. Sweyn invaded England again, and conquered it, 1010-13. Ethelred retired to Normandy, 1013 ; Sweyn died, Feb. 3, 1014; Ethelred recalled, 1015. Canute chosen king by the Danish fleet, and invaded England, 1015 ; five battles fought between Canute and Edmund Ironsides, 1016 ; crowned king of England, Norway, Denmark, and Sweden, in 1017 ; visited Rome, 1027. Edward the Confessor restored the Saxon line, 1042. Harold II. defeated at Hastings, by William, Duke of Normandy, Oct 14, 1066, who established a Norman dynasty. The Danes landed at the Humber, and were joined by Edgar, Sept. , 1069. Hampshire depopulated to make the New Forest, 1079 ; a tax of dr. was ordered to be levied upon every hide of land, and a new survey made of England, and the register, called Doomsday Book, began, 1085 ; finished, 1086. The taxes were levied according to this survey until the 13 Hen. VIII., 1522. Odo, bishop of Bayeux, assisted by some of the Norman nobles, revolted, 1088 ; invaded by Malcolm III., king of Scotland, who reduced Alnwick Castle, 248 ENGLAND Nov. 13, 1093. The sea overflowed 4000 acres of land belonging to the Earl Godwin, since known as the ' Godwin Sands,' 1 100. Normandy made an English Duchy, 1116. Prince William, the heir-apparent, wrecked at Cape Race with 140 young noblemen and ladies of rank, Nov. 25, 1 120. David I., king of Scotland, in- vaded the northern counties, but was defeated at Allerton, Aug. 22, 1 1 38. Matilda, daughter of Henry I., claimed the throne, landed at Portsmouth, Sept. 30, 1139. Stephen defeated at Lincoln, and imprisoned in Bristol castle, Feb. 2, 1140. Ma- tild.i crowned at Winchester, April 7, 1141 ; retired to Normandy, 1145 ; Stephen restored. Henry, Duke of Normandy, son of Matilda, arrived in England to claim his hereditary right to the throne, and was supported by the Barons ; a compromise was effected at Wallingford, Nov. 7, 1153, by which Stephen should reign for life, and Henry to succeed him. The first of the Plantagenets, Henry II., crowned, Dec. 19, 1154; conquered Ireland, 1171-2. Thomas a Becket made Lord Chan- cellor, 1155 ; made Archbishop of Canterbury, May 24, 1162 ; a council met at Clarendon, and passed certain Constitutions, Jan. 26, 1164 ; Becket killed, Dec. 29, 1170 ; Henry II. does penance at Becket's tomb, July 12, 1174. William I., the Lion, of Scotland, invaded Northumberland ; taken prisoner, July 12, 1174. England divided into six circuits for the administration of justice, 1176. The king again repeated his devotion at Becket's tomb, 1 1 78. Digests of the Civil Law, by Ranulph de Glanville, 1180. Richard crowned, Sept. 3, 1189; and ordered the massacre of the Jews in England ; joined Philip of France, on the plains of Vizelay, to engage in the Crusades, 1190; made prisoner, Dec. 28, 1192 ; ransomed for j3OO,ooo, Feb. 4, 1194. The battle of Gisors, 1198; the watch-word given, Dieu et mon droit, has become the national motto. King John defeated, and Normandy joined France, 1205; excommunicated, Nov., 1209; does homage to the pope before his legate, at Dover, May 15, 1213. Magna Charta signed at Runny- mede, June 15, 1215. Louis of France lands at the invitation of the Barons, 1216; defeated at Lincoln, Sept. 22, 1217. The mayor first sworn before the Exchequer, 1251. The Barons revolted under Simon de Montfort, and defeated the king at Lewes; the king taken prisoner, May 13, 1264. The first Parliament met at West- minster, Jan. 28, 1265. Edward escaped and collected an army, with which he de- feated the Barons at Evesham, Aug. 4, 1265. David, Prince of Wales, executed at Shrewsbury, Sept. 20, 1283 ; and Wales united to England, March 19, 1284. Edward defeats Llewellyn at the battle of Llandilovawr, Dec. n, 1292; made arbitrator of the Scottish succession, claimed the crown for himself and made Baliol his vassal, 1292. Wales subdued, 1295. The rights of raising supplies vested in the representatives of the people, Oct. 10, 1297. Wallace executed, Aug. 24, 1305 ; Gaveston beheaded by order of Guy Earl of Warwick, at Warwick Castle, June 19, 1312. The Barons and King reconciled, 1313. Scotland invaded by Edward II. defeated by Bruce at Bannockburn, June 24, 1314. Bruce landed at Carrickfergus, and burnt Dundalk, 1315 ; crowned King of Ireland, 1316; peace restored for 13 years, May 30, 1323. Edward deposed, Jan. 7, and murdered at Berkeley Castle, Sept. 21, 1327. Bruce invaded Cumberland and Durham, and compelled Edward III. to withdraw his claim to the Scottish crown, March 17, 1328. Mortimer arrested and executed, Nov. 29, 1330. Edward invaded Scotland to assert his right, and gained the battle of Halidon Hill, July 19, 1333. The French fleet destroyed off Sluys, June 24, 1340. Queen Philippa defeated the Scots at Neville's Cross, Oct. 17, 1346. France in- vaded by Edward III., 1340 ; the battle of Cressy fought, Aug. 26, 1346 ; Calais surrendered, Aug. 4, 1347. The Order of the Garter established, 1349. Edward the Black Prince, at Poictiers, took John King of France prisoner, Sept. 19, 1356 ; returned with him as a prisoner to London, May 24, 1357 ; Edward III. landed at Calais with a large army, 1359. The treaty of Bretigny signed, Oct. 24, 1360. The English language used in law, 1362 ; Sir Henry Green, Chief Justice, fined and removed for extortion, 1 365. Truce between England and ENGLAND 249 France, 1374. Insurrection Wat Tyler, killed by Sir William Wallace, in Smith- field, June 15, 1381. The Scotch and French made several incursions in the North, Edinburgh, Perth, and Dundee being reduced to ashes, 1385. The battle of Otter- burn between Percy and Douglas, Aug. 10, 1388 (this gave rise to the old ballad of Chevy Chace). The first Navigation Act passed in 1392. The Duke of Gloucester seized and murdered at Calais, 1397. Wager of battle between the Duke of Here- ford and Norfolk interrupted by the King, and the Dukes banished, 1398. Henry of Bolingbroke landed at Ravenspur, July 4, 1399. Richard taken prisoner and resigned the crown, Sept. 29, 1399. The Scots defeated by the Percies at Homildon Hill, Sept. 14, 1402 ; the Percies rebelled, 1402; defeated at Shrewsbury, Hotspur being slain, July 21, 1403. Scroope, Archbishop of York, rebelled and beheaded, 1405. The Duke of Northumberland again rebelled, and was slain at Bramham Moor, Feb. 19, 1408. Wickliffe's books condemned by the University of Oxford, 1409. Lord Cobham suffered for heresy, Sept. 25, 1413. Henry V. invaded France, 1415 ; took Harfleur, Sept. 22; defeated the French army at Agincourt, Oct. 25. Sir John Oldcastle condemned as a traitor and heretic, and burnt, 1418. Treaty of Troyes, May 21, 1420. Marriage of Henry V. to Catherine of France, June 2. Jack Cade's insurrection, June, 1450. The civil war commenced with the battle of St Albans, May 23, 1455. The battle of Bloreheath, Sept. 23, 1459 ; Henry VI. taken prisoner at Northampton, July 10, 1460. The battle of Wakefield Green, Richard, Duke of York, killed, Dec. 31, 1460. Second battle of St Albans, the Earl of Warwick routed, Jan. 17, 1461. The battle of Mortimer's Cross, the Yorkists gained the day, Feb. 2, 1461. The Lancastrians defeated at Towton, on Palm Sunday, March 29, 1461. Edward the IV. 's first parliament met, Nov. 4, 1461. Queen Margaret returned with fresh troops, and fought unsuccessfully the battles of Hedgley Moor, April 25, and Hexham, May 15, 1464. Edward married Lady Elizabeth Grey, May I, 1464 ; Edward retired to Holland, 1470, and Henry VI. resumed the crown, but Edward landed with a foreign army in the next year, captured the king and the city of London, fought the battle of Barnet, April 14, 1471, Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick, being slain ; defeated the Lancastrians again at Tewkesbury, May 4, 1471, Henry's eldest son being slain ; with this battle ended the War of the Roses. The Duke of Clarence drowned in a butt of Malmsey wine, in the Tower, Feb. 17, 1478. A plague in London, 1479. The Scots ravaged the borders, but were successfully opposed by Richard Duke of Gloucester ; the Duke of Gloucester usurped the throne as Richard III., June 26, 1483 ; Prince Edward V. and the Duke of York murdered in the Tower, Aug., 1483 ; the Earl of Richmond landed at Milford Haven, Aug. 7, 1485, defeated and slew Richard III. at the battle of Bosworth Field, Aug. 22, 1485. The statutes of Richard I. expressed in the English language. Henry VII. married the Princess Elizabeth of York, Jan. 18, 1486. Lambert Simnel claimed the crown, 1486; totally defeated at the battle of Stoke, June 16, 1487. Perkin Warbeck acknowledged as Duke of York, 1492 ; married the daughter of Lord Huntley, and, with the assistance of the King of Scotland, invaded England, 1496 ; taken and executed at Tyburn, Nov. 23, 1499. Lord Warwick, after being kept a prisoner for 15 years, beheaded on Tower-hill, Nov. 28, 1499. Henry VIII. married Catharine of Arragon, his brother's widow, June 7, 1509 ; Empson and Dudley beheaded, Aug. 18, 1510 ; Wolsey made almoner to the king, 1510. Henry invaded France and fought the successful battle of Guinegate, or the battle of Spurs, Aug. 16, 1513. Wolsey made Abp of York, Aug. 5, 1514; received a cardinal's hat, Sept. n, 1515 ; made sole legate, June 29, 1519. King Henry and Charles V. met at Dover, May 26, 1520. Henry and Francis I. of France met at Ardres, on the field of the cloth of gold, June 7, 1 520. Duke of Buckingham beheaded, May 17, 1521. Henry made Defender of the Faith by Pope Leo X., Oct. n, 1521. Queen Catharine pleaded her cause before the king and the legates, I, 1529. Wolsey deprived of the great seal, Oct. 17, 1529 ; died, Nov. 29, June 21, 250 ENGLAND 1530. The clergy acknowledged the king's supremacy, May 4, 1531. The Parliament abrogated the papal supremacy, and final rupture with the Court of Rome, 1534- Bishop Fisher beheaded, June 22, and Sir T. More, July 6, 1535. The birth of Prince Edward, Oct. 12, 1537. The great monasteries dissolved, 1538. The statute of the Six Articles passed, May 5, 1539. T. Crom- well beheaded, July 29, 1540. Margaret, Countess Dowager of Salisbury, the last of the Plantagenets, beheaded, May 27, 1541. Queen Catherine Howard and Lady Rochford beheaded, Feb. 12, 1542. Birth of Mary, Queen of Scots, 1542; Edinburgh taken in May, and Boulogne, Sept. 14. Treaty of Crespy, Sept. 17, 1544. The French fleet threatened hostilities in the Channel, but were driven off by Lord Lisle, July 18, 1545. Peace with France, June 7, 1546. The Earl of Surrey beheaded, Jan. 19, 1547. Henry VIII. died at Whitehall, Jan. 28, 1547 ; succeeded by Edward VI. Lord Seymour beheaded, March 20, 1549. Kett's re- bellion put down by Dudley, Earl of Warwick. Protector Somerset sent to the Tower, Oct. 13. Boulogne restored to France, March 24, 1549. The Protector Somerset readmitted to the council, March 31 ; beheaded, Jan. 22, 1552. Mar- riage of Lord Guilford Dudley to Lady Jane Grey, May 25, 1553. Edward VI. died, July 6. Lady Jane Grey proclaimed Queen, July 10 ; relinquished the crown, July 19 ; Mary proclaimed, July 18. Lady Jane and Lord Guilford Dudley be- headed, Feb. 12, 1554. Sir Thomas Wyatt's rebellion suppressed, and he exe- cuted, April II. Mary married to Philip of Spain, July 25. Parliament restored the Roman Catholic religion, Nov. 29, 1 554. The Protestants persecuted by Mary : John Rogers the first martyr, Feb. 4, 1555 ; Bishop Hooper, Feb. 9 ; Bishop Ferrar, March 29 ; Bishops Ridley and Latimer, Oct. 1 6 ; Cranmer martyred at Oxford, March 21, 1556. Cardinal Pole made Abp of Canterbury, March 22. King Philip finally left England, July 7, 1557. Calais lost to the English, after being in their possession for 2 10 years, Jan. 7, 1558. Queen Mary died, Nov. 17. Eliza- beth crowned, Jan. 13, 1559. Act of Uniformity passed, Jan. 21, 1559. Mary Queen of Scots took refuge in England, May 16, 1568. Babington's conspiracy discovered, Aug. 4, 1586 ; he executed, Sept. 20. Mary Queen of Scots tried, Oct. II ; beheaded, Feb. 8, 1587. The Spanish armada de- feated, July 29, 1587. Tyrone created a rebellion in Ireland ; Essex sent as Lord-Deputy and offended the Queen by treating with him, Sept. 8, 1599; Essex beheaded, Feb. 25, 1601. The Spaniards defeated in Ireland by Lord Mountjoy, Dec. 24. Queen Elizabeth died, March 24, 1603; and James VI. of Scotland ascended the throne as James I., uniting the two crowns. The style of King of Gt Britain first assumed, Oct. 24, 1604. The gunpowder plot discovered, Nov. 5, 1605. Paul V. forbade the Romanists of England taking the oath of allegiance, Sept. 3, 1606. Game Law Act passed, I James I. c. 27, 1604. Perse- cution of the Puritans, May 6, 1608. The League between England and France renewed, 1610. The New Translation of the Bible, published by authority, May 2, 161 1. First creation of baronets by purchase, May 22. Henry Prince of Wales died suddenly, Nov. 6, 1612. Dissolution of the parliament, June 7, 1614 ; King James resorted to raise money by way of benevolence, and obtained ^"52,909 ; the King gave up the cautionary towns pledged to Elizabeth, May 27, 1616. Sir Walter Raleigh beheaded, Oct. 29, 1618. Lord Bacon convicted of bribery, May 3, 1621. The Earls of Oxford and Southampton, Coke, Selden, and Pym, im- prisoned, 1622. James I. died, March 27, 1625. Marriage of King Charles with Henrietta Maria, June 13; the first parliament met, June 18 ; petition of right, June 17, 1628. Buckingham assassinated by Felton, Aug. 23; Prynne, Bastwick, and Burton pilloried by the Star Chamber, June 30, 1637. Judgment against Hampden for ship money, June 12, 1638 ; judgment cancelled, Feb. 26, 1641 ; Wentworth, Earl of Strafford, beheaded, May n. Charles demanded the five members, Jan. 3, 1642 ; the royal standard erected at Nottingham, Aug. 22 ; battle of Edgehill, Oct. 23. Hampden wounded at Chalgrove, June 18, 1643 ; ENGLAND 251 died, June 24. Bristol taken by storm, July 26 ; first battle of Newbury, Sept. 20 ; Parliament held at Oxford, Jan. 29, 1644 ; battle of Marston Moor, July 2 ; second battle of Newbury, Oct. 27 ; Abp Laud beheaded, Jan. 10, 1645 5 treaty of Uxbridge failed, Feb. 22 ; battle of Naseby, June 14 ; Bristol surrendered, Sept. 10. Charles surrendered himself to the Scots at Newark, May 5, 1646 ; the Scots de- livered him to the parliament, Jan. 30, 1647 ; imprisoned at Carisbrook Castle, Nov. 13 ; trial of, Jan. 20, 1649 ; beheaded, Jan. 30. The House of Lords abolished, Feb. 5 ; Duke of Hamilton and Lords Holland and Capel beheaded, March 9 ; the execution of Montrose, May 21, 1650. Battle of Worcester, Sept. 3, 1651. War between England and Holland, May, 1652. Cromwell dissolved the Long Parliament, April 20, 1653 ; Barebone Parliament met, July 4 ; Cromwell proclaimed Lord Protector, Dec. 16 ; war between England and Spain, March 12, 1656. Oliver Cromwell died, Sept. 3, 1658; succeeded by his son Richard. The Long Parliament restored, May 7, 1659; finally dissolved, March 16, 1660. Convention Parliament, April 25, 1660 ; invited Charles II. to return to London and receive his crown, May 7 ; Richard Cromwell resigns, May 13, 1659. King Charles II. restored, May 29, 1660 ; Argyll beheaded, May 27, 1661 ; Marriage of Charles II. to Catherine of Portugal, May 20, 1662 ; Sir Henry Vane beheaded, June 14. The great plague, June 29, Dec. 12, 1665. The Dutch fleet defeated by Rupert and Monk, June 26, 1666. The great fire, Sept. 2-4, 1666. The Dutch sailed up the Medway and destroyed several ships, June 3, 1667. Lord Clarendon resigned the great seal and was banished, Dec. 1 8 ; the Cabal ministry formed. Attempt of Blood to steal the crown, May 9, 1671 ; the king shut the Exchequer, Jan. 2, 1672. Test Act passed, March 29, 1673. Peace between England and Holland signed, Feb. 9, 1674. Buckingham, Shaftesbury, Salisbury, and Wharton, sent to the Tower, Feb. 15, 1677. The Popish Plot discovered, Sept. 6, 1678. Habeas Corpus Act passed, May 27, 1679; the distinction of Whig and Tory arose, 1680. Viscount Stafford beheaded, Dec. 29, the last victim to the Popish plot. The Rye-house plot discovered, June 23, 1683. Lord Russell beheaded, July 21. Charles II. died, Feb. 6, 1685. Monmouth rebelled, and was defeated at Sedgemoor, July 6 ; executed, July 15. Trial of the seven bishops, June29, 30, 1688. Prince of Orange lands at Torbay, Nov. 5 ; James II. withdraws, Dec. 23 ; William and Mary proclaimed, Feb. 13, 1689. Habeas Corpus suspended the first time, March 16. Bill of Right passed, Dec. 16. Battleof the Boyne, defeat of James II., July r, 1690. The national debt was ,3, 130,000, 1691. Marlborough deprived of office, Jan. 10, 1692. Queen Mary died, Dec. 28, 1694. Sir John Trevor, Speaker of the House of Commons, expelled for bribery, March 18, 1695. Peter the Great came to England incognito, Jan. II, 1698. Act of Settlement passed, June 12, 1701. James II. died, Sept. 6. King William III. died, March 8, 1702. Anne crowned, April 23. England suffered from a great storm, Nov. 26 Dec. I, 1703. Charles III. of Spain arrived at Spithead, Dec. 26, 1703. Union with Scotland, 6 Anne, c. II, March 6, 1707. Dr Sacheverell preached a seditious sermon at St Paul's, Nov. 5, 1709 ; convicted of high treason and suspended from his office for three years, March 23, 1710. Peace of Utrecht signed, March 31, 1713. Queen Anne died, Aug. I, 1714. George I. ascended the throne, the first of the Hanoverian dynasty, Aug. I, 1714. The Riot Act passed, I Geo. I. stat. 2, c. 5, 1714. Execution of Lords Derwentwater and Kenmure for treason, on Tower- hill, Feb. 24, 1716. An act extending the duration of parliament to seven years, I Geo- I. stat. 2, c. 38, 1715. The South Sea Company established, April 7, 1720; dissolved, Sept. 29. The Duke of Marlborough died, June 16, 1722. George I. quarrelled with the Prince of Wales and forbade him the palace, Sept. '4 >737- Queen Caroline died, Nov. 20. Sir Robert Walpole resigned his office of Prime Minister, Feb. n, 1742. Battle of Dettingen, June 16, 1743, the last battle in which the King of England commanded the troops in person. Charles, 252 ENGLAND the young Pretender, defeated the Royalists at Prestonpans, Sept. 20, 1745 ; in- vaded England ; reduced Carlisle, Nov. 17 ; established himself at Manchester, Nov. 29 ; returning to Scotland, he fought the battle of Falkirk, Jan. 17, 1746 ; defeated at (Julloden, April 16 ; escaped to France, Sept. 20. Lords Kilmarnock and Balmerino executed on Tower-hill, Aug. 18, Lovat, Dec. 8. Frederick, Prince of Wales, died, March 20, 1751. The new style introduced and the calendar altered, Sept. 3 being called the 14, and the year made to begin on Jan. I instead of March 24, Sept. 3, 1752. The Marriage Act, 26 Geo. II. c. 33, passed, June 7, 1753- Seven Years' War began, May 18, 1756. Indecisive action off Minorca, May 20 ; Adm. Byng shot, March 14, 1757. Montreal surrendered to Gen. Amherst, Sept. 18, 1760; Canada conquered; George II. died, Oct. 25. George III. married Charlotte Sophia, Sept. 8, 1761 ; crowned, Sept. 22. Pitt resigned the office of Foreign Secretary, Oct. 5. Peace of Paris, Feb. 10, 1763. Lord Chief Justice Pratt decided against general warrants, May 6. American Stamp Act, 5 Geo. III. c. 12, passed, March 22, 1765 ; repealed, March 18, 1766. Parliamentary reports in the newspapers, permitted, May 8, 1771. America renounced allegiance, I773> hostilities commenced, April 19, 1775. Lord Chatham addressed the Lords for the last time on the American War, April 7, 1778; died, May n. Alarm of invasion, Aug., 1779. The Irish trade opened, Dec. 13. Lord George Gordon's riots in London, June 2, 1780 ; tried and acquitted, Feb. 8, 1781. Charles James Fox made Secretary of State, March 27, 1782. The independence of the United States acknowledged, Dec. 5> 1782 ; Mr Adams, the first American ambassador, received at St James, June I, 1785. The sinking fund adopted, March 29, 1786. Hastings impeached, 1786; tried, Feb. 13, 1788 ; acquitted, April 23, 1795- Severe illness of the king, Nov. 19, 1788 ; recovered, Feb. 19, 1789 ; great rejoicing throughout the kingdom. War declared against France, Feb. n, 1793. Habeas Corpus Act suspended, May 23, 1794. Hardy, Home Tooke, and others, tried for constructive treason, Oct. 29. The Prince of Wales married Caroline of Brunswick, April 8, 1795. The Princess Charlotte born, Jan. 7, 1796. Commercial panic, the Bank of England stopped cash payment, Feb. 27, 1797- Mutiny at Spithead, April, 1797 ; attheNore, June, 1797. Battle of the Nile, Aug. I, 1798. Union with Ireland, Jan. i, 1801. The Habeas Corpus Act again suspended, April 19. The treaty of Amiens concluded, March 27, 1802. War with France renewed, May 18, 1803. Death of Lord Nelson at Trafalgar, Oct. 21, 1805. Death of Mr Pitt, Jan. 23, 1806. Death of Mr Fox, Sept. 13. Trial and acquittal of the Duke of York, March 17, 1809. The jubilee of George III. celebrated, Oct. 25. Riots in London pending the arrest of Sir F. Burdett, April 6, 1810. The king's last illness, Dec. 20. The Prince of Wales appointed Regent, Feb. 5, 1811. Mr Perceval assassinated by Bellingham, May n, 1812. Peace restored to France, May 30, 1814 ; the allied sovereigns visited London, June 7 ; peace concluded with the United States, Dec. 24. The battle of Waterloo, June 18, 1815. Property tax repealed, March 19, 1816. Marriage of the Princess Charlotte to Prince Leopold, May 2. Habeas Corpus Act again suspended, March 4, 1817. Death of the Princess Charlotte, Nov. 6. Spa- fields riots, Dec. 2. William Hone tried for libel and acquitted, Dec. 18. Habeas Corpus Act restored, Jan. 28, 1818. Death of Queen Charlotte, Nov. 17. Birth of Queen Victoria, May 24, 1819. Reform riots at St Peter's-field, Man- chester, Aug. 16. Death of George III., Jan. 29, 1820. Cato-street conspiracy discovered, Feb. 23 ; Thistlewood executed, May i. George IV. crowned, July 19, 1821. Queen Caroline died, Aug. 7. Commercial panic, Dec. 8, 1825. Lord Canning made Premier, April 30, 1827 ; died, Aug. 8. The Wellington Ministry appointed, Jan. 25, 1828. The Catholic Emancipation Act, 10 Geo. IV. c. 7) passed, April 13,1829. Metropolitan police established, Sept. 29. George IV. died at Windsor Castle, June 26, 1 830. The Liverpool and Manchester Rail- way opened, Mr Huskisson killed, Sept. 15. Earl Grey succeeded the Duke of ENGLAND 253 Wellington as Prime Minister, Nov. 22. The Reform Bill introduced in the Com- mons by Lord Russell, March I, 1831. The cholera first known at Sunderland, April 26. Coronation of William IV. and Queen Adelaide, Sept. 9. Reform riots at Bristol, Oct. 8. Reform Act, 2 Will. IV. c. 44, passed, June I, 1832. The first parliament under the New Reform Bill met, Feb. 5, 1833. A bill for the ex- tinction of slavery in the British colonies, 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 72, Aug. 28, to come into operation on the 1st of Aug., 1834. The New Poor Law, 3 &4 Will. IV. c. 40, passed, Aug. 14. The Houses of Parliament destroyed by fire, Oct. 16. Sir Robert Peel made Premier, Dec. 10. The Corporation Reform Act, 5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 76, passed, Sept. 9, 1835. The English Church Reform Bill and New Mar- riage Act, 6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 86, passed, Aug. 17, 1836. King William died, June 30, 1837. Queen Victoria crowned, June 28, 1838. The first war with China com- menced, Aug. 31, 1839. The uniform penny post came into operation, Jan. 10, 1840. The Queen married to her cousin, Prince Albert, Feb. 10. Edward Oxford made an attempt upon Her Majesty's life, June 10. Birth of the Princess Royal, Nov. 21. Tower of London nearly destroyed by fire, Oct 30, 1841. The Prince of Wales bom, Nov. 9. Prince Albert laid the foundation-stone of the New Royal Ex- change, Jan. 17, 1842. The King of Pnissia visited the Queen, Jan. 24, 1842. The life of the Queen attempted by John Francis, May 30, and by J. W. Bean, July 3. The Thames Tunnel opened, March 25, 1843. The Duke of Sussex died, April 21. The Queen visited Louis Philippe, Sept 2. The Emperor of Russia visited England, June I, 1844. Louis Philippe visited the Queen, Oct. 6. The New Royal Exchange opened, Oct. 28. The Queen and Prince Albert visited the King of Prussia, Aug. 9, 1845. The Corn Laws repealed, June 26, 1846. The proposed rising of the Chartists frustrated, 150,000 citizens enrolled as special constables ; a meeting was held on Kennington Common, April 10, 1848. William Hamilton fired at the Queen, May 19, 1849. The Queen visited Ire- land, Aug. i. Adelaide, Queen Dowager, died at Stanmore Priory, Dec. 2 ; buried at Windsor, Dec. 13. The Britannia Tubular Bridge opened, March 6, 1850. Her Majesty attacked by Robert Pate, May 27. Sir Robert Peel fell from his horse, June 29 ; died, July 2. The Duke of Cambridge, seventh son of George HI., died, July 8. The Queen visited Belgium, Aug. 21. Louis Philippe died, Aug. 26. The electric telegraph between Dover and Calais laid, Aug. 28. Gen. Haynau attacked by Barclay and Co.'s men in Southwark, Sept. 5. The Great Exhibition in Hyde Park opened, May I, 1851. The Duke of Wellington died, Sept. 14, 1852 ; his public funeral, Nov. 18. The review of the Baltic fleet at Spithead, March II, 1854. Treaty of alliance between England, France, and Turkey signed, March 12. War declared against Russia, April 26. The King of Portugal, and his brother, the Duke of Oporto, visited Queen Victoria, June 2. The Crystal Palace opened at Sydenham, June 10. An inquiry into the conduct of the Crimean war ordered, Jan. 29, 1855 ; committee appointed, Feb. 23. The Emperor and Empress of the French arrived on a visit to the Queen, April 17 ; received the address of the Corporation of London at the Guildhall, April 19 ; returned to Paris, April 21. Crimean medals distributed by Her Majesty in St James's Park, May 18. Sunday Trading Bill riots in Hyde Park, June 24. The Queen visited the Emperor of the French, Aug. 18. Prince Fred- erick of Prussia visited the Queen, Sept. 15. Visit of the Queen to the wounded Crimean soldiers at Chatham, Nov. 28. The King of Sardinia visited Her Majesty, Nov. 30. A treaty of peace between Russia and the allies signed, March 30, 1856 ; proclaimed, April 28. Public entry of the Guards into London, July 9, 1856. The Duchess of Gloucester died, April 30, 1857. Rebellion of the Sepoys in India broke out in May. The Grand-Duke Constantine of Russia visited the Queen at Osborne, May 31. Letters patent granting the title of Prince Consort to Prince Albert, issued June 25. The Victoria Cross distributed, June 26. The Emperor and Empress of the French visited Queen Victoria at Osbome, Isle of Wight, 254 ENGLAND Aug. 6. Suspension of the bank charter, Nov. 12. Arrival of the Siamese ambassadors at Portsmouth, Oct. 27 ; received by the Queen, Nov. 16. Marriage of the Princess Royal with Prince Frederick William of Prussia, Jan. 25, 1858 ; departure of, for Berlin, Feb. 2. Riots at Dublin upon the entry of the Earl of Eglinton, Lord-Lieut., March 12, 1858. Visit of the Queen and the Prince Con- sort to Birmingham, May 15, 1858 ; visit of, to Cherbourg on the opening of the Napoleon Docks, Aug. 5, 1858 ; visit of, to the Princess Frederick William of Prussia, Aug. 10, 1858. Visit of the Queen to Leeds to open the new Town Hall, Sept. 7, 1858. The Indian mutiny suppressed, March, 1859. The de- tection of the great gang of bank forgers, May 13, 1859. Her Majesty distributed the Victoria Cross at Buckingham Palace, June 8. The Handel Festival at the Crystal Palace, June 20. The Great Eastern steam-ship launched, Sept. 14. Pullinger's frauds on the Bank of London, April 19, 1860. The Anglo-French com- mercial treaty signed, Jan. 23, 1 860. Capt. Harrison of the Great Eastern drowned, Jan. 21. The Nuttall Will case tried, March 19. Her Majesty held a levee for the Volunteer officers, March 7, upwards of 2500 were present ; the Queen reviewed the Rifle Volunteers of England in Hyde Park, when upwards of 20,000 were present under arms, June 23 ; the National Rifle Association opened by Her Majesty, July 2. St Martin's Hall destroyed, Aug. 26. The Empress of France privately visited the Queen, Dec. 4. A violent gale visited the Metropolis, doing serious damage, Feb. 21, 1861. Death of the Duchess of Kent, March 16. Indian Famine Relief Fund formed, March 28. The seventh decimal census taken, April 8. The Queen and the Prince Consort visited Ireland, Aug. 21. Accident in the Clay- ton Tunnel, Aug. 25; Post Office Savings' Banks established, Sept. 16; the seizure of Messrs Mason and Slidell on board the Trent, by the San Jacinto, Nov. 9 ; Her Majesty held her first investiture of the most exalted Order of the Star of India, at Windsor Castle, Nov. I ; Messrs Mason and Slidell surrendered to England, Dec. 29 ; the Prince Consort died, Dec. 14 ; buried at Windsor, Dec. 23. A terrible explosion at the Hartley Colliery, 204 persons killed, Jan. 16, 1862 ; Mr G. Peabody gave ^150,000 to the Metropolis, March 12; the International Ex- hibition opened, May I ; closed, Nov. I ; the sluice of the Middle Level Drain at King's Lynn, having burst, the whole country was inundated, May 4 ; the new Westminster Bridge opened, May 24 ; return of the Prince of Wales from his Eastern tour, June 14 ; the marriage of the Princess Alice, July I ; the Gari- baldian riots in Hyde Park, Oct. 5. Accident to the Princess Alice at Osborne, Jan. i, 1863 ; Metropolitan Railway opened, Jan. 9 ; Prince Alfred elected King of Greece, Feb. 3 ; the Prince of Wales took his seat in the House of Lords, Feb. 5 ; presented with the freedom of the Fishmongers' Company, Feb. 12 ; the ar- rival and reception of the Princess Alexandra, March 7 ; the Corporation of London presented the Princess with a diamond necklace and earrings, valued at ,10,000, March 9 ; marriage of, with the Prince of Wales, March 10 ; Lord Palmerston installed Lord Rector of the University of Glasgow, March 29 ; ac- couchement of the Princess Louis of Hesse, April 5 ; the Queen visited the Royal Victoria Hospital, Netley, May 8 ; the Viceroy of Egypt arrived in London, June 3 ; the city entertained the Prince and Princess of Wales, June 8 ; visit of, to Ox- ford, June 1 6, 1 8 ; Captains Speke and Grant, the discoverers of the source of the Nile, arrived in London, June 18 ; visit of the Prince of Wales to Halifax, Aug. 3 ; the Queen visits His Majesty the King of the Belgians, Aug. 1 1 ; a shock of an earthquake felt in England, Oct. 6 ; refusal of the English government to sanction the International Congress in Paris, Nov. 27 ; New Southwark-street opened, Jan. I, 1864; birth of a son to the Prince and Princess of Wales at Frogmore House, Jan. 8 ; christened at Buckingham Palace, March 10 ; the Charing Cross Railway opened, Jan. 1 1 ; intercession of England with the powers who were parties to the settlement of 1852, relative to the affairs of Denmark, Feb. 23 ; material aid refused to, Feb. 25 ; conference upon the affairs of Denmark, ENGLAND 255 April 25 ; conclusion of, without any definite result, June 25 ; the Saxon mer- chant vessel captured by a United States man of war, Feb. 29 ; the Bradfield reser- voir, Sheffield, burst, causing considerable damage, and 270 persons killed, March 1 1 ; the Queen visited the Royal Horticultural Gardens, being the first time she ap- peared in public since the death of the Prince Consort, March 30 ; Garibaldi ar- rived in England, April 3 ; made his entry into London, April 1 1 ; received the free- dom of the city, April 20 ; left England suddenly, April 27 ; the Tercentenary of Shakespeare kept throughout England, April 23 ; review of the Volunteers in Hyde Park by the Prince and Princess of Wales, May 28; visit of, to Cambridge, June 2, 4 ; action between the Kearsage and the Alabama, June 20 ; the Georgia British merchant vessel captured by the Niagara United States war frigate, Aug. 24 ; the Prince and Princess of Wales left London for Denmark, Sept 3 ; returned, Nov. 7 ; explosion of two gunpowder magazines at Erith, Oct. I. Letter of the Queen upon railway accidents, Jan. I, 1865 ; Parliament assembled, Feb. 7 ; an address of condolence of both Houses to the United States upon the assassination of President Lincoln, May I ; visit of the Prince of Wales to Ireland on the opening of the Dublin International Exhibition, May 9; birth of a second son to the Prince and Princess of Wales, June 3, christened July 7 ; cattle plague broke out in vari- ous counties, June 20, 27 ; an act passed for the concentration of the law courts, 28 & 29 Viet. c. 49, June 19 ; dissolution of parliament, July 12 ; the foundation- stone of Blackfriars Bridge laid, July 20 ; the Prince and Princess of Wales visited Cornwall, July 24, 27 ; failure of the 4th attempt to lay the Atlantic cable, Aug. 1 1 ; general election, July, Aug. ; visit of the French fleet to Portsmouth, Aug. 3 1 ; visit of the Queen to Germany, Aug. 8 ; returned, Sept. 8 ; funeral of Lord Palmerston, in Westminster Abbey, Oct. 27 ; explosion of a gasometer at Nine Elms, nine men killed and several wounded, Oct. 31 ; the Pneumatic Despatch Tube opened to the General Post-office, Nov. 7 ; Confederate Cruiser, Slienandoah, surrendered to H. M. Ship Donegal, and given up to the United States, Nov. 9 ; treaty of commerce with Austria, Dec. 16. Parliament opened by the Queen, the first timesince 1861, Feb. 6, 1866 ; the Albert Medal for saving life from shipwreck established, March 7 ; the Queen's letter to Mr Peabody, March 28 ; Reform Bill introduced into parliament, March 12; defeated, June 1 8 ; first appearance of the cattle plague in Ireland, May 12 ; marriage of the Princess Mary of Cambridge to Prince Teck, June 12 ; and the Princess Helena to Prince Christian, July 5 > riots in Hyde Park, the railing thrown down and several persons wounded, July 23 ; message from the Queen to the President of the United States, congratulating him upon the successful laying of the Atlantic cable, and the reply of the President, July 28 ; visit of the Prince and Princess of Wales to York, Aug. 9 ; recovery and com- pletion of the Atlantic cable of 1865, Sept 8 ; visit of the English Volunteers to Belgium, Oct. 10 ; the great meteoric showers seen in London, Nov. 13 ; visit of the Queen to Wolverhampton, Nov. 30. A great snow storm which destroyed many of the over-house telegraphs in London, Jan. 2, 5, 1867 ; great distress at the East end of London, 40,000 persons dependent upon charity, Jan. and Feb. ; de- signs for the New National Gallery exhibited, Jan. and Feb. ; 40 persons drowned in the Regent's Park by the breaking of the ice, Jan. 15 ; the lions at the base of Nelson's Column uncovered, Jan. 31 ; the Queen opened the second session of the 7th parliament, Feb. 5 ; the designs for the new Palace of Justice exhibited, Feb. 8 ; the Fenians attempted to surprise Chester Castle, Feb. II ; Reform demon- stration at the Agricultural Hall, the procession starting from Trafalgar Square, Feb. 12 ; the Princess of Wales delivered of a Princess at Marlborough House, Feb. 20 ; resolutions upon reform introduced into the Commons by Mr D'Israeli, Feb. 25 (see Reform) ; robbery of .2000 in bullion, upon the River Thames, Feb. 27 ; Savoy Chapel restored at the expense of the Queen, and reopened, April 21 ; the Queen laid the foundation-stone of Hall of Arts and Science, Kensington, May 10 ; the International College at Kew opened by the Prince of Wales, July 10 ; 256 ENGLAND, KINGS AND QUEENS OF the Viceroy of Egypt visited London, July 6 ; received by the Queen at Windsor, July 8 ; left London, July 18 ; visit of the Belgian Volunteers, July II (see Volun- teers) ; the Sultan arrived in London, July 12 ; visited the Queen at Windsor, July 13 ; Naval Review at Spithead, in honour of, July 17 ; departure of, July 23 ; meeting of the Reform League in Hyde Park, to protest against the Royal Parks Bill, Aug. 5 ; the Reform Bill received the royal assent, Aug. 15 ; the Prince and Princess of Wales left London for Wiesbaden, returned, Oct. 18; private visit of the Queen of the French to Her Majesty at the Isle of Wight ; Fenian riots at Manchester, the leaders Deasy and Kelly rescued, and the police- man Brett killed, Sept. 18 ; McDonnell, a bandsman in the Royal Life Guards, shot by Fenians at Bloomsbury, Sept. 18 ; visit of the Queen of Holland to Eng- land ; a deputation of 80 Fenian sympathizers, headed by Mr Finlan, whom Mr Hardy, the Home Secretary, refused to receive, forced their way into the Home Office and held an indignation meeting, Nov. 18 ; a deputation visited Windsor to present a petition to Her Majesty, Nov. 22 ; procession through London from Clerkenwell Green to Hyde Park, Nov. 24 ; opening of the third session of the 7th parliament, owing to the war with Abyssinia, Nov. 19 ; resolution to increase the Income Tax, brought in by the Chancellor of the Exchequer, Nov. 26 ; royal assent given to, Dec. 7, and the House of Commons adjourned until Feb. 13, 1868 ; visited by a severe storm doing considerable damage, Dec. I ; arrival of the brother of the Tycoon of Japan, and reception by the Queen at Windsor, Dec. 4 ; explosion of gunpowder at Clerkenwell Prison, by Fenians ; the Prison wall par- tially blown down, several houses destroyed, and seven persons killed, 1 1 1 wounded, and the loss of property estimated at ^4000, Dec. 13 ; the Gunpowder Mills of Messrs Hall & Son, at Faversham, exploded, killing 1 1 men, Dec. 28. ENGLAND, THE KINGS AND QUEENS OF. HENGIST, first monarch of Britain, landed in the Isle of Thanet, 449 ; laid the foundation of the monarchy, 455 ; defeated Vortimer at Crayford, Jan., 457 ; massacred 300 British nobles on Salisbury Plain, May I, 474. He bore in his standard the white horse, blazoned in the same manner as that now borne by the dukes of Brunswick. He was born at Angria, in Westphalia ; reigned 34 years ; died, 488. ELLA, second monarch, landed at Shoreham, in Sussex, 477 ; assumed the title of King of the South Saxons, 490 ; died, 499. CERDIC, third monarch, arrived in Britain, 495, and overcame Arthur near Chard, Somerset, 519 ; began the kingdom of the West Saxons the same year ; died, 534. CYNRIC, second king of the West Saxons, fourth monarch, eldest son of Cerdic, succeeded, 534 ; died, 560. CEAULIN, the third king of the West Saxons, and fifth monarch, succeeded his father, 560 ; seized on Sussex, 590 ; abdicated, 591 ; died in banishment, 593. ETHELBERT I., fifth king of Kent, and sixth monarch, 560 ; St Augustine first arrived in his dominions, who, with his followers, were entertained by the king at Canterbury, where they settled ; to whose doctrine Ethelbert became a con- vert ; he gave Augustine an idol temple without the walls of the city, as a burial-place for him and his successors, which was converted into the first monas- tery ; died, May 26, 604, and was buried at Canterbury. REDWALD, third king of the East Angles, seventh monarch, 599 ; died, 624. EDWIN THE GREAT, king of Northumberland, succeeded as eighth monarch, 617. He was the first Christian and the ninth king of Northumberland. He lost his life in a battle at Hatfield, Oct. 4, 633. OSWALD, tenth king of Northumberland, and ninth monarch of Britain, 633. He was slain at Maserfield, in Shropshire, Aug. I, 642. OswiN, Ilth king of Northumberland, loth monarch of Britain, Oct. 13, 642. ENGLAND, KINGS AND QUEENS OF 257 He defeated Penda, the Mercian, and Ethelred, king of the East Angles, Nov. 6, 655 ; died, Feb. 15, 670. ADULF, sixth king of the Mercians, nth monarch, 664; died, 675, and was buried at Peterborough. ETHELRED, seventh king of Mercia, and I2th monarch, 675. He desolated part of Kent, and in 677 destroyed Rochester, and many religious foundations ; to atone for which he became a monk, 704, and died abbot of Bradney, 716. CENRED, his nephew, eighth king of Mercia, and I3th monarch, 704 ; reigned four years, and following his uncle's example, became a monk. CEOLRED, son of Ethelred, ninth king of the Mercians, and I4th monarch, 709 ; was killed in battle with the West Saxons, 716, and was buried at Lichfield. ETHELBALD I., tenth king of the Mercians, I5th monarch, 716 ; built Croy- land Abbey, in Lincolnshire. He was slain by his own subjects, and was buried at Repton, in Derbyshire, 755. OFFA, the nth king of the Mercians, and the i6th monarch, 755. He was born lame, deaf, and blind, which continued till he arrived at manhood. He took up arms against Kent, slew their king at Otterford, and conquered that kingdom. He caused a great trench to be dug from Bristol to Basingwerk, in Flintshire, as the boundary of the Britons who harboured in Wales, 774. Offa first ordained the sounding of trumpets before the kings of England, to denote their appearance, and require respect. He admitted his son, Egfrid, a partner in his sovereignty ; and, out of devotion, paid a visit to Rome, where he made his kingdom subject to a tribute, then called Peter-pence, and procured the canonization of St Alban. At his return he built St Alban's monastery, in Hertfordshire, 793. He died at Offley, June 29, 794, and was buried at Bedford, in a chapel since swallowed up by the river Ouse. EGFRID, 12th king of the Mercians, and I7th monarch, July 13, 794; but died, Dec. 17, following, and was buried at St Alban's. CENULF, 1 3th king of the Mercians, and i8th monarch, 794. He conquered Kent, and gave that kingdom to Cuthred, 798. He built Winchcomb monastery, in Gloucestershire, where he led the captive prince, Pren, to the altar, and released him without ransom or entreaty ; died, 819, and was buried at Winchcomb. EGBERT, I7th king of the West Saxons, and igth, but first sole monarch of the English. He conquered Kent, and laid the foundation of the sole monarchy, 823, which put an end to the Saxon heptarchy, and was solemnly crowned at Winchester, when, by his edict, he ordered all the south of the island to be called England, 827 ; died, Feb. 4, 838, and was buried at Winchester. ETHELWOLF, eldest son of Egbert, succeeded to his father, notwithstanding, at the time of Egbert's death, he was bishop of Winchester. In 853, he or- dained tithes to be collected, and exempted the clergy from regal tributes. He visited Rome in 855, and confirmed the grant of Peter-pence, and agreed to pay Rome 300 marks per annum. His son Ethelbald obliged him to divide the sovereignty with himself, 855 ; died, Jan. 13, 857, and was buried at Steyning, Essex. ETHELBALD II., eldest son of Ethelwolf, succeeded, 857 ; died, Dec. 20, 860, and was buried at Sherborne, but removed to Salisbury. ETHELBERT II., second son of Ethelwolf, succeeded, 860 ; died, 866, was buried at Sherborne, and was succeeded by ETHELRED I., third son of Ethelwolf, 866 ; he was wounded at Wittingham, which occasioned his death, April 27, 871. He was buried at Wimborne, in Dorsetshire. ALFRED, the fourth son of Ethelwolf, succeeded, 871, in the 22nd year of his age ; was crowned at Winchester, and is distinguished by the title of Alfred the Great He was born at Wantage, in Berkshire, 849 ; died, Oct. 26, 901, and was buried at Winchester. 17 258 ENGLAND, KINGS AND QUEENS OF EDWARD THE ELDER, his son, succeeded him, and was crowned at Kingston- upon-Thames, May 16, 902. In 911, Leolin, Prince of Wales, did homage to Edward for his principality. Died at Farringdon, in Berkshire, 925, and was buried at Winchester. ATHELSTAN, his eldest son, succeeded him, and was crowned with far greater magnificence than usual, at Kingston-upon-Thames, 925. He made the Princes of Wales tributary, 939. Died, Oct. 17, 941, at Gloucester. EDMUND I., the fifth son of Edward the Elder, succeeded at the age of 18, and was crowned king at Kingston-upon-Thames, 941. On May 26, 946, he was stabbed by Leolf, a noted robber, whom he had sentenced to banishment, and died of the wound. He was buried at Glastonbury. EDRED, his brother, aged 28, succeeded, 946, and was crowned at Kingston- upon-Thames, Aug. 17 ; died, Nov. 23, 955, and was buried at Winchester. EDWY, the eldest son of Edmund, succeeded, and was crowned at Kingston- upon-Thames, 955 ; died of grief, Oct. i, 958, after a turbulent reign, and was buried at Winchester. EDGAR, at the age of 16, succeeded his brother, and was crowned at Kingston- upon-Thames, 958, and again at Bath, 973 ; died, July 8, 975, and was buried at Glastonbury. EDWARD THE MARTYR, his eldest son, succeeded him, being but 12 years of age, and was crowned by Dunstan, at Kingston-upon-Thames, 975. He was stabbed by the instructions of his mother-in-law, as he was drinking at Corfe- castle, in the Isle of Purbeck, in Dorsetshire, March 18, 978, and buried at Ware- ham, without any ceremony, but removed three years after, in great pomp, to Shaftesbury. ETHELRED II. succeeded his brother, and was crowned at Kingston-upon- Thames, April 14, 979 ; took refuge in Normandy from the Danes, 1012. SWEYN was proclaimed king of England, 1013 ; he was killed, Feb. 3, 1014, at Thetford, in Norfolk. CANUTE, his son, was proclaimed, March, 1014, and endeavoured to gain the affections of his English subjects, but without success ; retired to Denmark, and Ethelred returned at the invitation of his subjects. Canute returned, 1015, soon after he had left England, and landed at Sandwich. Ethelred retired to the north, but by evading a battle with the Danes, he lost the affections of his subjects, and retiring to London he expired, April 23, 1016. EDMUND IRONSIDE, his son, was crowned at Kingston-upon-Thames, April, 1016; but by a disagreement among the nobility, Canute was crowned at South- ampton. In June following, Canute totally routed Edmund, at Assendon, in Essex, who soon after met Canute in the Isle of Alney, in the Severn, where a peace was concluded, and the kingdom divided between them. Edmund did not sur- vive above a month after, being murdered at Oxford, Nov. 30, 1017, before he had reigned a year. He left two sons and two daughters. CANUTE was established, 1017 ; made an alliance with Normandy, and married Emma, Ethelred's widow, 1018; died at Shaftesbury, Nov. 12, 1037; buried at Winchester. HAROLD I., his son, began his reign, 1035 ; died, March 17, 1040; and was succeeded by his younger brother, HARDICANUTE, king of Denmark, chosen king, 1040 ; died at Lambeth, 1042 ; buried at Winchester, and succeeded by a son of Queen Emma by her first husband, Ethelred II. EDWARD THE CONFESSOR was born at Islip, in Oxfordshire, began his reign in the 4Oth year of his age. He was crowned at Winchester, April 3, 1043 ; married Editha, daughter of Godwin, Earl of Kent, Jan. 23, 1045 ; he was the first king of England that touched for the king's evil, 1058 ; died, Jan. 5, 1066, aged 65 ; was buried in Westminster Abbey, which he rebuilt, where his bones were ENGLAND, KINGS AND QUEENS OF 259 enshrined in gold, set with jewels, 1066. Emma, his mother, died, 1052. He was succeeded by HAROLD II., son of the Earl of Kent; crowned, Jan. 6, 1066; defeated his brother Tostig and the king of Norway, who had invaded his dominions, at Stanford Bridge, Sept. 25th, 1066 ; but was killed by the Normans at Hastings, Oct. 14 following. WILLIAM I., Duke of Normandy, a descendant of Rollo, bom, 1027 ; paid a visit to Edward the Confessor, in England, 1051 ; betrothed his daughter to Harold II., 1058 ; made a claim of the crown of England, 1066 ; invaded Eng- land, landed at Pevensey, in Sussex, the same year ; defeated the English troops at Hastings, Oct. 14, 1066, when Harold was slain, and William assumed the title of Conqueror. He was crowned at Westminster Abbey, Dec. 25, 1066 ; invaded Scotland, 1071 ; subverted the English constitution, 1074 ; re- fused to swear fealty to the pope for the crown of England ; wounded by his son Robert, at Gerberoy, in Normandy, 1078 ; invaded France, 1087 ; soon after fell from his horse at Mantes, and contracted a rupture ; he died at Hermenlrude, near Rouen, in Normandy, Sept. 9, 1087 ; was buried at Caen, and succeeded in Normandy by his eldest son, Robert, and in England by his second son, WILLIAM II., born, 1057 ; crowned at Westminster, Sept 26, 1087 ; invaded Normandy with success, 1090 ; killed by accident as he was hunting in the New Forest, by Sir Walter Tyrrel, Aug. 2, 1 100, aged 43 ; was buried at Winchester, and succeeded by his brother, HENRY I., born at Selby, in Yorkshire, 1068; crowned, Aug. 5, noo; married Matilda, daughter of Malcolm III., king of Scots, Nov. II following; his brother Robert landed at Portsmouth with a large army, July 19, 1101 ; made peace with his brother, noi ; invaded Normandy, 1105 ; attacked by Robert, whom he defeated at Tinchebrai, and took prisoner, Sept. 28, 1 106, and sent him to England, where he was detained a prisoner for 28 years ; betrothed his daughter Matilda to the Emperor of Germany, 1 100 ; challenged by Louis of France, 1117 ; lost his queen, May I, Ill8 ; his eldest son and two others of his children shipwrecked and lost with 1 80 of his nobility, in coming from Normandy, Nov. 25, 1 1 20; married Adelais, daughter of Geoffrey, Earl of Lou vain, Feb. 2, 1 121 ; surfeited himself with eating lampreys, at St Dennis, in Normandy, and died, Dec. I, 1135, aged 67 ; his body was brought over to England, and buried at St Mary's Abbey, Reading. He was succeeded by his nephew, STEPHEN, third son of his sister Adela, by the Earl of Blois, born, 1105. Ma- TILDA, or Maud, daughter of Henry I., born, noi ; married to Henry IV., Em- peror of Germany, 1109 ; the English nobility swear fealty to her, 1126 ; buried her husband, 1127 ; married Jeffrey Plantagenet, Earl of Anjou, 1130 ; set aside from the English succession by Stephen, 1135 ; he was crowned at Westminster, Dec. 26 ; she landed in England, and claimed a right to the crown, Sept. 30, 1139 ; defeated Stephen at Lincoln, Feb. 2, 1140, and confined him in Bristol, 1141 ; Matilda crowned at Winchester, 1141 ; besieged in Oxford, and fled from a window of Oxford Castle by a rope, in the winter of 1 142 ; retired to Nor- mandy, 1147 ; her son Henry concluded a peace with Stephen, 1153. Stephen died, Oct. 25, 1154, and was buried at Faversham Abbey, Kent. HENRY II., born at Mans in Maine, 1133; began his reign, Oct. 25, 1154 ; ar- rived in England, Dec. 8, and was with his Queen, Eleanor, crowned at Westminster, the 1 9th of the same month ; crowned at Worcester, Dec. 25, 1157; began his long and memorable struggle with the Papal power, 1 162 ; Becket installed archbishop of Canterbury, May 24, 1162 ; killed, Dec. 29, 1170 ; the Constitutions of Clarendon passed, Jan. 25, 1 164 ; Ireland annexed to the British crown, 1 1 71-72 ; had his son Henry crowned King of England, June 14, 1 170 ; imprisoned his queen on account of Rosamond, his concubine, 1173; took the King of Scotland prisoner, and obliged him to give up the independency of his crown, 1175 ; named his son John Lord 26o ENGLAND, KINGS AND QUEENS OF of Ireland, 1 1 76 ; had, the same year, an amour with Alicia of France, the in- tended princess of his son Richard, 1181 ; lost his eldest son Henry, June ir, 1183 ; his son Richard rebelled, 1185 ; his son Geoffrey trodden under-foot and killed at a tournament in Paris, Aug. 19, 1186 ; made a convention with Philip of France to go to the holy wars, 1188 ; died of grief at the Castle of Chinon, July 6, 1189, aged 61 ; was buried at Fontevraud, in France, and succeeded by his son Richard. Eleanor, queen to King Henry 11., died, June 26, 1202. RICHARD I. was born at Oxford, Sept. 13, 1157 ; crowned at London, Sept. 3, 1 189 ; embarked at Dover, Dec. 1 1, 1 189 ; set out on the crusade, and joined Philip of France on the plains of Vizelay, June 29, 1190; took Messina the latter end of the year ; married Berengaria, daughter of the king of Navarre, May 13, 1 191 ; taken prisoner near Vienna, on his return home, by Leopold, duke of Austria, Dec. 28, 1192 ; ransomed for ^"40,000, and set at liberty at Mentz, Feb. 4, 1194; returned to England, March 29 following ; wounded with an arrow at Chains, near Limoges, in Normandy, and died, April 8, 1199 ; buried at Fontevraud, and succeeded by his brother JOHN, the youngest son of Henry II., born at Oxford, Dec. 24, 1166; crowned at Westminster, May 27, 1199; divorced his wife Avisa, and married Isabella, daughter of the Count of Angouleme, and they were both crowned at West- minster, Oct. 8, 1200; went to Paris, 1200; took his nephew, Arthur, prisoner, Aug. I, 1 202, whilst he was besieging the castle of Mirabeau, whom he caused to be murdered, April 3, 1203 ; was excommunicated, 1209 ; landed in Ireland, June 8, 12 10 ; surrendered his crown to Pandulf, the pope's legate, May 15, 1213 ; absolved, July 2O following; signed Magna Charta, June 19, 1215 ; died at Newark, Oct. 19, 1216 ; buried at Worcester, where his corpse was dis- covered nearly entire, 1797, having been buried 580 years. He was succeeded by his son, HENRY III., born at Winchester, Oct. I, 1207 ; crowned at Gloucester, Oct. 28, 1216 ; received homage from Alexander of Scotland, at Northampton, 1218 ; crowned again at Gloucester, May 7> 1219 ; (he laid the first stone of the New Abbey Church, at Westminster, 1221 ;) married Eleanor of Provence, dowager of the Earl of Pembroke, Jan. 14, 1236 ; the first House of Commons met, Jan. 24, 1258 ; obliged by his nobles to resign the power of a sovereign, and sell Normandy and Anjou to the French, 1258-9 ; shut himself up in the Tower of London, for fear of his nobles, 1261 ; taken prisoner at Lewes, May 13, 1264 ; wounded at the battle of Evesham, Aug. 4, 1265 ; died, aged 66, at Bury St Edmund's, Nov. 16, 1272, buried at Westminster Abbey, Nov. 20, and was succeeded by his son Edward. Eleanor, Henry III.'s queen, died in a monas- tery at Ambersbury, about 1292, where she had retired. EDWARD I. born at Westminster, June 18, 1239 ; proclaimed at Temple Bar, Nov. 20, 1272 ; married Eleanor, princess of Castile, daughter of Ferdinand III., 1254 ; succeeded to the crown, Nov. 16, 1272 ; wounded in the Holy Land with a poisoned dagger ; recovered, and landed in England, Aug. 2, 1274 ; crowned at Westminster, Aug. 19, 1274, with his queen ; 280 Jews hanged in London for clipping the coin, Nov., 1278 ; went to France and did homage to the French king, 1279 ; reduced the Welsh princes, and annexed Wales to England, 1283 ; the Jews banished the kingdom, 1290 ; Eleanor, his queen, died of a fever on her journey to Scotland, at Grantham, in Lincolnshire, Nov. 28, 1290, and was con- veyed to Westminster, when elegant stone crosses were erected at each place where the corpse rested ; married Margaret, sister of Philip III., the king of France, Sept. 12, 1299 ; conquered Scotland, 1296, and brought to England their coronation chair; died of a flux at Burgh-upon-the-Sands, in Cumberland, July 7, 1307; buried at Westminster, Oct. 27, where, on May 2, 1774, some antiquaries, by con- sent of the chapter, examined his tomb, they found his corpse unconsumed, though buried 466 years. He was the first sovereign that quartered the arms of Eng- ENGLAND, KINGS AND QUEENS OF 261 land and France, and who was called Lord of Ireland on his coin. He was suc- ceeded by his son, EDWARD II., born at Caernarvon, in Wales, April 25, 1284; was the first king of England's eldest son that had the title of Prince of Wales, with which he was invested, 1284. He ascended the throne, July 8, 1307 ; married Isabella, daughter of the French king, Feb. 24, 1308; and was crowned with his queen at West- minster, Feb. 25, 1308 ; obliged by his barons to invest the government of the kingdom in 21 persons, March 16, 1309 ; went on a pilgrimage to Boulogne, Dec. 13, 1313 ; declared his queen and all her adherents enemies to the kingdom, 1325 ; conveyed his French dominions to his son Edward, Sept. 10, 1325; dethroned, Jan. 20, 1327, and succeeded by his son Edward III. ; murdered at Berkeley Castle, Sept. 21 following, and was buried at Gloucester. EDWARD III., born at Windsor, Nov. 13, 1311 ; succeeded to the crown, Jan. 20, 1327 ; crowned at Westminster, Jan. 29 following ; he married Philippa, daughter of the Earl of Hainault, Jan. 24, 1327; claimed the regency of France, 1328 ; confined his mother Isabella, and caused her favourite, Earl Mortimer, to be hanged at Tyburn, Nov. 29, 1330 ; defeated the French at the battle of Crecy, Aug. 26, 1346 ; the Scots defeated at Neville's Cross, Durham, Oct. 12, 1346 ; instituted the order of the Garter, 1344 ; resumed the title of King of France, 1369 ; Philippa, his queen, died at Windsor, Aug. 15, 1369, and was buried at Westminster ; Edward died at Shene, now Richmond, June 21, 1377, buried at Westminster, and succeeded by his grandson, Richard II., son to Edward the Black Prince. Edward was born, June 15, 1330 ; created Duke of Cornwall in full parliament, March 7, 1337, the first in England that bore the title of Duke ; created Prince of Wales, 1344 ; died of a consumption, June 8, 1376, and was buried at Canterbury. John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, fourth son of Edward III., born, 1339 ; married Blanche, daughter of the Duke of Lancaster, 1359, by whom he became possessed of that dukedom and title ; she died, 1396, and he married the daughter of the king of Castile and Leon, and took that title ; in 1397, he married a third wife, Catherine Swinford, from whom descended Henry IV. ; he died, 1399, and was buried at St Albans Abbey. RICHARD II., born at Bordeaux, Jan. 6, 1366 ; had two royal godfathers, the kings of Navarre and Majorca ; made guardian of the kingdom, Aug. 30, 1372 ; created Prince of Wales, 1377 ; succeeded his grandfather Edward III., June 22, 1377, when not II years old, and crowned at Westminster, July 16 ; married Anne, daughter of Charles IV., emperor of Germany, and king of Bohemia, Jan., 1382, who died without issue at Shene, and was buried at Westminster Abbey, Aug. 3, 1393 ; married Isabella, daughter to the king of France, Oct. 31, 1396. He was taken prisoner by Henry, Duke of Lancaster, his cousin, and sent to the Tower, Sept. 2, 1399 ; resigned his crown, Sept. 29 fol- lowing, and was succeeded by Henry IV. Richard was murdered in Pontefract Castle, Feb. 13, 1400, and buried at King's Langley, but removed to Westmin- ster 14 years afterwards. Thomas, Duke of Gloucester, uncle to Richard II., was smothered, Feb. 28, 1367. Thomas Beaufort, Duke of Exeter, half-brother to Richard II., died without issue, Dec. 24, 1424, and was buried at St Edmonds- bury, where his body was discovered uncorrupted, 1772, after being buried 348 years. HENRY IV., Duke of Lancaster, grandson of Edward III., born at Boling- broke, Lincolnshire, 1366 ; married Mary de Bohun, daughter of the Earl of Here- ford, who died, 1394, before he obtained the crown ; fought with the Duke of Norfolk, 1397, and banished ; returned to England in arms against Richard II., who resigned him his crown, and Henry was crowned, Oct. 13, 1399, when he created 47 knights of the Bath, including his three sons ; conspiracy against betrayed, Jan. 4, 1400 ; married a second queen, Joan of Navarre, widow of the 52 ENGLAND, KINGS AND QUEENS OF DukeofBretagne, 1402 ; she was crowned with great magnificence, Feb. 27 follow- ing, and died, 1417. He died of apoplexy in the Jerusalem Chamber, at West- minster, March 20, 1413 ; and was buried at Canterbury, and succeeded by his son, HENRY V., who was born at Monmouth, Aug. 9, 1388, and, when Prince of "Wales, was committed to prison for insulting one of the judges, 1412 ; crowned at Westminster, April 9, 1413 ; claimed the crown of France, 1414 ; invaded France, Aug., 141 5; defeated the French at Agincourt, Oct. 25 ; invaded Normandy with an army of 26,000 men, 1417? declared regent, and married Catherine of France, June 2, 1420 ; she was crowned at Westminster, Feb. 24 following ; out- lived Henry and was married afterwards to Owen Tudor, grandfather of Henry VII. Henry died of a pleurisy at Vincennes, near Paris, Aug. 31, 1422, aged 34 ; was buried at Westminster, and succeeded by HENRY VI., born at Windsor, Dec. 6, 1421 ; succeeded to the throne, Sept. I, 1422 ; proclaimed king of France the same year ; crowned at Westminster, Nov. 6, 1429 ; crowned at Paris, Dec. 17, 1430 ; married to Margaret, daughter of the Duke of Anjou, at Southwick, Hampshire, April 22, 1445, who was crowned at Westminster, April 30 following ; Henry taken prisoner at St Albans, 1455 ; but regained his liberty, 1461 ; and deposed, March 2 following, by his fourth cousin, Edward IV. j fled into Scotland, returned to England, and taken prisoner in Lancashire and brought to London, treated with great barbarity, and imprisoned in the Tower of London, July, 1466 ; re- stored to his throne, Oct. 9, 1470 ; taken prisoner again by Edward, April II, 1471 ; Queen Margaret and her son taken prisoners at Tewkesbury by Edward, May 4, 1471 ; the prince killed in cold blood, May 21, and Henry murdered in the Tower, June 20 following, and buried at Chertsey Abbey, aged 49 ; afterwards removed to Windsor. Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, fourth son of Henry IV., was strangled by the order of his nephew, Henry VI., and buried at St Albans, Feb., 1447. EDWARD IV., born at Rouen, April 29, 1441 ; descended from the third son of Edward III. ; elected king, March 3, 1461 ; crowned at Westminster, March4, 1461 ; sat publicly with the judges in Westminster-hall, 1462 ; married Lady Elizabeth Grey, widow of Sir John Grey of Groby, March i, 1465 ; crowned May 26 follow- ing. Edward caused his brother, the Duke of Clarence, who had joined the Earl of Warwick, to be drowned in a butt of malmsey wine, Feb. 17, 1478 ; died of a fever at Westminster, April 9, 1483 ; and was buried at St George's Chapel, Windsor, where his corpse was discovered undecayed, March n, 1789, and his dress nearly perfect, as were the lineaments of his face. He was succeeded by his infant son, EDWARD V., born at Westminster, Nov. 4, 1470 ; proclaimed king at London, April 9, 1483 ; deposed, June 26, following ; and, with the Duke of York, his brother, smothered soon after by their uncle, who succeeded him. RICHARD III., Duke of Gloucester, brother to Edward IV., born at Fothe- ringhay Castle, Northamptonshire, Oct. 21, 1450; took Prince Edward, son of Henry VI., prisoner, at Tewkesbury, and helped to murder him in cold blood ; afterwards married his widow ; made Protector of England, May 27, 1483 ; elected king, June 26, and crowned, July 6 following ; crowned at York, Sept. 8 ; lost his queen, March 16, 1485 ; slain in battle, at Bosworth, Aug. 22, 1485 ; was buried at Leicester, Aug. 25, and succeeded by HENRY VII., born at Pembroke, Jan. 21, 1457 ; he landed at Milford Haven, Aug. 7, 1485 ; defeated Richard III. at Bosworth-field, Aug. 22, 1485 ; elected king, 1485 ; crowned, Oct. 30, the same year ; married Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV., Jan. 18, 1486, who was crowned Nov. 25, 1487 ; received of the French king, as a compromise for his claim on that crown, ,186,250, besides 25,000 crowns yearly, 1492 ; married his eldest son, Arthur, to Princess Catherine of Spain, Nov. 14, 1501 ; Prince Arthur died, April 2, 1502; Queen ENGLAND, KINGS AND QUEENS OF 263 Elizabeth died in child-bed, Feb. II, 1503, and was buried at Westminster. Mary, his third daughter, married Louis XII. of France, OcL 9, 1514, by whom she was left without issue, and she married, May 2, 1515, Charles Brandon, Duke of Suffolk, by whom she had issue, and died, 1533, and was buried at Bury St Edmund's, where her corpse was discovered, Sept. 6, 1784, in a perfect state. She was grandmother of the unfortunate Lady Jane Grey. Henry married his daughter Margaret to James IV. of Scotland, June 25, 1503 ; the king died of consumption at Richmond, April 21, 1509, aged 54 ; was buried at Westminster, in the chapel which bears his name, and succeeded by his son, HENRY VIII., born at Greenwich, June 19, 1491 ; married Catherine, Infanta of Spain, widow of his brother Arthur, June 7, 1509 ; crowned, June 24 follow- ing ; had a personal interview with Francis I., king of France, at Ardrcs, June 7 24, 1520, and again at Boulogne, Oct. n, 1532; received the title of Defender of the Faith, Oct. II, 1521 ; in Nov., 1534, he was declared Head of the Church by parliament ; divorced Queen Catherine, and married Anne Boleyn, Jan. 25, 1533; Anne crowned, June I, 1533; assumed the title of Head of the Church of England, in the presence of his whole court, and received the first-fruits and tenths ; was excommunicated by Pope Paul, Aug. 30, 1535 ; Catherine, his first queen, died at Kimbolton, Jan. 7, 1536, aged 50; he put Anne, his second queen, to death, May 19, and married Jane Seymour, May 20, 1536, who died in child-bed, Oct. 24, 1537 ; married Anne of Cleves, Jan. 10, 1540; divorced her, July 10, 1540; married Catherine Howard, his 5th wife, Aug. 8 following, and beheaded her on Tower-hill, with Lady Rochford, Feb. 13, 1541 ; his title of King of Ireland was confirmed by act of parliament, Jan. 24, 1 544, to this king and his successors ; married Catherine Parr, his 6th wife, July 12, 1543. He died of a fever and an ulcerated leg, at Whitehall, Jan. 28, 1547, in the 56th year of his age ; buried at Windsor, and succeeded by his only son, EDWARD VI., born at Hampton Court, Oct. 12, 1537 ; crowned at West- minster, Feb. 28, 1547 ; died of consumption, at Greenwich, July 6, 1553 ; was buried at Westminster, and succeeded, agreeably to his will, by his cousin, Jane Grey, born, 1537 ; proclaimed Queen, July 10, 1553 ; deposed and sent to the Tower, where she, with Lord Dudley, her husband, and her father, were beheaded, Feb. 12, 1554, aged 17. MARY, born at Greenwich, Feb. 18, 1516; proclaimed, July 18, 1553; and crowned Oct. I, following ; married Philip of Spain, July 23, 1554 ; died of dropsy, Nov. 17, 1558; buried at Westminster, Dec. 14, and succeeded by her half-sister, ELIZABETH, born at Greenwich, Sept. 7, 1533 ; sent prisoner to the Tower, 1554 ; began to reign, Nov. 17, 1558 ; crowned at Westminster, Jan. 15, 1559 ; a marriage proposed between the Queen and the Duke of Anjou, 1571 ; but finally rejected, 1582; died at Richmond, March 24, 1603 ; buried at Westminster, April 28, 1603 ; succeeded by the son of Mary, Queen of Scots, then James VI. of Scotland. JAMES I., born at Edinburgh, June 19, 1566 ; crowned King of Scotland, July 2 9 '567, at 13 months, eight days old ; married Anne, Princess of Denmark, Aug. 20, 1589 ; succeeded to the crown of England, March 24, 1603 ; crowned at Westminster, July 25, 1603 ; first styled King of Great Britain, 1604 ; arrived at London, May 7 following ; lost his eldest son, Henry, Prince of Wales, Nov. 6, 1612, aged 19 ; married his daughter Elizabeth to the Prince Palatine of the Rhine, Feb. 14, 1613; went to Scotland, March 14, 1617; returned, Sept. 15, 1618; lost his queen, March 2, 1619 ; died of an ague, March 27, 1625 ; buried at Westminster, and was succeeded by CHARLES I., born at Dunfermline, Fifeshire, Nov. 19, 1600 ; succeeded to the crown, March 27, 1625 ; married Henrietta, daughter of Henry IV., king of 264 ENGLAND, KINGS AND QUEENS OF France, June 22 ; crowned at Westminster, Feb. 6, 1626, and at Holyrood, June 1 8, 1633 ; seized by Cornet Joyce, at Holmby, June 3, 1646 ; escaped from Hampton Court, and retreated to the Isle of Wight, Nov. n, 1648 ; closely con- fined in Carisbrook Castle, Dec. I ; removed to Windsor Castle, Dec. 23, to St James's, Jan. 15, 1649 ; tried in Westminster-hall, Jan. 20, condemned, 27, be- headed at Whitehall, Jan. 30, aged 49 ; buried in St George's Chapel, Windsor. His queen, Henrietta, died in France, Aug. 10, 1669. OLIVER CROMWELL, born at Huntingdon, April 25, 1599 ; chosen member of parliament for Huntingdon, 1628; made a Lieut. -Gen., 1643 ; made Protector for life, Dec. 16, 1653 ; was near being killed by falling from a coach-box, Oct., 1654 ; re-admitted the Jews into England, in 1656, after their expulsion of 365 years; refused the title of king, May 8, 1657 ; died at Whitehall, Sept. 13, 1658; and was succeeded by his son, RICHARD CROMWELL, proclaimed Protector, Sept. 14, 1658 ; resigned, April 22, 1659 ; died at Cheshunt, Hertfordshire, July 12, 1713, aged 86. CHARLES II., born at St James's Palace, May 30, 1630; escaped from St James's, April 23, 1648 ; landed in Scotland, 1650 ; crowned at Scone, Jan. i, 1651 ; defeated at the battle of Worcester, Sept. 3, 1651 ; escaped into Normandy, Oct. 17; landed at Dover, May 25, 1660, and restored to the throne, May 29, 1660 ; crowned, April 23, 1661 ; married Catherine, Infanta of Portugal, May 20, 1662; died, Feb. 6, 1685, aged 55> of apoplexy ; buried at Westminster, and was succeeded by his brother James. Catherine, his queen, died, Dec. 30, 1 705 . JAMES II., bom in Edinburgh Castle, Oct. 15, 1633 ; married Anne Hyde, Sept. 3, 1660, who died, March 31, 1671 ; married the Princess of Modena, Sept. 30, 1673 ; succeeded to the throne, Feb. 6, 1685; crowned at Westminster, April 23; Monmouth, natural son of Charles II., landed in England, June 15, 1685 ; proclaimed king at Taunton, in Somersetshire, June 20 following ; defeated near Bridgewater, July 6 ; beheaded on Tower-hill, July 15, aged 35 ; James's queen had a son, born, June 10, 1688 ; the king fled from his palace, Dec. 10, 1688 ; was seized soon after at Faversham, and carried back to Whitehall ; left England, Dec. n ; landed at Kinsale, in Ireland, with a French force, March 12, 1689 ; defeated and returned to France, July, 1690 ; died at St Germains, Sept. 16, 1701. WILLIAM III., Prince of Orange, bom at the Hague, Nov. 14, 1650 ; created Stadtholder, July 3, 1672 ; married the Princess Mary of England, Nov. 4, 1677 ; landed at Torbay, in England, with an army, Nov. 5, 1688; declared King of England, Feb. 13, 1689 ; crowned with his queen, April n, 1689 ; a plot laid for assassinating him, Feb., 1690 ; fell from his horse, and broke his collar-bone, Feb. 21, 1702 ; died, March 8, aged 52 ; was buried April 12 following, and left his sister-in-law, Anne, his successor to the crown, by the Succession Act, 13 & 14 Will. HI. c. 6, June 12, 1701. Mary, William's queen, born, April 30, 1662 ; proclaimed (with her husband) queen regent of England, Feb. 13, 1689 ; died of the small -pox, Dec. 28, 1694, aged 32, and was buried at Westminster. ANNE, born at St James's Palace, Feb. 6, 1665 ; married to Prince George of Denmark, July 28, 1683, by whom she had seventeen children, all of whom died young ; she came to the throne, March 8, 1702 ; crowned, April 23 ; lost her son, William, Duke of Gloucester, by a fever, July 30, 1700, aged n ; lost her husband, who died of asthma and dropsy, Oct. 28, 1708, aged 35 ; the queen died of apoplexy, Aug. I, 17141 aged 49; buried at Westminster, and was suc- ceeded by GEORGE I., Elector of Hanover, Duke of Brunswick-Lunenburg, bom, May 28, 1660; created Duke of Cambridge, &c., Oct. 5, 1706. Princess Sophia, his queen, mother of George II., died May 28, 1714, aged 83. He was proclaimed, Aug. I, 1714; landed, Sept. 18, following; crowned, Oct. 20; died on his journey to Hanover, June II, 1727, of a paralytic disorder. ENGLAND, KINGS AND QUEENS OF 265 GEORGE II., bom, Oct. 30, 1683 ; created Prince of Wales, Sept. 27, 1714 ; married the Princess Carolina Wilhelmina Dorothea, of Brandenburgh-Anspach, Sept. 2, 1705 ; ascended the throne, June II, 1727; crowned, Oct. II ; died, Oct. 25, 1760, aged 77, and was succeeded by his grandson, George III. Frederick Lewis, Prince of Wales, son of George II., born Jan. 20, 1707; ar- rived in England, Dec., 1728 ; married Augusta, Princess of Saxe-Gotha, April 2 7> 1 73& > forbidden the court the year following ; died, March 20, 1751, aged 44 ; having had issue, Augusta, born, Aug. n, 1737, afterwards Duchess of Bruns- wick ; George Augustus, afterwards King of England ; Edward Augustus, born, March 25, 1739, died Duke of York, Sept. 17, 1769 ; Eliza Caroline, born, Jan. 10, 1740, died, Sept., 1759 ; William Henry, born, Nov. 23, 1743, Duke of Gloucester, died, Aug. 25, 1805 ; Henry Frederick, born, Nov. 7, 1745, Duke of Cumberland, married, Oct., 1771, Anne Horton, daughter of Lord Irnham, and died without issue, Sept. 18, 1780; Louisa Anne, born, May 29, 1748, died, May 21, 1768 ; Frederick William, born, May 24, 1750, died, May 10, 1765 ; Caroline Matilda, born, July 22, 1751, died Queen of Denmark, 1775. His princess died of a consumption, Feb. 8, 1772, aged 52. GEORGE III., eldest son of Frederick, late Prince of Wales, was bora, June 4, 1738; created Prince of Wales, 1751 ; succeeded his grandfather, Oct. 25, 1760; proclaimed the next day; crowned, Sept. 22, 1761 ; married Charlotte Sophia, Princess of Mecklenburgh Strelitz, Sept. 8, 1761 ; died, Jan. 29, 1820 ; buried at Windsor. His issue were : i. George, Prince of Wales (afterwards George IV.), born, Aug. 12, 1762; married, April 8, 1795, Caroline Amelia Augusta, the second daughter of the Duke of Brunswick (by Augusta, the eldest sister of George III.), born, May 17, 1768, by whom he had issue, Charlotte Caroline Augusta, born, Jan. 7, 1796, who died, Nov. 6, 1817. 2. Frederick, Duke of York, Bishop of Osnaburg, born, Aug. 16, 1763 ; married at Berlin, Oct. 1, and again by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Nov. 21, to Frederica Charlotta Ulrica Catherina, Princess-Royal of Prussia, who was born, May "J, Ij6j ', died, Jan. 5, 1827. 3. William, born, Aug. 21, 1765, Duke of Clarence; passed through all the ranks of the navy, but received no command (aftenvards William IV. ). 4. Charlotte Augusta Matilda, born, Sept. 29, 1 766 ; married, May 1 7, 1 797, to Frederick William, Duke (afterwards king) of Wiirtemburg, who died, 1816. 5. Edward, Duke of Kent, bom, Nov. 2, 1767; died, Jan. 23, 1820. 6. Augusta Sophia, bom, Nov. 8, 1768. 7. Elizabeth, bom, May 22, 1770. 8. Ernest Augustus, Duke of Cumberland, born, June 5, 1771 ; married to the Dow- ager Princess of Salms, Aug. 29, 1814. 9. Augustus Frederick, Duke of Sussex, born, Jan. 27, 1773. 10. Adolphus Frederick, Duke of Cambridge, born, Feb. 24, 1774 ; died, July 8, 1850. n. Mary, born, April 25, 1776 ; married to William Frederick, Duke of Gloucester, July 22, 1816. 12. Sophia, born, Nov. 3, 1777. 13. Octavius, born, Feb. 23, 1779 ; died, May 3, 1783. 14. Alfred, born, SepL 22, 1780; died, Aug. 20, 1782. 15. Amelia, born, Aug. 8, 1783; died, Nov. 2, 1810. GEORGE IV., eldest son of George III., born at St James's, Aug. 12, 1762 ; married first Mary Anne Smythe, widow of Colonel Fitzherbert, Dec. 21, 1 785 ; second, the Princess Caroline of Brunswick, April 8, 1 795 ; assumed the office of Regent, Feb. 5, 1811 ; succeeded to the throne, Jan. 29, 1820 ; crowned at Westminster, July 19, 1821 ; died, June 26, 1830 ; buried at St George's, Windsor. Queen Caroline died of a broken heart, Aug. 7, 1821 ; buried at Brunswick. Princess Charlotte of Wales born, his only issue, Jan. 7> 1796; married Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, aftenvards King of Belgium, May 2, 1816; died in child-bed, Nov. 6, 1817. WILLIAM IV., born, Aug. 21, 1765 ; married, July 13, 1818, Adelaide, sister of the Duke of Saxe-Meiningen, born, Aug. 13, 1792; died, Dec. 2, 1849; was appointed Lord High Admiral in 1827 ; succeeded his brother, George IV., 266 ENGLAND, KINGS AND QUEENS OF June 26, 1830; crowned at Westminster, Sept. 8, 1831 ; died, June 20, 1837; succeeded by VICTORIA, only daughter of the Duke of Kent, born at Kensington, May 24, 1819; crowned at Westminster, June 28, 1838; married, Feb. 10, 1840, her cousin Albert, the Prince of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, and has had issue : Victoria Adelaide Mary Louisa, born, Nov. 21, 1840; married Frederick William of Prussia, Jan. 25, 1858. Albert Edward, Prince of Wales, Nov. 9, 1841 ; married, March 10, 1863, the Princess Alexandra of Denmark. Alice Maud Mary, April 25, 1843 ; married, July I, 1862, to Prince Louis of Hesse. Alfred Ernest Albert, Aug. 6, 1844. Helena Augusta Victoria, May 25, 1846 ; married, July 5 > 1866, to Prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein. Louisa Carolina Alberta, March 18, 1848 ; Arthur William Patrick Albert, May r, 1850; Leopold George Duncan Albert, April 7, 1853 ; and Beatrice Mary Victoria Feodore, April 14, 1857. Prince Albert, the Prince Consort, died, Dec. 14, 1861. THE HEPTARCHY. KINGS OF THE EAST ANGLES. The kingdom commenced in 571. Ethelbert murdered by Offa, king of Mercia, upon his arrival in that monarch's territories to marry his daughter Etheldritha, 792. The kingdom consisted of Norfolk, Suffolk, Cambridge, and the Isle of Ely. 575 582 599 624 629 632 637 654 655 Offa Titilus Redwald Erpwald Sigebert Earig Anna Ethelric Ethelwold 664 Aldulf 713 Selred 746 Alphnald 749 Beorna and Ethelred 758 Beorna alone 761 Ethelred 790 Ethelbert 792 Offa of Mercia 832 Egbert KINGS OF KENT. 455 Hengist 488 Esca 512 Octa 542 Ermenric 550 Ethelbert 616 Eadbald 640 Ercombert 664 Egbert 673 Lotherdire 685 Edric 694 Wihtred 725 Eadbert 748 Ethelbert II. 760 Alric 794 Edbert Prsen 796 Cuthred 805 Baldred 823 Egbert KINGS OF MERCIA. The kingdom contained the counties of Gloucester, Hereford, Chester, Stafford, Worcester, Oxford, Salop, Warwick, Derby, Bucks, Northampton, Notts, Lincoln, Bedfordshire, Rutland, and part of Herts and Huntingdon. 584 Crida 709 Ceolred 597 Wibba 716 615 Ceorl 755 626 Penda 794 656 Peadd and Wulfhere 819 675 Ethelred 821 704 Cenred 823 Ethelbald Bernred and Offa Egfrid and Cenulf Cenelm and Ceolwulf Burnwulf Ludecan ENGLAND, KINGS AND QUEENS OF 267 825 838 Wiglaf Bertulf 8 5 2 874 Burhred Ceolwulf DEIRA, Northumberland. The kingdom began 560, united to Bernicia, 658. It con- tained the counties of Lancaster, York, Cumberland, Westmoreland, Durham, and Northumberland. THE KINGS OF DEIRA. 560 Ella 590 Edwin 634 Osric 547 Ida 560 Adda 567 Clappa 572 Heodwulf 573 Feodwulf 580 Theodric 588 Ethelric 593 Ethelfrith 617 Edwin 634 Eanfrid 635 Oswald I. 642 Oswald II. 670 Egfrid 685 Aldfrith 705 Osred 716 Cenred 718 Osric 644 6 5 2 Oswine Adelwald KINGS OF BERNICIA, 729 Ceolwulf 738 Eadbert 757 Oswulf 759 Ethelwald 765 Alchred 774 Ethelred I. 778 Alfwold 789 Osred 790 Ethelred II. 795 Eardwulf 808 Alfwold 8 10 Eardwulf 843 Eanred 862 Osbert 863 Ella 867 Ivar the Dane SUSSEX AND SURREY, Ulla lands in, and subdued the country; acknowledged as king, 490. The kingdom taken by Ceanlin and annexed to Wessex from 514 to 640 ; again conquered and finally added to Wessex, 725. Ulla 648 Edilwald 490 514 Cissa 688 Authun and Berthun WESSEX, the kingdom of, founded by Cerdic, 519, and contained the counties of Berks., Hants., Wilts., Dorset., Devon., and part of Cornwall. 519 Cerdic 534 Cynric 560 Ceawin 591 Ceolric 597 Ceolwulf 6 1 1 Cynegils 643 Cenwal 672 Sexburga, Cenwal's Queen 674 Escwine 676 Centwine 686 Ceadwalla 688 Ina 728 Ethelheard 740 Cuthred, his brother 754 Sigebert 755 Cynewulf 784 Brithric 800 Egbert 268 ENGLAND, KINGS AND QUEENS OF ENGLAND, DURATION OF REIGNS OF SOVEREIGNS OF, CORRESPONDING WITH THE YEAR OF THE CHRISTIAN ERA, FROM 1066 TO 1867. Wm. Conq. Oct. 14. i 1066 21 1087 Edward I. Nov. 16. I 1272 35 1307 Richard III. June 22. i 1483 3 1485 James II. Feb. 6. I 1685 5 1689 Wm. Rufus. Sept. 9. i 1087 13 noo Edward II. July 7- I 1307 20 1327 Henry VII. Aug. 22. I 1485 24 1509 Wm. & Mary. Feb. 13. I 1689 14 1702 Henry I. Aug. i. I IIOO 36 1135 Edward III. Jan. 25. i 1327 5 1 1377 Henry VIII. April 21. i 1509 38 1547 Anne. March 8. I 1702 13 1714 Stephen. Dec. 2. i "35 19 "54 Richard II. June 21. * 1377 23 1399 Edward VI. Jan. 28. i 1547 7 1553 George I. Aug. r. i 1714 13 1727 Henry II. Oct. 25. I "54 35 "89 Henry IV. Sept. 29. i 1399 H HI3 Queen Mary. July 6. 1 1553 6 1558 George II. June 1 1. i 1727 34 1760 Richard I. July 7. i 1189 10 1199 Henry V. March 20. I HI3 10 1422 Elizabeth. Nov. 17. i 1558 45 1603 George III. Oct. 25. I 1760 60 1820 John. April 6. I 1199 18 1216 Henry VI. Aug. 31. i 1422 39 1461 James I. March 24. i 1603 23 1625 George IV. Jan. 29. i 1820 II 1830 Henry HI. Oct. 19. I 1216 57 1272 Edward IV. March 4. i 1461 23 H83 Charles I. March 27. i 1625 24 Jan. 30, 1649 William IV. June 26. i 1830 7 1837 Edward V. April 9. I 1483 Charles II. May 29. i 1660* 26 Feb. 6, 1685 Victoria. June 20. I 1837 * It is sometimes the custom to omit twelve years, during the Commonwealth, and to give the date from the death of Charles I. to Charles II. N.B. Every king's reign begins at the death of his predecessor: for example, George IV. began, Jan. 29, 1820 ; the first year of his reign is complete Jan. 28, 1821. ENGLAND, NEW EPERNAY 269 ENGLAND, NEW, N. America, colonized by the Puritans, 1620, and named by them. The Plymouth Company settled here about the same date. ENGLISH COLLEGE at Rome founded, 854. ENGLISH HISTORICAL SOCIETY instituted for the publication of old chro- nicles, 1838. ENGLISH LANGUAGE. The Celtic tongue spoken by the natives before the Roman invasion. The Saxons having over-run the country, their language was generally adopted, and was used in all legal documents until 1066. The Latin, or Norman French, was then ordered to be used. The English language ordered to be substituted in Law Pleading, 1344 ; extended to Ireland, 1536 ; before the close of the i6th century our language had attained its present form and structure ; first taught in public schools, 1500. ENGRAVING on precious stones mentioned by Moses, Exod. xxviiL 9, and xxxv. 32, B.C. 1491 ; diamonds first engraved, 1564 ; the earliest-known print from a metal plate by Maso Finiguerra, 1460 ; copper-plate engraving appeared in Germany, 1461 ; etching ascribed to Albert Diirer, 1518 ; engraving by dots, an Italian invention, 1509 ; linear engraving first executed in the I4th century ; steel- plates first known, 1805, made public, 1818 ; mezzotinto invented by Silgen and improved by Prince Rupert, 1648 ; crayon engraving invented in France by Bonnet, 1769 ; wood engraving practised by the Chinese, B.C., revived by Albert Diirer, 1511, and in England by Bewick ; on glass by M. Boudier of Paris, 1709; lithography by Senefelder, 1798; introduced into England, 1817; act to protect the copyright of, 17 Geo. III. c. 57, 1777 ; International Copyright Act, 7 & 8 Viet. c. 12, May 10, 1844 ; amended, 15 & 16 Viet. c. 12, May 28, 1852. Medals, a machine invented for engraving, by M. Collas, 1830 ; the electro- magnetic machine used in Germany, 1854 ; America, 1858. An etching of Rembrandt, 'Christ healing the Sick,' The Hundred Guilder, sold at Messrs Sotherby's in the sale of Sir C. Price for 1180, Feb. 23, 1867 ; the same en- graving was bought in 1847 for ^133. ENLISTMENT. No person to enlist in foreign armies, 1819 ; enlistment in the navy for five or ten years, 5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 24, Aug. 21, 1835 ; for the army, Infantry 10 years, Cavalry 12, 10 & n Viet. c. 37, June 21, 1847 ; the Marines limited to 12 years, 10 & II Viet. c. 63, July 2, 1847 ; the Naval Coast Volun- teers five years, 16 & 17 Viet. c. 73, Aug. 15, 1853 ; the Royal Naval Volunteers, 22 & 23 Viet. c. 40, Aug. 13, 1859. ENNISKILLEN, Ireland. The town refused to acknowledge Elizabeth, 1595; incorporated by James I., 1612; successfully resisted the innovations of James II., 1689, but the rebels, upwards of 6050 strong, led by Gen. M'Carty, were de- feated by 1600 of the kings troops, many prisoners being taken, July 20, 1689. ENTAIL. This custom commenced by the 13 Edw. I. c. I, 1285 ; the statute of Westminster altered in the reign of Henry VIII., and the power of leasing amended by 19 & 20 Viet. c. 120, July 29, 1856. ENTERTAINMENT, places of, to be licensed by law, 1752. ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON, instituted, 1833 ; Transactions of, first published, 1834. ENTOMOLOGY. Gesner, a Swiss, made several valuable discoveries in, which were published in 1634, and Ray's method printed, 1765 ; made a science by Linnaeus, 1739. ENVELOPES invented, 1840; stamped envelopes, May, 1840; a machine for folding, invented by Messrs Hill and De la Rue, 1845. EPERNAY, France, besieged and taken by Henry IV., 1592 ; noted for its en- amelled Fayence pottery, first made, 1650; ceased, 1780. 270 EPHESIANS EPOCHS EPHESIANS, St Paul's Epistle to, written from Rome, A.D. 62. EPHESUS, Asia Minor, one of the 12 Ionian cities, well known for its magical arts, the books of which were publicly burnt ; seized by Croesus, B.C. 559 ; Ephesus at- tacked by Thrasyllus unsuccessfully, B.C. 407 ; became tributary to the Persians, B.C. 352 ; the Temple of Diana built, B.C. 552 ; captured by Cyrus, B.C. 5/1/1 ; the temple destroyed by fire, B.C. 356, on the natal day of Alexander the Great ; rebuilt, taking 220 years in its construction ; the city destroyed by an inundation, B.C. 322 ; rebuilt upon higher ground by Lysimachus, B.C. 300 ; made the capital of Asia, B.C. 129 ; destroyed by an earthquake, A.D. 17 ; visited by St Paul, Acts xix. ; the Temple of Diana destroyed by the Goths, A. D. 262 ; several councils were held here ; at the third, 431, many ecclesiastical riots took place. EPICUREANS. This philosophical sect was founded by Epicurus, B.C. 312, at Mitylene and Athens ; he died B.C. 271. EPIGRAM, a short inscription, either moral, satirical, or mortuary, invented by the Greeks : of the Romans, Martial, 90, and Ausonius, 390, have left the best speci- mens of ancient ; the modern authors are numerous. EPIPHANY, feast of, instituted by Pope Julius, 340. EPIRUS, Greece. Admetus crowned king, B.C. 480; Alexander captured several provinces and added them to this kingdom, B.C. 332 ; succeeded to the throne, B.C. 272. This country espoused the cause of Perseus against the Romans, who defeated them and destroyed 70 cities with their inhabitants ; became part of Macedonia, B.C. 146 ; added to the empire of the East, and remained so until A.D. 1204 ; annexed to the Turkish empire, 1466. EPISCOPACY. See Bishops. EPOCHS, eras and periods which regulate dates of events of inferior moment : the era of Nabonassar is remarkable because of its connection 'with the astronomical observations made at Babylon ; it began Feb. 26, B.C. 747; the Hegira, or flight of Mahomet from Mecca, July 16, A.D. 622 ; the Romans reckoned from the build- ing of their city, 3113 from the creation of the world, and afterwards from Aug. 1 6, 3936 of the world ; Spain being conquered by the Emperor Augustus in the year of Rome 715, 39 years before the birth of Christ, a new era of Spain was founded, Jan. I, A.u.c. 716, and B.C. 38 ; it was also used in Portugal, Africa, and the southern provinces of France ; abolished in Catalonia, 1180 ; A rag on, 1350 ; Valencia, 1358 ; Castile, 1393 ; and in Portugal, 1415. The following is an alphabetical list of the principal epochs : Epochs and Eras. Date of commencement. Abraham, the era of, ... ... Oct. I, B.C. 2015 Actian era, ... ... ... ... Jan. i, B.C. 30 Actian era in Egypt, ... ... Sept. I, B.C. 30 Alexandrian era, ... ... ... Aug. 29, B.C. 5502 Antioch, the ecclesiastical era, ... Sept. i, B.C. 5492 Armenian era, ... ... ... July 9, A.D. 552 Ascension era, ... ... ' ... Nov. 12, A.D. 295 Augustinian era, ... ... ... Feb. 14, B.C. 27 Calippic period, ... ... ... The new moon of summer solstice, B.C. 330 Csesarean era of Antioch, ... ... Sept. I, B.C. 48 Christian era, ... ... ... Jan. I , A. D. i Constantinople, civil era, ... ... Sept. I, B.C. 5508 Constantinople, ecclesiastical era, ... March 21, or April i, B.C. 5508 Constantinople, the indiction of, ... Sept. I, B.C. 3 Creation, B.C. 5502 Daniel's epoch, 70 weeks, ... ... Vernal equinox, B.C. 458 Deluge, B.C. 2348 EPSOM ERMINE 271 Diocletian era, ... Sept. 17, A.D. 284 Galilaean era, March 14, A. D. 1079 -Grecian year of the world, ... Sept. I, B.C. 5598 Hegira era, ... ... ... ... July 1 6, A. D. 622 Jerusalem, destruction of, ... ... Sept. i, A.D. 69 Jewish civil era, ... ... ... Oct. B.C. 3761 Jewish mundane era, Vernal equinox, B.C. 3761 Julian period, ... ... ... Jan. I, B.C. 4713 Julian year, ... Jan. I, B.C. 45 Maccabees era, ... ... ... Nov. 24, A.D. 166 Martyrs era, Feb. 23, A. D. 303 Metonic cycle, July 15, B.C. 432 Mundane era, Oct., B.C. 4008 Nabonassar era, ... Feb. 26, B.C. 747 Olympiads era, ... New moon of summer solstice, B.C. 776 Philippaean era, June, B.C. 323 Pontifical indiction, ... ... ... Dec. 25, or Jan. I, B.C. 3 Roman era, ... ... ... April 24, B.C. 753 Sidonian era, ... ... ... Oct., B.C. no Solomon's Temple, the building of, May, B.C. 1015 Spanish era, ... ... ... Jan. I, B.C. 38 Syro-Macedonian era, ... ... Sept. I, B.C. 312 Troy, the destruction of, June 12 or 24, B.C. 1184 Tyrian era, Oct. 19, B.C. 125 Zezdegird, or Persian era, June 1 6, A.D. 632. EPSOM, Surrey, the manor of, belonged to the monastery of Chertsey, at the Con- quest, 1066; Henry VIII. obtained possession of it, 1538; given to Edward D'Arcy, by Queen Elizabeth, 1589. The medicinal qualities of its waters discover- ed, 1618, these are well known as ' Epsom Salts ;' Lord North writes in their praise in 1645 ; Pepys speaks of this fashionable town and its waters, 1663 ; in the London Gazette of June 19, 1684, there is an announcement that the post will go every day to the town during the season ; Dr Grew published his treatise upon the Bitter Cathartic Salt in the waters, 1695 ; a ball-room added to the Old Spa, 1697; a New Spa discovered, 1706. The races established by James I., 1730; the Oaks stakes, so called from the seat of Earl Derby, established, 1779; the Derby established, 1 780 ; the Grand Stand erected by an association, built from the designs of E. W. Trendallarch, Nov. 27, 1828-9, cost jC 2 S>- The church rebuilt from the design of Mr Hatchard ; first stone laid, May 19, 1824. EQUITES, or knights, organized by Servius Tullius, B.C. 576 ; it was confined to men of fortune, B.C. 400 ; first received pay, B.C. 303. ERFURT, Prussian Saxony. In the time of Charlemagne this was one of thechief commercial cities in Germany ; Luther entered the Augustine monastery as a monk, July 17, 1505; annexed by Prussia, 1803; taken by the French under Gen. Murat, Oct. 15, 1 806 ; the memorable interview between Alexander of Russia and Napoleon took place here, Sept 27, 1808 ; restored to Prussia, 1814. ERICSSON'S steam engine propelled by hot air tried on the Thames, 1853, and although partially successful, failed. ERITH, great explosion of gunpowder at ; the two magazines belonging to Messrs Hall exploded with terrific violence, killing 10 persons ; the shock was felt to a great distance, Oct I, 1864. ERMINE, order of knighthood instituted by John IV., Duke of Brittany, 1381 ; in Naples, 1463 ; became extinct in the l6th century. 272 ERNEST AUGUSTUS ETHNOLOGY ERNEST AUGUSTUS of Hanover, established an order of merit, the Cross, Aug. 9, 1845 5 the order of merit for saving life from danger founded the same time. ERZEROUM, Asia Minor, founded by a Byzantine Gen. of Theodosius II., A.D. 415 ; besieged and taken by the Russians under Paskewitch, July 20, 1829; visited by Col. Wilbraham, 1837; partially destroyed by an earthquake, 1580 persons killed, June 15, 1859. ESCURIAL, the Royal Palace and Convent of Spain, dedicated to St Law- rence, and ordered to be built in the form of a gridiron by Philip II., 1557 ; first stone laid by Juan Bautista de Toledo, the architect, April 23, 1563 ; com- pleted by his pupil Juan de Herrera, Sept. 13, 1584 ; it covers 2002 square feet of ground, and contains 63 fountains, 12 cloisters, 80 staircases, 1 6 courtyards, and cost 6, 000,000 ducats. The bones of St Lorenzo deposited here, May 28, 1569 ; Philip II. died here, Sept. 13, 1598; the building was sacked by the French under Gen. La Houssaye, Dec., 1808, and many of the masterpieces, as well as the library, containing 30,000 printed books and 4300 MSS., were carried away, some subse- quently returned. ESHER PALACE, Surrey, built, 1414 ; once the residence of Cardinal Wolsey. ESPARTO GRASS, used for paper-making : the first specimen was brought to this country, July, 1857 ; a cargo reached the Tyne, 1861 ; the imports for 1861 were 17,000 tons; in 1866 it reached 50,000 tons. ESPIERRES, battle, the French attacked the English and Austrians, but were re- pulsed, May 22, 1 794. ESQUIRE, a title first given to attendants upon knights, 1245 ; to persons of fortune, ESSAYS AND REVIEWS. This work was published by Parker, 1860 ; Messrs Williams and Wilson were prosecuted for their contributions to, and found guilty ; sentence pronounced by Dr Lushington, Judge of the Court of Arches, Dec. 15, 1862 ; judgment reversed by the Privy Council, Feb. 8, 1864. ESSEX, England. The Romans landed under Caesar, A.D. 55 ; became a Saxon kingdom under King Erchenwin, 527; overran by the Danes, 836 ; the insurrection of Wat Tyler against the Poll Tax, 1381. ESSEX CONSPIRACY. Robert Devereux, second Earl of, tried for high treason, Feb. 19, 1601 ; beheaded on Tower-hill, Feb.. 25. ES SLING, battle between the French and the Austrians, May 21, 22, 1809, when the bridge over the Danube being destroyed, the French were compelled to retreat, but regained their superiority at Wagram, soon afterwards. ESTE, Lombardy ; the castle is of great antiquity, and the seat of the family of Este ; the founder of this family, Alberto Azzo, was born, 996. ESTHER, the Book of, supposed to have been written by Mordecai, B.C. 462-452. ESTHONIA, Russia, sold by the Danes to the Teutonic knights, 1346, and became a province of Sweden, 1560 ; captured by Peter the Great, and added to Russia, 1 710. ETCHING CLUB, instituted in London, 1838 ; it first published Goldsmith's 'Deserted Village,' illustrated with 80 designs by the members, 1841. The Anti- quarian Etching Club instituted, 1848. ETHER. The method of preparing this substance described by Valerius Cordus, 1540; nitric, discovered by Kunkel, 1681 ; muriatic, 1759; acetic, by Count Lauraguais, the same year ; hydriodic by Gay Lussac, and phosphoric by M . Boullay ; used to deaden pain in surgical and obstetrical operations ; the discovery as to the aesthetic qualities of ether made by Mr Morton of Boston, 1846 ; as to chloroform, by Dr Simpson of Edinburgh, 1848. ETHNOLOGY. The first decade of anatomical descriptions published by Blumen- ETNA, MOUNT EVESHAM 273 bach, 1 790, gives the best definition of this science ; a. society established in Paris, 1839, and one in London, 1843. ETNA, MOUNT, eruptions of: 1693 years before Christ, and 734, 777, and 425, 125, 121, and 43. After Christ, 40, 252,420, 1012, 1159, 1329, 1408, 1444, 1536, 1537, 1564, 1669, 1766, 1787, 1809, 1811 ; seven new craters opened in 1830; the town of Bronte destroyed, Nov. 1 8, 1832. ETON COLLEGE, founded by Henry VI., Sept. 12, 1441 ; the charter of foundation is dated Oct 1 1 ; exempted from first-fruits and tenths, by 27 Hen. VIII. c. 42 ; Geo. III. and his Queen visited, Sept. 25, 1762 ; the first stone of the new buildings laid by Prince Albert, June 20, 1844. The montem, a triennial procession held by the scholars at Salt Hill, at which a collection was made for the king's scholar ; it was originally held the 6th of Dec. ; in 1759, the day was changed from the 23rd of Jan. to Tuesday in Whitsun week ; the first triennial montem was held, 1778; abolished, 1846. ETRURIA, Italy, first mentioned in history, B.C. 538, as a naval power ; their fleets defeated by Hieron of Syracuse, B.C. 474 ; the coasts of, ravaged by pirates, B.C. 453 ; the Romans captured Veii, B.C. 396 ; they were totally defeated by that power near Lake Vadimon, B.C. 309, and ceased to be a separate nation, B.C. 265. EU, France, given by Richard I., Duke of Normandy, to his natural son, Geoffrey, 996 ; Henry III. of England defeated the French forces here, Oct. 12, 1415 ; the town burned by order of Louis XI., to prevent its falling into the hands of the English, 1475 ; the chateau or castle built by the Duke of Guise, 1581, upon the site of a palace erected by Rollo, Duke of Normandy ; enlarged by Louis Philippe ; Her Majesty Victoria visited him here, Sept., 1843. EUBCEA, JEgean Sea, colonized by the Athenians, B.C. 500 ; reduced by Pericles B.C. 445 ; revolt of the inhabitants and the defeat of the Athenian fleet, B.C. 411. The Venetians held it, A.D. 1210 ; taken from them, 1469, by Mahomet II., and remained in the hands of the Turks until the Greek insurrection, 1821. EUCLID. See Geometry. EUNOMIANS, an Arian sect founded by Eunomius, Bishop of Cyzicus, 360. EUPATORIA, Crimea, a Tartar town ; the chief mosque, Devlet-Ghiri Khan, built, 1552; occupied by the allied forces, Sept. 14, 1854; fortified, Sept. 30; attacked by the Cossacks, who were repulsed, Oct. 1 1 and 15 ; again attacked by a large Russian force, but unsuccessfully, Feb. 18, 1855 ; restored to the Russians, May 31, 1856. EUROPA, Indian troop ship destroyed by fire, with one officer and 16 soldiers of the 6th Dragoons, May 31, 1854. EUSTATIUS, ST, West Indies, Island of, settled by the Dutch, 1632 ; taken by the French, 1689 ; by the English, 1690; again, Feb. 3, 1781, by Adm. Rodney; retaken the same year ; taken by the English, 1801, and 1810 ; restored, 1814. EUTAW SPRINGS, battle. The English under Col. Stewart defeated the Americans at Eutaw Springs, near Charlestown, Sept. 8, 1781. EVANGELISTS. Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John are so denominated ; the first . wrote in the Hebrew, the other three in the Greek tongue. There were 200 varia- tions in the readings of the Evangelists found at the Council of Nice, 325. EVESHAM, Worcestershire. In this town Egwin, third bishop of Worcester, founded a monastery as early as 701 ; he retired to it in 714. The town incor- porated by James I., 1605 ; and the Grammar School refounded by Prince Henry, the eldest son of that monarch, 1605-6 ; a woman burned for petit treason at, 1740; St Lawrence church rebuilt, 1838. EVESHAM, battle. The English Barons, under De Montfort, were defeated by Prince Edward, De Montfort being killed, and Henry III. released, Aug. 4, 1265 ; the Earl of Leicester and 160 knights slain. 18 274 EVIL EXCHEQUER OFFICE EVIL, the King's, Touching for the. It appears that Edward the Confessor , 1058, first undertook this miraculous work, and all the sovereigns of England followed the example, till the accession of the House of Hanover. A form of prayer used for the occasion, and surreptitiously withdrawn, will be found in old prayer-books. The royal touch such is the force of imagination was often effective, whether of a Richard III. or a Henry VIII., equally with our more exemplary monarchs. William III. touched 8577 persons. Dr Samuel Johnson was touched by Queen Anne in 1712. George I. had the good sense not to pretend to this marvellous power ; but the French kings kept up the farce till 1775. Louis XV. touched no less than 2000 persons, and his predecessors, 2500. Licences to subjects to cure the, issued by the Church until 1 743. EVIL MAY- DAY, a disgraceful riot of the apprentices and populace of London, who were guilty of frightful outrages against all foreigners, because they were per- mitted to trade in England, May I, 1517 ; fifteen of them were hanged, and 400, with ropes about their necks, were pardoned by Henry VIII. EWAS HARROLD CASTLE, Herefordshire, built by William Fitz-Osborne, Earl of Hereford, 1066-70. EXALTATION of the Cross, a feast of the Roman Church, first instituted, 629. EXCHANGE, the Royal, London, founded by Sir Thomas Gresham ; the first stone laid, June 6, 1 566 ; opened by Queen Elizabeth, and from her styled ' Royal,' Jan. 23, 1571 ; destroyed in the great fire of 1666 ; rebuilt from the de- sign of Edward Jerman ; Charles II. fixed the first pillar, Oct. 23, 1667 ; opened, Sept. 28, 1669 ; it cost ^58,962 ; burned, Jan. 18, 1838 ; the present building designed by W. Tite, F. R. S ; Prince Albert laid the foundation-stone, Jan. 17, 1842; opened by Her Majesty Queen Victoria, Oct. 28, 1844 ; first opened for business, Jan. i, 1845 5 cos t 1 S> OO - EXCHEQUER, Court of, financial and judicial, but subsequently separated, insti- tuted by William I., in 1079, or Henry I., 1102-7 > once included the Common Pleas, separated in 1215. The Chancellor of the, is the chief officer. 'It was sometimes called Curia Regis ad Scaccarium ; and its name was derived,' accord- ing to foss, 'from the covering of the table at which it sat, which was "a four- cornered board, about ten feet long, and five feet broad, fitted in manner of a table to sit about, on every side whereof is a standing ledge or border, four fingers broad. Upon this board is laid a cloth bought in Easter Term, which is of black colour, rowed with strekes, distant about a foot or span, like a chess-board. On the spaces of this Scaccarium, or chequered cloth, counters were ranged, with denot- ing marks, for checking the computations." ' The Barons of, were first appointed, July 6, 1234 ; Chief Barons, July 17, 1310. The Court was remodelled by Eliza- eth, in 1579 ; appeals from the King's Bench to be determined by 27 Eliz. c. 8, 1585 ; amended by an appeal to one court from the other, II Geo. IV. ,andi Will. IV. c. 70, July 23, 1830, and a final appeal can be made to the House of Lords from either of these courts ; an act passed to regulate the office of Queen's Re- membrancer, and to amend the practice and procedure on the Revenue side of the Court, 22 & 23 Viet. c. 21, Aug. 13, 1859 ; the procedure and practice of, amended, 28 & 29 Viet. c. 104, July 5, 1865. The Chancellor of the Exchequer is one of the judges of this Court, and when the judges are divided in opinion, he is called upon to decide. Sir Robert Walpole did so in 1732, and again in 1735. The public payments were always made out of it. The Exchequer stopped pay- ment in the time of Charles II., from Jan. 2, 1672, until May, 1673, .13,000 or .14,000 of bankers' property being lodged there ; the king applied to parlia- ment to repay the money he had thus seized, 1673-4. Exchequer bills first invent- ed, 1696 ; first circulated by the bank, 1706 j English and Irish Exchequers con- solidated, 1816. EXCHEQUER OFFICE robbed, 1303 ; papers of, sold as waste, attracted parlia- mentary attention, 1838. EXCHEQUER EXECUTION 275 EXCHEQUER, Chancellors of; from 1800. 1801 Henry Addington 1835 Lord Monteagle 1804 William Pitt 1839 Francis T. Baring 1806 Marquis of Lansdowne 1841 Henry Goulburn 1807 Spencer Perceval 1846 Sir Charles Wood 1812 Lord Bexley 1852 Benjamin D'Israeli 1823 Viscount Goderich 1852 William E. Gladstone 1827 George Canning 1855 Sir George C. Lewis 1827 John C. Herries 1858 Benjamin D'Israeli 1828 Henry Goulburn 1859 William E. Gladstone 1830 Viscount Althorpe 1 866 Benjamin D'Israeli 1834 Sir Robert Peel EXCISE DUTIES. These were levied by the parliament to support the contest against Charles I., May 16, 1643. Excise fi^st levied on spirits, soap, &c., by an ordinance of parliament, July 22, 1643. The Oxford Parliament imitated the ex- ample, and conferred the duties upon the king in 1644. The malt duties levied, 1695 ; hops included in 1711. Charles II. annexed them to the Crown in 1660. They do not appear to have been so much the subject of general reprobation as when they were increased and riveted on the realm by Sir Robert Walpole, about 1733 ; they were increased in order to take off taxes from the land, the owners of which desired to throw the burthen upon the people at large. Officers of the Excise were not allowed to vote in parliament, 1782. In 1851, the duties on foreign wines and spirits, on tea, coffee, and tobacco, and numerous articles, being taken off and added to the Customs branch of the revenue, the Excise was joined to the Stamp Office in Somerset House, under the general name of the Inland Revenue Office, by 12 Viet, c I, Feb. 27, 1849. EXCISE OFFICE, London. Office in Smithfield pulled down, June 24, 1647, and the business removed to Old Cockaine House, 1680 ; from thence to Sir John Frederick's mansion, in Frederick's Place, Old Jewry, and then to Broad-street. Office in Broad-street, built by G. Dance, 1 768-9, on the site of Gresham College, which was purchased by the Crown, 1768 ; used as a temporary Exchange, 1838 ; removed to Somerset House, 1848. EXCLUSION, Bill of, to exclude the Duke of York, carried by a majority of 79 votes in the House of Commons, but thrown out in the Lords, May 15, 1679. The people clamoured for the bill, 1680 ; passed again by the Commons, at Oxford, 1681. EXCOMMUNICATION, an interdict from all Christian communion, inflicted oftener from secular than religious motives. That exercised by the Christian Church was instituted by our Lord, Matt, xviii. 15-18, A.D. 42; it was practised and commanded by St Paul, I Tim. i. 20, I Cor. v. , A. D. 64 ; forbidden in England, 1391 ; by bell, book, and candle in the Roman Church, introduced by Gregory VII., who excommunicated Henry IV. of Germany ; King John and all England excommunicated for six years, in 1208 ; Henry VIII. deposed by Pope Paul III., Dec. 17, 1538; Queen Elizabeth excommunicated, 1570, by a bull of the pope. EXECUTION. This in all cases must be carried out by the Sheriff or his deputy. In 1818-19-20, the number executed was 312 ; in 1850, the number had decreased to 16. There is no age fixed by the English law at which perpetrators of heinous crimes may not be executed. A child between 8 and 9 years of age, executed in England, for murder, in 1629 ; one at York, aged 10, 1748 ; one at Edinburgh, aged 1 6, for murder, 1812. The last person executed for attempted murder was Martin Doyle, at Chester, for wounding with intent, Aug. 27, 1861. The follow- ing is a list of the principal executions since 1 700 : 276 EXECUTION NAME. CRIME. WHERE EXECUTED. DATE. Abershaw, Lewis J. Murder Kennington Common Aug. 3, 1795- Allen, Gould, and Larkin Murder Manchester Nov. 23, 1867. Alvarez, Hughes, O'Brien, and Thomas j Murder Kirkdale Sept. ii, 1863. Aram, Eugene Murder York Aug. 1 6, 1759. Armitage, R. Forgery Old Bailey June 24, 1811. Ascrofts, father and 2 sons Murder Lancaster Sept. 8, 1817. Atkinson, Matthew Murder Durham Mar. 1 6, 1865. Austen, Noah Murder Oxford Mar. 24, 1863. Baker, Frederick Murder Winchester Dec. 24, 1867. Balmerino, Lord High Treason Tower Hill Aug. 1 8, 1746. Bankes, William Burglar}' Horsemonger Lane Jan. n, 1830. Barnett, Edward Murder Monmouth Apr. 29, 1829. Barthelemy, Emanuel Murder Old Bailey Jan. 22, 1855. Beale, John William Murder Wilton Jan. 12, 1858. Bellingham, John Murder Old Bailey May 18, 1812. Bishop, John Burking Old Bailev Dec. 5, 1831. Blackburn, Joseph Forgery York Jan. 5, 1846. Blakesley, Robert Murder Old Bailey Nov. 15, 1841. Blanco Durauno Lopez Spaniards Piracy & Murder Old Bailey Feb. 22, 1864. Lyons Watto Bordier, Louis Murder Horsemonger Lane Oct. 15, 1867. Bousfield, William Murder Old Bailey Mar. 31, 1856. Brandreth, Jeremiah Treason Derby Nov. 7, 1817. Bricknell, Charles Murder Old Bailey Aug. I, 1864. Britten, George Murder Wolverton Aug. 29, 1867. Brooks, Joseph Murder Old Bailey Apr. 27, 1863. Browning, Martha Murder Old Bailey Jan. 5, 1840. Brownrigg, Mrs Murder Tyburn Sept. 14, 1767. Brunt, Thomas Treason Old Bailey May I, 1820. Bucknell, Thomas B. Murder Taunton Aug. 24, 1858. Burdock, Mary Ann Murder Bristol Apr. 15, 1835. Burke, William Murder Edinburgh Jan. 28, 1829. Burton, Robert Murder Maidstone Apr. ii, 1863. Cadman, Joseph Forgery Old Bailey Nov. 21, 1821. Campbell, Major Murder Armagh Oct. 2, 1808. Carter, Henry Murder Warwick Apr. 6, 1863. Cashman, John Felony Skinner-street Mar. 12, 1817. Charlton, William Murder Carlisle Mar. 15, 1862. Chesham, Sarah Murder Chelmsford Mar. 25, 1851. Connor, Joseph Murder Old Bailey June 2, 1845. Cook, Eliza Burking Old Bailey Jan. 9, 1832. Cook, James Murder Leicester Aug. 10, 1832. Cooper, Edward Murder Shrewsbury Apr. ii, 1863. Cooper, Robert Murder Old Bailey Nov. 17, 1862. Corder, William Murder Bury St Edmunds Aug. ii, 1828. Courvoisier, T. B. Murder Old Bailey July 6, 1840. Crawley, Michael Murder Chelmsford July 23, 1857. Gumming, William Murder Edinburgh Jan. 25, 1854. Currie, John Murder Maidstone Oct. 12, 1865. Davidson, William Treason Old Bailey May I, 1820. EXECUTION 277 Davis, Thomas R. Delane, Dennis Derwentwater, Lord Despard, Colonel Devine, John Dodd, Dr Donellan, John Dove, William Doyle, Martin Ducker, John Emmett, Robert Fauntleroy, Henry Penning, Eliza Fenton, John Ferguson, Richard Ferrers, Lord Forbes, Patrick Foster, Catherine Foster, George Gardell, Theodore Garside, William Gearing, Mary Ann Gilbert, George Gould, John Grant, Jeremiah Green, John Greenacre, James Hackman, James Haggart, David Haggarty, Owen Haler, Henry Hatfield, John Hibner, Esther Hocker, Thomas Holden, Mr Holloway, John Holt, Alice Hope, William Hunter, Joseph Hussey, Charles Ings, James Jeffery, John Richard Kelly, Joseph Kelly, William Kidd, Captain Kilmarnock, Lord Kohl, Ferdinand Lani, Giovanni Lees, William Lewis, John Lovat, Lord Lowe, Edward* Luke, Charles CKIMK. WHERE EXECUTED. DATE. Murder Old Bailey Nov. 16, 1857. Murder Limerick Apr. 13, 1863. High Treason Tower Hill Feb. 24, 1716. High Treason Horsemonger Lane Feb. 23, 1803. Murder Old Bailey May 3, 1864. Forgery Tyburn June 27, 1777. Murder Warwick April 2, 1781. Murder York Aug. 9, 1856. Attempt Murder Chester Aug. 27, 1861. Murder Ipswich Apr. 14, 1863. Treason Dublin Sept. 20, 1803. Forgery Old Bailey Poisoning Old Bailey Nov. 30, 1824. July 26, 1817. Murder Nottingham Aug. I, 1860. Highway robbery Aylesbury April, 1800. Murder Tyburn May 5, 1760. Murder Newcastle Aug. 24, 1850. Murder Bury St Edmunds Apr. 17, 1847. Murder Old Bailey Jan. 1 8, 1803. Murder Haymarket April 4, 1761. Murder Horsemonger Lane Nov. 25, 1834. Murder Lewes Aug. 21, 1849. Murder Winchester Aug. 4, 1862. Murder Reading Mar. 14, 1862. Burglary Maryborough Aug. 29, 1816. Murder Cambridge Jan. 2, 1864. Murder Old Bailey May 2, 1837. Murder Tyburn Apr. 16, 1779. Murder Edinburgh June II, 1821. Murder Old Bailey Feb. 23, 1807. Murder Old Bailey Jan. 10, 1853. Forgery Carlisle Sept 3, 1803. Murder Old Bailey Apr. 13, 1829. Murder Old Bailey Apr. 25, 1845. Murder Tyrone Aug. 27, 1860. Murder Old Bailey Feb. 23, 1807. Murder Chester Dec. 28, 1863. Murder Hereford Apr. 15, 1863. Murder Edinburgh Aug. 22, 1 700. Murder Pennenden Heath Aug. 3, 1818. High Treason Old Bailey May I, 1820. Murder Old Bailey Oct. 9, 1866. Murder Wexford Aug. 10, 1863. Highway robbery Old Bailey Mar. 24, 1829. Piracy Execution Dock May 23, 1701. High Treason Tower Hill Aug. 1 8, 1746. Murder Chelmsford Jan. 26, 1865. Murder Old Bailey Apr. 26, 1858. Murder Old Bailey Dec. 1 6, 1839. Murder Cardiff July 25, 1857. High Treason Tower Hill April 9, 1747. Coining Old Bailey NOV. 22, 1827. Murder Kirkdale Jan. 9, 1864. * The last drawn on a hurdle to the place of execution. 278 EXECUTION MacPhail Manning and wife Mansell, Thomas Marley, Robert Masterson, Peter Maycock, John M'Naughton, John Moir, Captain Mosley Miiller, Franz Mullins, James Nesbett, James Nicholson, Philip O'Coigley, James Ockold, William Palmer, William Parker, Richard Patch, Richard Peele, John Pegsworth, John Perreau, Daniel & Robert Phipoe, Mrs Platts, John Price, John Price, Francis Pritchard, Dr Probert, William Rann, John, 1 6 String Jack Redanies, Dedea Redgard, Joseph Reid, Henry Reid, Patrick Rogers, Captain Ross, Elizabeth Rush, James Bloomfield Sattler, Christian Sheppard, John Simmons, Thomas Slade, Joshua Smithers, Jonathan Southey, Ernest Walter Stevens, Charles Tapping, James Tawell, James Taylor, William Thistlewood, Arthur Thomas, Charles Thompson, John Thorley, Richard Thurtell, John Tidd, Richard Turpin, Richard Twigg, Samuel Wall, Joseph CRIME. WHERE EXECUTED. DATE. Murder Kirkdale Apr. 25, 1863. Murder Horsemonger Lane Nov. 13, 1849. Murder Maidstone July 6, 1857. Murder Old Bailey Dec. 15, 1856. Murder Maidstone Sept. 19, 1 86 1. Murder Horsemonger Lane Apr. 23, 1807. Murder Scotland Dec. 15, 1761. Murder Chelmsford Aug. 2, 1830. Murder Horsemonger Lane Nov. 25, 1834. Murder Old Bailey Nov. 14, 1864. Murder Old Bailey Nov. 19, 1860. Murder Pennenden Heath July 31, 1820. Murder Pennenden Heath Aug. 23, 1813. High Treason Pennenden Heath June 7, 1798. Murder Worcester Jan. 2, 1863. Murder Stafford June 14, 1856. Mutiny Sheerness June 30, 1797. Murder Horsemonger Lane April 8, 1806. Forgery Pennenden Heath Jan. 26, 1827. Murder Old Bailey Mar. 7, 1837. Forgery Tyburn Jan. 17, 1776. Murder Newgate Dec. n, 1797. Murder Derby April I, 1847. Murder Bunhill-nelds May 21, 1718. Murder Birmingham Aug. 20, 1860. Murder Glasgow July 28, 1865. Horse Stealing Old Bailey June 20, 1825. Highway robbery Tyburn Nov. 30, 1774. Murder Maidstone Jan. I, 1857. Highway robbeiy Old Bailey Mar. 24, 1829. Murder Liverpool Jan. 3, 1859. Murder York Jan. 8, 1848. Murder Liverpool Sept. n, 1857. Murder Old Bailey Jan. 8, 1832. Murder Norwich Apr. 21, 1849. Murder Old Bailey Feb. 8, 1858. Housebreaking Tybum Nov. 1 6, 1724. Murder Hertford Mar. 7, 1808. Murder Huntingdon Sept. i, 1827. Murder Old Bailey July 9, 1832. Murder Maidstone Jan. II, 1866. Murder Aylesbury Aug. 5, 1864. Murder Old Bailey Mar. 24, 1845. Murder Aylesbury Mar. 28, 1845. Murder Kirkdale Sept. 13, 1862. High Treason Old Bailey May I, 1820. Forgery Old Bailey June 24, 1811. Murder Paisley Jan. 14, 1858. Murder Derby Apr. n, 1862. Murder Hertford Jan. 9, 1824. High Treason Old Bailey May I, 1820. Hprse-stealing York Apr. 10, 1739. Murder Wolverhampton Dec. 17, 1860. Murder^ Old Bailey Jan. 28, 1802. EXECUTION DOCK EXETER COLLEGE 279 WHERE EXECUTED. DATE. Chelmsford Dec. 27, 1864. Kirkdale Sept. 13, 1862. Belfast April 8, 1863. Taunton April 5, 1861. Stafford Jan. 13, 1844. Old Bailey Jan. 2, 1827. Old Bailey Oct. 15, 1867. Old Bailey Dec. 5, 1831. Old Bailey Oct. 20, 1862. Kirkdale April 25, 1863. Horsemonger Lane Jan. 12, 1864. Norwich April 4, 1846. Horsemonger Lane Sept. 4, 1860. Wane, Francis Murder Ward, John Murder Ward, Daniel Murder Wedmore, two brothers Murder Westwood, Sarah Murder White, C. J. Arson Wiggins, John Murder Williams, Thomas Burking Wilson, Constance Poisoning Woods, George Murder Wright, Samuel Murder Yarham, Samuel Murder Youngman, William G. Murder EXECUTION DOCK, Wapping. Pirates and sea-rovers hanged here as early as 1 8 Hen. VI. Williams the pirate hung here, March 14, 1735. EXETER, Devonshire, city of, before the reign of Athelstan the capital of the Cornish Britons, whom that king drove beyond the Tamar ; held by the Saxons and Danes ; castle built, 680 ; surrendered to Alfred the Great, 894 ; the town taken by Sweyn, 1003, and the inhabitants massacred ; besieged by William I., 1067 ; the castle surrendered to King Stephen, 1136; first ruled by a mayor, I2OO ; Edward I. held a Parliament here, 1286; the chapel of St Bartholomew fell down, Sept. 26, 1459 ; rebuilt, 1481 ; the Guildhall built, 1466 ; re-edified, Nov. 2, 1592 ; the town besieged by Sir W. Courtenay, 1469 ; assaulted by Perkin Warbeck, 1497 ; Welsh, the vicar of St Thomas, hanged on his own church tower for being a leader in the Cornish rebellion, July 2, 1549 ; the cathedral began by Bishop William Warelwast, 1107 ; west front finished, 1194; the style Gothic ; . 390 feet long, 74 broad, and 140 high; the nunnery founded, 1236 ; the old bridge built, 1250 ; the Black Prince visited the city, 1371 ; conduit made, 1466 ; annual festival established, 1549 ; the city incorporated by Philip and Mary ; taken for Charles I., Sept. 4, 1643 > surrendered to the Parliament, April, 1646 ; visited by Charles II., July 23, 1670 ; mint established by James II., 1686 ; surrendered its charter, and another granted, March 20, 1677-8 ; new bridge built, 1778 ; the theatre erected, 1783 ; lunatic asylum founded, 1795 ; George III. and Queen Charlotte visited the city, 1789 ; county jail built, 1796 ; library founded, 1807 ; new city prison built, 1818 ; remnant of the ancient walls taken away, 1818 ; public baths erected, 1821 ; new cemetery begun, 1837 ; twenty houses burnt, Aug. 22, 1844; the Bristol Railway opened, 1844; Post Office erected, 1849; bread riots at, Nov. 4, 1867. EXETER, Devonshire, See removed to, 1040 ; once two Sees, one at Crediton, Devon, the other at St Germains, Cornwall, united, 1050 ; Leofric, the first bishop of Exeter, 1049. EXETER, Marquis of, Lord Montague, and Sir Nicholas Carcw, beheaded, Dec. 31, ISS8. EXETER CHANGE, London, built by Dr Barbon, temp. Will. & Mary; Chunee, the famous elephant, shot, 1826 ; removed, 1829 ; an arcade or pass- age so called, at some distance from where Exeter Change stood, connecting Wellington and Catherine-streets, built from the design of Mr Sydney Smirke, 1843 ; opened, 1845 > taken down, 1863. EXETER COLLEGE, Oxford, founded by Walter de Stapleton, Bishop of Exeter, 1314 ; refronted with Bath-stone, 1835. The chapel rebuilt from the designs of Mr Scott, at an expense of 17,000, 1857-58. Hall built in 1618, by Sir John A eland; restored by Nash, 1818. Library erected, 1856. 280 EXETER EXHIBITIONS EXETER DIOCESAN ARCHITECTURAL SOCIETY, instituted, 1841. EXETER HALL, Strand, London, built from the designs ofGandy Deering, began, 1829. The Great Hall opened, 1831 ; subsequently enlarged ; it is now 131 feet 6 inches long, 76 feet 9 inches wide, and 45 feet high ; enlarged, 1 850. The organ built by Walker, in 1840 ; it has 2187 pipes. The first meeting held here for the extinction of slavery under the presidency of Prince Albert, June I, 1840. EXETER HOUSE, Strand, built, 1612. The Court of Arches, Admiralty Court, and Will Office of the Prerogative Court of Canterbury held here after the fire of 1666. EXETER-STREET, Strand, built, 1677. EXHIBITION. The idea of, first conceived by Sully, and the first one held at Paris, 1798; there were no exhibitors. Great Industrial, of 1851 ; date of pro- clamation, June 3, 1850 ; meeting at the Mansion House in support of the scheme, Jan. 25, 1850; building decided to be of glass and iron, and design of Mr Paxton accepted, July 16, 1848 feet long, 408 wide, 72 high, with a transept 105 feet high, covering an area of 989,784 feet, or about 18 acres ; the tender of Messrs Fox and Henderson accepted, July 26, .79,800; commenced, Sept. 26, and nearly all completed, Jan. I, 1851. Opened by the Queen, May r, when 10,678 packages had been received, carried up to 11,186, the number of exhibitors being 15,000. Visitors: May, 1851 734,782 Tune 1,113,116 Tuly 1,314., 176 Aug. 1,02^,4'K Scot. 1,1^,24.0 Oct. II days 846, 107 Total visitors 6, 1 86, 85 6 The cost of the building was ; I 7,743 s. d, Receipts at the doors 356,071 12 6 Subscriptions ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 64,344 o o Subscription tickets ... 40,000 o o Total ... 460,415 12 6 Memorial of, inaugurated by the Prince of Wales at the Horticultural Gardens, June 10, 1863. EXHIBITION. The International, designed by Capt. Fowkes ; the building con- sisted of two large domes of glass, 250 feet high, and 160 feet in diameter ; the nave was 800 feet long, 100 feet high, and 85 feet wide ; the whole structure covered 16 acres of ground ; opened by the Duke of Cambridge, May I, 1862 ; declaration of prizes to exhibitors, July 1 1 ; banquets to foreign workmen, Aug. 5, at Freemasons' Hall, to the French workmen at the Exhibition, Aug. 26; closed, Nov. i. EXHIBITIONS. Amsterdam, opened, Aug. 16, 1864. Calcutta, Jan. 25, 1855. Cork, June IO, 1852. Dublin : the first, May 12, 1853 ; the second, Jan. 12, 1864. Florence, Sept. 15, 1861. Manchester : the first, May 5, 1857 ; the second, March 2, 1866. New York, July 14, 1853. Paris : the first, 1798 ; second, May 15, 1855 ; the third, April I, 1867. The Industrial Working Men' s, Bristol, Sept. 19, EXPENSES OF ENGLISH WARS 281 1865. Coventry, June 19, 1867. Glasgow, Dec. 12, 1865. Leeds, March 2, 1867. London : the East London, at Beaumont Institution, Mile End Road, 1866; North London, at the Agricultural Hall, Islington, Oct. 17, 1864; South London, at the Lambeth Baths, Feb. I, 1865 ; West London, at the Floral Hall, Covent Garden, May I, 1865 ; the City of London, at Guildhall, March 6, 1866 ; the Anglo-French, at the Crystal Palace, Aug., 1865. Preston, Sept. 21, 1865. York, July 24, 1 866. EXPENSES OF ENGLISH WARS. William III., 30,446,382 ; Queen Anne, 43,360,000 ; George I., 6,048,267 ; George II., 1739, 46,418,689 ; war of 1756, George II. and III., 111,271,996; the American war, 139,171,876, Spanish and Russian proportions, 2,800,000 ; debt contracted from the com-. mencement of the war to replace the Bourbons to the conclusion of the war in 1815, 374,789,425, expended on the same object. In 1814, the sums expended for the army, navy, and ordnance, amounted to 71,686,707, and if to this sum is added the interest of the debt, all of which had been incurred in the prosecution of wars, it will be seen that these branches of expenditure amounted in that one year to 101, 738,072. The lavish expenditure of the war placed the country in astate unfavourable for taking advantage of the alteration in the years that followed the final overthrow of Napoleon, or they must have been years of the highest pros- perity. The prices of articles of which we were buyers, fell ; the goods which we had to offer in exchange, rose in value. During the ten years between 1 805 and 1814, the government expenditure exceeded 800,000,000. According to the official returns, the wars cost the country, during the present century, upwards of looo millions of money, 63 per cent of which was expended in the 14 years of war, and the remaining 37 per cent, only in 22 years of peace, viz. : 14 Years, 1801 22 Years, 1815 Total, 36 Years, to 1814. to 1836. 1801 to 1836. Navy ...... 237,441,798 137,719,606 ...... 375,161,404 Army ...... 337,993>9!2 204,406,907 ...... 542,400,819 Ordnance ...... 58,198,904 34,176,949 ...... 92,375.853 ^633,634,614 376,303462 1,009,938,076 One source of public expenditure bore very hard, consisting of subsidies paid to foreign countries. The following statement shows the expenditure of each year under this head, from 1793 to 1814. The aggregate sum thus abstracted from the national resources in those 22 years amounted to 46,289,495, of which about two-thirds, 30,582,259, were expended in the 10 years that preceded 1814. 833,273 2,539,245 492,650 190,623 150,000 1794 Prussia ... 1,226,495 200,000 437,10"; 101,073 25,196 559,376 1795 Germany Imperial Loan (35 Geo. III. c. 93) Baden 4,600,000 1,704 Carried forward ... 3,372,5i8 282 Brought forward ... 3,372, 518 Brunswick ... ... ... ... ... ... 97,722 Hesse Cassel ... ...... ... ... ... 317,492 Hesse Darmstadt ... ... ...... ... 79,605 Hanover .................. 478,348 Sardinia ...... ...... ... ... 150,000 - 1796 Hesse Darmstadt ......... ...... 20,076 Brunswick ... ...... ...... ... 12,794 32,870 1797 Hesse Darmstadt ... ......... ... 57,oi5 Brunswick ... ... ... ..... ... 1,57* Germany Imperial Loan (35 Geo. III. c. 59) ... 1,620,000 - 1,678,586 1798 Brunswick ............... ... 1,000 Portugal .................. 120,013 _ TOT f\1 *? 141,UIJ 1799 Prince of Orange ... ... ... ... ... 80,000 Hesse Darmstadt ... ... ... ... ... 4,812 Russia .................. 825,000 ._,, _ r\nr\ 5? i *> yvjyj 01 ** 1800 Germany ... ... ... ... ... ... 1,066,666 German Princes ......... ... ... 500,000 Bavaria ... ... ......... ... 501,017 Russia ... ...... ...... ... 545,494 - 2,613,177 1801 Portugal .................. 200,114 Sardinia ... ... ... ... ... ... 40,000 Hesse Cassel ............... 100,000 Germany ... ... ... ... ... ... 150,000 German Princes ............ ... 200,000 - 690,114 1802 Hesse Cassel .................. 33,45* Sardinia ... ... ... ... ... ... 52,000 Russia ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 200,000 - 285,451 1803 Hanover .................. 117,628 Russia ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 63,000 Portugal .................. 31,647 - 212,275 1804 Sweden ...... ............ 20,119 Hesse Cassel .................. 83,304 - 103,423 1805 Hanover .................. 35,34* 35,341 1806 Hanover ...... ... ... ... ... 76,865 Hesse Cassel .................. 18,982 Germany ... ... ... ... ... ... 5 00 , 000 - 595,847 1807 Hanover .................. 19,899 Russia ...... ... ... ... ... 614,183 Hesse Cassel ............... 45,ooo Prussia ..................... 180,000 - 859,082 Carried forward EXPENSES OF ENGLISH WARS 283 x> x> Brought forward ... I 7i 2 34>47o 1808 Spain 1,497,873 Sweden 1,100,000 Sicily 300,000 2,897,873 1809 Spain 529,039 Portugal ... 600,000 Sweden 300,000 Sicily 300,000 Austria " 850,000 , 2,579,039 1810 Hesse Cassel 45,150 Spain 402,875 Portugal 1,237,518 Sicily 425,000 2,110,543 1811 Spam 220,690 Portugal ... 1,832,168 Sicily 275,000 Portuguese sufferers 39,555 - 2,367,413 1812 Spain 1,000,000 Portugal 2,167,832 Portuguese sufferers 60,445 Sicily ... ... 400,000 Sweden ... ... 278,292 Morocco i,952 3,908,521 1813 Spam 1,000,000 Portugal 2,644,063 Sicily 600,000 Sweden 1,320,000 Russia 657,500 Russian sufferers 200,000 Prussia 650,040 Prince of Orange 200,000 Austria 500,000 Morocco I4>4I9 7,786,022 1814 Spain 450,000 Portugal 1,500,000 Sicily 316,667 Sweden 800,000 Russia 2,169,982 Prussia 1,319,129 Austria 1,064,882 7,620,660 France (advanced to Louis XVIII., to enable him to return to France) 200,000 Hanover 500,000 Denmark 121,918 821,918 47,326,459 284 EXODUS FACTORIES The direct payments under the form of loans and subsidies did not form the whole of the contributions made by this country to its allies. The value of the arms, clothing, and other stores that were furnished to our allies in the year 1814 alone, were all in addition to the subsidies in the foregoing statement : AUSTRIA. PRUSSIA. Arms and clothing ... 410,751 Arms ... ... ... 11,042 FRANCE. RUSSIA. Arms sent to the south of Provisions and stores ... 385,491 France 3!>932 SPAIN. HANOVER. Stores ... ... ... 136,338 Arms and clothing ... 230,879 . ,, , HOLLAND. Miscellaneous arms and Arms and clothing ... 267,759 clothing supplied to va- OLDENBURG. n US for& S* Cor P S - 88 8 45 clothin e I0 ' 8 ^1,582,045 EXODUS, or the going out of the children of Israel from Egypt, occurred B.C. 1491. Arch. Ussher. Described by Moses in one of his five books. EXTREME UNCTION, since the I2th century made one of the seven sacraments of the Roman Catholic Church ; decreed a sacrament by the Council of Trent. EYE, Infirmary for Diseases of the, founded, 1804. EYLAU, battle. The Russians, commanded by Gen. Benningsen, at first defeated the French under Marshal Augereau, but Napoleon arriving upon the field, the battle was renewed, and the Russians compelled to retreat. The former lost 7000 in killed, and the Russians 20,000, Feb. 8, 1807. EYNESFORD CASTLE, Kent, founded by Leofric the Saxon, 1050 ; possessed by William d'Eynesford, 1162-70. EYNSHAM ABBEY, Oxfordshire, built, 1005. EYRE, Justices in, the office instituted, 1184, by Henry II., an itinerant court of justice. They once went their circuit every three years to punish abuses in the king's forests. The last was held in the time of Charles II., 1671. EZEKIEL, the Book of, written by the prophet, B.C. 593. EZERGH AN, on the borders of Armenia, destroyed by an earthquake, when 6300 of the inhabitants perished, July 28, 1 784. EZRA, the Book of, written partially in Hebrew and Chaldee, by Ezra, a descend- ant of Aaron, B.C. 536 457. FACTORIES. Act passed for the preservation of health and morals in, 42 Geo. III. c. 73, June 22, 1802 ; persons under 18 years of age prohibited from working more than 12 hours a day, and children under nine not to be employed, 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 103, Aug. 29, 1833 ; amended, 4 & 5 Will. IV. c. r, Feb. 20, 1834; amended, 7 & 8 Viet. c. 15, June 6, 1844 ; amended, 19 & 20 Viet. c. 38, June 30, 1856 ; and again, 23 & 24 Viet. c. 78, s. 8, Aug. 6, 1860. The labour of children regulated in print works, 8 & 9 Viet. c. 29, June 30, 1845 ; the hours of labour altered, &c., 13 & 14 Viet. c. 54, Aug. 5> 1850 ; an act passed for the ex- tension of, 30 &3i Viet. c. 103, Aug. 15, 1867. FAENZA FALKLAND 285 FAENZA, Italy, the ancient Faventia. Carbo and Norbanus were defeated here by Metellus, B.C. 82 ; in the time of Pliny it was noted for its linen manufacture. Totila, the king of the Goths, ravaged the town in the 6th century ; taken and almost destroyed by Frederick II., 1244 ; Manfred! restored the town, but was defeated and the town taken by Caesar Borgia, 1500 ; it passed into the power of the Venetians and Bolognese soon after (1510) ; afterwards captured by the French ; taken by the Imperialists, 1 708 ; by the French, 1 796 ; the Pope's troops ex- pelled, 1797 ; since restored ; annexed to Sardinia, 1859 ; famed for its pottery as early as 1290. FAHRENHEIT, S. D., first conceived the idea of substituting mercury for spirits of wine in thermometers, 1 720. FAIRLOP OAK AND FAIR, Essex. Mr Daniel Day founded a festival here the first Friday in July, 1 720, and it afterwards led to a fair being held here upon that day. The founder was buried in a coffin made out of a fallen branch of the oak, Oct., 1767; the tree was partially destroyed by fire, June, 1805; the withered trunk blown down in a storm, Feb., 1820 ; it measured 30 feet in cir- cumference ; the pulpit of St Pancras new church was made out of its remains. FAIR OAKS, battle. The Confederates under Gen. Lee defeated the Federals under Gen. Casey, capturing 19 guns and all their baggage, May 31, 1862. FAIRS established in England by its earliest kings : Edward III. passed several statutes for regulating, 2 Edw. III. c. 15, 1328 ; 5 Edw. III. c. 5, 1331 ; Court of Pie Poudre established for disputes at, 17 Edw. IV. c. 2, 1477 ; regulation for holding fairs made by 27 Hen. VI. c. 5, 1448-9 ; persons to be appointed to col- lect the tolls at horse fairs, 2 & 3 Ph. and Mary, c. 7, 1555 ; an act passed for the further regulation of, IO & II Viet. c. 14, April 23, 1847 ; another to enable the commissioners of woods and forests to extinguish tolls, 15 & 16 Viet. c. 62, s. 6, June 30, 1852. FAKENHAM, Norfolk, fire at, much injury done to the village, Aug. 4, 1738. FALAISE, France. In the Norman castle, the ancient seat of the Dukes of Nor- mandy, William the Conqueror was born, 1027 ; the Prince Arthur was imprisoned here by his uncle, King John, Aug., 1202 j the castle was captured by Henry V., 1440; besieged successfully by Henry IV., 1589; repaired, 1835. FALCON COURT, Fleet-street. Wynkyn de Worde, the celebrated printer, lived at the corner in Fleet-street at the sign of the Falcon, 1667. FALCONRY. This sport is of Saxon origin, and was practised by the Court of Ethelbert, 860. Regulations made concerning, 34 Edw. III. c. 22, 1361. Col. Thornton continued this sport in Yorkshire until 1805. A subscription club for, in Scotland, till 1819. FALCZI, Peace of, concluded between Peter the Great of Russia and the Sultan of Turkey, July 10, 1711. FALKIRK, battle between Edward I. and the Scotch under Wallace, in which 40,000 of the Scotch were slain, July 22, 1298 ; also, a skirmish between some of the English forces and the Scotch rebels under Prince Charles, in which the former were worsted with the loss of 300 men, Jan. 17, 1746. FALKLAND ISLANDS discovered by Capt. Davis, Aug. 14, 1592 ; visited by Strong, 1690 ; and Commander Hawkins, 1594. The French established a colony, 1764 ; the English, 1766; the Spaniards took possession of the whole islands, 1767 ; England gave them up to that power, 1771 ; claimed by the republic of Buenos Ayres, 1820; settlement destroyed by the Americans, 1831 ; the British retook possession of the islands, 1833. F ALKLAND, Scotland, noted for its Royal Palace of the Macduffs, forfeited the crown, 1424 ; made a royal burgh by James II., 1458 ; the palace enlarged and 286 FALMOUTH FARNHAM improved by James V. , who died here, 1 542 ; the charter incorporating the town renewed by James VI., 1595 ; the oaks in the forest of, destroyed by order of Cromwell; visited by Charles II., 1650; seized by Rob Roy M'Gregor, 1715, who levied a contribution before he left the town. FALMOUTH, England, granted to Sir John Killigrew by James I., 1613 ; he afterwards built a New Quay, 1670; incorporated, i66r, by Charles II. ; made the station for the West Indian Mail, 1668 ; 22 houses and the theatre destroyed at, by fire, Aug. 21, 1792 ; an act passed discontinuing a separate court of quarter sessions and gaol in the borough of, 28 & 29 Viet. c. 103, July 5, 1865. FAMARS, France, battle. The English attacked the French camp with success at this place, May 23, 1793. FAMILIES, Agricultural, in Great Britain : while the total number of families in Great Britain increased, between 1811 and 1831, from 2,544,215 to 3,414,175, or at the rate of 34 per cent., the number of families employed in agriculture in- creased only from 895,998 to 961,134, or at the rate of 7/ per cent. From a table designed to show the progress of agriculture in England during each of the 75 years between 1760 and 1835, it appeared that in the ten years from 1760 to 1769, when the average number of inhabitants of England and Wales was 6,850,000 souls, the quantity of wheat produced was more than sufficient for the home use by 1,384,561 qrs. FAMILY COMPACT between France, Spain, and Naples, signed, Aug. 15, 1761. FAMILY OF LOVE, a religious sect, called also Philadelphians, who assembled at Nottingham, under David George of Holland ; he had before propagated his harmless tenets in Switzerland, 1556 > his books were answered, by digging up his body and burning both. See Agapemone. FAMINE. The first recorded in the Bible is that of Abraham after he had pitched his tent on the east of Bethel 'The famine was grievous in the land,' Gen. xii. 10 ; on the second famine desolating the land, this patriarch found refuge with Abimelech, king of the Philistines, in Gerar, Gen. xxvi. I et seq. The Seven Years' Famine in Egypt is described in Gen. xl. I et seq. The next most remark- able famine was that in the reign of the Fatimee Khaleefeh, El-Mustansir Billah, which is the only instance on record of -one of seven years' duration in Egypt since the time of Joseph, A.H. 457 464. See Dearth. FANCOURT, Samuel, a dissenting clergyman, who first set on foot circulating libraries, b. 1678, d. 1768. FANMAKERS' COMPANY incorporated, 8 Anne, April 19, 1709. FANS. Pharaoh, 3000 years ago, had his fan-bearers. They are also spoken of by Terence and Ovid as used by the slaves to cool the apartments. They were in- troduced into England from Italy, 157- Gosson, in his ' Pleasant Quippes for Upstart Gentlewomen,' gives a full description of their use, 1596. FAREWELL NUNNERY, Staffordshire, founded by Roger, bishop of Chester, 1 140. * FARLEIGH CASTLE, Hungerford, Somersetshire, built by Sir Thomas Hunger- ford, 1170; reduced to ruins, 1797. FARNE ISLAND CELL, Northumberland, the residence of Aidan, first bishop of Lindisfarne, who died, 651 ; Priory founded, 1291. FARNHAM, Surrey, annexed by Ethelbald to the See of Winchester. The Danes defeated here by King Alfred, 893. Henry de Blois, the brother of King Stephen, built a castle here of great strength, 1 145 ; demolished by Henry II. ; rebuilt by the bishops of Winchester ; visited by Queen Elizabeth, Aug., 1567, and Sept. 16, FARNLEY WOOD PLOT FAWKES, GUY 287 1591 ; blown up by Gen. Waller, Dec. 29, 1642 ; restored by Bishop Morley, 1662-84. William Cobbett born in this town, 1762. Poor Law inquiry into the mismanagement of the workhouse opened, Nov. 13, 1867; concluded, Dec. 6, 1867. FARNLEY WOOD PLOT, formed by a few fanatics to overthrow the government of Charles II. ; they took arms, Oct. 12, 1663, but were defeated, and tried by a special commission at York, Jan., 1664 ; Robert Atkins, John Erriugton, and Henry Watson were executed on Chapel Town Moor, Jan. 19, 1664. FARNOVIANS, an heretical offshoot from the Socinians, 1568; ceased, 1617. FARRIERS' COMPANY incorporated, 25 Car. II., Jan. 17, 1670. FARRINGDON, Berkshire. The castle built by Robert, Earl of Gloucester, 1 142 ; the castle destroyed, 1202, and the site given for an abbey. FARRINGDON MARKET, London, established by the Corporation of London upon the removal of Fleet Market by act of parliament, 5 Geo. IV. c. clL , June 21, 1824; opened, Nov. 20, 1826; cost, ^"31,186. FARRINGDON WARD, London, called the Ward of ' Fletestrete,' or the Ward of Anketin de Auvergne, in the reign of Edward I. ; William de Farndone, gold- smith, purchased the Ward or Soke of Newgate and Ludgate, or Farringdon Ward within, 1279, and became alderman of that ward; he purchased subsequently the Ward of Anketin de Auvergne and united the two wards ; made separate wards within and without, 17 Rich. II., A.D. 1393-4 ; Blackfriars annexed to the ward without, March n, 1736 j Whitefriars to the ward within, Feb. 28, 1806. FARTHINGALES. The petticoat or under supporters of the ladies' dresses were much in use both in the reign of Elizabeth and James. Philip Stubbes, in his ' Anatomic of Abuses,' gives a humorous account of this article of dress, 1583. FARTHINGS, in silver, coined by King John, in Ireland, 1210 ; in silver, by Henry VIII., in England, 1522; in copper, by Charles II., 1665 and 1672; half- farthings first coined in the reign of Victoria, 1843. FASTS. The number of fasts in the Jewish calendar is now 28. Samuel pro- claimed a national fast and gathered all Israel to Mizpeh, I Sam. vii. 6 ; Jehosha- phat appointed one throughout all Judah when he was preparing for war against Moab and Ammon, 2 Chron. xx. 3 ; in the reign of Jehoiakim, one was proclaimed in Jerusalem, when the Prophecy of Jeremiah was publicly read by Baruch, Jer. xxxvi. 6 10. The Roman calendars, with their feasts, games, and ceremonies for the year, designed by Festus Pompius and Numa ; the custom ceased, 450 ; fasts came into general practice upon special occasions, 240. Telesphorus instituted Lent ; Pope Calixtus instituted the Ember Fasts, 219. Fast and Day of Humilia- tion held throughout England on account of the insurrection in India, Oct. 7, 1857. FAUNTLEROY, Henry, a London banker, executed for forgery at Newgate, Nov. 30, 1824. FAUST, or FAUSTUS, who claimed the invention of printing, and on that ac- count has been often coupled with the devil in stories and legends ; he died, 1466. PAVERS HAM, Kent. The abbey founded by King Stephen and Queen Matilda, 1147 1149 ; the abbot had a seat in parliament until 1325 ; the Grammar School founded, 1527 ; built, 1577 ; Henry VIII. incorporated the town, 1545. 35 persons killed by an explosion of gun cotton at the works of Messrs Hall, July 14, 1847 ; explosion of Messrs Hall and Son's gunpowder works, four men killed, April i, 1867 ; Mr Hall's gunpowder mills exploded and three men killed, .Aug. 15, 1867 ; again, Dec. 28, II men killed. FAWKES, GUY, executed in Parliament -yard, Jan. 31, 1606, for being a conspir- ator in the gunpowder plot. 288 FAYETTE FENIANS FAYETTE, Marquis de la, rewarded by the Americans with 200,000 dollars, and a complete township of land, in remembrance of his services in the cause of American independence, 1825. FE, SANTA, Spain, erected by Ferdinand and Isabella during the siege of Granada, 1491. FEALTY to the pope refused by William L, 1073. FEARNS, Scotland, roof of the church of, fell, and killed 60 persons, Oct. 19, 1742. FEASTS, or FESTIVALS. These are numerous in the universal Church. The religious ones ordained by the Mosaic Law are : 1st, those formally con- nected with the institution of the Sabbath ; 2nd, the historical or great festivals ; 3rd, the day of atonement. The Primitive Church had but few, Sundays, Easter, and Pentecost, A.D. 127; the worship of saints began about 317; the number of festivals greatly increased by the Council of Laodicea, 366 ; the Council of Auvergne, 535, increased the number ; Rogation days were appointed, 469 ; the Council of Mayence, 813, decreed the following festivals, Easter Sunday, Mon- day, Tuesday, and Wednesday, Ascension day, Pentecost, and a few others ; All Souls, instituted by the Lateran Council, Jan. 31, 993 ; the Synod of Oxford, under Stephen, Abp of Canterbury, fixed the festivals, 1222 ; Pope Urban IV. instituted the feast of Corpus Christi, 1264 ; jubilee, by Boniface VIII., 1300, at first observed every 100 years, then every 50 years, afterwards every 25 years ; in 1545 Paul III. instituted the festival of the Seven Sorrows of Our Lady ; Michael, Abp of Auxerre, abolished many, 1300; Clemangis several, 1416. In the list of public grievances presented to the Emperor Charles V. by the Germans, they make grievous complaints against these festivals, 1522 ; Erasmus censures their excess, 1524- FEATHERSTONE CASTLE, Northumberland, founded by Thomas de Feather- stonehaugh, 1272 ; confiscated by the Parliament because Timothy Featherstone- haugh fought for the king at the battle of Worcester, 1651. FEBRUARY in the first ages of Rome was the last month of the year ; placed as at present, B.C. 452. FEDERATION, the fete of the, celebrated by the Revolutionists in France, in the Champ de Mars, in the presence of 60,000 federates. Louis XVI. took his oath to the Revolution after the bishop of Autun had celebrated high mass, July 14, 1790. FEES, an act passed to provide for the collection of, in the Superior Court at West- minster and offices by means of stamps, 28 & 29 Viet. c. 45, June 19, 1865. FELTMAKERS' COMPANY incorporated, 2 Jac. L, Aug. 2, 1604. FELTON, John, affixed the bull of Pope Pius V. , excommunicating Queen Eliza- beth, to the gates of the bishop of London's palace, April 25, 1570. FEMALE SERVANTS taxed, 1785 ; discontinued, 1792. FENCING SCHOOLS prohibited in London, as introducing duelling, 13 Edw. I., 1285 ; the present method introduced, 1600. FENIANS, a body of discontented Irish and Irish Americans, who are said to derive their name from Fin, an Irish chieftain, the son-in-law of King Cormac (other authorities derive their cognomen from Pkcenicians, ) established for the severance of Ireland from England, and the establishment of an Irish republic ; the redistribution of electoral rights, and of all property real and personal. First heard of in Ireland, 1862, and in America, 1863, and in Dublin, 1864. The first Fenian congress held at Cincinnati, United States, Jan., 1865. Several conspirators arrested in Dublin, Sept. 15, 1865, and the office of the Irish People FENWICK FERENTINUM 289 newspaper seized ; several arrests made of suspected persons in Cork, Sept 16, in Manchester and Sheffield, Sept. 20 ; a congress of, met at Philadelphia, Oct. 1 6 ; the Head Centre, James Stephens, arrested at Dublin, Nov. 10 ; escaped from Richmond Bridewell, Nov. 24 ; trial of suspected Fenians at Dublin, Nov. 27 ; Thomas Luby, O'Leary, and Donovan sentenced to penal servitude, Dec. I 13 ; a special commission opened for the trial of prisoners at Cork, Dec. 14. The Habeas Corpus Act suspended in Ireland, 29 & 30 Viet. c. I, Feb. 17, 1866, to be in force until Sept. 6. A meeting of American Fenians held at Nash- ville, America, Feb. 19 ; another in New York, March 4 ; the Head Centre, Stephens, arrived at New York, May 10 ; attempt to invade Canada, Fort Erie captured, May 31 ; defeated, and their leader, Col. O'Neil, killed, June 2 ; pro- clamation issued condemning their proceedings by the President of the United States, June 7. The Habeas Corpus Act further suspended in Ireland by 29 & 30 Viet. c. 119, Aug. 10, 1866. Threatened attack upon Chester Castle, Feb. II, 1867 ; 500 of the Scotch .Fusileers Guards arrived from London, Feb. 12 ; outbreak in Dublin and other places, Feb. 13 ; again, March 5 ; the Police Bar- racks at Kilmallock attacked by 200 Fenians, commanded by Dunne, who shot Mr Bourne, the manager of the Union Bank ; the police by accident shot Dr deary in an attack upon these ruffians, March 6 ; the military under the com- mand of Sir Hugh Rose scoured the country, 14 20 ; special commission ap- pointed to try the prisoners at Dublin, Cork, and Limerick, April and May ; landing of Fenians at Chunegar, June 3 ; outbreak at Manchester, the leaders, Kelly and Deasey, rescued by an armed mob from the prison-van, policeman Brett being killed, Sept. 18 ; several arrests made, Sept. 18, 19, 20 ; M'Donnell, a bandsman in the Life Guards, shot in Bloomsbury, Sept. 28 ; special commis- sion opened for the trial of the prisoners at Manchester, Oct. 26 ; Allen, Gould, and Larkin sentenced to death ; executed, Nov. 23 ; demonstration of sympathy with these murderers held on Clerkenwell-green, and a procession marched to Hyde Park, Nov. 24, and at Birmingham, Manchester, and New York ; in- vasion of the Home Office by these sympathizers, Nov. 19 ; deputation to Windsor Castle, Nov. 22 ; demonstration in Dublin and funeral procession of 16,000 with bands, &c., Dec. 8; proposed procession in Dublin prohibited, Dec 12; ad- dress of the brotherhood of America to the Fenians in England, Dec. 12 ; pro- cession in New York, Dec. 12 ; the arrest of Col. Burke and Casey in London, Nov. 20 ; attempt to rescue them from the house of detention, Clerkenwell ; a barrel of gunpowder exploded, blowing down part of the prison wall and de- stroying several houses in Corporation Row, seven persons killed and III wounded, Dec. 13 ; Jeremiah Allen, Timothy Desmond, and Anne Justice captured, Dec. 13 ; four more of the conspirators taken, Dec. 20 ; swearing-in of special constables throughout London, Dec. 20, et seq. A Government Martello Tower at Foaty, Cork, surprised and captured, the stores and fire-arms taken, Dec. 26 ; boxes of phosphoric compound found in the branch Post Office in George-street, Dublin, Dec. 26 ; 8 persons captured in Wales, Dec. 31 ; robbery of fire-arms from the shop of Mr Allport, a gunsmith in Patrick-street, Cork, in the open day, Dec. 31- FENWICK, Sir John, beheaded on Tower-hill, Jan. 29, 1697. FERDINANDO, Mau. de Paleotti, brother to the Duchess of Shrewsbury, hanged for murder at Tyburn, Feb. 28, 1717-18. FERE CHAMPENOISE, battle, between Marshal Marmont and the Austrians under Prince Schwartzenberg, who were defeated, March 25, 1814. FERENTINUM, Italy, now Ferento, an Etrurian colony inhabited by the Vol- scians, who were defeated by the Romans, B.C. 413, and the country given to the Hernicians, who in their turn revolted against Rome, and the city was taken by assault, B.C. 361 ; the country ravaged by Hannibal, B.C. 211. '9 290 FERNANDO PO FIDLERS' MONEY FERNANDO PO, Africa, discovered by a Portuguese of that name, 1471 ; Spain took possession of it, 1778, but abandoned it, 1782 ; made an English settlement, 1827; relinquished, 1834; taken by the Spaniards, 1844. FERNDALE COLLIERY, Glamorgan, S. Wales, explosion at, 170 lives lost, Nov. 8, 1867. FERNS, Bishopric of, Ireland, existed, 598 ; united with Leighlin, 1600 ; to the bishopric of Ossory, Aug., 1833. FEROZESHAH, Hindustan. Sir Hugh Gough, commanding the British army, attacked the Sikhs' camp, and after a most severe contest, carried it, Dec. 21, 1845- FERRARA, Rome, built and walled in by Ravenna, 585 ; made the seat of a bishopric, 659 ; the family of Este made hereditary princes of, 1240 ; made an archbishopric, 1735 ; taken by the French, 1796 ; restored to the Pope, 1814 ; the public library founded, 1740. FERRARS, George, a member of parliament, taken in execution for debt, de- manded by the Speaker, and the demand resisted ; then taken by force, and the magistrates, creditor, and officers committed, 1542. FERRERS, Earl, committed to the Tower for the murder of his steward, Feb. 13, 1759-60; tried, condemned, and hanged at Tyburn, May 5, 1769. FERROL, Spain, abortive British expedition to, under Sir Edward Pellew and Sir James Pulteney, when 10,000 men landed and re-embarked, Aug. 25, 1800. FETE DE DIEU, established at Angers, 1619, to atone on the part of the arch- bishop for his non-belief of transubstantiation when first propagated by the pope. FETE DE L'ETRE SUPREME, a theatrical exhibition of very questionable taste, in which Robespierre played the part of High Priest, was held in Paris after the French National Representatives had acknowledged the existence of a Supreme Being, June 8, 1 794. FETE DE VERTU, established by Lady Hercourt, at Newnham, Gloucester- shire, 1789. FEUDAL LAWS, the tenure of land by suit and service to the lord or owner of it introduced into England by the Saxons about 600. The slavery of this tenure in- creased under William I., 1068 : this was dividing the kingdom into baronies, giving them to certain persons, and requiring those persons to furnish the king with money, and a stated number of soldiers. It was discountenanced in France by Louis XL, about 1470 ; abolished, 1492 ; restrained and limited in England by Henry VII., 1495; abolished by statute, 12 Charles II. c. 24, 1660 ; finally abolished in Scotland, 20 Geo. II. c. 5> I 747- FEUILLANS, order of, founded in Paris, 1587. A society of that name formed there to oppose the Jacobins, Dec., 1791 ; ministry formed, June, 1792 ; club in Paris closed, 1792. FEZ, Africa, the kingdom of, founded by Edris, 793 ; contained 700 temples in the 1 2th century. FIDEN^E, Italy, an ancient Latin city, conquered by the Romans, B.C. 496; they revolted and slew the Roman ambassadors, B.C. 438 ; again conquered by the Romans, B. c. 426, and the inhabitants sold as slaves. In the reign of Tiberius, at an extraordinary gladiatorial show, the theatre fell down, destroying nearly 50,000 persons. FIDLERS' MONEY, so called from its being a small coin, and mentioned in Ben Jonson's Masque of the Metamorphosed Gipsies as being given to the fidlers and p'pers, 1621. Fidlers to be prevented playing in inns and taverns, 1656. FIEF FINSBURY FIELDS 291 FIEF, known in France, 511 ; first applied to benefices, when they became here- ditary, 884 ; in Spain, before 710 ; a Saxon tenure. FIELD OF THE CLOTH OF GOLD. Henry VIII. embarked from England, May 30, 1520 ; the king's retinue amounted to 3997 persons and 2087 horses, the Queen's to 1175 persons and 778 horses; and held several interviews with Francis I. of France, between Ardres and Guines, extending over 18 days, June 724, 1520. FIESCHI'S attempt to assassinate Louis Philippe of France by an infernal machine of 25 musket barrels well loaded ; Marshal Mortier was killed, a number of officers wounded, and upwards of 40 persons besides killed or hurt, July 28, 1835. FIFTEENTHS, a tax imposed upon cities, boroughs, and towns, and so called be- cause it amounted to a fifteenth part of that which each city or town was valued at, or a fifteenth of every man's personal estate, according to a reasonable valuation. On occasion of the Spanish Armada, the parliament gave Queen Elizabeth two subsidies and four fifteenths, 1588. FIFTH-MONARCHY MEN, appeared in England, 1646; conspiracy dispersed by Oliver Cromwell a religious sect that expected the millennium, and a universal monarchy under Christ. FIG-TREE, introduced into England, 1550. The Australian species brought, 1789. FIGUERAS, Spain, built by Ferdinand VI., 1750 ; it is of great strength and has accommodation for 16,000 men ; it was taken by the French, Nov. 24, 1794 ; also in 1808, 1811, and 1824. FILTERS. Several attempts were made to construct a vessel of this description ; a patent granted to Mr Peacock, 1791 ; earthenware filters invented by Mrs Johanna Hempel of Chelsea, 1790; Mr Robins subsequently patented and im- proved them. FINANCE, new system of, introduced by Pitt, 1797 ; turned out a delusion, and ended in a IO per cent income-tax, 1 798 ; increased pressure on the public by these measures 1799. FINCHALE-UPON-THE-WEAR, Durham, monastery founded and endowed by Hugh de Pudsey, Bishop of Durham, 1170. FINE ARTS, Society for the Encouragement of, instituted in London, 1858; Rules of, published, 1859. FINE ART CLUB, established in London, 1858 ; merged into the Burlington Fine Art Club, 1867. FINISTERRE, Cape of, Lord Anson defeated the French fleet off, capturing six men-of-war, May 3, 1 747 ; Sir Robert Calder defeated the Spanish fleet off, cap- turing two men-of-war, July 22, 1805. FINLAND, Russia. The Finns retained their own sovereign and barbarous prac- tices until conquered by the Swedes, 1260 ; taken by Russia, 1721, and annexed to the Russian Empire by the treaty of Nystadt ; the Swedes defeated, 1803 ; ceded to Russia, Sept. 19, 1819 ; the Emperor Alexander II. assembled the four estates after an interval f 50 years, Sept. 19, 1863. FINSBURY FIELDS, London. Watch-fires lighted in these fields, Jan. 4, 1556 ; a wager shot by the bowmen in, April 19, 1557 ; on May 27 a woman was killed by a stray arrow while passing over the Fields ; a wager shot between Lord Dudley and others in the Fields, June 19, 1561. The Finsbury prebend leased to the corporation of London, by Edward Moyle, prebendary of Halliwell and Fins- bury, for 90 years, Dec. 14, 1554 ; renewed by Dr Wilson for 99 years, 1768 ; now possessed by the Ecclesiastical Commissioners ; bill introduced into the House of Commons to appropriate part of the estates for the relief of spiritual destitution 292 FIRE-ARMS FIRES in the metropolis, April 10, 1866 ; withdrawn, July 25 ; reintroduced, Feb. 6, 1867; adjourned, Feb. 13. Made a borough, 1832 ; the first election for members of parliament, Dec., 1832, Mr Robert Grant and Mr Sergt. Spankie returned. The houses in Artillery-place designed by Dance, 1777 ; the square laid out, 1799; the Artillery Company obtained the use of their ground, 1641. Large plague pits were dug here, 1665. The Militia barracks, built from the designs of Joseph Jennings; the first stone laid, by Col. Wilson, Dec., 1856; completed, Jan. i, 1858; cost ^14,960 19-r. lid. ; fittings, ^1090 13^. gd. See Bunhill Fields. FIRE-ARMS, invented by Schwartz, 1378 ; introduced into England, 1388 ; a corps of Harquebusiers formed by Edward .IV., 1476 ; matchlocks first used in the battle ofRhejan, 1525 ; muskets first used, 1570; the flint-lock, 1588; per- cussion caps first used by the French army, 1830. See Guns. FIRE BRIGADE. The Fire- Watch of London established, 1798 ; the Insurance Companies each kept its own engine and establishment of firemen until 1832, when eight companies combined and established the ' London Fire-engine Estab- lishment,' which commenced operations in 1833 ; London was divided into five districts, having 37 engines, 96 men, and two floating engines ; reconstructed and placed under the control of the Metropolitan Board of Works by 28 & 29 Viet. c. 90, July 5, 1865, to come into operation Jan. I, 1866. 'The Metro- politan Fire Brigade : ' the force now consists of a chief superintendent, Capt. Shaw, and 350 officers and men, four steam floating engines, four large land and 27 smaller steam engines, and 37 hand-engines. FIRE-ENGINES invented by Vander Heyden after the fire of 1666 : for the pro- tection of the city of London, an Act of Common Council was passed, Nov. 15, 1667, which enacted that the city should be divided into four quarters, and that each quarter should be furnished with 800 leather buckets, 50 ladders, and two hand-squirts of brass for each parish ; and each ward was ordered to provide a bellman to walk through the ward from 10 at night till five o'clock in the morn- ing to give the alarm in the case of fire ; and gunpowder was provided in con- venient places to blow up the houses next to the burning building to stay its pro- gress. The fire-watch established, Nov. 1791 ; hand fire-engines came into use, 1832; Mr Braithwaite invented a steam fire-engine, 1830 1833 ; Mason and Shand's patent steam land-engines adopted in London, 1860 ; Mr Roberts patented one, 1862 ; fire-escapes invented by Mr Davies, 1809 ; the Royal So- ciety for the Protection of Life from Fire established, 1837 ; reorganized, 1843 '> transfer of the establishment to the control of the Metropolitan Board of Works by 28 & 29 Viet. c. 90, s. n, July 5, 1865. FIRE-SHIPS first used at the siege of Antwerp, 1585, also by Sir F. Drake, against the Spanish Armada, 1588. FIREWORKS. These pyrotechnic displays first known in England in the reign of Elizabeth, when ' the wilde men casting of fire ' accompanied the Lord Mayor's barge upon the Thames ; 1000 persons trampled to death in Paris at an exhibi- tion of, on the marriage of Louis XVI. ; a grand display of, in London, to cele- brate the peace of Ryswick, Nov. 16, 1697 ; after the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, Nov. 23, 1748; exhibited at Vauxhall, 1798; the general peace, Aug. I, 1814; the coronation of Will. IV., Sept. 8, 1831 ; the last public exhibition at the close of the Russian war in the parks and throughout England, May 29, 1856. FIRES, occasioned by servants made punishable, 1 707 ; method to prevent the spread- ing of, by David Hartley, 1764. The number of fires in London in 1840, was68i ; in 1850, 868 ; in 1860, 1056 ; in 1866, 1338. A list of some of the principal : Abchurch Lane, July 27, 1784. Adam-street, Edgware-road, eight per- Adam-street, Adelphi, two houses con- sons burnt, Jan. 27, 1805. sumed, June 29, 1822. Albion Mills destroyed, March 2, 1791. FIRES 293 Albion Wharf .and Mills, Blackfriars, with several other warehouses, de- stroyed, Feb. 16, 1855. Aldersgate-street, London, house in, burnt, 1768. Aldersgate-street and Bartholomew Close at Mr Leddon's, which de- stroyed ; 100,000 of goods and 40 houses, Nov. 5, 1783. Aldersgate-street, one in, May 1 6, 1790. Aldersgate-street, the house of Mr Dun- kin, tallow-chandler, and the adjoin- ing house of Cockerton and Son, oilmen, burnt, June 26, 1816. Anchor-court, Old-street, five houses destroyed, Aug. 10, 1825. Antwerp, the Bourse at, erected, 1531, destroyed, Aug. 2, 1858. Argyle-rooms, Regent-street, burnt, Feb. 12, 1830. Arundel-street, Strand, the Whittington Club burnt, Dec. 3, 1854. Astley's theatre, together with 19 houses and property valued at .30,000, Aug. 1 7 * 794 J burnt a third time, June 8, 1841. Astrakan, Russia, the city of, burnt, loo workmen killed, Sept. I, 1858. Austin Friars, the Dutch Protestant Church destroyed, but the library saved, Nov. 22, 1862. Bankside, Southwark, the Globe The- atre burnt, June 29, 1613. The oil and mustard mills, and the remains of Winchester Palace destroyed, Aug. 28, 1814. Bartholomew Close, Messrs Hoighton's establishment, damage estimated at .200,000, Aug. II, 1830. Bath Theatre burnt, April 18, 1862. Battersea, Philip's patent Fire Annihil- ator Company, works burnt, Nov. 31, 1852. Battle Bridge, serious fire at, Aug. 12, '749- Belfast, Victoria Chambers, July 2, 1859. Berkeley-square, the mansion of Mr C. Boon, with his valuable library, de- stroyed, Feb. II, 1816. Bermondsey, fire at, great destruction of property, May 18, 1852. Bermondsey, Lucas's wharf destroyed, March 1 6, 1855. Bermondsey Church, the house of Mr Black, oilman, facing destroyed, Mr Black and his daughter suffocated, June 28, 1817. Bermondsey-road, the floor-cloth manu- factory of Messrs Rolls and Goulston, with a timber-yard and 20 houses, de- stroyed, Sept 16, 1822. Bishopsgate-street within, the southern half of the street, including St Martin Outwich church, destroyed, and the four corners of Cornhill burnt, Nov. 7, 1765- Blackwall, the Thames Ironworks and Shipbuilding Company, premises de- stroyed, with property valued at jio,ooo, Aug. 31, 1860. Blamphayne House, near Exeter, burnt, Aug. 6, 1844. Blenheim Palace partially destroyed and Titian's masterpiece, ' The Loves of the Gods,' Feb. 5, 1861. Bond-street, Long's hotel nearly con- sumed, Dec. 21, 1822. Bow-street, Covent Garden, the house at the corner of, destroyed, Jan. 10, 1788. Bramham Park, mansion destroyed, July 21, 1828. Bread-street Hill, the premises of Messrs Luntley and Milner, wholesale drag- gists, nearly destroyed, Sept. 3, 1822. Broadwood's pianoforte manufactory, Westminster, with upwards of 1000 instruments, destroyed, Aug. 12, 1856. Buchanan House, the seat of the Earl of Montrose, Stirlingshire, destroyed, Jan. 22, 1850. Bury-street, St Mary Axe, nearly half the street destroyed, June 18, 1811. California, the town of Sacramento to- tally destroyed, Dec. 16, 1852. Camden Town, the warehouses of Messrs Pickfords destroyed, June 9, 1857. Campden House, Kensington, burnt, March 23, 1862. Carlsruhe, the Grand Ducal Theatre destroyed, and 30 lives lost, Feb. 28, 1847. Cavendish-street, Oxford-street, three females burnt to death, July 29, 1825. Caversham House, Reading, the pro- perty of William Crawshay,destroyed, Jan. 1 8, 1850. 294 FIRES Chamounix, Italy, the village of, burnt, July 19, 1855. Chandos-street, Covent Garden, several houses destroyed, May 10, 1772. Charing Cross, Whitehall, the mews at, burnt, Aug. 16, 1534. Chatham Place, Blackfriars, Price and Company's oil-refiners premises burnt, Nov. 20, 1862. Chelmsford, Essex, an inn, in which 120 Hanoverian troops were quartered, burnt, and 12 of the soldiers smother- ed, Oct. 22, 1804. Chester, the Town Hall and Exchange, with many local portraits, destroyed, Dec. 30, 1862. Chili, the cathedral at Santiago con- sumed and 2000 ladies burnt or trod- den to death, Dec. 8, 1863. Christiania, a large part of the town burnt, April 13, 1856. City-road, the Gutta Percha Company's works, City-road Basin, burnt, with property valued at 100,000, June 5, 1853- Clapham, the Plough inn destroyed, May 29, 1816. Cliefden House, near Maidenhead, the seat of the Duke of Sutherland, de- stroyed, Nov. 1 6, 1849. Cockermouth, All Saints' church con- sumed, Nov. 15, 1850. Collard's pianoforte manufactory de- stroyed, with property valued at 60,000, Dec. 19, 1851. Compton-street, Soho, 16 houses burnt, June 12, 1785. Conduit-street, at which Mr Windham, in exerting himself to save Mr North's library and manuscripts, re- ceived a blow on the thigh which proved the cause of his death, July 8, 1809. Cooke's circus, with eight trained horses, destroyed, March 7, 1861. Cornhill, 200 houses destroyed, the most terrible after the great fire of 1666, Nov. 10, 1759. Cornhill, several houses burnt, June 6, 1773- Cotton wharf burnt and property valued at ,40,000, Aug. 12, 1751. Covent Garden, St Paul's church burnt by the carelessness of the workmen employed in its repair, Sept. 19,1735. Covent Garden Theatre totally destroy- ed, Sept. 20, 1808; again, March 5, 1856. Crewe Hall, Cheshire, the seat of Lord Crewe, totally destroyed, Jan. 3, 1866. Crown-street, Finsbury-square, the ware- house of Mr Mitchell burnt, Dec. 31, 1815. Crown-street, Soho, the pianoforte manufactory of Messrs Chappell burnt, Nov. 4, 1860. Croydon Railway Station, the carriage department, with 13 carriages, Sept. 23, 1846. Crystal Palace, Sydenham, the north end destroyed, with its valuable con- tents, Dec. 30, 1866. Cumberland-street, Hyde Park, the mansion of Mr Barrett burnt, and Mr Barrett and two daughters suffo- cated, Aug. 15, 1862. Denmark, the palace of Fredericksburg destroyed, Dec. 17, 1859. Denmark-street, five houses destroy- ed and a woman burnt, Jan. 18, 1814. Devonshire, St Mary's Ottery, in houses destroyed, valued at ,20,000, May 25, 1866. Dockhead, several warehouses destroy- ed, May 2, 1785 5 the premises of Messrs Barry Brothers totally de- stroyed, Nov. 25, 1864. Doncaster, St George's church totally consumed, Feb. 28, 1853. Dorset-street, Fleet-street, the Gas Company's works destroyed, May 24, 1815. Drury Lane Theatre destroyed with 60 houses, Jan., 1671-2; again destroyed, Feb. 24, 1809. Drury Lane, a timber-yard and 10 houses destroyed, Nov. 9, 1820. Dublin, St Andrew's church burnt, Jan. 8, 1860. The Kildare-street club- house with its library destroyed, Nov. n, 1860. Duck Lane, near Wardour-street, Soho, 13 houses burnt, Dec. 13, 1793. Duke-street, Lambeth, Messrs Clowes's printing office destroyed and the illus- trated catalogue of the Great Exhibi- tion, June 10, 1852. Duke- street, Holborn, the premises and FIRES 295 workshops of Messrs Holland and Hannen burnt, Aug. 26, 1866. Duke-street, Lincoln's Inn, which burnt the Sardinian Ambassador's chapel, Nov. 30, 1759. Duplin Castle, Perthshire, burnt, Sept. n, 1827. Edinburgh, the Grey Friars church, erected, 1612, destroyed, Jan. 19, 1845. Edinburgh, the Royal Theatre destroy- ed, Jan. 13, 1865. Exchange, the Royal, London, and several houses destroyed, Jan. 10, 1838. Exeter, the village of Kenton consumed, April 16, 1856. Exmouth-street, Clerkenwell, 14 houses and a large factory destroyed, Feb. 14, 1856. Falcon Court, Fleet-street, the printing office of Mr S. Hamilton, with pro- perty to the amount of .80,000, Feb. 2, 1803. Finsbury Square, Moorfields, a timber yard near, totally consumed, with pro- perty valued at .10,000, July 28, 1792. Fleet-street, the extensive premises of Mr Mist consumed, May 23, 1817. Fleet-street, the premises of Mr Bond, linen-draper, Mr Hill, chemist, and six others, destroyed. This opened a view of St Bride's church, Nov. 14, 1824. Flintshire, Hawarden church, built, 1275, totally consumed, Oct. 29, 1857. Flixton Hall, near Bungay, the seat of Sir S. Adair, burnt, Dec. 13, 1846. Fore-street, Cripplegate, the premises of Mr Joel, stationer, consumed, and most of the family burnt, May 21, 1862. Garrick Theatre, Goodman's Fields, destroyed, Nov. 4, 1846. Gilbert-street, Bloomsbury, a calamitous fire in which 15 persons were burnt, one whole family, father, mother, and nine children, March 29, 1857. Glasgow, theatre burnt, Jan. 12, 1829 ; again totally destroyed, Nov. 25, 1845. The sugar refinery of Messrs Wainwrights burnt, May 6, 1849. Golden Square, Messrs Kirkman's piano- forte manufactory burnt, with a chapel and eight dwelling houses, Aug. 10, 1853- Gracechurch-street, the premises of Messrs Southall and Fossick, four other warehouses and a meetinghouse, four persons killed, Sept. 9, 1821. Grantham, Exchange Hall destroyed, Nov. 21, 1862. Gravesend, part of the town burnt, Aug. 24, 1727; 25 houses destroyed at, June 2, 1844; several houses, a large hotel, and a considerable amount of valuable property consumed, Nov. 21, 1846. Greenhithe, a fire at, four persons burnt, Dec. 25, 1866. Greenwich Hospital partially destroyed, Jan. 2, 1779. Gresham-street, the Whittington Club nearly destroyed, Oct. 22, 1847 ; Haberdashers' Hall partially burnt, and Taplin's carpet warehouses totally destroyed, Sept. 19, 1864. Grosvenor Market, the premises of Mr Stokes, calico printer, destroyed, Aug. 24, 1822. Grove Place, Kentish Town, the house of Mr Slack burnt and the proprietor killed, Nov. 23, 1815. Gutter Lane, Cheapside, three houses burnt and six much damaged, Feb. 27, 1821. Halfmoon-street, Bishopsgate, Mr Goullee, pork butcher, house de- stroyed, Mr and Mrs Goullee, three children, and three servants burnt to death, April 22, 1811. Hanway Yard, Oxford-street, twohouses burnt, March 12, 1790. Harley-street, the mansion of Lord Walsingham, burnt, his lordship killed and his lady died of injuries received, April 27, 1831. Harrow school partially destroyed, Oct. 22, 1838. Haydon Square, Minories, the North- Western Railway dep&t destroyed, with much property, Sept. n, 1866. Haymarket, the opera house destroyed, June 17, 1789, and again, Dec. 5, 1867. Hermitage brewhouse consumed, with property valued at 20,000, May i, 1755- Hermitage, Southwark, warehouses de- 296 FIRES stroyed at, and property valued at ,30,000 damaged, April I, 1790. Hermitage Stairs, 31 houses destroyed, March 16, 1779. Hermitage Wharf, a fire at Hawley's Wharf, which destroyed sugar valued at ;io,ooo, Dec. 2, 1793. High-street, Holborn, six houses de- stroyed, Nov. 28, 1815. High-street, Gravesend, several houses destroyed, with property valued at ,10,000, Aug. n, 1850. High-street, Shadwell, 20 dwelling houses burnt, Oct. 10, 1814. Hillfield Hall, Warwick, Feb. II, 1864. Hinchbrook, the seat of Lord Sandwich, Jan. 22, 1830. Holborn, High, a serious one in, June X 3> I 7%5 5 the house of Mr Bain- bridge, carver and gilder, April 7, 1817 ; the Architectural Library of Mr Taylor in, destroyed, and several other houses, Nov. 23, 1822. Hong Kong, China, part of the Chinese quarter destroyed, Dec. 28, 1851 ; another, which consumed 200 build- ings and warehouses, Nov. 28, 1867. Horsleydown, 30 houses, besides ware- houses, destroyed, April 30, 1 780. Houndsditch, Messrs Bousfield's pre- mises destroyed, Jan. 27, 1851. Hull theatre, erected in 1809, burnt, Oct. 13, 1859. Ivy Lane, Newgate-street, Dr Johnson's Club and several houses burnt, Sept. 17, 1859. James's, St, Palace, part of, destroyed, Jan. 21, 1809. James-street, St Marylebone, a seri- ous fire, six persons burnt, Feb. 26, 1859. John's, St, ClerkenwelJ, two houses de- stroyed, June 20, 1822. John's, St, Newfoundland, three-fourths of the city destroyed, June 9, 1846. Katherine's, St, Docks, serious fire in, Jan. I, 1866, and April 27 ; ware- houses, E., in, with contents con- sumed, May 27, 1857. King's Bench Prison, 50 apartments burnt, July 14, 1799- King's Newton Hall, Derbyshire, de- stroyed, April 1 8, 1859. King-street, Covent Garden, 50 houses, valued at ,70,000, Dec. 23, 1759; another, doing considerable damage, May 4, 1774. King's-street, Hammersmith, two houses burnt, seven damaged, and a child killed, Feb. 3, 1824. King's-street, Southwark, the premises of Messrs Jones, timber merchants, and 15 houses burnt, Dec., 1813. Kingston, Jamaica, partially consumed, March 29, 1862. Lambeth, the building-yard of Messrs Myers and several houses in the York Road, destroyed, Feb. 7, 1850. Leadenhall-street, broke out at Mr Merle's, picture-frame maker, all the houses up to Billiter-lane and three in the lane, consumed, Oct. 17, 1812. Leadenhall-street, near the India House, two houses destroyed, June 4, 1815. Limehouse Hole, several houses burnt, June 1 8, 1794; J 6 houses destroyed in Narrow-street, and several ware- houses, Nov. n, 1814. Limehouse, St Anne's church destroyed, March 29, 1850. Lisle-street, the Mexican coffee-house, with Mr Simeon, the proprietor, and his wife, destroyed, Dec. 8, 1810. Liverpool, the North-shore cotton mills, with property valued at ,80,000, de- stroyed, May 17, 1853 ; the Sailors' Home destroyed, April 29, 1860; the workhouse at, and 21 children and two nurses burnt, Sept. 8, 1862. Messrs Booth's warehouses destroyed, with 240,000 bushels of corn, valued at ,60,000, Oct. 22, 1823. The bonded warehouses in Launcelot's Hay, with merchandise valued at ,100,000, Oct. 26, 1854. London, a great part of the city de- stroyed, 982 ; again, 1077, 1092, 1132. The great fire of Sept. 2, 1666, extended from the Tower to the Temple church ; and from the north-east gate to Holborn Bridge ; it began at Mr Farryner's, a baker, in Pudding-lane, Sept. 2, and continued till the 6th ; it destroyed 373 acres within the walls, 89 parish churches, 13, 200 houses, 4000 streets, St Paul's Cathedral, Royal Exchange, Custom House ; the value of private property estimated at ,2,000,000 ; the pro- perty in stores, ,1,600,000. It was FIRES 297 at last extinguished by blowing up the houses before the flames could reach them. London Bridge, burnt with all the houses upon it, 1135 ; 3000 persons burnt upon the bridge, with the chapel of St Thomas, and all the buildings, and extended into Southwark and the priory of St Mary Overie, July 10, 1212 ; more than one-third of the houses on, destroyed, Feb. 3, 1632-33. Great fire at the south end of, 1 726 ; the temporary bridge burnt, April II, 1758; the water- works at, destroyed, Oct. 31, 1779. London Docks, a destructive fire in, which destroyed property valued at ,150,000, June 29, 1858 ; a fire in the brandy vaults, and much pro- perty destroyed, July 26, 1859. London Road, a house consumed in, and several damaged, Sept. 14, 1823. London, the Tower of, the armoury in, and 280,000 stand of arms destroyed, Oct. 30, 1841. Ixnidon Wall, the wool warehouse of Messrs Gooch and Cousins destroyed, with property valued at .100,000, Oct. 8, 1849. Ix>ng Acre, Messrs Home's coach fac- tory totally destroyed, Aug. 31, 1851 ; St Martin's Hall destroyed, Aug. 26, 1860. Ludgate Hill, the extensive premises of Messrs Wilkinson, upholsterers, and several adjoining houses, burnt, Nov. 15, 1824. Manchester, a destructive fire at, Oct. 12, 1829. The theatre totally de- stroyed, May 7, 1844. Mark Lane, several houses, and part of the Corn Exchange in, burnt, with property valued at ,200,000, Sept. 19, 1850. Martin's, St, Lane, Mr Smeeton's print- ing office destroyed, and himself and wife burnt, May 27, 1809. Marylebone-street, the extensive pre- mises of Mr Irving, Nos. 49, 50, en- tirely destroyed, with many new car- riages, June I, 1816. Memel, Russia, the town of, destroyed, with a large quantity of military stores, Oct. 4, 1853. Mile End, Messrs Smith & Co., sugar- bakers, destroyed with a loss of j2oo,ooo, Jan. n, 1821. Milk-street, Cheapside, and Wood- street, a large block of warehouses burnt, Dec. 18, 1863. Millwall, the extensive shipping-yard of Messrs Scott Russells, with pro- perty valued at .100,000, consumed, Sept. 10, 1853 ; again destroyed, March 12, 1856. Minories, 30 houses destroyed in, March 2 3> x 797- 1 the range of buildings between the Crescent and America- square, by which nearly twenty houses were destroyed, July 14, 1815. Mint, Tower Hill, the eastern and southern wings of the building were unroofed, and the interior, containing the machinery, destroyed, Oct. 21, 1815. Montague Close, Southwark, several large warehouses burnt, June 28, 1857. Montreal, Canada, the English cathe- dral destroyed, June 8, 1857. Mount Place, Homerton Road, the house of Mr Driskall burnt, and pro- perty damaged, valued at .5000, April 6, 1817. Munich, the New Court theatre de- stroyed by fire, Jan. 15, 1823. Naworth Castle, the seat of the Howards, with most of the paintings and the library, destroyed, May 18, 1844. Nelson-street, Whitechapel, the sugar- house of Messrs Craven and Shultz, destroyed, and damage done to the extent of .15,000, Aug., 1819. Newcastle, the Grand Stand at, partially destroyed, Dec. 4, 1844. Newcastle-upon-Tyne. The most de- structive fire which has happened in modern times broke out at Gates- head, Oct. 6, 1854 ; it broke out at Messrs Wilson's worsted mill, and ex- tended to the Quayside ; 50 persons perished and property valued at a mil- lion sterling destroyed. The flour mill of Mr Brown destroyed with pro- perty valued at ,70,000 ; the high level Railway Bridge in great danger of being burnt, June 24, 1866 ; several warehouses burnt at, Dec. 20, 1867 ; the co-operative stores at St Anthony's near, Dec. 26, 1867. zgS FIRES New-street, Covent Garden, several houses destroyed and one person killed, May 12, 1823. Newton-street, High Holborn, Messrs Spencer's warehouse and five others destroyed, several being damaged, July, 1818. Newport, the South-Wales Railway Bridge over the river Usk, 400 yards long, totally destroyed, May 31, 1848. New York, United States, the premises of Messrs Harper & Co., printers, destroyed, Dec. to, 1853. Nightingale Lane, Wapping, 150 houses destroyed, Dec. 4, 1716. Norfolk-street, Strand, the shop of Mr Kerr, boot-maker, and several others, destroyed, Jan. 17, 1820. Netting Hill, St Andrew's church totally destroyed, March 24, 1867. Old Gravel Lane, Mr George Hoppe's warehouse and several others de- stroyed, Nov. 3, 1821. Mr Briggs, tallow-chandler, burnt, and several workshops, June 4, 1822. Mr War- dell, provision merchant, premises burnt, June 30, 1822. Olympic Theatre totally destroyed, with several other buildings, March 30, 1849. Oxford Market, Turk's-head yard, the carpenter's shop of Mr Falconer, and five others, burnt, Oct. 2, 1816. Oxford-street, the premises of Messrs Laurie and Marner, coach-builders, burnt, Feb. 21, 1866. Pantheon, Oxford-street, destroyed, Jan. 14, 1792. Paternoster Row, the extensive premises of Mr Bagster consumed, March 2, 1822. A fire broke out at Messrs Cuthbert's, tallow melters, which de- stroyed the warehouses of Messrs Longman, booksellers, and several others, Sept. 5, 1861. Paul's, St, Churchyard, the house of Mr Bigg destroyed, and two children burnt, Jan. 19, 1815. Piccadilly, the vault under St James's church discovered to be on fire, Jan. IS. I763- Pickford and Co., Messrs, the extensive wharfs of, on the banks of the City Road Basin, with property valued at ^"30,000, destroyed, and two lives lost, Feb. 26, 1824. Pimlico, Westminster, the extensive premises of Messrs Cubitts, joiners, with the workshops, totally destroyed, Aug. 17, 1854. Messrs Holland and Son's workshops burnt, Nov. 28, 1861. Plymouth, the Shannon steam-packet burnt at, Dec. 5, 1846. Pope's-head Alley, Cornhill, partially destroyed, Dec. i, 1746. Poplar, the house of Mrs Cock and nine other houses destroyed ; Mrs Cock, at the age of 80 years, perished in the flames, Dec. 20, 1816. Preston, Hanover-street, mills destroy- ed, Dec. 31, 1864. Prince's-street, Soho, four houses de- stroyed, three persons burnt, Sept. 10, 1821. Princess-street, Soho, a fatal fire at No. 19, nine persons burnt, Feb. 8, 1854. Privy Gardens, Whitehall, the Duke of Richmond's mansion, burnt, Dec. 21, 1791. Quebec, nearly destroyed, and many lives lost, May 28, 1845 ; another fire broke out which consumed nearly one-third of the city, 71 streets burnt, June 28 ; the parliament buildings destroyed, cost ^"60,000, Feb. 1, 1854. Ramsgate Theatre, burnt, Nov. 30, 1829. Ratcliff Highway, 15 houses destroyed, Aug., 1818. Red Lion-street, Bedford Square, 15 houses consumed in, and several in Featherstone Buildings, June 24, 1823. Red Lion-street, Holborn, which de- stroyed the house of a goldbeater, and a child perished in the flames, Nov. 24, 1815. Rochdale, Yorkshire, the woollen mill of Messrs Kelsall consumed, and several persons burnt, Jan. 3, 1854. Rockingham House, near Boyle, Ros- common, Ireland, the seat of Vis- count Lorton, burnt, April 18, 1863. Rosemary Branch Theatre, Islington, destroyed, with seven trained horses and ii dogs, July 27, 1853. Rotherhithe, 20 houses destroyed at, Oct. 12, 1790; another which de- FIRES 299 stroyed 60 houses from Cherry Gar- dens-Stairs to West Lane, with several vessels, Sept. 14, 1791. Mr West- lake's, ship-builder, which consumed seven houses, a brig, several ware- houses, and property worth .50,000, March, 1820. The premises of Mr White, boat-builder, and another house attached, destroyed, June 28, 1822. A Paraffin refinery burnt, with property valued at ,100,000 destroyed, Aug. 2, 1867. Royalty Theatre burnt, loss estimated at ;i8,ooo, Jan. 5, 1826. Salisbury Square, Mr Gillet's printing- office destroyed in 1805, and again, July 29, 1810. Saville House, Leicester Square, burnt, Feb. 23, 1865. Savoy, Strand, a serious fire at the, March 2, 1776; the chapel totally consumed, July 7> 1864. Seething Lane, Tower-street, several warehouses destroyed, April 1 8, 1863. Shadwell, 50 houses burnt, Sept. 10, 1736 ; 30 houses destroyed, besides several barges, May 2, 1761 ; 20 houses burnt, Nov. I, 1796; the water-works, at which conveyed water from the Tower to Limehouse, and raised 903 gallons a minute, burnt in two hours, Dec. 12, 1797. Sheffield Theatre burnt, March 25, 1865. Shoreditch, the shop of Mr Bell, oil- man, burnt, Mr Bell perished, Sept. 13. 1825. Sidney House, Old Bailey, consumed, Aug. I, 1775. Skinner-street, the Commercial Hall entirely consumed, April 4, 1813. Smithfield, East, 28 houses burnt, April II, 1761 ; two houses in Upper East Smithfield burnt, Aug. 26, 1822. A fire broke out in the plate-glass manu- factory of Messrs Reed and Co., Upper Smithfield, which reduced the premises to a heap of ruins ; the loss was ,100,000, Aug. n, 1822. South Audley -street, Mr Holland, tallow- chandler, and several other houses burnt, Aug. 25, 1812. South-Eastern Railway Station at Bricklayers' Arms destroyed on the departure of Louis Philippe, king of the French, Oct. 12, 1844. Southwark, 60 houses destroyed, 1676 ; the mustard mills of Messrs Lingard and Jones, by which great devast- ation was made, several adjoining warehouses being destroyed, and a great extent of stabling belonging to Theel and Steel, Aug. 28, 1814 ; West Kent Wharf, St Saviour's, burnt, Aug. 17, 1860. Spring Gardens, a large mansion burnt, April 2, 1785. Stepney, the patent rope manufactory and all the machinery of Mr Dunn at, consumed, Aug. 14, 1822. Stock Exchange coffee-house entirely destroyed and several adjoining houses burnt, April 23, 1816. Store-street, Tottenham-court-road, a brewery destroyed with property valued at "40,000, Sept. 27, 1802. Strand, the English opera house de- stroyed, Feb. 1 6, 1830. Mr Wheater's, grocer, No. 460, and 10 houses destroyed, three persons perished in the flames, March I, 1818. Surrey Music Hall burnt, June II, 1861. Surrey Theatre destroyed, Jan. 30, 1865. Swallow-street, Regent-street, 14 houses burnt, April 24, 1761. Thames-street, 1 20 houses consumed, and above 50 persons perished, Jan. 13, 1715. Fresh Wharf and part of St Magnus' church burnt, April 18, 1760. Near the Custom-house, three large warehouses of West India goods, valued at ,30,000, destroyed, Feb. 11, 1800. At the premises of Messrs Thomas and Co., porter merchants, damage done to the amount of .20,000, Feb., 1820. Fresh Wharf destroyed, with property valued at .100,000, June 19, 1858. Billingsgate burnt, 1718, and Jan. 13, 1754. Cus- tom-house burnt, 1718 ; again burnt, and the whole range of buildings and many other houses destroyed, Feb. 12, 1814. Fishmongers' Hall and several nouses destroyed, Feb. .10, 1761. Thames, the river of, a West Indiaman, 300 FIRES of 300 tons burthen, destroyed, Dec. 16, 1821. Titchfield-street, Gt, a fire at the house of Mr Cruzett, carver and gilder, which spread to several houses in Mortimer-street, Wells-street, and Great Portland-street, destroying 20 or 30 houses, including a timber-yard, St Margaret's chapel, and Varley's picture gallery, in which were many fine works of art, the damage esti- mated at ;200,ooo, June 21, 1825. Titchfield-street, Little, Mr Reeve's floor-cloth manufactory, seven houses and Mr Huntingdon's chapel de- stroyed, July 13, 1810. Tooke's-court, the premises of Mr Paris, printer, and three other houses de- stroyed and the housekeeper burnt, July 20, 1810. Tooley-street, Southwark, a destructive fire in, which destroyed several wharfs of Mr Aid. Humphrey and Mr Wig- ans, and property valued at 60,000, Feb. 2O, 1821. Topping's wharf burnt, Aug. 17, 1843. The greatest fire since the fire of London, which destroyed many warehouses in, burnt for three days, Mr Braidwood, the chief of the Fire Brigade, killed by the falling of a wall, the loss of pro- perty valued at ,2,000,000, June 22 25, 1861. Beal's wharf destroyed .with 1,500,000 Ibs. of tea, valued at ;ioo,ooo, Oct. 30, 1865. Tottenham, Mr Bell's oil mills at, burnt, Aug. 8, 1852. Tottenham-court-road, Whitfield's ta- bernacle destroyed, Feb. 23, 1856. Tottenham-street, the premises of Messrs Astor and Co., musical in- strument makers, destroyed, July 20, 1822. Tower-street, Messrs Skipper and East's account-book manufactory destroyed, March 17, 1860. Valparaiso, part of the town of, destroy- ed, Nov. 13, 1858. Varna, the magazine and stores of the allied armies at, destroyed, Aug. 10, 1854. Vauxhall, a fishmonger's shop, near Vauxhall turnpike, and the Oak tavern, and Vauxhall chapel, destroy- ed, Aug. 12, 1813. The tavern at Cumberland Gardens burnt, May 25, 1825. The Vauxhall Railway Station burnt, April 13, 1856. Wapping, where upwards of 630 houses were destroyed, together with an East India warehouse, in which 35,000 bags of saltpetre were destroyed, July 22 and 23, 1794 ; the whole loss was estimated at above ,1,000,000 sterl- ing ; there was ,40,000 worth of sugar in one sugar-house ; the whole is said to be the most dreadful acci- dent of the kind since the fire of London in 1666. Wapping, where 30 houses, besides warehouses, value ,80,000, were burnt, and many lives lost, Oct. 6, 1 800 ; it extended from Mew-stairs to Execution-dock. Wapping Dock, 20 houses burnt at, Sept. 28, 1775. Wapping Docks, the warehouses of Messrs Viner and Co., and several adjoining ones, were burnt down, Dec. 16, 1816. Wapping, 14 houses destroyed near the Gun-dock at, Sept. 23, 1783 ; 12 houses burnt at, June 16, 1840. Wardour-street, Soho, the house of MrSeymour destroyed, three of whose daughters, the eldest only eight years of age, perished in the flames, Oct. 31, 1815. Washington, United States, the capitol destroyed, Dec. 24, 1851. Watby-street, several houses destroyed, Jan. 1 6, 1823. Waterloo Bridge, Strand, the patent shot manufactory of Messrs Walker and Parker, near, completely de- stroyed, Jan. 5, 1826. Waterloo-row, Surrey-road, threehouses burnt, Oct. 19, 1821. Webber-row, Blackfriars-road, Mr Higgs, hat manufacturer, destroy- ed, two children burnt, April 14, 1818. Wellclose-square, Minories, a sugar house destroyed, with property valued at ,30,000, Dec. 12, 1791. Westminster Abbey, the great tower over the choir destroyed, July 9, 1803 ; a fire discovered at, but put out before much damage was done, April 27, 1829. FIRST-FRUITS 301 Westminster Bridge, a fire at the foot of, 20 persons killed or maimed, Feb. 1 8, 1790. Westminster, the House of Lords and Commons accidentally set on fire and totally destroyed, Oct. 16, 1834. Westminster Palace burnt, 1512. Westminster Road, the firework manu- factory of Madam Hengler blown up, Oct. II, 1845. Windsor Castle, the Prince of Wales' Tower at, partially destroyed, March 19, 1852. Whitechapel, the house of Mr Worms, in which three children were destroy- ed, Nov., 1819. The sugar-refinery of Messrs Severn, King, and Co., was burned down, the loss estimated at ^80,000, Nov., 1819; a serious fire at, several persons burnt, Sept. 16, 1848 ; the Pavilion Theatre at, de- stroyed, Feb. 14, 1856. Whitefriars, the wharf of Messrs Pococke and Buckley, Whitefriars-dock, burnt, by which timber to the amount of 30,000, and nine valuable horses, were destroyed, Jan. i, 1810. Whitehall Palace partially consumed, Jan. 12, 1619 ; again partially con- sumed, and 150 houses of the no- bility, April 10, 1691 ; totally con- sumed, Jan. 4, 1697, 12 persons perished. Wynnstay, the ancient mansion of Sir Watkin W. Wynn, with its ancient library, totally destroyed, valued at ,70,000, March 6, 1858. York Minster nearly destroyed, the building set on fire by Martin, a luna- tic, Feb. 2, 1829. FIRST-FRUITS. The Mosaic Law ordered in general, that the first of all ripe fruits and of liquors should be offered in God's house, Ex. xxii. 29. On the 1 6th of Nisan, or the morrow after the Passover sabbath, a sheaf of new corn was or- dered to be brought to the priest and waved before the altar, Lev. xxiii. 5 ; at the Feast of Pentecost, seven weeks after Nisan, two loaves made from the new flour was to be brought in the same way, Ex. xxxiv. 22 ; and at the Feast of Taber- nacles, in the 7th month, the offering of the harvest was made, Ex. xxiii. 16. First- fruits and tenths instituted by Clement V., 1306 ; first collected in England, 1316; regulated by Henry IV., 1404 ; given to Henry VIII. by 26 Hen. VIII. c - 3 *534 office of, established, 1543; granted to the poor clergy by Queen Anne, Nov. 3, 1703 ; by 5 &6 Anne, c. 24, s. I, livings under the yearly income of $o to be discharged first-fruits, 1306 ; an act passed for the consolidation of first-fruits and tenths, and Queen Anne's bounty, I & 2 Viet. c. 20, April II, 1838. FIRST-FRUITS of Livings. These were to be paid strictly over by a statute of Elizabeth, being one year's income of each, which in money value had been greatly augmented ; the. sums received were to augment poor livings ; the payments, in place of, being made as required one year's existing income, are made in the ancient nominal value of the money. In 1835, in consequence, only the following should be, and were, the sums paid : Archbishop of Can- terbury ... Archbishop of York Bishop of Carlisle Bishop of Chichester Bishop of Exeter Bishop of Hereford Bishop of Lichfield and Coventry Bishop of Llandaff Bishop of Norwich Bishop of Peterbo- rough Bishop of Rochester 19,182 2,682 12,629 1,449 2,213 478 4,229 609 2,713 450 2,516 691 3^923 53 924 139 5,395 834 3,100 373 1,450 322 Bishop of St David's 1,897 383 Bishop of Salisbury 3,939 1,246 Bishop of Bangor 4,464 118 Bishop of Bristol 2,351 294 Bishop of Worcester 6,569 929 Bishop of Lincoln 4,542 828 Bishop of Oxford 2,648 343 Bishop of St Asaph 6,301 1 68 Bishop of Bath and Wells 5>946 479 Bishop of Gloucester 2,282 283 Bishop of Chester 3, 2 6i 378 Bishop of Winchester 11,151 2,873 Bishop of Ely 11,105 1,921 302 FISHER FIVE-MILE ACT s. d. Bishop of London 13,929 900 Ashton-under- Bishop of Durham 19,066 1,638 Line 1,407 26 1 3 9 Livings of undignified clergymen paid in 1835, in place of the full year's value, after the following rate : Lancaster Rochdale Standish Wigan 1,709 1,730 1,874 2,230 41 ii 45 80 4 16 10 4 o 9 8 Middleton s. d. Winwick 3,616 1 02 9 8 Rectory 1,070 36 3 n Manchester Col- Aldingham 1,092 39 9 2 legiate Church 4,025 53 6 8 Prestwich 1,230 46 4 9 and thus all in inferior valuations. FISHER, bishop of Rochester, executed, June 22, 1535. FISHERIES. The Scotch herring fisheries were known as early as I loo ; cod-fishery carried on at Newfoundland by the Portuguese and French, 1500 ; by the English, 1584 ; Henry VIII. passed several laws encouraging this staple ; regulation regard- ing fishing and where to fish issued, 1542 ; Spain, a few years later, agreed to pay a certain sum for the privilege of fishing ; no foreigners prohibited from fishing in our seas by proclamation of Charles I. ; the Dutch agreed to pay .30,000 for per- mission to use the English fisheries, 1635 ; corporation of free British fisheries in- stituted, 1750 ; fish was brought to London by land carriage, 1761, and machines constructed on purpose, Parliament supporting them, 1 764 ; British Company for the Fisheries instituted in London, 1786 ; Irish Fishery Company formed, Dec., 1818 ; a convention fixing the limits of the oyster fisheries between England and France signed, Aug. 2, 1839 ; an act passed for carrying this convention into effect, 6 & 7 Viet. c. 79, Aug. 22, 1843, and one passed for the more effectual execution of, i8& 19 Viet. c. 101, Aug. 14, 1855 ; the North- American Fisheries regulated by 1 8 & 19 Viet. c. 3, Feb. 19, 1855 ; an international commission agreed to a convention with France, July 18, 1867 ; the sea fisheries of Ireland encouraged by 9 & 10 Viet. c. 3, March 5, 1846 ; amended and extended by 29 & 30 Viet. c. 45, June 28, 1866; the laws relating to the British white herring fisheries altered and amended, 30 & 31 Viet. c. 52, July 15, 1867. FISHMONGERS' COMPANY. The salt fishmongers established, 1433 > the stock fishmongers, 1509 ; united, 1536. Edward III. granted them a charter, July 10, *363 5 James I. incorporated them by charter, 1604. The first hall built about 1500 ; this was destroyed, 1666 ; the hall rebuilt by Mr Jarman, 1668 ; finished, June, 1671 ; taken down, 1831, and present building erected by Mr Roberts, 1833. The Prince of Wales admitted to the freedom of the Company, Feb. 12, 1863. FISWOOD, near Bolton, Lancashire, destroyed by fire, Oct. 17, 1825 ; the bleach- mills were valued at 30,000. FITZGERALD, Earl of Desmond, committed to prison for enlisting men for the Irish brigade in the French service, March 16, 1749-50. FITZGERALD, Lord Edward, mortally wounded in an attempt to take him into custody in Dublin, May, 1 798. FITZWILLIAM MUSEUM, Cambridge, established by the will of Richard Vis- count, Feb., 1816, who bequeathed his collection and the interest of 100,000 for this purpose ; the building, erected from the designs of George Basevi, com- menced, Nov. 3, 1837. FIVE HUNDRED, the Council of, established in France, Oct. 27, 1795; dis- solved by Napoleon I. by force, Nov. 9, 1799. FIVE-MILE ACT, a tyrannical statute, 17 Charles II. c. 2, Oct., 1665, obliging nonconformist ministers who refused to take the oath of non-resistance, to abstain from coming within five miles of any corporation where they had preached since FLAGELLANTS FLEET PRISON 303 the Act of Oblivion, unless when travelling, under fifty pounds' penalty ; revoked by i Will, and Mary, c. 1 8, 1689. FLAGELLANTS, a religious sect, rose in Italy, 1260, established at Perouse, 1420, who publicly lashed themselves in procession until the blood flowed freely ; their leader, Conrad Schenett, was burned at the stake to convince him of his error, 1414 ; appeared in London about this time. FLAGS. The celebrated Danish flag with the ensign of the Raven taken by the English, 878 ; Harold unfurled the Dragon banner at the battle of Hastings, Oct. 14, 1066 ; Edward III. quartered the arms of France with England, 1340 ; the National Flag for Gt Britain proclaimed, April 12, 1606 ; the nag of the United Kingdom appointed, July 28, 1707 ; the Saltire of St Patrick added upon the union of, with Ireland, Jan. I, 1801 ; the honour of a salute was exacted by Eng- land in old time, and yielded by the Dutch to the English, 1673 ; the French obliged the Spaniards to lower their flag to them, 1680 ; and Tourville, the French admiral, engaged a Spanish force until it yielded to fire a salute of nine guns to the French flag, June 2, 1688 ; flag of truce fired upon by the Russians at Odessa, April 6, 1854; the new German flag appointed, Oct. I, 1867. FLAMSTEAD NUNNERY, Herts, founded by Roger de Toney, circa 1154. FLANDERS became subject to France, 412 ; governed by its earls, subject to the French crown, from 793 to 1369 ; rose in insurrection against Philip VI., but were defeated with the loss of 13,000 men, Aug. 23, 1328 ; came to Austria by marriage, 1477, but was yielded to Spain, 1556 ; shook off the yoke of Spain, 1572 ; treaty concluded between France and Spain, Aug. 15, 1684 ; annexed to the German Empire by the treaty of Vienna, 1725 ; conquered and made part of France, 1795 ; made part of the kingdom of the Netherlands, 1814; made the kingdom of Belgium, 1831. FLANNEL. It is asserted that flannel shirts were first used as an article of dress by Lord Percy's regiment when it was encamped on Boston Common, 1774 ; Sir Benjamin Thompson (Count Rumford) claimed the discovery of the utility of this practice. FLATBUSH, battle between the English and Americans, when the latter were de- feated with the loss of 2000 men killed and looo prisoners, 1 776. FLAX cultivated in England. Several attempts were made previous to 1 747 to con- vert the fibre of flax into a kind of cotton ; Lady Moira succeeded, 1775 ; a fac- tory was established at Vienna, 1 780. FLAXLEY ABBEY, built in the reign of Henry I., nio ; totally destroyed by fire, April I, 1777. FLEET DITCH converted into a canal after the great fire of 1666, with wharfs and quays, at an expense of .27,777 ; arched over, 1738, and completed, 1765. FLEET MARKET, the Old, opened for the sale of fish, meat, and vegetables in Farringdon-street, Sept. 30, 1737 ; removed, and the new one opened, Nov. 20, 1829 ; granite obelisk erected to Alderman Waithman at the Fleet-street end of what is now called Farringdon-street, June 25, 1833, and completed in one day. FLEET MARRIAGES at first solemnized in the chapel of the Fleet Prison, but after- wards in any part of the prison ; the earliest register known is Nov. I, 1674 ; the Hon. Henry Fox married Georgiana Caroline, eldest daughter of the Duke of Rich- mond, in the prison, 1744 ; abolished by Lord Hardwicke's Act for Preventing Clandestine Marriages, 26 Geo. II. c. 33, 1753, to come into operation, March 25, 1754 ; on March 24, 217 weddings were celebrated ; the parson's fee was 6s. The government purchased 1200 registers, many of which are pocket-books only, 1821, these are deposited in the Public Registry Office, Doctors' Commons. FLEET PRISON erected in the reign of Richard I., 1 189, and became the prison of 304 FLESH VICTUAL FLORENCE the Star Chamber and Chancery Courts; first made a debtor's prison by Charles II., 1664 ; destroyed in the fire of 1666, and rebuilt, 1669 ; a parliamentary inquiry into the cruelties inflicted upon the prisoners by the wardens, Bambridge and Huggins, Aug., 1727 ; burned down in the Gordon riots, and the prisoners released, June 7, 1780 ; rebuilt, 1782 ; abolished by 5 & 6 Viet. c. 22, May 31, 1842 ; the ground purchased by the Corporation of London for .25,000, March 13, 1845 ; pulled down, 1846 ; the ground sold to the London, Chatham, and Dover Railway Company for "60,000, Nov. I, 1864. FLESH VICTUAL. In the reign of Queen Elizabeth, 1562, an act was passed ' for the better saving of flesh victual, by ordering every Wednesday to be a fish day, unless incases of sickness," 5 Eliz. c. 5, s. 14. FLETCHERS' COMPANY established, 1487; arms granted to, 2 Henry VII., 1487. FLEUR-DE-LIS, the emblematic lily of France, pretended to be delivered by an angel to Clovis, who in consequence won a victory and embraced Christianity, 496 ; adopted by Louis VII., 1137. FLEURUS, battles. The French army under Marshal Luxemburg defeated Wai- deck with a loss of 5000 men killed, 8000 prisoners, and 50 pieces of artillery, June 30, 1690 ; Gen. Jourdan defeated the allies under the Prince of Coburg with a loss of 10,000 men, June 26, 1794. FLEXLEY, or DENE ABBEY, Gloucester, founded by Roger, second Earl of Hereford, 1154. FLIES, singular shower of, in London, covering the clothes of the passengers in the streets, 1707. FLINT CASTLE, North Wales, built, 1185. FLINT WEAPONS. Public attention was first called to these relics by John Frere, F.S.A., June 22, 1797. FLOATING BATTERIES erected by the Admiralty within the last four years, found of immense service in the American war, 1863-4. FLODDEN FIELD, battle between the English and Scotch, under James IV., the Scotch king was slain, with most of his nobility, and 10,000 men, Sept. 9, 1513. FLOGGING, a punishment used in the navy and army ; now restricted compared to its former frequency. By a return to the House of Commons of the number of such punishments in the British army, 1830, the amount was 655 ; in 1831, 646 ; but in 1833 only 370 j abolished, March 15, 1867. FLOOR-CLOTH. The first manufactory established at Knightsbridge by Nathan Taylor, 1754. FLORAL HALL, Covent Garden, built from the designs of Edward Barry, length 228 feet, width of arcades 75 feet ; opened, March 7, 1860. FLORALES, LUDI, a Roman festival in honour of Flora, which lasted for five days, from April 28 to May 2, instituted B.C. 238, afterwards discontinued, but restored, B.C. 173. FLORENCE, Italy, colonized by the Romans, B.C. 40; Christianity established in the 3rd century ; Felix, the bishop of, attended a council at Rome, 313 ; unsuc- cessfully attacked by the Goths, 406; almost destroyed by them, 541 ; they re- belled against the Emperor, 1113; a republic formed, 1198; the Albizzi family became chief rulers, 1360 ; succeeded by the Medici family, 1434 ; became extinct, 1737, and succeeded by Francis Lorraine. The bridge of, built, 1330 ; the Trinity- bridge, 1557; the cathedral commenced, 1296; Majolica ware first made here, 1470; a manufactory' for porcelain established by Francis I., Grand Duke, 1580. The town taken by the French, July, 1796, and 1799 ; restored, 1814 ; occupied FLORES FONTAINEBLEAU 305 by the Austrians, 1849 ; a revolution at, the Grand Duke fled, and a provisional executive appointed, Feb. 7, 1849 ; insurrection in, April, 1859 ; declared their desire to be annexed to Sardinia by universal suffrage, March n, 12, 1860. Ex- hibition at, opened, Sept. 1$, 1861. Made the capital of the kingdom of Italy, April 26, 1865 ; the court removed to, May II ; the parliament first assembled in the new capital, Nov. 1 8 ; the second opened by the king, Dec. 15, 1866. FLORES, one of the Azores, discovered, 1439, by Vanderburg ; colonized by the Portuguese, 1448 ; so named for its profusion of flowers. FLORIDA, America, one of the United States, discovered by Cabot, 1497 ; visited by Ponce de Leon, 1512 ; settled by the Spaniards, 1539. The French Calvinists under Ribault attempted to establish a colony, 1562 ; these were attacked and murdered by the Spaniards, Sept. 4, 1565 ; plundered by Sir Francis Drake, 1586, and by the buccaneers, 1685 ; invaded by the English, 1702, and by General Oglethorpe, 1740; ceded to England, 1763; captured by the Spaniards, 1781 ; ceded by England to Spain, 1783, and by Spain to the United States, 1821 ; ad- mitted into the Union, March 3, 1845 ; seceded, 1860. FLORIN, a coin varying in value : in Livonia, is. 2d., and the same in Prussia ; in Holland, u. <)d. ; Belgium, is. 6d. ; in Geneva, ^/ 2 d. ; it is said to have been made first by the Florentines ; it was first issued in England in the reign of Ed- ward III., valued at 6s., 1337 ; issued by proclamation of Victoria, Aug., 1849, as a silver coin of 2s., or one-tenth of a pound sterling ; in Frankfort the florin is in value is. &%d. English ; in Austria, 2s. oYzd. FLOWERS, the art of preserving in sand, discovered, 1633. FLUSHING, Holland, damaged by fire, and the Prince of Orange's house burned, Jan., 1748-9; siege of, under the Earl of Chatham, Aug. 16, 1809; surrender of, and the object of the expedition, the destruction of the Antwerp arsenal, baffled, with great loss by the ill-management of the commander and the progress of dis- ease. FLUTE. This musical instrument is of great antiquity ; it is mentioned by Daniel as used at the worship of the Golden Image which Nebuchadnezzar had set up, Dan. iii. 5 ; it was described by Pere Mersenne, 1636. FLUXIONS invented by Newton, 1666 ; made known, 1669 ; letters of Newton to Leibnitz upon, June 13 and Aug. 24, 1676 ; Leibnitz claimed the discovery, 1677 ; this led to much controversy. FOGS : remarkable ones in London, Jan. I, 1720, when several chairman fell with their burden into the canal in St James's Park, some into Fleet ditch, and others into the Thames ; a very dense fog, Jan. 10, 1812 ; another, Dec. 20, 1813. FOLEMBRAY TREATY. Henry IV. of France made over by this treaty three cautionary towns, to be held for six years, to the Duke of Mayenne, and paid all his debts, Jan., 1596. FOLKESTONE, Kent. Eadbald VI. , king of Kent, built a castle here, and founded a priory, 630 ; the castle destroyed by the Danes, 1052 ; rebuilt after the Norman conquest. Harvey, the discoverer of the circulation of the blood, born here, 1578. The old church partially destroyed by a storm, 1705. The harbour began by Telford, 1808 ; opened, 1844. The South-Western Railway opened to this town, Dec., 1843 5 an d to Dover, Feb. 7, 1844. FONTAINE Notre Dame, village of, nearly destroyed by fire, April 25, 1816. FONT AINEBLEAU, France. Louis VII. had a palace here, 1169; Francis I., 1518; the palace was extended and partially rebuilt, and library formed, a few years afterwards. A treaty between France and Sweden agreed to and signed here, 1661 ; peace concluded with Denmark, Sept. 2, 1679 ; treaty be- tween Germany and Holland, Nov. 8, 1785 ; treaty of, between the Emperor 20 3 o6 FONTENAY FOREIGN LEGION Napoleon and royal family of Spain, Oct. 27, 1807 ; concordat of Fontainebleau between Napoleon and Pope Pius VII., Jan. '25, 1813 ; entered by the Austrians, Feb. 17, 1814; Napoleon Bonaparte here resigned the imperial dignity, April II, 1814. FONTENAY, battle. The allies defeated Lothaire with a loss of 40,000 men, June 25, 841. FONTENOY, battle, between the English and Dutch, and the French ; the latter, under Marshal Saxe, gained the victory, the English the glory, and the Dutch the shame, May II, 1745 ; the Anglo-Dutch army lost 12,000 men. FONTEVRAULT, France, the abbey founded by Robert d'Arbrissel, 1099 ; order of Friars established and taken under the protection of Pope Pascal II., 1106 ; re- formed, 1507; the statues of the Plantagenets, kings of England, Henry II., Richard Cceur de Lion, Eleanor of Guienne, and Isabel of Angouleme, erected in the chapel of the abbey ; removed by Louis Philippe to the museum of Ver- sailles, but were restored by Napoleon III., 1849 ; Lord Stanley stated in the House of Commons that they had been graciously offered to England by the emperor, and accepted, March 17, 1867, but that, owing to some opposition, Her Majesty had graciously declined the offer, and requested the emperor to have them preserved, March 29. FONTHILL, near Salisbury, burnt down, Nov. 12, 1765 ; rebuilt by William Beckford, the author of 'Vathek,' from the designs of James Wyatt, architect, 1796 ; cost ^273,000 ; sale of the abbey, 1822-23, when 7200 catalogues of the library, and articles olvertu, sold at a guinea each ; the tower fell down, Dec. 21, 1825. FONTS, substitutes for baptisteries in the churches where infant baptism was adopted, but still by immersion ; when that ceased, they were made smaller. Fonts are said to have been used as early as 167. FOOLS. Festival of the Fools, in France, held on New Year's day and continued for 240 years ; all sorts of follies were committed at them in 1 198. Fools or Jesters kept at most European courts up to the end of the reign of Charles I. In humble imitation of royalty, the Lord Mayor of London kept his fool down to a late period. FOOLS, the order of, established by Adolphus, Count of Cleves, 1380. FORBISHER'S STRAITS, a narrow sea to the north of Cape Farewell and West Greenland; discovered, 1578. FORD ABBEY, Devonshire, founded for the Cistercian order by Adelicia, daughter of Baldwin de Brioniis, 1 141. FORD CASTLE, Northumberland, castellated temp. Edward III. ; destroyed by the Scots, 1385 ; rebuilt by the Heron family, 1503 ; taken by James IV., 1513. FOREIGNERS banished from England by proclamation of 2 Henry I., 1155; forbidden to follow retail trades, 1487 ; allowed half a jury of foreigners on trials, 1420. FOREIGN ENLISTMENT ACT, prohibiting Englishmen to enlist in any foreign army, 59 Geo. III. c. 69, July 3, 1819. FOREIGN JURISDICTION. Act passed to remove doubts as to the exercise of power and jurisdiction by Her Majesty within divers countries and places out of Her Majesty's dominions, and to render the same more effectual, 6 & 7 Viet. c. 94, Aug. 24, 1843 ; explained, 28 & 29 Viet. c. 116, July 5, 1865 ; amended, 29 & 30 Viet. c. 87, Aug. 6, 1866. FOREIGN LEGION, a regiment formed of Hessians, added to the British army, 1756 ; and in the Crimean war an act of parliament was passed to permit FOREIGN ORDERS FORKS 307 foreigners to enlist and serve as officers and soldiers in Her Majesty's forces, 18 & 19 Viet. c. 2, Dec, 23, 1854. FOREIGN ORDERS. No British subject may accept or wear any insignia with- out the sanction of the Queen. See London Gazette, May n, 1855. FORESTALLING, buying or contracting for any merchandise, &c., before it comes in the market-place, prohibited by 31 Edw. I., 1302, and 5 & 6 Edw. VI. c. 14, 1552 ; made perpetual by 13 Eliz. c. 25, 1570; repealed, i2Geo. III. c, 71, 1772; finally repealed, 7 & 8 Viet. c. 24, July 4, 1844. FORESTERS, the Ancient Order of, claims to be of great antiquity; in 1850 they numbered 80,089 members ; in 1864 they had increased to 277,746 ; their total in- come amounted to .500,000 a year, and the London united district alone had an income of .89,000. In 1855 they held their first gathering at the Crystal Palace, Sydenham ; in 1860 the number of members and their friends reached 60,000 at the same place. FORESTS' CHARTER, or Charter de Foresta, provisions concerning, in the great charter of King John, June 15, 1215 ; Henry III. granted the first forest charter, Nov. 6, 1217; confirmed by Edward I., Nov. 5, 1297. FORESTS OF ENGLAND. In the last century there were in England 68 forests and 1 8 chases, the relics of the times of barbarian feudalism. William I. destroyed 36 parishes, with their churches, and dispeopled 30 square miles of country, to make the New Forest in 1079-85. The following forests belonged to the crown before and in this century : Windsor Great and Little Park, Cranburn Chase, New Forest, Essex, Alice Holt, Woolmer and Bere Forests ; Greenwich, St James, Hyde, Bushy, and Hampton Parks ; Hampton Court Forest, preserved by Henry VIII., 1539; Whittlebury, Salcey, Rockingham, increased from six miles to 60, in 1636 ; Sherwood, Whichwood, and Richmond; parts of these have since been en- closed ; Hainault, disafforested by 14 & 15 Viet. c. 43, Aug. I, 1851 ; allotment of, 21 & 22 Viet. c. 37, July 23, 1858 ; Whichwood disafforested, 16 & 17 Viet. c. 36, July 8, 1853, and 19 & 20 Viet. c. 32, June 23, 1856; Whittlewood, 16 & 17 Viet. c. 42, Aug. 4, 1853 ; Woolmer, 18 & 19 Viet. c. 46, July 16, 1855 ; Charles I. attempted a revival of the Forests Laws, 1635 ; an act was passed fix- ing the boundaries of forests, 16 Charles I. c. 16, 1640 ; the last circuit of the chief justiciary of the forest was made by Aubrey de Vere, Earl of Oxford, 1670 ; a board of commissioners appointed, June 9, 1810 ; altered, Feb. 13, 1832. FORFARSHIRE Steamer wrecked on its passage from Hull to Dundee, when 38 persons perished ; Darling, the keeper of the Outer Fern Lighthouse, and his daughter, Grace, ventured out in the storm in a coble, and saved 15 of the pas- sengers, Sept 6, 1838. FORFEITED ESTATES, redemption of, act passed, 1669. FORGERY, as of deeds and writings, made punishable by fine, pillory, cutting off the ears, slitting the nostrils, searing or branding, forfeiture of lands, or imprison- ment, 5 Eliz., 1562; punished with death, 1634. Forging letters of attorney made capital, 1722; one Ward, of great wealth, expelled the House of Commons for forgery, May 16, 1726, and placed in the pillory, March 17, 1727. The value of the forged notes presented to the bank in ten years, from Jan. I, 1801, was ;iol,66l, owing principally to the slovenly manner in which the real notes were printed, and the ease of imitation. In 1817, no less than 142 persons were prose- cuted by the bank for forgery. Punishment of death for, ceased 2 and 3 Will. IV., Aug., 1832, except in cases of bills or stock transfer ; in July, 1837, reduced to transportation for life ; last criminal hanged for, Thomas Maynard, Dec. 31, 1829. FORKS introduced in general use in England about 1560 ; silver forks were used earlier by the nobility ; Edward I. had one which is mentioned among his jewels, 308 FORMA PAUPERIS FORTUNE-TELLERS 1297 ; Piers Gaveston had four for eating pears, 1313 ; they were used on the con- tinent in the I3th century ; Charles V., king of France, had some which are men- tioned in an inventory of jewels, 1379 ; John Duke of Brittany also had one of silver, mentioned, 1202. FORMA PAUPERIS, admitted in law courts, poor persons, who must swear that they are not worth ,5, can have both counsel and attorney assigned to them without fee, by statute, n Henry VII. c. 12, 1495 ; they are excused from pay- ing costs if nonsuited, but may suffer other punishment at the discretion of the judge, 23 Henry VIII. c. 15, s. 2, 1531-2. FORNOVO, battle. The French, defeated the Italians with a loss of 4000 men, July 6, 1495. FORREST, John, burned in Smithfield, for not admitting the spiritual supremacy of Henry VIII., May 22, 1538, aged 42. FORT ST DAVID, Hindustan. An English factory first established here, 1691 ; besieged by the French, March 13, 1747 ; taken by them, June I, 1758. FORT DETROIT, Canada. The English army under Gen. Brock, with a strong force of Indians, defeated the Americans commanded by Gen. Hull with a loss of 2500 men and 30 guns, Aug. 16, 1812 ; the fort dismantled, 1813. FORT ERIE, Canada, taken by the Americans, July 3, 1814 ; unsuccessfully as- saulted by the English, who lost 925 men, Aug. 15 ; evacuated by the Americans, Nov. 5, 1814 ; taken by the Fenians under Col. O'Neil, May 31, 1866. FORT FISHER, N. America, one of the principal defences of Wilmington, first at- tacked by the Federal fleet of 150 vessels, 65 being men-of-war, under Adm. Porter, Dec. 24, 1864 ; a vessel with 215 tons of gunpowder exploded under the walls, but without effect ; a body of troops 3000 strong, under the command of Gen. Weitzel, landed, Dec. 25, but found the fort inaccessible, embarked the same even- ing ; Gen. Butler withdrew his whole force, Dec. 27 ; the attack renewed, Jan. 13, 1865, and after a bombardment for three days the fort was carried by storm, Jan. 15 ; the Federals lost 1000 men; the powder magazine exploded, Jan. 1 6, killing 300 Federals. FORT ST GEORGE, India, first settled by the English East India Company, 1620. FORTH and Clyde Canal made by Smeaton, and opened, July 28, 1790. FORTIFICATION made a capital offence for its second act, 1650 ; the law lapsed at the Restoration. FORTIFICATIONS. Most ancient cities were surrounded by a wall for protection and defence ; royal licences to crenellate or fortify castles in England granted to the nobility between 42 Henry III. and 19 Edw. IV., 1256 1478 ; the Duke of Sully in France first introduced the present system of fortification and organized an engineer corps ; Errard of Bois-le-duc, one of the officers of this corps, laid down a method for fortifying a town, 1 594 ; the Chevalier Antoine de Ville pub- lished a treatise upon this subject, 1629 ; Vauban's treatise, ' De FAttaque et de la Defense des Places,' issued, 1737 ; Coehorn, the great master of this art, pub- lished his first book upon the same subject ; many works have since been pub- lished upon this art. Paris fortified, 1846 ; Sebastopol, by Gen. Todtleben, Oct., 1854. Fortifications for the protection of the Royal Arsenals and Dock- yards, and the Ports of Dover and Portland, began ; an act passed for providing the expenses, 28 & 29 Viet. c. 61, June 29, 1865 ; further provisions made and a list of the forts given, 30 & 31 Viet. c. 145, Aug. 21, 1867. FORTUNE-TELLERS. The art of divination is of early origin ; the first work FORUM ROMANUS FRAMLINGHAM CASTLE 309 upon Cartomancy printed at Venice by Francisco Marcolini, 1540 ; punishment enacted for persons carrying on this craft, June 21, 1824. FORUM ROMANUS erected by the Romans at the foot of the Palatine and Capito- line Hills, adorned with the spoils taken in war, B.C. 308. The Tabularium, or Record Office, where the public acts and decrees were preserved, erected by Q. Lutatius Catulus, B.C. 78. The Forum of Trajan built by Apollodorus, and completed, A.D. 14. The Forum of Julius Caesar founded by that general, the site being purchased out of the spoils of Pharsalia, A. u. c. 788. FOSSE NUNNERY, Lincolnshire, founded and endowed by Henry III., 1218. FOTHERINGAY CASTLE, Northamptonshire, erected by Edward Langley, Duke of York, 1408 ; Richard III. was born here, 1452. Mary Queen of Scots tried, Oct. 14, 1586 ; beheaded in the hall of the castle privately, Feb. 8, 1587 ; dismantled by James I., 1604. FOUNDERS' COMPANY, London, established and enrolled by the mayor and aldermen, July 29, 1365, in the 39th year of the reign of Edward III. ; first incor- porated by James I., Sept. 18, 1614, in the 1 2th year of his reign ; the oldest record of this company begins at Christmas, 1497 ; arms granted to the company, Oct. 13, 1590 ; hall built, circa 1531 ; burnt in the fire of London, and rebuilt by subscrip- tion, 1671, at a cost of .1:037 Ss. <)J.; rebuilt and opened, 1846 ; leased to the Electric Telegraph Company, 1853, the company removing to St Swithin's Lane. FOUNDLING HOSPITALS. The first founded at Milan, 787 ; the Great Hospital S. Spirito allotted by Pope Innocent III. for this purpose, 1198 ; in Paris, 1677. The Dublin Foundling Hospital founded, 1704. The Foundling Hospital, Lon- don, founded by Capt. Coram, 1736 ; incorporated by charter of George II., Oct. 17, 1739 ; the estate purchased for .5500, 1741. The present, built from the design of Mr Jacobson; first stone laid, Sept. 16, 1742 ; opened, 1756 ; on June 2, 1756, the first day, 117 children were received. FOUNTAINS' ABBEY, Yorkshire, founded by 13 monks who seceded from St Mary's, York, 1132 ; burnt down, 1202, and rebuilt by John of York, Abbot of Fountains, 1204. FOUNTAINS, Public. General in eastern countries ; the most ancient are those of Nazareth, Cana, and En-Rogel, or the Fountain of Job. The Fountain of Egeria, at Rome, is mentioned by Juvenal, Sat. III.; this city is still noted for its fountains ; Fontana Paolina erected by Paul V., 1612 ; Fontana di Trevi erected by Clement XII., 1735. One founded in Scotland by Edwin, king of the Firth of Forth, for the thirsty traveller, 616 ; they were general in London in the I5th and i6th centuries ; Mr Samuel Morland established one at Hammersmith, 1614 ; Trafalgar-square, 1845 ; several additions made, 1862 ; the Crystal Palace foun- tains opened, June 18, 1856 ; the Metropolitan Free Drinking Fountains Asso- ciation, established in London, April, 1859, have erected many throughout the Metropolis. FOUR BOROUGHS' COURT, an ancient Scottish court, so called from its being composed of delegates from the first royal burghs, altered, 1348 ; Robert, Duke of Albany, uncle of James I., was Lord Chamberlain, 1405 ; it still exists. FOXGLOVE, indigenous ; that called the Canary, imported, 1698 ; the Madeira, 1777. FOXGRAPE SHRUB, imported from Virginia about 1656. FOX ISLAND, North Pacific, discovered, 1760. FRAMEWORK KNITTERS' COMPANY incorporated, 15 Car. II., Aug. 19, 1663. FRAMLINGHAM CASTLE, Suffolk, built by Roger Bigod, 1 100 ; castellated, 310 FRAMPTON FRANCE 1154; Barbican, rebuilt by Thomas Howard, third Duke of Norfolk, 1530 ; sold to Sir R. Hitcham and pulled down, 1670. (Its walls were 48 feet high and eight thick, with 13 towers 62 feet high.) FRAMPTON, Dorset, nearly destroyed by fire, April 12, 1786. FRANCE was colonized by the Gauls, a Celtic race, and the Belgae ; the Sequani, a German tribe, led by Ariovistus, overran the east of Gaul, B.C. 60; they were defeated by the Romans under Caesar, B.C. 58, who afterwards invaded the country, B.C. 57, and partially subdued it the next year ; in B.C. 55 a general insur- rection against the Romans took place, headed by Ambiorix, chief of the Ubrones ; the Roman General, Sabinus, and his troops, were put to the sword, and another legion, commanded by Q . Cicero, was reduced to the last extremity, when Caesar came to his relief, and in B.C. 53 utterly destroyed the tribe. A plan was formed for a simultaneous rising throughout the country against the Roman power, under Vercingetorix, B.C. 52 ; he was defeated at Avaricum (Bourges) after a siege of 26 days ; the whole of the population, 40,000, were slaughtered ; the Romans were defeated at Gergovia, but were again successful in the siege of Alesia, the crowning event of the Gallic war ; the chiefs were taken prisoners and their armies scattered, B.C. 50 ; the country was divided into four divisions, the Central Go- vernment being fixed at Lugdunum (Lyons), which was founded by the Consul Munatius Plaucus, B.C. 42 ; Augustus resided here from B.C. 16 to B.C. 10 ; at a general census, taken B.C. 28, 4,163,000 Roman citizens were residing in GauL The Druidical worship prohibited and the priests banished, A. D. 43 ; an insurrec- tion among the Belgic tribes, commanded by Claudius Civilis, was put down after much slaughter, 69 ; an attempt to introduce Christianity was made by Pothinus and Irenseus, disciples of St Polycarp, bishop of Smyrna, 155 ; they were perse- cuted by Septimus Severus, 202, and Valerian and Diocletian, 260286; St Hilary consecrated bishop of Poitiers, 350 ; a council held at Paris under his auspices, which denounced Arianism. The country divided into 1 7 provinces, 292 ; about this time the Franks, a German tribe, who had committed depredations in the north- eastern provinces, appeared ; Constantine the Great defeated them at Treves, 310 ; they made another settlement under Pharamond, 420 ; Merovseus began to reign, from whom the first race of French kings were called Merovingian, 448 ; the Danes defeated by Theodebert, son of Thierry, 515 > ^ ne Huns invaded the coun- try, but were defeated by Sigebert, 562 ; the Lombards invaded France, but were cut to pieces in an engagement with Monmole, 57 2 an( i 57^ > war between Thierry and Theodebert, the latter, being twice defeated, was made prisoner and beheaded, 612 ; Dagobert gave orders to massacre in one night 10,000 Bul- garians, 631 ; Clovis II., during a great famine, ordered the church of St Denis, which was covered with silver, to be stripped off and sold for the relief of the poor, 65 1 ; Pepin gained a signal victory over the forces of Thierry, 683 ; Pepin defeated Thierry, seized his camp, and pursued him to Paris, where the inhabitants received him and delivered the king into his hands, 687 ; the Saracens invaded the country and captured Bourdeaux, which they plundered, but were afterwards defeated by Charles Martel, 732 ; he took possession of Aquitaine, Garonne, and Gascony, 735, and drove the Saracens out of Marseilles and Provence, 739. Pepin declared King of France by an assembled parliament at Soissons, 752, and defeated the Saxons, 753 ; he drove the Saracens entirely out of France, 759. Charlemagne divided the kingdom with his brother Carloman, 768 ; rise of the Carlovingian dynasty, and he gained a great victory over the Saxons under Witi- kind, 772 ; conquered and proclaimed King of Italy, 774 ; he subdued the Saxons again, 775, and conquered Navarre and Arragon, crossing the Pyrenean moun- tains, 778 ; he again defeated the Saxons, and endeavoured to convert them, 780 ; he undertook to unite the German Ocean to the Pont Euxine, by a canal, a part of which is still to be seen, 792 ; the first irruption of the Normans, 808 ; Charle- FRANCE 3 n magne died at Aix-la-Chapelle, 814 ; the Danes invaded France and Tours, but were forced to retire, 838 ; the Normans burned Rouen, 841, and overran all the western provinces, burning most of the churches and public buildings up to the wall of Paris, and sacked Orleans, 843 to 857 ; they pillaged Paris and the monas- tery of St Denis, 859 ; defeated at Touraine by Louis III., 879, and again at San- court in Picardy, 88 1 ; captured Rouen and Pontoise, and besieged Paris, 885 ; 30,000 defeated by Eudes, Count of Paris, before the city of Paris, 886 ; the Normans again devastated a great part of the kingdom, and Charles, unable to resist them, made a peace with Rollo, 911 ; the first treaty made with England, 936 ; the Hungarians desolated a part of the country, a famine followed, 937 ; Otho invaded France with 28,000 men as far as Paris, but was compelled to retire, 980 ; Hugh Capet raised to the throne, commencing the Capetian dynasty, 987 ; Odo, Count of Champagne, defeated at Pontlevoi, 1016 ; the kingdom visited by a dreadful famine, 1032 ; war with William I. of England, 1075 ; he overran Vexin and burnt the city of Mantes, 1087 ; the Crusades began, 1096 ; the war between Louis VI. and Henry I. began, 1 106 ; terminated through the mediation of the Earl of Anjou, 1109; the French defeated by the English at Brenneville, Aug. 21, 1119; peace concluded between France and England, 1124; Louis VII. and his Queen Eleanora, with a large army, embarked for the crusade, 1 147, and returned, 1149 ; Eleanora divorced, March, 1152, and resumed her hereditary pos- session of Aquitaine, and married Henry Plantagenet, Duke of Normandy, after- wards Henry II.; birth of Philip Augustus, 1165 ; crowned at Rheims, 1179 ; the Jews banished the kingdom, April, 1182 ; Philip Augustus went to the Holy Land with Richard Cceur de Lion, March 30, 1191 ; the French invaded Nor- mandy, 1193 ; defeated by Richard at Fretteval, near Vendome, July 15, 1194 ; Rouen captured, June, 1204 ; a truce of two years agreed to, Oct., 1206 ; Louis, the son of Philip, crowned King of England at London, Oct. 19, 1216 ; compelled to resign that title, Sept. n, 1217 ; Louis VIII. captures all the English posses- sions in France as far as the Garonne, 1223 ; Henry III. of England defeated at Saintes by Louis, July 22, 1242 ; Louis embarked with the Crusaders, Aug. 25, 1248 ; taken by the Saracens, April 6, 1250 ; returned to Paris, Sept. 7, 1254 ; embarked a second time, July I, 1270; died at Carthage, Aug. 25, 1270; Toulouse united to France, 1271. Sicilian Vespers : 8000 Frenchmen and women massacred at Palermound, Messina, March 30, 1282. Invasion of Flanders by the French defeated at Courtrai with the loss of 7000 men, July II, 1302 ; Philip ex- communicated by Pope Boniface, April 13, 1303 ; a bull announcing his deposi- tion issued, Sept 8 ; a treaty of peace signed with the Flemings, June 5, 1305 ; the knights templars throughout France arrested for conspiracy, Oct. 13, 1307 ; they were tried by a commission, and 54 were burned at the stake, May 10, 1310 ; the grand-master also burnt, March 12, 1312 ; Philip of Valois ascended the throne, it was claimed by Edward III. of England, 1328 ; coronation of Philip VI. at Rheims, May 29, 1328 ; invaded Flanders and defeated the Flemings at Cassel, 13,000 men being killed, Aug. 23, 1328; Edward III. invaded France, 1339; defeated the French fleet of 400 sail, near Helvetsluys, 30,000 men being killed, the English had only 240 vessels engaged, June 23, 1340, the French navy was totally destroyed ; the English besieged Tournay unsuccessfully, 1340 ; a truce concluded, the war renewed, the English forces, being commanded by Sir Walter de Manny, raised the siege of Hennebon, 1342 ; treaty of Malestroit signed, Jan. *9> *343> an< i peace restored. The King of France invited the Barons of Brittany to a grand tournament, when he treacherously seized and beheaded 15 of them, Nov. 29, 1343 ; for this act the King of England invaded France with 30,000 in- fantry ; he landed at Cape la Hogue in Normandy, July 12, 1346, and advanced almost to the gates of Paris, pillaging and burning the country ; he retreated to- wards Flanders, followed by Philip, with an army of 100,000 men ; Edward de- feated them at Crecy, Aug. 26, 1346 ; besieged Calais, which bravely resisted for 312 FRANCE II months, capitulated, Aug. 4, 1347 ; a trace for 10 months agreed to, Sept. 28. 50,000 persons died in Paris alone of the Black Pestilence, 1348-9 ; the pro- vince of Dauphine ceded to France by Humbert II., 1349 ; Philip married Blanch of Navarre, Jan. 19, 1350; died, Aug. 22, 1350. John the Good ascended the throne, 1350 ; Edward, the Black Prince, invaded France, and advanced to Toulouse, 1355 ; totally defeated the French at Poitiers, with a loss of 10,000 no- bility and men-at-arms, Sept. 19, 1356; King John taken prisoner and brought to England, 1357 > a truce for two years signed, the Dauphin Charles assumed the government, Sept. 30, 1357 ; insurrection against the House of Valois, the rioters, headed by Martel, murdered the Marshals of Champagne and Normandy in the presence of the Dauphin, Feb. 22, 1358 ; the Jacquerie insurrection broke out, May, 1358 ; at Clermont they destroyed and sacked the residences of the nobility and put them, with their families, to the sword before the riots were suppressed ; the rioters were massacred like wild beasts by the nobles who had recovered from their panic ; a plot to assassinate the Dauphin and to place Charles of Navarre upon the throne discovered, and the author of it, Marcel, killed, July 31, 1358. The English invaded France, Oct., 1359, and besieged Paris ; treaty of Bretigny signed, May 8, 1360 ; by this treaty several towns were ceded to England, and the ransom of the king of France fixed at three millions of crowns, payable in six years, hostages to be given until paid ; first payment made, Oct. 25 ; the king entered Paris, Dec. 13 ; one of the hostages, Louis of Anjou, broke his parole and effected his escape ; John returned and gave himself up ; he was received in England with great rejoicing ; he died at the Savoy Place, April 8, 1364. Charles V. ascended the throne ; after a series of successes the French recovered almost all the places held by the English, 1370 1375, when a truce for two years was pro- claimed, June, 1375 ; Charles died at Beaute-sur-Marne, Sept. 16, 1380. Charles VI. ascended the throne ; he was only 12 years old ; the Duke of Anjou declared Regent, who seized the treasure amassed by the late king; this led to an insurrec- tion, which was not quelled until thousands were executed ; the king entered Paris, May, 1382 ; civil war with Flanders, the Flemings, 50,000 strong, command- ed by Philip van Artevelde, defeated by the French, and half their army slain with their leader at Rosebecque, Nov. 28, 1382 ; preparations made, 1400 vessels equipped, for invading England, they assembled at Sluys, 1386 ; sailing from Brittany in Sept., under the command of De Clissan, they were driven by a tempest upon the coast of England and many ships were lost ; the English attacked the fleet on the Flemish coast and burned and captured the greater part of it; Charles VI. became deranged, 1392-3 ; during a temporary return to reason he con- cluded a definite treaty of peace with England, 1396 ; a civil war broke out be- tween the Houses of Orlean,s and Burgundy, 1405 ; the Duke of Orleans murdered near the Porte Barbette by a creature of the Duke of Burgundy, Nov 23, 1407 ; the Duke defeated the Liegeois, numbering 40,000, at Hasbain, near Tongres, Sept. 23, 1408 ; the Armagnacs ravaged the whole country up to the walls of Paris, peace concluded with, Nov., 1410; the next year hostilities were renewed, the Cabochiens, commanded by a butcher, Legoix, and a skinner, Caboche, committed frightful atrocities in Paris ; Henry V. of England lands at Harfleur, with 50,000 men, Aug. 14, 1415, and captured that fortress and defeated the French army at Agincourt, with a loss of 8000 French knights and nobles, Oct. 25, 1415 ; he returned to Dover with his prisoners, Nov. 1 7 ; massacre of the Armagnacs by the Cabochiens, June 12, 1418 ; Paris was in the hands of these assassins for three days, who butchered nobles and people amounting to nearly 3000; Capeluche and several ringleaders were executed, Aug. 14 ; Henry of England again invaded and subdued Lower Normandy, and Rouen capitulated after a siege of seven months, Jan. 19, 1419 ; the city was redeemed for 300,000 golden crowns ; the Duke of Burgundy assassinated in the presence of the Dauphin, Sept. 10, 1419 ; the treaty of Troyes signed between Henry V. of England and Charles VI. of France, in FRANCE 313 which Henry is recognized as heir to the French throne, May 20, 1420 ; the mar- riage of Henry V. with Catherine celebrated in the church of St Jean at Troyes, June 2, 1420 ; she made a triumphal entry into Paris, Dec- I, 1420; Henry ex- pired at Vincennes, Aug. 31, 1422. Henry VI. was proclaimed king at Paris, Oct., 1422, the Duke of Bedford being regent. Charles VII. crowned at Poitiers, 1422 ; he was supported by the Scotch and Italian forces ; they were defeated at Verneuil, when the Earl of Douglass and his son, with 5000, were slain, Aug. 1 7, 1424 ; besieged Orleans, Aug. 12, 1428 ; after various successes they raised the siege, May 8, 1429 ; the English defeated at Patay with the loss of 2200 slain, June 18; Charles crowned at Rheims, July 17 ; captured St Denis, Aug. 23; Joan of Arc taken, May 23, 1430 ; given up to the English, by whom she was tried at Rouen, Feb. 21, 1431 ; burnt at the stake in the market-place, May 30 ; the treaty of Arras signed, Sept. 21, 1435 ; Paris captured from the English, 1436 ; Charles made his triumphal entry into the capital, Nov. 12, 1437 ; a truce of 22 months signed by the English, 1444 ; the English driven out of Normandy, 1451 ; the English recovered Bordeaux, 1452 ; Charles died, July 22, 1461. Louis XI. crowned at Rheims, 1461 ; he abrogated the Pragmatic Sanction, 1461; the League for the Public Good published their first manifesto, 1465 ; the civil war began and the indecisive battle of Montl'hery fought, July 16 ; the treaty of Conflans ceding the duchy of Normandy to his brother, the Duke of Berry, and the towns of Somme and Picardy to the Count of Charolais, in Oct. ; Louis broke the treaty and reconquered Normandy, Jan., 1466 ; Liege besieged and taken, Oct. 30 ; the Duke of Burgundy declared war against France, June, 1472; Beauvais besieged, but after a fearful carnage the siege raised, July 22 ; the Bur- gundians took Liege and gave the town up to fire and the sword, Oct., 1468 ; Edward IV. of England landed at Calais with 16,000 men, June, 1475 ; made a seven years' truce with Louis at Pequigny, Aug. 29, 1475 > Louis died, Aug. 30, 1483. Charles VIII. succeeded to the throne ; the Bretons defeated at St Aubin, July 22, 1488 ; married Anne of Brittany, Dec. 16, 1491 ; Henry VII. of Eng- land landed with a large army at Calais in Oct. ; peace concluded at Etaples, 1492 ; invaded Italy, 1494 ; made his entry into Naples, Feb. 22, 1495 5 de- feated them at Fornova, July 5 ; entered Rome, Dec. 31 ; died, April 7, 1498. Louis XII., Duke of Orleans, ascended the throne ; divorced from his wife, Jeanne, Dec. 17, 1498; married the widow of the late king, Jan. 6, 1499; crossed the Alps into Italy in Aug.; entered Milan, Oct. 6 ; iccovered by Ludovico Sforza, Jan. 25, 1500, but he was defeated and sent to France, where he was kept in prison for 14 years ; Naples transferred to the King of France, 1501 ; the French army defeated by the Spanish under Gonsalvo, and surrendered, Jan. I, 1 504 ; a truce agreed to between Ferdinand and France for three years in Feb.; the French again invaded Italy and captured Genoa, March 29, I57 > the league of Cambray signed against Venice, Dec. 10, 1508 ; Lombardy again overran, and the Venetians defeated at the village of Agnadel, May 14, 1509 ; The Holy League signed, Oct. 9, 1511, between the Pope, Ferdinand of Spain, and the Venetian republic against the power of France ; the French, under Gaston de Foix, took Brescia, Feb. 19, 1512, and defeated the Spaniards at Ravenna with a loss of 12,000 men, April n, 1512, but rashly pursuing the defeated army with a slender escort, were surrounded and killed. The French defeated at Novara, and driven out of Italy, June 6, 1513 ; Henry VIII. invaded France, landing with 20,000 men at Calais, and defeated the French at the battle of Spurs, Aug. 16 ; Francis I. defeated the Swiss at the battle of Marignano, Sept. 13, 14, 1515, and took Milan, Oct. 4 ; the treaty of Geneva signed with the Helvetian republic, Nov. 7 ; Francis visited Henry VIII. at Dover, May 26, 1520, and Henry re- turned the visit on the Field of the Cloth of Gold. The French, under Bonnivet, invaded Italy, but were defeated, and Bayard killed, April 20, 1524; France invaded, Toulon taken, and Marseilles besieged, Aug. 19 ; the siege raised, Sept. 314 FRANCE 28 ; the French totally defeated at the battle of Pavia, and the king taken prisoner, Feb. 24, 1525. The treaty of Madrid signed, Jan. 14, 1526, and Francis regains his liberty, March 1 8 ; invaded Italy, and besieged Naples, but his army decimated by disease, thousands dying; they capitulated, Aug. 31, 1528; the peace of Cambray signed, July, 1529 ; the young Princes, prisoners in Spain, re- stored to liberty. The doctrines of the Reformers of Germany spread into France, and the heresy of Luther condemned at Paris, 1521 ; the fanaticism increased, and six persons were burnt at Paris, Jan., 1535 ; Charles declared war against France, and invaded Provence with 50,000 men, July 25, 1533 ; a truce concluded between the two countries for 10 years, June 18, 1538; Francis formed an alliance with the Sultan Solyman, and in 1542 declared war against the Emperor Charles ; the Algerine Corsair Barbarossa, with 1 10 ships of war, joined the French fleet, under the Count d'Enghien, at Marseilles, May, 1543 ; Nice was taken and burnt, and Barbarossa returned to Constantinople with 14,000 Christian slaves, 1544; the French army, under Count d'Enghien, defeated the Imperialists at Cerisolles with a loss of 12,000 men, and captured their artillery, standards, and stores, April 14, 1544 ; Henry VIII. signed a treaty with the Emperor Charles, and landed at Calais with 30,000 men, July, 1544; Boulogne captured, Sept. 14 ; peace concluded at Crepy, Sept. 18, with the Emperor Charles ; the French equipped a large fleet to attack England met the English fleet off St Helens, July 1 8, 1545 ; the French landed at the Isle of Wight, but were forced to retire ; the second son of Francis died of consumption, Sept. 8 ; the terms of peace be- tween England and France signed, Henry agreeing to give up Boulogne in eight years, on the payment of 2,000,000 crowns, June 7, 1546 ; the Protestants of Pro- vence almost exterminated by the order of Francis, three towns and 22 hamlets with the whole of their inhabitants destroyed, 14 burnt at the stake, Jan. and Feb., 1545 ; Francis died, March 31, 1547 ; Henry II. ascended the throne ; Boulogne surrendered to Henry for 400,000 crowns, and peace signed between England, France, and Scotland, March 24, 1550 ; the first Protestant church established in Paris, 1555 ; the French army, under the Duke of Guise, defeated before St Quentin, Aug. 10, 1557 ; Calais besieged, Jan. r, 1558 ; surrendered by the governor, Lord Wentworth, Jan. 8 ; Guines submitted, Jan. 21 ; peace concluded between England and France, April 2, 1559 ; a tournament to celebrate the mar- riage of Henry's daughter Elizabeth, held, June 27, 1559 ; the king accidentally wounded, and died, July 10. Francis II. ascended the throne at the age of 16. The Protestants or Huguenots formed a conspiracy under the Prince Conde to take the king out of the power of the Duke of Guise, Feb. i, 1560 ; they failed in the attempt, and upwards of 1200 were executed, March 20; the king died, Dec. 5, 1560 ; and the crown devolved upon his brother Charles IX. The civil war broke out between the Huguenots and the Catholics, March I, 1562, at Vassay : the former, under Prince Conde, took Orleans ; the latter, commanded by the Duke of Guise and the King of Navarre, laid siege to Rouen ; it was defended with great bravery for some time, but was taken by storm, Oct. 26, when it was sacked and pillaged for eight days ; the King of Navarre died of wounds received before this town, renouncing the Catholic faith on his death-bed. The next battle was fought before Dreux ; after a long struggle, 8000 perished on the field, Conde be- ing taken by the Catholics, and Count Montmorency, the Constable, by the Huguenots, Dec. 19; Orleans besieged by the Duke of Guise, Feb., 1563, who was assassinated, Feb. 18 ; the Edict of Amboise published, granting permission to the Huguenots to celebrate their worship throughout France, March 19. The second civil war begun in 1567 ; the army of the Catholics commanded by the Constable, attacked the Huguenots at St Denis ; the Constable was killed, Nov. 10 ; the Duke of Conde fell at Jarnac in a skirmish, March 13, 1569 ; the Insur- gents were joined by Jeanne of Navarre with her son Henry and the young Prince Conde j they were defeated at Moncontour, with the loss of 6000 men, Oct. 3 ; FRANCE 315 but they were successful in 1570, in several battles, which led to the treaty of St Germains, by which they obtained free exercise of their religion throughout the kingdom, Aug. 8, 1570 ; a General Synod of the Reformed Church held at Rochelle under the presidency of Theodore Beza, 1571 ; Admiral Colignyand the Queen of Navarre invited to Paris, where the latter died suddenly, July 9, 1572 ; an attempt made to shoot Admiral Coligny, Aug. 2 1 ; the massacre of St Bar- tholomew, in which Coligny became the first victim, 30,000 Huguenots were mur- dered, Aug. 24 ; a parliament was held which approved of this bloody work, Aug. 26, and Pope Gregory XIII. had a medal struck to commemorate this event. La Rochelle besieged unsuccessfully, March, 1573 ; Charles IX. died at the age of 24, May 30, 1574 ; Henry III., his brother, ascended the throne. A con- federacy, called 'The League,' formed between the Huguenots and the Moderate Catholics, Feb., 1575 ; the peace of Monsieur, by which all the sentences passed against the Reformers were annulled, and the insurgents were pronounced to have acted for the good of the king and kingdom, and free worship was granted to them, May 6, 1576 ; the persecution of the Huguenots again begun in Dec., 1576 ; and they suffered defeat in 1577 ; a peace again signed at Bergerac, Sept. 17 ; war renewed, the Royal army taking the field, June, 1587 ; defeated at Coutras by the Reformers, under the King of Navarre, with a loss of 3000 slain, Oct. 20, 1587 ; they were subsequently defeated, and the king returned in triumph to Paris, Dec. 23; the Duke of Guise returned amidst great rejoicings, May 8, 1588; the League took up arms against the king, and threw up barricades in the streets of Paris, May 12 ; the king escaped to Chartres, May 13 ; the edict of the union between the king and the Duke of Guise signed, July 19, who was assassinated by order of the king, Dec. 23 ; the Queen-mother died, Jan. 5, 1589 ; the Parisians revolted against the king, and the Duke of Mayenne, next brother to the murdered Guise, entered Paris, Feb. 12, 1589 ; Henry III. made an alliance with the Huguenots in April, and established his head-quarters at St Cloud, July 30 ; the king fell by the hand of an assassin, Jacques Clement, Aug. 2. Henry of Navarre succeeded to the crown by the title of Henry IV., and de- feated the Leaguers under Mayenne, at Arques, Sept. 13-28 ; attacked the suburbs of Paris, Oct. 31, and gained the battle of Ivry, March 14, 1590; he again be- sieged Paris, and in the month of July the inhabitants were reduced to starvation, the suburbs were carried, July 21, but the Prince of Parma marched to Meaux with a large army ; the king raised the siege, Aug. 30 ; the army of the Duke of Parma captured the town of Lagny, Sept. 6, and entered Paris, Sept. 18 ; the king, assisted by some English troops under the Earl of Essex, besieged Rouen, Nov. 26, 1592 ; the siege raised, April 21, 1593 ; the Spanish army returned to the Netherlands ; Henry IV. renounced the Calvinistic doctrines, July 25, at St Denis, and entered Paris, March 22, 1 594 ; the Jesuits banished from France, 1595 ; Amiens captured by the Spaniards, March II, 1597 ; Calais taken by the Spaniards, April 24, 1596; recaptured, Sept. 19, I597J the Edict of Nantes issued, April 15, 1598 ; registered by Parliament, Feb. 25, 1599 ; the Duke of Sully ap- pointed Surintendant des Finances, 1598 ; by the treaty of Veroins, signed May 22, 1598, France recovered Calais, and all the towns of the Low Countries ; marriage of the king with Mary de' Medici celebrated, Oct. 5, 1600; war declared against the Duke of Savoy ; his army entered Chambery, Aug. 21, and peace restored ; the conspiracy of the Duke de Biron discovered, and its author executed, July 31, 1602 ; coronation of the Queen at St Denis, May 14, 1610 ; Henry murdered by Ravaillac, the same day ; the assassin executed, May 27. Louis XIII. ascended the throne, Mary de' Medici appointed regent by the parliament, May 14, 1610 ; Louis attained his majority, Sept. 27, 1614 ; the States-General met, Oct. 14 ; dissolved, March 24, 1615, and did not meet again for 174 years ; Richelieu ap- pointed Secretary of State, Nov. 30, 1616 ; Prince Conde imprisoned in the Bas- tile, Aug. 31, 1616; Concini, the Queen-mother's favourite, assassinated, March 316 FRANCE 24, 1617 ; his body was afterwards carried about the streets, and at last hung on a lamp-post ; the Queen-mother escaped to Angouleme, Feb. 22, 1619 ; Prince Conde liberated, Oct., 1619 ; the Queen-mother pardoned, Sept. 9, 1620 ; war made upon the Huguenots, 1621 ; Montauban besieged in Aug. ; the siege raised in Nov. ; Monheur captured in Dec. ; the favourite De Luynes died of fever, Dec. 14 ; after varied successes, the treaty of Montpellier was signed, granting pardon and protection to the Reformers, Oct. 19, 1622 ; Richelieu made Prime Minister, April 26, 1624 ; war renewed against the Huguenots, 1625 ; their fleet destroyed at Rochelle, Sept. 15 ; this town besieged for 15 months, but after half the popu- lation had perished with hunger, they capitulated, Oct. 28, 1628, and with this de- feat the hopes of the Huguenots perished. Italy invaded, 1629 ; the town of Pignerol surrendered, March 31 ; peace signed, Oct., 1630; Mary de' Medici im- prisoned for conspiring against the crown, Feb., 1631 ; she escaped into the Netherlands, July 18, and died in exile at Cologne, 1642. Insurrection in Lan- guedoc, 1632 ; they were defeated at Castelnaudary, and Duke Montmorency captured, Sept. I ; he was tried, Oct. 30, and executed. Richelieu founded the French Academy, 1635 ; war with Austria and Spain began, 1633 ; after varying successes, the French army captured the town of Arras, Aug. 9, 1640 ; Turin captured, Sept. 22 ; an insurrection, headed by the Count Soissons, broke out at Sedan, 1641 ; the Royal army defeated near that town, July 6, but the insurgents pursuing, the Count Soissons was slain ; Roussillon invaded by the Royal army, March, 1642 ; the city of Perpignan taken, Sept. 9, which completed the conquest of that province ; the Duke de Cinq Mars and De Thou executed at Lyons for conspiring against Richelieu, Sept. 12 ; this statesman died at Paris, Dec. 4 ; Mazarin added to the council. Louis XIII. died, May 14, 1643 ; Louis XIV., his son, succeeded him, Anne of Austria being Regent, and the Duke of Orleans Lieut. -General ; the parliament declared the Queen Regent absolute, May 18, and Mazarin made chief minister ; the Austrian army, commanded by Francisco de Mello, invested the fortress of Rocroi, May, 1643 ; the French army, com- manded by the young Duke d'Enghien, afterwards the great ' Conde,' marched to its relief, and defeated the Imperialists with a loss of 15,000 men, May 19; they were again defeated by Marshal Turenne after a severe struggle at the battle of Nordlingen, Aug. 7, 1645 ; in Flanders they captured the town of Courtrai, June 29, 1646 ; and under the Duke d'Enghien besieged Dunkirk, assisted by the Dutch fleet under Admiral Van Tromp, and captured it, Oct., 1646 ; Ypres taken, May 29, 1648, and the Imperialists almost annihilated at the battle of Lens, Aug. 20 ; this led to the peace of Westphalia, which brought to a conclusion the 30 years' war, Oct. 24 ; the parliament refusing to increase the taxes, or to suspend their sittings, three of their body were ordered to be arrested, which led to the commencement of the civil war of the Fronde, Aug. 27 ; the members released, Aug. 28 ; the king left Paris, Sept. 13 ; a royal declaration was issued, granting the concessions demanded, Oct. 24 ; the Court fled to St Germains, Jan. 6, 1649, and Paris besieged by the Royal army, 25,000 strong, under the Prince Conde ; a temporary peace was concluded at Ruel, March n, and the Court returned to Paris in Aug., and the Prince Conde and his brother-in-law, the Duke of Longue- ville, arrested and imprisoned at Vincennes, Jan. 18, 1650 ; the insurgents again took up arms, and were defeated at Bordeaux, Oct. I, and under Marshal Turenne at Rhetel, Dec. 15 ; but the Frondeurs, under the Dukeof Orleans, compelled Cardinal Mazarin to leave Paris, Feb. 8, 1651 ; they surrounded the palace, and prevented the king and his mother from leaving Paris, and Prince Conde released and took command of the insurgents, Aug. 30 ; the king declared of age, Sept. 5 ; Mazarin returned to France, Dec. 24 ; the parliament offered a reward for him alive or dead, and decreed the sale of his library ; Turenne joined the Royal army and de- feated Conde at Bleneau, April 7, 1652 ; the insurgents under Conde defeated the Royalists in the quarter of St Antoine, June 26, and Mazarin again removed from FRANCE 317 France, Aug. 18 ; the king returned to Paris, Oct. 21 ; this ended the war of the 'Fronde,' and Mazarin returned in triumph to Paris, Feb., 1653 ; the siege of Arras, by the Archduke Leopold, with 25,000 Spaniards, and the Prince Cond6 in command, were defeated by the Royalists under Turenne, Aug. 25, 1654 ; Turenne besieged Valenciennes, July, 1656 ; Conde defeated the Royal army, capturing Marshal de la Ferte, with many officers and 4000 men ; the Spaniards, commanded by Conde, totally defeated by Turenne, near Dunkirk, June 14, 1658 ; the peace of the Pyrenees signed, Nov. 7, 1659 ; Louis XIV. married the Infanta of Spain, June 9, 1660. Mazarin died, March 8, 1661 ; he founded the Institute of France, the Academy of Painting and Sculpture, and the magnificent 1 Mazarine ' library. The king took the management of public affairs into his own hands after the death of this minister ; Fouquet, the Finance Minister, arrested and sent to the Bastile, Sept., 1661 ; Colbert succeeded him in his office, and re- stored the National Finances. Louis declared war against England, and marched his army into Holland, Jan. 16, 1666 ; the treaty of Breda signed, restoring to France the conquests made by England in the West Indies and North America, July 31, 1667 ; the Triple Alliance signed between England, Holland, and Sweden, against the power of France, Jan. 23, 1668 ; by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, Spain surrendered to France all her conquests, May 2, 1668 ; concluded a secret treaty with Charles II. of England to abandon his allies, May, 1670; invaded Holland, April, 1672, and overran that country, but the sluices being opened they were stopped at Muyden, July 22 ; the war was continued with varying success for several years, which ended in the peace of Nimeguen, Aug. n, 1678 ; Spain ac- ceded to it, Sept. 17, and the title of 'the Great' awarded to Louis by the citizens of Paris, and the triumphal arches of St Martin and St Denis erected to his honour ; Strasburg added to France, Sept., 1681. The Edict of Nantes re- voked, Oct. 17, 1685, annulling all the privileges granted to the Huguenots, and prohibiting their religion throughout the empire, their temples destroyed and their ministers ordered to quit France in 15 days ; multitudes of these reformers were imprisoned, and 300,000 left the country ; the league of Augsburg against, signed, July 9, 1686. All trade prohibited with England by I Will. & Mary, c. 34, 1688 ; James II. of England received in Paris, Jan. 7, 1689. The invasion of Germany by 80,000 men, Oct., 1688 ; the principal towns in the Palatinate destroyed; Heidelberg, Mannheim, Spires, Worms, Oppenheim, and Bingen were burnt, with all the crops, vines, and orchards ; the nobles and clergy of France compelled to send their plate to be coined into money to pay the army, 1689. The French army invaded Ireland, but were defeated at the battle of the Boyne, July I, 1690 ; and the French fleet were unsuccessful in an engagement off Beachy Head, the same day ; the French forces, under Gen. St Ruth, defeated at Aghrim, July 12, 1691 ; Louis invested Mons, March 25, 1691, with 100,000 men, capitulated in April ; a French army of 30,000 men assembled at Cherbourg, under King James II., for the invasion of England, May, 1692; the French fleet, under Admiral Tourville, defeated by the Dutch and English fleets off Cape Barfleur, May 19, and Admiral Rooke burnt 13 of their ships at La Hogue, May 23 ; Louis captured Namur, June 5, and the army of William III. defeated at Steinkirk, July 24, and at Neerwinden, July 29, 1693 ; Namur retaken by William, July, 1695 ; treatyof peace signed with Savoy, May 30, 1696 ; the general peace of Ryswick signed, Sept. 30, 1697 ; war of the Spanish succession begun by the French taking several fortresses in the Netherlands, Feb., 1701 ; the Triple Alliance renewed by the great powers against France, Sept 7 ; the Duke of Marlborough removed the war into Bavaria and defeated the Franco- Bavarians near Donauwerth, July 2, 1703; and totally defeated the French army under Tallard at Blenheim, taking 14,000 prisoners and most of their guns, Aug. 13, 1704; at Ramillies, May 23, 1706; at Turin by Prince Eugene, Sept. 7 ; in this year the taxes were increased upon every commodity ; the French defeated the army under Lord Galway, at Almanza, 318 FRANCE ^ April, 1707 ; but were entirely overthrown at Oudenarde, July II, 1708, and at Malplaquet, Sept. II, 1709 ; the town of Lille taken, Dec. 10 ; a severe winter destroyed the seed crops, vines, and fruit-trees ; an income tax of one loth of every man's revenue levied ; the war was brought to a close by the treaty of Utrecht, April II, 1713 ; the Jansenists were persecuted by the Jesuits for their opinions, and by the bull of Pope Clement were excommunicated, Sept. 8, 1713 ; they were im- prisoned and the convent of Port Royal demolished ; Louis died, Sept. i, 1715 ; he was 77 years of age, and had reigned 72 years. Louis XV. being under age the Duke of Orleans was appointed Regent ; many political prisoners were released from the Bastile ; Peter the Great of Russia visited Paris, May 7, 1717 ; 'the chambre ardente' established, 1716 ; suppressed, March, 1717 ; the Quadruple Alliance against Spain signed, Jan., 1717 ; John Law, a Scotchman, established the first bank in France, May, 1716 ; this was made the Royal Bank, Dec., 1718 ; the Mississippi, or West India Company, established, 1719; the dividends rose to 40 per cent., 1720 ; Law made the Finance Minister, Jan., 1720; the scheme failed, and a panic ensued ; the company's shares and the notes of the bank re- duced to half their nominal value, May 21, 1720 ; payments suspended, July 13, and Law driven from France. Louis XV. attained his majority, Feb., 1723 ; the Cardinal Dubois died, Aug. 10 ; the Duke of Orleans, Dec. 2 ; the king married Maria Leczynski, Sept. 4, 1725 ; the persecution against the Jansenists renewed, 1730, and parliament refused to obey the king, Aug. 18, 1732; the war against the Austrians in Italy commenced, Oct., 1733; peace restored by the treaty of Vienna, Nov. 18, 1738; the French defeated at Dettingen, June 26, 1743 ; war declared against Great Britain, March, 1 744 ; the allies, under the Duke of Cum- berland, defeated at Fontenoy, May II, I745 an( i Brussels captured, Jan., 1746 ; after several other engagements, the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle was signed, Oct. 18, 1748 ; Minorca taken by the French from the English, April, 1756 ; the Parc-aux-Cerfs, the Seraglio, established by Madame Pompadour, 1756 ; Damiens attempted to stab the king at Versailles, Jan. 5, 1757; the treaty of Versailles, between France and Austria, for the partition of Prussia, signed, May I, 1756; this led to the Seven Years' War; the Count de Stainville (Duke de Choiseul) appointed minister of foreign affairs, Nov., 1758; he formed the project of invading Ireland, 1759 > the Toulon squadron de- feated by the English fleet under Admiral Boscawen, and five of their largest ships captured ; the English and Prussian army, commanded by the Duke of Brunswick, defeated with great loss at Minden, Aug. i, 1759; the Brest fleet defeated again off Belleisle by Admiral Hawke, Nov. 14, 1759; the French pos- sessions in Canada surrendered to the British, Sept. 8, 1760. The family com- pact was signed at Versailles, Aug. 15, 1761 ; Louis XV. and Charles III. guaranteed their respective possessions in all parts of the world ; the war con- cluded by the treaty of Paris, signed Feb. 10, 1763, by which France surrendered the whole of Canada, Cape Breton, and many other places ; this was followed by the peace of Hubertsburg, between Austria and Prussia, Feb. 1 5 ; the Jesuits banished from France by a royal edict, Nov. 26, 1764 ; Madame de Pompadour died, April, 1764; and Queen Maria Leczynski, June, 1768 ; Corsica annexed to the French dominions, 1768; Choiseul deprived of his offices, Dec. 24, 1770; 1 200 persons trampled to death in the Rue Royale at an exhibition of fireworks to celebrate the marriage of Marie Antoinette with the eldest son of the late Dauphin, May 30, 1770; parliament abolished, Jan., 1771 ; the Gourdes Aides abolished ; Louis died of small-pox, at Versailles, May 10, 1774, and Louis XVI. ascended the throne ; Turgot appointed Minister of Finance, and parliament restored, and the 'chatelet,' or criminal court, re-established, Jan., 1775 5 serious bread riots in Paris, in May, the shops plundered ; Turgot dismissed from office in May, 1776, and Necker appointed, June, 1777 ; he introduced a regular system of accounts, and abolished 600 sinecure offices. A treaty of commerce and alliance made with FRANCE 319 the United States, Feb. 8, 1778 ; the English Ambassador withdrawn from Paris ; a fleet of 32 sail-of-the-line quitted Brest under the command of Count d'Orvilliers, and wereattacked by the English fleet of 30 sail off Ushant and driven back, July 27 ; Spain joined the alliance against England, 1779 ; torture abolished by the French courts, 1780; the 'Compterendu' published, 1781; Necker resigned, May 25, 1781; the French Admiral, Count deGrasse, taken in the 'Ville de Paris' with six other ships, and his whole fleet dispersed by Admiral Rodney, April 12, 1782; peace re- stored by the treaty of Versailles, signed, Sept. 3, 1783 ; Calonne appointed Finan- cial Minister in Oct. ; the palace of St Cloud purchased for Marie Antoinette ; the scandal of the diamond necklace, 1 785 ; the country reduced to a state of bank- ruptcy ; a meeting of the Assembly called at Versailles, Feb. 22, 1787 ; they refused to sanction the views of Calonne and were dissolved by the king, May 25 ; Ca- lonne dismissed from office, April 8, and Cardinal Brienne appointed, May I ; the parliament of Paris, refusing to sanction new taxes, were exiled by Lettres de Cachet to Troyes, Aug. 6 ; this gave rise to serious popular riots in Paris and the provinces ; Parliament recalled, Nov. 15, 1787; refused to register the royal edict; they presented a statement of grievances to the king, Jan., 1 788 ; two of their members, Epresmneil and Goislart, arrested, May 4 ; the parliament abolished, May 8, and new Courts of Justice appointed ; Cardinal de Brienne resigned, Aug. 25 ; Necker recalled, Aug. 26, amidst the acclamations of the people ; this minister advanced 2,000,000 francs from his own funds and so saved the state from bank- ruptcy; he set free the political prisoners ; the parliament recalled by a royal edict, Sept. 23 ; riots in Paris, April 27, 1789 ; the Three Estates met at Versailles, May 5; this was virtually the last day of the old monarchy of France, but there arose dis- sension between the different bodies ; the Commons, having waited from May 6 to June 12 for the clergy and nobles, then proceeded with their meeting alone, and on June 17 gave themselves the title of the National Assembly ; refused admission into their chamber, June 20, and on the 23rd the king cancelled their title and votes ; some of the French Guards rescued from the Abbaye, a military prison, by the people, June 30 ; the Assembly protest against the military force, July 8 ; Necker dismissed and ordered to leave the country, July I r ; insurrection broke out on the I2th ; they captured 30,000 stand of arms at the Invalides on the I4th, and the Bastile stormed ; the governor beheaded and seven of the garrison mur- dered, only seven prisoners were found in the prison ; the king visited the As- sembly and requested their assistance to put down the Revolution ; Lafayette appointed commander of the National Guard, and Bailly mayor of Paris ; and 450,000 francs were distributed to the poor ; the four-pound loaf, which cost the municipality 16 sous, they caused to be sold at 13^, to alleviate the distress ; Foulon, a corn trader, was charged by the people with monopolizing that article of food, and was hung on a lamp-post, July 22 ; his son-in-law was also murdered ; taxes ordered to be levied upon the nobility who were protected by feudal privi- leges, Aug. 4 ; the rights of man declared by the Assembly, Aug. 13 ; Necker resumed his office ; the Hotel de Ville plundered by the mob, Oct. 5 ; the Palace of Versailles broken into by the revolutionists and the king made to return to Paris, Oct 6; declared King of the French instead of King of France, Oct. 1 6 ; the plate of the church taken and applied to public purposes, Nov. 6 ; the king- dom divided into departments, Dec. 22 ; the king proceeded to the National As- sembly and volunteered to take the oath to the New Constitution, Feb., 1790 ; Lettres de Cachet abolished, March 16 ; the nobility abolished, June 20 ; the fete of the Federation of the National Guards of France in the Champ de Mars on the anniversary of the taking of the Bastile, July 14 ; the king took the oath to the New Constitution ; Necker resigned and retired into Switzerland in Sept. ; Mirabeau appointed President of the Assembly, Jan., 1791 ; died, April 2 ; the Royal family left Paris secretly to join the Austrians and Prussians, June 20 ; captured by the insurgents at Varennes, June 22, and imprisoned in the Tuileries, 320 FRANCE June 25 ; assembly of the people in the Champ cle Mars dispersed by the soldiers, when 50 persons were killed, July 17 ; the king sanctioned the Convention, Sept. 15 ; the National Assembly dissolved, Sept. 30, and the Legislative Assembly met, Oct. I, and passed a decree against the emigrants, Jan. I, 1792; war declared against Austria by the king, April 20; the Jacobins declared their sittings permanent, June 1 8 ; the mob, headed by a butcher, Legendrc, attacked the Tuileries, June 20, and placed the bonnet rouge upon the head of Louis ; they again attacked the palace and defeated the Swiss Guards, whom they massacred, Aug. 10, and the Royal family imprisoned in the Temple, 13 ; the allied army, commanded by the King of Prussia, invaded the French territory, July 30, and captured the fortress of Longwy, Aug. 23 ; decree issued against the Jurists, Aug. 23 ; massacre of the Royalists, Sept. 2, and the Princess de Lamballe and 300 priests, Sept. 3; the French army defeated at Crois-aux-bois, Sept. 13 ; engagement at Valmy, Sept. 20 ; retreat of the Prussians, Sept. 30 ; the Austrians defeated by Dumouriez at Jemappes, Nov. 6, and entered Brussels, Nov. 14 ; the National Convention held its first sittings, Sept. 21, and abolished royalty by a decree ; the French re- public proclaimed, Sept. 22 ; the king ordered to be tried by the Convention, Dec. 10 ; first arraigned before them, Dec. 1 1 ; trial finished, Dec. 26 ; condemned to death, Jan. 20, 1793 executed by the guillotine, Jan. 21. War declared against Great Britain, Holland, and Spain, Feb. i ; insurrection against the Girondists, March 10 ; the Revolutionary Tribunal established, March 10 ; {he French army under Dumouriez defeated, with a loss of 4000 men, by the Austrians at Neer- winden, March 18 ; the Co mite du Salut Public appointed, May 27. The Reign of Terror commenced, 80,000 insurrectionists with a formidable park of artillery surrounded the Tuileries, June 2, and murdered many Girondists ; Charlotte Corday stabbed Murat, July 13 ; she was executed, July 15 ; Queen Marie An- toinette tried and executed, Oct. 16 ; the Duke of Orleans, Nov. 6, and Madame Roland, Nov. 8 ; 15,000 persons are said to have perished at Nantes by order of Carrier in Oct. , Nov., and Dec.; Toulon surrendered to Adm. Hood in August, he retired after destroying the fleet and arsenal, carrying away many of the in- habitants ; the town taken by the French, Dec. 19, and the people massacred ; Bonaparte was engaged in recapturing this place ; Gobel, archbishop of Paris, and many of his clergy, renounced their belief and functions as ministers of the Catholic Church, and declared that henceforth they would recognize no public worship, but that of Liberty, Equality, and Reason, Nov. 7, and by a decree of the Convention the religion of Jesus Christ was suppressed ; the Gregorian calendar was abolished and replaced by the Revolutionary Era, which dated from Sept. 22, 1792 ; the conspiracy of the Hebertists to overthrow the Republic discovered, and Hebert with 18 others were executed, March 24, 1794; the Dantonists seized, March 30, and Danton with his friends were executed, April 6 ; on May 7, the National Representatives voted that ' the French people acknowledge the exist- ence of the Supreme Being and the immortality of the soul ; ' the ' Fete de 1'Etre Supreme,' with Robespierre as high priest, celebrated, June 8 ; the French army under Gen. Jourdan defeated the Austrians at Fleurus, June 26, and entered Brussels, July 9 ; Robespierre arrested in the Convention with St Just and three others, July 27, and executed, July 28 ; with his death closed the Reign of Terror. The Jacobin Club closed, Nov. 9 ; the French army under Pichegru entered Am- sterdam, Jan. 19, 1795 ; the mob invaded the Convention, demanding bread, April I ; another attempt still more desperate made, May 20 ; the mob was de- feated in the Rue du Faubourg St Antoine, and compelled to give up their arms ; Louis XVII. died at the age of 1 1 years, June 8 ; an insurrection in Paris, the troops of the Convention being under the command of Napoleon Bonaparte, who totally defeated the Insurgents, Oct. 5 ; Bonaparte appointed Gen. -in-Chief of the army of the Interior, Oct. 23 ; the Convention dissolved, Oct. 26, after a sessions of three years and two months ; the Vendean Insurgents defeated after a brave FRANCE 321 resistance and their leaders executed, March 29, 1796 ; the Council of Five Hundred met immediately ; the assignats suppressed, March, 1796; Napoleon assumed the command of the French forces at Nice, March 27, and defeated the Austrians and Piedmontese ; an armistice agreed to, April 28 ; he defeated the Austrians at Placenza, May 7 ; carried the bridge of Lodi on the loth ; entered Milan, May 15 ; the fortress of Mantua besieged, May 27 ; besieged Bologna, June 19, and com- pelled Pope Pius VI. to agree to an armistice, June 24 ; the army of Austria under Marshal Wurmser driven into Mantua, Sept. 19 ; the French army under Gen. Jourdan defeated on the Rhine at Wurzburg, Sept. 3 ; the French under Bonaparte defeated the Austrians at the village Arcole, after three days' fighting, Sept. 17 ; again defeated them at Rivoli, Jan. 14, 1797 ; the Austrians surren- dered, Feb. 2 ; the States of the Church taken and the pope signed the treaty of Tolentino, Feb. 19 ; treaty with the Austrians at Leohen signed, April 18 ; Venice captured by the army under Bonaparte, and the Commonwealth of Venice extin- guished ; the directors, Pichegru and Barthelemy, imprisoned, Sept. 4, for corre- sponding with the Bourbons ; the treaty otCampo Formio signed, Oct 17, and an Independent Commonwealth established, called the Cisalpine Republic ; Venice ceded to Austria ; Bonaparte was received in triumph by the Directory, Dec. 10. In the beginning of the year 1 798 great preparations were made to invade Eng- land, but it was abandoned by the advice of Bonaparte ; the Egyptian Expedi- tion of 36,000 men, under the command of Bonaparte, sailed from Toulon with a fleet of 20 ships-of-war, besides transports, May 19, 1798 ; Malta taken, June 10; the army landed in Egypt, July 2 ; gained the battle of the Pyramids, July 2 1 ; the French fleet defeated by the English under Adm. Nelson, Aug. i ; 700 Frenchmen massacred at Cairo, Oct. 22 ; Bonaparte besieged and took Jaffa in Syria, March 6, 1799 ; besieged Acre, March 16 ; the trenches were open for 60 days, but after a loss of 3000 men, Napoleon for the first time was compelled to retreat, May 20 ; he defeated the Turks at Mount Tabor, April 16 ; again defeated them with great slaughter at Aboukir, July 25 ; he left Gen. Kleber in command, and returned to France, Oct. 8 ; the Council of the Ancients removed to St Cloud, Nov. 9 ; the Council of Five Hundred metat St Cloud, Oct 19, but were dispersed by the soldiers under Murat ; the Directory abolished ; Napoleon Bonaparte appointed First Con- sul, Dec. 15 ; he took up his residence at the Tuileries, Feb. 19, 1800 ; his first acts were to repeal the laws of hostages, to open the churches to Christian worship, and to restore Sunday ; the Austrian campaign opened in April, Napoleon crossed the Alps into Piedmont, May 15, 16, and occupied Milan, June 2 ; the battle of Marengo gained, June 14, and Hohenlinden, Dec. 2 ; an attempt made upon the life of the First Consul by an explosion of an infernal machine in Rue St Nicaise, 52 persons were killed, Dec. 24; the peace of Luneville signed between Austria and France, Feb. 9, 1801 ; the Roman Catholic religion restored by a concordat, July 15 ; the French army defeated by Sir Ralph Abercromby in Egypt, March 21, and agreed to a Convention with Gen. Hutchinson, by virtue of which the remnant of the French army returned to France ; a Congress of the several powers assembled at Amiens, and a peace concluded between Gt Britain, France, Spain, and the Batavian republic, March 27, 1802 ; the Legion of Hon- our instituted, May 19 ; Bonaparte elected Consul for life, Aug. 2 ; Piedmont annexed to France in Sept ., and the Duchy of Parma and part of Switzerland ; the civil code promulgated, March 21, 1803 ; war renewed with St Domingo, and after suffering great loss by yellow fever capitulated to the English in Nov. ; a mis- understanding arose with England, and Lord Whitworth, the ambassador, left Paris, May 13 ; this step was followed by the seizure of all vessels belonging to France in English ports, the property and commerce were valued at three millions sterling ; all British subjects in France arrested ; an immense flotilla of 2000 sail collected, and a large army prepared to make a descent upon England ; a plot to assassinate the emperor discovered, Feb. 15, 1804 ; the Duke of Enghien arrested, March 21 322 FRANCE 15, and shot at Vincennes, March 21 ; Napoleon elected Emperor of the French, May 1 8 ; the conspirators, including, Cadoudal, and 10 of his accomplices executed, June 25 ; Moreau sentenced to two years' imprisonment ; Napoleon crowned at Notre Dame by Pope Pius VII., Dec. 2, 1804, and crowned King of Italy at Milan, May 26, 1805 ; the Ligurian republic and the Genoese territory annexed to the Empire, June 30 ; a treaty of defence between England, Russia, and Austria signed, April n ; the Austrian army, 80,000 strong, com- manded by Gen. Mack, advanced upon Munich, Sept. 7 ; defeated and capitu- lated at Ulm, Oct. 20, 30,000 men laying down their arms ; Napoleon entered the capital of Austria, Nov. 13 ; the French navy almost annihilated at Trafalgar by the English fleet under Nelson, out of 33 French and Spanish ships 24 were captured with 20,000 prisoners ; Napoleon crossed the Danube, Nov. 22, and gained the battle of Austerlitz, Dec. 2 ; the Austrians and Russians lost 10,000 men slain and 20,000 prisoners, 120 pieces of cannon, and 40 standards ; peace concluded at Presburg, Dec. 26, Austria surrendering the whole of the Venetian states. In Feb., 1806, the French army invaded Naples ; the Bourbons dethroned and Joseph Bonaparte proclaimed King ; Louis created King of Holland ; the English army under Sir John Stuart defeated the French army under Gen. Regnier at Maida, July 4, 1806 ; by the Confederation of the Rhine, signed July 12, the kings of Bavaria and Wurtemberg, the Grand-Dukes of Baden and Hesse- Darmstadt, and several minor princes declared themselves separ- ated for ever from the kingdom of Germany, and united with France ; England, Prussia, and Russia united to humble the power of France ; the Prus- sian army of 150,000 men was placed under the command of the Duke of Bruns- wick, and on the 1st of October, 1806, the Prussian minister at Paris demanded that all the French troops should immediately evacuate Germany ; Napoleon took the command of the army of the Rhine, and defeated the Prussians at Jena, Oct. 14, taking 20,000 prisoners, 300 pieces of artillery, and 60 standards ; Magdeburg surrendered, Nov. 8, and he entered Berlin, Nov. 25, from whence he published his famous decrees against England, Nov. 21, declaring the British isles in a state of blockade, and interdicting all trade or intercourse with that country ;" Napoleon advanced into Poland, and took up his quarters at Warsaw, Nov. 30 ; he was defeated by the Russians at Eylau, Feb. 8, 1807, losing 30,000 men ; on the I4th of June he gained the battle of Friedland ; a meeting of the Emperor Na- poleon with the Emperor Alexander, June 25, led to an armistice which resulted in the peace of Tilsit, signed July 7 > an d with Prussia, signed July 9 ; the liberty of the press abolished in Paris, and a censorship established, in Aug. ; Portugal invaded by Gen. Junot with an army of 30,000 men ; the Prince Regent taken on board a British vessel, and conveyed to Brazil ; the invaders entered Lisbon, Nov. 30; and Portugal declared a possession of France, Feb. I, 1808; Spain invaded, Murat reached Madrid, March 19 ; Joseph Bonaparte made king and entered Madrid, July 20 ; the Spanish people rose en masse against the in- truders, and massacred the French in the different towns ; a Junta established at Seville ; the French army under General Dupont defeated at Baylen, July 20 ; Saragossa sustained a siege of two months ; Joseph Bonaparte retired beyond the Ebro, and the Portuguese rebelled against their power ; the British army under Sir Arthur Wellesley defeated the French under Junot at Vimeira, Aug. 21, 1808 ; the convention of Cintra signed, Aug. 30, by which the French commander agreed to evacuate Portugal ; the English entered Lisbon, Sept. 12 ; Napoleon defeated the Spaniards and entered Madrid, Dec. 4 ; the French defeated at Corunna by the English, under Sir John Moore, who was killed, Jan. 16, 1809 ; the English embarked, and the whole of Galicia submitted to the French ; the English army, under Sir Arthur Wellesley, defeated the French at Talavera, July 28 ; war renewed with Austria, April 9, 1810 ; defeated at Eckmiihl, April 22, and Napoleon entered Vienna a second time, May 13 ; the Pontifical States an- FRANCE 32-1 nexed to the French Empire, May 17 ; the Pope Pius VII. deposed ; he issued a bull of excommunication against Napoleon, for which he was seized and conveyed to France, and imprisoned at Fontainebleau. The desperate engagements at Aspam and Essling on the 2ist and 23rd of May, were favourable to the Aus- trians ; the French lost 30,000 men ; but on the 6th July they defeated the Aus- trians at Wagram ; this led to the treaty of Schonbrunn, Oct. 14. Napoleon divorced from the Empress Josephine, Dec. 15, and married the Archduchess Maria Louisa of Austria, March II, 1810, by proxy; repeated at the Tuileries, April 2 ; a son was the result of this marriage, born March 10, 1811 ; received the title of King of Rome ; Holland annexed to the French empire, July 10, 1810 ; Ciudad Rodrigo besieged and taken, July 1 1 ; Almeida taken, Aug. 27 ; Wellington took up a formidable position at Torres Vedras, Oct. 9 ; Massena with the French army retreated into Spain, March 5, 1811 ; the French defeated at Fuentes de Onoro, May 5, and at Albuera, May 16 ; the English, under Lord Wellington, captured Ciudad Rodrigo, Jan. 19, 1812, and Badajoz, April 6 ; defeated the French at Salamanca, July 12; the French grand army under Napoleon, 450,000 strong, advanced into Russia, and reached Witepsk, July 16; Smolensko assaulted, Aug. 17 ; after defending it with desperation, the Russians retired after setting the city on fire ; the desperate battle of Borodino fought, Sept. 7 ; the French lost 12,000 dead, and 20,000 wounded ; the Russians lost 15,000, and 30,000 wounded, with 2000 prisoners ; they retreated to Moscow, from which they removed the magazines and valuable property, and abandoned it, Sept. 14 ; Napoleon established his quarters at the Kremlin, Sept. 15 ; the city was fired, and 7000 houses destroyed ; the French army evacuated the city, Oct. 19, after blowing up the Kremlin ; winter set in, Nov. 6, and before the army reached Smolensko, Nov. 12, 30,000 men had died with hunger and cold, and 20,000 horses ; 300 guns were left on the road ; Napoleon continued his retreat on the I7th ; 26,000 French- men and 220 pieces of cannon fell into the hands of the Russians ; at the passage of the Beresina thousands perished, and completed the disorganization of the French army ; only 20,000 men preserved any appearance of discipline ; Napoleon quitted the army, and arrived in Paris, Dec. 18 ; the relics of the grand army re- treated to Niemen, scarcely 100,000 men out of 450,000 which had invaded Russia six months before ; by means of the conscription Napoleon raised 350,000 men at the beginning of 1813. The Russian troops crossed the frontier into Prussia, and entered Berlin, March II ; on the i8th, Prussia declared war against France ; the allies were defeated at Lutzen, May 2 ; they retreated beyond Dresden, which Napoleon entered, May 8 ; he again defeated them at Bautzen, May 20 and 2 1 ; an armistice concluded for eight weeks, from June 4 till July 28 ; a con- gress opened at Prague, July 5, but failed to establish peace ; the Emperor of Austria joined the allied sovereigns, and the war was renewed, Aug. 10 ; the allies numbered 370,000 men ; on the 26th, they attacked the French before Dres- den, the battle began at 3 o'clock in the afternoon, and the Austrians were com- pelled to retire ; the contest was resumed the next day, and the allies were de- feated with a loss of 25,000 men ; in this battle General Moreau fell ; the allies, who had received a reinforcement of 60,000 Russians, Oct. 3, again advanced ; the battle of Leipsic began, Oct. 16, and terminated without any definite result ; it was resumed on the loth, the troops of Saxony and Wurtemberg, 12,000 strong, went over to the allies, and Napoleon was totally defeated ; the allied sovereigns entered Leipsic on the igth ; the emperor in his retreat defeated the Bavarian army under Gen. Wrede, Oct. 30 ; he quitted the army and arrived at St Cloud, Nov. 9. The Spanish campaign opened in 1813 ; the English, under Wellington, gained the battle of Vittoria, June 21 ; the fortress of San Sebastian stormed and captured, Aug. 31 ; Pampeluna surrendered, Oct. 31 ; Napoleon assembled the senate at Paris, and demanded a fresh levy of 300,000 men, and on Dec. 19 the Legislative Chamber met and remonstrated against the policy of the Emperor ; adjourned, 324 FRANCE Dec. 30. The Austrian army, under Schwartzenberg, crossed the Rhine, Dec. 21 ; Langres captured, Jan. 16, 1814 ; Napoleon committed the Empress and the infant King of Rome to the custody of the National Guards, Jan. 23, Maria Louisa being made Regent ; the battle of Arcis-sur-Aube, March 20 ; the allies arrived under the walls of Paris, and defeated the French army, under Marmont and Mortier, March 30, and entered Paris, March 31. The Senate de- creed that Napoleon had forfeited the throne, and that the hereditary right establish- ed in his family was abolished, April 2 ; the treaty of Fontainebleau signed between the Emperor and the allied powers, April u, by which he renounced for himself and his heirs and his descendants, all right to the thrones of France and Italy, he was to retain for life the title of Emperor, with the independent sovereignty of the island of Elba, and a revenue of 2,ooo,oco of francs ; the French army, under Soult, defeated by Wellington at Toulouse, April 10 ; a convention was signed between these two commanders, April 18 ; the Emperor quitted Fontainebleau, after taking an affectionate leave of his old Guard, April 20 ; he embarked on board a British frigate, and arrived at Elba, May 4 ; Louis XVIII. recalled by a decree of the Senate, arrived at Calais, April 24, and made his public entry into Paris, May 3 ; a treaty concluded in which France resumed her boundaries of the (ist Jan., 1792) ; the Chambers opened, June 4, 1814 ; while the congress of Vienna was sitting, at a ball given by Prince Metternich, news was received of the escape of Napoleon, March 7, 1815 ; he embarked from Elba, Feb. 26, and ar- rived at Cannes, March i ; the allies again issue a manifesto against him, March 13 ; Louis left Paris, March 19, and Napoleon entered it on the 2Oth ; 'the Hundred Days,' March 20 to June 29, 1815 ; a new constitution proclaimed, April 21, and on the 1st of June he had reorganized an army of 2 1 7,000 men ; he crossed the Belgian frontier, June 14 ; defeated the Russians at Ligny, June 16 ; he was totally defeated at Waterloo, June 18, the French loss exceeded 73,000 killed, wounded, and prisoners ; the emperor arrived in Paris, June 21, bearing the news of his defeat ; he abdicated in favour of his son ; the allies re-entered Paris, July 7, and Louis XVIII. the next day ; Napoleon embarked on board the ' Bellero- phon,' an English man-of-war, July 15, and arrived in Torbay, July 24 ; he arrived at St Helena, in the 'Northumberland,' Oct. 16 ; the treaty of Paris signed, Nov. 20 ; Marshal Ney shot, Dec. 7 ; the Chamber dissolved, Sept. 5, 1816 ; a new cabinet formed, Dec., 1818 ; the Duke of Berry assassinated at the opera by Louvel, Feb. 13, 1820 ; Napoleon died at St Helena, May 5, 1821 ; the French army entered Spain and restored Ferdinand, 1823 ; Louis XVIII. died at the Tuileries, Sept. 16, 1824 ; Charles X. succeeded to the throne ; crowned at Rheims, May 29, 1825 ; an attempt to restrict the liberty of the press caused con- siderable excitement in 1826-7 '> tne measure withdrawn, April 17 ; the National Guard of Paris disbanded, April 30 ; the Jesuits' educational establishments sup- pressed, June 13, 1828 ; the Chamber opened, March 2, 1830 ; dissolved, May 16 ; Algiers taken with a treasure of 48 millions of francs, July 4 ; the liberty of the press abolished, July 25 ; the Chamber of Deputies dissolved ; Marshal Marmont appointed to command the troops in Paris, July 27 ; revolution, Paris declared in a state of siege, July 28 ; the troops defeated and Paris evacuated ; the Tuileries sacked by the mob, July 29 ; the National Guards re-established, Aug. 2 ; the Chambers met on the 3rd ; Charles X. flies, first to Rambouillet and then to England, July 30 ; the Duke of Orleans accepts the crown, Aug. 9 ; Louis Philippe received the title of King of the French ; Polignac and the other minis- ters found guilty and sentenced to perpetual imprisonment, Dec. 21, 1830; the hereditary peerage abolished, Dec. 27, 1831 ; Charles X. left Holyrood House, Scotland, for the continent, Sept. 18, 1832 ; Marshal Soult made Prime Minister of France, Oct. II, 1832 ; the Duchess de Berri sent off to Palermo, having been delivered of a female child, which she declared to be the offspring of a secret mar- riage with Lucchesi-Palli, an Italian Count, June 9, 1833; Lafayette died, May 20, FRANCE 325 1834 ; two persons, Bergeron and Benoit, tried for an attempt on the life of the king, and acquitted, March 18, 1833 ; Fieschi made an attempt on the king's life by exploding an infernal machine in the Boulevard du Temple, which killed and wounded many persons, July 28, 1835 ; arrested and guillotined, Feb. 19, 1836; M. Thiers appointed president of the council, Feb. 22 ; Louis Alibaud fired at the king on his way to the Tuileries, June 25 ; ministry of Count Mole, Sept. 7 ; Louis Napoleon attempted to raise an insurrection at Strasburg, Oct. 30 ; he was banish- ed to New York, Nov. 15 ; Prince Polignac set at liberty and banished from France with other exiles, Nov. 23 ; Meunier fired at the king on his way to the Chambers, Dec. 27 ; an insurrection, headed by Barbcs and Bernard, broke out at Paris, May 12, 1839 ; Marshal Soult appointed Minister of Foreign Affairs; he was appointed ambassador to England specially, June 28, 1838; the Chambers decree the removal of the remains of Napoleon from St Helena to Paris, May 10, 1840 ; Louis Napoleon made a descent, with General Montholon and 50 followers, on Vimeroux, near Boulogne, and being taken and tried, was imprisoned, Aug. 6 ; Darmes fired at Louis Philippe, Oct. 15 ; M. Guizot ap- pointed French Minister for Foreign Affairs, Oct. 29 ; the remains of the Emperor Napoleon deposited in the Invalides, Dec. 15 ; Paris fortified at the expense of 140,000,000 of francs ; statue of Napoleon in bronze placed upon the column at Boulogne, Aug. 15, 1841 ; the Duke of Orleans killed by a fall from his carriage, July 13, 1842 ; visit of theQueen of England to Louis Philippe, at Eu, Sept. 2, 1843; Louis Napoleon escaped from the prison, at Ham, May 26, 1846 ; attempt on the life of Louis Philippe by Joseph Henri, July 29 ; Soult made Marshal-General of France, in the room of Oudinot, who had died in his gist year, Sept. 13, 1847 ; Jerome Bonaparte returned to France, after an exile of 32 years ; Maria Louisa of Austria died, Dec. I ^ ; the Chamber met, Dec. 28 ; the Reform Banquet of Feb. 22, 1848, suppressed ; a revolutionary tumult commenced, and great disorders committed by the populace, Feb. 22, 23, and 24, 1848 ; the king abdicated in favour of his grandson, the ' Comte de Paris,' but the offer was not accepted, Feb. 29 ; the Royal family and ministers escaped to England, March 3 ; a republic pro- claimed, Feb. 26 ; a new government formed, and perpetual banishment decreed against the Royal family, May 30 ; election of Louis Napoleon for the depart- ment of the Seine, and for three other departments, to the Chamber, June 12 ; another insurrection broke out in Paris ; Paris declared in a state of siege, June 24 ; M. Affie, Abp of Paris, killed, June 27 ; the insurgents surrender, June 28 ; the National workshops closed, July 4 ; Prince Louis Napoleon took his seat in the National Assembly, Sept. 26 ; state of siege raised, having continued four months, Oct. 20 ; a Republican Government proclaimed, Nov. 12 ; Prince Louis Napoleon elected President of the Republic for four years by a majority of more than five millions of votes, Dec. 10 ; proclaimed, Dec. 20 ; Louis Philippe died in England, at Claremont, Aug. 26, 1850; an expedition to restore the Pope sent to Rome, April 25, 1849 ; attempted insurrection in Paris suppressed, June 13, 1849 ; Ledru Rollin and his colleagues escaped ; attempt upon the life of Louis Napoleon by a youth named Walker, July 5, 1850 ; the President held a Naval Review at Cherbourg, Sept. 6, 1850; visit *f the Lord Mayor of London to the city of Paris, Aug., 1851 ; Coup d'etat of Prince Napoleon, Dec. 2, 1851 ; he dissolved the National Assembly and the Council of State ; insurrection, barricades raised, Dec. 4 ; put down by the troops, under Gen. St Arnaud ; the President elected for IO years, Dec. 20, 21, 1851 ; Louis Napoleon installed at Notre Dame, Jan. 7, 1852 ; promulgated a new Constitution, Jan. 23 ; the property of the Orleans family annexed to the crown, Jan. 25 ; the Constitution modified, Nov. 7 ; Napoleon announced his determina- tion to restore the Empire, Nov. 4 ; the Senate requested him to, Nov. 7 ; the votes of the people taken, when 7,824,189 were given in his favour, Nov. 21 ; proclaim- ed and made his solemn entry into Paris, Dec. 2 ; the succession to the throne re- 326 FRANCE gulated, Nov. 7 and Dec. 18 ; the Emperor recognized by the foreign powers ; he married Madame Eugenie Marie de Guzman, Comtesse deTeba, at the Cathe- dral of Notre Dame, Jan. 29, 1853 ; a treaty of alliance with England and Turkey, against the encroachment of the Emperor of Russia, signed March 12, 1854 ; war declared against Russia, March 27 ; the birth-day of the Emperor celebrated, Aug. 1 5 ; the King of the Belgians, Portugal, and Prince Albert visited the Emperor at Boulogne, Sept. 3; fete in honour of, Sept. 5? Marshal St Arnaud died in the Crimea, Sept. 29 ; visit of the Emperor and Empress to England, April 16, 1855 ; the Emperor made a Knight of the Garter, April 18 ; received an address from the Corporation of London in the Guildhall, April 19 ; returned to France, April 21 ; attempted assassination of the Emperor by Pianori, April 28 ; he was executed, May 14. Paris Exhibition opened, May 17 ; Queen Victoria and Prince Albert visited the Emperor and Empress at Paris, Aug. 18 ; entertained by the city of Paris, Aug. 23 ; a review of 50,000 troops in the presence of the Queen, Aug. 24 ; another attempt upon the life of the Emperor made by Bellemarre, Sept. 8; triumphal entry of the Imperial Guards into Paris, and reception of, by the Emperor, Dec. 29 ; Peace Conference opened at Paris, Feb. 25, 1856 ; birth of the Prince Imperial, March 16 ; peace conclud- ed with Russia, March 30 ; serious inundations in the south of France, June I et seq.; public subscription raised in England for the sufferers amounted to ^"40,000 ; the Abp of Paris, Sibour, assassinated by a priest, Verger, in the church of St Stephens on the Mount, Jan. 3, 1857 ; the Legislative Assembly met, Feb. 16; a conference upon the affairs of Neufchatel opened at Paris, March 15 ; Duke Constantine of Russia visited the Emperor, April 20 ; Beranger, the poet, died, July 1 6 ; the trial of Tibaldi, Grilli, and Bartolotti, for attempting the life of the Emperor, Aug. 6, 7 ; visit of the Emperor and Empress to Queen Victoria at Osborne, Aug. 6 ; returned to France, Aug. 10 ; inauguration of the Louvre by the Emperor, Aug. 14 ; interview with the Emperor of Russia at Stuttgardt, Sept. 25 ; Gen. Cavaignac died, Oct. 28 ; fall of the tower of Vincennes, killing 18 soldiers of the Guards, Nov. 29 ; attempt to assassinate the Emperor and Empress on their way to the opera, by Orsini shells, five persons killed and 60 wounded, Jan. 14, 1858 ; the Empress nominated Regent in case of the decease of the Emperor before the Prince Imperial comes of age, Feb. I ; Orsini, Pieri, and two others, tried for attempting the life of the Emperor, and condemned to death, Feb. 26 ; executed at Paris, March 13 ; inauguration of the Boulevard de Sebastopol, April 5 ; a conference upon the Danubian Principalities held at Paris, May 22 ; Queen Victoria and Prince Albert reviewed the French fleet at Cherbourg, Aug. 4, 5 ; a treaty concluded with Japan, Oct. 9 ; trial of Count de Montalembert, Nov. 24 ; marriage of the Prince Napoleon with the Princess Clotilde of Savoy, daughter of the King of Sardinia, Jan. 30, 1859 ; the French army departed for Italy, April 23 ; war declared against Austria, May 3 ; the Austrian ambassador left France, May 4 ; the Emperor sets out to join his army, May 10 ; the allied army defeated the Austrians at Montebello, May 20 ; at Palestro, May 30 ; Magenta, June 4 ; Malegnano, June 8 ; Solferino, June 24 ; interview between the Emperor of Austria and Napoleon III. at Villafranca ; peace con eluded, July II ; return of the Emperor to Paris, July 16 ; the army made its triumphal entry into Paris, Aug. 14 ; an amnesty to political prisoners proclaimed, Aug. 16 ; a commercial treaty signed with Great Britain, Jan. 23, 1860 ; Savoy and Nice ceded to France by treaty, March 29 ; a French army departed for Syria to protect the Christians, Aug. 4 ; the Emperor denied any hostile designs against England in a letter to Count Persigny, Aug. 25 ; convention for the pacification of Syria, signed, Sept. 5 ; the Empress paid a private visit to Queen Victoria at Edinburgh, Nov. 21 ; visited Windsor Castle, Dec. 4 ; returned to Paris, Dec. 13 ; passports abolished between France and England, Dec. 16 ; the Legislative Sessions opened by the Emperor, Feb. 4, 1861 ; a boundary treaty was signed with Sardinia, March FRANCE 327 7 ; the remains of Napoleon I. removed from the chapel of St Jerome in the Invalides to a tomb under the dome, March 31, 1861 ; a commercial treaty concluded with Turkey, April 29, and with Belgium, May I ; the Emperor officially recognized the King of Italy, June 23 ; the King of Sweden visited the Emperor, Aug. 6 ; the King of Prussia entertained by the Emperor at Compiegne, Oct. 6, and the King of Holland, Oct. 12 ; a convention for an intervention in the affairs of Mexico signed in London between France, Gt Britain, and Spain, Oct. 31 ; M. Fould appointed minister of finance, Nov. 14; the Constitution modified, Feb. 2, and Dec. 31 ; M. Fould presented his report upon the finances, Jan., 1862; the Prince of Wales visited the Emperor and Empress at Fontainebleau, June 12 ; a letter of the Emperor upon Mexican affairs published, July 3 ; M. Thouvenal resigned the office of minister of foreign affairs, Oct. 14 ; M. Drouyn de Lhuys succeeded him, Oct. 15 ; an attempt made to bring about a settlement of the American civil war, Oct. and Nov. ; renewed attempt made for the re-estab- lishment of peace in America, Jan., 1863 ; Count Walewiki appointed Minister of State, June 23 ; M. Billault, Minister of State, died, Oct. 13 ; letter of the Emperor to the various foreign powers proposing a general congress for the settle- ment of Europe, Nov. 4 ; the Italian assassins, Greco, Imperatori, Scaglioni, de- tected in a conspiracy against the Emperor, Dec. 29, 1863 ; sentenced to transporta- tion, March, 1864 ; a treaty of commerce with Japan signed in June ; the King of Spain visited the Emperor, Aug. 16 ; a treaty between Italy and France signed, the Emperor agreeing to evacuate Rome, and that the Italian government do make Florence its capital, Sept. 15 ; the Emperor visited the Emperor of Russia at Nice, Oct. 27 ; Prince Napoleon appointed vice-president of the Privy Council, Dec. 24 ; a treaty between France and Sweden signed, Feb. 14, 1865 ; an at- tempt made upon the life of the secretary of the Russian Legation, April 24 ; the Empress appointed Regent, April 26 ; the Emperor visited Algeria, May 3 ; in- flammatory speech of Prince Napoleon at Ajaccio at the inauguration of a statue of Napoleon L, May 15 ; disapproved of by the Emperor; resignation of Prince Napoleon of his office of vice-president of the Exhibition, May 27 ; return of the Emperor from Algeria, June 10 ; visit of the English fleet to Cherbourg, Aug. 14 ; return visit of the French fleet to Portsmouth, Aug. 29 ; a decree for the reduction of the army issued, Nov. 15 ; the Prince Imperial appointed president of the Ex- hibition, Feb. 25, 1866; a congress on Roumanian affairs opened, March 10 ; the speech of the Emperor at Auxerre, The Empire is peace, May 7 ; an attempt made by the Emperor to hold a congress for the settlement of European affairs, aban- doned, June 5 ; letter of the Emperor upon a continental war to his minister of foreign affairs, June 1 1 ; M. Rouher brought fonvard in the French Chamber the draft of a ' Senatus Consultum,' July 6 ; the Antibes Legion for the service of the pope left for Rome, Sept. 13 ; destructive floods in the south of France, caus- ing much distress, Oct. 31 ; the French troops left Rome, and the French occu- pation ceased, Dec. n, after 17 years (it cost France 61,524,000 francs). The Chamber opened by the Emperor, Feb. 14, 1867 ; the Exhibition opened by the Emperor and Empress in state, April I ; the Prince of Wales visited the Emperor, May li; the King and Queen of the Belgians visited, May 14 ; Lord Cowley, the English ambassador, entertained the Emperor and Empress, the Prince of Wales, and the Duke of Edinburgh, May 1 7 ; the Emperor of Russia, the Czare- witch, and the Grand-duke Vladimir arrived in Paris on a visit to the Emperor and Empress, June I ; the King and Crown Prince of Prussia, June 5 ; an attempt made to assassinate the Emperor of Russia by a Pole (Anthony Berezowski) in the Bois de Boulogne, when returning from a review, June 6 ; a state ball given to the emperors and princes at the Russian embassy, June 6 ; fete at the H6tel de Ville to, June 8 ; letter to the Marquis de Moustier, foreign minister, from Napo- leon III., with the Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour, June 9 ; fete given at the Tuileries to the emperors of Russia and Prussia, and the princes, June 323 FRANCE, KINGS OF IO ; the Viceroy of Egypt visited the Emperor, June 19; the Lord Mayor of London presented an address to the Emperor upon the late attempt upon the life of his guest, the Emperor of Russia, June 30 ; the Sultan of Turkey arrived in Paris on a visit to the Emperor, June 30 ; Napoleon III. in the presence of the Sultan distributed the prizes to the exhibitors at the Paris Exhibi- tion, July I ; the death of the Emperor Maximilian of Mexico announced to the Senate, July 5 ; review held in honour of the Sultan, July 8 ; the exhibitors enter- tained by the Emperor at the Tuileries, July 10; Berezowski sentenced to transporta- tion for life, for attempting the life of the Emperor of Russia, July 1 5 ; a Literary Copyright Convention between France and the Papal States signed at Rome, July 21 ; the Empress of the French made a private visit to Queen Victoria at Osborne, July 22 ; the King of Sweden arrived in Paris, Aug. 4 ; the Emperor received the foreign commissioners of the Paris Exhibition, Aug. 4 ; Napoleon III. paid a visit of condolence to the Emperor of Austria at. Salzburg, Aug. 18 ; return visit of the Emperor of Austria at Strasbourg, Aug. 23 ; Napoleon III. visited Lille, Aug. 27 ; the Emperor and Empress arrived at Biarritz, Sept. 8 ; the Emperor of Austria visited the Emperor at Paris, Oct. 23 ; the French squadron with troops on board for the defence of Rome sailed, Oct. 26 ; arrived at Civita Vecchia, Oct. 29 ; defeated the Garibaldians at Mentona, Nov. 3 ; banquet to the Imperial Commissioners of the Exhibition by the Foreign Commissioners, Earl Granville presiding ; M. Rouher spoke in favour of peace, Oct. 26 ; banquet given to the Emperor of Austria at the Hotel de Ville, Oct. 28 ; the Exhibition closed, Nov. 3 ; the French partially evacuate Rome, Dec. 3 ; debate in the Chamber upon the occupation ; invitation sent by the Emperor to the great powers propos- ing a conference upon Italian affairs, Nov. 13 ; the Bill for the Reconstruction of the Army passed the Senate, Dec. 29 ; 47 sovereigns and princes, three queens, and 10 princesses visited Paris in 1867. FRANCE, KINGS OF. The Merovingian dynasty. Pharamond ... 418 Clodio ... ... 428 447 458 481 5" 548 Merovams Childeric his son Clovis the Great Childebert Dividing with his brothers Theodebert Thibault 553 Clotaire '.. ... 558 The four sons of Clotaire ... 561 Charibertll 575 Clotaire II 584 Thierry II 596 Clotaire II. sole king ... ... 613 Dagobert the Great left the , o crown to his sons Clovis II. and Sigebert ... 638 Clotaire III 656 Childeric II., sole king, who was assassinated with his queen in the forest of Livri ... ... 670 Thierry HI 673 Clovis III. Pepin, mayor of the palace, ruled in this name ... 691 Childebert III. Pepin really ex- ercised the royal power ... 695 Dagobert III. ... ... ... 711 Thierry IV. ... ... ... 720 Childric II. deposed by Charles ) , Martel... ... \ ? l6 Clotaire IV., Childric replaced 719 Thierry II. succeeded, but died, 737, and Charles Martel ruled as Duke of the French, who died 741 Childeric II 1 742 Pepin, the first of the Carlo- vingian race, son of Charles Martel 752 Charlemagne the Great . . . 768 Louis I . le Debonnaire ... 814 Charles the Bald 840 Louis II. the Stammerer ... 877 Louis III. and Carloman II. 879-882 Charles le Gros ... ... ... 884 Eudes, Count of Paris ... ... 887 Charles III. the Simple ... 898 deposed ... ... 929 Robert crowned at Rheims, but killed by Charles in battle . . . 923 Ralpho, Duke of Burgundy . . . 923 FRANCHISE Louis IV. d'Outremer ... ... 936 Lothaire, son of Louis ... ... 954 Louis V. the Indolent ... ... 986 ending the race of Charlemagne. The Capetian Dynasty. Hugh Capet of the Capet race, who seized the crown ... 987 Robert II. or Sage 996 Henry I. : 1031 Philip I. the Fair 1060 Louis VI. le Gros 1108 Louis VII. the Young ... 1137 Philip II. the August 1180 Louis VIII. Coeur de Lion ... 1223 Louis IX. called St Louis ... 1226 Philip III. le Hardi 1270 Philip IV. the Fair 1285 Louis X. or Hutin ... ... 1314 John 1316 Philip V. the Long 1316 Charles IV. the Handsome ... 1322 The Dynasty of Valois. Philip VI. the Courtier ... 1328 John II. the Good 1350 Charles V. the Wise 1364 Charles VI. the Well-beloved 1380 Henry VI. of England crowned in Paris, and proclaimed ... 1422 FRANKFORT-ON-THE-MAINE 329 Charles VII. the Victorious ... 1436 Louis XI. ... ... ... 1461 Charles VIII. the Affable ... 1483 Louis XII. the Father ... ... 1498 Francisl. ... 1515 Henry II. 1547 Francis II. married to Mary Queen of Scots ... ... 1559 Charles IX 1560 Henry III. 1574 The Dynasty of Bourbon. Henry IV 1589 Louis XIII. the Just 1610 Louis XIV 1643 Louis XV. the Well-beloved ... 1715 Louis XVI 1774 guillotined, Jan. 21 1793 Louis XVIII 1814 Charles X 1824 Republic from 1792 1799. The Empire. Napoleon 1 1804 The Orleans Dynasty. Louis Philippe ... ... ... 1830 The Empire. Napoleon III 1852 FRANCHISE, as an asylum or sanctuary, established by Charlemagne in his palace of Heristal, 779 ; as a royal privilege, by Henry VI., 1443, by Magna Charta. The franchises of the city of London, and other towns, granted by 27 Hen. VIII. c. 24, 1535-6. FRANCIS' ABBEY, Cashel, Ireland, fell down, Feb. 13, 1757. FRANCIS, JOHN, a youth who fired a pistol at the Queen, May 30, 1842 ; sen- tenced to death, June 17 ; commuted to transportation, July 2. FRANCISCAN, or GREY FRIARS, established by St Francis, 1206 ; the rules approved by Pope Innocent III. The first monastery built at Monte Sonbazo, in Italy, 1 200 ; the Lateran Council approved the order, 1215 ; came to England, 1217 ; acquired the right of electing their own General, 1619. Nuns of this order established at Naples, 1583. FRANCISCO, SAN, California. The Spaniards formed a settlement, 1776; but owing to the irruptions of the Mexicans, it fell into ruins, 1831 ; settlers from America rebuilt the city, 1839 ; gold first discovered, 1847 ; ceded to the United States, 1848 ; thepopulation increased to 15,000, 1850 ; the town destroyed almost by fire, May 3, 1851 ; a mint established, 1854. FRANKFORT, North America, founded, 1786, and made the seat of Government, 1792. FRANKFORT-ON-THE-MAINE, Germany, founded by the Franks, in the 5th century. Charlemagne held a council here in 794. The palace built by Louis the Pious, 822 ; fortified, 838 ; made the capital of the Eastern Franks, 843. The German Emperors elected here Frederick I., 1152 : this privilege confirmed by the Golden Bull of Charles IV., 1356. St Bartholomew's Cathedral founded, 330 FRANKFORT-ON-THE-ODER FREEMASONRY 1315 ; choir finished, 1338 ; the nave and aisles completed, 1352 ; the Western Tower began, 1415 ; finished, 1512 ; made a free Imperial city, and Charles V., in 1555, conferred the right of coining to the town ; Maximilian II. crowned here, 1562; taken by the French, 1792, and July 16, 1796 ; became a member of the Confeder- ation of the Rhine, 1806; made a Grand Duchy, 1810 ; restored to its independence, 1815 ; constitution proclaimed, Dec. 22, 1854 ; congress of German sovereigns at, Aug., 1863 ; the King of Prussia visited, Aug. 15, 1867 ; the church of St Bartho- lomew destroyed by fire, Aug. 15 ; the Emperor of Austria remitted 100,000 francs towards its restoration, Aug. 20. FRANKFORT-ON-THE-ODER, Prussia. The university established, 1506 ; Frederick the Great defeated here with great loss by the allied Russians and Prussians, Aug. 12, 1759- FRANKINCENSE, a vegetable resin, brittle, glittering, and of a bitter taste, used for the purpose of sacrificial fumigation, Ex. xxx. 34-36. The Hebrews imported it from Arabia, Is. Ix. 6. FRANKING LETTERS, by an act of parliament, for the establishment of the post office, 12 Charles II. c. 35, 1660, a clause giving members of both houses this right was struck out by the Lords, but it was passed a few years afterwards. In 1715, the number franked amounted to ^24,000, and in 1784 to ,80,000; abridged in 1795. Regulations made, and power given to certain official persons by 7 Will. IV. & I Viet. c. 35, July 12, 1837 ; franking abolished by 2 & 3 Viet. c. 52, s. 3, Aug. 17, 1839. FRANKLIN, SIR JOHN, Expeditions of, to discover the North Pole : left Lon- don for America to conduct the first land expedition, May 23, 1819 ; returned to England, 1821 ; left England for another attempt, Feb., 1825, and returned, Sept. 26, 1827 ; knighted, April 20, 1829 ; sailed from Sheerness in the 'Erebus' and 'Terror,' May 26, 1845. The English government offered a reward of .20,000 to any parties rendering them any assistance or relief, or ^10,000 to any one who might ascertain their fate, March 7, 1 850 : Captain M 'Clintock discovered his diary, and a portion of their remains, at Point Victory, May 6, 1859. See Arctic Regions. FRANK-PLEDGE, a pledge or surety for the behaviour of freemen : it was an an- cient custom in this kingdom, borrowed from the Lombards, that, for the preserva- tion of the public peace, every free-born man at the age of 14 years (religious per- sons and clerks excepted) should give security to the king for his good behaviour, &c. ; introduced into this country by Edward II., 1325. FREDERICIA, Jutland, founded by Frederick III., and fortified by him, 1615. FREDERICKSBURG, battle. The Federals, under Gen. Burnside, attacked this fortified position with a force of 300,000 men ; after two days' fighting, in which they were defeated with the loss of 14,000 men, Dec. 13, 1862, they retreated across the river, on the night of Dec. 15, 1862. The Federals, under Gen. Sedg- wick, captured the heights overlooking the city, May 3, 1863 ; defeated the next day with great loss, and compelled to retreat across the river. FREDERICKSHALD, Norway, siege of, and death of Charles XII. of Sweden, before, Dec. II, 1718; the town nearly destroyed by fire, 1759. FREDERICKSTADT, Denmark, bombarded by the troops of Holstein, repulsed, Oct. 4, 1850. Free Church of Scotland founded, 1843. FREEHOLDERS permitted to alienate their lands, 1492, 1512 ; under forty shil- lings of land per annum not permitted to vote for members of parliament, 1429, when 37-r. 6d. was equal to 62s. now in silver, and a pound in gold was worth 2 $s. o 7 /&d. of existing money ; freeholders of Ireland of 40^. disqualified, April 13, 1829. FREEMASONRY, founded in England by King Athelstan. A fraternity existed at Winchester, 1202, and arms granted to a company of Freemasons, 3 Edw. IV., FREEMEN'S ORPHAN SCHOOL FRIARS 331 1463 ; James I. encouraged it in Scotland; the wardenship of the order conferred by James V. on Patrick Copland, Sept. 25, 1590 ; the Grand Lodge of Scotland instituted, 1736; Ireland, 1730. In 1425, an act of parliament was passed to prevent their meeting in chapters and assemblies, 3 Hen. VI. c, I, but His Majesty subsequently became one of the craft ; Henry VII. was appointed Grand Master of the order, and afterwards Henry VIII. ; Sir Christopher Wren elected Deputy Grand Master, 1666 : he presented to the St Paul's Lodge the trowel and mallet, used by him in laying the foundation-stone of St Paul s Cathedral, Tune 21, 1675 ; he was elected Grand Master, 1685. The first regular grand lodge formed in London, 1717 ; the order excommunicated by the pope, 1738 ; York and London united into one grand lodge for England; H. R. H. the Duke of Sussex chosen Grand Master of the United Lodge, 1813 ; lodges are now ex- isting in every civilized country. The Freemasons' girls' school established, 1718 ; one for boys, 1798 ; the Royal Benevolent Annuity Fund, 1824 ; the Widows' fund, 1800. Freemasons' Hall, Great Queen-street, Lincoln-Inn-Fields, built from the designs of Thomas Sandby, R.A., commenced, May I, 1775 5 opened by Lord Petre, Grand Master, May 23, 1776 ; extended from the design of F. P. Cockerell, 1863 ; completed, 1866. FREEMEN'S ORPHAN SCHOOL, Brixton, established by the corporation of London, under the 13 & 14 Viet. c. x., Aug. 14, 1850 ; built from the designs of J. B. Bunning ; first stone laid by William Hunter, Lord Mayor, April 27, 1852 ; opened, March 28, 1854. FREEWILL ISLANDS, discovered by Captain Carteret in 1767. FREISING, Bavaria, founded by the Romans, 444 ; made a bishopric, 724. FRENCH CALENDAR established during the revolution, the old one being for a time superseded, Sept. 22, 1792. The names given, commencing from the above date : Vendemiaire, the vintage month, ending Oct. 21 ; Brumaire, Oct. 22 to Nov. 20 ; Frimaire, Nov. 21 to Dec. 20; Nivose, from Dec. 21 to Jan. 19 ; Plu- viose, from Jan. 20 to Feb. 18 ; Ventose, from Feb. 19 to Mar. 20 ; Germinal, from Mar. 21 to April 19 ; Floreal, from April 20 to May 19 ; Prairial, from May 20 to June 18 ; Messidor, from June 19 to July 18 ; Fervidor, from July 19 to Aug. 17; Fructidor, from Aug. 18 to Sept. 21. This calendar became a law, Nov. 24, 1793, and existed until the old one was restored by Napoleon, Dec. 31, 1805. FRENCH LANGUAGE AND CUSTOMS introduced into England, 1060; French subjects expelled from England, 1244 ; again expelled, 1558 ; statutes and pleadings written in the language of the French people, 1283 ; forbidden to be used by King Edward III. in the law courts, 1362. FRENCHTOWN, Canada, taken by the Americans, Jan. 22, 1813, and retaken immediately afterwards by the English. FRESTON, or FRISETON ABBEY, Somersetshire, founded by Alan de Croun, chief butler to Henry I., 1134. FRIARS : AUSTIN FRIARS, introduced into England, 1250. BETHLEHEMITE FRIARS, introduced into England, and first resided at Cam- bridge, 1257. BONSHOMMES, or Good Men, settled in England, at Ashridge, Bucks, 1244. CARMELITES, or WHITE FRIARS, originally dwelt on Mount Carmel, from whence they were driven by the Saracens, circa 1098 ; established in England by Richard I., 1240 ; first monastery of, built at Alnwick, Northumberland. CRUTCHED or CROUCHED FRIARS, instituted by Prior Gerard of Bologna, 1169 ; established in England, at Colchester, 1244. FRIARS DE DOMINA, or of our Lady, settled at Cambridge and Norwich, 1288. 332 FRIBOURG TREATY FROST FRIARS DOMINICAN, or BLACK FRIARS, founded by S. Dominic (a Spaniard), circa 1071 ; first resided in England, at Oxford, 1221. FRIARS OF THE HOLY TRINITY, instituted by John de Meatha and Felix de Valois, 1197, at Paris ; introduced into England, at Kent, 1224. FRIARS MINORS, FRANCISCAN, or GREY FRIARS, also called Minorites, from their dwelling about the minories, London, founded by S. Francis of Assisi ; the rule of the fraternity approved by Pope Innocent III., 1210 ; revised by the Lateran Council, 1215 ; confirmed by Honorius III., 1224; they first came to England, and resided at Canterbury, 1224. First monastery erected at the Grey Friars (now Christ's Hospital), 1225 ; the second structure finished, 1327 : it was 300 feet long, 89 wide, and 64 high, and was 21 years building. They changed their dress from ' London Russet ' to Grey on St George's day, 1502. FRIARS OF THE SACK DE PENITENTIA, or DE SACCO, founded by Henry III., at Peterhouse, Cambridge, 1258. More than 10,000 friars and nuns turned out of religious houses in England, by Henry VIII., who seized the monasteries and abbeys, 1535. FRIBOURG TREATY. By this treaty, Francis I. of France annexed the Helve- tian republic to France, Nov. 29, 1516. FRIEDLAND, battle between Napoleon and the Russians, the latter being van- quished, with the loss of 50,000 men and 80 cannon, June 14, 1807. FRIENDLY ISLANDS, discovered by Tasman, 1643 ; so named by Cook, in consequence of the friendly conduct of the natives, 1773. FRIENDLY SOCIETIES. There were many ' Gilds,' or Friendly Societies in Saxon times. The first formed in London, 1715 ; between 1793 and 1832 there were in England, 16,596 ; Wales, 769 ; Scotland, 2144 ; and in Ireland, 274 ; total 19,783 ; Mr Rose agitated for putting them under the protection of the state for some time, and got an act passed for that purpose, 33 Geo. III. c. 54, June 2I *793 5 several statutes subsequently passed ; consolidated by 18 & 19 Viet. c. 63, July 23, 1855 ; amended, 21 & 22 Viet. c. 101, Aug. 2, 1858, and 23 &24 Viet. c. 58, Aug. 6, 1860. In 1866, 10,678 societies in England made a return of their accounts: their funds amounted to .6,668,386, having over 1,672, 176 mem- bers. FRIENDS' BOOKS. A catalogue of books written upon the sect of Friends or Quakers, collected and published by John Whiting, 1 708 ; another by Joseph Smith, published, 1867. FRIESLAND, Hanover. The ancient Frisians were the most steadfast allies of Rome until Olennius insulted them in A. D. 28, when they revolted ; governed by its own princes till 1744, when by an imperial grant of 1690, it was ceded to Prussia ; wrested from her, and annexed to Holland, 1808 ; made a French pro- vince, 1813; ceded to Hanover, 1815. FRITHELSTOKE PRIORY, Devon, built, 1222. FROBISHER'S STRAITS, discovered, Aug. n, 1576, by Martin Frobisher. FROLIC, steam vessel, lost, and 80 persons drowned, on the Ness Sands, Wales, April II, 1831. FRONTENAC FORT, at the entrance of the river St Lawrence, taken by the English, Aug. 27, 1758. FROST, one in Britain, which lasted five months, 220 ; the Thames frozen for nine weeks, 250 ; most of the rivers in Britain frozen for six weeks, 291 ; a severe frost in Scotland which lasted 14 weeks, 359 ; the Euxine Sea was entirely frozen over for the space of 20 days, and the sea between Constantinople and Scutari, in 401 ; so severe a frost all over Britain, that the rivers were frozen up for above two months, 508 ; one so great that the Danube was quite frozen over, 558 > the Thames frozen for six weeks when booths were built on it, 695 ; one that con- FROST 333 tinued from Oct. I to Feb. 26, 760 ; the river Seine frozen over for several months, 822 ; one in England which lasted nine weeks, 827 ; carriages were used on the Adriatic Sea, 859 ; the Mediterranean Sea partly frozen, and pass- able in carts, 860 ; most of the rivers in England frozen for two months, 908 ; the Thames frozen for 13 weeks, 925 ; one that lasted 120 days, which began, Dec. 22, 937 ; the Thames frozen for five weeks, 998 ; a frost on Midsummer- day so vehement, that the corn and fruits were destroyed, 1035 ; the Thames frozen for 14 weeks, 1063 ; a frost in England from Nov. to April, 1076 ; several bridges in England, being then of timber, broken down by a frost, 1114 ; a frost from Jan. 14 to March 22, 1205 ; one of 15 weeks, 1207; part of the Mediter- ranean frozen, and the merchants passed with their merchandise in carts, 1234 ; the Cattegat, or sea between Norway and Denmark, was frozen, and that from Oxslo, in Norway, they travelled on the ice to Jutland, 1 294 ; the sea between Norway and the promontory of Skagerat frozen over, and from Sweden to Goth- land, 1296 ; the Baltic was covered with ice for 14 weeks, between the Danish and Swedish islands, 1306 ; the Baltic was passable for foot passengers and horsemen for six weeks, 1323 ; the sea was frozen over, and passable from Stral- sund to Denmark, 1349 ; the Baltic was quite frozen over from Pomerania to Denmark, 1402 ; the whole sea between Gothland and Geland was frozen, and from Rostock to Gezoer, 1408 ; the Parisians had very severe winters, and in 1408 the soldiers' rations of wine were cut with an axe ; in 1410 a severe frost which lasted 14 weeks, the Thames frozen over ; the ice bore riding on from Lubec to Prussia, and the Baltic was covered with ice from Mecklenburgh to Denmark, 1423, 1426, and 10 weeks in 1459 ; the sea between Constantinople and Iskodar was passable on the ice, 1420 ; frost in England from Nov. 24 to Feb. IO, 1434, when the Thames was frozen below bridge to Gravesend ; another for 13 weeks, 1683 ; 1515, carts crossed the Thames at Lambeth ; again, 1524; in 1564, Dec. 21, people went along the Thames from London Bridge to West- minster ; the Thames again frozen over, 1608, a fair held upon it ; in 1609 the frost lasted for four months ; Charles X. of Sweden crossed the Little Belt from Hoist ein to Denmark, with all his army and artillery, 1684 ; the frost continued in Paris from Dec. 5 to March 8, 1695, there were 21 degrees of cold (centigrade); exceedingly severe in England for 13 weeks, hollies killed, the ice on the Thames 1 1 inches thick, and nearly all the birds died ; a fair held upon the Thames, which Charles II. visited, Jan. 24, 1684; in 1691 the wolves attacked cattle and men in the streets of Vienna ; 1708, very severe in Flanders ; and in London a fair was held upon the Thames, Jan. 7, 1709.1 it lasted for three months ; in 1716 a fair was held upon the Thames, and a bullock roasted on the ice, it con- tinued from Nov. 24 to Feb. 9. In 1739-40, the 'great frost,' more severe than that of 1716, the thermometer being lower : it began on Christmas-day, 1739, all over the North of Europe ; people were frozen to death in the fields and on the Thames, and ships sunk ; Lough Neagh in Ireland was frozen over ; more than ^"3000 damage was done to London Bridge alone ; it lasted 103 days, and the Thames became a scene of diversions, carriages travelling over it 1763, one in England, which lasted 94 days ; 1766, one from Dec. 25 to Jan. 16, and from Jan. 18 to 22, remarkably severe; 1779, one of 84 days' duration; in 1783-4, one of 89 days ; and 1784-5, the longest known, being 115 days, or 12 more than the 'great frost' of 1740, but the thermometer did not descend so low ; in 1 788-9 the frost lasted for five months, when the Thames was frozen over opposite the Custom-house and Tower, as well as upwards, and booths were erected upon the river, it was general throughout Europe ; 1795-6, one of the most severe known in human memory, the Thames impassable for several days ; in Russia, 1812, setting in a fortnight before its accustomed time, with unusual severity, destroyed the veteran French army that had set out on its retreat from Moscow, Nov. 9 ; whole battalions and thousands of horses perished, 300,000 334 FRUITERERS' COMPANY FUNDS men being frozen to death, or made prisoners in a state of irrecoverable injury ; the severest known in France, the Seine frozen over, and the thermometer fell to 23. 5. 10 ; one in 1814, when the Thames was frozen between the bridges, and booths erected upon it : it lasted for four weeks, printing-presses established upon the ice ; on the Tyne the ice was 20 inches thick ; at Quebec, in Canada, a severe frost occurred on Aug. 7, 1815 ; a severe frost in London, the Thames frozen over at the entrance of the Docks, and water-side business at a standstill, 1848-9 ; a frost in London, commencing on Dec. 24, 1860, the cold being most intense for three or four days. FRUITERERS' COMPANY incorporated, 3 Jac. I., Feb. 9, 1605. FRUITS AND FLOWERS, of which few were indigenous, have been brought into England from other countries, for the most part as relates to the better kinds, since 1500, and many have been acclimated by art that are native to very different temperatures : thus, the Syrian apple came in about 1522 ; the red mulberry from North America about 1600 ; the black walnut from North America about 1620 ; the Cornelian cherry from Austria, 1596 ; the precise dates of their importation are now with difficulty to be recognized, but the pine-apple came in from South America, 1690 ; and the mango has been introduced from India during the pre- sent century. The acacia was introduced from America, 1630 ; the auricula from Switzerland, 1567 ; the dahlia from South America, 1803 ; the geranium from Spain and the Cape of Good Hope, also the Cape heath, 1800, and other varieties ; the Erica vagrans is indigenous in Cornwall, also the Erica ciliaris ; the magnolia from North America, 1688 ; the passion flower from America, 1790 ; the musk rose from Italy, 1522 ; sweet bay, Europe, date unknown ; the camellia from the East, supposed China, in the present century ; mignionette came from Italy, 1528. Sec Gardening. FRYTH, John, burnt in Smithfield, July 4, 1533. FUCHSIA introduced into England by Capt. Frith, 1788. FUENTES DE ONORO, battle. Wellington defeated Massena here with great loss, May 3, 1811, and again on the 5th. FULHAM, Middlesex. The Danes made it their head quarters, 879 ; the Earl of Essex caused a bridge of boats to be made to transport his army into Surrey, 1642 ; the earliest register of the parish begins in 1675 ; the wooden bridge built by Mr Philips, carpenter to George II.; act passed, May 24, 1726 ; opened, 1729 : it is 789 feet long and 24 feet wide ; cost .23,075. FUNDS introduced into England at the Revolution of 1688 ; the Sinking Fund established, 1716 ; subsequently distinguished by different titles, according to the interest paid ; the 3 per cents, annuity were created, 1 726 ; the 3 per cents, con- sols, 1751 ; 3 per cent, reduced, 1747 ; 3 per cent, consols, 1751 ; 3^ per cent, annuities, 1757 ; long annuities, 1761 ; 4 per cents., 1762 ; the new 3^ per cents, annuities, 1771 ; 5 per cents., 1797 ; the 3^ per cents., 1818 ; the new 3^ per cents., 1830 ; the short annuities expired in Jan., 1808 ; the reduced 3^ per cents., 1824 ; the new 4 per cents, reduced to 3^ per cent., 1834 ; the new 2% and 3 l /2 per cents, annuities, 1853 ; July 5, 1787, an act was passed to set aside ^250,000 quarterly for a Sinking Fund, ; 200,000 more was subsequently added; May 10, 1787, it was enacted that all moneys reserved to pay annuities and not claimed for three years prior to Jan. 5> ^787, should be set apart for the commis- sioners for the reduction of the national debt ; by 48 Geo. III., annuities are made purchasable by the transfer of stocks ; an augmentation shall be added to the Sinking Fund of one per cent, in all future loans, 1792 ; in 1813 further regu- lations were made ; the restriction of 5 per cent, interest abolished, 17 & 1 8 Viet. c. 90, Aug. 10, 1854. FUNDS, Fluctuations in. From 1730 till the rebellion of 1745, the 3 per cents. FUNERALS FYZABAD 335 never under 89, and once, in 1737, as high as 107. During the rebellion they sank to 76 ; in 1749 rose to 100 ; between the peace of Paris in 1763 and the breaking out of the American war, they averaged from 80 to 90 ; towards the close of the war sunk to 54. In 1 792 they were at one time as high as 96, but within five years, in 1797, fell to the low price of 44^6, the consequence of the success of the French, the mutiny at the Nore, and the general distress. The highest price of consols in 1797 was 56. On the conclusion of the peace of Amiens, they advanced to 79 ; hostilities commencing, they again sunk to 50 in 1803. In 1806 they reached 66, in 1808 were at 70, and in 1810 at 72. /The American war in 1812 brought them down to 55 ; and though 73 on the abdica- tion of Bonaparte, in 1814, they were at 55 on his escaping from Elba, 1815. The battle of Waterloo caused an immediate reaction, and in the year 1817 they rose to 84. At the period of the queen's trial in 1820, consols sunk to 65, but in 1824 ascended to 97. The panic of 1825 brought them to 74 ; but with the ex- ception of another sudden fall, in consequence of distress in 1831, of very slight duration, the funds continued to advance to par, an event that had not occurred before for a century. During the panic of 1866, the funds varied considerably : at the lowest, June 4, 85^ ; highest, 90^, Dec. 27. FUNERALS. Several of the London companies kept state palls to use at the funerals of the members of their craft. The carpenters' pall made, 1513. FUNERALS, Public. The Duke of Rutland's, Ireland, Nov. 17, 1787 ; Lord Nel- son's, Jan. 9, 1806; Pitt's, Feb. 22, 1806; Fox's, Oct. 10, 1806; Sheridan's, July 13, 1816 ; Canning's, Aug. 16, 1827 ; Wellington's, Nov. 18, 1852. FURNEAUX ISLANDS discovered by Capt. Furneaux, March 19, 1773. FURNESS ABBEY, Lancashire, founded by the Earl of Morton, afterwards King Stephen, 1127. The castle built, 1340. Lambert Simnel landed here, 1487. FURNIVAL'S INN SOCIETY began, 1563 ; the inn rebuilt by Peto, 1818-19. FURS forbidden by the Emperor Honorius, 397 ; the laws against them renewed, 399, 416 ; used first by the Goths ; sent to England from Norway, 878 ; ambas- sadors wore them, 1001 ; abbesses and nuns in London wore them of lamb and cat's skin, 1127 ; worn by Henry I., 1125 ; prohibited by statute unless the wearers were worth ^100 per annum, 1336 ; permitted in Germany on robes only, 1497, 1530 ; counts and lords not allowed ermine there, 1548 ; sea-otter skins im- ported to China, 1780 ; regulations for the making of, issued in the City of Lon- don, temp. Edw. I. The Hudson Bay Company established by Charles II., 1670; the North-west Company, 1783 ; united, March 26, 1821. FUSILIERS. The 7th regiment of Royal Fusiliers raised on the occasion of the rebellion of the Duke of Monmouth ; George Lord Dartmouth appointed colonel, June II, 1685, and royal warrant for the formation of the regiment issued by James II., June 20, 1685 ; the 5th regiment of Foot, or Northumberland Fusiliers, first formed for service in Holland, 1674 ; the 2ist regiment, or the Royal North British Fusiliers, formed, Sept. 23, 1678; Charles, Earl of Mar, appointed colonel ; this was the first regiment which attained the distinction of Fusiliers from being armed with a fusil, or light musket ; the 23rd regiment, or the Royal Welsh Fusiliers, formed by William III., March 17, 1689 ; Charles Herbert ap- pointed colonel, April 10 ; the 87th regiment, or Royal Irish Fusiliers, ordered to be raised, Sept. 18, 1793; Sir John Doyle appointed colonel. FUTTEGHUR, Hindustan, rebellion of the native troops, June, 1857, and massa- cre of the English ; the rebels defeated by Sir Colin Campbell, Jan. 2, 1858. FYZABAD, Hindustan, the former capital of Oude, founded by Nabob Sufder Jung, 1740; during the out-break of 1857, the native troops stationed here re- belled, June 8. 336 GABEL GALL, ST G GABEL, Bohemia, town of, totally destroyed by fire, May II, 1738. GABELLE, a duty laid in France upon salt by Philip VI., 1340 ; suppressed for a short period by Charles VI., 1380 ; abolished, May 20, 1790. GAELIC, a society instituted in London for the study of the language, poetry, music, and dress of the Gael, 1830. GAETA, Italy, Cageta of the Romans, a famed resort and residence in the reign of Antoninus Pius, A.D. 138 ; after the fall of the Western Empire it enjoyed a republican government ; a ducal, 57 2 ', annexed to the kingdom of Naples by Alfonso V. of Aragon, 1435 ; captured by the Spaniards, Aug. 7, 1734 ; by the French, 1799 ; retaken by the English, Oct. 31 ; recaptured by the French, July 18, 1806 ; Pope Pio IX. escaped from Rome and resided here, Nov. 24, 1848 ; Francis II. of Naples took refuge here, Sept. 7, 1860 ; taken by the Sardinian army, Feb. 14, 1861. GALAPAGOS. The islands were first visited by whalers of the Pacific Ocean at the close of the i8th century ; a colony formed by a grant from the Ecuadorian Government to a Spaniard of La Floriana, 1832 ; ceded to America, Nov. 20, 1854, for 3, 000,000 dollars. GALATIA, Asia Minor, so named from a body of Gauls, who invaded the country, B.C. 279, and being defeated by Attalus, king of Pergamus, compelled to settle here, B.C. 239; they were also defeated byPrusias I., king of Bithynia, B.C. 216 ; invaded by the Romans, B.C. 189 ; the inhabitants defeated with great slaugh- ter ; assisted Mithridates against the Romans, but were defeated, B. c. 86 ; King Amyntas received this country as a gift from M. Antonius, B.C. 39 ; made a Roman province by Augustus, B.C. 26 ; visited by the Apostle St Paul, A.D. 53. GALATIANS, St Paul's Epistle to the. Two journeys of the Apostle to, are mentioned in the Acts ; one, A. D. 50, Acts xvi. 6 ; and the other in 55, Acts xviii. 23 ; the Epistle written on account of the Judaism beginning to work in the churches there, circa A. D. 5 7. GALENISTS, a sect of Anabaptists, so called from their founder, Galenus ; Abra- hams de Haan, a doctor of medicine and a minister among the Mennonites at Am- sterdam, 1664. GALICIA, Austria, formerly belonging to Hungary, incorporated with Poland, 1374; claimed by Maria Theresa, 1772, and ceded by the Poles, Sept. 18, 1773. GALICIA, Spain, anciently inhabited by the Galli, who took refuge here ; taken by the Suevians and Vandals, 408 ; made the capital of the Suevians, 41 1 ; con- quered by the Visi-Goths, 590 ; invaded by the Moors, 713 ; made a separate kingdom by Ferdinand I., 1065 ; made independent until 1474. GALILEANS, a sect among the ancient Jews, who refused to pay tribute to Au- gustus ; the Christians were opprobriously called Galileans, Acts ii. 7. GALILEO, the astronomer, imprisoned by the Inquisition for asserting that the earth went round the sun, Feb. n, 1633 ; died, Jan. 9, 1642. GALL, ST, Switzerland. The abbey founded by Gallus, a learned monk, in the 8th century, and became the great seat of learning in the next century ; the abbot fortified the town which had sprung up here by a wall in the loth century ; the town allied with the free canton, 1454 ; the revenues of the abbey sequestrated and secularized, 1805. GALLE, POINT DE GAME LAWS 337 GALLE, POINT DE, Ceylon, colonized by the Portuguese, circa 1518; the Chinese formed a settlement, 1801 ; a jetty constructed, 1847 ; an iron lighthouse erected by the English, 1848, and a new landing wharf, 1853. GALLEYS, a kind of low, flat -built vessels with one or more rows of oars, used by the Greeks, Romans, and Venetians ; their invention is attributed to the Corinth- ians, B. c. 700 ; the largest kind were employed by the Venetians ; they were introduced into France in the reign of Charles VI., who kept upwards of 40 in his service ; criminals were condemned to serve in the Royal Galleys by an ordi- nance of Charles IX., 1564 ; the judges were enjoined not to condemn a criminal to the galleys for a less term than 10 years, and in 1579 Henry III. prohibited the captains from detaining their prisoners after their sentence had expired ; they were abolished by Louis XV. , 1 748. GALLIPOLI, Turkey, captured by the Ottomans, 1353; repaired and fortified by Bajazet I., 1391 ; the first division of the French army arrived at, previous to the Crimean war, March 31, 1854 ; the English followed, April 5, they did much to improve the town. GALLOWAY, Scotland. New abbey erected by Devorgilla, daughter of Alan, Lord of Galloway, 1275. GALLOWS. One erected on Tower-Hill in the reign of Edward IV. ; 24 set up in London for the punishment of persons connected with the Wyat's Rebellion, Feb. 12, 1554; taken down, June 4, 1554. See Gibbet. GALVANISM. This derived its name from M. Galvani, its discoverer, 1789 ; Volta discovered the circle, called after him the Voltaic pile, 1800 ; Sir H. Davy made several discoveries in this science, 1806 ; Mr Children, 1815 5 Messrs Nicholson and Carlisle discovered that water was decomposed within the circuit of the current, May 2, 1800. GALWAY, Ireland. This ancient town was fortified circa 1120 ; walled, 1270 ; incorporated by Richard II. ; West Bridge erected by Fitz-Thomas, 1442 ; a patent granted to Gorman Lynch to coin money here, 1462 ; Henry VIII. con- firmed their privileges by charter, 1545 ; college founded by Edward VI., 1551 ; taken by Sir Charles Coote, July 10, 1651 ; captured by Gen. Ginkle, July 21, 1691 ; serious riots at Father Gavazzi's lectures against Popery, March 29, 1859. GALWAY JURORS celebrated in history for resisting the commissioners of the Earl of Stratford, 1635. GAMBIA, W. Africa, colonized by the English, 1618 ; ceded to England, Sept. 3, 1783- GAMBIER'S ISLANDS, S. Pacific Ocean, discovered by Capt Wilson, May, 1797 > visited and surveyed by Capt Beechy, 1826. GAMBLINGHAY, Cambridgeshire, had 23 houses destroyed by fire, July 9, 1814. GAME COCK, English, used for combat, first noticed by Fitzstephen in the I2th century ; schoolboys used to fight them under the master's arbitration on Shrove Tuesday ; a proclamation, 39ofEdw. III., against ; of Henry VIII., although he had a pit of his own at Whitehall ; forbidden by Elizabeth, 1569 ; ordinance of Cromwell against, March 31, 1654. GAME LAWS. The remnant of the ancient forest laws; the first statute pro- hibiting any but the nobility from shooting, 13 Rich. II. c. 13, 1389 ; the qualifi- cation increased by 3 Jac. I. c. 13, 1605, and limited by 22 & 23 Charles II. c. 25, 1670 ; the qualification abrogated for a tax, by I & 2 Will. IV. c. 32, Oct. 5, 1831 ; the preservation of, encouraged by I Jac. I. c. 27, 1603, and 7 Jac. I. c. II, 1609 ; certificates for shooting were first required, 25 Geo. III. c. 50, 1785 ; uncertified persons permitted to kill hares on enclosed grounds, II & 12 Viet. c. 29, July 22, 1848 ; keepers first allowed to be appointed by 22 & 23 Charles II. c. 25, 1670 ; any 22 338 GAMING GARRAWAY'S COFFEE HOUSE number permitted to be appointed by lords of manors, I & 2 Will. IV. c. 32, Oct. 5, 1831.; certificate duties altered, 23 & 24 Viet. c. 90, Aug. 13, 1860. An act passed for the more easy discovery and conviction of persons destroying game, 4 Will. & Mary, c. 23, 1692 ; an act for the prevention of poaching, 25 & 26 Viet. c. 114, Aug. 7, 1862. GAMING. Unlawful gaming prohibited by 12 Richard II. c. 6, 1388 ; amended by ii Henry IV. c. 6, 1409-10 ; again amended, 17 Edw. IV. c. 3, 1477-8 ; pro- hibited in England, except to people of condition, unless at Christmas, 1541 ; an act passed for debarring of unlawful games, 33 Hen. VIII. c. 9, 1541 ; any persons winning money by cheating, &c., to forfeit treble the sum won, 16 Charles II. c. 7) 1664; again, 9 Anne, c. 14, 1710, may sue for money lost over 10 ; laws re- lating to, altered and amended by 5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 41 ; penalties upon persons keeping gaming-houses and persons gaming there, 18 Geo. II. c. 34, 1745 ; act amending the laws relating to, 8 & 9 Viet. c. 109 ; gaming-houses suppressed, 17 & 18 Viet. c. 38, July 24, 1854; betting in the streets of the city of London pre- vented, 30 & 31 Viet. c. 134, s. 23, Aug. 20, 1867. GAMUT in music invented circa 1020. GAOL FEES abolished in all prisons except the King's Bench, Fleet, Marshalsea, and Place Court prisons, 55 Geo. III. c. 50, May 12, 1815 ; amended and extend- ed to all prisoners, whether for debt or crime, in all prisons (except as aforesaid), 56 Geo. III. c. 116, July I, 1816 ; explained and further amended, 8 & 9 Viet. c. 114, Aug. 8, 1845 > f ees abolished in the Queen's prison, 5 & 6 Viet. c. 22, s. II, May 31, 1842. GAOLS. Sheriffs to have the keeping of gaols, 14 Edw. III. st. I, c. 10, 1340 ; how gaols shall be made and edified, 23 Hen. VIII. c. 2, 1531-2 ; an act passed to enable justices of the peace to build and repair gaols in their respective counties, II & 12 Will. III. c. 19, 1700; amended, 24 Geo. III. c. 54, 1784. GARDENING introduced into England from the Netherlands, from whence veget- ables were imported till 1509 ; musk melons and apricots cultivated in England ; the pale gooseberry, with salads, garden roots, cabbages, &c., brought from Flanders, and hops from Artois, 1520; the damask rose brought here by Dr Linacre, physician to Henry VIII. ; pippins brought to England by Leonard Mascal, of Plumstead, in Sussex, 1525 ; currants, or Corinthian grapes, first planted in England, 1555 ; brought from the Isle of Zante, belonging to Venice ; the musk rose, and several sorts of plums, from Italy, by Lord Cromwell ; apricots brought here by King Henry VIII. 's gardener; at and about Norwich, the Flemings first planted flowers unknown in England, as gilliflowers, carnations, the Provence rose, &c., 1567 ; woad originally from Toulouse, in France ; tulip roots first brought into England from Vienna, 1578 ; also beans, peas, and salads now in common use, 1660. See Fruits. GARDENERS' COMPANY incorporated, 14 James I., Nov. 9, 1616. GARENDON ABBEY, Leicestershire, founded by Robert de Bossu, Earl of Leicester, 1133. GAROTTE, a Spanish mode of punishment ; the criminal is seated on a stool with his back to a stake with an iron collar, which is closed with a screw, causing strangulation. This method adopted by the London thieves with their hands in 1859-60 ; made felony and punished with servitude for life by 24 & 25 Viet. c. loo, s. 21, Aug. 6, 1861 ; punishment of whipping supplemented, 26 & 27 Viet. c. 44, July 13, 1863. GARRAWAY'S COFFEE HOUSE, Change Alley, Cornhill, kept by Thomas Garraway, a tobacconist and tea man, 1650-2 ; destroyed in the fire of 1666; rebuilt and a lottery kept by Ogilby at, April 7, 1673 ; wines were sold by candle auction, l ^73 > Swift mentions it in his ' South Sea ballad,' 1721 ; burnt in the Cornhill GARRICK THEATRE GAS COMPANIES 339 fire of 1748 ; rebuilt, 1750, and became the famous sale rooms; closed, Aug. 18, 1866. GARRICK THEATRE, Goodman's-Fields, London, erected, 1830 ; burnt down, Nov. 4, 1846. GARRICK THEATRICAL CLUB AND LIBRARY, instituted, 1831, in Lon- don ; the present club-house built from the designs of Mr Marrable, 1862; open- ed, 1864. It has a fine collection of theatrical portraits. GARTER order of Knighthood founded, according to Selden, St George's day, in the i8th year of Edward III., 1344 ; this is corroborated by Froissart. Camden assigns the foundation of the order to have been after the battle of Crecy ; the first statutes of the order fixed their quarters at Windsor Castle. The prelate of the order assigned a livery by Charles II., Feb. 19, 1661 ; the numbers fixed by the statute, Jan. 17, 1805. It is remarkable that this is the only order that has been granted to foreign princes. Of this order there have been : Eight emperors of Germany Two kings of Sweden Two emperors of Russia Six kings of Denmark Five kings of France Two kings of Naples Three kings of Spain One king of Sicily and Jerusalem One king of Arragon One king of Bohemia Seven kings of Portugal Two kings of Scotland One king of Poland Five princes of Orange And 34 foreign electors, dukes, margraves, and counts. The first knight was Edward, the Black Prince, who had just before restored Don Pedro in Castile ; to the prince were added 24 other knights from among the English nobility. GARTER King-at-arms, appointed by Henry V., 1420 ; the order established by Edward IV. in Ireland, 1466 ; was abolished by Henry VII., 1494. GAS. Coal gas first demonstrated before the Royal Society, May, 1733 ; Dr Richard Watson published his researches, 1767 ; Clayton proved the existence of gas in bituminous pit coal, 1737-8 ; and in 1784, Mr Diller exhibited in London and other large towns his ' philosophical fireworks,' inflammable gases ; Mr W. Murdoch of Soho, near Birmingham, first applied gas to the usual purposes of arti- ficial lighting, at his house and offices at Redruth, Cornwall, 1792 ; the first public exhibition was made by this gentleman, at his Soho works, at the celebration of peace, 1802 ; Mr Windsor obtained a patent, 1802 ; and exhibited his plan of illumination by coal gas at the Lyceum Theatre, 1803 ; Messrs Philips and Lee's factory, at Manchester, lighted with, 1805 ; Mr Aldwood, the Golden Lane Brewery, at Beech-street, Aug. 16, 1807 ; one side of Pall Mall lighted with, Jan. 28, 1807 ; the whole lighted, June 4 ; Westminster Bridge lighted the last night in 1812 ; used in London partially, 1814 ; generally, 1823 ; a charter granted to the Chartered Gas Company, 1812 ; laid down their mains from their works in Curtain Road into the city, 1816 ; at Dublin, 1825 ; at Sydney, Australia, May 25, 1841; Calcutta first lighted with, July 6, 1857. The Haymarket Theatre was the last theatre to admit the change, and gas first used in, April 15, 1853. The Gas Works Clauses Act, 10 & n Viet. c. 15, April 23, 1847 ; an act passed regulating the measures used in the sale of, 22 & 23 Viet. c. 66, Aug. 13, 1859 ; amended, 23 & 24 Viet. c. 146, Aug. 28, 1860 ; the provisions of, extended to Scotland, 27 & 28 Viet. c. 96, July 29, 1864 ; the supply to the metropolis regulated, 23 & 24 Viet, c. 125, Aug. 28, 1860. There are 13 gas companies in London, having more than 23 gas manufacturing stations, 1 75 miles of mains, besides 500 branch services pipes ; and there are 40,000 street lamps. A parliamentary inquiry into the supply of London, 1866-7. GAS COMPANIES in London, Westminster, and its environs : British Gaslight Company for lighting places in the county of Essex, established 340 GAS COMPANIES, GENERAL by 10 Geo. IV. c. cxxviii., June 19, 1829; powers transferred to the Commercial Gas Company, 15 & 16 Viet. c. civ., June 30, 1852. London Gaslight and Coke Company established, 1812 ; powers for lighting the streets, &c., given to, 57 Geo. III. c. xxiii., May 23, 1817 ; company incorpor- ated, 1833 and 1844. Equitable Gaslight Company incorporated by 5 & 6 Viet. c. xxxvi., May 31, 1842. Great Central Gas Consumers' Company incorporated by 14 & 15 Viet. c. Ixix., July 3, 1851. Imperial Gaslight and Coke Company established by I & 2 Geo. IV. c. cxvii,, June 23, 1821 ; consolidated and amended, 17 & 1 8 Viet. c. Ivi., June 2, 1854. Independent Gaslight and Coke Company incorporated by 10 Geo. IV. c. cxviii., June 4, 1829. Phcenix Gaslight and Coke Company established, 1816 ; incorporated, 5 Geo. IV. c. cxxviii., May 28, 1824. Ratcliffe Gaslight and Coke Company established, 4 Geo. IV., June 17, 1823 ; consolidated and amended, 18 & 19 Viet. c. xii., May 5, 1855. South London Gaslight and Coke Company established, i & 2 Geo. IV. c. li., May 7, 1821. South Metropolitan Gaslight and Coke Company incorporated, 5 & 6 Viet, c, Ixxix., June 18, 1842. Surrey Consumers' Company incorporated, 17 & 1 8 Viet. c. xciv., July 3, 1854; transfer of the Deptford Company to, 18 & 19 Viet. c. clxxxvi., July 30, 1855. Whitechapel Gaslight Company established, I & 2 Geo. IV. c. Hi., May 7, 1821. GAS COMPANIES, GENERAL, with the date of their establishment. Airedaile 1853 City of Moscow 1865 Aldeburgh ... 1856 Coleshill 1860 Alton 1847 Colonial and General 1862 Antrim 1854 Commercial 1833 Aspatria 1859 Continental 1863 Bahia 1860 Cootehill ... 1856 Bakewell ... 1848 Corbridge ... 1863 Ballymena and Harryville 1842 County and General Gas Con- Ballyshannon 1861 sumers' Company 1857 Barmouth ... 1862 Croft and Hunvorth-on-Tees 1857 Belper 1848 Croston 1863 Berwick and Tweedmouth 1845 Crystal Palace, Sydenham 1858 Blanford 1836 Dalbeattie 1858 Blantyre ... 1863 Dartmouth 1858 Bolsover 1859 Diss 1864 Bombay 1862 Downham Market 1857 Bothwell 1852 Dundalk 1836 Brackley 1850 East Barnet 1865 Brazilian and River Plate 1865 Eastbourne 1852 Brecon (New) 1865 Eccleshall ... 1853 Bridge of Earn 1859 Edinburgh ... 1818 Brierley Hill 1849 Emsworth ... 1853 Bromyard ... 1856 European i835 Burford 1863 Fazeley 1861 Burton ... 1859 Fenny Stratford 1857 Castle Donnington 1853 Framlingham 1849 Castlebar 1863 Frodsham ... 1856 Chesham 1846 Glasgow 1817 Chesterton 1861 Great Stanmore 1859 Chigwell and Woodford ... 1864 Guildford 1824 GASCONY GASTEIN CONVENTION 341 Hadleigh 1862 Newcastle-upon-Tyne Hartley Wintney 1861 New Mill Hatfield 1860 Newry Hebden Bridge 1852 North Bierley Heckington 1861 North of Europe Hedon 1856 Northleach Henley-in-Arden ... 1862 Nuneaton Herne Bay 53 Okehampton Holbeach ... 1864 Oriental Holyhead ... 1856 Ottoman Hungerford 1845 Outlane Huntingdon and Godmanchester 1856 Over and Wharton Hythe and Sandgate 1851 Owston ... Ilkeston 1846 Para, North Brazils Ilkley 1856 Plympton ... Imperial Austrian 1865 Pwllheli Kent, consumers' 1865 Rio de Janeiro Keynsham ... 1858 Saintfield Kimbolton ... i853 Saltash Knighton ... 1852 Seaton Knutsford Lanark, consumers' 1864 1860 Shelley and Shepley Sheppy, consumers' Lame 1851 Shotley Bridge Leighton Buzzard 1835 Skelmanthorpe Leominster 1835 Slaithwaite Lisburn 183? Southam Llandovery 1862 Staveley Lochgilphead 1844 Sutton-m-Ashfield Long Sutton 1852 Sutton Bridge Longton 1858 Swadlincote Lostwithiel 1858 Theale Malta and Mediterranean 1861 Tideswell ... Malvern Link 1862 Torpoint Market Harborough 1833 Tramore Marsden 1856 Tring Matlock 1853 Welch Pool Matlock Bridge 1857 Wenlock Middlewich 1854 Western Midhurst ... 1860 West Mailing Milverton 1861 Wetherby Minster 1863 Wolverhampton .. Morpeth 1833 Wootton Basset Mullingar ... 1859 York Town and Blackwater Navan 1856 Yoxford Needham Market ... 1847 GASCONY, France, annexed to England, 1 1 52 ; revolted and returned to France, recovered by England, 1253 ; again return under French dominion, 1374 ; re- covered by the English, 1400 ; retaken by France, 1451 ; again captured by the English, under Talbot, Earl of Shrewsbury, 1452 ; finally restored to France, 1453. GAS-METER, patented by MrClegg, 1816 ; Malam patented his dry meter, 1820 ; and in 1844 Defries introduced several improvements in it GASTEIN CONVENTION between Prussia and Austria for the division of Hoi- stein and Schleswig, signed at Gastein, Aug. 14, 1865. It consisted of 10 arti- cles. The British government protested against this convention, Sept. 14, 1865. 342 GATESIIEAD GENDARMERIE GATESHEAD, Durham. First charter granted by Bishop Pudsey, 1164. The Glovers' company incorporated by Bishop Tunstall, 1557 ; the Dyers', Fullers', Blacksmiths', and other companies, incorporated, 1594. St Mary's Chantry founded by Alan Prestore, 1330 ; represented in Parliament by the reform bill of 1832. A serious fire broke out at the worsted manufactory of Messrs Wilson & Son ; several ships in the river caught fire ; the steam mill and timber-yard of Messrs Davidson destroyed ; it burnt for three days, Oct. 6, 1854. GAUGAMELA, battle. Alexander the Great defeated the Persians, under Darius, with immense slaughter, Oct., B.C. 331. GAUGING OF WINE. A certain duty was levied for the king upon the gauging of wine in the reign of Henry III. The office of gauger of all wines coming to the city conferred upon the Mayor of London, by charter of Edward IV., June 20, 1478 ; confirmed by act of parliament, 5 & 6 Will. III. c. 10, s. 9, 1694. GAUL. The Celts probably settled here, B.C. 600 ; conquered by the Romans and formed into a Prsetorian province, B.C. 118, upon the decline of the Roman power; the Franks overran the country, A. D. 341 and 355; invaded by Attila with an army of 400,000 Huns, who after doing considerable damage, were de- feated, 451 ; conquered and made the principal station of the Franks, 481, and from them called France. GAUZE, lawn, and thread manufacture, began at Paisley, in Scotland, 1759 ; which in 1784 yielded .575,185, and employed 27,664 hands; in gauze alone, ,350,900. GAVELKIND, a Saxon tenure existing in the county of Kent, in the reign of Edward II. All the lands of England, it is said, were held upon a title of this nature, in 1066 ; disgavelling of lands in 31 Hen. VIII. c. 3, 1539. GAVESTON, PIERS, beheaded on Blacklow Hill, near Warwick, June 19, 1312, the favourite of Edward II. He had been banished, 1307 ; was recalled, 1308 ; again banished by the Barons ; recalled by the king, and decapitated. GAWELGUR, Hindustan. This strong fortress was taken by the English under Gen. Wellesley, Dec. 14, 1803, after two days' siege. GAZA, Palestine, first mentioned in Gen. x. 19. Samson carried away the gates, and pulled down the temple of Dagon. It was besieged by Alexander the Great, after the destruction of Tyre, and taken after a siege of several months, B.C. 332. Jonathan Maccabaeus destroyed its suburbs ; Simon Maccabaeus captured the city ; afterwards taken by Alexander Jannseus. GAZETTE. The Romans had their daily report of public occurrences called Ada Diurna ; the London Gazette, first printed at Oxford, Nov. 16, 1665, and called the Oxford Gazette ; afterwards removed to London, and called the London Gazette, Feb. 6, 1665 ; Edinburgh Gazette first published by John Donaldson, by license, dated, March 10, 1699 ; the Dublin Gazette, 1775. By an order in council, this Gazette was prohibited from publishing any news not guaranteed by govern- ment, March 18, 1776. GEELONG, Australia. This town founded, 1837. Gold first discovered in, 1851. GELA, Sicily, founded by the Rhodians from Lindus, B.C. 690 ; colonized Agri- gentum, B.C. 582 ; ^schylus died here, B.C. 456 ; captured by the Carthaginians, B.C. 405 ; the town soon after fell into decay. GENDARMERIE, or MEN AT ARMS, established, circa 360 ; made a corps of cavalry by Louis XIII. and Louis XIV. ; made a royal corps, by Charles VII., 1439-40. They are divided into gendarmes a pied, gendarmes a cheval. At present they are generally picked men employed under the police, and reporting both to the police and the military commander-in-chief ; regulated and reformed, Oct. 29, 1820. GENERAL GENOA 343 GENERAL, a title given at one time to officers both naval and military ; it is said to be of French origin, about 1450; in the English army, 1557. GENERAL ASSEMBLY OF THE CHURCH OF SCOTLAND, first held Dec. 20, 1560 ; it now meets once a year in Edinburgh, where it sits for ten days, being the principal ecclesiastical court of Scotland. GENERAL WARRANTS. John Wilkes arrested, April 30, 1763, by virtue of one, for publishing a libel in the 'North Briton," No. 45 ; denounced as illegal by the House of Commons, May 6, 1763 ; obtained a verdict with ^1000 damages against Mr Under-Secretary Wood, Dec. 6, 1763. GENERALISSIMO, the commander-in-chief of an army, first conferred upon Car- dinal Richelieu, 1627. GENEROSITY, order of knighthood ; a Prussian order, instituted by Frederick III. of Brandenburgh, 1685. GENESIS, the first book of the law, or Pentateuch, so called from its title in the Septuagint, that is, Creation, written by Moses, circa B.C. 1430. GENET, order of knighthood, founded in France by Charles Martel, 726 ; in Spain, "86. GENEVA, Switzerland, one of the chief towns of the Allobroges, when Caesar in- vaded this country ; taken by the Burgundians in the 5th century, and made a bishopric ; taken by the Franks, 534 > several privileges conferred upon it by Charlemagne ; became a part of the Western Empire, 800 ; destroyed by fire, 1321 ; again injured by fire, 1333, and 1430; a republic founded, 1512; treaty of, signed, Nov. 7, 1515, and at Fribourg, Nov. 29, 1516. Calvin settled here, J536; watches first made at, 1587; made independent, 1763; insurrection at, 1781 ; natives, refugees from, settled in Ireland, and founded Geneva New Town, 1 782 ; revolution in, 1 794 ; taken by the French revolutionary forces, and became the capital of the department of Du Lernan, April, 1 798 ; restored by the allied powers to its independence, 1814 ; Corn-fields destroyed by fire from lightning for twenty miles round, July 29, 1831 ; the town lighted with gas, 1845 ; the League or Sonderbund, 1846 ; decided to be illegal, Sept. 5, 1846. Serious election riots at, Aug., 1864. The Calvin Memorial College founded, 1866 ; opened, Nov., 1867. A peace congress held at, Garibaldi being present ; opened, Sept. 9 ; broken up, Sept 12, 1867. GENEVA or GIN SHOPS suppressed, 1743 ; 7000 abolished, 1750. GENOA, Italy, first mentioned by Livy in the second Punic war as a friendly colony, xxi. 32, B.C. 218 ; taken by Mago, the Carthaginian general, by surprise, and partly destroyed, B.C. 205 ; ordered to be restored by the Roman senate, B.C. 203 ; Strabo mentioned this town as an emporium for the sale of honey, cattle, and hides, B.C. 29 ; invaded by the Goths, A.D. 641, and by the Saracens, 935 ; fortified, 935 ; declared independent, 960 ; the cathedral built, 985 ; finished, 1118; the Saracens expelled from Capraja, Corsica, and Sardinia, 1019; re- public founded, 1096 ; took Minorca island from the Moors, 1 146 ; captured Tortosa, 1148; the dockyard and arsenal built, 1276; Porto Pisano destroyed, 1290; defeated the Venetians, 1271, and 1346; submitted to Visconti, Duke of Milan, 1381 ; the city almost destroyed by an insurrection, 1339 ; elected a magis- trate, called a Doge, 1340 ; the bank of St George founded, 1346 ; taken by the French, 1515 ; recovered by Andre" Doria, 1528 ; the Strada Nuova built, 1552 ; the church of Santa Maria built, 1555 ; the town strongly refortified, 1630 ; bom- barded by the French, 1684 ; by the English, 1688, and in Oct., 1745 ; taken by the Austrians, Sept. 30, 1746 ; Austrians expelled, and second siege of, Aug. 17, 1747 ; loses Corsica, 1730 ; bank of St George failed at, 16,000,000 of crowns de- ficient, Dec 22, 1750. The French under Massena were besieged by the English 344 GENTLEMEN PENSIONERS GEORGE CADOUDAL and Austrians for 60 days, to whom they capitulated, June 4, 1800 ; given up to the French ; annexed to the French Empire, May 25, 1805 ; surrendered to the Anglo-Sicilian army, April 18, 1814 ; handed over to the King of Sardinia, 1816; seized by the inhabitants and proclaimed a republic, April, 1850. GENTLEMEN PENSIONERS, originally the honourable corps of Gentlemen-at- Arms, established by Henry VIII. in the first year of his reign, 1509 ; Henry Bourchier, Earl of Essex, was the first captain; he was succeeded by Sir Anthony Browne ; they accompanied the king to France, 1544 ; re-named the Hon. Corps of Gentlemen Pensioners by William IV., Dec. 3, 1830. GEODESY. This science of mensuration established by the Arabs, 814, GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, ROYAL, instituted in London, 1830; the 'African Association' coalesced with, 1831; the 'Palestine Association,' 1834; first Journal of, published, 1831. GEOGRAPHY. This science, says the learned Mr Bevan, was known as early as the 9th century B.C. ; considerably extended in the Hesiodian age, B.C. 800 ; Hero- dotus is looked upon as the father of this science, B. c. 443 ; he was succeeded by Ptolemy, B.C. 150 ; and by Strabo, B.C. 24 ; Eratosthenes reduced this science to a regular system, B.C. 240. GEOLOGICAL MUSEUM and Survey of Gt Britain and Ireland instituted in London, 1839 ; an act passed for facilitating and completing, 8 & 9 Viet. c. 63, July 31, 1845. GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY instituted in London, 1807 ; incorporated, April 23, 1823 ; Glasgow, instituted, 1858 ; Dublin, 1832. GEOLOGISTS' ASSOCIATION formed in London for the study of geology and allied sciences, 1858. GEOLOGY. This science first formed, circa 1755-6. The first account of British Strata published by William Smith, ' Mineral Survey or Delineations of the Strata of England, Wales, and part of Scotland,' with coloured maps, 410, Lond., 1815 ; and ' Stratigraphical System of Organized Fossils,' published, 1817. GEOMETRY. This science, according to the testimony of Herodotus, was first cultivated in Egypt ; brought by the philosopher Thales into Greece from Egypt, B. c. 640 ; greatly improved by Anaximander, B. c. 650-60, who was succeeded by Anaximenes, B.C. 536-40, and by Pythagoras, B.C. 540; Euclid computed, B.C. 280; taught in Europe, A. D. 300 ; first translated into Latin by Adelard, a monk, 1150 ; believed a part of magic in the time of Edward VI. ; cultivated in England, 1550 ; books of, destroyed, 1552 ; an imperfect Latin edition of Euclid printed at Venice by Zamberti, 1505 ; first printed at Rome in Arabic, 1594 ; the earliest printed in England, 1551 ; Kepler wrote his Nova Stereometria, 1618, and Descartes his Geometria, 1637. GEORGE, a gold coin, value 6s. 8 taken down, 1852. GERMAIN EN LAYE, ST, France. The chapel and monastery of Germanus founded by King Robert in the nth century ; the Royal Palace built by Charles V., 1370 ; rebuilt by Francis I., and embellished by Louis XIV.; treaty signed at, giving the Huguenots free exercise of their religion, Aug. 8, 1570 ; James II. of England resided here during his exile, 1689 ; he died, Sept. 6, 1701, and George IV. erected a monument to him in the parish church. GERMANIC CONFEDERATION. The several German, Prussian, and Bavarian states united for the purposes of defence, June 8, 1815 ; the Soth anniversary held, June 8, 1865. GERMANO, SAN, Italy, founded, 1511 ; taken by the Spaniards, 1730; the French army under Murat defeated here by the Austrians, March 16, 1815. GERMANS, ST, Cornwall. Athelstan having conquered the Cornish Britons, founded a bishopric, 931 1049 ; united to Crediton ; subsequently merged into the see of Exeter. GERMANTOWN, battle. The Americans defeated by the English, under Gen. Burgoyne, Oct. 3, 1777. GERMANY. This name was given by the Romans to this and the several neigh- bouring countries. The ancient inhabitants, the Cimbri, defeated the Romans at Noreja, B.C. 113; they were in turn defeated by the Romans, B.C. 102, and Caesar entered the country by means of a bridge over the Rhine, B.C. 55 ; he was succeeded by Tiberius, who extended the Roman invasion to the north of the river, B.C. 7. The Romans defeated by the Germans, under Arminius, A.D. 9; they defeated the Romans, 180, and again on the banks of the Elbe, 220 ; invaded by the Huns, 375. The Saxons emigrated to England, 450. Charlemagne crowned Emperor of the West, Dec. 25, 800 ; his son Louis crowned emperor at Aix- la-Chapelle, 813 ; the kingdom divided by him, 839, Germany being given to his son Lothaire, France to Charles, and Bavaria to Louis. Lothaire I. attempted to invade France, but was defeated at Fontenay, 841, and by the treaty of Verdun, signed, 843, he retained Italy, Provence, and all the provinces between the Rhine and the Scheldt. Louis II. established his court at Pavia, 855 ; the Saracens in- vaded the country, 866 ; Charles III. succeeds to the kingdom of France as well as Germany, upon the death of his brother Louis, 88 1 ; the Germans took Rome, 896 ; the Danes defeated and driven off, 934-5 ; Lorraine added to this kingdom by Henry I., Bohemia, 950; a war between France and Germany broke out, 977 ; a treaty agreed to, by which Lorraine is ceded to Germany, 980 ; the Sclavonians invaded Brandenburg, but were defeated, 997 ; the Saracens defeated in Italy, 1001 ; the Greeks driven out of Italy, 1021. Henry IV. carried on a series of wars against the Saxons, 1073, defeating them, 1075 ; he defeated Pope Gregory, and took Rome, March 21, 1084. The faction of the Guelphs and Ghibelines arose in the reign of Conrad III., 1 138 ; Frederick I. having reduced several revolted cities in Italy, was crowned at Rome, 1155 j captured, and almost destroyed Milan, 1162 ; he besieged Alexandria without success, 1176; defeated near Como, 1181. Richard Cceur de Lion captured and imprisoned by Henry VI. whilst travelling through Germany, 1192. Otho IV. entered into a league with England and Flanders against France, 1213, but was defeated at Bovines, 1214. Frederick II. crowned King of the Romans, 1212 ; crowned Emperor by the Pope ; Honorius HI., 1219 ; excommunicated by Pope Gregory IX., 1227 ; again excommunicated, and the crown offered to the St Louis of France, who refused it, 1238 ; deposed by the Council of Lyons, 1245. Richard, Earl of Cornwall, crowned King of the Romans, 1256. Rodolph I. defeated Ottacar II., king of Bohemia, and acquired Austria, 1278. The Swiss revolted, GERMANY 347 1307. Henry VII. of Luxemburg crowned King of Italy, 1311, and reduced the cities in revolt ; advanced against Rome, but was defeated, 1312. Louis V. elected at Frankfort by five electors, and crowned, 1314 ; his election declared void by Pope John XXII., 1323, Germany protesting against it ; Louis is excommuni- cated, 1327 ; he marched to Rome, and deposed the pope, 1328 ; the kingdom declared independent of the Pontifical Chair, 1338 ; the crown offered to Ed- ward III. of England, 1347; Rienzo usurped the sovereign power at Rome, and caused himself to be declared tribune of the people, expelled, 1348 ; Charles issued the celebrated Golden Bull, 1356 ; the empire divided, 1387 ; the Emperor Sigis- mund betrayed John Huss to the Elector Palatine, who caused him to be burnt alive, 1415 ; Albert II. received the three crowns, Germany, Hungary, and Bo- hemia, 1438. Frederick III. engaged in an unsuccessful war against Matthias, king of Hungary, 1482 ; Matthias defeated him, and took Vienna, 1485. Maxi- milian I. invaded Burgundy, 1498 ; defeated by the Venetians and French in Italy, 1508 ; entered into the famous league of Cambray, with the pope and the king of France, 1 508 ; he formed another league with the pope, Spain, and England against France, 1512 ; he assembled a diet at Augsburg, where Luther appeared to defend the reformed doctrines, 1518. A war broke out between Germany and France, 1521, and Francis I. is taken prisoner at the battle of Pavia, 1525 ; Rome taken and plundered, 1527 ; peace concluded with Pope Clement VII., 1529 ; Charles took Tunis, and freed 22,000 Christian slaves, 1535 ; Luther died, 1546; Charles gained the battle of Mulberg, and took the Elector of Saxony prisoner, 1547; Hungary invaded by the Turks, 1566; annexed to the king- dom, 1570; the league of Halle concluded by the Protestants, headed by Frederick Elector Palatine, 1610. Bohemia ceded to Matthias, king of Hungary, 1611 ; commencement of the 30 years' war, Nov. I, 1618 ; Ferdi- nand II. opposed by Frederick V., but he was defeated near Prague, Nov. 8, 1620 ; General Tilly gained a complete victory over Christian IV., king of Denmark, at Lutter, 1626 ; Gustavus Adolphus invaded Germany with a large army, 1630; died at Lutzen, Nov. 16, 1632 ; the Swedes defeated, 1634. Turenne gains a victory at Sommershausen near Augsburg, which led to the peace of Westphalia, which ended the 30 years' war, Oct. 24, 1648. The diet at Ratisbon commenced its sittings, 1663 ; the Imperialists defeated the Turks at St Gothard, 1664 ; war with France, 1674 > tne league of Augsburg concluded, 1686 ; peace restored at Ryswick, Oct. 30, 1697 : the treaty of Carlowitz with the Turks, Jan. 26, 1699; war declared against France, Oct. 6, 1700; the French, after being defeated at Blenheim, Aug. 1 3, 1 704, agreed to the peace of Utrecht, April II, 1713; war declared against the Turks, 171$; the Spaniards invaded Sardinia, 1718; treaty of peace concluded, 1720; the commencement of the Polish war, 1733 ; Maria Theresa succeeded Charles VI. by virtue of the Pragmatic Sanction, Oct. 20, 1740; Charles VII., elector, claimed the throne, and was crowned at Frankfort, Jan. 22, 1 742 ; commencement of the 7 years' war, 1756; Joseph II. extended the Austrian dominions considerably, through the dismemberment of Poland, 1 772 ; war with Turkey declared, 1 788 ; Brabant de- clared independent, 1 789 ; revolt in the Rhenish provinces, 1 793 ; a second par- tition of Poland adds to the dominion of Germany, 1 795 ; a considerable part of the territories of this country conceded to the several powers by the treaty of Ratisbon, Feb. 25, 1803 ; Francis I. became Emperor of Austria, in place of Germany, Aug. II, 1804, having lost the Netherlands, and large portions of his dominions, by joining in the coalitions against France ; the German empire, in its old form, being dissolved to form the Confederation of the Rhine, by the French Emperor, Napoleon, July 12, 1806 ; Northern Germany annexed to France, Dec., 1810; Hamburg, 1811 ; congress of Vienna, Nov. I, 1814; second con- gress, May 25, 1815 ; new constitution agreed to at the congress of Vienna, July 8, 1815 ; a new federal body formed, governed by a diet, having votes according to 348 GERMANY, KINGS OF the class of territory attaching to each Austria 4, Bavaria 4, Prussia 4, Saxony 4, Hanover 4, Baden 3, Hesse Cassel 3, Hesse Darmstadt 3, Holstein 3, Bruns- wick 3, Nassau 2, Mechlenburg I, Saxe- Weimar I, Saxe-Coburg and Gotha I, 1814 ; the king of Prussia issued a proclamation with the view to consolidate the German Empire, March 27, 1848 ; the confederation greatly agitated, 1848 ; the emperor of Austria retired to Inspruck, May 18 ; a temporary government established at Prague, May 29 ; the emperor returned to his capital, Aug. 12 ; Count Lamberg killed at Buda, Sept. 20 ; insurrection in Vienna, Count Latour killed, and the city in the possession of the insurgents, Oct. 6 ; the Austrians entered Presburgh, Dec. 18 ; the Austrians claimed the victory in a combat at Szckszo, Dec. 8, 1848 ; Pesth taken by the Austrians, Jan. 5, 1849 ; Austria protested against the decision of the Frankfort diet, Aug. 8 ; defeat of the Austrians at Gran, April 17 ; the Austrians implored Russia for aid ; insurrection at Dresden, May 8 ; Dresden bombarded ; the king of Prussia, who had stimulated the diet at Frankfort, recalled the Prussian members of the assembly, May 14 ; the Frankfort assembly transferred to Stutgardt, May 30 ; battle of the Russo-Austrian army with the Hungarians before Komorn, July 1 6 ; the Hungarians entered Moldavia, July 23 ; the Austrians routed and driven from Raab, with great loss, Aug. 3 ; the Hungarian leader of the principal army treacherously treated with the Russians, and 25,000 men surrender to them, Aug. 13; the Austrians then reoccupy Raab, Aug. 15; Pet erwaradin surrendered, Sept. 6; Komorn, Sept. 28; treaty between Austria and Prussia for a new central power, an appeal having been made to some of the lesser powers of the empire, Sept. 30 ; Austria protested against the alliance of Prussia with some of the in- ferior states of Germany, and against any parliament of these states being convened at Erfurt, Nov. 12 ; Hanover withdrew from the Prussian union, Feb. 23, 1850 ; treaty of Munich, between Austria, Bavaria, Saxony, and Wurtemberg, for a Ger- man union, Feb. 27 ; Hesse Cassel refused to send a representative to Wurtem- berg, and Hesse Darmstadt withdrew from the Prussian league, June ; Austria convened an assembly of the German confederation at Frankfort, July 19 ; pleni- potentiaries of Austria, Hanover, and seven other states, met at Frankfort, and declared themselves the council of the German diet, Sept. ; an Austrian and Ba- varian corps entered Hesse Cassel, and also a Prussian force on the following day, Nov. I ; a conference held at Dresden, Dec. 23 ; conference closed, May 15, 1851, having passed a resolution to restore the diet of Frankfort ; attempt to establish a commercial code, 1857 ; several attempts made to revise the constitution of the confederation, 1859 ; a commercial code adopted, May 31, 1861 ; a con- gress of sovereigns held at Frankfort-on-the-Maine, Aug. 17, 1863 ; a congress of deputies held at the same town, Aug. 21 ; the diet resolved to invade Denmark, Dec. 7 ; the Prussian and Austrian forces invaded Holstein, Dec. 23 ; the diet re- solved to evacuate that state, Dec. 5> 1864 ; the 5oth anniversary of the Germanic confederation held, June 8, 1865 ; a proposition for the election of a representa- tive assembly by universal suffrage made to the diet by Prussia, April 9, 1866 ; a committee on reform appointed, April 26 ; a conference held by the states upon military affairs, May 8, and they called upon the states to reduce the armies to a peace footing, May 18 ; a resolution passed to assist Saxony against Prussia, June 16 ; and Prince Charles of Bavaria appointed commander-in-chief of the forces, June 27 ; invitation from Prussia to 16 states to conclude an alliance with that state, July 16 ; concluded subsequently ; the North German parliament opened by the King of Prussia, Feb. 24, 1867; constitution adopted, April 17; the Prussian Chamber opened by King William, April 29 ; the North German parliament opened, Sept 10 ; closed, Oct. 26. GERMANY, KINGS OF : Carolingian Dynasty. Louis I., Le Debonnaire ... 814 Charlemagne ... ... 800 Lothaire I. ... ... ... 840 GERON, ST GHENT 349 Louis II Charles II., the Bald Louis III., the Stammerer ... Charles III., the Gross Arnold ,, made Emperor Louis IV., seven years old ... The House of Franconia. Conrad I. The House of Saxony. Henry I. ... Othol OthoII OthoIII St Henry II. The House of Franconia. Conrad II., the Salique Henry III., the Black Henry IV Henry V Lothaire II. ... House of Suabia. Conrad III Frederick I., Barbarossa Henry VI Philip Otho IV., Duke of Brunswick Frederick II., King of Sicily Conrad IV William, Count of Holland Richard, Earl of Cornwall Alphonso X. , King of Castile GERON, ST, order of knighthood of, in Germany, began, 1154. GERON A, Spain, a fortified city. St Paul and St James first rested here when they came into this country ; taken by Charlemagne, 785 ; recaptured by the Moors, who sacked it, 795 ; it was soon after recovered by the Count of Arragon ; Philip V. abolished its university and privileges, 1715 ; besieged by Duhesme, but unsuc- cessfully, June, 1808 ; he renewed the siege hi July, but was again defeated. An Ulster regiment under Col. O'Daly and compelled to retire, Aug. 16 ; again be- sieged and bombarded by the French, 35,000 strong, for seven months ; capitu- lated, Dec. 12, 1809 ; the conquerors lost 15,000 men. Made a bishop's see by Charlemagne, 786; cathedral founded, 910; rebuilt, 1316. GERTRUYDENBERG, Holland. This town was founded and fortified, 647 ; the castle built, 1321 ; taken by the French, Feb., 1793 ; and again, 1795. GERVIS ABBEY, Yorkshire, founded, 1145. GETTYSBURG, battle. The Confederates, under Gen. Lee, attacked the Federals under Gen. Meade, and after a severe struggle with varying success, retreated with 24,000 prisoners, July I 3, 1863 ; the loss on both sides exceeded 15,000 men. GHENT, Belgium, the capital of theNervii. St Amaud endeavoured to convert its inhabitants from Paganism, A. D. 630. Gravensteen Castle built in the I2th century ; 855 s-- House of Hapsburg. B 75 877 8?Q Rodolph I., the Merciful ... A dolphus of Nassau "73 1291 "ly 887 Albert I 1298 g 1 House of Luxemburg. 899 Henry VII 1308 Louis V. I3H QI2 Charles IV 1347 y**' Wenceslaus, King of Bohemia 1378 Robert 1400 918 Sigismund 1410 936 Hereditary Emperors of the 973 House of Austria. 983 1 002 Albert II., the Magnanimous 1438 Frederick II I. 1440 Maximilian I. 1493 1024 Charles V 1519 1039 Ferdinand I. 1558 1056 Maximilian II. 1564 1106 Rodolph II. 1576 1125 Matthias 1612 Ferdinand II. 1619 Ferdinand III. 1637 1138 Leopold I. ... ... ... 1657 1152 Joseph I. ... 1703 1190 Charles VI. 1711 1197 1208 Charles VII. 1740 1212 The House of Lorraine. 1253 Francis I. ... 1745 1254 Joseph II. 1765 1256 Leopold II. ... 1790 1271 Francis II. 1792 350 GHERGONG GIBRALTAR Count Baldwin granted a charter conferring many liberties upon the inhabitants, 1180 ; John of Gaunt born here, 1340 ; and Charles V. born here, 1500 ; revolted, 1539; treaty or ' pacification of Ghent,' signed, Nov. 8, 1576; the Spaniards capitu- lated, Nov. II, 1576; restored to Spain by treaty, Sept. 17, 1584; taken by Louis of France, after a siege of 6 days, March 8, 1678 ; the citadel surrendered, March II ; restored by the treaty of Nimeguen, 1678 ; taken by the allies, under Marl- borough, 1 706 ; seized by the French, 1 708 ; recaptured by the allies, under Prince Eugene and the Duke of Marlborough ; the peace between England and the United States signed here, Dec. 24, 1814; Louis XVIII. took refuge here upon the return of Napoleon from Elba, 1815 ; became a part of the new kingdom of Belgium, 1830; the railway opened to Ostend, 1838 ; erected into a bishopric, 1559, by Pope Paul IV. GHERGONG, the capital of Assam, India, nearly all engulfed by an earthquake, when many thousands of persons perished, 1803. GHERIAH, Hindustan, taken possession of by the Mahrattas, in the I7th century ; Conajee Angria, the pirate, established an independent sovereignty here, 1707; defeated and destroyed by the British fleet, 1756 ; ceded to the East India Com- pany, 1818. GHIBELLINES and the GUELPHS. This faction rose in Italy, 1240, upon the excommunication of the Emperor Frederick II., by Pope Gregory IX. ; the former were in favour of the Emperor, and the latter of the Pope ; the Ghibellines defeated in Italy, 1267-8. GHIZNI, Afghanistan. This celebrated town and fortress made the seat of govern- ment by Abustakeen, 976 ; stormed by Allahudeen, Prince of Ghoor, 1151 ; the tomb of Mahmood, of Ghizni, the great Persian ruler, is situated here ; the town was stormed and carried by the English, under Sir John Keane, July 23, 1839 ; surrendered by the English to the Afghans, March, 1842 ; retaken by Gen. Nott, Sept. 6, 1842. GIANTS are first spoken of in Gen. vi. 4, under the name of Nephilim. Goliath, a famous giant of Gath, who defied the armies of Israel, I Sam. xvii. 4, his height was six cubits and a span, which, taking the cubit at 21 inches, would make him \o l /2. feet high . Some of the noted giants of modern times : John Middleton, child, of Hale, Lancashire, born, 1578, was nine feet three inches high ; Walter Parsons, porter to James I., was seven feet seven inches high ; Christopher Miller, the German giant, born at Leipzig, 1674, was seven feet eight inches high ; Edmund Malone, the Irish giant, exhibited at Southwark fair, was seven feet seven inches high, he subsequently reached eight feet ; Patrick Cotter, another Irish giant, born at Kinsale, Ireland, 1 760, eight feet three inches high ; James Toller, the Huntingdon giant, born at St Neots, Aug. 28, 1 795, eight feet six inches high ; Samuel M 'Donald, or ' Big Sam,' porter to the Prince of Wales at Carlton House, was nearly eight feet high ; Thomas Bell, the Cambridge giant, exhibited in Ox- ford-street, 1813, was seven feet two inches high ; Robert Hales, the Norfolk giant, born at Somerton, near Great Yarmouth, May 2, 1820, was seven feet six inches high; Joseph Brice, a French giant, 1862, measured seven feet seven inches; the Chinese giant, Chang, exhibited in London, 1866, was seven feet nine inches high. GIBBETS. The last one erected in England was for Mr George Cook, the murderer of Mr Paas, of Leicester ; the gibbet was 30 feet high and stood in Saffron Lane, near the Aylestone toll gate, Aug. 1 1, 1832. The last demolished in England upon Jarrow, Stoke-on-the-Tyne, March, 1856, the last person hung upon it being William Jobbing, June, 1832. GIBRALTAR, Spain. The Saracens built a fortress here, 711 ; taken by the Spaniards, 1309 ; the Moors recaptured it by surprise, 1333 ; it was taken from GILBERTINES GIN 351 the Moors by the King of Castile, 1462 ; incorporated by Spain, 1502 ; taken by a combined English and Dutch fleet under Sir G. Rooke, July 24, 1704; be- sieged by the French and Spaniards, Oct. II, 1704, who lost 10,000 men before it in vain ; confirmed to England by the peace of Utrecht, April n, 1713 ; again attacked by the Spaniards, who were repulsed, 1 720 ; a third siege and repulse of the Spaniards, with a loss of 5000 men, 1727 ; communication of, with Spain cut ofii 1732 ; Gen. Sabine, governor of, fined ^700 for cruelty, Feb. 21, 1738 ; greatly injured by a storm, Feb. 3, 1 766. Memorable siege of, by the French and Spaniards with an army of 40,000 men, from July, 1779, to Feb., 1783, when looo guns were brought to bear upon it, and 47 sail-of-the-line and 10 floating batteries, with 212 guns, besides mortars : they were defeated, Sept. 13, 1782. Royal battery destroyed by fire, Nov., 1800 ; the yellow fever raged in the town and garrison, 1804-5 ; a fatal fever again, Sept. 5 to Jan. 12, 1828-9 ; the cele- brated Spanish lines across the isthmus from Fort San Philipe to Fort San Barbara, blown up and destroyed by the English, on the advance of Marshal Soult, 1810 ; the yellow fever destroyed the major part of the garrison, 1813 and 1828 ; a bishopric established, 1842. GILBERTINES, a religious order founded at Lincoln by Gilbert, Lord of Semp- ringham, 1 148 ; at the dissolution of monasteries there were 25 houses of this order. GILDING, an art practised by the ancients, according to Herodotus, Pliny, and others. Gilding with leaf gold on bole ammoniac, art of, invented by Margaritore, 1273 ; on wood, 1680, in a more approved manner than before ; Mr Elkington's patent for gilding copper or brass, June, 1836, and Dec. 8, 1840 ; M. de Ruolz patented his process, Dec. 19, 1840. GILES' CHURCH, ST, Cripplegate, London, built, 1090; partially burnt, 1545 ; tower raised, 1682 ; Milton buried in, 1674. GILES', ST, Camberwell, burnt, Feb. 7, 1841 ; rebuilt and opened, Nov. 27, 1844. GILES', ST, In-the-Fields. This church was built, 1733. GILES' HOSPITAL, ST, In-the-Fields, founded for lepers by Queen Matilda, 1117 ; the village built, 1213 ; the gallows were removed from the Elms in Smith- field to the north end of the garden wall of the hospital, circa 1413. Seven Dials built in the temp, of Charles II.; Evelyn mentions in his Diary the new building at, 1694 ; the Rookery first colonized by the Irish in the temp, of Eliza- beth. GILLINGHAM, Dorsetshire, injured by fire, May 5, 1752. GILLINGWOOD, near Richmond, Yorkshire, burnt down, Dec. n, 1750. GILTSPUR-STREET COMPTER, London, built from the designs of G. Dance, 1791, cost ,20,473 5 the prisoners removed to the New Prison at Holloway, Oct. 6, 1852 ; taken down, 1853 ; the Great Fire ended at Pie Corner. A figure of a boy with his arms folded, with the following inscription upon his body : ' This boy is in memory put up for the late Fire of London, occasioned by the sin of Gluttony, 1666,' erected against a public-house (The Fortune of War). GIN, corrupted from Geneva, or to distinguish that distilled in this country ; the dis- tillation encouraged by the 2 Will. & Mary, c. 9, 1690, and the 7 & 8 Will. III. c. 30, 1696 ; a duty of $s. per gallon levied upon, by 2 Geo. II. c. 17, 1729 ; in- quiry into the excessive drinking of, 1736 ; the sellers of, required to take out a license of .50 annually, and a duty of 2OJ. per gallon levied upon, 9 Geo. II. 0.23, to come into operation, Sept. 29, 1736 ; repealed, 1743 ; in 1849 the duty upon, was 7*. lod. per gallon in England, 3*. &/. in Scotland, and 2s. 8d. in Ireland. The consumption of British spirits in 1854 had increased to 25,000,000 gallons; 352 GIN SHOPS . GLASGOW the duty increased in the three kingdoms to ior. per gallon, 23 & 24 Viet. c. 90, Aug. 28, 1860. GIN SHOPS, act for excise upon, 9 Geo. II. c. 23, 1736; amended, 23 & 24 Viet. c. 114, Aug. 28, 1860. GINGEE, Hindustan. This town fortified by Runga Naik, 1442 ; surprised and captured by the French, 1750 ; surrendered to the English, April 5, 1761. GIRDLE, an ancient article of dress worn by both men and women in the East. The common girdle made of leather, Matt. iii. 4 ; sometimes studded with gold and precious stones ; the making of, formed part of the employment of women, Prov. xxxi. 24 ; the military girdle for carrying the sword or dagger, Judg. iii. 16, 2 Sam. xx. 8 ; girdles of sackcloth worn as mourning, Is. iii. 24 ; xxii. 12 ; they were also worn by the priests, Ex. xxviii. 39 ; girdlers permitted to garnish their girdles with white metal, 15 Rich. II. c. II, 1391; John Baret of Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk, describes in his will girdles of different colours, some enriched with gold ornaments, which he left to different friends, 1463. GIRDLERS' COMPANY incorporated, 27 Henry VI., Aug. 6, 1449 ; the pinners and wireworkers united to, 10 Eliz., Oct. 12, 1568; re-incorporated, 15 Charles I., Oct. 17, 1639; arms granted to, 32 Henry VI. , 1454; hall built in Basing- hall-street, 1681. GIRONDISTS. This political party in France first came into power, March, 1792 ; the ministry being formed, Roland, minister of the interior, Claviere of finance, Servan of war, Duranthon of justice, Gen. Dumouriez of foreign affairs ; war declared by them, April 20, 1792; dismissed from office, June 12; united with the Jacobins in an insurrectionary movement in June ; opposed the Montagne party in the National Convention, Sept. 21 ; they were arrested, June 2, 1793 ; 21 condemned to death, Oct. 16 ; 73 members of this party recalled to the Convention, Nov., 1795. GISBOROUGH PRIORY, Yorkshire, founded by Robert de Brus, 1129. GISORS, battle. Richard I. defeated the French under Philip II. of France, 40 barons and 100 knights killed, Oct. 28, 1194. GITSCHIN, battle. The Prussians under Prince Frederick Charles defeated the Austrian and Saxon troops commanded by Count Clam Gallas, who lost in killed and wounded 3000 men and 7000 prisoners, June 29, 1866. GIURGEVO, Wallachia, a fortified town. The Russians defeated the Turks here, 1773 > captured the town, 1811, and again, 1829, when its defences were de- stroyed ; the Russians defeated by the Turks, July 7, 1854. GLADIATORS, Combats of, abolished by Constantine the Great in the East, 325 ; and everywhere suppressed by Theodoric, 50x3. The Emperor Trajan exhibited combats of gladiators for 123 days, 103, when 1000 gladiators contended ; war of, at Mount Vesuvius, B.C. 73 ; at the Triumph of Probus, A.D. 281, when about 80 gladiators exhibited their courage. GLADIATORS, Order of, began in Livonia, 1204. GLAMORGAN, S. Wales, explosion in the Ferndale Colliery, 170 lives lost, Nov. 8, 1867. GLANDELAGH, Irish bishopric, united to the archbishopric of Dublin, 1214; St Keven, the founder, 610 ; it is called commonly the Seven Churches. GLARUS, Switzerland, united to the Helvetic Confederation, 1352 ; defeated the Austrians at Nafels, 1388 ; Zuinglius was the pastor here from 1506 to 1516. GLASGOW, Scotland, founded by St Kentigern, circa 560 ; cathedral founded in the loth century ; rebuilt, July, 1136 ; made a free burgh by William the Lion, 1178 and 1190; a battle fought in the High-street by the Scots under Wallace GLASGOW . GLASS 353 and the English under Percy, the fonner being successful, 1300; visited by the plague in the years 1350, 1380, and 1381 ; charter given by James II., 1451 ; uni- versity founded, 1451 ; the castle besieged by the Regent, Arran, 1542, and town plundered ; Queen Mary visited the city, 1563 ; the castle again besieged, 1570 ; made a royal burgh, 1611 ; the Presbyterian Church Assembly met here, 1638 ; greatly damaged by fire, 1652 ; the Tolbooth broken open and the prisoners re- leased, 1678 ; a charter granted by William III., June 4, 1690 ; the first vessel sailed thence to America, in the tobacco trade, 1718 ; great riot on account of the malt tax, June 24, 1725 ; magistrates confined for it at Edinburgh, July 16, 1725 ; shock of an earthquake at, July II, 1732 ; compelled to raise ^5500 for the Pretender, Oct. 4, 1745 ; 200 families at, rendered destitute by a fire, June 3, 1749; theatre opened at, April, 1764; power-loom introduced at, 1773.; a regi- ment of 1000 men raised by the city upon the breaking out of the American war, 1775 ; theatre burned, 1780; an inundation of the Clyde, 1782; Chamber of Commerce formed, 1783 ; Trades' Hall built, 1791 ; new college buildings erected, 1811 ; commotions and trials for treason at, 1811 ; theatre burned, Jan. 12, 1829 ; Exchange opened, Sept. 3, 1829 ; destructive fire and ,150,000 damage, Jan. 14, 1832; lotteries suppressed by William IV., July 25, 1834; 70 persons crushed to death in consequence of an alarm of fire in the theatre, Feb. 17, 1849 ; visited by the Queen and Prince Albert, Aug. 14, 1849 ; Lord Palmerston installed as Lord Rector, March 29, 1863 ; the Polytechnic Institution destroyed by fire, among the valuables burnt was Watt's first steam-engine, Sept. 2, 1864 ; Reform Demonstration at, Oct. 16, 1866 ; meeting of the Highland Agricultural Society of Scotland at, July 30, 1867. GLASGOW, The City of. This steam vessel, of 1087 tons burden and 350 horse power, having onboard 480 persons, left Liverpool for America, March I, 1854, and has never since been heard of. GLASGOW, screw steam-ship, destroyed by fire, the crew saved, July 31, 1865. GLASGOW, Bishopric of, before the Revolution, said to have been founded by St Mungo, 560 ; the see archiepiscopal, 1491 ; suppressed at the Revolution ; the cathedral commenced, 1121; bishopric revived, 1724. GLASGOW SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES : Archaeological Society instituted, 1856; Geological, 1858; Literary, 1758; Natural History, 1851; Philosophical Society, 1802 ; Statistical, 1836. GLASITES, or SANDEMANIANS, a modern sect, originated in Scotland by Mr J. Glas, 1728, and by Mr Sandeman, 1762. GLASS. Sir Gardener Wilkinson adduces proofs that this art was known in Egypt before the Exodus. A glass head bearing the name of a king who lived B.C. 1450, discovered at Thebes ; on the paintings at Beni Hassan the figures of glass- blowers at work are depicted, B.C. 2000 ; Mr Layard discovered a small vase of green glass at the palace of Nimrod with a cuneiform inscription to ' Sargon,' King of Assyria, the founder of Khorsabad, B.C. 709 ; glass utensils were found in the ruins of Herculaneum, destroyed A. D. 79 ; the Barberini or Portland Vase found in the tomb of Alexander Severus at Rome, A.D. 222 235 ; the celebrated glass cup of Chosroes, King of Persia, A.D. 531 79. The art of glass-making re- discovered by a monk, circa 635 ; Abbot Benedict brought over from France arti- ficers skilled in this art, who taught the English ; Weremouth church glazed, 674 ; private mansions began to be glazed with glass, 1 1 80 ; used generally in ecclesiastical buildings, 1450 ; glass for domestic purposes was in general use throughout Eng- land, 1465 ; manufactory established in the Savoy, 1557, and by the Hugue- not refugees at Birmingham, 1557-8 ; the finer sort made at Crutched Friars, 1635 ; a patent granted to Sir Robert Mansell for making, 1559. The Venetians were famed for this art in the gth century : the glasshouses removed to the adjacent 23 354 GLASS GLOBE island, called Muran, 1291. Bottles first made in England, 1557 ; improved, 1635. Lehmann invented the cutting of glass by a crystal, 1609 ; plate-glass for looking-glasses made at Lambeth, 1673 ; incorporated company instituted at Ravenhead, 1773 ; glass-making introduced into America by Robert Hewes, 1790 ; a factory erected at Boston, 1800 ; German glass introduced into England, 1804. A duty imposed upon, by 6 & 7 Will. & Mary, c. 18, 1695 ; partially repealed, 9 & 10 Will. III. c. 45, 1698; repealed, 10 & u Will. III. c. 18, 1699; reim- posed by 19 George II. c. 12, 1746 ; amended by 35 George III. c. 114, 1795 ; abolished by8 & 9 Viet. c. 6, April 24, 1845. GLASS, painted or stained, known at an early period. The treatise of Theophilus, ' Diversarum Artium Schedula,' published in the loth century, described the art of glass-painting. Practised in England by Abbot Suger in the middle of the 1 2th century ; France was noted for this art at that time ; painted glass is men- tioned in the will of John Baret of Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk, 1463 ; reached great perfection, in 1530- GLASSES, MUSICAL, invented by a German; revived by Franklin, 1760; brought to perfection by the brothers Cartwrights, in England, 1799. Optical glasses, Mr Guinand succeeded in producing discs of good flint glass of 12 to 14 inches in diameter, 1828 ; pure discs of flint glass of 29 inches in diameter, exhi- bited at the Exhibition of 1851. GLASS-SELLERS' COMPANY, incorporated by Charles I., July 25, 1640 ; re- incorporated by Charles II., July 25, 1664 ; livery granted by the court of Alder- men, March 20, 1710; increased, Feb. I, 1825. GLASTONBURY, Somerset, the abbey said to be founded by Joseph of Arimathea. First Saxon abbot was Berthwald, 630 ; enlarged by Ina, King of Wessex, 708 ; rebuilt, 954; burnt down, 1184, and rebuilt, 1197. The town destroyed by the Danes, 873 ; rebuilt by Henry III.; almost destroyed by an earthquake, 1276 ; restored, 1282. Riching Whiting, the last abbot, hanged in his robes, because he denied the spiritual supremacy of Henry VIII., Nov. 15, 1539. GLATZ, Prussia, taken by the Poles, 1114; annexed to Bohemia, from 1561 to 1742 ; ceded to Frederick II., King of Prussia, March, 1742 ; surrendered to the Austrians, July 26, 1760. GLAZIERS' COMPANY, incorporated by Charles I., Nov. 6, 1637 ; confirmed by Charles II. Their hall destroyed in the fire of 1666. GLEASTON CASTLE, Yorkshire, built by Lord Harington, 1340. GLENCOE, massacre of the M 'Donalds, under the pretence of not surrendering to King William's proclamation. A pacification had been entered into with, Aug., 1691, to all who should take the oaths of allegiance before Dec. 31 : all took the required oaths except M'lvan and the chief of the M 'Donalds ; 60 unoffending men were murdered, and their wives and children turned out in a freezing night to perish of cold and hunger ; the Earl of Argyle's regiment committed these as- sassinations, Feb. 13, 1692. GLENLIVAT, battle. The popish lords, Eirol and Huntley, with a body of gen- tlemen of the Low Countries, totally defeated the Highlanders, 7000 strong, com- manded by the Earl of Argyle and Lord Forbes, Oct. 3, 1594. GLOBE, or SPHERE, as a term used for the earth's form, first stated by Thales, 640 A.C., as well as by Pythagoras, 506 A.c. The first ship that sailed round the earth was that of Magellan, 1520, who died before he reached home ; the survivors demonstrated the fact. Sir Francis Drake completed his voyage of circumnaviga- tion, 1577 ; and others quickly followed. GLOBE of fire passed over the island of Funen, in Denmark, in open day, Sept., 1807. A similar phenomenon observed the same time at Jutland. GLOBES, ARTIFICIAL GLOUCESTER 355 GLOBES, ARTIFICIAL. One in the royal library in Paris is of a large size; at Cambridge is one of 18 feet diameter, and at Gottorp, one of n feet ; the last made at the expense of the Duke of Holstein, Frederick III., was, under the direc- tion of Olearius, planned after a design of Tycho Brahe, discovered among his papers ; it was presented to Peter the Great of Russia, 1713 ; nearly destroyed by fire, 1757; it was reconstructed. A globe of very large dimensions was erected in the centre of Leicester Square, by Mr Wyld, the hydrographer, so large as to admit a numerous body of spectators within-side it, 1851 ; removed, 1861. GLOBE THEATRE, Bankside, built for Richard Burbage, Dec. 22, 1593 ; licence granted by King James I. to Shakespeare, 1603 ; destroyed by fire, June 29, 1613. It was rebuilt, 1614. GLORIA PATRI, the doxology of, first used, 382 ; called doxology because it be- gan with 'doxa,' glory. GLOUCESTER, City of. This town taken by the Romans, 47 ; captured by the West Saxons, 578, and called by them Glean-ceasters ; the city enlarged by Wulf- here, first Christian King of Mercia, 679 ; monastery of St Peter's founded by Ethelred, 680 ; made a royal burgh by Edgar, 964 ; plundered by the Danes and burnt in the reign of Ethelred II. ; the castle built by William I., 1068 1080 ; William II. and Edward I. resided in, and the latter held a parliament here, 1279 ; Richard II. also held a parliament in the castle, 1378; Henry IV., 1403, and Henry V., 1420 ; a mint established, 1216. Cathedral began by Abbot Serlo, noo ; south aisle of nave, by Abbot Thokey, 1318 1329 ; south transept, by Abbot Wiggemore, 1340 ; cloisters, 1351 1412 ; west front and south porch, by Abbot Morwent, 1430 ; central tower, by Abbot Seabroke, 1460 ; lady chapel, by Abbot Hanley, 1466 1470 ; Saxon, 408 feet long, 83 wide ; tower 225 feet high. The town declared for the Parliament in the civil war, and defeated Lord Herbert at the head of 2000 Welsh Royalists, 1642 ; the city besieged by Prince Rupert, Aug. 5, 1643 ; the garrison skirmished with the king's troops, Aug. 7 ; Charles arrived with 6000 horse, Aug. 10 ; they besieged the town, Aug. 1 1 ; the East Gate mined by the Royalists, Aug. 26 29 ; the siege raised, Sept 1 1 ; the garrison harassed the retreating forces of the king, and captured considerable booty, Sept 12 ; Charles II. ordered the fortifications and city walls to be de- stroyed on account of the resistance offered to his father, 1662 ; he also destroyed the castle and deprived the town of its charters, but subsequently for a considera- tion granted them a new one ; visited by James II., 1687 ; George IV. when Prince of Wales received the freedom of this city, 1807 ; new bridge began, 1814 ; the Gloucester and Berkeley Canal opened, April, 1827. GLOUCESTER COLLEGE, or PRIORY, Oxford, founded by John Gifford, 1283. GLOUCESTER, Duchess of, punished for a witch, 1442. GLOUCESTER, Duchess of, the last of the family of George III., died at the age of 81, April 30, 1857. GLOUCESTER, Duke of, smothered between two feather-beds at Calais, Sept 28, 1397, by Richard II. GLOUCESTER, Humphrey, Duke of, fourth son of Henry IV., murdered at St Edmondsbury, and buried at St Albans, 1447. GLOUCESTER, Richard, Duke of, and brother of Edward IV., appointed Pro- tector, 1483 ; murdered his nephews, Edward, Prince of Wales, and Richard, Duke of York, 1483. GLOUCESTER, See of, founded, Sept. 3, 1541 ; remodelled by Henry VIII., 356 GLOUCESTER GODWIN'S OATH 1550 ; suppressed, and its territory united to that of Worcester, John Hooper being made bishop, May 20, 1552 ; Bristol united to Gloucester, Oct. 5, 1836. GLOUCESTER, Statutes of, making several alterations in the holding of land, &c., passed by the parliament held at this town by Edward I., Aug., 1278. GLOVERS' COMPANY incorporated, 14 Charles I., Sept. 5, 1638 ; given the power of search over all the trade within three miles of London ; arms granted to, Oct. 20, 1464. GLOVES, of considerable antiquity. Xenophon in the Cyropsedia mentions the fact that on one occasion Cyrus went without his gloves ; during the middle ages gloves were worn by ecclesiastical and other dignitaries as a mark of distinction ; William of Colchester, abbot of Westminster, is represented in jewelled gloves, 1420 ; embroidered gloves introduced, 1580 ; importation prohibited, 3 Edw. IV. c. 4, 1463, 6 Geo. III. c. 19, 1766 ; prohibition annulled and a duty fixed, 6Geo. IV. c. 105, July 5, 1825. GLUCKSTADT, Denmark, founded by Christian IV., 1616 ; fortified, 1620; be- sieged unsuccessfully for 15 weeks by Tilly, 1628 ; fortifications destroyed, 1815 ; made a free port, 1830. GLYCERINE discovered by Scheele, 1789; since used for medicinal purposes, first so used by Mr T. Dela Rue, 1844. Nitro-glycerine, an explosive substance stronger than gunpowder, discovered by Sombrero, 1847, but was comparatively useless until Andrew Nobel, a Swede, discovered a method of exploding it by concussion. A serious explosion of, on board the ship 'European' in the harbour of Colon Panama, April 3, 1866 ; another on the Town Moor at Newcastle-upon- Tyne, seven persons killed, Dec. 17, 1867. GNOSTICS, a sect who professed to interpret the Scriptures by philosophy taught in the apostolical age by Simon, the Samaritan, Acts of the Apostles viii. 10 ; Basilides and Valentinus, the two greatest philosophers of their time, taught this doctrine, A.D. 125. GOA, Western India, taken by Bijanagur, a Hindoo Raja, 1469 ; besieged and captured by Albuquerque, who made it the capital of the Portuguese possessions in the East, 1510; possessed by the English, 1807; the Inquisition abolished, 1812. GOBELIN, the celebrated French dyer, lived, 1662 ; Gobelin tapestry, so called from the brothers wool-dyers of that name ; the tapestry still manufactured by Colbert, in the residence of Giles Gobelin, which was purchased by Louis XIV. for the purpose, 1666. GODALMING BRIDGE, Surrey, began, July, 1782. GODERICH ADMINISTRATION formed by Lord Goderich, Aug. 10, 1827 ; resigned, Jan. 8, 1828. GODESTOW NUNNERY, Oxfordshire. John de St John gave the land, temp. Henry I., and the abbess, Editha, founded the nunnery, 1138. GODFATHERS AND GODMOTHERS, in the baptism of infants and of bells, instituted by Pope Telesphorus in the 2nd century, about 130. The number in the Church of Rome is two, and the Church of England three. GODFREY, Sir Edmondsbury, found murdered near Primrose-hill, Oct. 17, 1678. GODOLPHIN ADMINISTRATION in Queen Anne's reign, May 8, 1702 ; the Earl was Lord Treasurer until Aug. 8, 1710, when he resigned. GODWIN'S OATH, a phrase for perjury, after Earl Godwin, brother of Edward the Confessor, who was tried for the murder of Prince Alfred, and pardoned ; hoping the bread he was eating might stick in his throat if he were guilty, it did stick, and he was choked, 1053. GODWIN SANDS GOLD AND SILVER STANDARDS 357 GODWIN SANDS, off the coast of Kent, once part of the estate of Earl Godwin of Kent Florence of Worcester in his Chronicles describes a disastrous irruption of the sea, by which whole villages were submerged and an innumerable multitude of people were drowned, 1014 ; this is confirmed by Henry of Huntingdon. An- other inundation occurred, according to the Anglo-Saxon chronicle, Nov. n, 1099. Previous to the erection of a lighthouse in 1817 it was found that there was 15 feet of sand. GOG AND MAGOG, the Guildhall Giants. When Henry V. made his triumph- al entry to London, 1415, a male and female giant stood at London Bridge, the male bearing an axe and the keys of the city ; a mighty giant awaited Henry VI. in the same place, 1432 ; and in 1554, when Philip and Mary made their pub- lic entry, the two giants, Corineus and Gog-Magog, received them at London Bridge ; the same two were stationed at Temple Bar when Elizabeth passed through the city, Jan. 12, 1558 ; they were afterwards used in the Lord Mayor's Show from 1605 ; these two wicker giants falling into decay, the present effigies were made by Capt. Richard Carver of King-street, Cheapside, 1 707. GOLD. The scarcest and most pure of metallic bodies, and the most valuable, from its colour, lustre, weight, and ductility. It was known from the earliest times, Gen. ii. II, but chiefly used for ornaments, Gen. xxiv. 22, and was very abundant, I Chro. xxii. 14, 2 Chro. i. 15, ix. 9. The chief gold-producing countries were Arabia, Sheba, Ophir, and Uphez. A goldsmith is mentioned as making gold idols, Is. xlvi. 6. It has been found in many parts of the world : brought from the mines of Chili, 1540 ; from Brazil, 1694-5 5 the Moluccas, Oct. 27, 1731 ; in New Andalusia, 1785 ; in Cornwall, 1795; and at Wicklow, Ireland, more than 1000 ounces were collected, 1795; Ceylon, 1800 ; Russia, 1809; in large quantities in California, 1847; Australia, Sept. 18, 1851 ; British Columbia, 1856; three vessels arrived in the Thames from, with seven tons of gold on board, Nov. 23, 1852 ; the Aus- tralian steamer arrived at Plymouth with the Victoria Nugget, weighing 340 ounces, Jan. n, 1853 ; the Blanche Barkly Nugget, weighing 146 Ibs of pure gold, ex- hibited to the Queen, April 28, 1858. Gold manufactured in England as early as the 6th century ; standard fixed by 17 & 18 Viet. c. 96, Aug. 10, 1854 ; wedding rings the next year exempted, c. 60, July 23, 1855. There are now five standards, viz. 22, 1 8, 15, 12, 9 carats ; several bars of gold connected by links, supposed to be ornaments worn by Celtic kings, were found at Mantfield in East Sussex by a labourer, Jan. 12, 1863. GOLD AND SILVER STANDARDS. At the first coinage of gold by Edward III., 1344, the current value of lib. of the old standard gold ( l /% of a carat alloy to 23% carats of fine gold) was 1$ ; it was progressively raised till it reached ^25 2s. 6d. in the reign of Henry VIII., who established the new standard of 22 carats gold and 2 carats alloy, and the two standards had currency together for more than a century, by the name of angel (or fine) gold and crown gold respectively. In 1670, the new standard was established by Charles II. as the sole standard, and has so continued ever since ; its current value had been raised at various times, and was raised to .46 14^. 6cf., 1718; I Ib. of standard gold being now coined after the rate of 46 29-40 sovereigns to the pound weight troy. Silver: the current value of I Ib. weight of old standard silver, the ' Old right standard of England,' as it is called in the Mint Indenture of 1357 (11 oz. 2 dwts of fine silver, and 18 dwts of alloy), increased progressively from 2Or. in 1279 to 45^. in 1526 ; the stand- ard was afterwards debased, and for sixpences and smaller moneys Edward VI. sanctioned a coinage of 3 oz. fine to 9 oz. alloy, the basest silver ever sanctioned in this country. Queen Mary restored the silver to a standard of 1 1 oz. fine to I ox. alloy ; Elizabeth restored the old standard of 1 1 oz. 2 dwts fine, and this has still continued in force ; the I Ib. weight was coined into 62s., 1817 ; it was fixed at 66s. The gold and silver coinage was legalized by the 56 Geo. III. c. 68, June 22, 1816. 358 GOLD GOLDSMITHS' COMPANY GOLD AND SILVER WIRE-DRAWERS' COMPANY incorporated, 21 James I., June 14, 1623 ; confirmed by William and Mary, June 16, 1693; the ordin- ances approved by the Lord Keeper, Oct. 17, 1700 ; a livery granted to the Com- pany by the Court of Aldermen, July 1 8, 1780 ; this was the first company which admitted Jews to partake of its privileges. GOLD COINAGE. The Romans established a coinage in this -metal, B.C. 200 ; the Florentines, A. D. 1252 ; introduced into England by Henry III., 1257 ; the florin and half florin of Edward III., 1344, and the noble, 1345 ; Henry VI. in 1470 coined the angel in imitation of the noble; Edward IV., 1460, coined the rose noble ; the ryal or sovereign first coined by Henry VII., 1485 ; crowns by Henry VIII., 1509 ; half-sovereigns by Edward VI., 1547 ; by several indentures of Elizabeth, 1600, one pound weight troy was to be coined in 24 sovereigns, 48 ryals, 72 angels; new coinage ordered by James I., 1617; guineas coined by Charles II., 1660; half guinea, two guinea, and five guinea shortly afterwards. The gold coinage was called in by proclamations and recoined, 1695, temp. William III. ; seven-shilling pieces were coined, 1797 ; sovereigns coined, 1817. GOLDEN BULL, a decree from the papal authority, sealed with a bull of gold, silver, or lead. The golden bull of Brabant issued, 1349 ; of Milan, 1549 ; one made at the diet of Nuremberg, 1356, by Charles IV., related to what became a fundamental law of the empire. GOLDEN CHAIN, the laburnum, brought into England from Hungary before 1576; the golden plant was brought from China, 1782. GOLDEN FLEECE, the order of, was founded by Philip le Bon, Duke of Burgundy and the Netherlands, Jan. 10, 1429, to celebrate his marriage with the Princess Isabella of Portugal; the number fixed at 31, increased by Pope Leo X. to 52, 1516; after the accession of Charles V., 1556, the Spanish- Dutch line of the house of Austria claimed the order ; in 1 700 the Emperor Charles VI. and King Philip of Spain both urged their claims to it ; the archives were taken by Charles VI. to Vienna, where the inauguration of the order was solemnized, 1713; the festival is celebrated annually at Vienna on St Andrew's day, Nov. 30 ; the chapter meets in the Court Chapel every year, on Jan. 6. GOLDEN GATE. This vessel destroyed by fire with 204 persons, it had 1,400,000 dollars on board, July 29, 1862. GOLDEN ROSE, a papal gift presented by the pope to the sovereigns who supported the papacy ; one presented to Henry VIII. by Julius II., 1510; the last presented to the Queen of Spain by Pope Pius IX., 1867. GOLDEN SHIELD AND THISTLE, order of, began, 1370. GOLDSMITHS' COMPANY, incorporated by Edward III., March 30, 1327; confirmed by Richard II., Feb. 6, 1392, and Edward IV., May 30, 1462 ; con- firmed in subsequent reigns, ending with the charter of Will. & Mary ; the arms granted to, Oct. 15, 1551 ; crest, 1561 ; assaying of the precious metals conferred upon the company by 28 Edw. I. c. 20, 1300 ; the wardens to go from shop to shop to see if the gold being used was good ; ordered to be brought to the hall to be assayed, 1336 ; every goldsmith to mark their wares, 1363 ; no gold wares to be sold unless stamped, 1424. Elizabeth ordered that no goldsmith should sell or exchange wares under 22 carats ; and silver wares, 1 1 oz. 2 dwts in the pound, J 573- The company issued an order to enter the names and marks of all gold- smiths in a book, Feb. 23, 1675 > this company was the foundation of the present banking system, the merchants depositing their money in the hands of the com- pany after Charles II. had plundered the mint, the previous depositary ; the old hall taken down, 1829, and the present noble building erected, by Philip Hard- wick, R.A., and opened, July 15, 1835. The following towns besides London have a goldsmiths' hall for assaying : GOOD FRIDAY GORTZ 359 Birmingham Glasgow Chester Newcastle Dublin Sheffield Edinburgh York Exeter GOOD FRIDAY, a day early observed by the Church as the anniversary of the Crucifixion, 33 ; and it is observed with fastings and penances ; it was called Long Friday by the Anglo-Saxons. GOODIER, Captain, hung for the murder of his brother, Sir John Dinely Goodier, at Bristol, Jan. 20, 1740-41. GOODMAN'S FIELDS THEATRE, built by Thomas Odell, and opened Oct., 1729. Owing to a religious prosecution, he sold the house to Mr Henry Giffard, who reopened it, Oct. 20, 1732; the clamour increasing, he removed to it Lincoln's- Inn Fields ; he returned to Goodman's Fields, where Garrick made his first ap- pearance as Richard III., Oct. 19, 1741 ; pulled down, 1746 ; new theatre sub- sequently erected ; this was burnt down, June, 1802. GOODRICH CASTLE, Herefordshire, given by King John to William Marshall, Earl of Pembroke ; rebuilt and fortified by Richard Talbot, 1384-5. GORDIAN KNOT, said to have been made in the leathers or harness of the chariot of Gordius, King of Phrygia, so very intricate that there was no finding where it began or ended ; the tradition existed that whoever effected it would be the master of Asia. Alexander attempted it, but failing, cut it asunder with his sword, and thus accomplished the oracle, B.C. 333. GORDON, LORD GEORGE, he led the 'no popery' mob of that day, the receipt often used in the reign of George III. to raise or quell a mob, according to the ends of those opposed to religious freedom. Lord George Gordon's mob was styled the ' Protestant Association,' the object of which was to urge the return of all the past severities against the Romanists. They met in St George's Fields to present a petition to parliament against the penal laws, June 2, 1780; London was given over to pillage and fire for the six following days ; Roman Catholic chapels burned, and private houses plundered and set fire to ; Newgate was broken open and burnt, 300 prisoners being released, June 6, and Lord Mansfield's mansion, with his valuable library, entirely destroyed, on the 7th ; the military were called out, 210 rioters were killed, and 248 wounded, of whom 75 died afterwards in the hospitals. The author of these riots was apprehended on the 9th, and committed to the Tower for high treason. Many of the rioters were tried and convicted, and some executed, June 28. Lord George Gordon was tried in Westminster Hall for high treason, and acquitted, Feb. 5, 1781 ; died in Newgate, Nov. i, 1793. GOREE ISLAND, on the coast of Africa, settled by the Dutch, 1617 ; nearly de- stroyed by the explosion of a magazine, 1662 ; taken by the English, 1663 ; ceded to France, 1678 ; again taken by the English, Dec. 29, 1758 ; nearly destroyed by fire, March, 1761 ; restored to France, 1763 ; abandoned, 1779 ; captured by the English, 1800, and restored to the French, 1803 ; retaken by the English, March 9, 1804 ; restored to France, 1814. GOREY, battle of, between the English and Irish rebels, in which the latter were victorious ; the former lost several guns, abandoning Gorey and Arklow to the enemy, Jan. 4, 1798. GORING NUNNERY, Oxfordshire, founded by John Plantagenet, Earl of Corn- wall, circa 1186. GORTZ, Baron, the Swedish ambassador in Holland, seized for treasonable prac- tices against England, Jan. 17, 1716 ; sent home and beheaded in Sweden, Feb., 1718-19. 360 GOSPELLERS GRACE DIEU ABBEY GOSPELLERS, a name given to the followers of Wickliffe, 1377, on account of their professing to abide only by the gospel, and setting at nought the authorities of bishops and popes. GOSPORT, Hampshire, ' God's port,' so mentioned in a deed in the archives of the see of Winchester, 1158. Haslar Hospital for sick and wounded seamen, be- gan, 1746, and finished, 1762 ; the Royal Clarence victualling yard, the victual- ling department of the navy, removed here from Portsmouth, 1827-8. GOTHENBURG, Sweden. This town founded by Gustavus Adolphus, 1610 ; in- jured by a fire, which burned 120 houses, 1794; again, Dec. 22, 1802, destroy- ing the cathedral, palace, post-office, several other public buildings, and a fourth part of the city ; again in 1813, which consumed a large part of the town. GOTHLAND ISLAND, Baltic Sea, taken from the Swedes by Vladimir III. of Denmark, 1361 ; restored to the Swedes by treaty, Aug. 14, 1645 ; occupied by the Russians for a short time, 1807. GOTHS. This important branch of the Germanic family is spoken of by Alex- ander as inhabiting the shores of the Baltic ; they conquered Dacia and part of Mcesia, and besieged Marcianopolis, A. D. 246 ; invaded Mcesia a second time, but were defeated by Decius, 250 ; they marched through Macedonia and advanced as far as the pass of Thermopylae, but were defeated and forced to return, 251 ; they became master of the Black Sea, 254, and captured several towns and many vessels ; they visited the Sea of Azov, 258 ; they were subsequently defeated by Claudius at Naissus, 269 ; Dacia given up to them by Aurelian, 272 ; invaded Thrace as far as Illyrium, 273 ; defeated by Constantine, April, 332, nearly 100,000 of their number being slain ; defeated again by Valens, 368-9 ; their ter- ritories invaded by the Huns, 375 ; they sued for the protection of the Romans, who treated them so badly that they united with the Huns against the Romans, and defeated them, 378 ; commanded by Alaric, they marched into Greece and conquered many towns, 396 ; he approached to besiege Milan, but was defeated by the Roman General, Stilicho, at Pollentia, 403 ; marched to Rome, taking the cities of Aquileia, Cremona, and others, and pitched his camp under the walls of Rome, 408 ; ransomed, 409 ; he besieged and sacked Rome, Aug. 24, 410 ; made peace with the Romans, 453 ; invaded Spain, 457 ; Italy, 536 ; and reduced Naples, 537 ; Rome again taken by them, Dec., 546, and 549 ; Totila, their king, defeated and killed, July, 552 ; Teias, their last king, was defeated and slain, March, 553, and soon after they ceased to be a kingdom. GOTTINGEN, University of, founded by George II. of England, 1734; the library contains 200,000 vols. ; Academy of Sciences established at, 1751; taken by the Austrians, Aug. 25, 1760. GOWRIE CONSPIRACIES : first formed between the Earl of Mar and Glencairn, Lord Ruthven, who had been created Earl of Gowrie, to seize James VI. at Ruthven Castle, 1582 ; approved of by the Convention of Estates, Oct. 3. The king escape^, June 27, 1583 ; Earl Gowrie beheaded, 1584. The second was formed by John Ruthven, the Earl of Gowrie, and his brother Alexander, sons of the above, who persuaded the king to visit them at their castle of Perth, 1600, where they made an attempt upon his life ; both the brothers were killed, Aug. 5 ; a public thanksgiving appointed to be held annually, for the king's delivery from the conspiracy, Aug. 5, 1600. GRACE, title of, first assumed by Henry IV. of England, 1399, on his accession ; 'Excellent Grace' assumed by Henry VI., 1425 ; James I. assumed the title of Majesty only; archbishops and dukes are now only addressed as ' your grace.' GRACE DIEU ABBEY, Belton, Leicestershire, founded by Rocsia de Verdon, 1239. GRACE DIEU ABBEY GRAPES 361 GRA.CE DIEU ABBEY, Monmouthshire, founded by John Lord de Monmouth, 1266. GRACE DIEU MONASTERY, near Ashby de la Zouch, founded, 1151. GRAFTON'S ADMINISTRATION, Duke of, began, Dec., 1767 ; resigned, Jan. 28, 1770. GRAGNANO, near Castellamare, a land-slip in the mountain above destroyed above 60 dwellings with their inhabitants, Jan. 22, 1841. GRAHAM'S DYKE, the wall built by the Emperor Severus between England and Scotland, 209. GRAHOVO stormed by the Turkish army under Omar Pasha, and taken, Jan. 19, 1 853- GRAM PI AN HILLS, battle at, between Agricola, and the Picts under Galgacus, in which the Caledonians were routed, 84. GRAN, Hungary, founded by the Romans ; long the residence of the Hungarian kings ; taken by the Turks, 1600 ; defeated and driven out by Sobieski, King of Poland, 1683; the Magyars defeated the Austrians here, Feb. 27, 1849. GRANADA, Spain, founded by the Phoenicians, and taken by the Romans in the 5th century ; refounded by the Moors in the loth century ; became the capital, 1235 ; besieged by Ferdinand and Isabella, and after a brave resistance by the Moors, captured, Jan. 2, 1492. The Moors formed the majority of the inhabit- ants, even as late as 1700. GRANADA, NEW, South America, discovered by Columbus, 1498 ; remained a colony of Spain, a republic, 1732 ; threw off the Spanish yoke, 1810, and an in- cessant war against that power maintained, until they were finally beaten, 1824 ; united with Venezuela, Dec. 17, 1819 ; Venezuela seceded from it, Nov., 1829 ; constituted itself the republic of New Granada, Nov. 21, 1831 ; the constitution promulgated, 1832 ; re-formed, 1843 5 slavery abolished, Jan. i, 1852. GRANARIES. These storehouses against a time of scarcity were early provided by the citizens of London : the Manor of Leaden Hall was invested in the mayor and commonalty, to provide granaries, 1443. Sir Simon Eyre erected the first, 1449 ; twelve new, ordered to be built to hold 6000 quarters of corn, and two storehouses for sea coal, to prevent the dearness of those articles by the great in- crease of inhabitants of London, 7 James I., 1610. GRAND ALLIANCE between the Emperor of Germany, England, and Holland, which Spain afterwards joined, May 12, 1689. GRAND CAIRO built by the Saracens, 969. GRANDELLA, near Benevento, battle. Manfred defeated and killed by Charles of Anjou, Feb. 27, 1266. GRAND JUNCTION CANAL, connecting the Thames, Severn, Mersey, and Trent, commencing at Branston, Northamptonshire, began, 1 793. GRANSON, battle. Charles of Burgundy defeated by the Swiss, who took their camp and a considerable treasure, March 2, 1476. GRANTHAM, Lincolnshire, incorporated by Edward IV., 1463 ; made a parlia- mentary borough, 1467. The Grammar School founded by Richard P'ox, bishop of Winchester, 1528, and endowed by Edward VI.; the Guildhall rebuilt, 1787 ; the Exchange Hall burnt, Nov. 21, 1862. GRANVILLE, France, bombarded and burned by the English, 1695 ; again partly destroyed by the Vendeans, 30,000 strong, 1793, but they were unable to carry the town ; again bombarded by the English, 1803. GRAPES early cultivated in England ; large quantities brought from Flanders, 362 GRAPHOTYPE ENGRAVING GREAT EASTERN 1276 ; grown of good quality formerly south of Cambridgeshire, but not north of that county ; the Vale of Gloucester celebrated for their production by William, of Malmesbury ; the vines of Lincombe, near Bath, noted, 1 1 50, by Archbishop Theobald ; there is a celebrated vine at Hampton Court, planted in 1 769 ; and a noted muscatel at Chevening, Kent, that in 1836 bore 2040 bunches of grapes. GRAPHOTYPE ENGRAVING, invented by Mr Dewitt, and C. Hitchcock, of the United States, 1860. GRATES introduced at a late period ; the fire kindled upon the hearth in the midst of the hall, until chimneys were introduced, 1200. GRAVELINES, France, founded, 1160; fortified by Vauban. The Emperor Charles V. here paid a visit to Henry VIII. , on his return from the field of the Cloth of Gold, 1520; 300 persons killed by an explosion of powder, 1654. GRAVESEND, Kent, built in the reign of Richard II. ; towards the close of his reign, the French made a descent upon the town, and burnt it ; the town was soon after re-erected, and the privilege of conveying passengers and goods to Lon- don conferred, confirmed by charter of Henry IV.; incorporated by Elizabeth, 1567 ; a new charter granted by Charles I., 1632 ; part of the town destroyed by fire, Aug. 24, 1727 ; the Town Hall erected from the designs of C. Sloane, 1764 ; explosion of powder at, Nov. 4, 1798, which did much mischief; new pier at, designed by Tierney Clark, injured by a mob, Jan. 22, 1833 ; opened to the pub- lic, July 29, 1834 ; the great resort of pleasure steamers ; prodigious intercourse with the metropolis attained, 1844. GRAVITATION, the principle of, explained by Sir I. Newton, 1687, until which the cause had been conjectural. GRAYS'-INN, London, formerly the town residence of the Grays of Wilton, who sold it in 1505 ; afterwards sold to the Prior of East Sheen, who leased it to cer- tain law students ; the entrance gateway erected, 1592 ; the hall, 1560 ; the gar- den planted soon afterwards. GREAT BRITAIN, first so called, James I. being proclaimed King of Great Britain, France, and Ireland, Oct. 24, 1604; a national flag adopted by proclamation, April 12, 1606. At a meeting of the -Scottish Parliament, June 28, 1705, a proposal for union with England was debated, and commissioners appointed to settle the terms. The commissioners for the union held their first meeting at Westminster, April 1 6, 1706 ; terms of the union agreed to by them, J-uly 22, 1706 ; passed by the Scottish Parliament, Jan. 16, 1707 ; the debates upon the Act of Union com- menced in the English Parliament, Feb. 15, passed, 6 Anne, c. II, March 6, 1707 ; to come into operation, May I ; a national flag appointed by proclamation, July 28. See England. GREAT BRITAIN Iron Steam-ship, of enormous size, sailed from the Mer- sey for New York, on her first voyage, July 26, 1845 ; reached New York, Aug. 10 ; sailed again, Sept. 22, 1846, with goods and 185 passengers ; went aground in Dundrum Bay, on the Irish coast, Sept. 22, 1846, where she remained until Aug. 27, 1847 ; being got off with little injury, she arrived in Liverpool and was refitted ; sailed in 1852 with 800 passengers to Australia, besides intermediate voyages. GREAT EASTERN Steam-ship, built by Brunei ; commencement of the at- tempt to launch at Milwall, Poplar, then called the Leviathan, Nov. 3, 1857 ; completed, Jan. 31, 1858 ; cost about ; 70,000 ; visited by the Queen and the Prince Consort at Deptford, June 28, 1858 ; one of the boilers exploded, killing 10 firemen, and wounding several others, Sept. 7, 1859 ; Captain Harrison, com- mander of, drowned at the entrance to the Southampton harbour, Jan. 21, 1860; disabled at sea in a heavy storm, Sept. 12, 1861 ; made the voyage from New York to Liverpool in n days, Aug., 1862. GREAT EXHIBITION GREECE 363 GREAT EXHIBITION. See Exhibition. GREAT SALT LAKE visited by the Baron de la Hontan, circa 1690 ; surveyed partially by Col. Fremont, 1845, which was scientifically completed by Captain Howard Stansbury, 1849-50 ; the length of the lake is about 500 miles, covering an area of 175,000 square miles ; the Mormons formed a settlement at, July 24, 1847. GREAT SEAL OF ENGLAND first used by Edward the Confessor, being affix- ed to crown grants, 1048 ; a new one made for Cromwell, Jan. 9, 1648-9; the great seal of England was stolen from the house of Lord Chancellor Thurlow, in Great Ormond-street, by thieves, March 24, 1784, and never recovered the day before the dissolution of parliament ; a new seal was made on the Union with Ire- land, 1801 ; a new seal for Ireland adopted, and the ancient one defaced, 1832. GREAT WESTERN Steam-ship, the first steam vessel which had ever crossed the Atlantic, arrived at New York, from Bristol, June 17, 1838. GRECIAN THEATRE, London, adjoining the Eagle Tavern, City Road, built by Thomas Rouse, 1826 ; altered and remodelled by Mr Conquest, 1858. GREECE, Ancient, founded B.C. 2089; Troy captured, 1184; Cumae founded, 1050 ; the commencement of the Olympiads, 776 ; the first Messenian war began, 743 ; Syracuse founded, 734 ; end of the first Messenian war, 723 ; Sybaris founded, 720 ; Croton founded, 710; the second Messenian war, 685 ; end of, 668 ; the most ancient sea-fight, between the Corinthians and the Corcyraeans, 664 ; Byzantium founded, 657 ; commencement of the Cirrhcean, or sacred war, which lasted ten years, 595; the conquest of, completed, 586 ; Agrigentum founded, 582 ; Cyrus began to reign in Persia, 559 ; the Temple of Delphi burnt, 548 ; Cynis took Sardis and overthrew the Lydian monarchy, 54-6 ; took Babylon, 538 ; death of, 529 ; the Ionian revolt, 500 ; defeated in a naval battle near Miletus, 495 ; the Persians took the islands of Chios, Lesbos, and Tenedos, 493 ; defeated at Marathon, 490 ; revolt of Egypt, 486 ; Xerxes invaded Greece, 480 ; defeated at Plataea, 479 ; Sestos taken by the Greeks, 478 ; revolt of Euboea and Megara from Athens, 445 ; the commencement of the Peloponnesian war, 431, the 28th and last year of, 404 ; retreat of the 10,000 to Greece, 401 ; first year of the Olynthian war, 382 ; peace concluded, 379 ; war between Arcadia and Elis, 365 ; battle of Olympia, 364 ; battle of Mantinea, June, 362 ; first year of the Social War, 357 ; commencement of the Sacred War, 357 ; last year of the Social War, peace concluded, 355 ; Olynthian War begins, 349 ; Sacred War concluded, 346 ; Philip becomes master of Greece, 338 ; Alexander commenced the war against Persia, 334 ; Agis defeated and slain by Antipater, 331 ; the Greek States made war against Macedonia, 323 ; war against Antigonus, 315 ; peace concluded after five years' war, 311; Ptolemy's expedition to Greece, 308 ; the Gauls invade Greece, 279 ; Social War commenced, 220 ; peace concluded, 317 ; Greece de- clared free by Flamininus, 196 ; destruction of Corinth by Mummius ; Greece be- came a Roman province, 146. GREECE, Modern. Constantinople became the head of an effeminate Greek rule, A.D. 328, and thus the empire of the Eastsurvived that of its conquerors; theEastern empire separated from the Western, 364 ; from that time to May 29, 1453, the Greek empire existed under 90 emperors, the last of whom, Constantine XIII., was killed by the Turks, who stormed Constantinople ; though lost in name, this nation had thus far survived, but they were doomed to be slaves of the Moslem, in the most demoralising and degrading of all slavery, until the I9th century ; revolts indeed, occurred, but they were put down by the Turks, and the actors in them mer- cilessly exterminated ; in 1770, after long submission, symptoms of a free spirit ap- peared ; the crown offered to a Russian Prince, 1790, and the inhabitants of Suli arose in arms, but after a severe struggle, were defeated and reduced to a remnant, 364 GREECE 1803 ; the Turks were beaten at Yassa, 1819, by the Servians ; the Greeks joined in secret conspiracy, took a part in the insurrection in Moldavia and Wallachia, Feb., 1821 ; proclaimed the independence of Greece, March 13 ; the Greek patriarch was put to death in Constantinople, April 23, 1821 ; 10,000 Christians were massacred in Cyprus, who were unoffending ; the inhabitants of Bucharest were murdered even to the women and children, 1821 ; the Greeks at once pro- claimed independence, Jan. 27, 1822 ; Corinth was besieged and taken, Jan. 26, 1822 ; Russia favoured the Greeks secretly ; the Turks bombarded Scio, and slaughtered its 40,000 inhabitants for ten days, and reserved 30,000 women and boys for slaves, April 15, 1823; the Turks defeated at Argos,and in their retreat severely handled, 1823; a congress formed at Argos, Feb., 1823; victories of the brave Bozzaris, June 18, 1823 ; Byron landed to assist the Greeks, Jan. 5, 1824 ; died at Missolonghi, April 19 ; the Turks, with the capitan-pacha, routed at Samos, Aug. 1 6, 1824 ; a Greek provisional government established, Oct., 1824 ; the first loan negotiated in London, Feb., 1824 ; second, Feb., 1825 ; Ibrahim Pacha landed at Modon, Feb. 26, 1825 ; commenced the siege of Navarin, the Greeks capitulated, May 18 ; the protection of England invited, July 24, 1825 ; siege of Missolonghi, taken, April 22, 1826; the Greeks dispersed the Turkish fleet, Jan. 28 ; Ibrahim Pacha took Missolonghi, April 23; battle with Omar Pacha, June I ; Ibrahim Pacha defeated by the Mainotes, Aug. 9 ; Athens taken by the Turks ; treaty of England, Russia, and France, in behalf of the Greeks, July 6, 1827 ; battle of Navarino, Oct. 20 ; Count Capo d'Istrias made President of Greece, Jan. 18, 1828 ; a council of state established in Greece, Feb. 2 ; a national bank founded, Feb. 14 ; Greece divided into eight departments, viz. : Argolis, Achaia, Elis, Upper Messenia, Lower Messenia, Laconia, and Arcadia, with the islands, April 26 ; a convention entered into between the English Admiral and the Egyptian Commander, Ibrahim Pacha, for the evacuation of the Morea and delivery up of the Greek captives, Aug. 6 ; Navarino, Patras, and Modon surrendered, Oct. 6 ; the Morea ultimately evacuated by the Turks, Oct. 30 ; surrender of Missolonghi to the Greeks, May 17, 1829 ; the Greek deputies commenced their assembly at Argos, July 23 ; the Porte acknowledged Greek independence, Sept. 14, 1829 ; sovereignty offered to Prince Leopold of the House of Coburg, and refused, May 21, 1830 ; Count Capo d'Istrias assassinated by the brother and son of Mavromi- chaeli, whom he had imprisoned, Oct. 9, 1831 ; the assassins executed in the most barbaious manner, being built into a wall to the chin, and supplied with food, until death put an end to their torments, Oct., 1831 ; Otho, a youthful prince of Bavaria, elected King of Greece, Jan. 25, 1833 ; conspiracy of Colocotroni, Oct. 2 7> 1 ^33 > a revolution at Athens, to enforce the responsibility of the ministry, Sept. 14, 1843 ; the king accepted the new constitution, March 16, 1844 ; Adm. Parker blockaded the Piraeus, the Greek government refusing justice to British subjects, and refusing to surrender the islands of Sapringa and Cabrera, Jan. 18, 1850 ; France mediated, the blockade discontinued, March I, 1850 ; negotiations unsuccessful between the English and French representatives, and the blockade re- newed, April, 1850 ; the question settled in London, April 19, 1850; France took offence at the arrangements and recalled her ambassador, when it was agreed to substitute for a convention signed ad interim at Athens, that signed at London, June 21, 1850 ; treaty of succession to the crown of, agreed to, Feb. I, 1853 ; re- volt of the Albanians, Feb. 10, 1854; insurrection broke out at Nauplia, amongst the army, Feb. 13, 1862 ; proclamation issued by the king, granting an amnesty to the soldiers, Feb. 27 ; the town taken by the Royal forces, April 20 ; the Turkish ambassadors returned home, March 28 ; blockaded, May 18 ; the allies landed at Piraeus and seized the Greek ships in the harbour, May 25 ; insur- rection in, against the Emperor Otho, Oct. 13 ; a provisional government formed, Oct. 23 ; the Emperor left the country, Oct. 24 ; the National Assembly declare Prince Alfred elected by universal suffrage, Feb. 3, 1863 ; the election refused by GREEK CHURCH GREENOCK 365 the English government ; Prince William of Denmark elected king, March 30 ; declared of age by the National Assembly, June 27 ; accepted by the Great Powers, England, France, and Russia, July 13 ; King George I. landed in, Nov. 2 ; the Ionian islands ceded to, by treaty, Nov. 14, 1863 ; carried into effect, June I, 1864 ; the king recognized, 1864 ; a council of state established, Oct. 21 ; new constitution settled, Oct. 29 ; the king made a tour of the island, in April and May, 1865 ; marriage of the King to the Duchess Olga, daughter of the Grand Duke Constantine of Russia, Oct. 27, 1867 ; new ministry formed, Jan. I, 1868. GREEK CH URC H . In the 5th century the jurisdiction of this Church was largely extended, and the jealousy of Rome excited ; this was increased by the Council of Chalcedon conferring the same privileges on their bishop as upon the Bishop of Rome, 45 1 ; this breach was further widened by an alteration in the ritual, 767, and by the excommunication of their bishop, by Pope Nicholas, 862 ; completed at St Sophia, June 16, 1054 ; the Russian Church adopted the Greek tenets, 866. GREEK FIRE, the invention of, is attributed to Callinicus, an architect of Heliopolis at Constantinople, 673 ; the Emperor I^eo described its use, 91 1 ; the Princess Anna Comnena wrote an account of its properties, 1 106 ; Joinville described the effects of its use, 1249. GREEK LANGUAGE, established as the legal tongue in the Byzantine empire in the 6th century ; received and encouraged, 1360 ; first professor appointed at Florence, LeoPilatus, 1363; and Manuel Chrysoloras, 1390; began to be studied in England, 1491. GREEN, Saxon colour, so called, invented, 1744. GREENBACKS, or Shinplasters, small notes issued by the Federal government of the United States, during the Civil War, in consequence of the rise in the price of gold, 1862. GREEN BAG, certain inquiries into documents declared to be seditious by the minister when he desired to suspend the Habeas Corpus, and obtain the power of an unquestioned imprisonment of the subject ; introduced by Addington Lord Sidmouth, Feb. 2, 1817 ; secretly reported upon some days afterwards, and the bill brought in to suspend the liberty of the subject, Feb. 21 ; passed, March 25. GREEN CLOTH, Board of, or the Court of Marshalsea, having jurisdiction with- in the palace, established previous to Edward IV. ; its powers extended by 33 Hen. VIII. c. 12, 1541-2 ; Charles I., by letters patent of the sixth year of his reign, erected this into the palace court ; reconstructed, 16 of Charles II. ; abolished by 12 & 13 Viet. c. 101, Aug. I, 1849. GREEN DYE for cotton, invented by Dr Williams, 1777. GREENFIELD PRIORY, Lincolnshire, built by Eudo de Greinsby and his son Ralph, 1153. GREENLAND, N. America, discovered, 980 ; visited by a Venetian, 1378 ; again by Frobisher, who discovered the Straits, 1577 ; Davis made several discoveries, 1585 ; Muscovy Company established, 1604 ; first ship to, from England in the whale fishery, 1604 ; Hudson discovered the straits bearing his name, 1610, and Capt Digge ; and Willoughby Baffin discovered the bay known by that name, 1616. Greenland Fishery Company incorporated, 1693 ; colony of natives dis- covered at, 1751 ; Capt. Scoresby made several discoveries, 1822 ; Capt. Cla- vering, 1823, and Capt. Graal, 1829-30. GREENLAND, two new metals discovered in Sodalite and Allanto, analyzed, Nov. 5, 1810. GREENOCK, Renfrewshire. Permission given by James VI., 1589, to John Schaw, to erect a place of worship ; confirmed by Charles I., June 5, 1635 ; 366 GREEN PARK GREGORIAN CALENDAR harbour built by him, 1660 ; charter of Charles II. granting him the lands in life-rent, July n, 1670 ; Sir John Schaw prosecuted the extension of the harbour, 1734; Custom House established, 1710; new quay erected under the superintend- ence of James Watt, March 3, 1773 ; Dry Docks built, 1785, 1818, and 1824; an act passed for the construction of a new harbour and dock, 1840 ; opened, and called the Victoria, Oct. 17, 1850; Society of Arts established, 1812. GREEN PARK, a portion of land enclosed in the reign of Henry VIII., called Little St James's Park ; reduced by George III., 1767, to add to the garden of Buckingham Palace ; a magnificent structure erected for displaying the fireworks in honour of the general peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, April 27, 1749; Temple of Concord erected here by Sir Wm. Congreve at the peace of Aug. i, 1814; separated from Buckingham Palace gardens by Constitution-hill road, leading from St James's to Hyde Park; reconstructed and laid out, 1839; drained, 1841 ; grand display of fireworks in commemoration of peace with Russia, May 29, 1 856. GREENWICH, Kent. The station of the Danish fleet, ion ; Edward I. had a residence here, 1300 ; Henry IV. dated his will from his manor of Greenwich, 1408 ; granted to Thomas Beaufort, Duke of Exeter, by Henry V., 1417 ; per- mission given to Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, to fortify the house and empark the lands, 1433 ; he afterwards erected a palace here, which was beautified and enlarged by Edward IV., 1449; Henry VII. founded a convent here ; Henry VIII. born at, 1491 ; his marriage with Catherine of Arragon celebrated here, 1510, and with Anne of Cleves, Jan. 10, 1540; the Princesses Mary and Elizabeth were born here ; Edward VI. kept his Christmas festival, 1552-3, and died here, July 6, 1553 ; the favourite summer residence of Elizabeth ; Mary, daughter of James I., baptized with much pomp, 1605 ; Charles I. occasionally resided here, and it was called Greenwich Castle ; Charles II. had the old building taken down and commenced a new one, one wing of which was completed at a cost of ,36,000, 1680 ; the chapel destroyed by fire, Jan. 2, 1779. Greenwich fair abolished, 1857. GREENWICH HOSPITAL, Kent, built on the site of the old palace, from the designs of Sir Christopher Wren ; first stone laid, June 30, 1696 ; a charter granted by William and Mary making it a naval hospital, Oct. 25, 1694 ; first empowered to receive 6d. per month out of every seaman's pay by 7 & 8 Will. III. c. 21, 1696, and 8 & 9 Will. III. c. 23, 1697 ; the effects of Kidd the Pirate, ,6472, given to, 4 Anne, c. 12, 1705 ; pensioners first received in, 1705 ; the un- claimed prize-money given to, 1707 ; an act passed for the Collecting and Re- covery of the Duties granted for the support of, 10 Anne, c. 17, 1711 ; the for- feited estates of the Earl of Derwentwater, valued at ,70,000 per annum, given to, 8 Geo. II., 1735 ; the prize-money of deserters granted to, 1747; dining-hall and chapel destroyed by fire, Jan. 2, 1779 ; rebuilt and opened, Sept. 20, 1789 ; the income for the year 1859 was .148,198 ; commission of inquiry appointed to inquire into, 1848-59 ; an act passed to provide funds for the widows of seamen and marines slain or otherwise killed in the service of the Crown, 26 & 27 Viet, c. 67, July 21, 1863 ; an act passed to provide for the better government of, and the more beneficial application of the revenues, 28 & 29 Viet. c. 89, July 5, 1865. The Royal Naval Asylum established in connection with, 5 Geo. IV. c. 26, 1825. GREENWICH OBSERVATORY built by Charles II. on Flamstead Hill, Greenwich Park, the architect was Sir Christopher Wren, 1674 ; opened, Aug. 10, 1675-6 ; longitude computed from, about 1677. Flamsted appointed first as- tronomer-royal, with a salary of ;ioo a year. GREGORIAN CALENDAR. In order to rectify the errors of the Julian Calen- dar, Pope Gregory XIII. invited men of the first mathematical talents to Rome, and after a consideration of 10 years of the various formula, gave preference to GRENADA GRETNA-GREEN 367 that of the two brothers, Aloysio and Antonio Lilio ; he sent copies of it to all coun- tries, republics, and learned academies, 1757 ; he published his New Calendar, in which 10 days of them were retrenched, the 5th of Oct. being accounted the I5th, 1582 ; adopted in Spain, Portugal, and part of Italy, and in France by letters patent of Henry III., Nov. 3, 1582 ; the loth of Dec. was accounted the 2Oth ; Switzerland adopted it, Feb., 1585 ; Poland, 1586 ; Sweden, by royal edict, March 24, 1752 ; England, 1751. GRENADA, West Indies. This island discovered by Columbus, 1498 ; inhabited by the Caribs. Du Parquet endeavoured to form a French colony here, 1650 ; they committed great cruelties upon the Indians ; capitulated to England, April 5, 1762 ; to whom it was ceded, Feb. 10, 1763 ; retaken by the French, 1779; re- stored to England, Sept. 3, 1 783 ; insurrection of the slaves in, 1 796. GRENADE, a small shell with a fusee to be thrown by hand among the be- sieged, on entering a breach, or in similar circumstances, invented 1 594. GRENADIER GUARDS, formed from the Royalists who had followed Charles II. into exile ; first received their present title after the battle of Waterloo, 1815. GRENADIERS, the tallest soldiers formed into a company to throw the Gren- ades ; first adopted in France, 1667 ; in England, 1678 ; most of the infantry regi- ments had a company of, 1684. GRENADINES, or GRENADILLAS, Atlantic, dependent on the island of Grenada, first settled by the French, 1650; ceded to England, Feb. 10, 1763. CRENELLE, near Paris, powder-mills at, blown up, and nearly 3000 persons and all the buildings in the vicinity destroyed, Sept. 3, 1 794. GRENVILLE ADMINISTRATION, or that of the Hon. George Grenville, April 8, 1763 ; the Stamp Act imposed at the suggestion of George III., by that minister, cost the British crown its North American colonies. The Grenville Ad- ministration of the noble peer of that name lasted from Feb. 6 to Sept. 13, 1806, when Mr Fox died, and the ministry being favourable to the repeal of the Test and Corporation Acts and Catholic Emancipation, was on that account dismissed by George III., March, 1807. GRESHAM CLUB, London, built in St Swithin's Lane, for the merchants of London, from the designs of H. Flower, 1844. GRESHAM COLLEGE, London, founded and endowed by Sir Thomas Gresham, 1575, after the death of Lady Gresham ; the first lecture was read at his mansion in Broad-street, June, 1597 ; the Royal Society founded here, 1645, an ^ hdd its meetings until 1710 ; the lectures removed to a room over the Royal Exchange, and the college let to the government for an excise office, at .500 per annum ground rent, 1768 ; the Joint Gresham Committee purchased a plot of ground at the comer of Basinghall-street and Gresham-street, July 29, 1841, and the present building erected from the designs of G. Smith ; opened, Nov. 2, 1843 ; the building cost ^7000. GRETHAM HOSPITAL, Durham, built, 1220. GRETNA-GREEN, Scotland, a parish called Graitney, just ' over the border ' in Scotland, where marriages were performed according to the law of the country. The ceremony here is binding, performed by a layman, in the simplest form, when being registered, and the parties declared man and wife in the presence of witnesses ; the first person who officiated at these strange unions was G. Scott, circa 1756; John Pasley, a tobacconist, who died 1814, officiated commonly up to that year, and since then David Laing, a smith. Attempts had been made, unsuccessfully, to set aside the Scotch law ; abolished by 19 & 20 VicL c. 196, July 29, 1856, to come into operation, Dec. 31. 368 GREVILLE GROCERS' COMPANY GREVILLE, Fulke, Lord Brooke, killed by his own servant, Sept. 30, 1628, aged 74. GREY ADMINISTRATION, memorable in political history for passing the Re- form Bill, began, Nov. 16, 1830 ; terminated, July 9, 1834. GREY-COAT HOSPITAL, Westminster, founded, 1698, and a subsequent foundation, 1707. GREYFRI ARS' CHURCH, established in the gth year of the reign of Henry III. in St Nicholas' Shambles, near Newgate ; the first chapel built by Sir William Joyner, Mayor of London, 1239 ; the nave of the church added by Sir Henry Waleys in the reign of Edward I. ; the chapter-house by Walter the Potter, alderman, 1270-73 ; the dormitory erected by Sir Gregory de Rokesley, rrfayor, 1280. The second church began, 1301 ; completed, 1327 ; it was 300 feet long, 89 wide, and 64 high ; visited by Henry VIII. and Cardinal Wolsey, 1524 ; surrendered, Nov. 12, 1539. See Christ Hospital. GREYHOUND PACKET, lost on the Culner Sands, on her passage from Cork to Bristol, and all onboard perished, Dec. 29, 1815. GREY, LADY JANE, proclaimed Queen, July 10, 1553 ; sent to the Tower, July 28 ; herself, Lord Guildford her husband, with her father, all beheaded, April 12, 1554. GREYSTOCK CASTLE, Cumberland, fortified by William de Greystock, 1353. GRILLION'S CLUB, London, a political club formerly met at Grillion's Hotel, Albemarle-street, circa 1812 ; the 5th anniversary of this club was celebrated at the ' Clarendon,' Earl Derby in the chair, May 6, 1863. There was sold at Puttick's, Leicester-square, a series of 79 portraits of members of this club, Jan. 30, 1860 ; for a list of the names, see Notes and Queries, May 23, 1860, p. 409. GRIMESBY NUNNERY, Lincolnshire, founded by Henry II., circa 1180. GRIMSBY, GREAT, Lincolnshire. In the reign of Edward III. this town furn- ished the king with 1 1 vessels and 1 70 sailors for his support at Calais ; the town incorporated by King John ; a harbour built, 1802; extended, 1846; the Victoria Docks built from the design of Mr Rendel ; the first stone laid by Prince Albert, April 1 8, 1849 ; they cover 132 acres ; opened, May, 1852. GRISONS, Switzerland. Confederacy established, 1424 ; another league was formed, 1436; invaded by the French, 1799; they allied themselves with the Austrians and the Russians ; made a canton of the New Helvetic Confederation, 1803. GROAT, a silver coin, ordered to be struck, 1279 ; half, struck, 1351, called fiddlers' money, the largest in England until 135 1 ; the modern, is diminutive ; the value of ^70,884 in this coin were issued from the mint, 1836, and .16,038, 1837- GROBY CASTLE, Leicestershire, built by Henry Ferrars de Groby, circa 1340 ; enlarged by Thomas, first Marquis of Dorset, circa 1479-81. GROCERS' COMPANY, anciently called the Pepperers', before the nth century ; ordinances made for their government, 1315 ; the Grocers', established, 20 Edward III., June 12, 1345 ; incorporated, 7 Henry VI., Feb. 16, 1429 ; a second charter granted, Nov. I, 1429; the garbling of spices confirmed to them by 26 Hen. VI.; charters confirmed by 4 James I., April, 1606; 15 Charles I., April 15, 16395 Cromwell, 1652 ; Charles II.,, 1686 ; William III. & Mary, July 7, 1690 ; ex- emplified by George I., March 8, 1715 ; arms granted by Henry VIII., 1531. Hall, first stone of the original building laid, May 8, 1427 ; completed, 1428-9 ; garden purchased, 1433 ; destroyed in the fire of 1666 ; the present building erected in Prince's-street, 1798-1802, and altered from the design of Thomas Leverton, and the entrance built, 1827 ; the Committee of Safety during the Civil GROCHOW GUASTALLA 369 War met here, 1641 ; leased to the Bank of England, Oct. 4, 1694; removed, 1734- GROCHOW, battle, near Praga, Warsaw, between the Poles and Russians ; the latter were defeated, losing 7000 men, Feb. 19-20, 1831. GRODNO, Poland, the capital town of Lithuania, built in the loth century ; de- stroyed by fire, 1184 ; taken by Charles XII., 1708 ; by the Russians, 1792. GROG, a sea term for rum and water, so called from Admiral Vernon, who wore a grogram coat in bad weather, and was nicknamed Old Grogram ; the name was first applied to the rum and water drank on board his ship in the West Indies, 1740. GRONINGEN, Holland. This town was attached to the United Provinces, 1576 ; it was captured by the Spaniards, 1590; retaken by Prince Maurice, 1594; the citadel built, 1607; the university founded, 1615 ; St- Martin's Church is of some antiquity ; the Town Hall built, 1793. The Duke of York's army suffered much from a severe frost here, 1795 taken by the French, 1795 > tne dykes overflowed, and the town was partially underwater for three months, 1826. GROSMONT CASTLE, Monmouthshire, the residence of the Earls of Lancaster, built and fortified by Hubert de Burgh, Earl of Kent, 1224-6. GROSVENOR HOTEL, Pimlico, built from the designs of J. T. Knowles, it con- tains upwards of 300 rooms, cost over ,100,000 ; opened, 1862. GROSVENOR PLACE, Hyde Park Corner, built, 1767. GROSVENOR SQUARE, so called from Sir Richard Grosvenor, who died in 1732 ; the garden was laid out by Mr Kent, 1733-4 ; the centre house here was raffled for by guinea tickets, valued at _ 10,000, and won by a grocer's wife, June 10, 1739. GRUB-STREET, Cripplegate, built in the I4th century, tenanted by Bowyers and others connected with archery. The Goldsmiths' Company met here, 1667. Fox the Martyrologist and Speed lived in this street, and Welby the Hermit, who lived in one house for 40 years, and there died, 1636; the chapel opened as a theatre, 1831 ; the soap works in, burnt down, Aug., 1855 ; the name changed to Milton-street, 1830. GUADALOUPE, West Indies, discovered by Columbus, 1493 ; settled by the French, 1635 ; Dutch, 1638; taken from the French and pillaged by the Spanish, 1746 ; surrendered to the English, Jan., 1759 ; restored, 1763 ; the allied powers bestowed it upon Sweden, and took it back and gave it to France, 1814. GUANO, employed by the Peruvians from the earliest times ; first brought to Lon- don, 1840 ; and in 1843 guano was discovered on the island of Ichaboe. GUARDIAN, frigate, struck on an island of ice, and wonderfully preserved, Dec., 1789, reaching the Cape of Good Hope safely afterwards, Feb. 14, 1790. GUARDS, BODY, first appointed in England by Henry VII., then called the Yeo- men of the Guards, Oct. 30, 1485 ; Horse Guards, first troop, 1693 ; second, 1702; reduced in 1783, the officers retiring on full pay; mutinous, 1715. The Scotch Guards formed by Charles VII. of France, 1454; complained to Louis XIII., 1612, of the injustices put upon them. GUARDS' CLUB, London, formerly met in St James's-street, 1810; their present club-house built from the design of H. Harrison, in Pall Mall, and opened, 1850. GUARDS' INSTITUTE, The, London, instituted for affording the conveniences and social recreations of a club to the non-commissioned officers and privates of the army in general, designed by Mr Darbishire, 1867. GUASTALLA, North Italy. The French defeated the Imperialists here, 1734; 24 370 GUATEMALA GUILDHALL CHAPEL became a part of the Austrian dominions, 1746 ; ceded to the Duke of Parma, 1748 ; became a part of the Duchy of Modena, 1847. GUATEMALA, America. The country being conquered by Alvarado, 1524, he founded this town ; he exercised authority over the Spanish settlements until 1541 ; made a bishopric, 1534 j became metropolitan, 1742 ; almost destroyed by an earthquake, 1773; rebuilt, 1776; became independent, Sept. 21, 1821; separated, July I, 1823 ; dissolved, 1846, and became independent ; constitution approved, Oct. 19, 1851. GUELPHS. This Hanoverian order of knighthood instituted in 1 8 16 by George 'IV., when Prince Regent, to commemorate the establishment of the kingdom of Hanover, Aug. 12, 1815. GUERNSEY, English Channel. This was anciently a Prankish town, and sent a bishop to the Council of Tours, A.D. 461 ; came into the possession of the Eng- lish with the Duchy of Norhiandy, in the reign of the Conqueror; Pope Pius IV., 1380, issued a bull anathematizing any persons disturbing the islanders ; charters granted by Edward III., Richard II., and succeeding monarchs ; harbour ordered to be built, 1275 ; extended, 1580, and 1780 ; town fortified, 1593 ; war declared by Charles I. against France, and these islands attacked, 1628 ; Fort George erected, 1775 ; the French again attempted to take the town, 1780. GUERRE and PORTO CAVELLO, in the West Indies, taken, Feb. 18, 1743. GUILDHALL, London. The ancient hall built previous to 1189, and had its en- trance in Alderman Bury ; the hall rebuilt, 1326 ; part of its crypt still remains; the present hall ' begun to be builded new ' by Thomas Knolles, Mayor, and his brethren the aldermen, 1411, 12 Henry IV.; the mayors' court added, 1424 ; the kitchen and offices built, 155 > Sir John Shaa held the first feast in the new hall, 1501 ; Common Council Chamber built, 1615; first court held, Nov. 7, 1625; the roof of the hall and the offices destroyed in the fire of 1666 (Tuesday, Sept. 4) ; an additional story added, and a temporary roof by Sir C. Wren ; the colours taken at the battle of Ramillies hung around the hall, Dec., 1706; the present front added by Mr George Dance, city architect, 1 789 ; interior of the hall altered, 1815, and a new flight of stairs to the Council Chamber erected ; the crypt restored by Mr Bunning, city architect, 1851 ; the present oak roof erected from the designs of Mr Horace Jones, city architect ; first stone laid, June 22, 1864 ; finished, and opened in the mayoralty of Mr Aid. Hale, Nov. 9, 1864 ; the hall re-embellished and a new stone floor added, 1866-7, and several painted windows, the gift of Mr Aid. Wilson, Mr Aid. Stone, and the city companies. EntertainmetTts in : John, King of France, and Edward the Black Prince, feasted by the Corporation, May 24, 1357; Henry V., 1419 ; Charles I., 164! ; Charles II. entertained nine times in the hall ; the Prince Regent, the Emperor Alexander of Russia, and Frederick William III. of Prussia, June 18, 1814 ; the Duke of Wellington and Field-Marshal Blucher, July 9, 1814; Queen Victoria, Nov. 9, 1837; again upon the opening of the Great Exhibition, July 9, 1851 ; the Emperor of the French, April 19, 1855 ; the King of Sardinia, Dec. 4, 1855 ; the Prince and Princess of Wales, June 8, 1863 ; the Belgium Volunteers, July 12, 1867, and the Sultan, July 18, 1867. The Law Courts, the Courts of Common Pleas, and Queen's Bench, built upon the site of the chapel and Blackwell Hall, from the design of Mr Montague, 1823 ; the north and south courts added, 1857 ; library, the ancient, founded by Sir Richard Whittington in the I5th century; several valuable books left by John Carpenter to, by Will, March 8, 1441 ; part of the books taken away by order of Edward, Duke of Somerset, Lord Protector in the reign of Henry VI. ; the present library founded by the corporation, June 2, 1824. GUILDHALL CHAPEL, dedicated to St Mary Magdalen and All Saints, 1299 ; GUILDS GUJERAT 371 timber and lead granted for the building of, by the corporation, 1326 and 1379 ; Richard Whittington rebuilt it in 1413 ; again rebuilt in the mayoralty of John Welles, grocer, 1431 ; purchased by the corporation at the dissolution of the reli- gious houses, and used as a court of requests ; greatly damaged by the fire in 1666 ; taken down, 1822. GUILDS. These institutions appear to have grown out of the Anglo-Saxon law of frank-pledge, which dividing the people into companies of 10 householders apiece, made each responsible for the wrong-doing of any of its members, and also a com- bination for the purposes of trade. There were two guilds in Exeter before the Norman Conquest ; Domesday Book records the existence of a Gihalle or Guildhall at Dover. There were many in London in the reign of Henry II.: the Guild of St Lawrence, the Travellers' Guild, the Guild of Haliwell, the Four Guilds of the Bridge, &c. See Companies. GUILFORD, Surrey, the castle, ancient residence of the early Saxon kings ; Alfred bequeathed it to his nephew, Ethelwald, 90x5 ; Alfred, the son of Ethelred II., taken prisoner and confined in, and his retinue murdered by Earl Godwin, TO36 ; rebuilt by William the Conqueror, circa 1080 ; King John kept his birth- day at, 1216 ; taken by Prince Lewis of France, 1216 ; the town incorporated by Henry III. ; confirmed by Henry VI. and VIII. GUILLOTINE, the instrument for the punishment of death, known in Genoa by the name of Manuaja. Beatrice Cenci executed by, at Rome, 1605 ; the Duke of Montmorency beheaded by one at Toulouse, 1632. Dr Guillotin was not the in- ventor of this instrument, for it was already in existence, but the Dr introduced a draught of a law into the Constituent Assembly, 1 789, making the mode of in- flicting death on criminals the same ; before, the noble was beheaded and the felon hung ; this did away with the stake and faggot, &c. ; bill passed to carry it into effect, Jan. 21, 1790. The Committee of Legislation directed Dr Louis, Perpetual Secretary of the Academy of Surgery, to draw up a report on the best mode of decapitation ; he recommended the guillotine, which was ordered by the committee, March 7, and confirmed by the Assembly on March 20, 1 792. The instrument was made by a German named Schmitt, and tried on April 19 ; a highway robber was first beheaded by, May 27, and Collenot d'Anglemont for a political offence, Aug. 21. First called Louisette, in later years Guillotine. An ambulatory one used in the French army, 1 794 ; this same instrument known as the Maiden ; the Regent Morton beheaded by one at the cross of Edinburgh, 1581 ; 25 criminals suffered by it in the reign of Elizabeth ; 12 more from 1623 to 1650. GUIMARAENS, Portugal, founded, B.C. 500; fortified in the 8th century; made the capital by Henry of Portugal, 1 107. GUINEA, W. Africa, first discovered, 1446 ; Sir John Hawkins, aided by a com- pany, begun the slave trade, 1563, 1564, and 1567 ; abolished, March 25, 1807. GUINEAS, first struck by Charles II., 1660, from gold brought from Guinea. An act passed for importing and coining guineas and half guineas, 8 Will. III. c. i, 1696; Xguineas issued, 1718; increased in worth until 1695, when they rose to 3cw ; the next year reduced to 25^.; fixed at 2U., Dec. 22, 1717 > sovereign first coined, 1817, and the guineas withdrawn. GUINEGATE, battle of, between Henry VIII. and the French army under the Duke of Longueville and La Palisse, they were defeated and the three generals captured ; from the hasty flight of the French gendarmerie, it is called the battle of Spurs, Aug. 16, 1513. GUITAR first introduced into this country by Francis Corbeta, 1662. GUJERAT, Hindustan, invaded by Mahmood of Ghizni, 1025 ; Emperor Akbar 372 GUJERAT GUNPOWDER MILLS overran the country, 1572; Mahratta hordes, 1/07; finally separated from the Mogul empire, 1 724. GUJERAT, battle, between the English commanded by Lord Gough and the Sikhs ; the whole of the Sikh ammunition and equipage, with most of their guns, taken, Shere Singh, the commander, escaping with only 8000 men, Feb. 21, 1849. GUN AND MORTAR BOATS, 226 built since 1852; 172 cost more than .1,000,000. GUN-COTTON. The nearest approach to it made by Pelouze, 1838 ; Professor Schonbein exhibited it, 1846 ; patented it, April, 1847. Its use inadmissible in war, on account of its great danger of exploding, though it is cheaper and has more power than gunpowder. GUNMAKERS' COMPANY, London, incorporated by Charles L, March 14, 1637 ; confirmed by Charles II., 1677 ; by-laws approved by the Lord Chancel- lor and Chief Justices, July 13, 1670 ; a livery granted by the court of aldermen, Nov. 24, 1778 ; the power of proving guns confirmed to, by 53 George III. c. 115, July 10, 1813 ; amended by 55 George III. c. 59, May 12, 1815 ; the powers of the company again confirmed by the Gun-bafrel Proof Act, 18 & 19 Viet. c. cxlviii., July 16, 1855. GUNPOWDER, first known in India and China ; employed by the Arabs at the siege of Mecca, 690; Roger Bacon in his works described its ingredients, 1267 ; but the invention of it in Europe is generally attributed to Schwartz, a monk of Goslar, in Germany, 1320; known in Spain, 1344, and in England before the battle of Crecy, 1346; the preparations of, in 1410, were saltpetre 8, sulphur 3, charcoal 2; it was not corned or grained until 1556 ; an act passed regulating the making, keeping, and carriage of, 12 Geo. III. c. 61, 1772; amended, and the manufacture, sale, and use of fireworks regulated, by 23 & 24 Viet. c. 139, Aug. 28, 1860 ; again amended, 24 & 25 Viet. c. 130, Aug. 6, 1861. GUNPOWDER MILLS. The first English mills for the making of, erected at Long Ditton near Kingston, 1586; and at Faversham soon afterwards. A license granted to John Evelin and Richard Harding, 1604. The Long Parliament in 1641 threw the trade open. GUNPOWDER MILLS, EXPLOSION OF : Ballincollig Mill, Cork, explosion at, 5 men killed, Aug. 6, 1859 ; and again, when 5 men were killed, Oct. 24, 1861. Battle Mill exploded, by which 3 men were killed, Sept., 1814. Blackbeck Mills, Ulverstone, Lancashire, belonging to Messrs Dickson & Co., blew up, 3 men killed, and 3 seriously wounded ; one man was blown 100 yards, and a horse and van 50 yards, by the force of the concussion, Dec. 7> 1867. Brandy -wine Mills, United States, exploded, 30 workmen killed, March 19, 1818. Dartford Mills, 6 men killed, Oct. 12, 1790; II men killed, Dec. 31, 1794; 4 men killed, Aug. 10, 1796 ; and 2 workmen, June 15, 1805. Epsom Mills blown up, Aug. 16, 1777. Erith, Kent, 2 magazines in Plumstead marshes blew up, and IO men killed, Oct. I, 1864. Ewell Mills exploded, killing 2 workmen, Sept. 25, 1865. Faversham, Kent, the Government mills blown up, Jan. I, 1767; the powder mills blew up, killing 6 men and 3 horses, Sept. 18, 1807 ; the corning house No. 4 in the king's powder mills blew up, 6 workmen killed, and 4 horses, June 16, 1810 ; the mill of Mr John Hall exploded, 3 men being killed, Oct. 3, 1817; the gun-cotton works of Messrs Hall blew up, killing 33 per- sons, July 14, 1847 ; the mills of Messrs Hall & Son exploded, killing 4 men, GUNPOWDER PLOT GUY'S HOSPITAL 373 April i, 1867; the Marsh Mills of Messrs Hall & Son exploded, killing u men, Dec. 28, 1867. Hatton Mills, The, exploded, killing 3 men, March 7, 1856. Hounslow Mills, 3 explosions took place, 1758 ; 3 mills exploded, Jan. 6, 1772 ; 3 workmen killed by an explosion at, Jan. 14, 1796 ; 3 men killed at, Aug. 21, 1813 ; 8 men killed, March II, 1850 ; 7 men killed at, March 30, 1859. Melford Mills, Argyleshire, exploded, killing 6 workmen, Sept. 10, 1860. Waltham Abbey Mills exploded, killing 9 persons, April 25, 1801 ; 2 explo- sions at, began in the press house, 8 men killed and great destruction of pro- perty, Nov. 27, 1811 ; the Government mills on the Powder-mill river, 4 ex- plosions at, 7 men killed and damage done to the extent of ,10,000, April 13, J ^43 ; 5 mills blown up whilst being cleaned, I man killed and 3 wounded, May 27, 1861. GUNPOWDER PLOT. The vaults under the House of Lords hired in Percy's name, 1604 ; conspiracy detected, and Fawkes taken in the vaults, Nov. 5> 1605 ; an act passed for the attainder of the conspirators, 3 Jam. I. c. 2, 1605 ; Guy Fawkes and 7 others executed, Jan. 30, 31, 1606 ; a plot of a like nature dis- covered at Stockholm against the life of Christian II., 1519-20; and one against Gustavus Vasa at Lubeck, 1533. GUNS. Hand-guns first used in England before 1375 ; they are mentioned in an inquisition taken at Huntercombe, Dorset, in that year ; Edward IV. landed at Ravensburgh with 300 Flemings armed with hand-guns, 1471 ; the arquebus invented by the Dutch, 1470 ; haquebuts, an improvement upon this weapon, 1562 ; the wheel-lock invented, circa 1509 ; the flint-lock in the reign of Charles II., and generally adopted, 1692 ; the percussion principle introduced, 1807 ; perfected by Mr Egg, 1816 ; adopted by the English army, 1839; the musket first called so, 1530 ; the carbine invented in France, 1576-89 ; the English Brown Bess, 1786 ; barrels of guns first rifled by the Germans in the I5th cen- tury ; Koster of Birmingham gave a spiral direction to the groves, 1620 ; intro- duced into the English service, 1794 > M. Deloigne, a French officer, invented a spherical ball, 1826 ; improved by Mr Greener of Birmingham, 1836 ; the carbine of the Chasseurs of Vincennes, invented by Colonel Thouvenin, 1844 ; the Minie rifle invented by Captain Minie, 1849 ; introduced into the English army, 1851 ; theEnfield rifle selected by the English government, 1853. See Rifles. GUTTA-PERCHA, discovered by Dr Wm. Montgomerie, of the Indian Medical Service at Singapore, 1842, who presented the first specimen to the Society of Arts, 1845 ; their gold medal was his sole reward ; the first ship load arrived in England, Oct., 1849 (20,600 Ib.) ; in 1852, 30,580,480 Ib. imported ; first used for submarine telegraphic purposes, 1 85 1 . GUYANA, or GUIANA, South America, the country divided between the English, French, Dutch, and Portuguese, while the Spanish dominions bound it on the north ; Cayenne settled by the French, 1625, and abandoned, 1654 ; then by the Dutch ; expelled by the French, 1677 ; expelled by the English, 1809 ; restored, 1815 ; Demerara taken by the English, 1795, 1803 ; partly ceded to the Dutch, 1814 ; part with Berbice ceded to England, 1814. GUYENNE, France, made a principality, 1362 ; seized by the French after being held by the English for 300 years, 1451 ; divided into departments, 1790. GUY'S HOSPITAL, founded by Thomas Guy, a London bookseller, who endowed it with .219,499; built from the designs of Geo. Dance, at a cost of .18,793, 1722-24; Guy died, Dec. 17, 1724; he also gave large sums to St Thomas's Hospital during his life ; the founder's statue in brass erected, Feb. n, 1734; the Physical Society of, instituted in London, 1772. 374 GWALIOR HABERDASHERS' COMPANY GWALIOR, Hindustan, a fortress of great strength, taken by Sultan Mahmoud of Ghizni, 1023; taken by the Mahommedans, 1194; taken by the Mahrattas in the "i 5th century ; stormed by the English under Major Popham, 1780 ; up to that time considered unassailable; subsequently taken by Scindia, 1804; again sur- rendered to the English, ceded to Scindia by treaty, 1805 ; after the battle of Maharajpoor the Gwalior contingent took possession of it, Jan., 1844. GYPSIES, of Asiatic origin, and found in almost every country in Europe, Asia, and Africa, came to Europe, circa 1420; expelled from France, 1560; from Spain, 1591 ; from England by statute, 22 Hen. VIII. c. 10, 1531 ; by i & 2 Philip & Mary, c. 4, 1554-5 ; and 4 & 5 Eliz. c. 20; repealed, 23 Geo. III. c. 51, 1783. John Faw was called Lord of the Gypsies in Scotland, 1594. GYPSY QUEEN, a new iron steamboat of 600 tons, exploded on the trial trip off Blackwall, killing Mr Samuda and 9 other persons, Nov. 12, 1844. H HAAK SAND, off the Texel, the Hero, 74, St George, 78, Saldanha frigate, and Defence, 74, lost on, with nearly all the crews, and the brave Admiral Reynolds in the St George, Dec. 24, 1811, one of the severest blows the English navy ever received. HAARLEM, Holland. This ancient town was fortified in the loth century ; be- sieged by the Spaniards, under the Duke of Alva, Dec., 1572 ; capitulated, July, I S73 > they committed every species of cruelty upon the inhabitants ; retaken by the Dutch, 1577; the organ in St Bavon's Cathedral, said to be the finest in the world, built by C. Miiller of Amsterdam, 1738; an exhibition opened, July, 1825; Bonaparte oifered a premium of 1,000,000 francs for the new machine for spinning flax ; the lake formed by an inundation in the i6th century ; means taken to drain it, 1839 ; rendered dry, July i, 1852 ; first sale of lands drained, Aug. 16, 1853. HABAKKUK, the eighth in order of the minor prophets, delivered his prophecy about the I2th or I3th year of Josiah, B.C. 630, or 629. HABEAS CORPUS, a writ of personal right, by which the body of an individual is, without the power of refusal, brought before a judge of the land, to be heard upon demand, in case of detention, nor can the writ be refused, 31 Charles II. c. 2, May 27, 1679 ; hence, when a minister wishes to imprison, seclude, or dismiss a subject without charge or trial, he gets the Habeas Corpus Act suspended under some pretext ; extended by 56 Geo. III. c. 100, July I, 1816. A state of rebellion justified this step in 1715 and 1716, for six months each year ; again in 1722, 1744, and 1 745, on the Pretender's invasion with armed forces ; in 1 794 and 1 795 adopted by Pitt, at the commencement of his war for the restoration of the Bour- bons ; adopted by Pitt again in 1798, 1799, in Ireland; by Mr Pitt, in 1799, Aug. 28 ; again, 1801 ; again, on account of the Irish insurrection, 1803 ; again, on the strength of secret green bag revelations, Feb. 21, 1817 ; again, in Ireland, July 25, 1848, owing to the rebellion there ; Habeas restored there, March i, 1849. Writs of Habeas Corpus were made issuable during a vacation, and returnable immediately, 1814 ; further regulated by 25 Viet. c. 20, May 16, 1862 ; suspended in Ireland, 1866 and 1867. HABERDASHERS' COMPANY, anciently the Hurrers', founded, 1372 ; incor- porated, 26 Hen. V., June 3, 1448 ; the Hurrers' and Hatters' Companies united with, by charter, 17 Henry VII., July 6, 1502 ; confirmed by 2 Henry VIII., HACKMAN HAGUE 375 Nov. 12, 1510; by Philip and Mary, June 18, 1558, and by 20 Eliz., June 9, 1578 ; arms granted to, Nov. 8, 1570 ; hall built, circa 1480 ; destroyed in the fire of 1666 ; rebuilt by Sir C. Wren, 1667 ; partially destroyed by fire, Sept. 19, 1864, several pictures burnt ; restored, 1865. HACKMAN, Mr, shot Miss Reay, coming out of Covent Garden Theatre ; he was executed, April 18, 1779. HACKNESS PRIORY, Yorkshire, founded by Lady Hilda ; confirmed by William Rufus, circa 1085. HACKNEY COACHES first started in London by Capt. Bailey, Feb., 1625 ; the number confined to five ; the public stand for these new conveyances was fixed at the Maypole in the Strand, 1634 ; the number limited to 50, 1635 ; regulated by 13 & 14 Chas. II. c. 2, 1662, and 400 licensed ; additional duties fixed, Sept. 4, 1 784 ; an act passed for licensing and regulating of, 5 & 6 Will. & Mary, c. 22, 1694 ; regulated, and drivers ordered to be punished for imposition, I & 2 Will. IV. c. 22, Sept. 22, 1831 ; a lost and found office was established, for the recovery of property left in hackney coaches and cabriolets, 55 Geo. III. c. 159, July n, 1815, returning annually a large amount of property. The number of hackney coaches ceased to be limited bylaw, Jan. 5, 1831 ; regulated by 16 & 17 Viet. c. 33, June 28, 1853, and c. 127, Aug. 20, 1853. HACKNEY COACH OFFICE, Surrey-street, Strand, established by act of 5 & 6 Will. & Mary, c. 22, 1694; opened, June 24, 1696; burned down, 1770; re- moved to Somerset Place, 1 782. HADDINGTON, Scotland, created a Royal burgh by David I. ; Ada, wife of Henry, the son and heir of this king, received it as her dower ; she founded a convent of Cistercian nuns, 1178 ; Alexander II. born here, 1198 ; the town burnt by King John, 1216, and again accidentally, 1244 ; destroyed by the invading army under Edward III., when the monastery and the church of the Franciscans were also burnt, 1355 ; fortified by the English, 1548 ; besieged by the allied Scotch and French armies, 1549, and after a memorable defence, evacuated by the English in Oct.; first turnpike road made, 1752. HADLEIGH CASTLE, Essex, erected by Hubert de Burgh, Earl of Kent, 1238. HADXAM, Oxfordshire, 60 houses burned down at, April 5, 1760. HADRIANOPLE, Turkey, built by the Emperor Hadrian. Constantine the Great defeated Licinius and captured the town, A. D. 323 ; the Goths defeated Valens, near this town, 378 ; captured by the Bulgarians, 813-14 ; taken by the Turks, under Murad I., 1360, and made the capital of that empire. The Russians, commanded by Gen. Diebitsch, captured the city, Aug. 20, 1829 ; the town de- vastated by a plague, 1837. HADRIAN'S WALL, ' the barrier of the Lower Isthmus ' connecting the forts, built by Agricola, A.D. 41, and forming a wall of 80 miles in length, built, 120 26. HAGGAI, the tenth in order of the minor prophets, and the first who prophesied after the captivity. These prophecies were delivered in the second year of Darius Hystaspis, B.C. 520. HAGMAN PRIORY, Salop, built, uoo. HAGUE, Holland, an ancient hunting seat of the Count of Holland, 1250 ; made the seat of government in the i6th century ; the treaty of the Hague was signed here, between England, Holland; and France, May 25, 1659 ; the French took it, 1795, when they conquered Holland ; they were welcomed by the people, the Stadtholder flying to England ; given up by the French, 1813 ; the Stadtholder made King of the Netherlands. 376 HAILEYBURY COLLEGE HALICARNASSUS HAILEYBURY COLLEGE, established for the education of theservants of the East India Company, 1800 ; students admitted under the 3 and 4 Will. IV., c. 85, s. 103, Aug. 28, 1833 ; regulated by 7 Will. IV. and I Viet. c. 70, July 15, 1837 ; college abolished by 18 & 19 Viet. c. 53, July 16, 1855 ; closed, 1859. HAILSTORM, a singular one in the Haymarket, London, and the surrounding streets, but not far distant, since none was experienced elsewhere ; the electric fluid tore up the pavement in Oxendon-street, July 9, 1803. HAINAULT, Belgium, anciently inhabited by theNervii ; first called Hainault in the 7th century; part ceded to France, Nov., 1659, and by the treaty of Nimeguen, Sept. 17, 1678 ; the whole ceded, 1793 ; incorporated with Belgium, 1830. HAINAULT or RENAULT FOREST, Essex, disafforested by King John, March 25, 1204 ; further reduced by Edward IV., 1468 ; the present bounds fixed, Sept. 8, 1640 ; report of the commissioners upon the rights of the crown, March 28, 1793 ; further disafforested by 14 & 15 Viet. c. 43, Aug. i, 1851 ; the commissioners made their award, Nov. 6, 1852. HAIR, the clergy forbade to wear it long, by Pope Anicetus, A. D. 155 ; the ancient Britons were noted for their long bushy hair ; Serloo, a Norman bishop, preached against long and curled hair, which had the desired effect, for Hen. I. and his courtiers consented to cut their curls off, 1104 ; long hair the prevailing fashion in France in the reign of Louis XIII. ; cut short in the time of Cromwell, whence the appellation of Roundhead; the peruke worn by ladies, 1680; the 'Taure' style adopted, 1674 ; the more elaborate style of hair-dressing was in vogue, 1760, which increased yearly in monstrosity ; about 1790 the hair became less globular and more compact ; the curls secured beneath a band of jewels or silk, 1799. HAIR POWDER, in use, 1590 ; first taxed by Pitt, 1795. HAKLUYT SOCIETY, instituted in London for the publishing of rare voyages and travels, and geographical records, 1846, and so called from Richard Hakluyt, who first published a small collection of voyages, 1582 ; and in 1589 he published 'The Principal Nauigations, Voyages, Traffiques, and Discoueries of the English Nation made by Sea or ouer Land.' HALBURTON, fire at, June 18, 1817 ; 17 houses destroyed. HALES, JUDGE, committed to the Marshalsea prison, 1553 ; afterwards removed to the Compter and the Fleet, where he attempted to commit suicide ; on being set at liberty he some time afterwards drowned himself. HALES OWEN ABBEY, Shropshire, 1215. HALFPENCE. A copper coinage of halfpence and farthings issued by Charles II., Aug. 16, 1672 ; an attempt was made in parliament to make it unlawful for any one to coin halfpence of any metal but fine copper, June 24, 1699, but it did not pass ; making, coining, or counterfeiting any of the copper coinage, made felony, June 24, 1771. Error on, once called Tower Halfpence, temp. George II. and HI. ; in the year 1730, one of the halfpence of the first-named sovereign spelt GEOGIUS. This certainly is very extraordinary ; but is it not much more so to find, subse- quently, one issuing from the mint of his successor, George II I., likewise misspelt ? This reads GEORIUS instead of GEORGIUS, and was issued 1772. HALICARNASSUS, Asia Minor, became a settlement anterior to B.C. 400; Herodotus born here, 484 ; a treaty made with the Salmacians, 440 ; they joined the Ionian revolt, 499 ; conquered by the Persians, 494 ; the tomb of King Mausolus commenced building, 350 ; conquered by Alexander, 334 ; added by the Romans to their empire, 129 ; the knights of St John took it, A. D. 1402 ; St Peter's Castle erected, 1404 ; the tomb of Mausolus discovered by the knights of St John, who plundered the sepulchre and used some of the materials to repair HALIDON HILL HALTON CASTLE 377 the castle, 1522 ; the Mausoleum re-discovered by Mr Newton, and several worses of art rescued, Jan. I, 1857. HALIDON HILL, battle of, near Berwick, in which the Scotch were defeated with the loss of 13,000 men, July 19, 1333, in the reign of Edward III. ; this battle placed Baliol on the throne of Scotland. HALIFAX, Nova Scotia, founded and colonized by some British subjects, 1749 ; made a free port, 1817. HALIFAX, Yorkshire, the church and lands of, granted to Wm Earl Warren, in the 1 2th century; made a borough, 1332 ; the woollen manufacture, for which the town is distinguished, was carried on, 1414 ; the refugees from France and the Netherlands increased the importance of the town ; the gibbet law existed here to 1650 ; the instrument was something like the guillotine ; the first person beheaded after its erection was Richard Bentley, March 20, 1541, and the last, Anthony Mitchell, April 13, 1650. Favoured the parliament in the civil war ; Grammar School erected by Elizabeth, 1585 ; the Cloth-hall erected, 1779, cost ji2,ooo ; Sir Francis Crossley presented to this town, July 22, 1857, the People's Park, which, laid out from the design of Sir J. Paxton, was opened, Aug. 18, 1857 ; the new Town-hall built from the designs of Mr Baring, and opened by the Prince of Wales, Aug. 4, 1863 ; Sir Francis Crossley gave a sum of ^6300 in order to pay the annual expenses of keeping the People's Park in repair, Aug. 14, 1867. HALIFAX ADMINISTRATION, under the Earl of Halifax, Oct. 5, 1714, who, dying the next year, was succeeded by Robert, afterwards Sir Robert, Walpole. HALL OF COMMERCE, Threadneedle-street, London, built from the designs of Mr Moxhay, 1840; opened, 1843 ; the large hall is 1 30 feet long, 44 wide, and 50 high ; it was sold in 1849 for ^44,000 ; since made a banking establishment. HALLE, Saxony, made a city by Otho II., 981 ; St Ulrich's church built, 1239 ; St Maurice's subsequently ; the cathedral founded, 1520-23; the university, 1694; restored, 1814; town taken by the French, 1806; restored, 1814. HALLELUJAH and AMEN first introduced from the Jewish into the Christian church, by St Jerome, 390. H ALLEY'S COMET. The first to identify the great comet of 1682 with that of the years 1305, 1456, 1531, and 1607, he predicted its return again in 1758 or 1759, and the comet did actually appear within 19 days of the time stated by Halley, being first seen with the naked eye by a Saxon peasant, near Dresden, Dec. 25, 1758; its period was 76 years, and it would consequently appear again, if Dr Bailey's calculation proved just, in 1835 ; it was seen, and Bailey's judgment con- firmed ; its next appearance will be 1911-12. HALLING HOUSE, Kent, built, 1183. HALLORAN, Rev. Hynes, an eminent Irish scholar and divine, chaplain to the 'Britannia' in the battle of Trafalgar, transported for seven years for forging a frank, value iox/., March 31, 1831. HALLOWE'EN, the eve of the day of St John the Baptist, anciently observed by the vulgar in England, 1694. HALLSEWELL, East Indiaman, lost, with nearly one hundred persons on board, Jan. 6, 1786. HALO, a very remarkable one seen encircling the moon, Aug. 16, 1807. HALOXYLIN, a new species of blasting power, invented by Wilhelm and Ernst Fehleisen of Styria, Aug., 1867. HALTON CASTLE, Cheshire, erected by Hugh Lupus, Earl of Chester, circa 378 HALTON CASTLE HAMPTON 1086 ; it afterwards became the property of John of Gaunt ; garrisoned by Charles I., 1643 j taken by the Parliament, 1644. HALTON CASTLE, Northumberland, built, circa 1300. HAM, France, the citadel built, 1470, by the Comte de St Pol ; Prince Jules de Polignac and three other ministers of Charles X. imprisoned here for signing the ordinance at, July 25, 1830 ; Prince Louis Napoleon confined in, after his miser- able attempt at Boulogne, Aug. 6, 1840; escaped, disguised as a workman, May 26, 1846. HAMBURG, founded, 804 ; walled, 811 ; constituted a free city, 1215 ; a com- mercial treaty between Hamburg and Lubeck, which was the forerunner of the Hanseatic League, 1241 ; the Company of Merchants incorporated, 1296 ; the French declared war against it for its treacherous delivery of Napper Tandy to Pitt, Oct., 1799, who had sought a refuge there ; British property in, sequestrat- ed, March, 1801 ; the city taken, 1806 ; incorporated with France, 1810 ; evacuated by the French, 1813 ; besieged by the allies, May, 1814 ; restored to its independence, 1815 ; dreadful fire at, which destroyed 2000 houses, May 4, 1842 ; inundated by the overflowing of the river Elbe, Jan. i, 1855 ; the constitution of the free city proclaimed, Sept. 28, 1860, and came into operation, Jan. i, 1861. HAMILCAR'S voyage to the Cassiterides, related by Festus Avienus, 450. HAMILTON, James, ist Duke of, executed, 1649. HAMILTON, James, 4th Duke of, and Lord Mohun, both killed in a duel, in Hyde Park, Nov. 15, 1712. HAMILTON, Scotland, founded in the I5th century ; a collegiate church founded, 1451 ; the palace re-erected, 1822 ; finished, 1828, HAMILTON, Upper Canada, founded, 1813 ; incorporated, 1833. HAMMER, the steam, patent granted to James Watt for the invention of, April 28, 1784; Nasmyths patenteed his invention, 1842; since then great improve- ments have been made in the machinery for working this useful machine. HAMMERSMITH, Middlesex, the parish church erected, 1631 ; repaired, 1798 ; a nunnery established by Mrs Beddingfield at, 1669 ; Titus Oates had a com- mission to search this place, 1680 ; fountain erected and opened by Sir S. Morland, July 8, 1685 ; the West Middlesex Waterworks established by 46 Geo. III. c. cxix., July 12, 1806; works commenced, Dec., 1806; opened, Dec. 4, 1809; extended by 50 Geo. III. c. cxxxii., May 24, 1810 ; amended, 53 Geo. III. c. xxxvi., April 15, 1813 ; the new church built, 1820 ; the suspension bridge, built from the designs of Tierney Clarke, commenced, 1825 ; opened, Oct. 6, 1827. HAMPSHIRE, Hants. Before the Roman invasion this country was populated by the Regni, the Belgse, and the Atrebatii ; overran by the Romans, B. c. 30 ; included during the heptarchy in the kingdom of Wessex, A.D. 519 ; Ethelred I. and his brother Alfred defeated by the Danes near Basingstoke, 870 ; William Rufus shot in the New Forest, Aug. i, iioo. HAMPSHIRE, NEW, United States, first settled at Dover and Portsmouth, 1623; went under the jurisdiction of Massachusetts, 1641 ; made a separate province by Charles II., 1679 ; been a separate State since 1741 ; constitution formed, 1784 ; altered to its present form, 1792 ; Dartmouth College in, founded, 1770 ; Gilman- ton seminary for theology, 1835. HAMPTON, Middlesex, possessed by the Earl Algar in the reign of Edward the Confessor ; the manor left to the Knights Hospitallers, 1211 ; a royal chase made here, 1538 ; the manor came to the crown upon the order of Knights Hospitallers being suppressed, 1540 ; a Free Grammar School founded, 1556 ; bridge built, 1 7S3 > Garrick's villa was sold to Mr Grove for ,10,800, June 24, 1864. HAMPTON-COURT PALACE HANGO 379 HAMPTON-COURT PALACE commenced by Cardinal Wolsey, 1516 ; finished, 1525, upon the site of the house of the Knights Hospitallers ; presented by that prelate to Henry VIII., 1526, who finished the building ; Edward VI. was born here, Oct. 12, 1537 ; Henry VIII. married Catherine Parr, his last wife, at this palace, July 12, 1543. Conferences held by James I. in this palace with the Arch- bishop of Canterbury, eight bishops, five deans, and some of the Puritans, when some alterations in the Book of Common Prayer and a new version of the Holy Scriptures were ordered, Jan. 14-16, 1604 ; Charles I. confined here ; escaped, Nov. 12, 1647 ; a large part of the palace rebuilt by Sir C. Wren for William HI., 1690-94; the public first admitted to view, 1838. HAMPTON ROADS on the James river, the Merrimac iron-clad attacked the Federal squadron, sunk the Cumberland, captured and burnt the Congress, and drove the Minnesota ashore, March 8, 1862 ; the Monitor engaged the Merrimac the next day without any decisive result. HANAPER, formerly an office in Chancery, derived its name from the wicker baskets in which the writs or rolls were kept. Hanaperia abolished by the 5 & 6 Viet. c. 103, Aug. 10, 1842. HANAU, battle between the French and allies, when the former were on their re- treat from Leipsic, the allies were defeated, Oct. 30, 1813. HANDEL FESTIVALS, to celebrate the memory of this renowned musical com- poser. The first commemoration held in Westminster Abbey, the Royal family were present, the 'Messiah' being performed by 515 instrumental performers, the re- ceipts for the five days amounted to 12,000, began, May 26, 1784 ; the second celebrated here, June 24, 1834, it continued for four days ; one celebrated at the Crystal Palace in the presence of 20,000 people, July 2, 1858 ; a grand com- memoration festival held at the Crystal Palace, June 20, 23, 25, 1859 ; the trien- nial festival held at the same place, June 23, 27, 1862 and 1865. HANDEL SOCIETY established in London, 1844, for the publication of his works. HANDICRAFT. Various handicrafts are mentioned in the sacred books : the preparation of iron for use either in war, agriculture, or for domestic purposes, was doubtless one of the earliest applications of labour ; bronze is also mentioned as being made in antediluvian times, Gen. iv. 22 ; the occupation of a smith re- cognized as a distinct employment, I Sam. xiii. 19. The workers in gold and silver are mentioned in the early books ; the trade of a carpenter, Gen. vi. 14 ; our Lord himself is called a carpenter, Mark vi. 3. The masons employed by David and Solomon in the building of the Temple were chiefly Phoenicians, Ezek. xxvii. 9 ; apothecaries, Ex. xxx. 25 ; shoemakers, barbers, and tailors are mentioned in the Mishna, Pesach. iv. 6 ; plasterers, glaziers, painters, and goldworkers in the MisAna, Chel. viii. 9, xxix. 3, 4 ; bakers, Jer. xxxvii. 21, Hos. vii. 4 ; butchers, I Cor. x. 25. Handicraftsmen restrained to one trade only, by the 37 Edw. III. c. 6, 1363. HAND-IN-HAND FIRE-OFFICE instituted, 1696; incorporated, 1697; ex- tended to Life Insurance, 1836. HANDKERCHIEFS used in the middle ages ; laced handkerchiefs worn in the reign of Elizabeth ; those of a peculiar kind made at Paisley, 1743, the sale of which amounted to ,15,886 in that year ; and in 1784 to 164,385. HANGING IN CHAINS, a punishment inflicted upon murderers, by 25 Geo. II. c- 37> '75 2 > abolished by 4& 5 Will. IV. c. 26, July 25, 1834. HANGO, Finland. The Swedes were defeated in a naval engagement by the Russians under Peter the Great, July 27, 1714; an English boats crew, whilst 38o HANOVER HANSY landing Russian prisoners, under a flag of truce, were attacked by troops under cover, when six men were killed and the rest wounded or captured, June 5, 1855. HANOVER, Germany. Charlemagne founded several bishoprics, 806 ; Hermann Billung held the power, 961, and Magnus, 1 106 ; Henry the Black obtained part of these possessions by marriage and part by conquest in the I2th century ; Ernest of Zell introduced the Lutheran religion into this state, 1535 ; made the capital of the state, 1641 ; Ernest Augustus, bishop of Osnaburg, made an elector of the German Empire, 1692 ; George Louis, duke of Zell, succeeded to the throne of England as George I., 1714 ; Hanoverian troops first arrived in England, 1756 ; invaded by a French army, 1757 ; restored, 1763 ; the fortification partially de- stroyed, 1780 ; seized by the Prussians, April 3, 1801 ; taken by the French, June 5, 1803 ; annexed to Westphalia, March I, 1810 ; to France, July 10 ; made a kingdom, Oct. 13, 1814 ; East Friesland and Harlingen added to it, 1815 ; the Duke of Cambridge made lieut. -governor, Nov., 1816; visited by George IV., Oct. 8, 1821 ; the Duke of Cumberland succeeded to the throne, June 20, 1837 ; suffered from an inundation, April, 1825 ; a new constitution agreed to, July 31, 1840 ; modified, April 10 and Sept. 5, 1848 ; annulled, May 20, 1855 ; constitu- tion amended, Aug. I, 1855, and Sept. 7, 1856, and again, March 24, 1857 ; the aristocracy reinstated in their rights, Aug. 5, 1855. George V. succeeded to the throne, Nov. 18, 1851 ; the jewels brought to England by George II. restored, Dec. 31, 1857 ; the abolition of the Stade dues, June 12, 1862 ; Prussia declared war against, June 15, 1866 ; the fortress of the Stade captured, June 18 ; Fort William, June 19 ; the whole of the country, with the exception of Gottingen, captured by June 22 ; the Prussians defeated by the Hanoverian army at Laugensalz, June 27, but the whole forces surrendered on the 29th ; annexed to Prussia, Aug. 17. HANOVER, ELECTORS OF : KINGS OF : Ernest Augustus ... ... 1692 George William Frederick ... 1814 George Louis ... ... ... 1693 George Augustus Frederick ... 1820 George Augustus ... ... 1727 William Henry ... ... ... 1830 George William Frederick ... 1760 Ernest Augustus ... ... 1837 George V. ... 1851 HANOVERIAN SUCCESSION established by law, 13 Will. III. c. 2, 1700, George I. being the first prince who ascended the English throne, to the exclu- sion of the Stuart. HANSE MERCHANTS. See Steelyard. HANSERD KNOLLYS SOCIETY instituted in London for the publication of the works of Baptist writers, 1845 ; tracts on the liberty of conscience and perse- cution published, 1846 ; the society dissolved, 1852. HANSE TOWNS, or the Hanseatic League, a union of commercial cities and ports in the north of Germany, against the piratical robbers of the north, founded 1 140, but not generally acknowledged until 1241 ; it grew into a union at last of sixty- six towns and cities ; they proclaimed war against Denmark, 1348 ; and in 1428, possessed a large navy, and a powerful military force ; Edward IV. concluded a treaty with them, 1474 ; Henry VII. and VIII. abolished many of their privileges ; Elizabeth abolished the rest, and made the trade free, 1578; the union was at last broken up by surrounding princes, from an apprehension of its power, and the towns of Hamburg, Lubeck, and Bremen were, in 1630, the only remnant of this powerful league ; these towns were seized by Napoleon, 1810. HANSY, Hindustan. The ancient town contains the tomb of Sheikh Jemmal ; the town taken 'by the Mohammedans, 1035 ; at the close of the last century made the capital of the principality established by George Thomas, an English adventurer ; since incorporated with the British dominions. HANWELL ASYLUM HARMONY 381 HANWELL ASYLUM for lunatics opened, May 16, 1831. HANWORK PARK-HOUSE, the seat of the Duke of St Albans, burned down, March 16, 1797. HAPPY ALLIANCE. This order of knighthood was instituted by Frederick of Hildburghausen to celebrate his alliance with the Princess Royal of Denmark, Oct. I, 1749- HARBOTTLE CASTLE, Northumberland, built by de Umfraville, 1157; re- built by Gilbert de Umfraville, Earl of Angus, 1295 ; besieged unsuccessfully by the Scottish army, 1296 ; Margaret, Queen Dowager of Scotland, lived here, 1515-16. HARBOURS, established by Henry IV., 1400; regulated by 54 Geo. III. c. 159, July 29, 1814; amended by 10 & n Viet. c. 27, May II, 1847, and 24 & 25 Viet. c. 45, Aug. I, 1861 ; also to facilitate the construction of, 24 & 25 Viet. c. 47, Aug. i, 1861. HARCLA CASTLE, Westmoreland, erected by Sir Andrew Harcla, 1322-24 ; rebuilt by Lord Musgrave, 1348-52. HARDY, Thomas, Tooke, and Thelwall, tried for high treason and acquitted, Nov. 20, 1 794 ; Thelwall, Dec. 8. HAREFIELD PLACE, Middlesex, Roger de Bacheworth, lord of the manor of, 1284 ; Milton's 'Arcades 'performed there, between 1632 and 1637 ; burned down, 1660 ; a silver fir discovered here, in 1679, measured 81 feet high, and 13 feet girth. HAREWOOD CASTLE, Yorkshire, erected by William de Courcy, 1154; re- built by Sir William de Aldburgh, 1329 ; the fortifications destroyed by order of parliament, 1646 ; the ruins purchased by Sir John Cuttes, 1657. HARFLEUR, France. Henry V. of England invaded France and besieged this town, which surrendered after a month's defence, Sept. 22, 1415 ; retaken by the French, 1431 ; stormed and captured by the English, 1440; recaptured by Charles VII., 1450. II ARLAW, battle, between the Earl of Mar, who commanded the Royal forces, and Donald Lord of the Isles ; it was a drawn battle, and great numbers of the gentry on both sides fell in this civil conflict, July 24, 1411. HARLECH CASTLE, Merionethshire, built, it was supposed, by the ancient Britons ; rebuilt, 876, and re-edified by Edward I. HARLEIAN LIBRARY collected by Robert Harley, afterwards Earl of Ox- ford, and Sir Symonds D'Ewes, and consisted of nearly 8000 volumes of MSS., about 50,000 volumes of printed books, and 400,000 pamphlets ; they were pur- chased by the government for ,10,000, and deposited hi the British Museum, 26 Geo. II. c. 22, 1753. HARLEQUIN, a buffoon, who was introduced into the theatre by the Italians, circa 1500. HARLOTS, obliged to wear striped hoods of party colours, 1352 ; the name is said to have arisen from Arlotta, mother of William I. of England, a tanner's daughter of most notorious character, but this is doubtful, as it was applied to both sexes ; it is derived from horlet, the diminutive of hare, the past participle of hyran. HARMONICA, or MUSICAL GLASSES, improved by Dr Franklin, 1760; in- troduced into France, 1 765 ; a stringed one invented by John Stein, 1 788. HARMONIUM. This musical instrument invented by M. Greni6 in Paris, 1810 ; the English harmonium invented by Mr Evans of Cheltenham, 1841. HARMONY, United States of America, in the State of Pennsylvania, founded by Germans, who called themselves the ' Harmony Society,' Dec., 1804 ; they built 382 HARP HARTLEPOOL the New Harmony States of Indiana, 1815, which was purchased by Robert Owen, 1825, for the establishment of a social system, but failed, and was broken up, 1826 ; the scheme was philanthropic, but in practice wholly irreconcilable with existing usages. HARP. This ancient musical instrument is mentioned sev'eral times in sacred history ; Bruce, the traveller, discovered a drawing of a harp in the ancient sepul- chre at Thebes, said to have been executed B.C. 1600. An Irish harp with 28 strings said to have belonged to Brian Boromu of Ireland, 1012 ; pedals intro- duced, 1720; Erard patented one upon a new principle, 1794; and the double action, 1808. HARPER'S FERRY, Virginia, Negro insurrection at, headed by John Brown, Oct. 16, 1859 ; Brown hanged, Dec. 2, 1859 ; threatened by the Confederate army, the armoury and stores of every description burnt, April 18, 1861 ; surren- dered to the Confederates under Gen. Jackson, with 12,000 soldiers, 40 cannons, 10,000 small arms, and immense stores, Sept. 15, 1862. H ARPOONER, transport from Quebec to England, with invalids and other troops on board, foundered off the coast of Newfoundland, when more than one-half on board perished, Nov. 10, 1816. HARPSICHORD, first made by Hans Ruckers in Germany, circa 1510; used in public festivals in Italy, 1522; improved by Vincentino, 1555; Rigoli of Florence invented the vertical harpsichord, 1620 ; first used at the Duke's Theatre, Lin- coln's Inn Fields, 1667. HARRENTON LAKE, Ireland, disappeared in the earth, March 25, 1793. HARRIOT, Thomas, discovered two spots on the sun, 1610, before Galileo an- nounced the same fact. HARRISBURG, N. America, founded, 1785 ; incorporated, 1808 ; made the capital, 1812. HARRISON, John, inventor of the time-keeper for the discovery of the longitude ; he produced four, in the years 1735, I739> I749> and subsequently that which pro- cured him the reward of .20,000 from parliament, promised by the Board of Longitude, 1767; and further perfected his time-piece, 1772; he died, March 24, 1776, aged 84. HARROW, Middlesex. The Grammar School founded by charter of Queen Eliza- beth, Feb. 19, 1571, by John Lyon ; statutes made in, 1590; confirmed by the Court of Chancery, Aug. 17, 1810 ; the schools partially destroyed by fire, Oct. 22, 1838 ; chapel built, 1837-39. HARROWGATE, Yorkshire, noted for its medicinal springs ; the oldest is Tewit- well, discovered, 1576 ; the old Spa discovered by Dr Stanhope, 1630 ; the Saline Chalybeate at Low Harrovvgate, 1819. HARTFORD, North America, explored by the Dutch, 1633 ; settlement made, 1635; created a city, 1784; the State-house erected, 1792; Trinity College founded, 1824; the first institution for the deaf and dumb in the United States, organized, 1817. HARTLEBURY CASTLE, Worcestershire, erected by Walter de Cantilupe and Gifford, Bishop of Worcester, 1268 ; destroyed by the parliamentary forces under Gen. Morgan, 1646. HARTLEPOOL, Durham, the monastery of Hieu founded, 640 ; destroyed by the Danes, 800 ; a harbour known here, 1171; erected into a borough by King John, 1200; it suffered in the wars; the Scots overran the town, 1312-1315; during the Civil War it was taken by the Scottish army, 1644, who retained possession till 1647; docks at, erected, 1835 ; the new docks opened, 1847 ; enlarged, and HARTLEY HASTINGS 383 a new one opened, 1852 ; a lighthouse erected on the Hough from the designs of Stephen Robinson ; first stone laid, Aug. 12, 1846 ; the first light shown, Oct. I, 1847. HARTLEY, Northumberland, at the Hartley colliery, an atmospheric rotative engine erected, 1 768. HARTLEY COLLIERY, NEW, at Newcastle, 204 men and boys lost their lives by suffocation through the breaking of the beam which belonged to the pumping machinery, Jan. 16, 1862 ; ,70,000 raised for the relief of their families. HARTLEY'S FIRE-PROOF FLOOR was invented by David Hartley, M.P. for Hull, before 1774, in which year the sum of ,2500 was voted him by the House of Commons, 1776 ; an obelisk was erected on Putney Heath by the cor- poration of London in testimony of his services, 1776 ; the patent was extended 1777, for 31 years. H ARTWELL, Buckinghamshire, the manor of, bestowed by William the Conqueror upon William Peverell and others, 1067 ; the land was seized by Henry II., 1 155, and afterwards bestowed upon Walter de Hartwell, 1170; Louis XVIII., being expelled from France, 1793, resided here ; his wife died, 1810; left here to be re- instated in his kingdom, April 20, 1814. HARVARD COLLEGE, New England, built, 1637 ; endowed by John Harvard, 1638 ; the first president was the Rev. Henry Dunster, 1640 ; the Rev. Charles Chauncey, 1655 ; the library destroyed by fire, and all Harvard's books, but one, burnt, 1764. HARVEIAN SOCIETY instituted in London, 1831. HARVEST, Remarkable. 'A. D. 1713. The harvest was early, so that all the corn was inned before St Giles's day, being the 1st of September : a bushel of wheat, which before was sold for ios., was then sold for iod., and a bushel of oats, which before was sold for Ss. , was then sold for &d. A.D. 1329. The third year of Edward III., a statute was made prohibiting the importation of wheat, rye, or barley into this realm, unless the price of wheat exceeded 6s. %d. the quarter, of rye 4r., of barley 3^., at that port or place where the same should be brought in, upon pain of forfeiture thereof. ' HARVEY, DR WILLIAM, discoverer of the circulation of the blood, published his theory, 1628. HARWICH, Essex, occupied by the Romans; a castle erected by the Emperor Claudius, A.D. 5* > Egbert captured it from the Danes, 746 ; the privilege of sending members to parliament granted to, by Edward II., 1318 ; incorporated the town, 1319 ; Prince Edward and his mother landed here from Hainault with a force to regain his kingdom, 1326 ; he embarked when Edward III. from this port for France, 1338 ; the town nearly destroyed by the French fleet, 1339 ; Henry VIII. visited the town, 1543 ; fortified against the Dutch by Charles II., 1666 ; lighthouse erected, 1822, the light visible 21 miles ; an act for the improve- ment of the harbour, 26 & 27 Viet c. 71, July 28, 1863 ; amended, 27 & 28 Viet, c. 102, July 29, 1864 ; again amended, 28 & 29 Viet c. 120, July 5, 1865. HARWOOD NUNNERY, Bedfordshire, built, 1150. HASBAIN, battle. The Duke of Burgundy (Jean sans Peur) defeated the insur- gents of Liege in a sanguinary battle, Sept. 23, 1408. HASLAR HOSPITAL, Hants, erected for wounded seamen and marines, 1762; additions made to, of lecture-rooms, &c., July 4, 1829. HASTINGS, Sussex. Hastings, a Danish pirate, built a fortress, or castle, to protect his men, 808 ; granted by William I. to William, Count de Ewe, 1096 ; a parliament held in, by William II.; the castle taken by stratagem by Eudo de Rie, circa Ill8; repaired by the dean and chapter of Chichester, 1330-31 ; Athel- 384 HASTINGS HAVRE DE GRACE stan established a mint, 924 ; William Rufus resided here, 1090 ; made one of the incorporated ports by William I.; burnt by the French, 1377 ; incorporated by Eliz., 1588 ; confirmed by Charles II.; new town built, 1828-29. HASTINGS, battle. William, Duke of Normandy, sailed from St Valery on the Somme, Sept. 27, 1066 ; arrived at Pevensey in Sussex, and disembarked his army on the eve of the feast of St Michael, Sept. 28 ; the battle fought at Senlac from sunrise to sunset, when Harold II. was slain with the greater part of his army, Oct. 14 ; an abbey was founded near the spot by William I., 1067. HASTINGS, WARREN, Governor-general and founder of India, tried by the peers of Great Britain for high crimes and misdemeanors ; his trial lasted seven years and three months, and ended in his acquittal, April 17, 1795. HASWELL COLLIERY, Sunderland, 94 persons killed by an explosion, Sept. 28, 1844. HATFIELD, Hertford, this manor given to the monastery of Ely, A.D. 1108 ; the palace purchased by Henry VIII., Nov. 24, 1539; Princess Elizabeth resided here, 1555 ; Hatfield House built, 1611 ; the militia reviewed here by George III., June 13, 1800. HATFIELD, JAMES, fired a loaded pistol at George III., May 15, 1800, at Drury-lane Theatre ; he was proved insane, and died in Bethlehem hospital, Jan. 23, 1841, aged 69. HATFIELD PEVERELL PRIORY, Essex, founded by Ingelrica, wife of Ranulph Peverell, circa 1097 ; Hatfield Regis Priory, founded by Alberic de Vere II., 1 130. HATS. In the wardrobe account of Henry III., 1271, a beaver hat ornamented with gold and precious stones is mentioned ; beaver hats were worn at the court of Ed- ward III., 1340; in the inventory of Sir John Fastolfe, 1459, is mentioned one beaver hat lined with damask silk ; they were subsequently called Castors ; brooches highly enriched were worn in, in Elizabeth's reign ; afterwards manufactured in England by Spaniards, 1510 ; Henry VIII. paid 15^. for a hat and plume, Oct. 23, 1532 ; high-crowned hats worn in the reign of Elizabeth ; low broad-brims, 1700 ; the three-cocked hat, 1704; directions for making, 3 & 4 Edw. VI. c. 2, s. 5, 1549 ; the trade regulated by 5 & 6 Edw. VI. c. 24, 1552 ; Stubb in his 'Anatomy of Abuses,' 1585, speaks of the high and low crowned hats, also white, red, and other colours ; foreign hats not to be imported, 3 Hen. VIII. c. 15, 1511-12 ; no one allowed to wear a hat under the rank of a knight, 8 Eliz. c. n, 1566 ; fur- ther regulations made by 13 Eliz. c. 19, 1570 ; repealed by 39 Eliz. c. 18, 1597 ; hats and caps to be exported duty free, n & 12 Will. III. c. 20, 1700; taxed, 1785, and 1796; repealed, 1811 ; duty on imported, icw.; reduced, 1853, to is. ; the natters' festival held on St Clement's day, Nov. 23 ; the hat-band makers' company incorporated by Charles II., Dec. I, 1664. HAVANNA, Cuba, founded in 1519 by Velasquez ; surprised and burned by a French privateer, 1538 ; the English attempted to storm the town, but failed, 1655 ; captured it, 1763 ; the remains of Columbus removed from San Domingo to the Cathedral here, 1796. HAVERFORDWEST, Pembrokeshire, castle built in the reign of Stephen, 1135, by Gilbert de Clare; successfully defended against the French, 1402 ; the town in- corporated by Edward I. ; confirmed by Rich. III. ; held by the Royalists, 1643. HAVRE DE GRACE, France, founded by Louis VII., 1509 ; fortified by Francis I., and the port commenced ; Henry of Richmond embarked from this port for Bosworth Field, 1485 ; delivered to Queen Elizabeth by the Prince de Conde, leader of the Huguenots, and Ambrose Dudley, Earl of Warwick, appointed com- mander of the town, 1562 ; besieged by the French under the personal inspection of Charles IX., who took it, June 28, 1563 ; attacked by the English fleet for HAWARDEN CASTLE HAYTI 385 three days, under Admiral Rodney, when the fortifications and numerous vessels were destroyed, July 4-6, 1759 ; bombarded, 1794, and 1795 ; again by Sir Richard Strachan, May 25, 1798 ; declared in a state of blockade, Sept. 6, 1803 ; attempt of the English to burn the shipping failed, Aug. I, 1804 ; the old fortification replaced by two new forts, 1859. HAWARDEN CASTLE, Flintshire, built, 1260; demolished, 1643. HAWKERS AND PEDLARS, licensed, 8 & 9 Will. III. c. 25, 1698, and 9 & 10 Will. III. c. 27, 1698 ; penalty on, for not having a license, 3 & 4 Anne, c. 4, 1704; hawkers of unstamped newspapers to be imprisoned, 16 Geo. II. c. 26, 1743 ; licensing of, 50 Geo. III. c. 41, June 2, 1810; laws amended, 22 & 23 Viet, c. 36, Aug. 13, 1859; extended, 24 & 25 Viet. c. 21, June 28, 1861. HAWKING, known in England hi the 8th century ; Winifred or Boniface, Arch- bishop of Mons, presented Ethelbert, King of Kent, with one hawk and two falcons ; hawk bells used in the gth century ; by 34 Edw. III. c. 22, 1361, a stray hawk to be carried to the sheriff; made felony to steal a hawk or eggs, 37 Edw. III. c. 19, 1363 ; 31 Hen. VIII. c. 12, 1539; 32 Hen. VIII. c. n, 1540, and 5 Elizabeth, c. 21, 1562 ; in the time of Richard III., 1480, <)d. per day was allowed for their keep ; the breeding and keeping of, regulated by 1 1 Hen. VII. c. 17, 1495 ; fell into disuse in the I7th century. HAXEY, in Axeholme, Lincolnshire, 56 houses burned at, valued at .10,000, 1743. HAYLES ABBEY, Gloucestershire, founded by Richard, Earl of Cornwall, 1246. HAYLING ISLAND AND BAY, Hants, made a fashionable resort, 1827. HAYMARKET, The, a market for the sale of hay, opened, 1664 ; regulated by 8 & 9 Will. III. c. 17, 1697 ; removed to Cumberland market, by ii Geo. IV. c. 14, 1830. Haymarktt Theatre first opened, 1702; rebuilt by James Potter, and opened, Dec. 29, 1 720, then known* as the Little Theatre ; a patent for, granted to Foote, 1747 ; rebuilt and made a royal theatre, 1767; a large audience assembled to see a man get into a quart bottle, Jan. 1 7, 1 749 ; purchased by Colman, Jan. I, 1777 ; on the royal visit, Feb. 3, 1794, sixteen persons were trodden to death, and many died of the injuries they received ; this theatre closed, Oct. 14, 1820 ; the present house built by Nash, opened, July 14, 1821 ; a riot caused by some tailors here, 1805. Her Majesty 1 s T/ieatre, the first theatre erected by Sir John Vanbmgh, 1705 ; destroyed by fire, June 17, 1789 ; rebuilt from the designs of Michael Novosielski ; first stone laid by the Earl of Buckinghamshire, April 3, 1790; opened, March 26, 1791 ; the exterior altered, and the arcade erected from the designs of Nash and Repton, 1818-20, at the cost of .50,000 ; called the Queen's Theatre upon the accession of Her Majesty, 1837 ; the interior redecorated, 1846 ; Jenny Lind made her first appearance, May 4, 1847; ner last, May 18, 1849 ; the theatre opened under the direction of Mr E. T. Smith, April 10, 1860, and the first pantomime produced ; totally destroyed by fire, Dec. 5, 1867. HAYNAU, GENERAL, a disgraceful attack made upon, at Barclay & Co.'sBrewery, for flogging ladies in the Hungarian war ; he escaped La a police galley, Sept. 5, 1850. HAYTI, or Haiti, West Indies, Island of, better known as the Island of St Domingo, discovered by Columbus, 1492 ; the native inhabitants were all butchered by the Spaniards, who colonized it, 1496 ; the western portion colonized by the French, 1665 ; ceded to France, Sept. 20, 1697 ; revolt of the Mulattoes, Aug. 23, 1791 ; again, 1 793, committing dreadful slaughter upon the inhabitants ; the island taken possession of by a British force, Sept., 1793; Toussaint 1' Ouverture appointed General-in-chief of the Revolutionists ; the English evacuated the island, 1798 ; the independence of, proclaimed, July I, 1801 ; the French sent an army, under General Leclerc, who defeated them and captured their chief, May 7, 1802 ; the 25 3 86 HEALTH HEBRON French compelled to evacuate the island, 1803 ; the standard of the blacks hoisted, Nov., 1803 ; Dessalines, a negro chief, ordered a massacre of all the whites, May 29, 1804; Dessalines crowned king, Oct. 8, 1804; died, Sept., 1805 ; succeeded by Christophe, who became president, Feb., 1807; and crowned emperor, June 2, 1811 ; Pethion ruled at Port au Prince, who was succeeded thereby Boyer, May, 1818; Christophe shot himself, Oct. 6 ; independence declared, Dec., 1821 ; confirmed by France, April, 1825 ; Hayti proclaimed a republic under Solouque, March I, 1846 ; proclaimed an empire by Solouque, who crowned himself em- peror, April 18, 1852 ; deposed, Dec. 22, 1858 ; united to Spain, March 18, 1861 ; insurrection against this power, and St Domingo seized by the rebels, Sept. I, and a republic proclaimed ; the insurgents defeated by the Spanish forces, 1864 ; Cape Haytien captured by the insurgents, May 9, 1 865 ; President Geffrard re- signed, Sept. I ; banished, March 27, 1866 ; a revolt of the inhabitants quelled, Aug. 12, 1867. HEALTH, Board of, appointed, II & 12 Viet. c. 63, Aug. 31, 1848 ; remodelled by 17 & 18 Viet. c. 95, Aug. 10, 1854 ; further amended, 18 & 19 Viet. c. 115, Aug. 14, 1855. HEALTHS, custom of drinking, said to have arisen in Saxon times, when Rowena, the daughter of Hengist, drank Vortigern's health, at an entertainment, in a gold cup, 460. HEARTH MONEY, a tyrannical tax, levied by 13 & 14 Charles II. c. 10, 1662, 15 Charles II. c. 13, 1663, and 16 Charles II. c. 3, 1664, on every fire-place in England ; it was abolished by I Will. & Mary, c. 10, 1688. HEAT, experimented on by Mariotte, 1682, and by Scheel of Sweden ; brought to notice by Dr Black, of Glasgow, 1757 ; Dr Herschel discovered that the rays of heat exist independently of light, 1800 ; confirmed by Sir Henry Englefield, 1802 ; Mr Leslie and Berard proved that the point of the greatest heat in the solar spectrum is in the red rays, 1804 ; confirmed by Melloni, 1836 ; the polarisation of, discovered by Professor Forbes. Heat discovered in the moon's rays, in America, 1821. HEATON CASTLE, Northumberland, built, circa 1380; besieged unsuccessfully by the Scots, 1513. HEBREW BIBLES, the most ancient Old Testament in print, dated Soncino, A.D. 1488, and Brixiae, 1494 ; the New Testament, dated Basil, 1516, edited by Eras- mus ; in Greek and Latin, dated Alcala, 1514 5 the MSS. now extant are of the 4th, 5th, 6th, 7th, 8th, gth, and loth centuries. HEBREW LANGUAGE, the language of the Israelites, known as the Hebrew, B.C. 130 ; Josephus the first to apply it to the old Hebrew as spoken in the days of Moses ; new words were afterwards introduced ; points first introduced in reading, A.D. 475. HEBREWS, Epistle to the, was written to the Church of Alexandria by St Paul A.D. 63. HEBRIDES, Scotland, the islands were anciently inhabited by t'he Celtic race, governed by the kings of Norway; Somerled made Lord of the Isles, 1156; Alexander II. of Scotland attempted to dethrone the Norwegians, 1249 ; King Haco led an expedition against Scotland to assert his rights ; his fleets were dis- persed by a tempest, Aug. 5, 1263 ; Magnus, his son, agreed to give them up to the Scots, 1266; Dr Johnson visited them, 1733; the power of the chiefs abolished, 1748 ; great numbers emigrated to America, 1792 ; famine, 1846. t HEBRIDES, NEW, Pacific Ocean. This group of islands discovered by Quiros, 1606 ; visited by Bougainville, 1768 ; and by Cook, 1774, who thus named them. HEBRON, Palestine. The patriarchs, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, resided much HEBURN COLLIERY HELIER 387 here, and are here entombed. David made it a royal city and resided here at the beginning of the I2th century ; it was captured by the Crusaders ; made the seat of a Latin bishopric, 1167; reverted to the Moslems, 1187. HEBURN COLLIERY, Northumberland, n men destroyed by an explosion at, Aug. 18, 1814. HECINECKEN, called the learned prodigy of Lubeck, who was master of several languages at four years of age, when he died, 1725. HECLA, MOUNT, Iceland, eruptions of, 1004, 1766 ; 1846, when several new craters were formed, and the fire rose to 4000 English feet above the summit. HEDGLEY MOOR, battle. Queen Margaret defeated by the Yorkists, under Lord Montacute, April 25, 1464. HEDINGHAM CASTLE, Essex, built by Alberic de Vere, Earl of Oxford, circa 1155 ; besieged and taken by King John, 1216 ; surrendered to the Dauphin of France, 1217 ; recaptured by the Earl of Pembroke ; Henry VII. entertained here, 1509; repaired and enlarged by John de Vere, Earl of Oxford, 1490. HEELER ACE for ships, invented by Captain Handy, 1829. HEGIRA, or the flight of Mohammed, the prophet, from Mecca to Medina, A.D. July 15, 622 ; the era of the Hegira commenced from his expulsion, July 16, 622. HEIDELBERG, Baden, taken by the Spaniards, under Tilly, who delivered it up to pillage for three days, and carried off its library to Rome ; taken by the French, under Melac, who burnt the town, 1688, and the troops of the same nation repeated this with more cruelty, 1693 ; celebrated for its great tun, made 1343, containing 21 pipes of wine ; a larger one was made, 1664, which contained 600 hogsheads, or 300 pipes ; this was destroyed by the French, 1688, when another was made to contain 800 hogsheads, and was once kept full of the product of the vintage; it is now disused. University of, established, 1386; remodelled, 1802. HEILBRONN, WUrtemberg, a fortified city, bjiilt upon the site of a Roman station, A.D. 805 ; made a free city, 1300. HELDER, Holland. Van Tromp killed in an engagement off, 1653 ; the fleet captured, and the town taken, by a force under Sir Ralph Abercrombie, Aug. 30, 1799. HELEN, ST, Bishopsgate-street, a priory of Benedictine Nuns founded by William Fitz-William, circa. 1210 ; augmented by William Basing, Sheriff of London, 1308; it was surrendered to Henry VIII., 1538. The 'Nuns' Grating" is still visible in the church ; the earliest monument in the church is to John Crosby, formerly Mayor of the Staple, 1275 ; the church was repaired, 1633 ; and re- stored, 1866-7. HELENA, ST, Atlantic, Island of, discovered by Juan de Castella, a Portuguese, May 21, 1502; visited and described by Cavendish, 1588; colonized by the Dutch, 1612 ; abandoned by them, 1651. The English East India Company settled there, 1651 ; recaptured by the Dutch, 1655 ; the English and Dutch by turns occupied it until 1673, when it was given over to the East India Company by Charles II. It is remarkable as the place of exile of the greatest character of modern times, the Emperor of France, Napoleon I., Oct. 16, 1815 ; and also as the place of his death, May 5, 1821 ; the body of Napoleon exhumed, Oct. 1 8, brought to France from St Helena, and interred under the dome of the Invalides in Paris, Dec. 15, 1840. HELIER, ST, Jersey. Fort Regent built, 1806-12 ; the principal church erected,. 1341 ; the Court-house, 1647 ; the Victoria Pier commenced, 1841 ; finished and opened by Queen Victoria, Sept. 2, 1846. 388 HELIGOLAND HENRI QUATRE HELIGOLAND, North Sea, captured by the English, Sept. 5, 1807 ; ceded to them by treaty, Jan. 14, 1814. HELIOMETER, an instrument for measuring the stars, invented by Bougier, 1774. See Micrometer. HELIOSCOPE, an instrument which reflects the image of the sun upon a plain surface, invented by Scheiner, a German, 1625. HELL-FIRE CLUBS, associations formed in London, among persons of rank, for impious discussions, ridiculing the Trinity, &c. ; the members met at Somerset House, in a house in Westminster, and in Conduit-street ; they were suppressed by the Council, April 28, 1721. HELMETS mentioned in I Sam. xvii. 5 ; i Chr. xxvi. 14 ; Ezek. xxvii. 10. The Romans and Anglo-Saxons wore this piece of armour ; the Normans wore the helmet with a protection for the nose, 'the conical nasal," 1060 ; visors made movable, 1230; the 'flat-topped' and 'round-topped,' 1270; the 'sugar-loafed,' 1280; the 'flat-topped,' 1300; in 1308 the chain-mail gorget, and crests about the same time ; feathers first worn, 1400 ; the coronet worn upon a wide-rimmed helmet, 1410 ; scrolls, 1470 ; the close helmet worn, 1550 ; the plumes worn in the 1 7th century. HELMSLEY, Yorkshire. Castle built by Edward I., 1306 ; taken by Fairfax and demolished, 1645. HELMSTADT, Germany. University founded, 1575 ; suppressed by Jerome Bonaparte, 1809, and the library removed to Gottingen. HELPSTONE, Northampton, a Roman villa discovered at, June, 1828. HELSINGFORS, Finland, founded by Gustavus I. of Sweden in the i6th century; burnt by the Russians, 1728, and again, 1741 ; taken by the Swedes under Lewenhaupt, 1 742 ; taken by the Russians, 1 808 ; ceded with the whole of Fin- land, 1809 ; the government removed here and made the capital, 1815 ; the uni- versity removed to this town from Abo, 1827. HELSTONE, Cornwall, made a borough by King John, 1201, and a coinage town by Edward I., and returned two members to parliament, 1298 ; incorporated by Elizabeth, 1584. HELVETII. These people were found by Csesar in Germany, and when he had crossed the SaSne sued for peace, B.C. 107. HEMP. This plant first mentioned by Herodotus ; the cordage of that large ship the ' Syracusia ' made from this plant, B.C. 200 ; first used in England, for the purpose of making fishing nets, 1533 ; bounties conferred for its cultivation, 1783 ; import of, from Russia, 1785, no less than 17,645 tons ; in that year .2396 was paid to encourage its growth ; it requires five acres to produce one ton ; the annual quantity imported exceeds 100,000 tons; Granholm's patent for improving, granted, Dec. 25, 1816. HENCHMEN, pages of honour selected by Henry VIII. from the sons of gentle- men, and in public processions walked at the head of the King's horse, 1530. HENDERSON, Mr, hanged for murdering Mrs Dalrymple, March 25, 1746. HENGIST and HORSA, Saxon chiefs, arrived in England, 449 ; the first battle between them and the Britons, 455, when Hengist assumed the title of King of Kent ; Hengist entertained Vortigern and 300 of the English chiefs, on Salisbury Plain, when he massacred them all, 476. HENOTICUM. The Emperor Zeno passed this edict, intending to unite the Eutychians with the Catholics, 482. HENRI QUATRE, a French man-of-war of 100 guns, wrecked in the Black Sea, Nov. 14, 1854. HENRY I. HEREFORD 389 HENRY I. to VIII., kings of England .See England. HENRY III. of France, assassinated by a monk, Aug. I, 1589. HENRY IV. of France, assassinated by Ravaillac, May 14, 1610. HENRY, ST. The Saxon order was instituted by Augustus III., king of Poland, Oct. 7, 1736 ; it afterwards became dormant, but was revived, Sept. 4, 1768. HEPTARCHY in England, the government of the Seven Kings, from 455 to 827, when Egbert subdued all the others under his own rule. See England. HERACLEA, Black Sea, several coal-fields discovered, 1841, by Mr Davy and Mr Granville Withers, Civil Engineers. HERALDRY first introduced by the English at the time of the Crusades, 1095, and at the jousts and tournaments in the reign of Henry I ., 1 104 ; the shield of Geoffrey Plantagenet bears his arms; he died, 1150; the Rolls of Arms in the reign of Henry III. and Edward I. display the simplest forms of this science ; crests were assumed, circa 1280 ; Richard the Third established a regular form of family heraldry, 1483. HERALDS' COLLEGE instituted by Richard III. ; the college or house called Cold Harbour, in the parish of Allhallows the Less, London, given to, March 2, 1484 ; Derby House, Doctors' Commons, given to the Garter King-at-Arms by Queen Mary, as a college, July 18, 1555 ; destroyed in the fire of 1666 ; the pre- sent building erected by Sir C. Wren, 1683 ; partially taken down, 1867. HERAT, Afghanistan. The ancient Areia of Alexander. It was formerly a part of the Persian Empire ; taken by Mahomet in the 7th century ; it was seized by Genghis Khan, who destroyed the city, 1220 ; restored, 1225 ; captured by the Mongols, 1319; by Tamerlane, 1381 ; re-united to Persia, 1511; annexed to Afghanistan by Ahmeh Khan, 1 749 ; Shah Zeman made it the capital ; the Persians attacked the city unsuccessfully, 1815 ; again besieged by the Persians unsuccess- fully, 1833 ; Mahommed Shah of Persia, assisted by Russian officers, again be- sieged this city, Nov. 22, 1837, but the Afghans, under Eldred Pottinger, an English officer, successfully defended the place for 10 months, the siege was raised, Sept. 9, 1838. HERCULANEUM, Italy, severely shaken by an earthquake, Feb. 5, A.D. 63 ; entirely overwhelmed and destroyed by an eruption of Vesuvius, Aug. 24, 79 ; a peasant in digging a well discovered the buried city, 1706, which had almost been .forgotten ; the government prosecuted a search in 1738, and dis- covered the theatre, and a library of 2000 MSS., in 1754 ; a glass manufactory dis- covered, Feb. 27, 1829. HEREFORD, Herefordshire. The capital of Mercia. Oswy king of Mercia made this town the capital of Lichfield, 655 ; a synod held at, 673 ; the cathedral founded in the reign of Offa, 750 ; Ethelbert buried in, 782 ; rebuilt from the designs of Bishop Losing after the church of Aix-la-Chapelle, 1079 1130; the north transept and chapter-house finished, 1282 ; the town fortified and castle built in the reign of Athelstan, 925-40 ; taken by the Britons out of Wales, 1039 ; the walls rebuilt by Harold, 1054 ; besieged by Stephen unsuccessfully, 1 141 ; the town incorporated by Richard I., Oct. 9, 1189 ; the title of the chief magis- trate changed from Bailiff to Mayor, 1382 ; Despenser, Earl of Arundel, and three others executed, 1326 ; taken by Sir William Waller for the Parliament, April, 1643 ; the fortifications destroyed by order of the Long Parliament, 1647 ; Charles II. granted them increased privileges ; St Giles s Hospital founded, 1290; chapel rebuilt, 1682; the hospital remodelled, 1770; school founded by Bishop Trillick, 1354; rebuilt, 1760; county hall erected, July, 1817; the cathedral partially restored by the dean and chapter at the cost of ,40,000, and re-opened, July 4, 1863 ; musical festival at, Aug. 20, 1867. 390 ' HEREFORD HERTFORD HEREFORD, Bishopric of, founded before the Saxon invasion ; added to Lich- field by Oswy, king of Mercia, 655 j divided into separate sees, 676 ; Putta made bishop, 676. HERETICS, thirty, who came from Germany to England, to propagate their opinions, were branded in the forehead, publicly whipped, and left naked in the streets, in mid-winter, when none daring to relieve them, they died of cold and hunger, 1160. Ordered to be apprehended, 5 Richard II. c. 5, s. 2, 1382 ; ordered to be burned, 2 Henry IV. c. 15, 1400-1 ; Henry VIII. , having estab- lished six articles of faith, appointed death by burning to all those who should be proved heretics, 25 Henry VIII. c. 14, 1533-4 ; this punishment abolished, 29 Car. II. c. 9, 1676 ; by an act passed, 9 & 10 Will. III. c. 32, persons denying Christianity were to be punished by three years' confinement, 1698. HERITABLE JURISDICTIONS, and Movable Rights, abolished in Scotland, 1747 ; these were what would be called in England Feudal Rights, and were valued at .164,222 ; the largest sum paid was to the Duke of Argyle, 21,000, and the smallest to J. and J. Smith, clerks to the regality of Aberbrothock, 13 6s. &/. HERMENEGILDE, ST. This order was instituted by Ferdinand VII. , king of Spain, Nov. 28, 1814. HERMITS, individuals who retired from persecution on notions of religion being adverse to social life, and resided alone in caves and desert places, under vows and mortifications ; from them sprung the houses of the monastic orders ; the first of these solitary religious seems to have been a man called Paulus, who fled to the Thebaid desert from persecution, about 250. HEROD'S FOOT GUNPOWDER- WORKS, near Liskeard, Cornwall, exploded, and dreadfully mutilated two of the workmen, April 26, 1852. HERRARA, battle. Don Carlos of Spain at this place, near Arragon, with an army of 7000 infantry and 600 horse, defeated the army of Gen. Buerens, 9000 strong ; they lost 300 in killed, and 2400 prisoners, Aug. 24, 1837. HERRING FISHING first practised by the Dutch, 1 164 ; the herring statute passed by Edward III., 1357 ; true mode of preserving and pickling herring first prac- tised before 1352 ; the English Herring Fishing Company first established, Sept. 2, 1750 ; commissioners appointed to superintend the trade by Geo. III., 1808 ; in 1781 herrings came in such large quantities to Buscoe, on the coast of Gotten - burg, that they were caught by the hand ; in 1784 1,400,000 francs' worth of her- rings were caught in the space of a fortnight in Loch Urn ; in 17 73 there was such an invasion of herrings in Loch Torridon that 150 fishing boats caught from 12 to 20 casks each in the space of a single night ; in some cases 50,000 herrings have been caught by a single cast of the nets ; the laws relating to white herring fishing amended, July 15, 1867. HERRINGS, battle. The English under the command of Sir John Fastolfe at- tacked by the French under Dunois the Bastard of Orleans, at Roveroy, in order to intercept a convoy of salt-fish, which was sent by the Duke of Bedford to the army ; the French were defeated : this disaster is known as the ' Journee des Harengs,' Feb. 12, 1429. HERSCHEL completed his great telescope of 40 feet, 1787 ; laid before the Royal Society a catalogue of nebulae and stars, which he had discovered with his glasses ; discovered the planet Uranus, or the Georgian, March 21, 1781 ; a volcano in the moon, 1783 ; and subsequently two other volcanoes emitting lava ; two satellites revolving round the Georgian, 1787 ; also a sixth and seventh satellite of Saturn, 1789. HERTFORD, Hertfordshire, the principal residence of the East Saxons kings ; a HERTFORD COLLEGE HIBERNIA 391 synod held at, when a body of Canon Law was then first introduced into England, Sept 24, 673 ; Edward the Elder built a castle here, 913 ; the Priory founded by Ralph de Limesay, circa 1092 ; the revolted barons captured the town, 1213 ; incor- porated by Elizabeth, 1588 ; a preparatory school for the East India Company's College at Haileybury, built upon the site of the castle by James I., 1617; Christ Hospital also has a preparatory establishment here, founded, 1683 ; finished, 1696 ; enlarged, 1818. HERTFORD COLLEGE, Oxford, formerly Herts Hall, conveyed to Walter Stapleton, bishop of Exeter, 1312 ; licensed by Edward I., May 10, 1314; made a college by Dr Richard Newton, 1721 ; statutes published, 1747 ; the Gate- house built, 1688 ; the chapel consecrated, Nov. 25, 1716. HESSE, Germany, anciently included in the Landgraviate of Thuringia ; it passed to Henry, Prince of Brabant, 1247 ; divided into Upper and Lower Hesse, 1458 ; united, 1500; divided into four divisions, 1567; Prince of, embraced the Catholic faith, Nov. , 1 754 ; the Prince of, attacked by a lunatic at his table, March 24, 1760 ; a new constitution adopted, 1850 ; a treaty for the marriage of Prince Louis of, to the Princess Alice of England signed, Aug. 14, 1861. HESSE CASSEL, Germany, founded by Philip the Magnanimous, 1567 ; Frederick II. let out several thousand men to England and received upwards of three millions sterling for their services, 1776-84 ; the left bank of the Rhine seized by the French and incoqjorated with Westphalia, 1803 ; declared in a state of siege, Sept. 7, 1850; the diet dissolved, Sept. 27, 1850 ; the constitution proclaimed, Jan. 5, 1831 ; abrogated, April 13, 1852 ; re-established, June 21, 1862 ; the state invaded by 17,000 Prussians, under Gen. Beyer, June 16, 1866 ; the King of Westphalia taken prisoner, June 22 ; annexed to Prussia, Sept 17, 1866. HESSE DARMSTADT, Germany, founded by George I., 1567 ; increased in territory by the treaty of Luneville, 1801 ; joined the Rhine Confederation, 1806 ; made Grand Duke, 1807 ; joined the French, 1813 ; by the treaty of Vienna a further portion of territory was obtained, 1815 ; the constitution settled, Dec. 17, 1820 ; modified, 1848, and again, 1856; several districts north of the river Maine annexed to Prussia by treaty, Sept. 15, 1866. HESSE HOMBURG, founded, 1596 ; the landgrave deprived of his sovereignty, 1806; restored, 1815 ; became a member of the confederation, 1817. HESSIANS, body of, taken into English pay, 1726 ; again, Hessian troops, 6000 in number, landed in England, May 15, 175^ > re-embarked for Germany, April 28, 1757 ; a corps raised to fight against the Americans, the prince to be paid ^30 per head for all killed off ; in Dec. 23, 1 786, the account being settled, the sum of .471,000 was paid into the bank, to the credit of the landgrave of Hesse, being the sum due to him upon his bargain. This sum, divided by 30, gives the loss of the Hessian corps alone, in that vicious war, at 13, 700 men put hors de combat to the landgrave's gain. A force was again applied for from this mercenary principality to put down the rebellion in Ireland, 1798 ; a foreign legion raised during the Crimean war, 1 854 ; colours presented to, by Prince Albert, Dec. 6, 1855. HEVER CASTLE, Kent, built, 1340. HEXH AM, Northumberland, a Roman station ; a monastery founded by St Wilfrid, 673 ; made a bishops' see, 675 ; united to Lindisfarne, 810 ; the town besieged and taken by the Scots, 1296, and again, 1346, when a great many of the inhabit- ants were slain ; a serious riot happened here, March 9, 1761. HEXHAM, battle, in which the Lancastrians were beaten by the Yorkists, fought, May 15, 1464. HIBERNIA, a vessel so named, bound from Liverpool to Australia, with 208 pas- 392 HICKS' HALL HIGHWAYMEN sengers, was destroyed at sea through the negligence of the second mate, and 1 50 lives were lost from the want of a sufficiency of boats to take them in, Feb. 5, 1833- HICK'S' HALL, Smithfield, London, built, 1611 ; the justices first met in, Jan. 13, 1612 ; ordered to be pulled down, Jan. 7, 1778 ; the Sessions House, Clerken- well, built from the design of Mr Rogers ; began, May 20, 1779 ; completed, 1782. HIDE ABBEY, near Winchester, founded, 1130. HIEROGLYPHICS appear upon the 'earliest tombs in the East, and upon the pyramids. Several attempts were made to decipher these characters, but little pro- gress was made till the Rosetta stone was discovered, 1 799 ; Mr Young enlarged the previous systems, and first discovered the name of Ptolemy on this stone, 1814 ; Champollion improved Young's system, 1822, since which time many learned men have turned their attention to this science. HIGH CHURCH AND LOW CHURCH. These names were not coined till the close of the 1 7th century, and were not stamped in full relief as party names till the Convocation holden in 1702, the first year of Queen Anne's reign. The learned Dr South thus explains these epithets : ' The High Church are those who think highly of the Church, and lowly of themselves ; the Low Church are those who think highly of themselves, and lowly of the Church. ' HIGH COMMISSION COURT, established by parliament in Elizabeth's reign, to exercise ecclesiastical jurisdiction, i Eliz. c. I, s. 18, 1559 ; new commission issued, 1583; last, abolished by 16 Charles I. c. 2, 1640; meeting held at St Paul's, where the people made a tumult, Oct. 22, 1640. HIGH COURT OF JUSTICE appointed to try Charles I., Jan. i, 1649; as- sembled in Westminster Hall, Jan. 20, 1649. HIGHGATE, Middlesex, the archway began, Oct. 31, 1812; finished, 1813; opened, Aug. 20, 1813. HIGHLAND and Agricultural Society of Scotland, instituted at Edinburgh for the encouragement of agriculture, I7&5- HIGHLAND DRESS, forbidden to be worn in Scotland by law, Aug., 1746 ; re- stored, 1782 ; Highland clans reduced by General Cadogan, 1716 ; clans disarmed, May 31, 1715 ; again, 1746. HIGHLAND SOCIETY, established in London, May 28, 1778; incorporated, 1816, by 56 Geo. III. c. 20, and subsequently by I & 2 Will. IV. c. 47, Aug. 23, 1831 ; in 1781 the society established an annual competition for performance on the bag-pipes. HIGHNESS, a title of honour given to princes, first to Henry VII., and continued by Henry VIII., with the addition of ' Your Grace ; ' at the close of his reign he adopted the title of ' Your Majesty.' The Prince of Orange had this title granted to him by Louis XIV., 1644. HIGH TREASON ACT, formerly so oppressive, that the 2$th of Edward III., 1352, was passed to secure as much as possible the liberty of the subject, by en- acting that two witnesses are necessary to prove it ; certain acts against, repealed, i Edvv. VI. c. 12, 1547 ; the acts against, extended to Scotland, by 7 Anne, c. 21, 1 708 ; death by hanging substituted for burning, 30 Geo. Ill ., c. 48, 1 790 ; by 40 Geo. III. c. 93, July 28, 1800, it was enacted that where there was an overt act that was a direct attempt on the life of the sovereign, such a trial should be conducted in the same way as in a trial for murder ; petit treason to be punished as murder only, 9 Geo. IV. c. 31, s. 2, June 27, 1828 ; repealed, 24 25 Viet. c. 95, Aug. 6, 1861 ; re-enacted, c. 100, s. 8, Aug. 6, 1861. HIGHWAYMEN, an act passed to encourage their apprehension with a reward, HIGHWAYS HOHENZOLLERN 393 1693 ; an act passed, sentence to seven years' transportation, 7 Geo. II. c. 21, 1734- HIGHWAYS or Roads, act to repair, passed, 1525 ; those of Scotland regulated by 4 Geo. IV. c. 49, July 4, 1823, and I & 2 Will. IV. c. 43, Oct. 15, 1831, also 3 & 4 Will IV. c. 33, July 24, 1833 ; those of England regulated, 5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 50, Aug. 31, 1833 ; 2 & 3 Viet. c. 45, Aug. 4, 1840 ; amended by 25 & 26 Viet. c. 61, July 29, 1862, and 27 & 28 Viet. c. IOI, July 29, 1864. HJLDESHEIM, Hanover. Charlemagne instituted a bishopric here, 822 ; cathe- dral founded by Louis the Pious, 818 ; secularized and ceded to Prussia, 1803 ; incorporated with Westphalia, 1807 ; restored to Prussia, 1813 ; ceded by this power to Hanover, 1813. HILFIELD HALL, Warwick, built, 1576 ; destroyed by fire, Feb. 11, 1864, HIMBRA, Sicily, founded, circa B.C. 648 ; destroyed by the Carthaginians, 408. HINCHINBROOKE NUNNERY, founded by William I., circa 1126. HINCHINBROOKE PRIORY, Huntingdonshire, built, 1704. HINDON, Wilts, 150 houses in, destroyed by a fire, July 2, 1754. HINDOO ERA, or that of the Cali-Yuga, beginning 3102 years before Christ. HINDOSTAN, Indiaman, lost in a storm, 1803. HINDUSTAN, India. Alexander commanded an expedition to, B.C. 327 ; before that time but little known ; the Mahommedan power having conquered Persia, carried their victorious army into this country, where they settled under Mahmoud, A.D. 1000. HISTORIOGRAPHER of England. John Dryden appointed to this office, Aug. 1 8, 1670. HITCHIN, Herts, 20 houses destroyed at, by fire, Sept. II, 1762. HOB ART TOWN, Australia, founded and made the seat of government by Lieut. Collins, 1804. HOBILERS, a class of light cavalry, who derived their designation from the small horses or hobbies which they rode, mentioned in Rymer as early as 1324 ; Edward III. summoned the sheriffs of the northern counties to attend him into Scotland with a company of hobilers, properly armed, 1332 ; they were princi- pally drawn from Ireland, 1347. HOBLYN, Mr, of Sloane-street, introduced cocoa-nut oil into England, 1817. ' HOBSON'S CHOICE,' derived from one Hobson, who let out horses at Cam- bridge, and obliged any who hired them of him to take that next the stable door. He was a carrier by trade, and put up at the Bull, Bishopsgate-street, on his Lon- don journeys. Milton has celebrated him, when in the plague year he was for- bidden to go to London, 1630. He gave to the university and town the site of the Spinning House, or ' Hobson's Workhouse,' 1628 ; he died, 1630. HOCHKIRCHEN, battles. Frederick II. of Prussia and Count Daun ; Frederick was defeated, being surprised, Oct. 14, 1758 ; Napoleon defeated the Russians here, May 22, 1813. HOGUE, LA, naval battle. The English, under Admiral Rooke, attacked and de- feated the French fleet, under Admiral Tourville, May 23, 1692. HOHENLINDEN, battle between the French under Marshal Moreau and the Austrians under the Archduke John, who were beaten, and lost 700 killed and 8000 wounded, with as many prisoners, and 100 cannons, Dec. 3, 1800. HOHENZOLLERN, the House of. The kings of Prussia trace their origin to Count Thassilo of Zollern, one of the Generals to Charlemagne ; his successor, Count Frederick I., built the Castle of Hohenzollem, near the Danube, 980 ; Frederick 394 HOHENZOLLERN-HECHINGEN HOLLAND III. elevated to the rank of a Prince of the Holy Roman Empire, 1273, and re- ceived the Burgraviate of Nuremberg in fief; his great grandson, Frederick VI., was invested by Sigismund with the province of Brandenburg, 1411, and was raised to the rank of Elector, 1417 ; Albert, a younger son of the family, elected Margrave of Prussia, 1511 ; Frederick Wilhelm, of the Brandenburgh line, died, 1688 ; his son Frederick crowned King of Prussia, Jan. 18, 1701. HOHENZOLLERN-HECHINGEN and HOHENZOLLERN-ZIGMARIN- GEN, Germany, ceded to the King of Prussia with all rights, by treaty, Dec. 7, 1849. HOLBORN, London, the bars first set up at the boundary of the city, 1346 ; first paved, at the expense of Henry V., 1417 ; the Holborn Valley Viaduct crossing the valley of the Fleet, erected from the design of Mr Haywood, built under the authority of 27 & 28 Viet. c. Ixi., June 23, 1864 ; first stone laid by Mr Deputy Fry, June 3, 1867 ; Middle Row removed, 1867 ; the Amphitheatre opened, 1867. HOLBORN THEATRE, built by Mr Parry, and opened with a racing drama, written by Mr Boucicault, 'Flying Scud,' Oct. 6, 1866. HOLLAND, fine linen, so called from being made in that country ; Holland sheets mentioned as being used in England, 1596 ; the Holland towels, 1620 ; also for shirts at 13.?. 4^. an ell, 1608. HOLLAND, a portion of the territory of the Belgse, in the time of the Romans, who were subdued by that people, B.C. 47. It contains about 10,000 square miles of surface. After the Romans it was conquered by the Frisians, Danes, and Franks. The portions near the Rhine and Meuse were divided into petty earldoms. In 923 Theodric, or Diodric, brother to Herman, Duke of Saxony, was appointed Count of Holland by Charles the Simple of France ; Zealand and Friesland were included in his domains. Guilderland was added by Henry IV., Emperor of Germany in 1079, and became a duchy, 1339 ; Utrecht was governed by its powerful prelates ; Florence IV. carried on hostilities against the Flemings and Frisians, dying at Antioch on an expedition to the Holy Land, 1189 ; William I. formed a league with John, King of England, the Emperor Otho, and Ferrand, Earl of Flanders, against France, 1213, but he was taken prisoner at the battle of Bouvines; John, Earl of Holland, married Elizabeth, daughter of Edward I. of Eng- land ; Philippa, daughter of William III., Earl of Holland, married Edward III. of England, Jan. 24, 1327 ; Jacquelin, heiress of Holland, 1417, wedded John IV., Duke of Brabant ; Rotterdam annexed to Brabant, 1418 ; the Duke of Brabant divorced from Jacquelin, 1421 ; she afterwards married Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, 1423 ; the Countship passed into the family of Burgundy by marriage, and Philip assumed the government, 1434 ; Dort suffered from an inundation, 1446; Maria, daughter of Charles the Bold, the last Duke of Burgundy, married Maxi- milian, Duke of Austria, and upon her father's death the kingdom passed under Austrian rule, 1477 > declared war against the Hanse Towns, I5 IO 5 the begin- ning of the Reformation, 1516; Charles V. granted a new constitution, 1520; Friesland annexed to Holland, 1522 ; the Inquisition introduced, 1565 ; a lament- able inundation destroyed best part of the country, and upwards of 30,000 people, 1570 ; a revolution of the inhabitants headed by Prince William broke out, 1572 ; the famous alliance of Utrecht agreed to, Jan. 23, 1579 ; a treaty concluded with Queen Elizabeth, who appointed the Earl of Leicester governor, 1585 ; Sir Philip Sydney killed at the battle of Zutphen, Sept. 22, 1586 ; Leicester recalled, 1587; the Dutch East India Company established, 1595; Prince Maurice cap- tured Antwerp, 1597 ; gained a decisive victory at Nieuport, 1600 ; the siege of Ostend, which lasted for three years, terminated by the town capitulating, Sept. 20, 1604; the synod of Dort assembled, Nov. 13, 1618; the war with Spain re- HOLLAND HOUSE HOLLAND, NEW 395 newed, 1621 ; during 1628, the Dutch fleet succeeded in capturing a great part of the Spanish fleet, with a great quantity of bullion, valued at 15,000,000 of livres; Breda besieged, 1637 ; capitulated to the Prince of Orange, 1638 ; Van Tromp defeated the Spanish fleet off Gravelines, Feb. 18, 1639 ; blockaded the Spanish fleet in the Downs, and defeated them ; peace concluded with Spain, Jan., 1648; war declared, 1652, with England; Admiral Blake engaged Van Tromp with a fleet of 42 sail, May 19, 1652 ; Sir George Ayscue engaged the Dutch fleet under De Ruyter, Aug. 16 ; Tromp defeated the English fleet under Blake, Nov. 28 ; sailed up the English Channel, Nov. 29, 1652, and Blake defeats Tromp with a fleet of 76 vessels, Feb. 18, 1653; and again by General Monk off the mouth of the Meuse, Aug. 10, Van Tromp being mortally wounded ; peace concluded, 1654 ; Charles II. declared war against, 1665 ; the Duke of York defeated the Dutch fleet under Opdam, June I, 1665 ; De Ruyter attacked the English fleet under the Duke of Albemarle, June I, 1666 ; peace concluded at Breda, July 10, 1667 ; the Triple Alliance signed, Jan. 13, 1668 ; broken by Charles II., who joined with Louis the XIV., and declared war against, April, 1672 ; an army of 120,000 French, commanded by Conde and Turenne ; they crossed the Rhine, June 12, and overran the country, 1672 ; the sluices opened by the command of the Prince of Orange, and the country saved, 1673 > Louis again invaded the country, and defeated at Bonn, Nov. 12 ; peace concluded with England, Feb., 1674 ; the Prince of Orange married the Princess Mary, daughter of the Duke of York, Nov. 4, 1677; peace with France restored, Sept. 17, 1678; the Prince of Orange ascended the English throne as William III., Feb. 13, 1689 ; war with France renewed ; peace restored by the treaty of Ryswick, Sept. 20, 1697 ; war declared against France, May 15, 1702 ; the country again overran by the French army ; peace restored, April n, 1713 ; war renewed, April 17, 1747 ; Maestricht besieged and taken, April, 1748; treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle concluded, Oct. 18, 1748; the stadtholdership was declared hereditary, 1747; in 1756, the French formed a con- nection which was opposed to the stadtholder and England ; in 1780, war broke out between Holland and England, which ended in the peace of 1 783 ; the Civil War broke out, 1787 ; war declared by the French republic against England and Holland, 1793; Holland was subdued by the French in the winter of 1794-5, when the canals were all frozen ; the stadtholder sought a refuge in England ; the fleet fell into the hands of Admiral Mitchel, Aug. 30, 1799; a new constitution introduced by France, April, 1805 ; the territory was next made a kingdom under Louis Bonaparte, June 5, 1806, who abdicated, July I, 1810 ; Holland was then united to France, July 10, 1810 ; a revolution destroyed the French power and the Prince of Orange elected, Nov., 1813; a free constitution agreed to, and Bel- gium annexed to Holland, 1814; the inundations of 1825 caused great distress ; Belgium made a separate kingdom, June, 1831 ; Holland began war by invading the country; but the Belgians being supported by the French, the Dutch were compelled to retire, and the war ceased, 1832 ; William I. abdicated in favour of his son, Oct. 7, 1840 ; the laws revised and several measures of reform agreed to, 1848; William III. came to the throne, March 17, 1849; partitioned into Roman Catholic Bishoprics by the Pope, 1853 ; many import dues abolished,- J ^54 ; great suffering caused by an inundation, 1861 ; a decree abolishing slavery in the Dutch West Indies, passed, July I, 1863. See Netherlands. HOLLAND HOUSE, Kensington, built by John Thorpe for Sir Walter Cope, 1607 ; occupied by Sir Thomas Fairfax, July 9, 1649 ; passed to Addison, who died here, June 17, 1719 ; sold to Henry Fox, 1762. Dahlia flower first raised in England, in the garden of, 1804. The gathering of the Highland Society held in, since 1849. HOLLAND, NEW, once the name of the whole, the western part of the Aus- tralian continent is only so named now, or West Australia, discovered, 1605, ly- 396 HOLLAND PRIORY HOLY PLACES ing between 15 and 35 degrees south latitude, and 112 and 127 degrees east longi- tude. The south extremity of this fifth continent was discovered by Tasman, 1642. The extremity north of the tropic is called North Australia. South Aus- tralia extends from about 27 to 42 degrees south latitude, and from 134 to 142 degrees east longitude. New South Wales extends from 141 to 153 degrees east longitude, and from 28 to 37^ degrees south latitude ; it was taken possession of by Captain Cook, 1770. HOLLAND PRIORY, Lancashire, founded, 1309. HOLLINGBURY CASTLE, Sussex, built by the Normans, circa 1089 ; several Roman antiquities discovered in the neighbourhood, 1827. HOLLO WAY PRISON, Middlesex, erected by the corporation of London, from the designs of J. B. Bunning, the city's architect ; the first stone was laid by the Lord Mayor (Sir James Duke), Sept. 26, 1849 ; completed and delivered over to the Right Hon. William Hunter, Lord Mayor, for the magistrates of the city, Oct. 5, 1852 ; the site and building, with fittings, cost ,91,334 ; it contains 436 cells, and 14 work-rooms, besides officers' apartments. HOLM CHAPEL, Cheshire, entirely destroyed by fire, July 10, 1753. HOLM CULTRUM ABBEY, Cumberland, built by David, King of Scotland, 1150. HOLMFIRTH, Yorkshire. The Bilberry dam reservoir burst, causing the death of 100 persons, and property damaged to the extent of 600,000, Feb. 5, 1852. HOLSTEIN, Germany, conquered by Charlemagne ; the Emperor Conrad II. conferred it as a fief upon Adolphus, Count of Schauenburg, 1030 ; this line be- came extinct, 1459 ; King Christian of Denmark elected Count of, March 13, 1460 ; ceded to Denmark by the Grand Duke of Russia, 1773 ; incorporated with that kingdom, 1806 ; taken by the Swedes, 1813 ; restored to Denmark the next year ; a law passed for the regulation of, by a provincial council, May 28, 1831 ; the inhabitants appealed to the German diet to be incorporated with Holstein, Aug. 3, 1846; revolution in, against Denmark, March 24, 1848; surrendered by the treaty of Vienna to Austria and Prussia, Oct. 30, 1864 ; annexed to Prussia, Aug. 17, 1866. See Denmark and Prussia. HOLT MINERAL SPRINGS discovered, 1726. HOLY ALLIANCE, a league between Russia, Prussia, and Austria, to abide by each other in subduing all European outbreaks ; England declined being a party to it, Sept. 26, 1815 ; the King of the Netherlands joined it, June 21, 1816. HOLY CROSS, a society founded in London for the spread of Ritualism, 1867. HOLY GHOST, order of knighthood, so called, instituted in France, 1198; re- established, 1578 ; abolished at the Revolution, 1791 ; at Rome, 1798. HOLYHEAD, Anglesea. Church built, 1291 ; schools founded, 1745 ; an act passed to build a pier at, 1809 ; an arch of Mona marble built upon it in com- memoration of the visit of George IV., 1821 ; the harbour enlarged, 1824. HOLY ISLAND. Castle erected in, 730 ; the Danes visited and destroyed the church, 794 ; invaded by Malcolm III., 1061 ; the castle destroyed, 1819. HOLY LEAGUE, a league between Pope Julius II. and King Ferdinand to ex- pel the French from Italy, Oct. 4, 1511 ; Henry VIII. joined it soon after; broke up, April I, 1513- HOLY MAID of Kent, Elizabeth Barton, who, pretending to inspiration, foretold that Henry VIII. would die a violent death if he divorced Catherine of Spain, and married Anne Boleyn. For this, she with her followers were hanged at Tyburn, April 20, 1534. HOLY PLACES. The church of the Holy Sepulchre founded upon Mount Cal- HOLYROOD HONDURAS 397 vary by the mother of Constantine the Great in the I5th century ; partially destroyed by fire, 1808 ; the Holy Places placed under the control of the Greek patriarch, A.D. 621 ; the Latins claimed a share in the control of, during the last century ; the emperors of Russia have interfered in the affairs of, claiming the sole right for the Greek Church; France interfered for the Latins, 1819, and in 1851 claimed a restitution of matters as they stood in 1 740 ; the Sultan issued a firman settling the disputed points, Feb., 1852, giving the key to the Latins ; the Russians disagreeing, determined to make war upon Turkey, 1853. HOLYROOD, Edinburgh, Abbey and palace founded, 1128 ; the Parliament met in, 1177; James II. born here, Oct. 16, 1430; crowned at, March 25, 1437; married here, 1449 ; buried in, 1460 ; James III. resided at, and was married, July 13, 1469 ; James V. married at, to Margaret of England, Aug. 7, 1503 ; a fire at, April 17, 1506; destroyed, April, 1544; restored, 1546; Rizzio murdered in, March 9, 1566 ; Charles I. crowned here, June 18, 1633 ; partially destroyed by fire, Nov. 13, 1650, the apartments of Queen Mary being preserved ; rebuilt from the designs of Sir W. Bruce, 1669 ; repaired, 1758 ; the roof of the Abbey fell in, Dec. 2, 1768. HOLY-ROOD, festival of, in the Roman Church, on account of the pretended discovery of a piece of the true cross, by the Emperor Heraclius, 615. HOLY SEPULCHRE, order of, instituted, according to Faviti, by Baldwin I., king of Jerusalem, 1 103. HOLY TRINITY, order of knighthood, began, 1211. HOLY WARS. See Crusades. HOLY WATER used in the Roman Church, circa 120. HOMAGE of the Welsh princes to Alfred the Great, 881 ; of Constantine of Scot- land, 923; Malcolm of Scotland, 1070, 1072; William of Scotland, 1200 ; of the Irish princes, 1210 ; of the King of England to the Pope, 1216 ; of Alexander of Scotland, 1217. HOMER, works of, said to have been burned in the fire at Constantinople, written with golden letters on the gut of some large animal, 477 ; first published at Florence, 1488. HOMILDON-HILL, battle. The Scottish army under the Earl Douglas totally defeated by the English under the Earl of Northumberland and his son Hotspur ; Douglas and many of the leaders captured, and 800 men were killed ; the battle was won entirely by the English archers, Sept. 14, 1402. HOMILIES drawn up by Archbishop Cranmer, 1547 ; another edition of, was prepared by order of Queen Elizabeth, 1563. HOMOEOPATHIC ASSOCIATION instituted in London, 1845 ; first number of their journal issued, Feb., 1856; the British Homoeopathic Society instituted, 1859. HOMOEOPATHY introduced by Samuel Hahnemann into Germany, 1796 ; he pub- lished his Materia Medica, 1821 ; married Mile D'Hervilly at the age of 80, and died in Paris, July 2, 1843. HOMOGRAPHY, an art for the reproduction of lithography or engravings, dis- covered in France, circa 1855. HONDURAS, America, discovered by Columbus, 1502 ; the British wood-cutters made a settlement here, 1645, and extended from Cape Catoche to the river Belize ; they were attacked by the Spaniards, 1659 and 1678, but were upon both occasions unsuccessful ; driven by the Spaniards from the Campeachy Shore, 1718; peace concluded, 1763 ; ceded to England, 1670 ; a storm which destroyed 15 vessels and a number of houses visited the settlement, June I, 1788 ; another attempt was made to conquer the colonists, 1 798, but it was gallantly repulsed ; 398 HONE, WILLIAM HORNE END the present constitution adopted, 1853 ; convention between Gt Britain and, relative to the boundary of, April 30, 1859 ; erected into a colony, May 16, 1862. HONE, WILLIAM, prosecuted by the government for three political parodies, and as often acquitted, to the ministerial disappointment, Dec. 18, 1817. HONG-KONG, China, ceded to Gt Britain, Jan. 20, 1841 ; confirmed by the treaty of Nanking, Aug. 29, 1842 ; a great part of the Chinese quarter destroyed by fire, Lieut. Lugg was killed attempting to subdue the same, Dec. 28, 1851 ; par- tially destroyed by fire, Feb. 13, 1852 ; an attempt made to poison the Europeans at, March 17, 1857 ; terrific typhoon at, great destruction of property and loss of life, Sept. 8, 9, 1867 ; a most disastrous fire broke out at the warehouse of Messrs Morgan, Lambert, & Co., upwards of 200 warehouses were destroyed, Nov. 28 ; bishopric established, 1849. 'HONI SOIT QUI MAL Y PENSE,' the motto of the Order of the Garter, in- stituted, April 23, 1349. HONITON, Devonshire, a noted town for the manufacture of lace, nearly destroyed by fire, July 19, 1747 ; 140 houses burnt there, 1765 ; 37 destroyed, May, 1790 ; and 47 burned down, 1797 ; bridge of, carried away by a flood, Nov. 10, 1807. HONOLULU. The first stone of the English Cathedral laid by the king, March 5, 1867. See Sandwich Islands. HONOUR, LEGION OF. This order instituted by Napoleon I., May 19, 1802. HOOD, ROBIN, and his man Little John, said to have been Earl of Huntingdon, noted Foresters in the North ; Robin bled to death by a monk, 1247. HOOD'S ISLAND, one of the Gallipagos, in the Pacific, explored, June, 1793. HOOGHLY, Bengal, founded by the Portuguese, circa 1538 ; united to the king- dom of Delhi, 1542 ; taken by the Mogul troops, 1632 ; the English obtained permission to erect factories, 1676 ; hostilities commenced between the Nawaub and the English, the troops of the former were defeated and the town partially destroyed, 1686; ceded to England by treaty with Meer Cossim, 1760; con- firmed, 1765, by the Emperor, Shah Allum. HOOPS. Fardingales were used by the fashionable, 1650 ; hooped petticoats succeeded, 1710; crinolines introduced from France, 1855; disused, 1867. HOPS, used for brewing before 1425 ; mentioned in the 'Northumberland Household Book,' 1512 ; their use for brewing prohibited, 1528 ; in 1859 the number of acres in England devoted to this produce was 45,665, producing a revenue of ,599,083 6s. &d. ; an act passed to prevent frauds and abuses in this trade, 54 Geo. III. c. 123, July 23, 1814 ; amended, 29 & 3O % Vict. c. 37, June II, 1866. Hops and Malt Exchange opened in New Soutnwark-street, London, Oct. 16, 1867 ; cost .50,000. HORATIO, brig, blown up at St Helena, when all on board perished, Sept., 1825. HORN, supposed to be the old wind instrument, from the Welsh horn made of that substance, and called pibhorn ; the dance called the hornpipe supposed to be derived, 1300 ; drinking-horns used at an early period. HORN-BOOKS, the alphabet, vowels, and the Lord's Prayer printed on a slip of paper, which was covered with a thin layer of horn to keep it from being torn, common in the i$th century ; horn-books and primers ordered to be purchased and given to the poor children of St Mary's, Bury St Edmunds, by the will of Francis Pynner, 1639 ; Mr Halliwell quotes the price of one bought for Mr Eyresbough, Jan. 3, 1715-16, for two pence. HORN, CAPE, discovered by Schouten, 1616. HORNE END, the roof of a bam which had been converted into a Methodist HORNERS HORTON CASTLE 399 meeting-hpuse, fell in during the service, by which four persons were killed and many wounded, July 12, 1810. HORNERS, the Company of, applied to parliament in the reign of Henry IV. to prevent the importation of horns without the seal of the company ; incorporated by Charles I., May 5, 1627 ; re-incorporated by the same king, Jan. 12, 1638 ; arms granted to, 1638. HOROLOGICAL BRITISH INSTITUTE founded in Clerkenwell, London, for promoting the science of horology, 1858. HORSE GUARDS instituted, 1553; Horse Grenadiers, 1693; Horse Guards build- ing, Whitehall, erected from the designs of Mr Kent, 1753 ; the clock made by Thwaites, 1756, then the first turret clock. HORSES. These animals are mentioned as being used for agricultural purposes, Is. xxviii. 28; the war-horse is described by Job, xxxix. 19-25 ; David first estab- lished a force of cavalry and chariots, 2 Sam. viii. 4 ; I Kings iv. 26. The Anglo- Saxon horses were highly esteemed ; Hugh Capet sent to Athelstan several horses as a present, 926. The Irish had a breed of little active horses called Hobilers, used for mounting the light cavalry, 1399 ; the Duke of Newcastle, in 1667, speaks of the Spanish horse as the noblest in the world. A market for the sale of, established in Smithfield in the reign of Henry II. ; the importation of, forbidden by Henry VII. ; an act passed for improving the breed of horses, 27 Henry VIII. c. 6, 1535-6 ; the nobles ordered to breed great horses, 33 Henry VIII. c. 5, 1541-2 ; the stealing of any horse made felony without benefit of clergy, 37 Henry VIII. c. 8, 1545 ; since commuted to transportation, 2 & 3 Will. IV. c. 62, July II, 1832. The art of shoeing with iron practised by the Romans ; in- troduced into England by the Normans ; the earliest figure of a mediaeval horse- shoe occurs on a seal of Walter Marshall, seventh Earl of Pembroke, 1246; the sheriff of Surrey ordered to furnish 30,000 shoes, and 60,000 nails, 1254. Muzzles for these animals used in England before 1570. The price of these animals in the reign of Edward I. was 10 ; Henry V., ^"50 ; Henry VIII., two Fries- land horses were purchased for ^33 ; also for a large horse, ^53 ; for another, yj ; and in I547> two were sold in Smithfield for ^"4 13^. 6d. A tax first levied upon them by 24 Geo. III. c. 31, 1 784, subsequently increased ; regulated oh horses let to hire, 1 6 & 17 Viet. c. 88, Aug. 20, 1853 ; on race horses, 19 & 20 Viet. c. 82, July 29, 1856; amended, 20 Viet. c. 16, March 21, 1857. The names of those used in noble families, 1512 : a gentil horse, one of the best breed ; a pal- frey, principally used by ladies ; hobbies, small, strong, active nags ; clothsek, a cloak-bag horse, as a male horse carried post ; monteaux ; carriage, once called waggon horses ; a curtal was a horse with his tail cut ; a gambaldynge was a showy prancer ; and an amblynge horse, an ambler as now understood. HORSLEYDOWN, or HORSEYDOWN, Surrey, a part of the possessions of Bermondsey Abbey, surrendered to Henry VIII., 1537, and granted to the Cor- poration of London by King Edward VI. in the first year of his reign as a common pasturage ; a fair held here, 1660; suppressed by the Common Council, 1762; afire destroying much shipping happened here, April 30, 1780 ; St John's church built, 1736. HORTICULTURAL SOCIETIES : one founded in London, 1804 ; incorpor- ated, 1809; the Edinburgh Society founded, 1809; the Dublin Society, Jan., 1817 ; Colchester, Aug., 1823 ; the gardens at Chiswick opened, 1825 ; the gar- dens removed to Kensington and opened by Prince Albert, June 5, 1861 ; opened free to the public on the birthday of the Prince Consort, Aug. 26, 1864 ; the In- ternational Exhibition held at, May 22, 1867. HORTON CASTLE, Northumberland, erected by William de Vescy, circa 1177; destroyed, 1809. 400 HOSEA HOSPITALS HOSEA, the first of the Minor Prophets, who wrote B.C. 783, gives an animated account of the social and political life of Israel. HOSPITALLERS, order of knighthood, or the military knights of St John of Jerusalem, under religious vows, 1048, 1097 ; they became a military order, 1 104 ; and unsuccessfully defended Acre, 1290 ; conquered Rhodes, 1310, and made it their head quarters ; the island retaken by the Turks, 1522 ; they retired to Sicily, and from thence to Malta, 1530 ; they several times resisted successfully a siege by the Turks ; the Emperor Paul of Russia took them under his protection, 1 799 ; they retired to Trieste, when Malta was taken by Napoleon ; the monastery of St John's, Clerkenwell, London, was erected, 1185 ; the South Gate still exists as St John's Gate. HOSPITALS. These benevolent institutions fostered by the ancients ; they were spoken of as being well known in the Council of Nice, A. D. 325 ; the most cele- brated one was that of Caesarea, endowed by the Emperor Valens, 370 ; the hos- pital of Chrysostom, at Constantinople, was the next in size ; 24 hospitals were known in Rome in the 9th century ; a foundling hospital was first founded at Milan, 787, and a Lazaretto about the same time ; an orphan hospital by Alexius I., in Constantinople, 1090 ; the estates of, to be properly administered, 2 Hen. V. s. I, c. I, 1414. The principal hospitals in London are the 5 royal found- ations of Edward VI. A report published by the London newspapers, stating that Queen Victoria intended founding a convalescent hospital in the country, in con- nection with St Bartholomew, June I, 1867 ; leading articles congratulating the country, June 4 and 5 ; denial and exposure of this hoax, June 8. The follow- ing is an alphabetical list of the principal institutions : Bethlehem, founded, 1547. Cancer, instituted, 1851. Charing Cross, instituted, 1818 ; built from the designs of Mr Burton ; first stone laid by the Duke of Sussex, Sept. 15, 1818. Children, Sick, Gt Ormond-street, instituted, 1851. City of London, established, 1848; new building opened, 1855. City Orthopaedic, opened, 1851. County Lunatic Asylum, Hanwell, established, 1831. Consumption, Brompton, instituted, 1841 ; incorporated, 1850. The building at Brompton designed by Mr Francis ; the first stone laid by Prince Albert, June ir, 1844 ; opened, 1846 ; the western wing added, July, 1848. Dental, Soho Square, established, 1858. Diseases of the skin, Blackfriars, instituted, 1841. French Protestant, Victoria Park, Hackney, built from the designs ofR. L. Rou- mieu, 1866; first instituted in Bath-street, St Luke's, 1708. German, Dalston, opened, 1845. Great Northern, King's Cross, established, 1856. Guy, founded by Thomas Guy, 1721; built from the designs of G. Dance, 1722-4; increased, 1839. Incurables, Royal Hospital for, founded, 1851. King's College, established, 1839 ; incorporated, 1851. The hospital rebuilt ; the first stone laid by the Archbishop of Canterbury, June 18, 1852. . Lock, Paddington, established, 1 746 ; the Asylum founded, 1 787 ; the Chapel built, 1764 ; removed to the present site, 1842. London, Whitechapel Road, founded, 1740; incorporated, 1758; a west wing added, opened by the Prince of Wales, July 4, 1864. London Fever, Liverpool Road, Islington, established, 1802 ; the present build- ing erected and opened, 1850. London Homoeopathic, Gt Ormond-street, founded in Golden Square, 1849 ; re- moved, 1859. HOST HOUSE DUTY 401 Magdalen, St George's-in-the-Fields, established, 1758. Metropolitan, Free, Bishopsgate, instituted, 1836. Middlesex, established, 1745 ; built, 1755 ; incorporated, 1836; enlarged, 1848. National Hospital for the paralysed and epileptic, Queen Square, instituted, 1859. Ophthalmic, Royal, Moorfields, founded, 1804 ; the Royal Infirmary, Cork-street, founded, 1804-5. Orthopaedic, Royal, Oxford-street and Hanover Square, established in Bloomsbury Square, 1838. Queen Adelaide, Lying-in, Vere-street, established, 1829. Queen Charlotte's Lying-in, Marylebone Road, instituted, 1752, at St George's Row, Tyburn Road ; removed to Bayswater, 1791, and to Lisson Green, New Road, 1810. Royal Free, Grey's-Inn Road, founded, 1828 ; removed to its present site, 1843, the premises formerly the barracks of the Light Horse Volunteers. St Bartholomew's, Smithfield, founded by Prior Rayhere, 1123, and refounded by Henry VIII., 1547. St George's, instituted, 1733 ; incorporated, 1834 ; the Hospital rebuilt from the design of Mr Wilkins, 1831. St Luke's, established, 1751 ; the present hospital for the insane built from the design of G. Dance, junior ; the foundation-stone laid by the Duke of Monta- gue, July 30, 1782, cost .50,000; incorporated, 1838 ; added to, 1841, and the chapel built, 1842; further improved, 1851. St Mark's, City Road, established, 1835. St Mary's, Paddington, instituted, 1843 ; built from the designs of Mr Hopper ; first stone laid by Prince Albert, June 28, 1845 ; opened, 1850. St Thomas's, purchased by the city of London, 1551, and chartered by Edward VI., 1553 ; damaged by fire, 1676-1689 ; enlarged, 1732 ; partially recon- structed from the designs of Sir R. Smirke, 1835 ; taken by the Charing Cross Railway, 1860 ; temporary hospital erected at the Surrey Gardens ; rebuilding of New, began at Westminster, 1867. Seaman's, the Dreadnought, instituted, 1831 ; incorporated, 1833. Small-pox, Highgate, established at King's Cross, 1746; building erected, 1767; removed to Highgate, 1850. University, Gower-street, instituted, 1833. Westminster, instituted, 1719; incorporated, 1836. HOST, Elevation of the, began by papal authority, 1201 ; kneeling commanded, I2OI ; a bell to be swung at, 1228. HOTTINGUER, a packet-ship from Liverpool, wrecked on the Glamorgan bank, and 13 of the crew perished, Jan. 18, 1852. HOUGHTON GALLERY OF PICTURES sold to the Empress of Russia, 1779. HOUGHTON HALL, Norfolk, burned down, Dec. 12, 1789. HOUNSLOW HEATH POWDER-MILLS, blown up and several persons killed, July 25, 1826 ; an explosion at, seven persons killed, March 30, 1859 ; Messrs Curtis & Harvey's powder-mills exploded, killing several workmen, and totally destroying the mill, March II, 1850. HOUR GLASS, in general use in the churches both in England and Scotland, in the i6th century ; the frontispiece to the Bishop's Bible of 1569 ; Archbishop Parker is shown with the hour or pulpit glass beside him ; a half-hour glass is men- tioned as belonging to All Saints' Church, Newcastle, 1632 ; one was bought for the church of St Katharine, Coleman-street, for one shilling, 1564 ; the pulpit glass reintroduced into the Savoy Chapel, 1867. HOUSE DUTY, a duty of is. 6d. upon all houses rented at $ and under 20 26 402 HOUSEHOLD, THE ROYAL HUGUENOTS 2s. ^d. 20 and under ^"40 ; 2s. lod. over that rent, 48 Geo. III. c. 55, Schedule B., June I, 1808 ; repealed, 14 & 15 Viet. c. 36, July 24, 1851. HOUSEHOLD, THE ROYAL, first arranged by Edward III., and afterwards by Edward IV., his annual expenses were .13,000 ; Henry VII. made several new regulations for the management of; and Henry VIII., 1540, and he regulated the salaries of all the members and servants of his household, 7 Hen. VIII.; the civil list voted to William III. was yearly 700,000 ; the same to Anne and George I. ; ^800,000 to Geo. II. & III.; to George IV. ,1,050,000; to William IV. .510,000 ; Victoria, ,385,000. HOUSES first numbered in England, 1764 ; New Burlington-street, the first street numbered, in the month of June, 1 764. HUBELY, Hindustan. The East India Company founded a factory here, 1630 ; plundered by the Mahrattas, 1673 ; captured by the Mogul troops of Aurungzebe, 1685 ; retaken by the Mahrattas, 1707 ; lapsed to the British, 1818. HUDDERSFIELD, Yorkshire. This town, now one of the chief seats of the woollen trade, has sprung up during the last century. The Cloth Hall erected by Sir John Ramsden, 1765, and enlarged by his son, 1780; the canal commenced, 1774 ; the Mechanics' Institute founded, 1825. HUDSON, North America, founded, 1784 ; incorporated, 1785. HUDSON'S BAY, North America, discovered by Captain Hudson, 1610. The traders from Canada explored a part of this territory, 1767 ; granted to the Hud- son's Bay Company by Charles II., May 2, 1670 ; Mr Hearne established the ex- istence of the Great Northern Ocean, 1771 ; the Churchhill river explored by Mr Joseph Frobisher, 1775; the North-West Company of Montreal established, 1783 ; the two companies united, 1821 ; further powers granted to them by the Government, May 13, 1838, and Vancouver Island, 1848. HUE AND CRY. This ancient British custom of rousing the country by passing the war cry from one hamlet to another ; the Highlanders carried a half burnt stick, this was substituted by the fiery cross in the I7th century. This legal method of procuring arrests, 13 Edw. I. c. 6, 1285; the hundred held responsible for the offender. The 27 of Eliz. c. 13, 1585, ordered to be made by horsemen and footmen ; 8 Geo. II. c. 16, I735> the officer refusing to make the hue and cry is liable to a penalty of $ ; a printed sheet was issued three times a week at Bow-street. HUESCA, Spain, founded before the birth of Christ by the Romans, chosen by Sertorius as the seat of a university, B.C. 77 ; conquered by Pedro I., Nov. 25, 1096. The cathedral built by Juan de Olotzaga, a Biscayan, 1400 ; the present University founded by Pedro IV., 1354 ; the College of San Vicente founded by Jayme Callen, 1587. HUGUENOTS. The French Protestants of the i6th century were derisively called so ; Francis I. kindled a severe persecution against them, 1540 ; they be- came involved in politics, and joined in an attempt to seize Francis II., Feb. I, 1560, and made an attempt to take the town of Amboise, but failed, and for the next month they were butchered in every direction ; upwards of 1 200 persons were executed. They made a bold movement, commanded by Conde, upon Paris, they met the Royalists' army at Dreux,.and after a severe struggle, in which both sides lost 8000 men, they were defeated, Dec. 19, 1562. The Edict of Amboise granted them free permission to celebrate their worship, March 19, 1563 ; they commenced a second civil war, 1567, and after several struggles peace was proclaimed, 1570. The massacre of, Aug. 24, 1572 ; the Edict of Nantes passed, 1577 ; renewed, 1591 ; revocated, Oct. 18, 1685, and hundreds of the most industrious people of France were reduced to ruin. HULKS HUNGARY 403 HULKS. This method of punishment first tried in England upon the Thames, 1776, the convicts on board being employed in raising ballast, under Mr Duncan Campbell, July 15 ; abolished, 1856. HULL, Yorkshire. The ancient name of this town was Wyke-upon-Hull, founded, 1 1 60 ; possessed by the abbot of Meaux, 1296; purchased by Edward I., 1297, and the name changed to Kingston-upon-Hull ; the castle erected by Edward, 1298; strengthened by Richard II., 1380; repaired and refortified by Henry VIII., 1530-40 ; refused to receive Charles I., 1642 ; Cromwell examined its for- tification, 1649. The town made a royal burgh, 1300 ; and fortified by Edward II., 1323 ; strengthened by Richard II. ; the Trinity House founded for decayed sea- men and their widows, 1369 ; besieged by the Royalists unsuccessfully, April 23, 1640 ; a new dock built, 1774 ; the Humber Dock, 1809 ; the Junction Dock, July, 1829 ; the Theatre Royal built, 1809 ; the Royal Institution established, 1822 ; burnt, Oct. 13, 1859 ; panic at the Queen Theatre, several persons seriously injured, 1865. HULLHOUSE, Mr, discovered the art of gilding and silvering silk, 1794. HULSEAN LECTURES, founded by the Rev. J. Hulse, 1790, to be preached four or six times yearly, upon the evidences of revealed religion, c. ; the first lecturer was the Rev. Christopher Benson, master of the Temple, 1820. HUMANE SOCIETY, founded by Drs Goldsmith, Heberden, Towers, and Lett- som, 1774; a Receiving House erected, 1794; rebuilt upon the ground pre- sented by George III., by James B. Bunning, Arch., the first stone being laid by the Duke of Wellington, 1834. . HUMBERSTAYNE ABBEY, Lincolnshire, founded by William Diogo, circa 1 189. HUMILIATI, a religious society founded by certain persecuted Milanese, 1017 ; embraced the rule of St Benedict, 1151 ; confirmed by Pope Innocent III., 1200; abolished on a charge of luxury and cruelty by Pius V., 1571. HUNDRED DAYS, the second reign of Napoleon, after his return from Elba, and again ascending the throne of J? ranee, from March 20, 1815, to June 29, 1815. HUNDREDS, or CENTURIA. This ancient territorial division among the Teutonic races mentioned by Tacitus. England divided into, by Alfred, circa 880 ; the ' Hundred Mote,' or court, held for the administration of justice within the boundary. HUNGARY. The ancient Roman Dacia, made a Roman province, A.D. 8 ; the Huns became powerful, 377 ; they increased under Attila, but were over- thrown by the Goths, 489 ; the whole kingdom subjugated by Charlemagne, 799 ; the Magyars, Turks, and Finns overran the country and established a settlement in the early part of the 9th century. Stephen I. elected king, 997 ; he increased his dominions ; the country invaded by the Tartars, 1241 ; Dalmatia added to these dominions by Louis I., 1342 ; defeated at the battle of Nicopolis, 1396 ; they subdued the whole of Austria, with the exception of Vienna, 1457 ; Vienna taken, 1485 ; Belgrade taken by the Turks, 1516 ; Buda, the capital of Lower Hungary, taken by them, 1541 ; peace concluded with Turkey, 1 606 ; civil war broke out amongst the inhabitants, occasioned by the Protestants re- volting in defence of their religion, 1637 ; it lasted eight years ; Peterwaradin captured by the Turks, 1660 ; the dukes of Lorraine and Bavaria defeated the Turks, in the plains of Mohatz, and the crown declared hereditary in the House of Austria, 1687; Belgrade taken from the Turks, 1690; retaken by them, 1690; Arince Eugene defeats them at Zeuta, 1697 ; retakes Belgrade, 1717 ; peace con- cluded, 1718 ; the Imperialists defeated at Krotzka, and Belgrade besieged by the Turks ; a peace concluded with them, the Imperialists resigning the former town 404 HUNGARY, KINGS OF with Servia and Wallachia, 1739. From 1812 to 1825 the diet remained in abeyance, at the diet of 1825 several reforms were introduced ; Ferdinand V. opened the diet, Nov. n, 1847. The continued aggressions of Austria upon Hungary with the view of destroying the old constitution, and assimilating it to the other dependent provinces of the empire, produced a revolt in 1 848, the state of other parts of the Austrian dominions presenting a favourable opportunity for the purpose. Sept. 29, 1848, the Hungarians beat the Ban of Croatia in an open combat ; the treacherous conduct of Austria induced the Hungarians to declare the kingdom independent, Dec. 8, 1848 ; the Hungarians defeated by the Aus- trians at Szisko, Dec. 28, 1848, and by the Ban Jellachich, at Mohr, Dec. 29, 1848 ; driven over the Waag, Jan. 2, 1849; Buda taken, Jan. 5, 1849 ; Leopolcl- stadt taken, Feb. 2 ; the Austrians driven back to Pesth, March 6 ; de- clared independent, April 14 ; the Hungarians completely defeated the Aus- trians at Gran, April 27 ; the Austrians obliged to fly from Pesth, April 18, and craved aid of Russia, and a Russian army marched to help them, May i, 1849 ; the Austrians, under Gen. Haynau, took Newsatz by storm, June 15 ; the first battle between the Austro-Russians and the Hungarians, the latter retire across the Waag, June 21, 1849 ; battle of Acs, July 2, 1849 ; the Hungarians rout the Ban Jellachich, July 14, 25, and 31, 1849 ; the Hungarians defeated by the Russians, in a three days' combat, and their leader, Georgey, retreated, July 15, 1849 ; battle of Komorn, with the Austro-Russians, July 16, 1849 ; Bern, the Hungarian, entered Moldavia, July 23, 1849 ; the Hungarian army worsted be- fore Temesvar, Aug. 9, 1849 ; Kossuth resigned, Aug. n ; Georgey made Dicta- tor, 24,000 men laid down their arms at Vilagos, near Arad, Aug. 13 ; Komorn surrendered to the Austrians, Sept. 28, 1849 ; n generals were hanged at Arad, Oct. 6 ; the Imperial crown discovered and taken to Vienna, 1853 ; the Magyar language abolished in law pleading, Jan. i, 1854; the Emperor published a patent regulating the administration, Sept., 1859 ; rejected by the Chamber and with- drawn, 1860 ; a new constitution granted, Feb., 1861 ; opening of the Hungarian diet, April 6 ; the Chamber dissolved, Aug. 22 ; an amnesty granted to political prisoners, Nov. 18, 1862 ; Count de Torok appointed minister of justice in the room of Count Andrassy, Sept., 1864 ; the Emperor Francis Joseph visited Pesth, June 6, 1865 ; the military tribunals abolished, June 8 ; the Hungarian diet opened by the Emperor at Pesth, Dec. 14 ; the Emperor and Empress again visited Pesth, Jan. 30, 1866 ; Francis Joseph, Emperor of Austria, crowned King of, at Pesth, June 8, 1867 ; Bank of Credit opened, Aug. 28, 1867. HUNGARY, KINGS of: House of Stephen. Ladislaus II. , reigned only Stephen ... ... ... 999 six months ... * ... 1204 Peter the German ... 1038 Andrew II. 1204 Aba 1041 Bela IV 1235 Peter reinstated 1044 Stephen IV. 1270 Andrew I. 1047 Ladislaus III 1272 Bela I. ... 1061 Andrew III., son of Rodolph Solomon, Andrew's son ... 1064 of Hapsburgh ... ... 1290 Geysa 1 1075 . Ladislaus the Pole ... 1077 House of Anjou. Coloman 1095 Charobert 1302 Stephen II. 1114 Louis the Great, King of Bela II 1131 Poland 1342 Geysa II 1141 Mary, daughter of Louis ... 1382 Stephen III. 1161 Mary and Sigismond ... 1392 Bela III 1173 Elizabeth 1437 Emeric 1196 Albert, Duke of Austria ... 1437 HUNGARY WATER HUNTINGDON 405 Ladislaus IV 1440 Ferdinand III 1625 Ladislaus V. 1453 Ferdinand IV 1647 Matthias Corvin 1458 Leopold I. ... ... 1654 Ladislaus VI., King of Joseph I. ... ... ... 1687 Bohemia 1490 Charles 1711 Louis II. of Hungary, and I. of Bohemia of that House of Lorraine, name ... ... ... 1516 Maria Theresa, Empress ... 1740 John Zapolski and Ferdin- Francis I. ... ... 1745 and I., King of Bohemia 1526 Joseph II. ... ... 1780 Leopold II. 1790 House of Austria. Francis II. , Emperor of Ger- Ferdinand I., only elected many 1792 Emperor of Germany 1541 Francis I., Emperor of Aus- Maximilian, Emperor, 1564 1561 tria only, after ... ... 1804 Rodolph 1573 Ferdinand V. do. (abdicated) 1835 Matthias II. . . ... 1609 Francis Joseph 1848 Ferdinand II. ... ... 1619 HUNGARY WATER first noted, 1631. HUNGERFORD MARKET, London, built by Sir E. Hungerford, 1680; the new market designed by Fowler, 1830 ; first stone laid, June 18, 1831 ; opened, July 2, 1833; the Exhibition-hall beneath, erected, 1851; the Music-hall de- stroyed by fire, March 31, 1854; the site of the market taken for the Charing Cross Railway, April 16, 1862. HUNGERFORD SUSPENSION BRIDGE, London, built from the designs of J. K. Brunei, 1352 feet long; the central distances, 676 feet ; the height of the sus- taining towers, 58 feet; above the water, 84 feet ; cost, ;i 10,000; commenced, 1841 ; opened, April 18, 1845 ; taken down by the Charing Cross Railway and removed to Clifton ; re-erected and opened, Dec. 8, 1864. HUNS. This race is said to have inhabited the plains of Tartary before the Christian era, and made frequent incursions into China ; the great wall of, built to protect the inhabitants against the attacks, circa B.C. 200 ; defeated by Vouti the 5th Emperor, 148 ; invaded the Roman states, A.D. 290 ; defeated by the Goths, 383 ; invaded the Eastern empire, under Attila, 441 ; the Western empire, 450 ; empire extinguished, 454. HUNTERIAN SOCIETY, instituted in London, 1819; catalogue of their library published, 1836. HUNTING. This ancient sport carried to the summit of perfection by the ancient Greeks and Romans ; Aristotle wrote a treatise on Field Sports ; the Gauls had an ardent passion for the chase. Hunting first mentioned in England in the reign of Edward I., his pack of hounds consisting of six couples ; a curious treatise written by William, twice huntsman to Edward II., on this sport ; stag hunting practised in the reign of Edward III. HUNTINGDON, Countess of, encouraged the revival of Calvinistic doctrines, and appointed Whitfield her private chaplain, 1 748 ; established a college at Trevecca in South Wales, for the education of preachers of this doctrine, 1781 ; removed to Cheshunt, Herts, 1793. She built many chapels during her life. HUNTINGDON, England, a castle built here by Edward the Elder, 917 ; a priory of black canons founded, 97 1 ; patronized and protected by Eustace de Luvetot, who rebuilt their house, 1131-2; the castle destroyed by Henry II. ; the Grammar School founded, 1260 ; Charles I. lodged here on his way to Lon- don to be tried ; the town incorporated, 1 206, by King John ; confirmed by 406 - HURST CASTLE HYDE PARK Henry III., and later by Charles I. ; the sovereigns frequently visited Hinchin- brook Palace ; it was plundered by the Royalists, Aug. 24, 1645. HURST CASTLE, Hants, erected by the command of Henry VIIL, circa 1537 ; Charles I. removed a prisoner here from Carisbrooke, Nov. 30, 1648. HURSTMONCEAUX CASTLE, Sussex, built by Lord Dacre, treasurer to Henry VI., circa 1460 ; partly destroyed, 1777. HUSBANDMEN, an act passed regulating the wages of, 5 Eliz. c. 4, 1562-3. HUSS, JOHN, put to death for his belief, when under a safe-conduct from the Em- peror Sigismond, before a council of priests at Constance, who had instigated the pope to issue a bull against heretics ; by the clergy he was cast into prison, in de- fiance of the Emperor's pledge, and they burned him alive, July 6, 1415 ; having got his companion, Jerome of Prague, into their power, they burned him alive also the following year, May 30, 1416. HUSSARS, the National Cavalry of Hungary, formed, A.D. 1458 ; added to the Austrian army, 1629 ; in France, 1692 ; in Prussia, 1729. A list of the English regiments of, and when formed : the 7th or Queen's own regiment, 1688 ; the 8th, or the King's Royal Irish regiment of Hussars, raised, 1693 ; the loth, the Prince of Wales's own, formed, July 22, 1715 ; the nth, or Prince Albert's own, July 22, 1715 ; the I5th, or the King's regiment of Light Dragoons, incorporated, 1759; the 9th, or Queen's Royal regiment of Light Dragoons Lancers, formed, 1715. HUSTINGS, court of the city of London, is of Saxon origin, it is supreme, and the most ancient court ; granted to be kept weekly by the charter of King Henry I., circa 1 130. It is the most ancient of the city courts ; it consisted of two divisions, the 'Hustings of Pleas of Land,' and the 'Hustings of Common Pleas;' the judges of the court are the Lord Mayor, Sheriffs, and Recorder. It has of late years fallen into disuse. HYALOGRAPHE, an instrument for tracing a design on a transparent surface, invented in Paris, 1822. HYDE ABBEY, near Winchester, founded by King Alfred and his son, St Edward the Elder, 903 ; the remains of Alfred the Great were removed to this abbey, 1130 ; its site is now occupied by a gaol. HYDE PARK, the ancient site of the manor of Hyde, belonging to the Monastery of St Peter's, Westminster, conveyed to Hen. VIIL, 1536 ; sold by order of parliament for .17,000, 1652; first made public, 1670; Queen Anne added nearly 30 acres to it, 1705 ; the militia reviewed here by Geo. II., 1759 ; the volunteers encamped in the park after the Gordon riots ; the Regent's fete and fair held, Aug., 1814; the statue to the Duke of Wellington, ''Achilles,'' placed there, June 18, 1822 ; the Crystal Palace began, July 30, 1850 ; taken down, 1852 ; grand display of fireworks at the proclamation of peace, May 29, 1856 ; a crowd of 100,000 persons collected to protest against the Sunday trading bill, July I, 1855 ; another gathering, July 8, and again, July 17 ; inquiry into the conduct of the police at, Aug. 2 ; meetings in consequence of the high price of bread, Oct. 14-21, 1855 ; another, which assumed the form of a not, Oct. 28 ; the Garibaldi riots in, Oct. 5, 1862 ; the Queen reviewed the volunteers in, June 23, 1860 ; and the volunteers again reviewed by the Prince and Princess of Wales, May 28, 1864 ; an act passed for improving the Kensington entrance, &c., 28 & 29 Viet. c. cclxii., July 5, 1865 ; reform meeting appointed to be held in, notice issued to prevent it, July 1 7 ; assemblage of a mob at, and riot, part of the rail- ings thrown down, July 23, 1866 ; bill brought into the House of Commons to prevent public meetings being held in, July 22, 1867 ; meeting of the Reform League in, to protest against, Aug. 5 ; bill withdrawn, Aug. 15. HYDERABAD IBERNO-CELTIC SOCIETY 407 HYDERABAD, Hindustan. Upon the death of Nizam-ool-Moolk, 1748, the throne was contested by his two nephews, Nazir Jung and Mozuffer Jung, the English supporting one side and the French the other ; Nizam AH succeeded to the throne, 1761 ; he ravaged the Camatic, 1765, and concluded a treaty with the East India Company, 1766 ; and again, 1768 ; his territories were increased by the Marquis Wellesley, 1799 ; on the conclusion of the first Mahratta war, 1804, a further grant was made. HYDRAULIC CHEMISTRY invented, 1746. HYDRAULIC FIRE-ENGINES invented, 1682. HYDRAULIC PRESS invented by Bramah, 1818. HYDRAULIC WEIGHING MACHINE invented in France by M. Henry, Sept, 1821. HYDRODYNAMICS. Torricelli assigned the law correctly, 1643 ; Castelli, a disciple of Galileo, first investigated the motion of fluids, 1628 ; Daniel Bernoulli first applied the higher branches of mathematical analysis to the investigation of this science, 1738, and by D'Alembert, 1744; Professor Airy published a new system, 1831. HYDROPATHY invented by Vincenz Priessnitz, 1826; and in full operation, 1829. HYDROSTATIC PRESS invented by Bramah, 1796. HYENA'S CAVE discovered near Maidstone, at Boughton-hill ; bones of the horse and rat also found there, June, 1827. HYLTON CASTLE, Durham, built by Lord de Hylton, 1290 ; rebuilt by Lord Hylton, 1742. HYMNS in Christian churches, by some said to have been introduced into Chris- tian worship from the Jewish psalmody. Three several kinds of sacred song are recognized in Holy Scripture, answering to the triple division noticed in Eph. v. 19. I. The canticle, or song of one person, like that of Hannah. 2. The hymn, or symphonious melody, such as the song of the Three Children. 3. The alter- nate, or responsorial, as Miriam's Song of Triumph. Paul and Silas sang praises unto God in prison, Acts xvi. 25 ; hymns again mentioned, Col. iii. 16. St Hilary of France composed them for the use of Christian churches, 431. HYTHE, Kent, one of the Cinque ports. St Bartholomew's Hospital founded, 1336 ; St John's, 1570; the Guildhall rebuilt, 1794 ; the Public Library, 1854 ; the Military Canal began at, 1805 ; the Military School of Musketry opened, I855- IAMBIC METRE. The great satirist Archilochus was the first Greek poet who composed Iambic versa according to fixed rules ; he had been suitor to Neobule, the daughter of Lycambes, who, after promising him his daughter in marriage, refused to ratify his engagement, which so enraged the poet that he held the family up to public scorn in verse, B.C. 700. IBERNO-CELTIC SOCIETY instituted at Dublin for the preservation of ancient remains, and the encouragement of Irish literature, 1818; only vol. I. was pub- lished of its Transactions. 4 o8 ICE IDIOTS ICE proved to be lighter than water by Galileo, 1597 ; Professor Faraday and Tyndall made several scientific discoveries in relation to, 1850 1857 ; Mr Harrison of Victoria patented an invention for making ice, 1857; Mr Tudor of Boston first exported ice, 1806 ; the first cargo arrived at Calcutta, 1833, and sold for T,d. per Ib. ; the Wenham Lake Ice Company started, 1824 ; it has large store-houses in the United States ; an extensive range of ice-houses erected in the Bois de Boulogne, 1859. ICELAND, Northern Ocean, discovered by a Danish pirate, 860 ; Ingolf, a Nor- wegian, led a body of his countrymen and formed a settlement here, 874 ; republic formed, 928 ; Haco, king of Norway, formed it into a state, 1261, and it remained under the dominion of that country until 1380, when Denmark assumed the sway; devastated by a plague, 1402 ; the reformation of religion was brought about, 1551 ; the smallpox carried off 1600 inhabitants, 1707 ; visited by a severe famine, 1 753 and 1 759. Hecla, a volcano 5000 feet high ; ten eruptions between 1 104 and 1693 ; a terrible one, 1766 ; anew volcano, Skaptaa Yokull, devastated the island, 1783. A terrible mortality among the cattle, 1784 : 19,488 horses, 6800 oxen, and 1 29, 947 sheep died ; the black death visited the island, 1250. Highest elevation is Snofiel, which is 6860 feet ; commercial monopoly suppressed, 1756 ; volcanic eruption in, Aug. 29, 1867. 'ICH DIEN,' I serve, the motto of the blind king of Bohemia, slain at the battle of Cressy, Aug. 26, 1346 ; said to have been adopted by the Black Prince, as the motto for the plume which he wore, by the will of Edward the Black Prince, June 7, 1376, this motto was ordered to be placed upon his tomb in Canterbury Cathedral. ICHTHYOLOGY. This science first founded by Belon, Rondelet, and Salviani, 1553-58. ICILIAN LAW passed by the patricians in Rome, granting to the Plebs the public lands to be their quarters for ever, B.C. 454. ICON BASILIKE, a portraiture of his Sacred Majesty Charles I., in his solitude and sufferings, said to have been written by Dr Gauden, 1648. ICONIUM, Asia Minor, the capital of Lycaonia. Cicero spent 10 days here, B. c. 50 ; St Paul and St Barnabas preached in the synagogue, Acts xiv. I, A.D. 50 ; taken from the Greeks by the Saracens, and afterwards by the Turks, A.D. 1075 ; the Seljukee Sultan built a wall round the town in the 1 3th century ; Ibrahim Pasha defeated the Turks here, Dec. 21, 1821. ICONOCLASTS, or IMAGE BREAKERS, a sect that appeared with Leo, the Isaurian, who passed an edict for the destruction of images, A.D. 726, which occasioned a civil war throughout the Eastern Empire ; Germanus, the Patriarch of Constantinople, was degraded by Leo on account of his partiality for images, 736 ; Copronymus passed an act of council against, 754 ; Leo IV., when emperor, passed a penal measure against the image-worshippers, 775 ! the Nicene Council revoked these edicts, 786 ; Leo V., the Armenian, restored the previous policy, 814 ; this was revoked by Theodora, 842 ; Charlemagne published four books against the worship of images which was approved by the Council of Frankfort, 794. IDES, in the Roman reckoning of time, the I3th of every month, except March, May, July, and Oct., when it was the I5th ; Julius Caesar was assassinated on the ides of March, B. c. 44 ; they comprised the eight days after the nones ; the last day only was called the ides ; the nones were the 7th of March, May, July, and Oct., and the 5th of the other months. IDIOTS. The king to have the custody of the lands of, 17 Edw. II. c. 9, s. r, 1324 ; owners of land, made to be represented by trustees, and authorized advances of moneys for drainage, 13 & 14 Viet. c. 31, s. 6. IDOLS IMPOSTORS 409 IDOLS, worship of. Traces of, are found in the Pentateuch and Job ; in Europe, 600 years before the Christian era ; destroyed by Constantine, sacrifices to cease, A. D. 330 ; abolished by Honorius, 404 ; that of the Saxons in Kent, 640. IDSTADT, battle. The Danes defeated the Schleswig-Holstein forces, July 25, 1850. ILCHESTER, Somersetshire, an important Roman station (Ischalis); some of the coins of William the Conqueror were minted here, 1070 ; successfully defended against Robert Mowbray, by William Rufus, 1088 ; Roger Bacon born here, 1214. ILLINOIS, United States, visited by the French traveller, Marquetta, 1673 ; the French formed a settlement here in the I7th century ; ceded to England, 1763 ; became a part of the United States, 1775 ; formed into a separate State, Indiana, 1800 ; reconstructed and called Illinois, 1809 ; admitted into the Union, 1818 ; the present constitution adopted in convention, Aug. 31, 1847 ; accepted by the people, March 7, 1848. ILLUMINATI, a sect charged with heresy, which originated in Spain, denomin- ated there Alumbrados or enlighteners, 1575 ; a society somewhat similar was founded by Dr Weishaupt, 1776 ; they placed their salvation upon their superior mode of prayer; at the congress of Wilhelmsbad, 1783, they made many con- verts, and in 1 785 the system was divulged. ILLYRICUM first mentioned in history in the Peloponnesian war ; made a kingdom, B.C. 383 ; the Romans invaded this state, 229, and it became a dependence of Rome ; rebelled against that power, 168 ; subdued and made a Roman province, 10. Invaded by the Sclaves, and erected into the independent kingdoms of Croatia and Dalmatia ; the name of this state entirely disappeared in the I4th century ; revived by Napoleon, 1809 ; ceded to Austria, 1814. IMAGE WORSHIP, idolatry, or the worship of idols, of very early introduction ; images and relics seem to have commenced in the Romish Church, 448 ; became general, 692 ; condemned, 824 ; the worship of, restored by the council held at Constantinople, 829; removed out of the English churches, 1548. IMMACULATE CONCEPTION. The first public controversy on this question arose, A.D. 1140; in the I4th century this controversy became very violent be- tween the Dominicans and the Franciscans, and again in the r 7th century ; decreed, by a bull of Pio Nono, an article of faith of the Church of Rome, Dec. 8, 1854. IMPALEMENT in heraldry introduced, 1206. IMPALEMENT, an Eastern punishment ; the assassin of Gen. Kleber impaled in Egypt, 1801. IMPEACHMENT, the prosecution of an individual by either of the houses of par- liament ; the first took place, 1386, in the instance of a Lord Chancellor ; no pardon can be pleaded to an impeachment of the Commons in parliament by statute, 12 Will. III. c. 2, 1700; Warren Hastings impeached, Feb. 13, 1788; Lord Melville, April 29, 1806 ; Queen Caroline, by bill of pains and penalties, Aug. 1 6, 1820. IMPOSTORS, religious, political, mendicant, even literary, have been numer. ous : Adelbert, in the 8th century, pretended to have a letter from Jesus Christ, which fell from heaven at Jerusalem in the 8th century ; multitudes fol- lowed him into woods and desert places, to live simply in imitation of John the Baptist. Mahomet of Mecca pretended to revelations from heaven and commu- nications with the angel Gabriel ; he also wrote a book denominated the Koran ; his followers multiplied to 158,000,000 ; born, 569 ; died, 632 ; fond of women, he enjoined polygamy, and pretended to direct descent from Ishmael. Two women 4 io IMPROPRIATIONS executed, and two men crucified, for pretending to be the Virgin Mary and Mary Magdalen, the men for personating the Messiah, 1221 ; impostors punished in England, 1222 ; Gonsalvo Martin burned by the Inquisition in Spain for calling himself the archangel Michael, 1360; Elizabeth Barton, the holy maid of Kent, who prophesied against Henry VIII. in case he married Anne Boleyn, to serve the papal party, hung, April 20, 1534; Elizabeth Croft, hid in a wall, uttering mysterious and seditious speeches, 1553 ; George David, a waterman's son at Ghent, who called himself the nephew of God, who came into the world to adopt children for heaven, favoured a community of women, had many followers, and died at Basil in Switzerland, 1556. Hatchet, a man who personated the Saviour, executed for blasphemy, 1592. Griska Eutropia, a prior of St Basil's order, pretending to be the son of John Basilowitz, Czar of Muscovy; supported by Poland, he was invited to the throne of Russia, put the reigning Czar and all his family to death, and was himself assassinated in his palace, 1606. A boy of Bilston, who deceived the pub- lic, detected, 1620 ; James Naylor, personated the Saviour, whipped, his tongue burned through on the pillory, by order of the House of Commons, Dec. 4, 1656 ; at Tedworth, Wells, a drummer having been deprived of his drum by a magis- trate, a drum was continually heard going in his house for 2 or 3 years, and the owner was tried for a wizard and transported, 1661 ; Greatrakes, an Irishman, who pretended to cure diseases in the way of the royal antidote then in vogue, caused high disputes in Ireland, 1665, but being examined before the Royal Society in England, fell into disrepute, 1666 ; Sabbati Levi, a Jew of Smyrna, who personated Christ at Constantinople, 1666 ; Titus Oates, a clergyman of the English Church, who made out a pretended plot to kill the king on the part of the Papists, Sept. 6, 1678 ; in 1685 he was whipped and sentenced to imprison- ment for life, but was pardoned and pensioned in the next reign, 1689. Psalm- anezer, George, born in the south of France, 1679 ; studied among the Dominicans ; he pretended to be a Japanese convert to Christianity, and before he was a heathen of Formosa, a language of which country he actually invented, and translated the Church Catechism into it, also writing a pretended history of the country, which passed through two editions ; the imposture was detected by some of the learned men at Oxford in a controversy on the subject, 1746. Fuller forged a plot against William III., for which he was fined and stood in the pillory, 1691 ; one Young, a prisoner in Newgate, forged the hand-writing of the Earls of Marlborough, Salisbury, and others to a pretended King James; the noble lords were im- prisoned, but the forgery was soon detected, and Young was fined ^"1000 and put in the pillory, 1692 ; three French refugees pretended to be prophets, and de- clared that one Dr Emms would rise out of his grave, 1707 ; Mary Tofts, of Godalming, Surrey, pretended that she had rabbits within herself, and prevailed upon two medical men to support her cause, 1726 ; Elizabeth Canning, for her frauds and impostures, was found guilty of perjury and transported, 1753 ; Bam- fylde Moore Carew, king of the beggars, born, July, 1693 ; passed his life in imposi- tions upon the credulity of others, and was often in prison ; the Cock Lane Ghost, by William Parsons and his wife, was detected, 1 762 ; Joseph Balsamo, or Count Alessandro di Cagliostro, a liar of the first magnitude and prince of quacks, who deceived half the world, the alleged holder of the secret of Egyptian Freemasonry, died in the fortress of St Leo at Rome, 1795 ; Joanna Southcote, who has had a multitude of followers, and declared that she had conceived a new Messiah, died, Dec., 1814; Joseph Smith, the founder of the Mormons, who pretended to a revelation from heaven, engraved on gold plate, found in one of the back States of America, 1827 ; he was shot in a squabble by one of the U. S. soldiers ; Joseph Ady, the noted letter of advantage writer, charged with defrauding Mr Salkeld, May 10, 1830. IMPROPRIATIONS. Henry VIII., in 1539, having destroyed the monastic estab- lishments of his country, found that, of the many livings belonging to them, they IMPROVISATORI INCOME TAX 411 reserved the great tithes, allowing the small to the vicar, or him who served the church ; Henry, therefore, bestowed the tithes among his favourites. IMPROVISATORI, or declaiming in verse upon any subject, was extensively prac- tised in Italy in the I2th century j Serafino D'Aquila was the most eminent Im- provisatore, 1490. INCENDIARISM. For this crime burning to death was the penalty in temp. Ed- ward I.; made high treason, 1429 ; denied benefit of clergy, 1528 ; many offences of this nature in Kent, 1830; in Suffolk, 1830 ; except in particular cases the punishment of death remitted, 1827-8 ; amended, 1837; as to farming property, 1844. INCENSE, very early used by the ancient Pagans and Persians. The Hebrews used it specially in the service of Jehovah, and were forbidden to use it in private, Exod. xxx. 34 38. INCEST, common in England under the Saxons ; Vortigern married his own daughter, 446 ; the Portuguese sanction it ; in 1 760, the Queen of Portugal mar- ried her own uncle ; and Joseph, the son of that marriage, married his aunt, the Princess Mary, 1777 ; Don Miguel of Portugal was betrothed to his niece, Donna Maria, 1826. It was once punished with death in England, and again under the Commonwealth, May 14, 1650. INCH CAPE ROCK, or BELL ROCK LIGHTHOUSE, a dangerous rock about 24 miles east of Dundee harbour, the scene of numerous shipwrecks ; tradition assigns the erection of a bell to warn passing vessels, to the abbots of Aberbro- thock. This tradition has been embodied by Dr Southey in his ballad of ' Ralph the Rover.' The first lighthouse erected from the designs of Mr Robert Steven- son, the engineer of the Lighthouse Board, 1807 1811 ; the height of the pillar is 115 feet, it cost ,60,000 ; first lighted, Feb. I, 1811. INCH KEITH, Scotland, given to the gallant Keith for his bravery at the battle of Barry in Angus, against the Danes, 1010 ; the English fleet sent to assist the lords of the congregation against the Queen Dowager, fortified this island, 1549 ; taken by the French, under M. Desse ; the lighthouse erected, 1805. INCLOSURES in England. The waste land to be inclosed and converted to the uses of husbandry, 20 Hen. III. c. 4, 1235-6, and 13 Edw. I. c. 46, 1285 ; the lords of wastes and commons may inclose them with the consent of the major part of the commoners, 29 Geo. II. c. 36, 1756, and 31 Geo. II. c. 41, 1758; by 6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 115, Aug. 20, 1836, only the consent of two-thirds of the com- moners are required. Law consolidated, 41 Geo. III. c. 109, July 2, 1801, and 8 & 9 Viet. c. 1 1 8, Aug. 8, 1845. The provisions extended by 10 & u Viet. c. in, July 23, 1847 ; again extended, u & 12 Viet. c. 99, Sept. 4, 1848; farther extended by 15 & 16 Viet. c. 79, June 30, 1852. The exchange and improvement of inclosed lands promoted, 22 & 23 Viet. c. 43, Aug. 13, 1859. INCOME TAX, first imposed during the war with France, by 39 Geo. III. c. 12, Jan. 4, 1799 ; and repealed, 42 Geo. III. c. 42, May 4, 1802 ; again revived, 1803, and continued until 1816, when it was finally repealed ; the present tax originated, 5 & 6 Viet c. 35, June 22, 1842. A duty of "jd. in the pound was granted on the property and income of all persons in Gt Britain possessed of .150 a year ; at first imposed for three years; subsequently continued to April 5, 1855, when it was decreased to 6d., and on April 5, 1857, made 5 Tippoo took Cuddalore and Bednore, 1783 ; attacked by the British, June 13, 1783 ; Mangalore surren- dered, Jan. 23, 1784, and treaty made with Tippoo, March II ; Hastings re- signed, Feb. 8, 1 785 ; Travancore invaded by Tippoo, Dec. 24, 1 789 ; ravaged the greater part of the country, May 7, 1790; Bangalore taken by Lord Corn- wallis, March 21, 1791; Nundydroog taken by Major Gowdie, Oct. 9; Kist- naghery attacked by Colonel Maxwell, Nov. I ; Coimbitore besieged and taken by Tippoo, Nov. 2 ; Savendroog besieged and taken by Colonel Stewart, Dec. 21 ; Ootradroog taken, Dec. 24 ; Simoga besieged and surrendered, Jan. 3, 1 792 ; Seringapatam besieged by Lord Cornwallis, and taken Feb. 5 ; treaty with, and his two sons given as hostages, March 9 ; restored to him, 1 794 ; courts 414 INDIA of justice, criminal and civil, appointed, 1793 ; the Dutch settlement at Ceylon taken, 1795 > Seringapatam taken, and Tippoo Sahib killed, May 4, 1799; parti- tion treaty signed with Nizam and the Rajah of Tangor ; surrendered his power to the English, Oct. 25, 1779; the Carnatic secured, 1800, Pondicherry having been restored to the French by the treaty of Amiens, 1801 ; treaty of Bassein signed, Dec. 31, 1802 ; Gen. Wellesley captured Ahmednugger, Aug. 12, 1803 ; defeated Scindia at Assaye, Sept. 23 ; took Burhanpoor, Oct. 13 ; defeated Scindia again at Argaum, Nov. 28; Gwalior taken, Dec. 15; Allighur stormed, Aug. 30; General Lake defeated the army of Scindia, before Delhi, Sept. 12 ; entered the town, Sept. 16 ; Agra taken, Oct. 17; Scindia ceded Ahmednugger and several other places, Dec. 29 ; treaty signed with, by which he agreed to receive and support a British contingent, Feb. 27, 1804 ; war declared against Holkar, April 1 6 ; Indoor taken by Col. Murray, Aug. 24 ; Holkar attacked Delhi, but defeated after a nine days' siege, Oct. 8 ; again defeated by Gen. Frazer at the battle of Deeg, losing 87 guns, Nov. 13; the fort of Deeg captured, Dec. 4 ; Bhurtpore besieged by Lord Lake, Jan. 3, 1805 ; raised, Feb. 22, the British having lost 2334 men in killed and wounded ; treaty signed with Sindia, Nov. 23 ; with Holkar, Dec. 24; mutiny at Velore, Col. Fancourt, 13 officers, and 99 Europeans murdered, July 10, 1806 ; war declared against the Rajah of Tra van- core, 1807 ; defeated at Anjuriche, Dec. 3, 1808 ; again defeated, Jan. 15, 1809 ; and again defeated, Feb. 21, war ended ; mutiny of the Madras native force at Chittledroog, who seized the treasure, Aug. 6 ; defeated by Col. Gibb, Aug. 23 ; the island of Amboyna taken by the English, Feb. 17, 1810 ; the isle of Bourbon, July 9 ; Banda, Aug. 9 ; Ternate, Aug. 29 ; Mauritius, Dec. 9 ; the Company's Charter renewed, but the trade with India thrown open, July 21, 53 Geo. III. c. 155, 1813; the Nepaulese attacked the station at Bhutwal, May 29, 1814; war declared against, Nov. I ; Nepaul ceded Kumaon by the Convention of Almora, April 27, 1815; Ahmednugger ceded by Rao, June 13, 1817; the Governor- general took the field against the Pindarees, Oct. 18 ; defeated them at Khirki, Nov. 5 ; the battle of Sitabaldi, Col. Hopeton Scott defeated the Rajah of Nag- poor, Nov. 26 ; Holkar defeated at Mehidpoor, Dec. 28 ; peace with Holkar signed, Jan. 6, 1818 ; the Pindary war ended with the destruction of the principal hordes and chiefs, in May ; the Nuwab of Oude assumed the title of King, 1819; Marquis of Hastings resigned, Aug. I, 1823; Malacca ceded to the Dutch, 1824, and Singapore purchased ; war declared with Burmah, Rangoon taken, May 1 1 ; Tavoy and Tenasserim captured in Aug. ; Martanban and Yeh in Oct. ; mutiny of the 47th Bengal Native Infantry and part of the 26th and 62nd, Nov. I ; the mutineers punished and the 47th regiment erased from the army list ; a rebellion broke out at Bhurtpoor, Feb. 13, 1825 ; the British forces marched for Ava, Dec. 9 ; Bhurtpoor taken by the English under Lord Combermere, Jan. 18, 1826; treaty signed with Burmah by which the Burmese ceded Asam, Arakan, Tavoy, and Tenasserim, and paid 1,000,000, Feb. 24 ; Europeans allowed to hold lands in India on lease for 60 years, Feb., 1829 ; the abolition of Suttee, or burning the widow, in Dec. ; the natives allowed to sit as jurymen and justices of the peace, 2 Will. IV. c. 117, June 18, 1832; the charter renewed till April 30, 1854, from April 22, 1834 ; the China trade of the Company to cease and St Helena to revert to the Crown, 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 85, Aug. 18, 1833 ; Koorg an- nexed, April I o, 1834 ; war declared against Dost Mahommed, Oct. I, 1838; the army commenced its march towards Afghanistan, Feb. 20, 1839 ; entered the Cabul Pass, April 12; Candahar occupied, April 21; battle of Ghuzni, and Shah Soujah restored, the English entering Cabul, July 23, 1839 ; Kelat captured, Nov. 13 ; Dost Mahommed defeated, Oct. 18, 1840 ; again defeated, when he surrendered himself, Nov. 3 ; the Cabul Passforcedby SirR. Sale, Oct. 12, 1841 ; general rising against the English at Cabul, Sir A. Burns and others murdertd, Nov. 2 j Sir W. McNaghten murdered, I;ec. 23 ; the English army capitulated, INDIA 415 Dec. 26 ; retreat began, Jan. 6, 1842, and the troops were massacred in the Cabul Pass, Jan. 13, 1842; Dr Brydon arrived at Jellalabad, being the only one who escaped out of 13,000, Jan. 13 ; a severe shock of an earthquake destroyed the fortification erected by Sir R. Sale, at Jellalabad, Feb. 19 ; defeated Akhbar Khan before, April 7 ; General Pollock affects a junction with Sale, April 16 ; Ghuzni evacuated, March 6 ; retaken by General Nott, Sept. 6 ; General Pollock re-entered Cabul, Sept. 15, 1842 ; Lady Sale rescued and Cabul evacuated, destroying the defences, Oct. 12, 1842 ; Ameers of Scinde attacked, taken, and their territory annexed to the British empire, Feb. 17, 1843 ; battles of Maharajpoor and Punniar, and the capture of Gwalior, Dec. 29, 1843 ; mutiny of the Bengal army, the 34th Native Infantry disbanded at Meerut, March 27, 1844 > tne inhabitants of Surat rebelled against the salt tax, Aug. 30 ; the tax lowered by one-half, Oct. I ; Sewapore taken by Col. Wallace, Jan. 17, 1845. The Sikh war commenced, Dec. 14, 1845 ; the Sikhs defeated at Moodkee by Sir Hugh Gough, abandoning their guns, Dec. 18 ; battle of Ferozeshah, the Sikhs again defeated with great loss, Dec. 21, 22, 1845 ; the Sikhs crossed the Sutlej unmolested, Dec. 27, 1845 ; Sir H. Smith severely checked, Jan. 21, 1846; the battle of Aliwal, the Sikhs defeated, Jan. 28 ; Sobraon, battle of, Feb. 18, the Sikhs lost 10,000 men, 67 guns, and their whole camp, British, 2338 killed and wounded ; the citadel of Lahore occupied by the English, Feb. 22 ; treaty of Lahore, March 9 ; 79 soldiers killed by the falling of their barracks at Loodiana, May 21 ; Mr Agnew and Lieut. Anderson murdered at Mooltan, April 20, 1848 ; Lieut. Edwardes engaged the army of Moolraj, which he defeated after a battle of nine hours' duration, at Kin eyrie, June 18 ; again defeated at Ludclosam, July I ; Mooltan besieged, Sept. 5; the outworks stormed, Sept. 12 ; the siege raised, Sept. 22 ; Lord Gough defeated them at Ramnugger, Nov. 22 ; they are again defeated by Gen. Thackwell, Dec. 3 ; several commercial failures in Calcutta, 1848; the second siege of Mooltan, Dec. 27 ; explosion of the powder magazine, Dec. 30 ; the city stormed and taken, Jan. 2, 1849 ; the citadel besieged and Moolraj surrendered, Jan. 2 ; Lord Gough defeated Shere Shingh at Chillian walla, with a loss of 40 guns, Jan. 13, the British lost 38 officers and 600 men ; again defeated them at Goojerat with a loss of 56 guns and their whole camp, and several thousand men, Feb. 21, the English lost 92 men killed and 700 wounded ; 16,000 Sikhs laid down their arms, March 14. The Punjab annexed to the British rule, March 30; Lahore, all -the crown lands, and the Kohi-noor transferred to the Queen in the month of April ; the Moolraj imprisoned for life, July 31, for the murder of Mr Agnew and Lieut. Anderson ; Sir Charles Napier appointed commander-in-chief, May 7 ; trial by jury estab- lished throughout British India, Oct. 26 ; Mr Bethune established a middle-class school for Hindoo girls, May 7 5 mutiny in the 32nd and 66th Native Infantry, the regiment disbanded, Feb. 2 1 , 1 850 ; outbreaks in the Agra jail, April 5 ; a fleet of 30 ordnance boats, laden with 300,000 pounds of gunpowder, exploded off Benares 350 lives were lost, and most of the buildings were destroyed, May I ; embassy from the King of Nepaul to the Queen of England arrived in this country, May 25, 1850 ; disputes with the Burmese, and war declared, 1852 ; Martaban taken, April 5 ; Rangoon stormed and captured, April 14 ; Pegu captured, June 4 ; Prome taken, Oct. 9 ; Pegu annexed to the Indian empire, Dec. 20 ; the first railway opened at Bombay, April 16, 1853 ; close of the war, June 20 ; the Com- pany's charter renewed, (6ft 17 Viet. c. 95, Aug. 20 ; Nagpoor annexed, Dec. II ; Oude annexed to the empire, Feb. 7, 1856. Mutiny of the Sepoys on ac- count of the cartridges being greased with beef suet instead of mutton at Barrack- pore, Lucknow, and Meerut, April 3, 1857 ; they established their head-quarters at Delhi, and proclaimed the king Emperor of India, May 13 ; the regiments stationed at Lucknow mutinied, May 31 ; the 44th and 67th Native Infantry dis- armed at Agra, June l ; the 6th native regiment revolted, killing many Europeans, at 4 i6 INDIA Allahabad, June 4 ; the British residents at Cawnpore murdered by order of Nana Sahib, June 27 ; Lucknow besieged by the mutineers, July 2 ; Cawn- pore taken by Gen. Havelock, July 17, who defeated the Nana at Bithoor on the igth; Sir Colin Campbell appointed commander-in-chief, July u ; left London for Calcutta, July 12 ; arrived there, Aug. 14 ; Delhi stormed and taken by Gen. Wilson, Sept. 14-20 ; Lucknow relieved by Gen. Havelock, Sept. 25 ; the Agra contingent defeated by Gen. Greathead, Oct. 10 ; Sir Colin Campbell reached Cawnpore, Nov. 3, and in conjunction with Gens. Havelock and Outram, defeated and routed the rebels, Nov. 13-17 ; the English army and residents left Lucknow, Nov. 22 ; Gen. Havelock died at Alum-Bagh on his way to Cawnpore, Nov. 25 ; Gen. Windham defeated at Cawnpore, Nov. 27 ; the mutineers defeated by Sir Colin Campbell at the same place, Dec. 6 ; the first party of ladies and children arrived at Calcutta from Lucknow, Jan. 9, 1858 ; Sir Colin Campbell besieged Lucknow, March 8 ; capture of, and flight of 50,000 rebels, March 19 ; a reward of a lac of rupees for the apprehension of Nana Sahib offered, April 5 ; Capt. Peel died at Cawnpore, April 27 ; Gen. Sir Hope Grant defeated the rebels at Nawab Gunge, near Lucknow, May 13 ; Gwalior taken by the rebels, June I ; recaptured by Sir Hugh Rose, June 19 ; the city and fort of Calpee taken by the same Gen., June 23 ; an act passed transferring the government from the East India Company to the Queen, 21 & 22 Viet. c. 106, Aug. 2, 1858 ; the rebels under Tantia Topee defeated at Beora by Gen. Mitchell, Sept. 15 ; royal proclamation announcing the transfer of the authority of the late East India Company to the Queen, Nov. I ; a decree published con- stituting the Punjab a lieutenant-governorship, Jan. 9, 1859 ; Oude pacified, Jan. 24 ; Tantia Topee taken prisoner, April 7 ; hanged, April 18 ; a public thanksgiving for the suppression of the mutiny, May I ; dissatisfaction expressed by the Indian troops upon their being transferred to the Crown, July I ; Khan Bahadoor Khan, one of the leaders in the late mutiny, hung at Bareilly, March 24 ; a bill introduced into parliament for the better regulating of the Indian army, June 12 ; act passed, 23 & 24 Viet. c. 100, Aug. 20, 1860 ; William Johnson, a private of the $th European regiment, shot for refusing to obey the command of his superior officer, Nov. 13, 1860 ; the regiment disarmed ; famine in the north- western provinces, Jan. 12, 1861 ; subscriptions raised in England to relieve the inhabitants ; first meeting at the Mansion House, March 28 ; ^20,000 remitted to Bombay, April 3; the amount reached ,111,998, of which sum ^54,998 was remitted to Calcutta, and .57,000 to Bombay ; a currency issued by the Indian Government, July 16, 1861 ; the financial statement made by Sir C. Wood, July 25 ; an act passed to facilitate the enlistment of persons transferred from the Indian to the general forces of Her Majesty, 24 & 25 Viet. c. 74, Aug. 6, 1861 ; and the retiring pensions regulated and paid, 24 & 25 Viet. c. 89, Aug. 6, 1 86 1 ; the law concerning the civil service amended, 24 & 25 Viet. c. 54, Aug. i, 1861 ; an act passed for making better provision for the constitution of the Council of the Governor-General of India, and for the Local Government of the several presidences and provinces of India, and for the Temporary Government of the country in the event of a vacancy in the office of Governor- General, 24 & 25 Viet. c. 67, Aug. 1, 1861 ; High Courts of Judicature established in, by 24 & 25 Viet. c. 104, Aug. 6, 1861 ; the Earl of Elgin, Governor-General, arrived at Cal- cutta, March I, 1862 ; installation of, March 12 ; the financial statement made by Sir C. Wood, July 25, 1863 ; Governor-Gen. Lord Elgin died at Dhurumsala, Cashmere, Nov. 20 ; the mountain tribes in the Punjab rebelled in Nov. ; Sir John Lawrence, the Viceroy, left England, Dec. 9 ; arrived at Calcutta, Jan. 12, 1863 ; the government of Bengal prohibited the burning of the dead within sight of Calcutta, and the throwing of the corpses into the river Hooghley, in March ; the financial statement made by Sir C. Wood, July 23, 1864 ; destructive hurricane at Calcutta, several vessels lost, the loss of INDIA, GOVERNORS-GENERAL OF MUTINY RELIEF FUND 417 life being very great, Oct. 5, 1864; a violent cyclone in the Bay of Bengal, the island of Saugor inundated and 7000 persons drowned, and at Masuli- patam 60,000 men were lost, besides a great number of vessels, Nov. I, 1864; Sir William Mansfield succeeded Sir Hugh Rose as commander-in-chief of the army, March 23, 1865 ; Mr Massey, the financial minister, arrived at Calcutta, March 31 ; the budget laid before the Council, April i ; disapproved of by Sir C. Wood, May 8 ; enlarged powers given to the Viceroy by 28 & 29 Viet. c. 17, May 9 ; Sir C. Trevelyan arrived in England, May 19 ; the financial state- ment made by Sir C. Wood, June 29 ; commercial crisis in Bombay, June and July ; peace restored with Bhotan, Nov. 1 1 ; the financial statement of Mr Massey submitted to the Council, March 24, 1866 ; Indian prize-money to be paid by the treasurer of Chelsea Hospital, by 29 & 30 Viet. c. 47, June 28, 1866 ; Viscount Cranborne made the financial statement in parliament, July 19 ; W. R. S. N. Fitzgerald appointed Governor of Bombay, Nov. 20 ; famine in Orissa, Bengal, 700,000 persons died, 1500 children left orphans, 1866 ; a sub- scription for their support opened, June 19, 1867 ; Sir C. Northcote made the financial statement to parliament, Aug. 12 ; interview of the chief commis- sioner, Col. Fytche, with the KingofBurmah, Oct. 9 ; a cyclone at Calcutta and Bengal, which destroyed upwards of 600 native boats, part of the suburbs of the city, and 3000 of the inhabitants, Nov. I ; visit of the Viceroy to Lucknow and a state Durbar held, Nov. 9. INDIA, GOVERNORS-GENERAL OF. Dawson, Alexander Jan. 27, 1748 Mornington, The Marquis Fytche, William Jan. 8, 1752 Oct. 4, 1797 Drake, Roger Aug. 8, 1752 Cornwallis, Marquis Jan. 9, 1805 Clive, Colonel March 25, 1759 Barlow, Sir G. Feb. 9, 1806 Vansittart, Henry Nov. 23, 1759 Minto, Lord July 19, 1806 Clive, Lord June i, 1764 Moira, Earl Nov. 18, 1812 Spencer, John Nov. 26, 1764 Amherst, Earl Oct. 23, 1822 Verelst, Henry Jan. 26, 1767 Bentinck, Lord W. March 13, 1828 Cartier, John Dec. 16, 1769 Auckland, Lord Aug. 12, 1836 Hastings, Warren April 25, 1771 Ellenborough, Lord Oct. 20, 1841 McPherson, Sir J. Feb. I, 1785 Hardinge, Lord May 6, 1844 Cornwallis, Lord Feb. 26, 1786 Dalhousie, Earl of Aug. 4, 1847 Meadows, Major-Gen. W. Canning, Lord July 4, 1855 April 28, 1790 Elgin, Lord Jan. 21, 1862 Teignmouth, Lord Sept. 19, 1792 Lawrence, Sir John Dec. 5, 1863 INDIA, the most exalted order of the Star of, founded, June 25, 1861 ; first in- vestiture at Windsor Castle, Nov. I, 1861. INDIA, overland route to, described and carried out by Mr Waghom, a naval officer ; after taking great pains to perfect it, he reached London, Oct. 31, 1845, with the Bombay mail of the istof the month ; he reached Suez in 19 days, Alexandria in 20 days, landed near Trieste, and reached London, through Austria, Baden, Prussia, and Belgium, at half-past four a.m. on the 3ist Oct. He proposed to complete the distance in 21 days, but his death took place, Jan. 8, 1850. INDIAN COUNCIL appointed to govern India by 21 & 22 Viet. c. 106, Aug. 2, 1858, upon the abolition of the East India Company and the Board of Control. INDIAN MUSEUM AND LIBRARY, established by the East India Company at their house in Leadenhall-street, 1800; transferred to Fife House, 1860. INDIAN MUTINY RELIEF FUND, established at a meeting held at the Man- sion House, Aug. 25, 1857; the subscriptions, &c., amounted to ^472, 724; amount disbursed to the sufferers, .250,509 ; the remainder reserved for paying annuities. 27 418 INDIA OFFICE INDULGENCES INDIA OFFICE, Whitehall, London. An act passed for improving the site of the new offices, 28 & 29 Viet. c. 32, June 2, 1865 ; built from the designs of Scott ; opened with a ball to the Sultan of Turkey, July 19, 1867. INDIAN RAILWAYS. The East Indian Company formed, 1845 ; incorporated, Aug. I, 1849 > 37 miles opened, Sept., 1854 ; 121 miles, Feb., 1855 ; the total length opened in 1866, 1130 miles. Great Indian Peninsular, incorporated, 1849 ; opened, May, 1854. Madras Company, established, 1852 ; opened to Arcot, July I, 1856 ; to Bey- poor, May, 1862. The Bombay, Baroda, and Central, incorporated, July, 1855 ; began, May, 1856. Scinde Company, incorporated, July 2, 1855 ; reconstructed, Aug., 1857; partially opened, May II, 1861 ; wholly opened, 1866. Eastern Bengal Company, commenced, April, 1857; 114 miles opened, Nov., 1862. Great Southern India Company, formed, 1857 ; began, May, 1859 ; 79 miles opened, March, 1862. INDIA RUBBER, the vulgar name for Caoutchouc, brought from South America, and first explained by M. de la Condamine to the French Academy of Science at Paris, 1736; Mr J. Priestley first called attention to this material as being useful to artists for obliterating pencil marks, 1770 ; first sold in London by Mr Nairre, opposite the Royal Exchange at 3-r. a half inch, 1771 ; Mr Hancock took out a patent for making elastic braces, &c., 1820 j Macintosh first took out a patent for making cloth waterproof, 1823 ; these two inventors combined, 1825 ; steam- machinery first used in the manufacture of, 1835 ; Mr Hancock obtained a patent for vulcanized India rubber, 1843, and Mr Goodyear, 1844 ; many patents for making have since been granted. In 1850, the importation was 800,000 Ibs. ; in 1860, 3, 000,000 Ibs. INDIAN, or WESTERN TERRITORY, United States of America, that part of America east of the Mississippi, 600 miles long, and from 300 to 600 miles broad, containing 120,000 square miles, to which the American government re- moved part of the Indians, 1851, between the Rocky Mountains and Mississippi. INDIANA, one of the United States of North America, on the north side of the Ohio ; the first settlement made by the French, 1702 ; joined with Illinois and formed a territorial government, 1801 ; separated, 1809; admitted to the Union, Dec., 1816; constitution agreed to, Aug. 4, 1851 ; came into operation, Nov. I. INDICTIONS in Chronology, used for an epoch or manner of counting time among the Romans, containing a cycle or revolution of 15 years : the first was used in the Theodosian Code; first instituted by Constantine, A.D. 312, and sanctioned by the Council of Nice, Jan. I, 313, and began on Sept. I ; second, the Imperial or C J 444 '> we ^ known as being from India, 1516 ; known in Germany, 1600 ; in Holland, 1631 ; planted in Carolina, America, 1747; mentioned in England, 1581 ; imported into England, 1840; the consumption, 1861, was 52,808 cwts. INDORE, Hindustan, plundered by Scindia, 1801 ; occupied by a British force, under Colonel Murray, 1804; restored, 1805 ; Mulkerjee elected to the throne, Feb., 1852. INDULGENCES, the granting of, in the Papal Church commenced under Gregory VII., 1077 ; Urban II. gave them as rewards to the Crusaders, 1090. Clement INDULTS INFANTRY 419 V. made a public sale of them, 1313 ; Leo X. granted them in order to finish St Peter's at Rome, and afterwards generally, and thence mainly began the Reform- ation in Germany ; protested against by the Diet of Nuremberg, 1522 ; Luther's propositions against, posted up at Wittemberg, 1517. The prices paid for the various indulgences are described in the Tax Book of the Holy Apostolic Chan- cery, first printed at Rome, 1514. INDULTS, granted by the Church of Rome to kings and cardinals ; granted to Francis I. of France upon the abolition of the Pragmatic Sanction, 1516, by agreement with the college of cardinals, 1555 ; by Paul III. to the Parliament of Paris, 1538. INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITIONS. See Exhibitions. INDUSTRIAL AND PROVIDENT SOCIETIES. The formation of, legalized, 15 & 16 Viet. c. 31, June 30, 1852 ; amended, 17 & 18 Viet. c. 25, June 16, 1854, and by the 19 & 20 Viet. c. 40, July 7, 1856; further amended by 30 & 31 Viet. c. 117, Aug. 20, 1857 ; power given to invest their money in Sav- ings' Banks, 22 & 23 Viet. c. 53, Aug. 13, 1859. See Friendly Societies. INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS. An act passed for making better provision for the care and education of vagrant, destitute, and disorderly children, and for the ex- tension of Industrial Schools, 20 & 21 Viet c. 48, Aug. 17, 1857 ; amended, 23 & 24 Viet. c. 108, Aug. 28, 1860; repealed, and the law consolidated, 'The Industrial Schools Act," 24 & 25 Viet. c. 113, Aug. 6, 1861 ; further amended by 29 & 30 Viet. c. 18, Aug. 10, 1866 ; a bill introduced to extend the provision of this act to Ireland, but was not passed, Aug. 9, 1867. INFANT SCHOOLS. See Schools. INFANTICIDE. The practice of child-killing has existed from the remotest period : in Greece the destruction of deformed or weak children was encouraged ; in China a large number of female infants are annually put to death ; this offence was carried out with much severity by the Hindoos ; the Marquis of Wellesley en- deavoured to stop this wicked practice ; in England the concealment of the death of a bastard child considered absolute evidence that it had been murdered, 21 James I. c. 27, 1623 ; this was somewhat mitigated by 43 Geo. III. c. 58, June 24, 1803 ; the concealment of the body of a bastard child declared a misdemean- or, and punishable by imprisonment not exceeding two years, 9 Geo. IV. c. 31, s. 14, June 27, 1828 ; persons indicted for child murder may be convicted of con- cealing the birth, 24 & 25 Viet. c. 100, s. 60, Aug. 6, 1861. INFANTRY, a name given to foot-soldiers ; Boccaccio, who wrote in the I4th century, so called the men who marched in the rear of the cavalry ; Charles VII. of France had 16,000 foot-soldiers ; Louis XI. formed a standing army of 10,000 Infantry ; the Infantry hi England are the successors of the men-at-arms who fought at Crecy. INFANTRY, English Regiments of, with the date of their formation. 1st Royal regiment of foot are the representatives of a body of gallant Scots, formerly in the service of Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, and others in the service of the kings of France, formed in 1633 ; Sir John Hepburn ap- pointed colonel, Jan. 26, 1632. 2nd, or Queen's Royal regiment, raised, 1661 ; Henry, second Earl of Peter- borough, appointed the first colonel, Sept. 30, j66i. 3rd, or the Buffs, formerly designated the Holland regiment, first formed, 1572 ; re-formed, 1665, and called the Buffs, 1708; Lieut. Robert Sidney appointed colonel, May 31, 1665. 4th, or the King's Own, formed, 1680 ; Charles Fitzcharles, Earl of Plymouth, appointed colonel, July 13 ; called the King's Own, 1715. 420 INFANTRY 5th, or the Northumberland Fusileers, raised, 1674 ; first colonel appointed, Daniel O'Brien ; fifth, Viscount Clare. 6th, or Royal first Warwickshire, formed in Holland, 1674 ; Luke Lillingston ap- pointed colonel, Aug., 1674; obtained the title of Royal, 1832. 7th, or the Royal Fusileers, formed, 1685 ; George Legge (Lord Dartmouth) ap- pointed colonel, June n, 1685. 8th, or the King's regiment, raised, June, 1685 ; Sir Robert Shirley, Bart. (Lord Ferrars) appointed colonel, 1685, then styled the Princess Anne of Denmark's regiment ; in 1702 designated the Queen's regiment, and in 1716 the King's. 9th, or the East Norfolk regiment, 1685 ; Capt. Henry Cornwall appointed colonel, June 19, 1685. lOth, or the North Lincolnshire regiment, 1685 ; the Earl of Bath appointed colonel, June 20, 1685. nth, or North Devonshire regiment, 1685 ; Charles, Marquis of Worcester, ap- pointed colonel, Oct. 26, 1685. 1 2th, or the East Suffolk regiment, 1685 ; the Duke of Norfolk appointed colonel, June 20, 1685 ; designated the East Norfolk regiment, 1783. I3th, or first Somersetshire regiment, or Prince Albert's regiment of Light Infantry, 1685 ; the Earl of Huntingdon appointed colonel, June 20, 1685 ; Prince Albert presented a set of new colours to, Feb. 21, 1859. I4th, or the Buckinghamshire regiment, 1685 ; Sir Edward Hales appointed colonel, June 22, 1685 ; first called the Buckinghamshire regiment, 1782. 1 5th, or Yorkshire East Riding regiment, 1685 ; Sir William Clifton appointed colonel, June 22, 1685 ; first called the Yorkshire East Riding regiment, 1782. i6th, or the Bedfordshire regiment, 1688 ; Lieut. Archibald Douglas appointed colonel, Oct. 9, 1688. 1 7th, or the Leicester regiment, 1688 ; Solomon Richards appointed colonel, Sept. 27, 1688. l8th, or the Royal Irish regiment, 1684 ; Arthur Forbes, Earl of Granard, ap- pointed colonel, April i, 1684 ; in 1695 the title of Royal Regiment of Foot of Ireland added by William III., subsequently changed to the present title. igth regiment, or the first Yorkshire North Riding regiment of foot, formed, Nov., 1688 ; Francis Lutterell appointed first colonel, Feb. 28, 1689 ; the present title given to, 1782. 2Oth, or the East Devonshire regiment of foot, Nov., 1688 ; Sir Robert Peyton appointed first colonel, Nov. 20. 2ist, or the Royal North British Fusileers, 1678 ; Charles, Earl of Mar, appointed colonel, Sept. 23, 1678 ; present title given to, 1694. 22nd, or Cheshire regiment, raised, 1689 ; Henry Howard, Duke of Norfolk, ap- pointed colonel, March 16. 23rd, or the Royal Welsh Fusileers, formed, 1689 ; Henry, fourth Lord Herbert of Cherbury, appointed first colonel, March 17, 1689 ; Charles Herbert ap- pointed colonel, April 10, 1690; in 1714 styled the Prince of Wales's Own; new colours presented to, by Prince Albert, July 12, 1849. 34th, or Cumberland regiment of foot, formed, 1702 ; Robert Lord Lucas ap- pointed colonel. 36th, or Herefordshire regiment, formed, 1701 ; William Caulfield (second Viscount Charlemont), appointed first colonel, June 28. 39th, or the Dorsetshire regiment, raised, 1702 ; Richard Coote appointed first colonel, Feb. 13. 42nd, or Royal Highland regiment, first called the Blackwatch, 1 739 ; John Lindsay, Earl of Crawford, appointed first colonel, Oct. 25 j designated the Royal Highland regiment, 1758. 46th, or South Devonshire regiment, formed, 1741 ; John Price appointed INK 421 colonel, Jan. 13, then numbered the 57th ; changed to the present number, 1748 ; county title added, 1 782. 53rd, or Shropshire regiment, raised, 1755 ; at first numbered 55 ; William Whit- more appointed first colonel, Dec. 21. 56th, or the West Essex regiment, raised, 1755; Lord Charles Manners appointed colonel, Dec. 26, 1755. 6lst, or South Gloucestershire, formed, 1758 ; Major Granville Elliott appointed colonel, April 2 1. 67th, or South Hampshire regiment, formed, 1758; James Wolfe appointed colonel, April 21, 1788. 7oth, or Surrey regiment, raised, 1758 ; John Parslow appointed the first colonel, April 28 ; the royal authority given to assume the title of the Glasgow Lowland regiment ; the title changed to the Surrey, 1825. 7lst Highland Light Infantry, the first regiment formed, 1758 ; disbanded, 1763, after the peace of Fontainebleau ; another 7ist raised by Major-General the Hon. Simon Frazer, Oct., 1775 ; the 2nd battalion disbanded at the con- clusion of peace, April 5, 1783 ; the 1st battalion, June 4, 1784; the 73rd regiment raised, 1777 ; John Lord Macleod appointed colonel, Dec. 19, 1777 ; in 1786 this regiment was ordered to assume the title of the 7ist. 72nd, or the Duke of Albany's Own Highlanders, raised, 1778 ; Kenneth, Earl of Seaforth, appointed lieut. -colonel, Dec. 29, 1777; number altered from 78 to 72 ; the present title conferred, 1823. 73rd regiment, formed from the 2nd battalion of the 42nd regiment, 1780 ; 1786, directed to take the title of the 73rd ; Major-General Sir George Osborn, Bart., appointed colonel, April 18. 86th, or the Royal County Down, raised, 1793, and styled Cuyler's Shropshire Volunteers, from their colonel ; Major-General Cornelius Cuyler appointed, Oct. 30; changed their title to the 86th, or Leicester regiment of foot, 1806 ; assumed their present title, 1812. 87th, or Royal Irish Fusileers, formed, 1793 ; Sir John Doyle, Bart., G.C.B., ap- pointed lieut. -colonel, May 3, 1796; styled the Prince of Wales's Own, 1827, and subsequently ordered to take their present title. 88th, or Connaught Rangers, raised, 1793; the Hon. John Thomas de Burgh, afterwards the Earl of Clanricarde, appointed colonel, Sept. 25, 1793. 92nd Highlanders, formed, Feb. 10, 1794 ; embodied, and the Marquis of Huntley appointed colonel, May 3, 1796, and first called the looth regiment ; changed to the 92nd, 1798. INFERNAL MACHINE, first used at the siege of Antwerp, by the Spaniards, invented by Frederick Jambelli, 1585 ; tried by the English at Dunkirk, 1646 ; at Havre de Grace by William ; constructed by the French to be used at Algiers, 1688 ; attempt made to destroy Napoleon by one, on his way to the opera, Dec 14, 1800 ; Fieschi made a still more diabolical attempt upon the life of Louis Philippe ; it was erected in a room in the Boulevard Au Temple ; upwards of 40 persons were wounded, several being killed, July 28, 1835 ; the Orsini shells were thrown at the carriage of the Emperor Napoleon, on his way to the opera, Jan. 14, 1858. INGOLDSTADT, Bavaria, fortified, 1448; university founded, 1472 ; removed to Landshut, 1760; and to Munich, 1800 ; besieged by the French, under Moreau, and taken, June, 1800 ; the fortifications destroyed ; rebuilt on an improved plan subsequently. INGOUR, battle, defeat of the Russians by the Turks, under Omer Pasha, Nov. 6, 1855. INK. Camparius wrote several works upon inks, at Venice, 1619 ; the Romans had a purple ink, kept for the signing of state documents, by an edict issued by Leo 422 INKERMANN INQUISITION the Great ; it was death even to obtain or endeavour to use it ; the edict was in force from 470 to 1452 ; in the I2th century the privilege of using it was extended to the imperial family ; Mr Runge invented a new writing ink, 1849 ; Mr Leonardhi of Dresden invented a solid ink, which he called 'Alizarine.' INKERMANN, battle. The Russians, 40,000 strong, attacked a division of the British army of 8000 men, under cover of a dense fog ; the former were defeated with a loss of 10,000 men, Nov. 5, 1854. INNHOLDERS' COMPANY, established as the Hostelers' Company, 1446; their present title conferred by the Court of Aldermen, 1473 ; incorporated by Henry VIII., 1515; reincorporated, 15 Charles II., Dec. 21, 1644; hall built after the fire of 1666. INNS OF COURT, instituted at first to teach the law, as in a university, after the Court of Common Pleas was fixed in Westminster Hall ; the Temple was founded by the Knights Templars and given over to the lawyers about 1346 ; the Temple .Church was built by the knights, 1 185 ; the outer Temple was not made an Inn of Court until 1560 ; the following are the dates of these foundations : Bernard'slnn, oneof Chancery 1445 New Inn ... ... ... 1485 Clement's Inn ... ... 1478 Scroope's Inn ... ... 1484 Clifford's Inn ... ... 1345 Sergeants' Inn ... ... 1429 Furnival's Inn ... ... 1563 Sergeants' Inn, Chancery Lane 1411 Gray's Inn, 32 Edward III. 1357 Staple's Inn ... ... ... 1415 Lincoln's Inn ... ... 1312 Thavies' Inn ... ... 1519 Lyon's Inn ... ... ... 1520 INNSPRUCK, Austria. The gymnasium converted by the Emperor Leopold into a university, 1672 ; the palace of Maria Theresa, built, 1770 ; the town taken by the French, 1805 ; Hofer, during the War of Independence, after a desperate struggle, defeated and routed the French army at the Inn's bridge, 1809. INOCULATION for the small-pox, first tried upon seven condemned criminals, 1721; practised in Scotland, 1726; in Ireland, 1723; at Hanover, 1724. The bishops and clergy preached against the practice of small-pox inoculation down to 1760 ; vaccine inoculation, the substitute, was introduced by Dr Jenner, Jan. 21, 1799 ; he was voted ^"10,000 by parliament for the discovery, June 2, 1802 ; Napoleon in honour of Dr Jenner liberated a prisoner of war, Dr Wick- ham, at his request, and afterwards whole families of English, never refusing a request from him ; inoculating for, made punishable, 3 & 4 Viet. c. 29, s. 8, July 23, 1840 ; amended by 21 & 22 Viet. c. 97, Aug. 2, 1858. INQUISITION, an ecclesiastical jurisdiction established for the trial and examina- tion of persons that are suspected of holding any religious opinion contraiy to tho'se professed by the Church of Rome : it was called the ' Holy Inquisition.' Theodosius I. appointed inquisitors to inquire into charges against heretics, A. D. 382 ; Honorius continued these officers, 398 ; in the Lateran Council, convoked by Pope Innocent III. at Rome, 1215 ; the establishment of this iniquitous system is generally attributed, 1215; confirmed by Pope Gregory, 1228-9; Louis IX. estab- lished a court at Toulouse, Nov., 1229 ; the duties of the judges and rules for the court compiled by Raymond of Pegnaforte, and appointed by Pope Gregory, 1233 ; established in Italy, 1251 ; inquisitors appointed in France, 1255 ; abolished, 1598 ; first introduced into Spain by the Bull of Pope Sixtus, Nov., 1478 ; in- quisitors appointed by Ferdinand and Isabella, Sept., 1480; they established their court in the Dominican convent of St Paul of Seville, from whence they issued the first edict, Jan. 2, 1481 ; during this year 298 heretics were burnt in Seville alone ; Thomas de Torquemada appointed by Sixtus IV. Inquisitor-General of Spain, Oct. 17, 1483, who reorganized it, Oct. 29, 1484; suppressed by a decree of Napoleon I., Dec. 4, 1808, and definitively abolished by the Cortes, Feb. 12, INSOLVENCY INTERDICT 423 1813; re-established by Ferdinand VII., July 21, 1814 ; again suppressed, 1820 ; established in Portugal by King John III., 1536 ; in Vienna, 1289, by a concor- dat with Pope Julius III. ; it was agreed that three senators should be present at the sitting of the court, 1551 ; the French exposed the instruments used by these holy sons of the Church to torture their victims ; great ingenuity was displayed in the invention ; in Spain alone, upwards of 32,000 persons were burnt alive by this institution ; in the library of the Inquisition at Rome the records of that tribunal are preserved ; Pope Paul III. by his bull dated April, 1543, founded the congre- gation of the Holy Office at Rome, consisting of Cardinals, who were styled ' Inquisitors-General ' 'of the faith, who had the superintendence of all other in- quisitors ; their powers extended by Pius IV., 1564 ; further regulated by Sixtus V., 1588. INSOLVENCY. The first act passed to establish a general system of realization and distribution of property of insolvent traders, 34& 35 Henry VIII. c. 4, 1542- 3 ; the laws relating to, in England, consolidated by 7 Geo. IV. c. 57, May 26, 1826 ; extended by I & 2 Viet. c. no, Aug. 16, 1838 ; again by 2 & 3 Viet c. 39, Aug. 17, 1839 ; the Court for the Relief of, established in Portugal-street, pur- suant to the 23rd s. of I & 2 Viet. c. 1 10, 1838, and four commissioners appointed ; the laws relating to, amended, and the powers possessed by the Court for the Re- lief of Insolvent Debtors transferred to the Court of Bankruptcy, 24 & 25 Viet c. 114, Aug. 6, 1861. INSTITUTE, NATIONAL, of France, appointed for perfecting the sciences and other literary labours, 1796 ; Napoleon changed the constitution of the society, 1803; the name changed to the Institute of France, 1 806 ; to the Imperial Insti- tute, 1811. INSTITUTION OF BRITISH ARCHITECTS, founded, 1834 ; incorporated by royal charter, Jan. II, 1837. INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS, established, 1818; incorporated, June 3, 1828. INSURANCE, the origin of, is attributed by some to the Romans ; the Court of Flanders established a Chamber of Insurance, 1310; Italy carried out a contract of Insurance, 1340 ; Portugal, 1370 ; in England, by the Lombard merchants, the first statute passed to regulate, 43 Eliz. cap. 12, 1601 ; fire insurance proposed in Germany, circa 1609 ; the Common Council of London agreed to a plan for insur- ance, Nov. 16, 1681 ; abandoned by order of the Court of Aldermen, Nov. 16, 1682 ; the Friendly Insurance Company established, circa 1675 ; first advertised, Sept. 16, 1681 ; the first life assurance office established was the Amicable Society, 1706 ; reorganized, 1807, by charter; the first fire office, the Hand in Hand, founded, 1696 ; the Sun Office, June 15, 1810; the Union Office, 1714; the Royal Exchange, June 22, 1 720 ; the London Assurance Corporation, the same date ; the Equitable, 1762. There are now above 170 offices established in England and 15 in Scotland ; first duty upon fire insurance proposed and carried by Lord North, is. (>d. per cent., 1782 ; duties upon marine insurance fixed, 7& 8 Viet., c. 21, June 6, 1844 ; the duty reduced from 3^. to is. 6d. upon stock-in- trade, 1864 ; reduced to a uniform rate of is. 6d. per hundred, June 25, 1865 ; marine duty altered and amended, April 4, 1867 ; new policies must specify the principal places where the business of the company is carried on, at which notices of assignment may be given, 30 & 31 Viet. c. 144. INTAGLIO, gems indented or incised. This art was known to the ancients, and is mentioned in the sacred writings : Tamar desiring a pledge from Judah, he gave her his signet, Gen. xxxviii. 1 8. The gems upon the breastplate of the High Priest are said to have been engraved in this way, Ex. xxxix. INTERDICT. This ecclesiastic censure of the suspension of the ordinances of re- 424 INTEREST INUNDATIONS ligion first promulgated in the 6th century ; Gregory V. placed the whole of France under an interdict on account of King Robert marrying his cousin, 997 ; England, in the reign of King Stephen, 1147, and King John, 1208. INTEREST upon money lent has varied from time to time in England : at the Con- quest, only the Lombard merchants and Jews were permitted to make loans, for which they charged from 7 to 12 per cent.; at Verona, in 1228, fixed by law at \zy 2 per cent.; Barcelona from 7 to 10, in 1435 ; it increased so such a degree in England, that a statute was passed limiting the rate to 10 per cent., 37 Hen. VIII. c. 7, 1546 ; this was amended by Edw. VI., 1552; but it afterwards rose to 14 percent, by the 13 Eliz. c. 8, 1570 ; the act of Hen. VIII. was enforced and made perpetual, 39 Eliz. c. 18, 1797; reduced to 8 per cent, by James I.; re- duced to 6 during the Commonwealth, which was confirmed by 12 Chas. II. c. 13, 1660 ; reduced to 5 by 12 Anne, s. 2, c. 16, 1713 ; restriction repealed by 17 & 1 8 Viet. c. 90, Aug. 10, 1854; in Scotland no interest allowed until 1587, then 10 per cent.; reduced in 1633 to 8, in 1661 to 6, and since to 5. In Ireland no in- terest permitted to be taken until 1635, then 10 per cent.; reduced to 8 in 1704, to 7 in 1722, and to 6 in 1732. In France fixed at 5 per cent, in 1665 ; reduced to 4 in 1 766. In America the rates vary from 8 to 5 per cent. INTERIM, The, in history, is that period when the Emperor Charles V. of Ger- many passed an ordinance or regulation to be observed in the empire with regard to the Articles of Religion then controverted, till such time as they should be de- termined by a council, 1548. The two others were the Interim of Leipsic and Franconia. INTERNATIONAL COPYRIGHT. See Copyright. INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION SOCIETY. The Prince of Wales inaugur- ated the English College at Kew, July 10, 1867. The system first inaugurated by M. Barbier at Auvergne, 1862. INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION. See Exhibition. INTERNATIONAL STATISTICAL CONGRESS, held at Vienna, 1857; in London, under the presidency of Prince Albert, July 16, 1860. INTERNATIONAL WORKING MEN'S CONGRESS, met at Lausanne, Sept. 2 ; terminated, Sept. 7> 1867. INTERREGNUM from the death of Charles I., Jan. 30, 1649, to the accession of Charles II., May 29, 1660. INUNDATIONS. The Thames destroyed a considerable number of the inhabit- ants of its banks nine years after Christ ; the Severn overflowed and destroyed vast quantities of cattle, 80 ; the Medway overflowed its banks, and covered the country for miles, 87 ; the Humber rose, and laid the adjacent country, for 50 miles, under water, 95 ; the Severn overflowed, and drowned 5000 head of cattle, and people in their beds, 115 ; the Trent overflowed above 20 miles on each side of its banks, and drowned many people, 214 ; the Tweed had an inundation which destroyed a considerable number of the inhabit- ants on its banks, 218 ; an inundation of the sea in Lincolnshire, which laid under water many thousand acres, that have not been recovered to this time, 245 ; the Ouse, in Bedfordshire, overflowed and drowned numbers of people and cattle, 250; an inundation of the Humber, 269; another in the Isle of Thanet, 317; another which destroyed all the inhabitants in Fern Island, seven miles S.W. from Holy Island, 323 ; an irruption of the sea in Lancashire, 330 ; an inundation of the Tweed, 336 ; the Severn overflowed, 350 ; above 5000 people lost in Cheshire by an irruption, 353 ; an inundation of the Dee, 387 ; another of the Dee, which drowned 40 families, 415 ; an irruption of the sea in Hampshire, 419; another irruption in North and South Wales, 441 ; an inundation of the Severn, 487 ; an inundation of the Humber, 529; an inundation of the sea in Norfolk, INUNDATIONS 425 Suffolk, and Essex, 575 ; an inundation of the sea in Cheshire and Lancashire, 649 ; an inundation of the Medway, 669 ; an inundation at Edinburgh, which did great damage, 730 ; an inundation at Glasgow, which drowned above 400 families, 738 ; an inundation of the Tweed, which did immense damage, 836 ; an inunda- tion of the Medway, 861 ; one in the Humber, 864; an inundation of the Dee, 885 ; an inundation at Southampton, which destroyed many people, 935 ; an inundation of the Thames, 973 ; an inundation of the Severn, which drowned abundance of cattle, 1046 ; the sea overflowed 4003 acres of Earl Godwin's land, in Kent, since called Godwin Sands, 1 100 ; a great part of Flanders over- flowed by the sea, 1 108 ; an inundation of the Thames for above six miles at Lambeth, &c., 1243 ; a considerable one in Friesland, 1220 ; another, since named the Dollart sea, 1277 ; at Winchelsea, above 300 houses were over- thrown by the sea, 1280 ; 120 laymen and several priests, besides women, were drowned, by an inundation at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, 1339 ; at the Texel, which first raised the commerce of Amsterdam, 1400 ; the sea broke in at Dort, and drowned 72 villages and 100,000 people, and formed the Zuyder Zee, 1421 ; another, in 1521, in Holland; at Hartshead, in Yorkshire, Sept. n, 1673 ; at Dagenham, in Essex, Dec. 17, I77> anc ^ continued till 1721 ; in Holland and Zealand, when 1300 inhabitants were drowned, 1717, and Holstein in the same year ; in Yorkshire, called Rippon flood, May 18, 1722 ; at Chili, which overflowed the City of Conception, 1730; in Feb., 1735, at Dagenham, and upon the coast of Essex, which carried away the sea walls, and drowned several thousand sheep and black cattle ; in Holland, 1754; north of England, !755 > m Spain, and did 3,000,000 livres damage at Bilboa, April, 1762; in France, May following, and did great damage ; at Coventry, 70 persons were drowned, and much damage done, also in Cambridgeshire, Gloucestershire, &c., Nov., 1770; in the north of England, when Newcastle-bridge, &c., was carried away, 1771 ; at Venice, at Naples, where it carried away a whole village, and drowned 200 of the inhabitants, Nov. 10, 1773 ; in Calcutta, in the East Indies, '773 J at Battersea and Chelsea, March 9, 1774 ; in Kent, 1776 ; in Languedoc, April 26, 1776 ; north of England, when Hexham-bridge, Ridleyhall-bridge, &c., were thrown down, March, 1782 ; in different parts of Germany, when some thousands had their houses and property destroyed, 1785 ; in different parts of England in Sept. and Oct., 1785 ; at Brighthelmstone, when the blockhouse was washed down, Oct. 9, 1786; in Spain, Navarre, Sept., 1787, where 2000 lost their lives, and all the buildings of several villages were carried away by the cur- rents from the mountains ; a terrible inundation by the Liffey, in Ireland, which did very considerable damage in Dublin and its environs, Nov. 12, 1787; at Kirk- wald, in Scotland, by breaking the dam-dykes, Oct. 4, 1788, which nearly de- stroyed the town ; in Scotland and the north of England, July, 1789 ; of the river Don, near Doncaster, and the Derwent and Trent, Nov. 20, 1791 ; of great extent at Placentia, in Italy, Nov., 1791 ; at Bromsgrove, in Worcestershire, April 12, 1792 ; in Lancashire, August, 1792 ; almost throughout England, by the melting of the snow, the greatest part of the bridges being either destroyed or damaged, Feb., 1795; in China, in 1800; at St Domingo, which destroyed 1400 persons, Oct., 1800; on the coast of Holland and Germany, Nov., 1801 ; in Dublin and parts adjacent, Dec. 2 and 3, 1802 ; in various parts of England, 1808 ; at Boston, by the tide breaking down the sea-banks, Nov. 10, 1810 ; by the bursting of the Driggle reservoir, nine miles west of Huddersfield, by which a cottage was swept away, and four children, with their father and mother, perished in the flood, Nov. 29, 1810 ; at Pesth, near Presburg, by the overflow of the Danube, by which 24 villages, with their inhabitants, were swept away, April, 1811 ; in the vicinity of Salop, by the bursting of a cloud during a storm, by which many persons and much stock perished, May 27, 1811 ; by the overflowing of the Elbe, the village of Wurgen, in the duchy of Luneburg, was swept away, Oct., 1811 ; by the rising 426 INUNDATIONS of the water in the Thames, which overflowed the houses in Palace-yard, and filled Westminster Hall, Oct. 21, 1812 ; dreadful inundations in Hungary, Aus- tria, Silesia, and Poland, in the summer of 1813; by the overflow of the Danube a Turkish corps of 2000 men, on a small island, near Widdin, was surprised and met with instant death, and the island itself sunk and disappeared, Sept. 14, 1813 ; by the overflowing of the Drave, near Orsatch, six villages and the suburbs of a town were swept away, and a congregation of 240 persons buried beneath the ruins of a church, Aug., 1813 ; in Silesia 6000 inhabitants were destroyed, and the ruin of the French army, under Macdonald, accelerated by the floods ; by the overflow of the Mississippi, the country on the west side was inundated to the distance of 65 miles, in June and July, 1813, by which 22,000 head of cattle were destroyed; by the overflow of the Nerbudda river, in the province of Bengal, which swept away 1 5 villages, with the houses, inhabitants, and cattle, Feb. 12, 1814; at Strabane, in Ireland, by the melting of the snow on the surrounding mountains, the most de- structive flood that had been witnessed for 20 years, Jan. 12, 1816 ; the greatest floods ever remembered in Northumberland and Durham, Feb., 1816 ; 53 villages in the great Werder, 49 in the districts of Siegenhoff, and 1 7 Elbing villages, were under water, in March, 1816 ; at Thiel, Arnheim, Zutphen, and numerous other places on the continent, the harvest was nearly destroyed by inundations from continued rain, in June and July, 1816. Such heavy rains fell in London and its vicinity, that many parts of the outskirts of the town were laid under water, and great damage was done, May 8, 1818. The river Drance in the Valais, having its course obstructed by the fall of an avalanche, a large lake was formed ; the barrier by which the water was retained being at length undermined, it gave way, and the tremendous torrent rushed down the Val di Bagne with such rapidity as to sweep everything before it, and reduce the whole of the vale, for several miles, to a state of utter ruin, May 16, 1818. Floods in the neighbourhood of Boston and Spilsby, by which much mischief was done, May, 1818 ; heavy inundations in the Fen counties, which deluged 5 acres of land between Boston and Market Deeping only, and destroyed many of the wheat crops, June, 1819 ; an inundation in Cheshire, in consequence of a thunder-storm, Aug., 1820 ; an in- undation in consequence of a heavy fall of rain, at Holywell, in Flintshire, which did immense damage ; on the water reaching the heated steam furnaces of the copper works, the furnaces burst with an explosion like a heavy clap of thunder, and some part of the works took fire ; a loss of several thousand pounds was sus- tained by the copper and cotton works alone, Oct., 1821 ; an inundation in the Lincolnshire fens, Jan., 1822 ; heavy floods in the Thames, from Christmas Day, 1821, to Jan. 7, 1822, in which, at times, the water rose four inches higher than in the great flood of 1774 ; the immense quantity of rain which fell in Monmouth- shire undermined three acres of wood on a slope near Rinefield, and caused it to slide down to the river, Feb., 1822 ; Moravia much injured by floods, 1822 ; at Vienna, 50,000 houses laid under water, Feb., 1830 ; 10,000 houses, at Canton, in China, swept away, and looo persons perished, Oct., 1833 ; cattle and agri- cultural property, to a considerable amount, destroyed by an inundation of the Dodder, near Dublin, 1834 ; inundation in France, the Saone covering 60,000 acres ; Lyons inundated ; 100 houses swept away at Avignon, the Saone not hav- ing been so high for 238 years, Nov., 1848 ; at Brentford and the surrounding country, several lives lost, and immense property destroyed, Jan. 16, 1841 ; inun- dations in the centre and west of France, bridges and the Orleans and Viason viaduct swept away, the latter cost 6,000,000 of francs, the damage 4,000,000 ; the Seine rose 20 feet above its banks in one night, Oct. 22, 1846 ; the Holm- firth reservoir broke away, Feb. 5, 1852 ; 100 killed and property valued at j6oo,ooo destroyed ; serious floods in the Eastern counties of England, at Not- tingham several bridges were destroyed, July, 1853; in Ireland, Patrick bridge swept away, Nov. 2, 1853 ; many houses and much property destroyed in the INVERARY IONIAN ISLANDS 427 South of France, June I, 1856 ; the Great Middle Level Drain built in the em- bankment of the Ouse, near King's Lynn, burst, inundating 10,000 acres of highly- cultivated land, many prosperous farmers were reduced to ruin, May 4, 1862 ; the embankment of the Bradford Reservoir, Sheffield, of 95 acres, gave way and de- stroyed property valued at ;i, 000,000, 270 persons being killed at midnight, March n, 1864; several towns in Yorkshire inundated, Nov. 16, 1866. INVERARY, Scotland, made a royal borough by Charles I., 1648 ; the castle built, 1748. INVERBERVIE, Scotland, created a royal borough by David II., 1342 ; its charter renewed by James VI., 1595- INVERKEITHING, Scotland. This ancient borough had its charter renewed by William the Lion ; this was afterwards confirmed by James VI., 1598. INVERLOCHY, Scotland. The castle erected in the I5th century. The Royalist troops under the Marquis of Montrose defeated the Covenanters under the Duke of Argyll, Feb. 2, 1645. INVERNESS, Scotland, the ancient capital of the Picts in the 6th century ; four charters granted to it by William the Lion ; burnt by Donald Lord of the Isles, 1411 ; the ancient castle, in which Macbeth is said to have murdered Duncan, pulled down by Malcolm Canmore, who re-erected it ; it remained a royal fortress till blown down by the troops of the Pretender, 1 746 ; the bridge over the Ness erected, 1685 ; destroyed by a flood, 1849 ; the present iron suspension bridge finished, 1855 ; the Town Hall erected, 1708 ; first lighted with gas, 1826 ; sewers built, 1831. INVINCIBLE, ship-of-war, 74 guns, lost near Winterton, Norfolk, nearly all on board perishing, March 20, 1801. INVOCATION of the Saints and Virgin, traced as far back as Gregory the Great, 593- ION A, Hebrides, the ancient seat of Christianity and learning ; Columba built a monastery here, circa 57 j this building burned by the Picts, 80 1 ; it was after- wards re-erected, and destroyed by the Danes, who slew the abbot and 15 monks, 900 ; Donald of the Isles became a monk of this order, 1413 ; protected by James IV., 1509 ; destroyed at the reformation of 1561 ; the cathedral erected in the 1 3th century ; part seen by Pennant, 1772. IONIA, Asia Minor, a Greek colony, founded circa B.C. 1044 ; conquered by Cyrus, 557 ; they endeavoured to throw off the Persian yoke, 500 ; and in 479 they assisted the Greeks at the battle of Mycale, when Alexander had destroyed the Persian power ; this island became subject to Macedonia ; united to Rome, 133. IONIAN ISLANDS. Homer was the first historian who noticed these islands ; Corfu was colonized, B.C. 734; during the Peloponnesian war they were several times assailed ; fell into the hands of the Romans, 179 ; ravaged by the Huns, A.D. 398 441 ; united to Lombardy by the Emperor Heraclius I., circa 621 ; formed into separate states, circa 890; Corfu captured by Robert Guiscard, 1081, and by Roger, King of Sicily, 1146 ; the Crusaders halted to refresh here, 1192 and 1203 ; added to Venice, Aug. 16, 1401, at the fall of the Venetian republic ; ceded to France by the treaty of Campo Formio, 1 797 ; transferred to the Porte by the Czar, March 21, 1800 ; surrendered to France by the treaty of Tilsit ; par- tially conquered by England, 1809-10; placed under British protection, Nov. 5, 1815 ; a constitution granted to, July n, 1817 ; proclaimed, Dec. 28. After some serious attempts at insurrection Mr Gladstone was deputed with a commission to inquire into their grievances; he arrived there, Nov. 23, 1858 ; the Assembly pro- posed their annexation to Greece, Jan., 1859 ; this was rejected ; annexed by treaty to Greece, Nov. 14, 1863 ; convention with Great Britain signed, March 29, 1864 ; completed, June I, 1864. 4 28 IONIC SECT IRELAND IONIC SECT. The oldest of the schools of Philosophy, founded in Asia Minor by Thales of Miletus, circa B.C. 600. IOWA, United States of N. America. The first white settlement made at Dubuque by French Canadians, 1686 ; purchased from the French by the United States, 1803 ; formed a part of the Missouri territories from 1804 to 1821 ; added to the Wisconsin territory ; formed into the separate State of Iowa, June, 1838 ; city began, 1839 ; admitted into the Union, 1846. IPSUS, battle. The Macedonian monarchs combined against Antigonus and Demetrius, B.C. 301 ; Antigonus was defeated and killed, and Demetrius fled to Greece. IPSWICH, Suffolk, a town of considerable note during the heptarchy, fortified with a vallum and foss ; the Danes pillaged the town, 991 ; and again, noo, destroy- ing part of the wall ; repaired in the 5th year of the reign of John, 1204 ; the castle erected by Hugh Bigod, Earl of Norfolk, 1141 ; demolished by Henry II., 1186 ; the Priory of Holy Trinity founded by Normanius Gastrode, circa 1172 ; the first charter granted by King John, May 25, 1199 ; revoked by Edward I., 1285 ; he afterwards renewed it, 1291 ; Charles II. extended their privileges by charter, 1665 ; the library founded by Mr Alderman William Smarte, Jan. 8, 1598; re- moved to the Town Hall, 1832 ; New Town Hall opened, Jan. 29, 1868. IRELAND, according to the 'Annals of the four Masters,' was founded in the age of the world, 2242 ; ' Ceasiar came to Ireland with 50 girls and three men ;' the island visited by St Patrick, A.D. 432 ; the- Danes invaded and committed great enormity, 795 ; defeated by Brian, who was born at Clontarf, April, 23, 1014; the island invaded by the Norwegians under Magnus, their king, 1102 ; Pope Adrian granted Ireland to Henry II. of England, 1154. In the invasion of Ireland Strongbow preceded Henry II ., Aug. 23, 1 169 ; the conquest of Ireland by Henry II. he landed near Waterford, Oct. 26, 1171 ; conquered the whole island, 1172 ; cantoned the island among 10 of the English court Strongbow, Fitz-Stephen, De Cogan, Bruce, De Lacy, De Courcy, Burke, Fitz-Andelm, De Clare, De Grandison, and Le Poer ; Roderick O'Connor, king or chief lord of Connaught, was permitted to retain his throne ; King John invaded and reduced the island, and afterwards introduced the English laws and customs, and gave them a charter of liberty, 1210 ; Henry III. confirmed the same, 1216 ; the island given to Ed- ward, Prince of Wales, 1254; divided into shires, 1295; Edward Bruce of Scot- land invaded the island, and was crowned king, May 25, 1315 ; defeated at Armagh by the English, 6200 Scots were put to the sword, and their king be- headed, Oct. 14, 1318 ; Lionel, Duke of Clarence, married the heiress of Ulster, 1361 ; Richard II. landed at Waterford, with 4000 men-at-arms and 30,000 bow- men, and gained the people by knighting their chiefs, Oct., 1394; visited this island again, June 17, 1399 ; the cruel Head-Act passed at Trim, which gave any one who found thieves robbing, by night or day, the power to kill and cut off their heads, for which, whoever brought the head was to receive a reward, 1465 ; the Irish compelled to adopt the dress of the English, and use surnames, 1466 ; Poyn- ing's Act passed, 1494; no man was to be taken for an Englishman in Ireland who had not his upper lip shaved, and it was no felony to kill an Irishman in time of peace; Henry VIII. assumed the title of King of Ireland, 1542 ; local courts in- stituted, 1546 ; the reformed religion introduced by the clergy, who did not know the language, 1584, many of them men of loose lives ; numerous Roman priests executed for exercising their functions, 1587 ; the Fitz-Maurice Rebellion suppressed, 1579 ; the garrison of Limerick surrendered upon terms, 1583, and was then put to the sword by Lord-Deputy Grey, 1583 ; discontent in Ulster, 1589 ; 17 ships, with 5394 men, saved of the Armada, washed on the coast of Ireland, 1589, all put to the sword by Sir William Fitzwilliam, the governor, under the pretence that they might side with the discontented Irish ; Tyrone's in- IRELAND 429 surrection, 1594 ; he defeated the Queen's troops, and took the fort of Blackwater ; revolt of the Earl of Desmond and its suppression ; 574,628 acres of land seized upon or forfeited, and offered at 2d. or $d. per acre, none of the native Irish being allowed to purchase, 1583; a body of Spaniards landed in Kinsale, Sept. 23, 1601, under Don Juan d'Aguila, but the Irish did not join him ; Tyrone pardoned, March 30, 1603 ; Ulster became wholly vested in the crown, 1612 ; a dreadful famine in Ireland, from the Royal troops destroying the corn, 1612, three chil- dren seen feeding in one place on their dead mother, and children waylaid and eaten, people with their mouths green from eating nettles and docks ; King James I. published an Act of Oblivion, 1610 ; insurrection in Ulster, 1641 ; a massacre of the Irish in Island-Magee by the Scotch, Nov. 1641, followed by one of English Protestants, when 10,000 are said to have been put to death ; the Marquis of Ormond arrived in Cork, Sept., 1648 ; a peace made by the Confeder- ate Catholics, Jan. 17, 1649 ; the Royal supporters conquer most of the principal towns ; Cromwell landed at Dublin, Aug. 15, 1649 ; stormed Drogheda, and put the garrison to the sword, Sept. 12, 1649 ; Cromwell reduced Ireland to obedi- ence, transporting the people to the colonies, or driving them to the continent, 1652 ; the Irish population that remained driven into Connaught, 1654 ; Duke of Schomberg landed in Carrickfergus, 1689 ; James II. landed in Ireland, July 28 ; siege of Deny, 1689 ; landing of King William III. at Carrickfergus, June 14, 1690 ; battle of the Boyne, July I, 1690 ; Limerick surrendered to Gen. Ginckle, Oct. 3, 1691 ; treaty of Limerick, Oct. 3, 1691 ; ratified by the king, 1695 5 1 2,000 of the inhabitants left Ireland for France and Flanders after this battle ; linen manufacture patronized by the government, 1696 ; the country over- run with robbers called the Kellymount gang, 1740 ; the French under Thurot landed at Carrickfergus, Feb. 21, 1760 ; re-embarked, Feb. 26 ; insurrection of the Whiteboys, 1761 ; some indulgences granted to the Roman Catholics, 1778 ; Ireland admitted to a right of free trade, 1 779 ; discharged from a submission to the English council, 1 782 ; Order of St Patrick instituted, 1 783 ; a national bank established, 1783 ; the Fitzgeralds' Rebellion commenced, May 4, 1798 ; sup- pressed, 1799 ; union of the two countries, Jan. i, 1801 ; Emmett's revolt, July 23, 1803 ; tried and executed, Sept. 20 ; English and Irish Exchequer united, Jan., 1817 ; King George IV. visited Ireland, Aug. II, 1821 ; famine caused by the failure of the potato crop, 1822 ; the currency equalized, Jan. I, 1826 ; Roman Catholic Emancipation granted, April 13, 1829 ; Reform Bill passed, Aug. 7, 1832 ; Poor Laws introduced, July 31, 1838 ; repeal meetings first held, March 16, 1843 ; trial of O'Connell and others for sedition, Jan. 15, 1844 ; again, for a poli- tical conspiracy, Feb. 12, 1844, and found guilty ; municipal corporations regu- lated, 3 & 4 Viet. c. 108, Aug. IO, 1844 ; Irish National Society for Education in- corporated, Sept. 23, 1845 ; potato famine all over Ireland, the government expends ; 700,000, 1845 ; Smith CfBrien committed for a breach of parliamentary order, April 30, 1846 ; he and others of the physical force party forsook the Repeal Asso- ciation, July 29, 1846 ; O'Connell spoke the last time in the House of Commons, Feb. 8, 1847 ; died at Genoa, May 15, 1847, aged 73 ; famine in Ireland ; tem- porary relief act passed, 10 & II Viet. c. 7, 1847, and ^10,000,000 granted by parliament to relieve the people ; deputation of Smith O'Brien and others to Paris, to the members of the insurrectional government, April 3, 1848 ; great meeting of the Young Irelanders in Dublin, April 4 ; arrest of Mitchell, editor of the United Irishman, May 13 ; he is found guilty, and sentenced to 14 years' transportation, May 26 ; Duffy, Martin, Meagher, Doherty, and others ar- rested in July ; the Habeas Corpus suspended in Ireland, July 26 ; Mar- tin sentenced to IO years' transportation, Aug. 14 ; Smith O'Brien tried for high treason and found guilty, sentenced to death, Oct. 9 ; the sentence com- muted to transportation for life ; fatal Orange affray at Dolly Brae, and several lives lost, July 12, 1849 ; the Queen visited Ireland, Aug. I ; the opening of the 4JO IRELAND Incumbered Estates Court in Dublin, in pursuance of an act passed July 28 ; the first court held in Dublin, Oct. 25 ; immense sales effected in 1850 and 1851 ; the Roman Catholic Defence Association formed, April 22, 1851 ; a meet- ing held of the Irish tenant league at Boyne, July 14 ; first line of telegraph opened, June i, 1852 ; the Exhibition at Cork opened, June 10 ; dispersion of the tenants' right meeting at Warrington, July 3 ; religious riots at Belfast, July 14 ; election riots at Six Miles' Bridge, Clare, July 22, five persons shot, and several wounded by the military ; opening of the Exhibition at Dublin, May 12, 1853 ; the Queen and Prince Albert visit Ireland, Aug. 29 ; conference upon the tenants' right, Oct. 4 ; Exhibition closed, Oct. 31 ; floods in the south of Ireland, Patrick's bridge swept away, the Blackwater flooded, carrying away a number of houses and cattle, several persons being killed, Nov. 2, 1853 ; Smith O'Brien pardoned, May 3, 1856 ; religious riots at Belfast, Sept., 1857 ; riot at Dublin on the entry of the Lord-Lieutenant, the Earl of Eglinton, March 12, 1858 ; serious inunda- tions in, Sept., 1858 ; religious riots in Gal way upon the No-Popery lectures of Sig. Gavazzi, March 29, 1859 ; the Queen and Prince Albert again visit Ireland, Aug. 22, 1861 ; reviewed the troops in the Curragh camp, Aug. 24; visited the Lakes of Killarney, Aug. 27 ; frightful assassinations in, M . Gustave Thiebault shot, April 28, 1862 ; Mr Maguire stabbed, May 6 ; Mr John Herdman shot near Belfast, by his cousin, May 15 ; Mr Francis Fitzgerald shot at Limerick, May 16; Mr Brad- dell shot by Hayes, July 30, escape of the murderer ; attempt to shoot Mr Gore Jones, Jan. 2, 1863 ; insult offered to the Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland by the Earl of Leitrim, Oct. 6 ; he was removed from the Commission of Peace ; several Fenians arrested in Dublin, Sept. 15, 1865, and the office of the Irish People newspaper seized ; several arrested at Cork, Sept. 16 ; the Head Centre, James Stephens, arrested in Dublin, Nov. 10 ; escaped from the Richmond bridewell, Nov. 24; trial of suspected persons at Dublin, Nov. I 13; a special commission opened for the trial of the prisoners at Cork, Dec. 14 ; Habeas Corpus act suspend- ed, 29 & 30 Viet. c. I, Feb. 17, 1866 ; again suspended, 29 & 30 Viet. c. 119, Aug. 10, 1866.; the judges of the Incumbered Estates Court reduced to two by 29 & 30 Viet. c. 99, Aug. 10, 1866; Fenian rising in Dublin, Feb. 13, 1867, and March 5-6 ; the Police Barracks at Kilmallock attacked by 200 Fenians, commanded by Dunne, who shot Mr Bourne, the manager of the Union Bank ; the police by accident sbot Dr Cleary in attacking these ruffians, March 6 ; the military, under Sir Hugh Rose, scoured the country, March 14 20 ; the Habeas Corpus act further suspended, 30 & 31 Viet. c. I, Feb. 26, 1867, and again, May 31 ; landing of several Fenians at Chunegar, June 3 ; facilities granted for erecting bridges, July 15 ; an act passed for the more effectual application of charitable donations and bequests, 7 & 8 Viet. c. 97 ; amended, 30 & 31 Viet. c. 54, July 15 ; railways to furnish accounts to Her Majesty's commissioners, 7 & 8 Viet. c. 85 ; amended, 30 & 31 Viet. c. 104, Aug. 15 ; a meeting of the Agricultural Society held at Dublin, Aug. ; an act passed for the safe keeping of the public records, 30 & 31 Viet. c. 70, Aug. 12 ; the official establishment of the High Court of Chancery and the Superior Courts of Common Law altered and regulated, 30 & 31 Viet. c. 129, Aug. 20 ; the jurisdiction of the Court of Admiralty and its procedure amended, 30 & 31 Viet. c. 114, Aug. 20 ; facilities given for carrying out public works, 30 & 31 Viet. c. 112, Aug. 20 ; demonstration and funeral procession of 16,000 per- sons at Dublin, Dec. 8; the Fenian procession prohibited in Dublin, Dec. 12 ; pub- lication of a declaration against the Church Establishment, Dec. 12 ; the Martello Tower at Foata, near Queenstown, captured by Fenians, Dec. 26, and the arms taken ; an explosive substance thrown into the post-office, Dec. 26 ; Mr Allport, a gunsmith in Patrick-street, Cork, his shop robbed in the open day, Dec. 31. The census of 1861 gives the population' at 5> 798) 967 persons. IRELAND, Lord-Lieutenant of, the chief governor and viceroy of that island ; an ancient appointment, first given by Henry 1 1. , 1 1 73, toHugh de Lacy, Lord of Meath ; IRELAND 431 other governors were styled successively Lord Warden, Protector, Lord of Ire- land, Lord Justice, Seneschal, Governor, Lord Deputy, Gustos, and Lord-Lieu- tenant ; the first with the title of Lord-Lieutenant appears to have been Piers Gaveston, Earl of Cornwall, the favourite of the unfortunate Edward II., his ap- pointment bearing date 1308. LIST OF THE LORD-LIEUTENANTS : Albemarle, George Monk, Duke of ... .. from 1660 to 1662 Bedford, John, Duke of 1410 1413 Bedford, Jasper, Duke of ... ... ... ... ... 1490 1496 Bedford, John, Duke of 1757 1761 Berkeley, J. Berkeley, Lord ... ... ... ... 1670 1672 Birmingham, Philip Courtney, Lord ... ... ... 1382 1384 Boltoa, Charles, Duke of ... ... ... ... 1717 1721 Buckinghamshire, John, Earl of ... ... ... 1777 1780 ,, again 1787 ' 1790 Camden, John, Earl of ... ... ... 1795 1798 Capel, Henry, Lord 1695 1701 Carlisle, Fred., Earl of 1780 1782 Carteret, John, Lord 1724 1731 Chesterfield, Philip, Earl of 1745 1747 Clarence, George, Duke of ... ... ... ... 1461 I479j Clarence, Lionel, Duke of ... ... ... ... 1361 1369 Clarendon, Henry Hyde, Earl of ... ... ... 1685 1686 Cornwallis, Charles, Marquis of ... ... ... 1798 1800 Cromwell, Oliver ... ... ... ... ... ... 1649 1660 Devonshire, William, Duke of ... ... ... ... 1737 1745 Dorset, Lionel, Duke of 1731 1737 ,, ,, again 1751 1755 Dudley, Sir J. Sutton ... ... ... ... ... 1428 1432 Essex, Arthur Capel, Earl of ... ... ... ... 1672 1677 Essex, Robert, Earl of ... ... ... ... ... 1598 1599 Fitzwilliam, William, Earl of ... ... ... ... 1795 1795 Grafton, Charles, Duke of ... ... 1721 1724 Grey, Sir John de ... ... 1427 1428 Halifax, George, Earl of ... ... ... ... 1761 1763 Harcourt, Simon, Earl of ... ... ... ... 1772 i?77 Harrington, William, Earl of ... ... ... ... 1747 1751 Hartington, William, Marquis of ... 1755 1 7S7 Hertford, Francis, Earl of ... ... 1765 1767 Kildare, Gerald, Earl of ... ... ... 1483 1485 ,, ,, ,, again 1496 1501 again 1504 1520 Lancaster, Thomas, Earl of ... ... 1401 1410 Lincoln, John de la Pole, Earl of ... ... ... 1485 1490 Lucy, Sir Anthony ... ... 1331 1361 March, Edmund Mortimer, Earl of 1380 1382 March, Edward, Earl of ... ... ... ... ... 1413 1414 March, Roger Mortimer, Earl of 1395 1399 Mountjoy, Sir Charles Blount, Lord ... 1599 1639 Northington, Robert, Earl of 1783 1784 Northumberland, Hugh, Earl of 1763 1765 Ormond, James, Earl of ... ... ... ... ... 1329 1331 Ormond, James, Earl of 1440 1446 Ormond, James, Marquis of ... 1643 1649 432 IRELAND, CHURCH OF Ormond, James Butler, Duke of from 1662 to. 1669 ,, ,, ,, again 1677 1685 Ormond, James Butler, Duke of ... ... ... 1703 1707 ,, ,, ,, again ... ..-. ... 1711 1713 Oxford, Robert de Vere ... ... ... ... ... 1384 1394 Pembroke, Thomas, Earl of ... ... ... ... 1707 1709 Portland, William Henry, Duke of ... ... ... 1782 1782 Richard II. , ... ... ... ... 1394 1395 again 1399 1401 Richmond, Henry, Duke of ... ... ... ... 1530 1558 Rochester, Laurence Hyde, Earl of ... ... ... 1701 1703' Robarts, John, Lord ... ... ... ... ... 1669 1670 Rutland, Charles, Duke of 1784 1787 Shrewsbury, Charles, Duke of ... ... 1713 1717 Shrewsbury, John, Earl of ... ... ... ... 1446 1449 Stanley, Sir Thomas ... ... ... ... ... 1432 1438 Surrey, Thomas Howard, Earl of ... 1520 1530 Sussex, Thomas, Earl of ... ... 1639 1643 Sydney, Henry Sydney, Lord ... ... ... ... 1690 1695 Talbot, Sir John ... ... 1414 1416 Temple, George, Earl of 1782 1783 Townsend, George, Viscount ... ... 1767 1772 Tyrconnel, Richard Talbot, Earl of .,. ... ... 1686 1690 Wharton, Thomas, Earl of ... ... ... ... 1709 1711 Wells, Lion, Lord ... ... ... ... ... ... 1438 1440 Westmoreland, John, Earl of 1790 1795 Windsor, Sir William de 1369 1380 York, Henry, Duke of 1501 1504 A LIST OF THE LORD-LIEUTENANTS SINCE l8oO: 1801, May 25 ... ... ... Philip York, Earl of Hardwicke. 1806, March 28 John Russell, Duke of Bedford. 1807, April 19 ... Charles Lennox, Duke of Richmond. 1813, Aug. 26 ... Earl Whitworth. 1817, Oct. 9 Earl Talbot. 1821, Dec. 19 ... ... ... Marquis of Wellesley. 1828, March I ... ... ... Marquis of Anglesea. 1829, March 6 ... ... ... Duke of Northumberland. 1830, Dec. 23 ... ... ... Marquis of Anglesea. 1833, Sept. 26 ... ... ... Marquis of Wellesley. 1834, Dec. 29 ... ... ... Earl of Haddington. 1835, April 23 ... ... ... Marquis of Normanby. 1839, April 3 ... Earl Fortescue. 1841, Sept. 15 Earl de Grey. 1844, July 26 Baron Heytesbury. 1846, July II Earl of Bessborough. 1847, May 26 Earl of Clarendon. 1852, Feb. 27 ... Earl of Eglinton. 1853, Jan. 4 ... ... ... Earl of St Germans. 1855, Feb. 28 Earl of Carlisle. 1858, March 12 Earl of Eglinton. 1859, June 1 8 Earl of Carlisle. 1864, Nov. I ... Lord Woodhouse. 1866, Aug. 24 ... Marquis of Abercom. IRELAND, CHURCH OF. There is no authentic account of the original source IRELAND IRISH PARLIAMENT 433 from whence Christianity had come to Ireland ; but it appears that about A.D. 402 several churches had been founded by some missionaries in Munster and Leinster. Palladius was the first bishop, 431, and the Church was duly organized by St Patrick, from his consecration about 440, till his death in 493. It was in 1152 that the Roman Pontiff acquired ordinary jurisdiction over the Irish Church, when at the synod of Kells the four archbishops, for the first time, received palls from Rome. In 1537, the Irish Parliament declared the King supreme head of the Church of Ireland, prohibited appeals to Rome, and suppressed the papal jurisdiction in that country. In the reign of Mary I., five of the bishops favour- able to the Reformation were irregularly expelled. Queen Elizabeth again rejected the papal power, and her act was approved by 17 out of 19 Irish bishops in the Parliament of 1560. The Articles of the Church of England were adopted by the Irish Church in the synod of Dublin, 1634. The Church of. Ireland is governed by two archbishops and ten bishops. The representative bishops in the English Parliament for the year 1 868 are the archbishop of Armagh, the bishops of Killa- loe, Kilmore, and Meath. According to a return made to Parliament in 1864, there were 1504 benefices of the Established Church in Ireland. A Royal Com- mission appointed, to inquire into, issued, Oct 30, 1867. The Roman Catholic hierarchy, founded 1152, consists of four archbishops, whose schismatical sees are in Armagh, Dublin, Cashel, and Tuam, and twenty-four bishops, who are all nominated by the Pope. The established Church disestablished and disendowed, 26 July, 1869. IRELAND, Societies in : the Royal Agricultural Improvement Society, instituted at Dublin, 1841 ; Association of the Fellows and Licentiates of the Queen's Col- lege of Physicians, instituted, 1816; Institution of Civil Engineers, established at Dublin, 1835; remodelled, 1844; Royal Geological Society, instituted, 1832; Royal Zoological Society, instituted, 1801 ; Royal Irish Institution for promoting the Fine Arts, established, 1813 ; Royal Irish Art Union, instituted at Dublin, 1838 ; Royal Irish Academy for promoting the Study of Science, &c., incorporated, 1786. IRISH ACADEMY, the Royal, of Science, Literature, and Antiquities, estab- lished, April 1 8, 1785. IRISH BRIGADE. This corps, so celebrated in the French service, had its origin in the treaty of Limerick, which stipulated that the garrison might march out with the honours of war, and be permitted to embark for France, or elsewhere ; many transferred their allegiance to France, Oct. 3, 1691. IRISH HARP. See Harp. IRISH HOSPITALS. Smith's School, incorporated, 1669 ; Blue-coat Hospital, incorporated, 1670 ; Royal, near Kilmainham, 1683 ; Dublin Workhouse, estab- lished, 1728; Charitable Infirmary, opened, 1728; Stephen's Hospital, incor- porated, 1730; St Patrick's Hospital, founded, 1745, incorporated, 1746; Ly- ing-in Hospital, established, 1745; incorporated, 1757; Mercer's, incorporated, 1750; St Nicholas', opened, 1753 ; Lock Hospital, instituted, 1755 ; Charitable Loan, instituted, 1757; Venereal Hospital, opened, 1758; Dublin Hospital, opened, 1762. IRISH MASSACRE. This wide-spread conspiracy for destroying Dublin Castle and the public buildings, and massacring all the Protestants, was discovered, Oct. 23, 1641, but not in time to prevent the sacrifice of many lives. IRISH PARLIAMENT, Speakers of the House of Commons in the, from 1661 to the Union. 1661, May 8 ... Mervyn, Sir Audley, 1661, Sept 6 Temple, John, 1692, Oct. 5 ... Levinge, Sir Richard, 1695, Aug. 27 Rochfort, Robert, 28 434 IRISH SOCIETY IRON CROWN OF LOMBARDY 1703, Sept. 21 ... ... ... Brodrick, Alan, 1710, May 19 ... ... ... Forster, Hon. John, 1713, Nov. 25 ... ... ... Brodrick, Alan, 1715, Nov. 12 Conolly, Right Hon. Wrn., 1729, Oct. 13 Gore, Sir Ralph, 1733, Oct. 4 Boyle, Hon. Henry, 1756, April 26 ... ... ... Ponsonby, Right Hon. John, 1771, March 7 ... ... ... Pery, Right Hon. Edmund Sexten, 1785, Sept. 5 Foster, Right Hon. John. IRISH SOCIETY. The Province of Ulster and the towns of Deny and Coler- aine granted to the Corporation and the Livery Companies of London by charter of King James I., March 29, 1613, under the title, ' The Society of the Governor and Assistants of London of the new plantation in Ulster, within the realm of Ireland ; the sums raised by them for the repairs and plantation ; 60,000 ; the estates divided amongst the corporation and companies according to the sums raised by them, by the Common Council, Dec. 17, 1613. IRISH SOCIETY, established for promoting religious instruction among the Irish Romanists, 1818. IRISH WORKING SCHOOLS SOCIETY, established, Oct., 1773. IRON is mentioned with brass as the earliest known metals, Gen. iv. 22 ; sheet- iron was used for cooking utensils, Ezek. iv. 3 ; Lev. vii. 9 ; the market of Tyre was supplied with bright or polished iron by the merchants of Dan and Javan, Ezek. xxvii. 9 ; first made in England by the Romans, A.D. 120; the Sheriff of Surrey and Sussex ordered to furnish 30,000 horse-shoes and 60,000 nails, 1254 ; there were 72 forges in the Forest of Dean, 1282 ; the export of, prohibited by Edward III., 1354 > there were only 59 manufactories, 1740; vessels made of cast-iron by the Dutch and Portuguese, 1517; cannons cast, 1521 ; John Owen was the first Englishman who employed this metal for the making of cannons in England, 1535, and Ralph Page, 1540; blast furnaces erected in the Forest of Dean, 1550 ; the Dutch first introduced the making of iron into Russia, the first blast furnace being erected at Kaloega, 1613; James I. granted patents to iron- masters for using pit coals, 1619, but the obstacles were not easily overcome ; Lord Dudley patented his invention of ' melting iron ewre with sea coles or pit coales in furnaces with bellows,' Feb. 22, 1620 ; the ballustrades for the palace of Moscow were cast by the Russians at Toela ; pig-iron from bog-iron was made in Holland at Rekhem, 1689 ; the first bellows, of any magnitude for blasting, made by Smeaton at the Carron Iron-works, 1760; Mr Henry Cort of Gosport intro- duced, at great cost to himself, two of the most important inventions, puddling* and ' rolling? 1783, and Feb., 17845 the hot-blast process patented by Mr Neilson, 1828, has effected an entire revolution in the making of iron ; Mr Crane introduced stone coal or culm in smelting, 1836 ; Mr Budd, a blast of high pres- sure, 1842 ; Mr Nasmyth invented his steam-hammer, 1842 ; Mr Bessemer's process patented, 1855 ; since much improved by him. IRON CROSS. This military and civil order was established by Frederick William III. of Prussia, March 10, 1813 ; the iron cross and medal of Belgium estab- lished, 1830. IRON CROWN OF LOMBARDY. It derives its name from the circle of iron encrusted in the interior, which is supposed to have been forged out of one of the nails of the cross. It is composed of a thin collar of gold, loaded with sapphires, emeralds, rubies, and other precious stones uncut, interspersed with flowers of gold, presented to the Empress Theodolinda by Pope Gregory, first used by King Agilulph, A.D. 591, and the successive monarchs; Napoleon I. crowned with it at Milan, May 26, 1805 ; restored to Italy, Nov. 4, 1866. IRON HELMET . ISLE OF MAN 435 IRON HELMET, the order of the, founded by William I. of Hesse, March 18, 1814. IRON MASK, a state-prisoner in France, so named from a black velvet mask which he wore for 43 years that he was confined, first in the castle of Pignerol ; removed, 1681, to Exelles, from thence to the island of St Marguerite, 1687, and finally to the Bastile of Paris, 1698. He was supposed to be a prince, and was always most respectfully treated ; a number of individuals were named, but none was ever proved to be the correct party ; he died, Nov. 19, 1703. IRONMONGERS' COMPANY, first noticed as a company, 25 Edw. III., 1351 ; incorporated by 3 Edw. IV., March 20, 1463 ; confirmed by 4 & 5 Philip & Mary, June 20, 1558 ; by I Eliz., Nov. 12, 1560 ; by 2 James L, June 25 ; re-incorpor- ated by I Tames II., March 18 ; arms granted to, 34 Henry VI., Sept. I, 1455 ; confirmed "by 22 Henry VIII., and again, by 2 Eli/., May 28, 1560. Hall built, circa 1494 ; rebuilt, 1587 ; escaped the fire of 1666 ; rebuilt from the designs of Mr Holden, and opened, 1750 ; the interior altered and re-opened, June 8, 1847 ; exhibition of works of arts at, May 8, 1861. IRON SHIPS. See Shipbuilding. IRVINGITES, the followers of Edward Irving, who propounded a new doctrine upon the human nature of Christ, and believed in the utterances of unknown tongues ; he was ejected from the Church of Scotland, March 15, 1833 ; his fol- lowers built the cathedral in Gordon-square, 1852-3 ; opened, Jan. i, 1854. ISABEL, ST, island in the Pacific Ocean, discovered by Mendana, 1567. ISABELLA, ST, order of, instituted in Portugal by the Queen for ladies of rank, 1804. ISABELLA THE CATHOLIC, order of, founded by Ferdinand VII. of Portugal, March, 24, 1815. ISAIAH THE PROPHET, son of Amoz, wrote his Book of Prophecies, circa B.C. 760. ISAURIA, Asia Minor. The inhabitants lived by plunder ; they held possession of the sea, and became so formidable as pirates that the Romans made a special campaign against them, B.C. 78, but they remained unsubdued for some cen- turies. ISCHIA, Mediterranean, first colonized by the Greeks ; another colony settled here, B.C. 474, under Hiero of Syracuse ; seized by the Saracens, A.D. 847 ; made a bishopric, 1 1 79 ; plundered by the pirate Barbarossa, 1543-4 ; taken by the Eng- lish forces, 1807 ; a severe earthquake at, Feb. 2, 1828. ISLAMISM, invented by Mahomet in a cave at Mecca, where, with the help of a renegade Jew and others, he penned and composed the Koran, which was a pre- tended revelation from the angel Gabriel, and soon afterwards assumed the pro- phetical character, A. D. 604. ISLE OF FRANCE, discovered, 1505 ; the Dutch first settled there, 1598 ; the French colonized it, 1715 ; taken by the British, Dec. 2, 1810. ISLE OF MAN, governed by Orbsenius, son of Alladius, a prince of Ireland, A.D. 422 ; St Patrick landed at, 444 ; conquered by Edwin, King of Deira, 630 ; subjugated by Norway, 1077 ; and sold by Magnus VI. to Alexander III. for 4000 marks, 1266; King Guttred built the abbey of Rushen, 947; dissolved, 1553; Harold, king of, married the Princess of Norway, and was shipwrecked on their return, and lost, 1248 ; the island of, conquered by Sir John Comyn at the battle of Ronaldsway, 1270 ; the islanders placed themselves under the protection of Edward L, 1290; Sir William de Montacute, Earl of Salisbury, defeated the 436 ISLE OF PINES . ISRAEL Scots, 1343, and married Mary, the daughter of Reginald, the next heir to the throne of, crowned King, 1344; sold by his descendants to Sir William Scroop, 1395 ; taken by Sir John Stanley for Henry IV. ; he conferred it upon the Con- queror, 1407 ; Peel Castle erected by Henry, fourth Earl of Derby, 1593 ; fortified, 1643 ; granted to William, sixth Earl of Derby, by James I., Feb. 9, 1609 ; granted by him to his son James Stanley, Aug. n, 1637 ; upon his decapitation, Oct. 1 6, 1651, it was granted to Lord Fairfax by the Parliament, 1652; restored to Charles, 8th Earl of Derby, 1662 ; the Manx Magna Charta granted by James, tenth Earl of Derby, 1 703 ; the eleventh Earl of, dying without issue, 1 736, the lord- ship of Man devolved upon the Duke of Athol ; the sovereignty of, surrendered to the crown of Great Britain, by the Duke of Athol, for 70,000, and ^3000 reserved to his descendants from the revenue of the island, 1765 ; a copper coinage issued, 1 786 ; all the duke's interest purchased by the Imperial Parliament for ^416,000, 1825 ; a fiscal act passed regulating the revenues of the island, 7 & 8 Viet. c. xliii., July 19, 1844; the disafforesting of, ordered, May 26, 1865. ISLE OF PINES, South Pacific, the French took possession of it along with New Caledonia, 1853. ISLES, BISHOPRIC OF THE. This see was founded, 440, and not only in- cluded the . I 77 I - St James's Chapel built from the design of Mr Hurst ; the first stone laid, June 16, 1787 ; opened, 1788 ; consecrated, June 8, 1791. White Conduit-house, the cockneys' rendezvous for drinking tea, erected in the reign of Charles I.; extended, 1754 ; pulled down, March, 1849 ; an act passed for the management of the parish, 20 & 21 Viet. c. xxi., 1857. The Agricul- tural Hall erected from the designs of Frederick Peek ; first stone laid by Lord Berners, Nov. 5, 1861 ; opened for the cattle-show, Dec. 8, 1862 ; the Prince of Wales visited, Dec. 13, 1863 ; the first dog-show held, June 24, 1862 ; the first horse-show, July I, 1864 ; Mr Spurgeon held a series of services from Sunday, March 24, to April 21, 1867 ; the statues of Sir Hugh Myddleton and a drinking- fountain erected at Islington-green, July 26, 1862 ; Hornsey Wood House pur- chased for the Finsbury Park, Feb. 13, 1866. ISMAIL MOLDO, Wallachia, a Turkish possession, besieged and taken by the Russians, after an heroic defence, Dec. 22, 1790 ; Suwarrow, so well known as the ' Butcher of Ismail,' put 30,000 men, the entire garrison, to the sword ; and "that not satiating his thirst for vengeance, he gave the place up to pillage to his barbarian soldiers, and ordered 6000 women to be massacred ; the Russians took this town again, Sept. 26, 1809 ; ceded to Russia, May 28, 1812 ; ceded by treaty to Moldavia, the Russians first destroying the fortifications, March 30, 1856. ISPAHAN, Persia, taken by Timor, 1387, when he slew most of the inhabitants. ISRAEL. The descendants of Jacob and of the Ten Tribes, who formed a new kingdom, Shechem being the capital, I Kings xii. 25 ; it lasted from B.C. 975 to B.C. 721. ISSONDUM ITALY 437 KINGS OF ISRAEL. B -C. 975 Jeroboam B.C. 855 Jehoahaz 957 Nadab 841 Jehoash 955 Baasha 825 Jeroboam II. 932 Elah 770 Zachariah 930 Zimri 770 Shallum 930 Omri 769 Menahem 919 Ahab 759 Pekahiah 897 Ahaziah 758 Pekah 895 Jehoram 728 Hoshea 884 Jehu ISSONDUM, France, suffered several sieges ; burnt, 1651. ISSUS. In the immediate neighbourhood of this city Alexander annihilated the Persians under Darius, B.C. 333 ; Septimus Severus defeated Pescennius Niger, and obtained the Roman Empire, A. D. 194. ISTHMIA, one of the Greeks' national festivals, instituted, B.C. 1326; the Romans allowed to take part in them, 228 ; the Sicyonians conducted these games, 146, for a short time, until the rebuilding of Corinth. ISTRIA or HISTRIA, in the Adriatic, first subdued by the Romans, but soon rose again to independence ; reconquered by C. Claudius, B.C. 177 ; incorporated with Rome ; made a marquisate by the Emperor Henry IV. ; conquered by Venice, 1190; the Venetian part of, ceded to Austria by the treaty of Campo Formio, 1797, and that of Luneville, 1801 ; united to Italy by the treaty of Presburg, 1805. ITALY, anciently called Saturnia, of considerable extent in the time of Thucydides ; conquered by the Romans, B.C. 509; Veii captured, 396; the Volscian power destroy- ed, 343 ; the revolt of the Latins, 340 ; the second Samnite war brought Italy into the struggle for liberty, 326 ; conclusion of, 304 ; renewal of, 298 ; peace restored, 290 ; war renewed with the Etruscans, 282 ; Italy completely subdued, 275 ; the Volscinians revolted, 265 ; the Istrians subdued, 1 77 ; outbreak of the social war, 90 ; in possession of the Sabellian nation, 90 ; Cisalpine Gaul united to, 41 ; Odoacer captured Pa via, Ravenna, and Rome, and proclaimed himself King of Italy, Aug. 23, A. D. 476 ; Theodoric, King of the Ostrogoths, defeated him at Aquileia, March 27, 489 ; Ravenna surrendered to Theodoric, 493 ; he died in his palace at Ravenna, 526 ; Rome besieged for a year, March, 537 ; the Goths ceased to have any power in Italy after 553 ; became a part of the Greek nation, 554 ; overran by the Lombards and Avari, 566 ; Alboni proclaimed king at Milan, 568 ; murdered, June 28, 573 ; Autharis chosen king, 584 ; the islands of the Adriatic were formed into a republic and elected their first doge, 697; Pavia be- sieged by Pekin of France ; made a treaty with Astolphus ; Charlemagne besieged the city; by the treaty of Verdun the country was delivered, with the imperial title, to Lotharius I., 843 ; invaded by the Saracens, 928 ; Otho seized the throne, 945 ; Hardouin, Marquis of Ivrea, crowned King of Italy in Pavia, 1002 ; the Guelphs and Ghibelines faction arose, 1129 ; the crown bestowed on Frederick, Duke of Bavaria, by the German diet, 1152 ; six times did the Emperor cross the Alps with a numerous force to reduce the country in conjunction with the people of Pavia; he defeated the Milanese, 1154; Barbarossa entered Italy, 1158; Milan and other towns received him; a treaty was agreed to, Sept. 7, 1158 ; Crema be- sieged and surrendered, Jan., 1 160; Milan surrendered to Frederick, March, 1 162 ; Frederick again entered Italy and besieged Alessandria ; compelled to raise the siege, April, 1175 ; defeated at Legnano, May 29, 1176 ; a truce for six years concluded, 1177 ; treaty of Constance, June 25, 1183 ; Frederick reconquered the whole of Upper Italy, 1238; Charles of Anjou King of Italy, 1261; he invaded 438 ITALY Naples and defeated Manfred at Benevento, Feb. 26, 1266; Conradin, grandson of Frederick II. , invaded Italy, but was defeated, Aug. 26, 1268 ; taken prisoner, and shortly afterwards executed, Oct. 26 ; Henry of Luxembourg elected to the throne, 1308 ; he crossed Mont Cenis and appeared in Italy, 1310. The Condot- tieri: these bands of robbers devastated Italy, 1348-54 ; Charles VIII. of France advanced to Naples, determined to subdue Italy, 1494 ; Louis XII. of France passed the Alps with a powerful army, Aug., 1499 ; he took several small towns, but was obliged to retire the same year ; the French defeated at Ravenna, under Gaston de Foix, April II, 1512 ; Francis sent an army, under Bonnivet, to invade Lombardy and take possession of Milan, 1523, but he was unsuccessful ; Pavia besieged by Francis, King of France, and Charles V. of Spain ; the former was taken prisoner and his army dispersed, Feb. 24, 1525 ; Parma and Piacenza raised to a dukedom by Paul III., 1545 > Milan and Naples separated from Italy, 1553 > the battle of Turin was won by the Imperialists, under the command of Prince Eugene of Savoy, Sept. 7> I76 ; the French surrendered all her possessions in Italy to Austria, March 13, 1707 ; Montserrat ceded by Austria to Savoy, Oct. 7, 1 703 ; the Imperialists took possession of Naples, 1 707 ; the Emperor confirm- ed in his possessions by the treaty of Rastadt, March 6, 1714 ; the Spanish Infant, Don Carlos, seized the kingdom of Naples, and defeated the Austrians at Bitonto, May 23, 1734; crowned at Palermo, in Dec. ; by the treaty of Vienna, Nov., 1735, arrangements were made to settle the peace of Italy ; the death of Charles VI. without male issue brought about the Austrian war, 1743 ; the Austrians de- feated at Velletri, near the Neapolitan frontier, and driven out of Milan, Aug. 10, 1744 ; Genoa surrendered to the Austrians, Sept. 7, 1746 ; besieged by the Austrians and Piedmontese, 1747 ; Aix-la-Chapelle, treaty of, April 30 Oct. 18, 1748 ; Sardinia attacked by the French, Sept., 1792 ; Voltri taken by the Aus- trians, under General Beaulieu, April 9, 1796 ; General Augereau forced the de- files of Millesimo, April 13 ; Dego taken and retaken ; after several successes an armistice was concluded with Sardinia, April 29, 1796 ; treaty signed, May 17; Lodi captured, Mayio, 1796 ; the Cisalpine republic formed, Dec., 1796; Venice trans- ferred to Austria by the treaty of Campo-Formio, Oct. 17, 1797; the French invaded the country and imprisoned the pope, 1 798 ; the Russians defeat the French, 1 799 ; Bonaparte crossed the Alps and took Milan, and defeated the Austrians at Marengo, June 14, 1800 ; made King of, and crowned at Milan, May 26, 1805 ; his brother Joseph proclaimed King of Naples, Jan. 14, 1806 ; Joseph exchanged it for the Spanish throne, 1 808, and he was succeeded by General Murat, July 15, 1808 ; Tuscany given to the Parma family, and in 1808 made a French province ; visited by a pestilence, 1810; Murat dethroned, May 20, 1815; the kingdom settled by the treaty of Vienna, 1816; insurrection of the army in Naples, July, 1820; Pepe landed at Melazzo, entered Palermo by capitulation, Oct. 6, 1820, and proclaimed the con- stitution; an Austrian army entered Naples, March 23, 1821, and restored the old regime ; rebellion in Piedmont ; abdication of Victor Emmanuel, March 10, 1821 ; the Austrians crossed the Ticino and defeated the army, April 8, entered Turin on the loth, and took possession of the fortress of Alessandria on the I ith ; Victor Emmanuel confirmed his abdication on the igth ; succeeded by his son, Charles Albert ; several states rebelled against their form of government, 1848 ; the Austrians expelled from Milan, March 23 ; Charles Albert declared war against ; he forced the Austrian lines on the Mincio, April 8 ; Goito taken, May 29 ; Peschiera surrendered, May 30 ; defeated by the Austrians at Custozza, July 25 ; at Milan, Aug. 4 ; armistice concluded, Aug. 9 ; war renewed, March 12, 1849; the Sardinian army defeated at Novara, March 23, 1849 ; abdication of Charles Albert, March 23 ; Victor Emmanuel concluded a treaty, Aug. 6 ; Venice sur- rendered, Aug. 29, 1850 ; the Austrians cross the Ticino and invade Sardinia, April 26, 1859 ; Victor Emmanuel declared war against, April 27 ; Florence and Parma revolted ; the Emperor Napoleon III. join the French forces; the Sardinian ITALY 439 army defeated the Austrians at the battle of Montebello, May 20 ; at Palestro, May 31 ; Magenta, June 4, and Malegnano. June 8 ; the victors enter Milan, June 8 ; the Austrians again defeated at Solferino, June 24 ; an armistice agreed to, July 8 ; a meeting of the two emperors at Villafranca, July 1 1, and a treaty agreed to; the King of Sardinia and Napoleon entered Turin, July 15 ; the duchies an- nexed to Sardinia, Aug., Sept.; the kingdom divided into provinces, Oct. 31; Gari- baldi withdrew from active service, Nov. 18; the Cavour ministry formed, Jan., 1860; Savoy and Nice ceded to France by treaty, March 24; revolution in Sicily, April; in- surrectional Naples, Aug. ; Garibaldi enters Naples, Sept. 8; Victor Emmanuel pro- claimed King of Italy, Sept. 9 ; Loretto taken, Sept. 18 ; Ancona taken, Sept. 29 ; Pecaro and Perugia taken, Sept. 1 1 and 16 ; the King of Naples left for Gaeta, Sept. 7 ; Garibaldi entered Naples, Sept. 8 ; proclaimed Victor Emmanuel King of Italy, Sept. 9; handed over the Neapolitan fleet to the Sardinian Admiral, Sept. II ; the Neapolitans defeated by Garibaldi at Volturno, Oct. I ; Victor Emmanuel enters Naples, Nov. 7 ; Garibaldi retired to Caprera, Nov. 9 ; his army disbanded, Nov. 27; Gaeta taken, Feb. 13, 1861 ; the first meeting of the new parliament, Feb. 18, at Turin ; Victor Emmanuel II. proclaimed king, March 17 ; England recognized the kingdom of, March 30 ; the monastic orders suppressed, 1861 ; France recog- nized the new kingdom, June 24 ; the Exhibition opened at Florence by the king, Sept. 15. Garibaldi raised an insurrection inSicily, Aug. 3, 1862; he took Catania, Aug. 20 ; landed in Calabria ; taken by the Italians, under General Pallavicino ; Garibaldi and his son wounded, Aug. 29 ; imprisoned at Spezia ; amnesty granted to, Oct. 5 ; a convention for the integrity of the Roman States signed, Sept. 15, 1864 ; the first Italian parliament held at Florence, Nov. 18, 1865 ; war declared against Austria, June 20, 1866 ; General La Marmora sent an intimation to the Commandant of Mantua, that hostilities would commence on the 23rd ; the Austrians were commanded by Archduke Albrecht ; the Italian army was com- manded by the King of Italy, and crossed the Mincio on the 23rd of June ; they were defeated at Custozza, with a loss of 720 killed, 3112 wounded, and 4315 missing ; the Austrians lost 960 killed, 3690 wounded, and nearly 1000 prisoners, June 24 ; the Italians recrossed the Mincio the same night ; Garibaldi with 6000 volunteers suffered a defeat at Cassarobach, June 25, and at Bogolino, when Garibaldi was wounded, July 3 ; the Italian army, under Cialdini, crossed the Po at Massa, July 7 ; the Austrians retired before him ; Garibaldi's forces made some movements on the Tyrol, and on the igth captured the fort of Ampola ; an armistice was agreed to, July 22 ; the Italian fleet defeated at Lissa, June 20 ; a treaty of peace agreed to and signed, Oct. 3 ; Venetia ceded to Italy, by which the kingdom was free from the Alps to the Adriatic, and the iron crown restored, Nov. 4, 1866 ; the senate decreed to impeach Admiral Persano for disobedience of orders, Jan. 29, 1867 ; a bill brought into the Italian parliament for the separation of Church and State, Jan. 1 7 ; the ministry of Baron Ricasoli reconstructed, Feb. 16 ; the parliament opened at Florence by the king, March 22 ; resigned, April 4 ; the Rattazzi ministry formed, April 7 ; Admiral Persano found guilty and de- graded, April 15 ; the bill for the sale of the Church property passed, Aug. 15 ; received the royal assent, Aug. 17 ; popular tumults attended by the most atro- cious acts of bloodshed committed at Florence during the rage of the cholera, Sept. 13 ; the new gallery of Victor Emmanuel at Milan opened by the king, Sept. 15 ; Garibaldi preparing to march upon Rome, was arrested at Sinigaglia, by order of the government, and conveyed to Alessandria, Sept. 23 ; removed to Caprera, Sept. 27 ; attempted to escape from, Oct. 2 ; several engagements with the Papal forces and Garibaldians, Oct. 5 ; proclamation issued by, for marching upon Rome, Oct 6 ; a treaty of navigation with the North German Confederation signed, Oct. 14, to take effect from Jan. I, 1868 ; the Garibaldians, under Menotti Garibaldi, defeated at Nerola, Oct. 18 ; Garibaldi leaves Caprera and arrives at Florence, Oct 28 ; the ministry of Signer Rattazzi resigned, Oct. 21, and General 440 ITALY Cialdini called upon to form one, but failed, Oct. 26 ; the Papal forces defeated at Monte Rondo, Oct. 26 ; the States of the Church sold, Oct. 26 ; proclamation issued by the king against the Roman invasion, Oct. 27 ; Menabrea formed a ministry, Oct. 28; General Cialdini with the Royal army crossed the Papal frontier, Oct. 30 ; General Dumont with the French forces entered Rome the same day ; Garibaldi defeated at Mentona, Nov. 3 ; surrendered to the Italian army, Nov. 4 ; the Italian troops evacuate the Papal States, Nov. 5 ; note from the government upon the suppression of the insurrection, Nov. 6 ; note of the Italian minister upon the settlement of the Papal question, Nov. 7 ; Garibaldi returned to Caprera, Nov. 25 ; the Menabrea ministry defeated by two votes, Dec. 22 ; resigned, Dec. 23. The following Table indicates the annual revenue from Church property. MONASTIC ORDERS AND CORPORATIONS. Revenue from land ... ... ... ... ... ... 19,688,889 Income from various sources ... ... ... ... 10,478,952 Total ... ^30, 167,841 BENEFICES, ABBEYS, PRIORIES, CANONRIES, &C. Revenue from land ... ... ... ... ... ... 15,515,424 Income from various sources ... ... ... ... 9,911,744 Total ^25,427,168 BISHOPRICS, SEMINARIES, AND BUILDINGS. Revenue from land ... ... ... ... ... ... 13,720,596 Income from various sources ... ... ... ... 9,224,954 Total ^"22,945,550 PARISHES. Revenue from divers sources ... ... ... ... 17,716,018 CONFRATERNITIES Revenue from divers sources ... ... ... ... 4)699,783 A Table showing the respective losses of the allied armies and the Austrians in the different combats and battles which took place during the campaign in Italy. ' At Montebello allies, 7 en g a g e< l, 850 killed and wounded ; Austrians, 13,000 engaged, 1150 killed and wounded, and 150 prisoners. Palestro allies, 21,000 engaged, 1400 killed and wounded ; Austrians, 24,000 engaged, 2100 killed and wounded, 95oprisoners, andsixpieces of cannon. Magenta and Turbigo French, 55,000 engaged, 4400 killed and wounded, 200 prisoners and one cannon ; Austrians, 75,000 engaged, 13,000 killed and wounded, 7000 prisoners, and four cannon. Malegnano French, 16,000 engaged, 900 killed and wounded ; Aus- trians, 18,000 engaged, 1400 killed and wounded, 900 prisoners. Solferino allies, 145,000 engaged, 16,800 killed and wounded, 350 prisoners ; Austrians, 1 70,000 engaged, 21,000 killed and wounded, 7000 prisoners, and 30 cannon.' It is thus seen that the total loss in killed and wounded of the allies was 24, 350, and of the Austrians, 38,650, making a difference against the latter of 14,300. The number of French taken prisoners was only 300, while the Austrians lost 16,000. The French took 40 pieces of cannon, and the Austrians only one. ITALY, changes in the ministry since 1861 : Sept. 5, 1861. Ricasoli president, several new ministers appointed. Mar. 3, 1862. Ricasoli still president, but all the other ministers changed. Mar. 31, 1862. Some new ministers appointed. April 7, 1862. More new ministers. ITALY, KINGS OF JACOB, ST 441 Dec. 8, 1862. Total change of ministry. Sept. 24, 1864. Accession of the Minghette ministry. Dec. 14, 1865. La Marmora appointed president, and several other ministers changed. June 20, 1866. La Marmora remains, but all the other ministers changed. Feb. 1 6, 1867. Total change of ministry, Ricasoli appointed president. April 7, 1867. Accession of the Rattazzi ministry. OcL 28, 1867. Appointment of the Menabrea ministry. ITALY, KINGS OF. Berenger ... ... A.D. 888 Lothaire ... ... 945 Guy, Duke of Spoleto ... 889 Berenger II. & Adalbert 950 Lambert 894 Otho 1 962 Louis the blind 900 Otho II. 973 Berenger 905 Otho III. 983 Rodolf, King of Burgundy 922 Napoleon 1 1804 Hugh, Count de Provence 926 Victor I. March 17, 1 86 1 IVES, ST, Cornwall, incorporated by charter, 16 Chas. I., 1640 ; confirmed by James II., 1685 ; Town Hall built, 1832 ; the Pier was erected by Mr Smeaton, 1770. IVORY. The Assyrians appear to have carried on a great traffic in this article. The ivory to make the throne of Solomon was supplied by the caravans of Dedan, Is. xxi. 13 ; Eze. xxvii. 15 ; the ivory house or palace of Ahab, I Kings xxii. 39 ; in 1784, the number of tusks imported into Nantes was 744. In the Exhibition of 1851 was shown the largest piece known ; it was II feet long and one foot broad. The Tagua Nut, or vegetable ivory : this is found on the banks of the river Magdalena, Columbia, and is capable of being carved into a variety of ornaments and receiving a high polish. IVRY-SUR-SEINE, France. Henry IV. defeated the army of the League, under the Duke of Mayenne, March 14, 1590. JACINTO, SAN, Texas. Gen. Santa Anna was defeated and taken prisoner by the Texans on the banks of this river, April 21, 1816. JACK CADE'S REBELLION. A general rising of the men of Kent and Surrey against the tyrannical measures of the government; assembled on Blackheath, June I, 1450 ; they held possession of London, committing great excesses in the city, but upon Cade marching into Southwark, the citizens shut the gates of London Bridge, and defended them with great bravery, many being killed ; at- tainted as a traitor, 27 Hen. VI. c. I, 1450. Cade killed by a Kentish gentleman, Alexander Eden, who found him lurking in his garden, at Heathfield, in Sussex. JACK THE PAINTER, alias James Aikin, trial of, for setting fire to the rope- house in Portsmouth dockyard, Dec. 7 ^776' JACOB, ST, a Swiss hamlet, the scene of a great battle, fought in 1444, between 1600 Swiss and a vastly more numerous French force, under the Dauphin, after- wards Louis XL, known as the Swiss Thermopylae. JACOBIN CLUB, a French revolutionary club, at first known as the Breton Club, 1789 ; they held their first meetings at Versailles ; they subsequently held their public meetings in the monastery of the Jacobins in the Rue St Honore", at Paris. 442 JACOBITES JAMAICA They held a meeting in the Champ de Mars, July 17, 1791 ; several persons killed by the military. JACOBITES, the adherents to the cause of King James II., abdicated, 1688; several unsuccessful attempts to recover the throne were made by the agents of this party in Scotland and in England, 1715 and 1745 ; Bishop Atterbury was con- cerned in this plot, and was banished from England, Oct., 1722. JACOBUS, a gold coin struck in the reign of King James I., valued at 25^. JACQUA.RD LOOM, exhibited at the Exposition of Industry at Lyons, Sept., iSoi; the same year he obtained a patent for it. He set up his first loom at Lyons, 1802 ; purchased for the use of the public by an imperial decree, Oct. 27, 1806. JACQUERIE, an insurrection in France, so called from the familiar nickname of Jacques Bonhomme, applied to the French peasantry; it commenced in the neigh- bourhood of Clermont and Beauvais, May, 1358; they besieged the town of Meaux, but were defeated with a loss of 7000. JAFFA, Syria (the ancient Joppa), during the wars of the Maccabees its shipping was set on fire by Jonathan, I Mace. x. 76 ; its fortifications rebuilt, i Mace. v. 34 ; pillaged by the Romans, when 8400 of its inhabitants were slain, and the town burnt, circa B.C. 66 ; afterwards became a refuge for pirates, and was utterly destroyed; taken by Omar, A.D. 636; captured by Baldwin I. in the Crusades, retaken by Saladin, 1188 ; sacked, 1722 and 1775 ; stormed by Napo- leon I., March 6, 1797, when 500 Turkish prisoners were put to death, March 10. JAGO, ST, in Cuba, plundered and demolished by the English, Oct. 2, 1662 ; island of, bombarded, Sept. 21, 1741. JAMAICA, West Indies, discovered by Columbus, May 3, 1494 ; the Spaniards settled here, 1509 ; taken by the English, 1597 ; reoccupied by the Spaniards ; captured by an English squadron under Admiral Penn, carrying 40x20 men under the command of Venables, May 3, 1655; formally ceded by Spain by the treaty of Madrid, 1670; Port Royal destroyed and serious damage inflicted upon life and property by an earthquake, June 7> 1692 ; visited by a fearful hurricane, Aug. 28, 1722; another, Oct. 22, 1726; divided into three counties, and justices appointed, Oct. 21, 1758; seat of government removed to Kingston, Sept. 16, 1756 ; much damage inflicted upon the island by a hurricane, Sept. I, 1734, and Oct. 2O, 1744 ; insurrection of negroes detected, Feb., 1745 ; suppressed the next year; the Maroons revolted, 1795* subdued, March ; damage done to the extent of .300,000 by a hurricane, Aug. 10, 1751 ; slave trade abolished, 1807; the hurricane, Oct., 1815, destroyed upwards of 1000 persons, and a great number of dwellings; insurrection in, by the negroes, martial law declared, Dec. 22, 1831 ; great fire at Kingston, Aug. 26, 1843, when upwards of 400 houses were destroyed and property valued at .250,000 ; upwards of 30,000 of the inhabitants died by cholera, 1850-1 ; the constitution has been modified by several measures adopted by the Assembly, 1854 and 1856. Mr Eyre appointed Governor, July 15, 1864; a negro taken before the magistrates for using threatening language, and creating a disturbance at Morant Bay Court House, Oct. 7 ', a warrant issued against Paul Bogle, Oct. 9 ; Paul Bogle, a negro, taken for attempting to rescue the pri- soners from the officers at Stony Gut, Oct. 10 ; the Court House attacked and set on fire by an armed body of insurgents ; the Rev. V. Herschell, Mr Charles Price, Lieut. Hall, and Baron Kethelhodt murdered in a shocking manner with several others, Oct. II ; martial law proclaimed, Oct. 13, by order of council ; the Governor proceeded to Morant Bay, Oct. 14 ; a court-martial held on the i6th, 27 persons were found guilty, and hung ; Mr G. W. Gordon tried, Oct. 2O ; found guilty, and hung, Oct. 23, 1865 ; Paul Bogle executed the next day ; the Legis- lative Assembly opened, Nov. 7 ; Gen. Sir Henry Storks appointed to succeed Governor Eyre, Dec. 22 ; Mr Russell Gurney, Recorder of London, and Mr J. B. JAMES JAMES, ST, PALACE 443 Maule, with Mr Roundell as secretary, appointed commissioners to inquire into the late disturbances in, Jan. 2, 1866 ; Governor Storks arrived at Kingston, Jan. 6 ; the Commissioners arrived at, Jan. 20 ; held their first meeting, Jan. 23 ; terminated, March 21 ; returned to London ; report signed, April 9 ; laid before Parliament, June 18 ; upwards of 1000 houses were burnt,' and besides many persons being flogged, a great'number were put to death ; an act passed to make provision for the government of, 29 & 30 Viet. c. 12, March 23, 1866 ; Sir J. P. Grant appointed Governor, July 17 ; the late Governor Eyre landed at South- ampton, Aug. 12 ; reception and entertainment at a public banquet, Aug. 21 ; the Eyre Defence Fund raised, 1866; application for warrants against Col. Nelson and Lieut. Brand for the murder of Mr Gordon, at Bow-street, Feb. 6, 1867 ; proceedings taken against Ex-Governor Eyre before the magistrates at Market Dray ton, March 25 ; discharged, March 29 ; charge of Lord Chief Justice Cockburn to the grand jury at the Central Criminal Court, Old Bailey, upon the indictment against Col. Nelson and Lieut. Brand, April 10 ; the grand jury threw out the bill, April II. JAMES, Princes of the House of Stuart. James I. came to the Scottish throne, 1406, and was assassinated, Feb. 21, 1437. His son James II. came to the throne 1437 ; was accidentally killed by the bursting of a cannon at the siege of Roxburgh, Aug. 3, 1460. James III., his son, was crowned, 1460; and murdered, July II, 1488. lie was succeeded by his son, James IV., 1488, who was slain at Flodden, 1513. His son, James V., born, 1512 ; came to the throne on his father's death ; died, Dec, 14, 1542. James VI., of Scotland became King of England under the title of James I., 1603 ; crowned, July 25, 1603. James VII. of Scotland, and II. of England, was crowned, April 23, 1685 ; abdicated, 1689 ; died in exile, Sept. 16, 1701. JAMES II. landed in Ireland with an army, March 12, 1689 ; met the parliament there, April 19; besieged Londonderry, April 29 ; coined brass money there, June 18, 1689 ; defeated at the Boyne, and embarked for France, July I, 1690; an attempted descent by him upon England prevented by the destruction of the French fleet, May 19, 1692 ; a second time prevented, March 2, 1695. James I. and II., see England, the Kings of. JAMES, the son of Zebedee, the first apostle who suffered martyrdom ; he was exe- cuted by order of Herod Agrippa, A. D. 42, in Jerusalem. JAMES THE JUST, bishop of Jerusalem, wrote one of the canonical epistles of the New Testament, A. D. circa 62. JAMES'S FORT, on the Gambia, Africa, destroyed by the French, April 23, 1757. JAMES, ST, order of knighthood ; a military order instituted by Ferdinand II., King of Leon, 1170 ; confirmed by the Pope, 1175. JAMES'S, ST, CHURCH, Piccadilly, built by Sir C. Wren, consecrated, July 13, 1684 ; the first rector was Dr Tenison. JAMES'S, ST, HALL, Piccadilly, built from the design of Owen Jones, opened, March 25, 1856. JAMES'S, ST, PALACE, occupies the site of the Lepers' Hospital, founded, 1290; Henry VIII. obtained possession of it, 1532, and enlarged it, and made it a palace ; Elizabeth and Edward VI. did not reside here, but Mary did, and died here, Nov. 17, 1558 ; granted by James I. to his son Henry, 1610, at whose death it reverted to the crown, 1612 ; enlarged by Charles I. ; made the prison of the Duke of York, Gloucester, and the Princess Elizabeth ; the Duke of York escaped, April 20, 1648 ; William of Orange received the Peers here, Dec. 18, 1688 ; the state rooms were enlarged by Geo. III., whose marriage was celebrated at, SepL 6, 1761 ; Geo. IV. was born here, Aug. 12, 1762; refitted for the marriage of the Prince of Wales, April 8, 1795 ; the east wing destroyed by fire, Jan. 21, 1809 ; the Em- 444 JAMES'S, ST, PARK JAPAN perors of Russia and Prussia resided here, 1814; the banquetting-hall added, 1822; the remains of the Duke of York lay in state, Jan., 1827 ; it is now only used for public receptions. JAMES'S, ST, PARK, first walled in by Henry VIII.; Charles II. added 36 acres and replanted it, 1661 ; and finally arranged by King George IV., 1826-27, and 1828; the Chinese bridge over the canal erected, Aug. I, 1814; first -lighted with gas, 1822 ; the canal was altered and extended to a winding lake with islands, etc., in 1827; Henri J. Stephan threw himself off the Duke of York's column, May 14, 1850. JAMES'S, ST, THEATRE, built by Beazley for Braham, the eminent singer ; opened, 1835. JANE, QUEEN OF ENGLAND. See England, Lady Jane Grey. JANISSARIES ; the Turkish infantiy, first established by Amurath II., 1372; they were educated for the army from the age of 12 years, and became a formidable body even to their masters ; they deposed Bajazet II., 1512 ; and caused the death of Amurath III., 1595 ; Othman II. they first deposed, and then murdered, 1622 ; Selim III. deposed and imprisoned by them, 1807 ; they elected Mustapha as his successor, May 29, whom they dethroned in two months, and advanced Sultan Mahmoud from prison to the throne ; insurrection of, at Constantinople, June 14-15, 1826; exterminated by order of Mahmoud, June 15, when 15,000 were slain ; firman issued abolishing them, June 16. JANSEN, SIR THEODORE, one of the South Sea directors, deprived of his estate to the extent of .200,000, but was allowed 50,000, 1721. JANSENISTS, a sect founded by Cornelius Jansen, 1625, a bishop of the Church of Rome, of exemplary piety ; his work, ' Augustinus,' 1640 ; a controversy arose about his doctrine in 1640, and it was condemned by a bull of Pope Urban VIII., 1642 ; again condemned by Innocent X., May 31, 1653 ; Alexander VII. issued a new bull against, 1656 ; the disputes of, revived in Paris, 1693 > the memorable bull of Clement XL, ' Unigenitus,' issued against, Sept. 8, 1713 ; persecutions against, followed ; a bed of justice held by Louis XV. to enforce a second registration of the edict against, I73j the cemetery of St Medard, where the Jansenist saint was buried, closed, 1 732 ; the Abp of Paris, Christophe de Beaumont, renewed the persecution against this sect, 1 749. JANUARIUS, ST, order of, instituted by Charles III., King of Naples, July, 1738. JANUARY introduced into the Roman calendar by Numa ; made the first month in the English calendar, 1752. JANUS, THE TEMPLE OF, erected by Numa ; its gates were always kept open in time of war, and shut in time of peace ; it was first shut during the reign of Numa its founder; after the first Punic war, B.C. 235 ; by Augustus after the battle of Actium, B.C. 31 ; on Augustus returning from the Spanish war, B.C. 25 ; again in the same Emperor's reign in the 12 years of peace, B.C. 10 ; under Nero, A.D. 53 ; Vespasian, A.D. 71 ; under Gordian the last time, A.D. 242. JANVILLIERS, battle between the French and Prussians, in which the latter, under Bliicher, were defeated, Feb. 14, 1814. JAPAN, Asia. The first emperor was raised to the throne, B.C. 660; ' Sinmu Tenu,' and the religion of Buddha first introduced, A.D. 69 ; gold first discovered, A.D. 749 ; invaded by the Chinese, 788 ; the present empire founded by Yoritomo, 1 1 88 ; invaded by the Mogul Tartars, with an armada of 4000 vessels containing a force of 240,000 fighting men, 1284 ; first made known to Europe by Marco Polo ; the Jesuits, under the leadership of Francis Xavier, landed here, 1549 ; the JARDIN DES PLANTES JEDBURGH 445 teachers of Christianity first persecuted by order of the Emperor, 1587 ; renewed, 1597, when several European priests were crucified ; visited by the English, 1612 ; the persecution renewed, 1637, and on the I2th of April in the following year, 37,000 Christians were put to death ; the Spaniards and Portuguese were subsequently expelled the kingdom, 1640 ; the Dutch first visited, 1600 ; the Americans fitted out an expedition under Commodore Perry, who arrived here, July 8, 1853 ; concluded a treaty, March 31, 1854 ; visited by an English squadron, Sept. 7, 1854 ; an earthquake at Jeddo, which destroyed 100,000 houses and 57 temples, and killed 30,000 persons, Nov. II, 1855 ; the Russian frigate Diana lost at, Dec. 25, 1855; treaty with the Russians signed, Oct., 1857 ; with France and America, 1858 ; treaty of peace between Her Majesty Victoria and the Tycoon at Jeddo signed, Aug. 26, 1858 ; departure of the Japanese ministers to Europe, Jan. 23, 1861 ; the British embassy attacked at Jeddo, July 5 ; Mr Richardson murdered, Sept. 14, 1862 ; an indemnity paid by the Tycoon, ^1000 ; .25,000 was also demanded of Prince Satsuma ; he re- fused payment ; the city of Kagosima bombarded by Adm. Kuper, Aug. 15, 1863 ; the indemnity demanded for the murder of Mr Richardson paid by Prince Satsuma, Dec. II ; three ambassadors from, arrived in France, April 15, 1864 ; a treaty agreed to, returned to Japan in June ; the combined fleets of the English, French, and Dutch forced a passage through the straits of Simonosaki, Sept 7 ; Major Baldwin and Lieut. Bird murdered at Kamakera, Nov. 20, 1864 ; the murderer executed, Dec. 28 ; Sir H. Parkes appointed minister at, April 1 1, 1865 ; the Japanese subjects permitted to go abroad for the purposes of study or trade by the passport system, adopted May 23, 1866 ; a treaty of commerce with Great Britain, France, the United States, and Holland signed, June 25 ; the town of Yokohama partially destroyed by fire, Nov. 26 ; the English settlement at Nagasaki seriously damaged by a storm, July, 1867 ; a treaty signed with Belgium for the purposes of trade, Sept. 12 ; the Cosmopolite, a steam vessel manned and officered by Japanese, arrived at Hong-kong, Oct. 15 ; this was the first trading vessel which has visited a foreign port ; the ports of Jeddo and Osaki opened by treaty, Jan. 29, 1868. JARDIN DES PLANTES, the botanical garden began by Louis XIII., 1626; opened, 1650; it was then called the 'Jardin du Roi;' the royal menageries of Versailles and Raincy transferred to it, 1794; Cuvier appointed, 1795. JARNAC, battle between Henry III. of France, when Duke of Anjou, who de- feated the Huguenots ; the Prince of Conde was slain, March 13, 1569. JARROW COLLIERY, 40 persons killed by an explosion, Aug. 21, 1845. JASMINE, or JESSAMINE, said to have been brought here from Circassia in the 1 5th century ; the yellow jessamine introduced, 1656, and the Catalonian jessa- mine, a native of India, 1629. JASPER. This gem is frequently mentioned in Scripture ; it was the last of the 12 inserted in the breast-plate of the high priest, Ex. xxvii. 20 ; xxxix. 13. JAUER, Prussian Silesia. This ancient town is surrounded by an old wall, and con- tains a castle built by Henry III., 1244. JAVA. This island was first discovered by Marco Polo, A.D. 1298 ; the Dutch visited, 1595 ; they obtained permission to build a fort where now stands the city of Batavia, 1610 ; this fort was besieged by a native force abetted by the English, 1619 ; it was relieved by a Dutch fleet under Adm. Koen ; the town built shortly afterwards, and in 1628 was again besieged ; Jacatra ceded to the Dutch, 1677 ; 30,000 Chinese with their families massacred by the Dutch in order to plunder, 1740; the island captured by an English force, Aug. 19, 1811 ; restored to the Dutch, 1814. JEDBURGH, Scotland. David I. founded an abbey here, 1165, and built a castle 446 JEDDAH JERSEY in the 1 2th century ; the town was burnt by the Borderers under the Earl of Surrey, 1523. JEDDAH, Mecca, massacre of the English and French consuls and 20 other Eu- ropeans at, May 15, 1858 ; Capt. Pullen anchored before the town and demanded justice on the perpetrators, July 23 ; no satisfactory answer being returned, he bombarded the town on the 25th and 26th ; the commander requested time to communicate with the Porte, who directed justice to be done ; II of the assassins were executed, Aug. 2. JEDDO, or YEDDO, Japan. An earthquake destroyed 100,000 dwellings, 57 temples, and 30,000 persons, and a fire burst forth in 40 different parts of the city, Nov. n, 1855 ; Lord Elgin landed at, Aug. 12, 1858 ; treaty of peace between Her Majesty Queen Victoria and the Tycoon signed, Aug. 26, 1858 ; Sir R. Alcock, Her Majesty's consul, landed at Yeddo, July 6, 1859 ; several Europeans murdered in the streets, 1860; first visit of English ladies to, Dec., 1860; Mr Henskin wounded in the streets of, Jan. 14, 1861 ; the Legation attacked and several persons killed and wounded, July 5 ; second attack upon the Legation, 1862 ; Mr Richardson murdered, Sept., 1862 ; an indemnity being demanded and not being complied with, Adm. Kuper bombarded Kagosima and destroyed the town, Aug. 15, 1863. JEFFREY, Robert, abandoned on the island of Sombrero, March 7, 1807, by Capt. Lake, R.N., who was dismissed the service for it. JEFFREY, son of King Richard, killed at a tournament in Paris, Aug. 19, 1186. JEFFREYS, GEORGE, the notorious judge, made Common Serjeant by the Corpora- tion of London, March 17, 1670-71 ; elected Recorder, Oct. 22, 1678 ; burned in effigy, Nov. 17, 1679 ; made Chief-Justice of Chester, April 29, 1680; of the King's Bench, Sept. 29, 1683 ; sent to the West, where he was guilty of the most atro- cious acts towards the adherents of the Duke of Monmouth, Aug., 1685 ; made Lord Chancellor, Sept. 28 ; taken disguised, and sent to the Tower, Dec. 12, 1688 ; died, and buried there, April 19, 1689 ; his body removed to St Mary's Church, ^Aldermanbury, Nov. 2, 1693. JELLALABAD, Affghanistan. The town taken possession of by the English, Nov. 13, 1841 ; the fortifications destroyed by an earthquake, Feb. 19, 1842 ; success- fully defended by a few British troops under Sir Robert Sale against the army of Affghans under Akbar Khan, whom they defeated, April 7 ; relieved by Gen. Pollock, April 16 ; the fortification destroyed by order of Gen. Pollock. JEMMAPPES, battle, in which the raw levies of France defeated the Austrians, well intrenched and covered by 40 redoubts ; the combat continued for several days, when Dumouriez was victorious, the Austrians losing 2000 men, the French above that number, Nov. 6, 1792. JENA and SAALFIELD, battles between the French under Napoleon and the Prussians ; the King of Prussia was routed, losing upwards of 20,000 prisoners, 300 cannon, and 60 standards ; the victor then marched upon Berlin, and the Prussian monarchy was in his power, Oct. 14, 1806. JENA, Germany. The university founded, 1556 ; opened, 1558. JENKINS, CAPTAIN, his ears cut off by the Spaniards, April 9, 1731. JENNERIAN INSTITUTION founded, 1803; the Royal, 1806. JEREMIAH THE PROPHET, the son of Hilkiah, wrote his prophecies, circa B.C. 629. JEROME OF PRAGUE condemned to be burned, and executed, May 30, 1416. JERSEY, one of the Channel Islands, with Guernsey, Alderney, and Sark, once portions of Normandy, and subjected to the crown of England by William the JERSEY JERUSALEM CHAMBER 447 Conqueror, 1066 ; fortified, 1595; the north pier commenced, 1790; Jersey attacked by the French, 1779, and Jan. 6, 1781, when they were repulsed, but the English commander, Major Pierson, fell ; the south pier commenced, 1821 ; a new harbour erected and opened, 1846 ; visited by Queen Victoria, Aug. 27, 1846 ; a college founded in commemoration, and opened, Sept 29, 1852 ; the Theatre Royal burned, July 31, 1863. JERSEY, city, United States. This town was incorporated, 1820 ; the villages of Harsimus and Pavonia, 1851. JERUSALEM. This name first occurs in the Old Testament, Josh. x. I ; after the death of Joshua the Israelites took the city and smote it with the edge of the sword, and set it on fire, circa B.C. 1400; the ancient city, Jebus, was taken by David from the Jebusites, B.C. 1049 ; the walls repaired by Hezekiah ; the city was be- sieged and taken by Shishak, King of Egypt, 971 ; the temple and city plundered, and the walls destroyed, 2 Kings xiv. 13 ; 2 Chron. xxv. 23 ; between 979-962 Jotham built the high gate of the temple, 728 ; the city and temple again plundered by Pharaoh Necho, King of Egypt, 608 ; besieged by Nebuchadnezzar, 606 ; taken after a three years' siege and razed to the ground ; again taken by the King of Chaldea, 587 ; Cyrus, King of Persia, having taken the city, 538, he issued an edict for the return of the Jews, 536 ; the new city built, 454 ; taken by Alexander, 332 ; Ptolemy Soter next took possession of it, 320 ; besieged and pillaged by Antiochus Epiphanes, upwards of 80,000 of its inhabitants destroyed, 170 ; Judas Maccabaeus purified the temple and restored the sacrifices, 163 ; Antiochus Eupator besieged and destroyed the defences of the city, 164 ; re-erected by Simon Maccabaeus, 143 ; the city walls again destroyed by Antiochus Sidetes, King of Syria, 63 ; taken by the Romans under Titus, who razed the city and the temple to the ground, A. D. 70 ; rebuilt and fortified by the Emperor Adrian, 131 ; the Jews rebelled under Barchochebas, but were defeated and dispersed by the Romans under Vespasian, 135 ; the temple of the Holy Sepulchre completed and dedicated with great solemnity, 335 ; declared a patriarchate by the Council of Chalcedon, 45 1 ; Constantine built a church to the Virgin on Mount Moriah, 530 ; the Persians captured the city and destroyed the temple, 614 ; taken by the Saracens under Caliph Omar after a siege of four months, 637 ; taken by the Moslems, 960 ; captured by the Turks, 1073 ; the Crusaders under Godfrey of Bouillon appeared before the city, June 17, 1099 ; after a siege of 40 days the holy city was taken by storm, July 15, 70,000 Moslems were put to the sword ; Godfrey elected king, July 23 ; wrested from the hands of the Christians by Saladin, Oct. 2, 1187 ; its defences strengthened by him, 1192 ; the fortification destroyed by Sultan Melekel Moaddin, 1219 ; delivered over to Frederick II. by treaty, 1229, with the understanding that the fortifications should not be restored ; he made his public entry, March 17, 1229 ; the inhabitants began to restore the fortifications, 1239 ; the works interrupted and the city taken by David of Kerek, 1240; restored to the Christians, 1243 ; the Turks regained possession of the city, 1516 ; the present walls were erected by Suleiman the Magnificent, 1542 ; the church of the Holy Sepulchre partially destroyed by fire, Oct. 12, 1808 ; restor- ed, Sept., 1810 ; became subject to Mohammed Ali, the pasha of Egypt, 1832 ; restored to the Turks, 1841 ; the new church for English Christians erected on Mount Zion, commenced, July, 1841; opened, Jan. 21, 1849; H.R. H. the Prince of Wales visited this city, Jan., 1862 ; St James, the son of Alpheus, the first bishop of Jerusalem, was the president of the earliest Council of the Church, A. D. circa 45. JERUSALEM CHAMBER, Westminster Abbey, built by Nicholas Litlyngton, abbot of Westminster, 1376-86 ; the French ambassador entertained here with great splendour, 1624. 448 JESTERS JESUITS, SOCIETY OF JESTERS, or COURT FOOLS, were in ancient times a part of a royal or noble household ; Edward IV. was saved by his fool, 1470; the Princess Mary of Eng- land had a female fool or jester, the only one of the feminine sect known, 1556 ; William Somers, Henry VIII. 's jester, is well known ; Killigrew was the last official jester, 1668 ; the last domestic one was retained in the Hilton family of Durham till 1 746 ; the court fool abolished in France by Louis XIV. ; in England, by Charles II.; in Germany, 1756. JESUITS' BARK, the Cortex Peruvianus, discovered by a Jesuit, 1535 ; introduced into France as a medicine, 1649 ; in general use, 1680 ; quinine prepared from, 1825, in Paris the remedy for intermittent fever. JESUITS, SOCIETY OF, founded by Ignatius Loyola, Aug. 15, 1534; confirmed by the bull of Pope Paul III., Sept. 27, 1540 ; the faculty of theology issued the celebrated decree against, Dec. I, 1554; their founder (Loyola) died, July 31, 1556, and was canonized by Pope Gregory XV., March 12, 1622 ; the order an- nulled, July 21, 1773. They were expelled from Saragosa, La Palintine, Vienna, ... Avignon, Antwerp, from Portugal and Sa- govia, England, England again, ... England again, ... Japan, Hungary and Transylvania, Bordeaux, The whole of France, Dec. 29, as cormpters of youths, and enemies of the King and State Holland, The city of Touron and Berne, England, Nov. 15, England again, by James I., Nov. 10, Denmark, Thorn, and Venice, Venice again, 1604 1606 1612 The kingdom of Amura, in Japan, 1613 Bohemia, ... ... ... 1618 Moravia, ... ... ... 1619 Naples and the Netherlands, ... 1622 China and India, ... ... 1623 Malta, 1634 Russia, ... ... ... ... 1723 Savoy, ... 1729 Paraguay, 1733 Portugal, ... ... ... 1759 France again, and their property confiscated, ... ... ... 1764 Spain and the two Sicilies, March 31, 1767 Parma and Malta, ... ... 1 768 From the whole of Christendom by the bull of Clement XIV. , 1773 Russia, ... ... ... ... 1776 France again, ... 1804 and 1806 Naples, 1810 The order restored by the bull of Pius VII., Aug. 7, 1814 The following Table shows the countries from which the Jesuits have been expelled from the time of their restoration in 1814, to the present moment : Moscow, St Petersburg, and the Canton of Solotheirn, Belgium, Brest, by its inhabitants, in Oct. Russia, for ever, March 20, Spain, March 7, The Cathedral at Rouen, by the people, March, All the public and private schools in Belgium, Sept., The educational establishments directed by the Jesuits in France, closed by royal ordin- 1816 ance, June 13, 1828 1818 Great Britain and Ireland, April 1819 13, 1829 1820 France, ... ... 1831 1820 Saxony, by a law passed Sept., 1831 Portugal, May 14, ... ... 1834 1825 Spain, July, ' 1835 Rheims, by its inhabitants, Dec., 1838 1826 Lucerne, ... ... 1842 Lucerne, for ever, Feb. 13, ... 1845 France again, ... ... ... 1845 JESUS COLLEGE JEWS 449 The whole of Switzerland, Styria, and the Arch-Duchy of Sept. 6, 1847 Austria, May 8, 1848 Bavaria, Feb. 17, 1848 The Austrian Empire, May 8, Their establishments in Sardinia, Galicia, July, ... ,, March 2, ... 1848 Sardinia, July 19, ... ... ,, Naples, March n, ,, Sicily, July 31, ,, The Papal States, March 29, ... ,, Paraguay, June 28 1858 Linz, April 10, ... ... ... ,, Several Italian States, ... ... 1859 Vienna, April 16, ... ... ,, Sicily, June, 1860 A statement from Rome, comparing the increase of the Jesuits, says : 'At the end of the year 1863 it was 7529, or 118 more than in 1862. They are distri- buted among 19 establishments, of which five are in Italy, five in Germany and Belgium, three in France, two in Spain, and four in England and America. The Italian Jesuits number 1617, the Austrian 362, the Belgian 576, the Dutch 236, the German 584; the French 2266, the Spanish 868, the Irish 139, and the American 350 ; the rest belonging to other nations. As may be seen, France has the most. At Rome there are 3^/1, and in the foreign missions 1362, of whom 560 are French, 296 Spanish, and 260 Italians, the remainder being natives of other countries. English Jesuits since increased. JESUS COLLEGE, Cambridge, founded by John Alcock, Bishop of Ely, 1496; The first court erected, 1640-1. JESUS COLLEGE, Oxford, founded by Queen Elizabeth, 1571 ; enlarged, and a new charter granted, 1621 ; refronted, 1856, by Messrs Buckler. The chapel consecrated, May 28, 1621 ; restored, 1864 ; the library erected by Sir Leoline Jenkins, 1667. JEWS. They derive their origin from Abraham, who flourished circa B.C. 2000. The history of, divided by Jost into two eras, the first extending to the close of the collections of the oral laws, B.C. 536 A.D. 600 ; the second reaching the pre- sent time. The Exodus is fixed by Bunsen, B.C. 1316; Lepsius, B.C. 1320; Brugsch, B.C. 1330. Joshua, the successor of Moses, conducted them into Canaan, B.C. 1451 ; he divided the land of Canaan among the twelve tribes, and died, 1426 ; he was succeeded by the Judges ; the first of these was Othniel, 1405 ; the second Ehud the Benjamite, 1325 ; he was succeeded by Deborah the prophetess, 1285, who with Barak, the general of the Israelites, defeated the Canaanites un- der Sisera ; the fourth Judge was Gideon, 1245, who routed the Midianites, but declined the offer of kingly power ; the fifth Judge was Tola, 1233 ; the sixth was Jair, 1210 ; the seventh was Jephthah, 1188 ; the eighth was Ibzan, 1182 ; the ninth was Elon, 1175 ; the tenth was Abdon, 1165 ; the eleventh was Eli the high priest, 1157 ; the I2th and last Judge was Samuel, 1157. Saul began his reign, 1095, and having reigned 40 years, was succeeded by Ishbosheth his son. David anointed king by Samuel, 1093 ; he was succeeded by Solomon, 1015. The building of the Temple was commenced, 1012 ; finished, 993 ; plunder- ed by the King of Egypt, 962. Death of Saul, 1055 ; death of Solomon, the kingdom divided between Judah and Israel, 97$ ; reign of Jeroboam over the ten tribes, 967 ; the Assyrian invasion under Phul, 770 ; Samaria taken, the ten tribes carried into captivity, 721 ; Shishak took Jerusalem, 971 ; Sennacherib invaded Judea, and lost a large part of his army by pestilence, 710 ; Hilkiah found the book of the law in repairing the Temple, 623 ; Jerusalem and Judea taken, and the ten tribes dispersed by Nebuchadnezzar, 601 ; Cyrus ordered their return from captivity, and the rebuilding of the temple, 536 ; Alexander the Great reduced the kingdom to subjection, 331 ; Ptolemy conquered Judea, and took 100,000 Jews into captivity ; they were restored and taken into favour 204 ; the Temple de- stroyed by Antiochus Epiphanes, 1 75, who ordered the Jews to bt exterminated, 29 450 JEWS 1 70 ; protected by the Roman Emperor Caesar, and their ancient liberties restored, 60 ; Herod persecuted them, 37, and 4 ; Judea made a Roman province, A. D. 44; the Jewish war with the Romans began, May, 66 ; Jerusalem taken, and the inhabit- ants massacred and the entire nation cut off, Sept. 8, 70. Christians prohibited from appearing at Jewish feasts, 740. In the East the Sultan Motavakel ordered all Jews to be branded, and their dwellings marked, and only to travel upon asses or mules, 847 ; they were despoiled of their riches, and many murdered, 1036 ; Ferdinand the Great inflicted much misery upon them in Granada, 1050 ; massacred by the Cru- saders at Treves, 1097 ; upwards of 1300 were slain at Mentz by them ; at Worms the Jews took refuge in the bishop's palace, but they were put to the sword, many killing their children to prevent their pollution ; they were persecuted in England by King Stephen, 1145, and at Gloucester, for crucifying a young Christian, 1160; Richard I. ordered them not to appear before him on the day of his coronation, but some of them being found mixed with the crowd they were expelled, and then rose a general tumult, every Jew being slain, and his house destroyed, Sept. 3, 1189 ; the same scene was enacted throughout England ; Philip Augustus of France, by an edict, ordered that all debts due to the Jews be confiscated, and all pledges to be returned. 1181 .; they were surrounded in their synagogues by royal troops and dragged to prison, Feb. 14, 1 181, and their houses taken possession of ; anew edict confiscated all their immovable goods and possessions whatever, and themselves expelled the kingdom, April, 1181 ; permitted to return upon payment of a certain sum of money to the king, 1198 ; an edict issued granting to 'them interest at the rate of 40 per cent., 1214 ; the Jews imprisoned and tortured by order of King John, 1210 ; St Louis of France annulled one-third of all debts due to Jews, 1234 ; the populace destroyed the Jews' quarter in Paris, 1239 ; the Talmud ordered to be burned, 1254, and the Jews to wear a brand ; the barons imprisoned all the Jews in London and demanded large sums for their liberty, March 31, 1264 ; the council of Vienna issued a canon fixing certain rules for the admission of the Jews into society and their dress, 1267; persecuted by Edward I . in England ; forbidden to erect synagogues and to wear coloured garments, 1279 ; in one day all the Jews in England were arrested for clipping the coin, Nov. 17, 1279; in 1287, all the race in England arrested and put in prison until they paid the king ^"12,000, and on Aug. 31, 1290, ordered to quit the country by Oct. 10, upon pain of death ; expelled from France, and the property seized, by order of Philip the Fair, July 22, 1306 ; readmitted, March, 1361 ; ejected from the kingdom again, Sept. 7, 1394; many fell victims to the popular fury in Spain, July, 1391 ; persecuted by the Inquisition for publishing a work unfavourable to Ferdinand and Isabella, 1480 ; 280 were burned in that year at Seville ; all unbaptized Jews ejected from Spain by an edict of Ferdinand and Isabella, 1492, and despoiled of their wealth ; accused for setting many of the towns in Germany on fire, 1 542 ; 4000 burned at Wilna, 1655 ; regulated in Prussia by an edict of Frederick the Great, 1750; James II. relieved them from an alien duty, but this was revoked by \Villiam III. ; a bill passed the Legislature to naturalize all Jews who had resided three years in England, 1753 5 Joseph II. of Austria published his edict of toleration by which the Jews might settle in Vienna, 1780; Louis XVI. abolished the capita- tion tax, 1 784 ; a commission appointed to revise all laws relating to the Jews, 1788 ; recognized as free citizens, 1791 ; expelled from Russia by an ukase of the Empress Elizabeth, 1795 ; all Jews engaged in commerce compelled to take out a patent by Napoleon I., 1807 ; admitted to civil rights in Baden, 1809 ; Prussia, 1812 ; Bavaria, 1813 ; Alexander of Russia issued an ukase, 1835, defining their position in the State ; persecuted at Damascus, Feb. i, 1840 ; the Corporation of London passed an act of common council admitting Jews to the freedom of the city, Dec. 10, 1830 ; an act to relieve Jews from taking oaths to municipal offices, 8 & 9 Viet. c. 52, July 31, 1845 ; extended, 21 & 22 Viet. c. 48 and 49, July 23, 1858 ; Baron Rothschild returned to parliament for the city of London, by a majority JESUS JHANSI 451 of 6019 votes, his opponent, Lord John Manners, only polling 3104, Aug. 3, 1847 ; a bill was brought in to enable him to take his seat, but it was thrown out by the Peers ; he was again returned ; Mr Salomons elected member for Greenwich, but declared ineligible for refusing to take an oath that he was a Christian, SepL 21, 1847 ; Baron Rothschild re-elected for the city of London, 1852 ; act passed re- lieving them from certain religious penalties and disabilities, 9 & 10 Viet, c, 59, Aug. 18, 1846, and 21 & 22 Viet. c. 49, July 23, 1858 ; amended, 23 and 24 Viet. c. 63, Aug. 6, 1860 ; edict of the Sultan of Morocco, granting them increased privileges, Feb. 15, 1864. JESUS and MARY, an order instituted in Italy by Pope Paul V., 1615. JESUS CHRIST, supposed to have been born on the 25th of December, in the year of Rome, 752, that day commencing the Christian era : some say the date should be four years earlier than the vulgar era. JESUS CHRIST, order of knighthood, established in Spain by St Dominick, 1216 ; approved of by the Pope ; Ferdinand VII. ordained that the minister of the order should wear the insignia, May 17, 1815. JEWEL OFFICE, Tower of London, established, circa 1228 ; repaired, 1844. JEWELLERY, manufacture of, encouraged first in England very extensively, 1685 ; used much by the Roman ladies, Lollia Paulina wearing ornaments valued at 322,916 sterling, A.D. 37. JEWELS, first worn in France by Agnes Sorel, 1434 ; the Crown Jewels of England pawned in Holland by Charles I., were redeemed by the sale of iron ordnance to the Dutch, 1629 ; those of France, seized by the National Convention, 1794 ; upon the restoration of Charles II., a new regalia was provided by Sir Robert Vyner, the king's goldsmith, at a cost of 21,978 9.5-. lid., June 20, 1652 ; attempt made to steal them by Col. Blood, May 9, 1671. JEWRY, THE OLD, once inhabited by the Jews of London, who were most cruelly treated, the place being burnt and 500 Jews murdered, 1263, and banished by Edward I., 1272 ; the first synagogue in London, built at the corner of the Old Jewry, 1262, was defaced by the Londoners, who killed 700 of the poor Israelites, and robbed them of all they had. JEWISH CEMETERIES, the Portuguese, at Mile-End Road, first used, 1657 ; another at Fulham, 1816, and at Islington, 1862. JEWISH ERA dates from the creation, 3760 years and three months before ours. JEWS' FREE SCHOOL, founded for the education of poor Jewish children in Bell-lane, Spitalfields, 1817. JEWS' HOSPITAL, Mile-End, instituted, 1811, for the Spanish and Portuguese Jews. JEWS' HOSPITAL, for the Dutch and German Jews, Mile-End, Old Town, estab- lished, 1795. JEWS' SYNAGOGUES : BEVIS MARKS, the Spanish and Portuguese synagogue. BRYANSTONE-STREET, new synagogue erected from the designs of Mr Lett, 1861. DUKE'S-PLACE, built by the Portuguese, 1656 ; the German synagogue at, built, 1691. NORTH LONDON, at Barnsbury, foundation-stone laid, Dec. 24, 1867. OLD JEWRY, built, 1262 ; destroyed in the fire of 1666. ST HELEN'S, Bishopsgate, built from the designs of Mr Davies, 1838. WEST LONDON SYNAGOGUE, erected from the designs of D. Mocatta, Margaret- street, Cavendish-square, 1850. JHANSI, Hindustan, besieged by Sir Hugh Rose, March 28, 1858 ; defeated a strong relieving force, under Tantia Topee, April I ; the town taken by storm, April 4. 452 JOACHIM, ST JOHN, ST, OF JERUSALEM JOACHIM, ST. This order of knighthood was instituted in Spain, June 20, 1755 ; made an equestrian order, 1785. JOAN OF ARC, the maid of Orleans, who pretended to a divine mission to expel the English from France ; she conducted a convoy of provisions into Orleans, April 29, 1429 ; she raised the siege of Orleans, May 8 ; present at the coron- ation of Charles, July 12 ; she took several towns, and defeated the English near Patay, June 10, 1429 ; she was made prisoner at the siege of Compiegne, May 23, 1431 ; tried, Feb. 21, and burned as a witch in Rouen, May 31, in her 22nd year. JOAN, POPE, a mythical individual said to have filled the Papal chair for ten years, 855. JOANNA OF NAPLES strangled her husband, Oct. 5, 1345. JOB, the Book of, supposed to have been written by Moses, circa B.C. 1520. JOHN, King of England. See England. JOHN, King of France, taken prisoner by Edward the Black Prince, at the battle of Poitiers, Sept. 19, 1356, and brought to England ; entered London, May 24, 1357, but ransomed for ^1,500,000, 1360 ; returned to London, not being able to fulfil his engagements, and died at the Savoy, in the Strand, London, June 21, 1377- JOHN DOE and RICHARD ROE, fictitious names given in as pledges to prose- cute, and well known for centuries among the fictions which disgraced that law which should deal only in facts. Since the reign of Edward III., 1340, these names were put into writs, as pretended prosecutors, because prior to that reign, , by the regulations of Magna Charta, witnesses or pledges were required before trial upon every prosecution ; these names were abolished in practice, 1852. JOHN'S COLLEGE, ST, Cambridge, founded by Lady Margaret, Countess of Richmond and Derby, mother of Henry VII. ; the property seized by Henry VIII., but he restored it, and the building began, 1511 ; the second court built by Mary, Countess of Shrewsbury, 1599 > the third court built in the reign of Charles II. JOHN'S COLLEGE, ST, Oxford, founded by Sir Thomas White, Knt, 1555 ; en- larged and a new charter granted, March 5, 1557 ; the chapel consecrated, 1530 ; restored, 1843 ; the library built, 1596 ; the eastern wing added by Abp Laud, 1631. JOHN'S GATE, ST, Clerkenwell, built by Prior Docwra, 1504; the first number of the ' Gentleman's Magazine' published here by Edward Cave, 1731 ; Dr John- son first employed by Cave, 1737; restored by subscription, 1845-6, and again repaired, 1865. JOHN OF GAUNT, fourth son of Edward III., was born, 1339; created Duke of Lancaster, 1362; appointed Regent to Richard II., 1377; supported Wickliffe against his opposers, 1378; had his palace at the Savoy destroyed by Wat Tyler's mob, 1381 ; ravaged Scotland to the gates of Edinburgh, 1384 ; assumed the title of King of Castile and Leon, having married the daughter of Peter the Cruel, 1385 ; died, Feb., 1399 ; his house, near Lincoln, built, 1397. JOHN O'GROAT'S HOUSE, situated on Duncansby Head, the most northernly point in Great Britain, built, 1489, belonging to a family of that name. JOHN, ST, the younger brother of James, the son of Zebedee of Bethsaida, in Galilee, wrote his Gospel, circa A.D. 97. JOHN, ST, Newfoundland, taken possession of by Sir H. Gilbert, 1583. JOHN, ST, OF JERUSALEM, the priory, founded at Clerkenwell, by Lord Jordan Briset, 1 1 10 ; built, and the church dedicated to Heraclius, Patriarch of JOHN, ST, OF JERUSALEM JOINT-STOCK COMPANIES 453 Jerusalem, March 6, 1185 ; meeting of the patriarch with Henry II. at, 1185 ; ohn entertained here during the month of March, 1212; the chapel of, built by oseph de Chauncy, 1280 ; repaired, 1338 ; destroyed by Wat Tyler and his fol- jwers, 1381 ; rebuilt, 1383-5 ; Henry, Duke of Lancaster, was staying here when he was proclaimed king, 1411; suppressed, 32 Henry VIII. c. 24; granted to John Dudley, Lord Viscount Lisle, Lord High Admiral of England, soon afterwards for ;iooo, and subsequently given to the Princess Mary by Edward VI., who restored it partially, and Sir Thomas Tresham appointed by Her Majesty Lord Prior, Nov. 30, 1557. In the reign of Elizabeth it was used as the wardrobe for the dramatic performers employed by the master of the revels of Her Majesty, 1571 ; Edmund Tylney appointed master, July 24, 1579; the rehearsals were held in the great hall ; the Priory granted by James I. to Ralph Freeman, May 9, 1607 ; the church restored by Elizabeth Drury, and opened on St Stephen's-day, 1621. JOHN, ST, OF JERUSALEM, Knights Hospitallers of, first made a religious military order by Gerard Tour, 1099 ; they at first provided hospitality for pilgrims and the sick, under Raymond Dupuy ; they defended themselves against the infidels, under Saladin, 1121 ; defeated at Jerusalem, by him, 1187; they dis- tinguished themselves at the siege of Ptolemais, July 12, 1191 ; set out from England and Germany for the recovery of the Holy Land, 1237 ; returned, Oct. 3, 1247 ; defended St Jean d'Acre so obstinately that only seven remained alive when the fortress was taken, 1290 ; they captured the Island of Rhodes, Aug. 15, 1310 ; took Smyrna, 1344, and held it until 1401, when it was taken by the Great Mogul ; the possessions of the Knights Templars bestowed upon, 17 Edward II. c. 2, 1323-4 ; Rhodes was attacked by the forces of Mahomed II., but after a siege of 89 days, the besiegers were defeated with great slaughter, 9000 being slain, 1480 ; King Henry VII. was elected Protector of the Knights of Rhodes, 1502 ; the island attacked by Solyman the Magnificent with an army of 300,000 men, June, 1522, who took it after a siege of four months ; the knights capitulating, they left the island, Jan. I, 1523 : this order was suppressed in Eng- land and Ireland by 32 Henry VIII. c. 24, 1540. JOHNSON, Rev. Samuel, convicted of a libel on the Duke of York, and severely punished, Nov. 20, 1683 ; again, Nov. 16, 1686 ; his sentence reversed, and a pension assigned him, June II, 1689. JOINERS' COMPANY incorporated by Henry VIII., Dec. 21, 1515 ; incor- porated with the Ceilers', 13 Elizabeth, April 14, 1570. Hall built, 1669-70. JOINPORE, Hindustan. The fort founded by Sultan Feroze III. of Delhi, and built of solid stone, 1370 ; annexed to the empire of Delhi, 1478 ; repaired, 1570, and the bridge built, which was submerged, 1773, when a brigade of British troops sailed over it ; it suffered no damage from its submersion.' JOINTED SHIPS, vessels built upon this plan, invented by McSweney, called the Connector, 1858. JOINT-STOCK COMPANIES. After the crash of the Bubble Act, 6 Geo. I. c. 1 8, 1719, several companies obtained private acts, but by the statute, 6 Geo. IV. c. 91, July 5, 1825, the crown was enabled to grant charters upon certain condi- tions ; amended by 4 & 5 Will. IV. c. 94, Aug. 15, 1834 ; this was repealed by 7 Will. IV. and I Viet. c. 73, July 17, 1837 ; an act passed for the registration, incorporation, and regulation of, 7 & 8 Viet. c. lio, Sept. 5, 1844 ; these have all been superseded by the statute 19 & 20 Viet. c. 47, July 14, 1856, or the 'Limited Liability Act ;' the Winding- up Acts, II & 12 Viet. c. 45, Aug. 14, 1848, and 12 & 13 Viet c. 108, Aug. I, 1849 ; further amended, 20 & 21 Viet, c. 78, Aug. 25, 1857 ; again, 21 & 22 Viet. c. 60, July 23, 1858 ; companies for the erection of dwelling-houses for the labouring classes, incorporated by 18 & 19 Viet. c. 132, Aug. 14, 1855 ; treaty between England and France relative to, April 30, 1862. 454 JONESBOROUGH JUDGES JONESBOROUGH, battle. The Federals under Gen. Sherman defeated the Con- federates, capturing 1000 prisoners and 10 cannons, Sept. I, 1864. JOPPA, Phoenicia, anciently inhabited by the tribe of Dan, Josh. xix. 46, B.C. 500. See Jaffa. JORDAN. This river has never been navigable, flowing into a sea that has never known a port or a fishery ; the plains of, are mentioned, Gen. xiii. 10 ; Jacob passed over, Gen. xxxii. 10 ; St John baptized here, John x. 40. JOSHUA, the sixth of the sacred books. Part of this work has been compared to the Domesday Book of the Normans, written circa B.C. 1451. JOURNALS of the House of Peers, the first taken, 1550 ; of the House of Commons, first ordered to be printed, and ^5000 allowed for the expenses of the work, 1752 ; the printing the acts of parliament commenced temp. Henry VII. , and they have been consecutively published since. JUAN FERNANDEZ, Island of, discovered, 1705 ; Selkirk, a native of Scotland, lived here alone five years, whence the History of Robinson Crusoe, by De Foe. JUBILEE, among the Jews every 50 years, among the Christians at the end of every century, instituted by Pope Boniface VII., 1300 ; this was celebrated after- wards every 50 years by order of Clement VI. ; Urban VI. reduced it to every 33 years, and Sextus IV. to every 25 years, 1475, at which period it is now fixed, an imitation of the Jewish custom ; and at Stratford, the Shakespeare, 1 769 and 1809 ; in honour of George III. upon the completion of the 5oth year of his reign, Sept. 25, 1809. JUDE, General Epistle of, written to the Jewish Christians in Syria and Arabia, A. D. 66 ; he was one of the Twelve Apostles and the brother of James. JUDGES appointed, and the kingdom divided into six circuits, three to each, 1176; Robert de Brus appointed first chief justice, March 8, 1268 ; Thomas de Weyland banished for bribery, 1288 ; several punished for bribery and extortion, 17 Edw. I., 1289 ; William de Thorp charged with bribery, Nov. 3, 1350, and committed to the Tower, Nov. 13 ; no gift or fee to be received by, 8 Rich. II. c. 3, 1384 ; the Chancellor, De la Pole, impeached, Oct. 3, 1386, and dismissed; one committed the Prince of Wales for assaulting him on the bench, 1412 ; their salaries increased, 37 Henry VIII., 1547 ; Lord Bacon accused by the Commons of bribery, March 15, 1621, fined 40, ooo and to be imprisoned in the Tower during pleasure, May 3 ; a sermon preached against bribery before the judges at the Thetford assizes, by Mr Ramsey, March, 1630 ; an order made as to the wearing of robes, June 4, 1635 ; threatened with impeachment, and put in bail, and Berkeley taken off the bench, and committed by the Commons, Feb. 13, 1641 ; their salaries fixed at ^"1000, 1648; three impeached, Nov. 24, 1680 ; Lord Chancellor Macclesfield fined ,30,000, for peculation in his office, 1723-4 ; judges appointed to the superior courts, and their salaries fixed, 13 Will. III. c. 2 ; their salaries augmented, and themselves appointed for life, instead of during pleasure, I Geo. III. c. 23, 1761 ; enlarged, 1772; appointed the puisne judges, 1779 ; some sent to the East Indies, 1774 ; three additional, appointed, 1784 ; a vice-chancellor, May 5, 1813 ; an additional judge to each court, Oct., 1841 ; two new vice-chancellors, April 2, 1851 ; two Lord Chief Justices appointed by 14 & 15 Viet. c. 83, Aug. 7, 1851 ; Sir Creswell Creswell appointed first judge of the Divorce Court, Jan. 5, 1858. JUDGES, the salaries of: Lord Chancellor ... ... ... ... ... ... ^"10,000 Master of the Rolls 6000 Lord Justices 6000 JUDICIAL PRIVY COUNCIL JUNIUS 455 Vice-Chancellors ... ... ... ... ... ... ... Lord Chief Justice of the Queen's Bench ............ 8000 Lord Chief Justice of the Common Pleas ... ... ... ... 7000 Lord Chief Baron of the Exchequer ... ... ...... 7000 The Puisne Judges and Barons ... ...... ... ... 5000 The Judge of the Divorce Court ... ... ... ... ... 7000 JUDICIAL PRIVY COUNCIL COMMITTEE, for appeals from the various courts, constituted, 2 & 3 Will. IV. c. 92, Aug. 14, 1833. JUGGERNAUT, the Great Temple of, built, circa A.D. 480 ; it afterwards be- came buried in the sands ; restored, 1x98 ; pilgrimages to the shrine of, taxed ; proposal to abolish the tax on the pilgrims to, July, 1812 ; abolished, 1839. JUGGLERS, performers of deceptions, considered to be magicians ; a horse that performed certain tricks declared to be possessed by a devil, and burned at Lisbon, 1601 ; in 1739, a juggler was put to the torture in Poland till he con- fessed how he did his tricks, and then hung ; equestrian tricks caused great won- der at Rome, 1581 ; Wildman, a conjurer of bees, and their tamer, 1766 ; John Muller's iron fly, and an eagle that flew to meet the Emperor Maximilian, 1470, at Nuremberg ; Vaucanson s flute-playing automaton, 1738, and Phillipstahl's in London, 18139, were considered by the vulgar as touching the supernatural ; the rope trick introduced, 1864. JUGURTHINE WAR began, B.C. III ; Marius subdued most of the strongholds, 107 ; Jugurtha taken, 106 ; he was kept in captivity till the return of his con- queror, Jan. I, 104 ; he then adorned his triumph, and was starved in prison. JULIAN PERIOD, produced by the lunar cycle 19, solar cycle 28, and Roman in- diction 15, multiplied together, being 7980 years, beginning 47 13 years before our own era. Calendar reformed by Pope Gregory, 1582. JULY, the seventh month of the Julian year, from Julius, the surname of Caesar, who was born in it : the fifth month of the Roman Calendar until the year 713 A. D. , when January and February were added. June was originally the fourth month, so named from Juno the goddess. JULY, the Revolution of, in France, the populace committing the wildest excess, 29-31, 1830 ; a decoration called the July Cross founded to commemorate the citizens who had distinguished themselves, Oct. 9, 1830. JUNCTION AND BIRMINGHAM CANAL, New, commenced, 1828. JUNCTION OF THE ATLANTIC AND PACIFIC proposed by the isthmus of Tehuantepec, Feb., 1825. JUNCTION OF THE RHINE AND THE DANUBE, a canal for, first con- templated through the valley of the Salz, 1834. JUNGFRAU, Switzerland, ascent of this glacier for the first time, Sept. 10, 1828. JUNIOR CARLTON CLUB instituted, 1864; the Club-house is now building. JUNIOR UNIVERSITY CLUB built from the designs of Sir R. Smirke, R.S., I855-57- JUNIUS, Letters of, by a celebrated political writer, who published his papers in the Public Advertiser : the first appeared, Jan. 21, 1769; the last number pub- lished, March 3, 1772 ; exceedingly cutting and severe, they were also thought to exaggerate the offences and errors of certain public characters, which has since been found by collateral evidence, in memoirs and biographies, not to have been the case ; the secret of his name the writer declared should perish with him ; Sir Philip Francis is supposed to be the author of them. 456 JUNTO JUTLAND JUNTO, a political association in the reign of Queen Anne, consisting of the follow- ing six leading Whigs : the Duke of Devonshire, Lord Halifax, Lord Somers, Lord Wharton, Lord Sunderland, and Lord Orford, 1707-8. JUPITER, the planet so called, known to the Chaldeans 2000 years before Christ ; the satellites discovered by Galileo, Jan. 7-13, 1610 ; Harriot observed them, Oct. 17. JURIES were common to the northern nations ; they were known in Wales before they were introduced into England ; Reginer, a Dane, ordered 12 to be impan- nelled, 820 ; first established in England by Ethelred, 979 ; the plaintiff and defendant in those times used to feed them, whence the common law of denying sustenance to a jury after hearing evidence, and for fear of bribery ; the number of jurors 12, but not limited in the assize of Henry II.; the first mention of 12 being the number to be summoned is in the Constitutions of Clarendon, 1164, and the Statute of Northampton, 1176 ; a coroner's jury established, 4 Edw. I. s. 2, 1276 ; the right of a foreigner to be tried by a mixed jury claimed by some Jews, who were accused of murdering a Christian child at Lincoln, Nov. 22, 1250 ; an act passed consolidating and amending the laws relative to jurors and juries and defining the qualifications of grand-jurymen, 6 Geo. IV. c. 50, June 22, 1825 ; an alien on his trial may have half the jury foreigners, Edward III., 1353 ; France established the trial by jury in criminal cases, Sept. 16, 1791 ; act passed for the trial by jury in civil cases in Scotland, 55 Geo. III. c. 42, 1815 ; to amend the Irish laws of, 1833 ; a judge may detain a jury during his pleasure if they do not agree in their verdict ; the unanimity of the jury was everything with the founders of this mode of trial ; the evidence must be so clear, that all the 12 honest men can give a verdict of innocent or guilty upon it without reservation ; facilities given for the dispatch of business before grand juries, 19 & 20 Viet. c. 54, July 4, 1856. JUSTICE, Lord Chief. Robert de Brus first appointed, 52 Henry III., March 8, 1268. JUSTICES IN EYRE, or ITINERANT JUDGES, established by Henry II., A. D. ii 76, who made their circuits through the kingdom for this purpose ; Eng- land was divided into six circuits and 18 judges, 1179 ; the circuits were reduced to four and the judges to 15. JUSTICES OF THE PEACE, first called Conservators of the peace ; by the statute, 34 Edw. III. c. I, 1360, they were called Justices, and appointed by special commission under the great seal, the form of which was settled by all the judges, 1590 ; by the statute, 18 Edw. III. c. 2, 1344, two or three men of the best reputation in each county appointed ; the number restrained by 12 Rich. II. c. 10, 1388, and 14 Rich. II. c. II, 1391 ; must be residents in their several counties, 2 Henry V. s. I, c. 4, 1414; qualifications fixed by 5 Geo. II. c. 18, 1732, and 1 8 Geo. II. c. 20, 1745 ; persons not capable of being upon the com- mission, 6 & 7 Viet. c. 73. JUSTICIARS OF ENGLAND, the first appointed by William the Conqueror was the Earl of Kent, and William Fitz-Osborne, Earl of Hereford, March, 1067 ; the last, 1261. JUSTICIARY COURT OF SCOTLAND established, 1672. JUSTINIAN, his Code of Laws published, 520, four years after his Digest ; began his reign, 527 ; died, Nov., 565. JUSTS. See Tournaments. JUTLAND, Denmark. During the loth and nth centuries the whole of the country was a forest ; the sea broke through the dykes, destroying 15,000 persons, 1634 ; the cathedral founded, 1248 ; three English ships-of-war were wrecked off this coast, 1807. JUVENILE OFFENDERS KANDY 457 JUVENILE OFFENDERS, Prison for, established at Parkhurst, Isle of Wight, i & 2 Viet. c. 82, Aug. 10, 1838 ; enlarged, 5 & 6 VicL c. 98, s. 12, Aug. 10, 1842. K KA-FFA, Crimea. The ancient Theodosia of the Greeks, it was founded by Milesian colonists ; it was taken after a long siege by Leucon, King of the Bos- phorus ; it was taken by the Genoese in the 1 3th century ; captured by the Turks, 1475 ; taken by the Russians, 1771 ; made a free port, 1806. KAFFRARI A, Cape of Good Hope. The Dutch made a settlement here, circa 1674; they first came in contact with the natives, 1 740 ; they drove them over the Great Fish river, 1780 ; the British took possession of the country, 1795 ; it was restored to the Dutch, 1802 ; again taken by the English, 1806. See Cape of Good Hope. KAGOSIMA, Japan. Mr Richardson murdered here, Sept. 14, 1862 ; the town bombarded by the fleet under Admiral Kuper, Aug. 15, 1863. KAIRA, Hindustan, ceded to the East India Company by the Guicowar, May, 1803. KAIRWAN, N. Africa, founded by the Arabs, A.D. 670. KAISERSLAUTERN, Germany. The town fortified and castle built by Frederick I., circa 1160; the. French attempted to take the town, destroying the castle, Nov. 28, 1 793 ; they were defeated with considerable loss here, May 24, 1 794. KALAFAT, Wallachia, occupied by a large Turkish force, Oct. 28, 1853 ; they fortified and held the town until delivered up to the Austrians by the treaty of June 14, 1854. KALEIDOSCOPE, an optical instrument, invented by Dr Brewster, and patented, 1817, greatly assistant in the formation of patterns. KALITSCH ALLIANCE, offensive and defensive, ratified here between Frederick William III. of Prussia, and Alexander, Emperor of Russia, against France, Feb. 28, 1813 ; joined by England, June 14. KALITSCH, battle between the French and Russians, Feb. 13, 1813, in which the former were defeated. KALUNGA FORT, in the East Indies, repulse of the English from, and Gen, Gillespie killed, Oct. 31, 1814; attacked again with no better success, Nov. 27, but ultimately evacuated by the enemy, Nov. 30. KAMPTULICON, a flexible floor cloth, composed of cork and india-rubber, pa- tented by Mr Galloway, Feb. 14, 1844. KAMTSCHATKA, Asiatic Russia, discovered by the Russians, and taken posses- sion of by them, 1649 ; a party of Cossacks attempted to penetrate into the in- terior, 1696, but without success ; subjected to Russia, 1706 ; visited by Behring, 1 728 ; by Clarke, Captain Cook's companion, who died in, Aug. 22, 1 779. KANDAHAR, Affghanistan. The present city built by Ahmed Shah, and made the seat of Government, 1754 ; the Government removed to Cabul, 1774 ; occupied by the British forces under Gen. Nott, from 1839 42. KANDY, Ceylon, the capital of the Kings of Kandy till 1815 ; captured by the English, Feb. 14, to whom it was ceded by treaty, March 2. 458 KANGAROO ISLAND KELLY COLLEGE KANGAROO ISLAND, so named by its discoverer, Capt. Flinders, from the num- ber of kangaroos discovered there, 1802. KANGRAH, this celebrated hill fort captured by the famous Mahmoud of Ghizni, who plundered it of immense riches, A.D. 1010 ; it was retaken by the Rajah of Delhi, 1043 ; it was one of the places selected for the culture of the tea tree, 1850. KANSAS, N. America, purchased by Act of Congress from the French, 1803 ; and formed into a settlement, 1854 ; admitted into the Union, 1856. KARICAL, Hindustan, granted to the French by the Rajah of Travancore, 1739 ; taken by the English under Col. Monson, 1760. KARNAK, Egypt. The hall of the temple built by Sethee I., circa B.C. 1340; the great obelisk, the monument of Queen Amen-numt, erected, B.C. 1442. KARS, Turkey. The castle founded by Amurath III., 1586; besieged by the Persian conqueror Nadir Shah, 1735, unsuccessfully; the Russians under Gen. Neswatoff attempted to take it, 1806, but failed ; they again besieged it under the command of Gen. Paskiewitsch, July 7> 1828, and took it after an obstinate resistance, Aug. 27 ; Gen. Williams appointed to superintend the defence and fortification of, Sept., 1854 ; besieged by the Russians under Mouravieff, June 9, 1855 ; assaulted by the Russians, who were severely repulsed after 8 hours' fighting, Sept. 29 ; capitulated through famine, Nov. 28, 1855 ; restored to the Turks by treaty, March 30, 1856. KASAN, European Russia, founded by the Tartars, 1441 ; subjected to Russia, 1552; the ancient archives destroyed by fire and part of the town, 1774; the government powder stores exploded, 1815, and 1842 ; half of the city burnt. KATCHA BAY, Black Sea, the fleet suffered severely by a hurricane off this coast, Nov. 14, 1854. KATHERINE HALL, Cambridge, founded, 1472. KATHERINE'S, ST, DOCKS, London, designed by Mr Hardwicke ; first stone laid, May 3, 1827 ; opened, Oct. 25, 1828 ; total cost, ;i, 700,000. See Docks. KATHERINE'S, ST, HOSPITAL, at the tower founded by Queen Matilda, circa 1148; the last service held here, Oct. 30, 1825; removed to Regent's Park, 1827. KATZBACH, battle. The French, commanded by Marshal Ney, defeated the Prussians under Field-marshal Blucher, Aug. 26, 1813. KEARSAGE, Federal war steamer, Capt. Winslow, defeated and sunk the Alabama, Capt. Semmes, June 20 ; Capt. Semmes, 13 officers, and 26 men, saved by Mr Lancaster in his yacht, 'The Deerhound,' June 20, 1852. KEASY PRIORY, Suffolk, founded, 1210. KEELING ISLANDS, Indian Ocean, discovered by Capt. Keeling, 1609. KEHL, Germany, taken by the French under Moreau, June 23, 1796 ; besieged by the Austrians, and captured after 50 days, Jan. 9, 1797 ; annexed to France, Jan. 27, 1807 ; restored by the treaty signed at Paris, May 30, 1814. KELAT, Beloochistan. This town was taken by the British, under Gen. Wiltshire, Nov. 13, 1839, Mehrab Khan being slain ; a detachment of Sepoys being left to hold the town, they were defeated by the Beloochees under Nussir Khan, July, 1840 ; retaken by General Nott, Nov. 3, 1840 ; the ruler, Nasir Khan, acknowledged by the British, and the troops withdrawn, 1841. KELDHOLM PRIORY, Yorkshire, founded by Robert de Stutevill, circa 1135. KELLY COLLEGE, Devonshire, Admiral Benedictus Marwood Kelly left a sum of ;8o,ooo to found a Church of England College at, he died, Sept. 26, 1867. KELLY, MISS KENSINGTON PALACE 459 KELLY, MISS, fired at while acting in Drury-lane, by George Barnett, Feb. 17, 1816, who was tried, and found insane. KELSO, Scotland. .The abbey founded by David I., 1128; the founder's son, Henry Earl of Northumberland, buried in, 1 152 ; the church founded, May 3, 1 128 ; partially destroyed by the English army, 1545 ; demolished by the English, 1545 ; the bridge built by Rennie after the model of Waterloo Bridge, length 494 feet, breadth 25 feet, height 42 feet, opened, 1803 ; cost jl8,ooo ; Town Hall built, 1816 ; Queen Victoria visited this town, Aug. 21, 1867. KENDAL, Westmoreland. The weavers from Flanders and other foreign places settled here, 1337; law made for the protection of the manufacture of Kendal cloth, 13 Rich. II., 1389, and that it should not require to be sealed, 9 Hen. IV. c. 2, 1407 ; incorporated by Elizabeth, 1575 ; confirmed by Charles I., 1635-6 ; the corporation adopted the Local Government Act, 1858 ; the Town Hall built, 1828. KKXDAL CASTLE, Westmoreland, erected and fortified by Ivy de Talboys, temp. Stephen, 1133-54; Catherine Parr, one of the Queens of Henry VIII., born, 1509. KENILWORTH, Dictum of, issued by certain bishops and others appointed, on the surrender of Kenilworth Castle, after six months' siege, to the royal forces of Henry III. ; by this dictum, all who took up arms against the king were to pay him the value of their lands for seven, five, and two years ; first issued, Oct. 31, 1266. KENILWORTH ABBEY, Warwickshire, founded by Geoffrey de Clinton, cham- berlain to Henry I., 1122. KENILWORTH CASTLE, Warwickshire, built by Geoffrey de Clinton, Treasurer to Henry I., whose tower walls are 16 feet thick, 1120; sold by the founder's grandson to Henry III., who gave it to Simon de Montfort, as a marriage portion with his sister Eleanor, enlarged and fortified by him, 1262 ; taken by Edward I., who gave it to his son Edmund, afterwards Earl of Leicester, 1273 ; he held a tournament here, which was attended by a hundred knights and ladies, 1278 ; Edward II. confined in, 1326 ; a deputation of the Commons arrived here, and ex- torted from him his resignation of the crown, Jan. 20, 1327 ; enlarged by Edward III., 1340-2; John of Gaunt strengthened the fortifications, 1396; reverted to the crown, 1399; given by Queen Elizabeth to Dudley, Earl of Leicester, who entertained her and the court for 17 days, 1562 ; considerably enlarged, and two new towers added by the Earl, 1570-75 ; Cromwell captured it, and gave it up to his army to pillage and destroy, 1646. KENNINGTON COMMON, Surrey. The Chartists held a meeting here, April 10, 1848, but owing to the precautions taken, failed in creating an insurrection ; converted into a public park by 15 & 16 Viet. c. 29, June 17, 1852 ; completed and opened, 1853. KENSAL GREEN, general cemetery, London, incorporated, 1831 ; opened, Jan. 31, 1832 ; consecrated, Nov. 2; the same year enlarged, and the additional ground consecrated by the Bishop of London, A. C. Tait, D.D., Aug. 14, 1862 ; much damage done to the catacombs by a fire which broke out, Sept. 18, 1865. KENSINGTON. The Gore estate purchased by the commissioners of the Great Exhibition, 69 acres, ,213,500, 1852 ; the South Kensington Museum built ; The Boilers, 1856; the present building, from the designs of Capt. Fowke, R. E., 1865 ; the Horticultural Gardens opened, 1 86 1 ; International Exhibition, 1862 ; Her Majesty laid the foundation-stone of the Hall of Arts and Science, May 10, 1867 ; Campden House destroyed by fire, March 23, 1862 ; Palace Gardens formed under the 5 Viet. c. I, Oct 5, 1841. KENSINGTON PALACE, and Gardens, once the seat of Lord Chancellor Finch, partly taken out of Hyde Park, but only 26 acres in extent, purchased by William 460 KENT KETTERING III. ; Queen Anne enclosed 30 acres, and planted it, 1701, taken out of Hyde^Park, and Queen Caroline gave 300 acres more, 1 730 ; George II. died here ; Queen Victoria born in the palace, May 24, 1819 ; the bridge designed by Rennie, and opened, 1827, at a cost of .36,500 ; a ride formed, 1860, and another, 1861 ; the ornamental water-works completed, 1861. KENT, England. The Cymri were the first settlers ; they were followed by the Belgse ; Hengist and Horsa landed in Pegwell Bay, 445 ; St Augustine landed in the Isle of Thanet, 597 ; Ethelbert, King of Kent, the first Christian King of England, 597 ; the first Christian Church, St Martin, built at Canterbury in Roman times ; became subject to Mercia at the end of the seventh century, and in 823 passed under the supremacy of the West Saxons ; William the Conqueror burnt Romney and Dover, but confirmed the men of Kent in their privileges, 1067; Thomas a Becket landed at, upon his return from exile, 1 1 70 ; the insurrection under Wat Tyler, commenced at Dartford, 1381 ; the rebels under Jack Cade encamped on Blackheath, June i, 1450 ; 4000 French soldiers landed, and burnt the town of Sandwich, 1459 ; the shipping in the Medivay destroyed by the Dutch fleet, 1677 ; King James II. was captured at Sheerness, and conveyed to Favers- ham, 1688 ; the Kentish men rose in arms in favour of Charles I., May 23, 1648, but were defeated at Maidstone, June I, by Fairfax. KENT, a little boy four years of age, the son of Mr Kent, of Road, Somerset, murdered by his sister Constance Kent, June 30, 1860. See Road Murder. KENT, East Indiaman, sailed from the Downs, Feb., 1825, and took fire in Bay of Biscay, March I, 1825, during a storm, when 340 men, 66 women, and 45 children were saved by the noble conduct of Captain Cook of the Cambria, that fortunately hove in sight, March 2 ; 85 persons perished. The East India Com- pany rewarded the gallantry of the captain and crew of the Cambria. KENT, Elizabeth Barton, the Holy Maid of, executed at Tyburn for witchcraft, April 20, 1534. KENTBURY, Berks, numerous houses at, destroyed by fire, April 10, 1742. KENTISH PETITION, a petition agreed to at the assizes held at Maidstone, and signed by the grand jury, magistrates, and freeholders begging the House of Com- mons to cease their disputes upon the partition treaties and illegal orders, and to consider the bills of supply signed, April 29, 1701 ; presented, May 8, when the House refused to receive it, and committed William Colepepper and four other gentlemen who presented it, to prison ; this conduct brought forth a memorial from the people of Kent and other counties, and these gentlemen were soon released. KENTON, Exeter, a village seven miles from, destroyed by fire, April 16, 1856. KENTUCKY, North America, the first settlement was established, 1760-70; a county of Virginia declared independent, 179 admitted into the Union, June I, 1792. KERMAN, Persia. The town taken by Aga Mahomet Khan, and its walls and public buildings destroyed, and 30,000 of its inhabitants put to death, 1794. KERTCH, Crimea, Panticap the first Protestant bishop was appointed, 1550 ; united to Dublin. KILDARE, Curragh of, Ireland ; the insurrections here began the rebellion of 1798, May 23 ; occupied by Gen. Preston with his forces, 1783 ; 30,000 insurgents met at, in 1804 ; during the present century a permanent camp has been formed. KILFENORA, Bishopric of, a suffragan to the see of Cashel, 1 152 ; united to Clon- fert, 1741 ; to Killaloe, 1752. KILGERRAN, Wales, the castle taken from the English by Rhys ap Gryfydd, 1164 ; the Normans made an unsuccessful attempt to take it, 1166 ; captured by William, Earl of Pembroke, 1204; recaptured by the Welsh, 1215 ; again taken by the Earl of Pembroke, 1222 ; it has since remained in that family. KILKENNY, Ireland. Strongbow formed an English settlement here and erected the castle in the I2th century ; Wm Le Mareschal granted the town a charter of incorporation, afterwards confirmed by James I. ; the castle was purchased by the Earl of Ormond, 1391, in which he entertained Richard II., 1399 ; the town was walled, 1400; Jerpoint Abbey of St Canice founded, 1180; the hospital of St John founded, 1220 ; taken by the insurgents, 1641, and made the head-quarters of the Roman Catholic party ; the town walled by Robert Talbot, 1400 ; Crom- well besieged the town, March 23, 1650, thrice repulsed in his assaults ; Ireton arriving with a fresh force, the town surrendered, March 28 ; the first parliament was held here, 1294, and the last, 1536. The Kilkenny Statutes were passed here, by which it was made high treason for the English to intermarry with the Irish, or nurse the infants of such marriage ; and the use of an Irish name, dress, guise, or fashion, by any Englishman, incurred seizure of lands and imprisonment till he renounced them, 40 Edward III., 1364. KILKENNY, Ireland. The see of Ossory was first established at Seikyran, circa 402 ; removed to Aghaboe, 1052, and to Kilkenny in the reign of Henry II. KILLALA KING'S, OR QUEEN'S BENCH 463 KILLALA, Ireland, landing of the French at, under General Humbert, Aug. 22, 1 798 ; they defeated the royal forces under General Lake, but soon afterwards surrendered to General Cornwallis. KILLALA,- see of, said to have been founded, 434 ; united to the see of Achonry, 1607, and to Tuam, 1833. KILLALOE, the see of, said to be founded in the 6th century ; the King of Tho- mond and Desmond died here in pilgrimage, 1 142 ; the see of Kilfenora united with it, 1752. ^ K1LLIECRANKIE, battle, in Scotland, between William III. and the adher- ents of James II., Viscount Dundee formerly ; Graham of Claverhouse succeeded in raising a force of 2000 or 3000 Highlanders, with whom he defeated the king's forces, but he fell at the moment when victory declared in his favour, July 27, 1689. KILMAINHAM HOSPITAL, Dublin, for disabled Irish soldiers, founded in the town of that name, 1675. KILMALLOCK ABBEY, Ireland, founded, 645 ; incorporated by Edward VI.; confirmed by Elizabeth, 1584 ; invested by the Irish forces, 1598. KILSYTH, battle. The Covenanters, under Baillie, defeated by the Royalists, commanded by the Duke of Montrose, Aug. 15, 1645. KILT, or PHILIBEG, as worn in Scotland, introduced by Thomas Rawlinson, an iron-smelter, circa 1 728. KILWARDEN, LORD, murdered by the rebels in Dublin, July 23, 1803. KIMBOLTON CASTLE, Huntingdonshire, erected and fortified by Geoffrey de Mandeville, Earl of Essex, 1137-40 ; rebuilt by Sir Richard Wingfield, 1531 ; Catherine of Arragon resided here, where she died, 1536. KINBURN, Russia. The Russians, under Suwaroff, defeated the Turks near, 1787 ; the forts at, capitulated to the allied squadrons, Oct. 17, 1855. KING, the name of the supreme ruler of the Hebrews during a period of about 500 years previous to the destruction of Jerusalem, B. c. 586 ; the immediate oc- casion of the substitution of a regal form of government for that of judges seems to have been the siege of Jabesh-Gilead, by Nahash, King of the Ammonites, I Sam . xi. 50, xii. 12 ; he was the commander-in-chief of the army, supreme judge, and absolute master of the lives of his^subjects. KINGS, the First and Second Books of, originally only one book in the Hebrew Canon, and in the Vulgate the third and fourth books, the books of Samuel being the first and second ; these books contain the history from David's death and Solomon's accession to the destruction of the kingdom of Judah, and the desola- tion of Jerusalem ; first book written B.C. 1015 ; second book, circa B.C. 896. KING'S BOOK. This is the return of the commissioners appointed under 26 Henry VIII. c. 3, 1534, to value the first-fruits and tenths bestowed, it is entitled Valor Ecclesiasticus Tempore ffe/iriciVIII. ; Auctoritate Regia instituta. KING'S, or QUEEN'S, BENCH, Court of. The ancient Curia Regis, so called because the king formerly sat there. The Rolls began, 6 Rich. I. ; made itinerant by Edward I., 1300. The court for Ireland established by Edward I. The Lord Chief Justices, from the Restoration, 1660, to the present time. Sir Robert Foster ... ... 1660 Sir Francis Pemberton ... 1681 Sir Robert Hyde 1663 Sir Edmund Saunders ... ... 1683 Sir John Kelynge 1665 Sir George Jeffries, the infamous Sir Matthew Hale 1671 Lord Jeffries 1683 Sir Richard Raynsford ... ... 1676 Sir Edward Herbert ... ... 1685 Sir William Scroggs 1678 Sir Robert Wright 1687 464 KING'S BENCH PRISON KING'S COLLEGE Sir John Holt 1689 Lord Mansfield 1756 Earl of Macclesfield 1709 Lord Kenyon 1788 Sir John Pratt 1718 Lord Ellenborough 1802 Lord Raymond 1724 Lord Tenterden 1818 Earl of Hardwicke 1733 Lord Denman 1832 Sir William Lee 1737 Lord Campbell 1850 Sir Dudley Ryder 1754 Sir Alexander Cockburn . . 1859 The Lord Chief Justices for Ireland since the Union. Lord Kilwarden 1798 Francis Blackburne ... ... 1846 Viscount Downs ... ... 1803 Thomas Lefroy ... ... ... 1852 Charles Kendal Bushe 1822 James Whiteside 1 866 Edward Pennefather ... ... 1841 , KING'S BENCH PRISON, the chief prison for the confinement of debtors and persons in contempt of court ; it contains about 240 rooms ; built, 1751 ; burned down by the rioters, June 3, 1780 ; rebuilt, 1781 ; the Marshalsea and Fleet con- solidated with, 5 & 6 Viet. c. 22, May 31, 1842 ; amended, n & 12 Viet. c. 7, March 28, 1848; 23 & 24 Viet. c. 60, Aug. 6, 1860; 24 & 25 Viet. c. 12, May 17, 1861 ; ceased to be used as a prison for debtors. KING GEORGE'S ISLAND, Pacific Ocean, discovered by Commodore Byron, 1765 ; visited by Captain Cook, 1773. KING GEORGE'S SOUND, Australia, discovered by the Spaniards,. 17 74 ; visited by Captain Cook, 1 778. KING OF ENGLAND. Title first used by Egbert, 827 ; King of Ireland added, 1541 ; of Great Britain, by James I., 1603. Henry IV. was called 'His Grace,' Henry VI. 'His Excellent Grace.' Edward IV. 'High and Mighty Prince.' Henry VII. 'His Grace' and 'His Highness.' Henry VIII. first 'His High- ness,' then ' His Majesty.' Notes and Queries. KING OF FRANCE. This title was first assumed by Edward III., who claimed it in right of his mother, Feb. 21, 1340 ; Henry VI. was the last king pro- claimed in France ; the title relinquished by George II. KING OF THE FRENCH. Title of, first taken by Louis XVI., Oct., 1789 ; Louis Philippe so invested, Aug. 9, 1830. KING OF ITALY. Victor Emmanuel elected King of, March 17, 1861. KING OF THE ROMANS, the title of the eldest sons of the emperors of Germany ; the first was Henry VI., 1055. KING OF ROME, the title of the son of Napoleon Bonaparte, 1811, given at his birth. KING OF SCOTLAND (James VI.), took the part of his mother against Queen Elizabeth, 1577 ; taken prisoner by some of the Scotch nobility, 1582 ; escaped, 1583 ; entered into a treaty of reciprocal support with England, 1586 ; married a daughter of the King of Denmark, 1590 ; was attempted to be seized by Both- well, but he escaped, 1592 ; drove the Catholic lords out of his kingdom, 1594; insisted on being declared the successor of Queen Elizabeth, 1598 ; sent Eliza- beth word of the intended invasion of Ireland by the Spaniards, 1599 ; excluded from the throne of England by the Pope, and marked for assassination by the Cowries, 1600 ; became possessor of the throne of England as James I., by the death of Elizabeth, crowned, July 25, 1603. KING'S COLLEGE, Aberdeen, founded, 1500. KING'S COLLEGE, Cambridge, founded by Henry VI., 1443, and built by Nicholas Close, Bishop of Lichfield, 1446. KING'S COLLEGE, Halifax, incorporated, 1802. KING'S COLLEGE, London, opened, Oct. 8, 1831 ; first conference of degrees, KING'S COUNSEL KINMEL HALL 465 May I, 1850 ; museum presented to, 1843, and a library of 3000 volumes on philosophy and oriental literature, presented by William Marsden, F. R. S., 1835. KING'S COUNSEL, the first under the degree of King's Sergeant, so made, was Sir Francis Bacon, Aug. 25, 1604. KING'S CROSS, Battle Bridge, first so called in honour of the accession of George IV., Jan., 1820. KING'S EVIL, first touched for in England by Edward the Confessor, 1058 ; Clovis of France performed this custom, A.D. 481 ; Louis I., 814, and Francis I., 1527 ; Andrew Borde wrote, in the reign of Henry VIII., 'The Kinges of England, by the power that God hath gyven to them, doth makesicke men whole of a syckness, called the kinges evyll.' The people were forbidden to repair to the court to be touched until the Michaelmas following, May 13, 1625 ; Charles II. issued an order of ceremony of touching for, 1683 ; he touched 92,107 per- sons, who were all cured, according to the King's physician. Queen Anne was the last sovereign who touched for this disease ; Dr Johnson was touched by her, 1712. A form of prayer was introduced into the Prayer Book, 1684. KING'S LYNN. The town incorporated by Henry VIII., 1524 ; the name of the town changed from Bishop's Lynn to King's Lynn by a second charter of Henry VIII., 1538 ; he founded a grammar school in the town ; the water-works built by the corporation, 1830; enlarged, 1860; St John's church erected at a cost of .5000, 1846 ; the hospital enlarged, 1852 ; the town drained, 1864 ; the Lynn and Sutton railway opened, March I, 1866. KING'S NEWTON HALL, Derbyshire, destroyed by fire, April 18, 1859. KING'S SPEECH, the first, delivered by Henry I., 1107. KINGSALE, Ireland ; the town taken by a detachment of Spanish troops, Sept., 1601, who fortified it ; recaptured by the English, Dec. 28, 1601 ; held by the forces of King James II., 1690. KINGSTON, Duchess of, convicted and degraded for bigamy, April 22, 1776; allowed the title of the Countess of Bristol, May 18, 1779 ; she had first married Captain Hervey, and next the Duke of Kingston. KINGSTON, Jamaica, founded, 1695, after the destruction of Port Royal by an earthquake ; damaged by a fire to the extent of .500,000, Feb. 3, 1 782 ; a number of houses burnt at, March 29, 1862. KINGSTON, New York, incorporated, 1707 ; burnt by the British troops, 1777. KINGSTON-ON-THAMES. Egbert held a great council here, 838 ; many of the Saxon kings were also crowned in this town ; incorporated by King John, 1199 ; the castle taken by Henry III., 1264 ; during the civil war the town was in pos- session of both parties ; Essex held it with 3000 men, 1642 ; the first stone of the bridge was laid by Lord Liverpool, Nov. 7, 1825 ; completed, 1828 ; made a municipal corporation, 1835 ; the Town-hall built, 1837 ; St Mark's church built at the expense of Miss Burdett Coutts, 1845 ; improvement act granted to, 1855. KINGSTOWN, Ireland, so called to commemorate the visit of George IV., 1821 ; the harbour began at, 1817 ; a harbour at Houth, on the opposite side, was also began in Sept., 1807 ; railway from, to Dublin, opened, Dec. 17, 1834; Queen Victoria landed and embarked from this place upon her visiting Ireland, Aug. 5, 1849. KINGS WOOD ABBEY, Wiltshire, founded by William de Berkeley, 1139. KINGTON ST MICHAEL, Wiltshire, the priory founded by Adam Weyfer, circa 1292. KINMEL HALL, St Asaph, the seat of Lord Dinorben, burnt, valued at .35,000, Sept. 27, 1841. 30 466 KINNER ABBEY KNIGHT KINNER ABBEY, Merionethshire, founded by Llewellyn, Prince of North Wales, 1209. KINSTON, Herefordshire. An earthquake happened here which removed Mar- clay Hill for a considerable distance, Feb. 17, 1571. KIRBY and WADE, two captains in the navy, shot at Plymouth for cowardice, 1 703, having been sentenced in Jamaica previously. KIRKBY MUXLOE CASTLE, Leicestershire, built by William Lord Hastings, 1474- KIRKCALDY, Fifeshire, mortgaged by David II. to the Abbey of Dunfermline ; it was sold, 1540 ; made a royal burgh, Feb. 5, 1644; the sailors' guild founded, 1590 ; the church rebuilt, 1807 ; the streets lighted, 1811. KIRKHAM PRIORY, Yorkshire, built by Sir Walter Espec, 1122. KIRKOSWALD CASTLE, Cumberland, built by the Engaines, and enlarged and fortified by Thomas de Multon, 1330 ; again refortified by Sir Hugh de Morvill, one of the assassins of Thomas a Becket, 1200 ; Thomas Lord Dacre held it, 1520-1 ; demolished by Lord William Howard, 1686-7. KIRKSTALL ABBEY, Yorkshire, founded by Henry de Lacy, 1147. KIRKSTEAD ABBEY, Lincolnshire, founded by Hugh Brito, son of Eudo, Lord ofTalesdale, 1139. KISSENGEN, Bavaria, famed for its waters. The Bavarian army, under Prince Charles of Bavaria, was defeated by the Prussians, under Gen. Manteuffel, with great loss, July 10, 1866. KISSING THE POPE'S TOE, first practised, 709. KITCAT CLUB, a society of about 30 in number, men of rank and others, who met, 1703, at the house of one Cat, a pastrycook, in Shire-lane, to promote the success of the House of Hanover ; Steele, Garth, and Addison were members ; dissolved, circa 1720. KITTS, ST. See St Christopher. KLAGENFURT, Illyria. The House of Assembly built, 1391 ; the fortifications destroyed by the French, 1809. KNARESBOROUGH CASTLE, Yorkshire, erected by Serlo de Burgh, one of the followers of William the Conqueror, 1069-82 ; the murderers of Thomas a Becket took temporary shelter here, 1170; Richard II. confined in, 1399; captured by Cromwell from the Royalists, 1644 ; demolished by his army, 1646. KNEELING ordered to be performed at the name of Jesus, by the pope, about 1275 ; also when the host passes through the streets ; and some places also at the vesper bell. KNIGHT, a mounted soldier in the time of the Romans. After the battle of Cannae, three bushels of gold rings were said to have been gathered from the fin- gers of those Roman knights who had fallen ; they were known in Rome, B.C. 500. The honour was conferred in England by the priest during the Heptarchy ; Athelstan was the first knight made with the sword of state by Alfred, 900 ; William I. divided the country into upwards of 60,000 military allotments or knights' fees ; compelled to take the honour by 9 Henry III., 1224 ; in 1235, igth Henry III., all who held of the king-in-chief one knight's fee or more were ordered to take upon themselves the honour of knighthood ; pecuniary census first established, 1240, and by the 28 Henry III., 1254, all who had .20 worth of land were required to enter themselves as knights ; increased to ^30 in the reign of Edward I., and ,40 in the reign of Edward II. ; by the statute (de Mili- tibus), I Edward II., every one at the age of 21 who had ^40 in land was compelled to take the order ; Charles I., 1629, insisted upon a composition of KNIGHT-BANNERET 467 20 from those who declined being knighted ; this was abrogated by 16 Charles I. c. 20, 1641 ; knights of St George or the Garter instituted by Edward III., 1348; all orders of, abolished in France, July 30, 1791; knights and citizens were obliged to reside at the places they represented, 1413 ; knights-baronet an hereditary knighthood ; chivalry instituted for money by James I., 1611, and, in the course of chivalry, the least honourable of all knighthood from its being bought ; poor knights of Windsor, and others, form a numerous body. There were also female knights, witness the title con- ferred on the brave women who prevented the city of Tortosa from falling into the hands of the Moors, 1 149. The knights of Glyn and Kerry, in Ireland, the heads of the two Fitzgerald families ; of the Round Table of King Arthur, 528 ; the same revived by Edward III., 1344 ; knights of the shire, the individuals who were entitled to sit in parliament for a county, chosen by the lesser barons, 1307; knight -templars instituted, 1118, being military and religious, who were incited to carry on the Crusades ; they settled in the Temple in England, as one of their establishments, 1154 ; they acquired great wealth in the lapse of time, and their property became the object of desire to the sovereigns under whom they lived. In France the monarchs, to attain this end, accused them of great crimes, arrested the Grand Master and a number of knights in the palace of the temple, at Paris, and seized their property, Oct. 13, 1307 ; those in England became victims to a similar rapacity in the same year, 1307 ; Philip the Fair of France accused them of idolatry ; the Grand Master James de Molai was tried, Nov. 26, 1308 ; 54 of the knights were publicly burned, May n 13, 1310, and the Grand Master, March 1 8, 1813 ; abolished by order of the Council of Vienna, April 3, 1312 ; thousands were butchered, and their property given to the knights of Malta. KNIGHT-BANNERET was the title first given by Conan, who commanded the Roman legions in England, 383 ; rank next in precedent to a baron, 5 Rich. II. s. 2, c. 4, 1382 ; the last, Admirals Pye and Spry, and Capts Knight, Beckerton, and Vernon, created by Geo. III. at Portsmouth, 1773. The orders of knight- hood and merit are numerous ; in the several nations, the following are the more noted : Alcantara, instituted ... A.D. 1156-7 Christ, Italy ... ... ... 1319 Alexander Nevskoi, Russia ... 1725 Christ, Portugal ... ... 1317 Amaranta, Sweden ... ... 1653 Christian Charity, France ... 1690 Angel, Golden ... ... ... 312 Conception of the Virgin ... 1618 Angelic Knights, Greece ... 456 Conception, Brazil, Feb. 6, ... 1818 Annunciada, Mantua ... ... 1618 Concord, Prussia ... ... 1660 Annunciation, Savoy ... ... 1434 Crescent, Naples ... ... 1448 Argonauts, Naples ... ... 1382 Crescent, Turkey ... ... 1799 Aviz, Portugal ... ... ... 1143 Crown Royal, France ... ... 802 Band, Spain ... ... ... 1330 Crown of Bavaria ... ... 1808 Bannerets, England, 736, 1 368, and 1485 Crown of Iron ... ... ... 1805 Bath, England, 1204, revised ... 1725 Crown of Saxony ... ... 1807 Bear, Switzerland ... ... 1213 Danebrog, Denmark 1219 Bee, France ... ... ... 1703 Death's Head, Female Order ... 1652 Black Eagle, Prussia ... ... 1701 Dove of Castile ... 1379 Blood of Christ, Mantua ... 1608 Dragon, Hungary ... ... 1418 Bourbon, France ... ... 1370 Eagle, White, Poland ... ... 1325 Broom ... ... 1234 Ear of Com, Brittany ... ... 1381 Brotherly Love, instituted ... 1708 Elephant, Denmark, by Chris- Burgundian Cross ... ... 1535 tian I. ... ... ... ... 1190 Calatrava, Castile ... ... 1158 Ermine, France ... ... 1381 Charles III., Spain 1771 Fidelity 1715 Chase ... ... ... ... 1702 Garter, England 1344 4 68 KNIGHT-BANNERET Generosity, Brandenburgh ... 1685 Golden Fleece ... ... ... 1429 Golden Lion, Hesse Cassel ... 1770 Golden Shield and Thistle ... 1370 Golden Spur, by Pius IV. ... 1559 Guelphic, Hanover ... ... 1816 Hermenegilde, St ... ... 1814 Holy Ghost, France, 1198; rev. 1578 Holy Ghost, Rome 1198 Holy Trinity ... ... ... 1211 India, the Star of 1861 Iron Cross, Prussia ... ... 1813 Isabella, Spain ... ... ... 1804 Januarius, Naples ... ... 1738 Jesus Christ, Rome, instituted by John XXII., 1415 ; re- formed by Paul V. ... ... 1610 Jesus Christ, Spain ... ... 1216 Jesus and Mary, Italy ... ... 1615 Knot, Naples 1352 Lazarus of Mount Carmel ... 1119 Legion of Honour, France ... 1802 Lilly of Arragon ... ... 1410 Lilly of Navarre ... ... 1043 Lion of Zahringen ... ... 1812 Lion of France ... ... ... 1080 Loretto, Lady of 1587 Louis of Hesse Darmstadt ... 1807 Malta, St John 1107 Maria-Theresa, Spain ... ... 1757 Mauritians, Savoy ... ... 1430 Merit, Saxony ... ... ... 1815 Merit, Wurtemberg ... ... 1806 Merit, France ... ... ... 1759 Merit, Prussia ... ... ... 1740 Noble Passion, Germany ... 1704 Oak of Navarre, Spain . . . 7 22 Passion of Jesus Christ, France 1380 Pius, founded by Pius IV. ... 1560 Polar Star, Sweden 1748 Red Eagle, Prussia 1734 Redeemer, Greece 1833 Rosary, Spain ... ... ... 1212 Round Table, England ... 516 St Andrew, Russia 1698 St Andrew, Scotland, 809 ; re- vised, 1540, and again ... 1687 St Ann of Russia 1735 St Anthony, Ethiopia ... ... 370 St Anthony, Hainault ... ... 1382 St Blaize, Acre 1250 St Catharine, Palestine ... 1163 St Catharine, Russia ... ... 1714 St Constantine, 1190 ; revived 1886 St Denis, France ... ... 1267 St Ferdinand, Spain ... ... 1811 St George, Austria ... ... 1470 St George, Bavaria ... ... 1729 St George, Carinthia ... ... 1279 St George, England ... ... 1349 St George (tutelary), Genoa ... 1472 St George, Hanover ... ... 1839 St George, Lucca ... ... 1833 St George, Rome ... ... 1498 St George, Russia ... ... 1769 St George, Spain ... ... 1201 St George, Venice ... ... 1200 St Gregory, Rome ... ... 1831 St Henry, Saxony ... ... 1739 St Hubert, Germany ... ... 1447 St James, Holland ... ... 1290 St James, Portugal ... ... 1310 St James of Compostella, Spain 1175 St Jerome, Germany ... ... 1154 St Joachim, Germany ... ... 1755 St John of Jerusalem, 1048 ; revived ... ... ... 1854 St Julien of Alcantara ... ... 1176 St Lazarus and St Maurice, Savoy ... ... ... ... 1572 St Louis, France ... ... 1693 St Mark, Venice, 830 ; renewed 1562 St Mary the Glorious ... ... 1233 St Mary de Merced, Spain ... 1218 St Michael, France ... ... 1469 St Michael, Germany ... ... 1618 StOlaf 1847 St Patrick, Ireland 1783 St Paul, Rome ... ... ... 1540 St Peter, Rome ... ... 1520 St Rupert, Germany ... ... 1701 St Saviour ... ... ... 1120 St Sepulchre, Palestine ... 1092 St Stanislaus, Poland ,.. ... 1765 St Stephen, Tuscany ... ... 1562 St Thomas of Acre ... ... 1370 Seraphims, Sweden ... ... 1334 Swan, Cleves ... ... ... 960 Sword, Cyprus ... ... ... 1195 Sword, Sweden, 1522 ; revived 1748 Sun and Lion, Persia ... ... 1808 Templars ... ... ... 1119 Tente Morte, Wurtemberg ... 1652 Teutonic... ... ... ... 1191 Thistle of Bourbon ... ... 1370 Thistle of Scotland, 1500; rev. 1540 Tower and Sword, Portugal ... 1459 Virgin of Mt Carmel, France 1607 Vladimir, Russia ... ... 1782 KNIGHT KONIGSBURG 469 KNIGHT, Mr, cashier of the South Sea Company, absconded with 100,000, 1720, and compounded with government for 10,000, and returned to England, 1743- KNIGHTS, Naval, of Windsor. Set Windsor. KNIGHTSBRIDGE, Middlesex, given by Edward the Confessor to Westminster Abbey, inclosed by Elizabeth, July 6, 1569 ; the bridge was repaired, 1630-31. KNIGHTS OF THE SHIRE, who shall be, and the manner of their election, fixed by the statute 23 Hen. VI. c. 14, 1444. KNITTING STOCKINGS, invented in Spain, 1550. KNIVES. Knives were worn at a very early period. In the 6 Edw. III., Lord John Grey, of Rotherfield, is stated to have been committed to prison for drawing his knife partly out of its sheath on Lord William Zouch of Ashby, Rot. Par/, vol. ii. p. 656. Long knives, or other suspicious arms, were forbidden to be worn in the city of London, or Westminster, 1351, during the sitting of parliament, Ibid. p. 2353. In 1363, the knives of trades-people and artificers were prohibited from being adorned with gold or silver or precious stones, Ibid. p. 278^, 28lb, and in the 3 Edw. IV., knives were forbidden from being imported, Ibid. voL v. p. 507. Thomas Earl of Wanvick, in 1400, speaks of knives for the king's coronation in his will ; and Chaucer's allusion to the Sheffield whittle is well known, ' A Shefeld thwitel bare he in his hose. ' Among the expenses of Ochin and Martyr, 1547, before cited, is a payment of 2s. &d. for ' two payer of Tunbridge knives. ' The knife was worn in the girdle. KNIVES, Clasped, such as are used by sailors ; 18 found in the stomach of William Cummins, a seaman, who swallowed them in drunken frolics, he died in Guy's Hospital, March 28, 1809. KNOW-NOTHINGS, a political party formed in the United States in favour of slavery, and that Americans only should fill the government offices, 1855. KOMORN, Hungary. The fortress founded by Corvinus in the I5th century ; re- built and strengthened, 1806-7 ; it has never been taken ; it successfully resisted the Austrian army, 1848-9. KONIAH, battle, fought between the army of the Porte and the Pacha of Egypt, in which the Turkish army was beaten and the Grand Vizier made prisoner, Dec. 21, 1821. KONIGGRATZ, battle. This crowning event of the war of seven weeks, which ended with the total defeat of the Austrian army, under Field-marshal Benedek, the Prussians commanded by the King in person, July 3, 1866 ; the village of Sadowa was the principal object of attack ; it was taken by the Prussians by n o'clock, under Prince Frederick Charles ; the fighting was very severe ; the Crown Prince, with the second army, made a flank attack about 12 o'clock ; at this time the Prussians' position was very critical, but this second attack resulted in inflict- ing a total defeat upon the Austrian grand army ; they lost 40,000 men, 124 guns, 20,000 prisoners, and n standards ; the Prussians' loss was estimated at 10,000 men ; the Austrian army numbered 200,000 men, with 600 guns ; the Prussian army consisted of 260,000, and 816 guns. KONIGSBERG, Prussia, founded by the Teutonic Knights, 1225 ; joined the Hanseatic League, 1365 ; the palace built, 1257 ; the Albertine University founded, 1 554 ; the town came into the possession of the Elector of Brandenburg, 1657 ; the Russians occupied it from 1 758-64 ; the French captured the town, June 1 7, 1808 ; the Emperor Alexander of Russia visited the town, 1808 ; the French army retreated to, Jan. 3, 1812 ; captured by the Russians, Jan. 28, 1812 ; William I., 470 KONIGSTEIN TUN KUNNERSDORF King of Prussia, crowned at, Oct. 18, 1861 ; nearly destroyed by the electric fluid, 1764 ; and by fire, 1769 ; a second time by fare, June 14, 1811. KONIGSTEIN TUN, made for the King of Poland, 1725, holding 233,667 gallons of wine. KOOH-I-NOOR, or Mountain of Light, brought to England from India, and pre- sented to the Queen, June 29, 1850. See Diamonds. KORAN, or the Alcoran of Mahomet, written about 610 ; the prophet aimed in it to unite the Jews, Christians, and heathens, in the worship of one God, under par- ticular laws and ceremonials, which demanded obedience to himself. It was beautifully written in the purest Arabic. The contents of the volume were said to be a revelation from heaven made to him, Mahomet, by the Angel Gabriel, dur- ing a space of twenty-three years. The style is fluent, concise, and elegant, and often rises to the magnificent and sublime where the attributes of God are described. The divine mission of Moses and of Jesus is fully admitted. The doctrine incul- cated by this successful impostor is, that there is but one God and that Mahomet is his prophet. The flight of the prophet from Mecca to Medina, April 19, A.D. 622. This work was first published by Abubeker, 634 ; the Koran was translated into Latin, 1143, and into English by Mr Sale, 1734 ; and has appeared in most European languages ; it contains 3000 verses. KOTAH, Hindustan. Major Burton murdered by the mutineers with his two sons, Oct. 15, 1857 ; taken by General Roberts, March 30, 1858. KOTZEBUE, the dramatist, assassinated at Wurtzburg by a young student, named Sands, April 2, 1819. KOULI KHAN, Nadir Shah, a usurper of the Persian throne, assassinated, June 8, 1747, by his nephew ; he usurped the Persian throne, 1732 ; invaded India, 1739; defeated the Turks before Babylon, Feb. 28, 1733 ; May 29, 1735, defeated the Turks again, and killed 60,000, their general, and six bashaws ; defeated the Great Mogul, and took Delhi, Oct. I, 1739; invaded Turkey, and advanced to Erzeroum, Sept. 29, 1741 ; defeated, and lost 30,000 men, Jan., 1742 ; again de- feated by the Turks, and lost 19,000 men, Sept., 1744 ; defeated the Turks totally, and took Erzeroum, May 31, 1745 ; defeated the Turks again, their army consist- ing of 150,000 men, of whom 30,000 fell, Sept. 28, 1745; he died, June 20, 1747- KOWNO, Russia. The French army of invasion, 450,000 strong, crossed theNie- men on their advance to Moscow, June 24 and 25, 1812 ; the remnant, 20,000, re- crossed, Dec. 13. KRASNOI, battle, between the French and the Russians, under Gen. Kutusoff, 60,000 strong, in the retreat from Moscow, in which Napoleon was defeated with considerable loss, Nov. 17, 1812. KREMLIN, Moscow, the ancient fortress of the city, built by the Czar Ivan, 1333 ; rebuilt and enclosed with stone walls by Dmitri IV., 1367; two convents were established, 1393; Napoleon took up his quarters here, Sept. 15, 1812 ; the town destroyed by fire, Sept. 16, but this fortress escaped ; Napoleon held a conference here with the Russian General, Kutusoff, upon a peace, Sept. 20 ; he left this palace, Oct. 19, and ordered it to be destroyed ; blown up by Marshal Mortier and a great part of the building destroyed, Oct. 20. KULERTSCHA. The Russians, under Diebitsch, defeated the Turks at this place, taking 56 cannon, June II, 1829. KUNNERSDORF, battle, fought between the King of Prussia and the Russians, in which the great Frederick was defeated, with the loss of 20,000 men, Aug. 12, 1759- KURDISTAN LABOUR 471 KURDISTAN, Asia. In the third century B.C., they were dissevered from Syria by the Parthians ; conquered by the Moguls, 1258, and by the Tartars, under Tamerlane, 1400. KUREKDERE, battle. The Turks, under Zarif Mustapha, defeated by the Rus- sians at this town, Aug. 6, 1854. KURRACHEE, Hindustan. A fort built here, 1797 ; taken by the British, Feb. 2, 1839 ; the first voyage made direct to this port from England by the ship ' Duke of Argyle,' 1852. KY.ME PRIORY, Lincolnshire, founded by Sir Philip de Kyme, circa 1189. KYRIE ELEESON introduced into the Roman liturgy from the East, 320. LABOUR, price of. By the 25 Edward III. stat. i, c. I, &c., 1350, wages paid to haymakers were but id. a day ; a mower of meadows $d. per day, or 5^. an acre ; reapers of com, in the first week of August, 2d. per day, in the second, ^d., and so on till the end of August, without meat, drink, or other allowance, finding their own tools ; for thrashing a quarter of wheat or rye, zy^d. a quarter ; a quarter of barley, beans, peas, and oats, i%d. ; a master carpenter, $d. per day ; other carpenters, 2d. per day ; a master mason, $d. per day ; other masons, %d. per day ; and their servants, ij&d. per day ; tilers, $d., and their knaves, i%d.; thatchers, $d. a day, their knaves, i%d.; plasterers and other workers of mud-walls, and their knaves, in the like manner, without meat or drink, and this from Easter to Michaelmas ; and from that time less, according to the direction of the justices. By the 34 Edward III. c. ix., 1360, chief masters of carpenters and masons, ^d. a day, and the others, $d. or zd. , as they were worth; by the 13 Rich. II. c. viii., 1389, the wages of a bailiff of husbandry, 13^. qd. a year, and his clothing once a year at most ; the master hind, ioj. ; the carter, ios. ; shepherd, los. ; oxherd, 6s. 8d. ; cowherd, 6s. &d. ; swineherd, 6s. ; a woman labourer, 6s. ; a day labourer, 6s. ; a driver of the plough, "js. From this time up to the time of 23 Henry VI., the price of labour was fixed by the justices by proclamation ; in 1445, 23 Henry VI. c. xii., the wages of a bailiff of husbandry were 23^. $d. per annum, and clothing of the price of 5-r., with meat and drink ; chief hind, carter, or shepherd, 2cxr., clothing, 4f. ; common servant of husbandry, 15^., clothing, 40^. ; woman servant, IOT., clothing, 4?. ; infant under 14 years, 6s., clothing, 3-r. ; freemason or master carpenter, 4^. per day, without meat and drink, ^Vid.; master tiler or slater, mason or mean carpenter, and other artificers concerned in building, 3| 1805 1632 ..... 06 1810 1647 ...... o 10 1815 ...... 2 1662 ...... o 6 1820 1688 ...... o 8 1825 d. 4 per diem. 9 ii ii 8 9 1698 ...... o 8 1830 ...... 1716 ...... o 9 1835 ...... r 8 1740 ...... o 10 1840 ...... I q l /z 1760 ...... i o Weekly husbandry wages from 1804 to 1843 averaged los. o%d. in Norfolk, the lowest being &., 1804; the highest, 15^., 1812. The hours of labour for chil- dren, young women, &c., regulated, 30 & 31 Viet. c. 146, Aug. 21, 1867. See Factories. LABOURING CLASSES' SOCIETY for improving the dwellings, formed, 1842; the Metropolitan Association for, incorporated, Oct., 1845 ; the society for im- proving the condition of the labouring classes established, Prince Albert being president, 1844 ; incorporated, 1845 ; their first model lodging-houses at Bag- nigge Wells began, 1844 ; an act was passed for promoting the building of dwelling-houses for the labouring classes, 18 & 19 Viet. c. 132, Aug. 14, 1855 ; further facilities given by 29 & 30 Viet. c. 28, May 18, 1 866 ; amended by 30 Viet. c. 28, June 17, 1867. LABRADOR, N. America, discovered by John Capot, 1479 ; surveyed by his son Sebastian, 1512 ; re-discovered by Hudson, 1610 ; Fort Charles erected on the Rupert river, 1668. LABUAN, Indian Archipelago, taken possession of for Gt Britain, 1847 ; Sir James Brooke appointed governor, Oct. 2, 1848 ; bishopric instituted, May 15, 1855, the Rev. F. T. M'Dougall appointed first Bishop. LABURNUM, brought into England from Hungary, 1576. LACE. Fishing-nets, made by hand, have been known in all ages ; in the middle ages it was the favourite employment of females in convents and ladies of rank in most countries, 1400 1600 ; Barbara Uttmann of St Annaberg, in Germany, invented the art of making lace by twisting, platting upon bobbins, 1561 ; the pillow-lace manufacture taught at Gt Marlow, 1626 ; extended in Buck- inghamshire, 1640 ; Strutts patented his machine for making lace, or open work in ladies' silk stockings, 1758 ; Crane made a Vandyke machine, 1768 ; Else and Harvey, 'pin machine' for making, 1770 ; Robert Frost of Nottingham first dis- covered the way of making point net by stocking machinery, 1777 ; William Dawson patented a machine for- making, 1791 ; Heathcoate invented a machine for making bobbin net, 1808 ; one for making a plain ground invented by Mr J. Hill, circa 1816 ; the mesh of, greatly improved by J. W. Bagley, 1837 ; Lime- rick lace, the making of, first taught at Mount Kennett, Aug. 14, 1829 ; Mr John Levers invented an improved bobbin machine, 1850 ; a metallic lace made by Mr Carey of Nottingham by the ordinary Jacquard machine, March, 1854. LACOCK NUNNERY, Wilts, founded by Ela Countess, Duchess of Salisbury, 1232. LACONIA LAKES 473 LACONIA, Greece. The original inhabitants are said to have been the Leleges ; they attacked the Messenians, B.C. 743 ; they entirely subdued them, 668 ; the Spar- tan Dorians obtained possession, 547 ; an earthquake which overthrew several rocks happened, 464 ; devastated by the Goths in the 4th century. LACTEALS, the, discovered by chance on opening a dog, by Asellius at Pavia, July 23, 1622 ; John Wesling first described those in the human frame, 1634 ; Jolyffe described the difference between the Lacteals and Lymphatics, 1652 ; in birds, fish, &c., by Mr Hewson, a surgeon of London, 1770. LADE, battle. The Ionian fleet destroyed by the Persians, and the city of Miletus taken, B.C. 495. LADIES, first introduced at court by the Queen of Louis VII., about 1500, being much later than in England. LADRONE ISLES, Pacific Ocean, discovered, II in number, by Magellan, 1521 ; the Spaniards first settled at, in the I7th century; Adm. Anson visited the islands, 1742. LADYBIRDS, extraordinary flight of, near Southampton, two miles long, ob- served, Aug., 1826. LADY-DAY, the 25th of March, said to have been instituted, 350, but more probably not until about 700 ; before the alteration of the style, the new year in England began on that day ; in Scotland, the 1st of January was ordered to be the new year's day there, instead of March 25, Nov. 27, 1599 ; in England, 1752. LAFFELDT, battle. The allied army was defeated at this town by Marshal Saxe, July 2, 1747. LAGOS, Africa. At this slave-trading station, the British Consul was assailed whilst attempting to negotiate a treaty against the slave-trade under a flag of truce, Nov., 1851 ; the town was attacked by the crew of H. M.'s ship, Bloodhound, but were repelled with a loss of two officers and IO men ; the fleet renewed the attack, and the town was taken after a desperate engagement, Dec. 26-7 ; ceded to England, Aug. 6, 1861. LAGOS, battle. Adm. Boscawen defeated the French fleet under Adm. de la Clue, Aug. 18, 1759. The French Adm. Tourville defeated Adm. Rooke in Lagos Bay, capturing four men-of-war and 40 merchant ships, June 27, 1694. LA HOGUE, battles. The English fleet under Adm. Blake, with 80 sail, defeated the Dutch fleet under Van Tromp, Feb. 18, 1652 ; the English and Dutch, under Adms. Russell and Rooke, defeated the French, under Adm. Tourville, when the French lost 21 sail of ships, May 19 and 21, 1692. LAHORE, Hindustan, taken by Sultan Baber, 1520 ; Runjeet Singh invested with the government, 1799 ; he built a rampart round the city, 1812 ; treaty of, the Dodb annexed, the Sikhs to pay 1,500,000 and Duleep Singh placed upon the throne of Lahore under British protection, March 9, 1841 ; i6th, 26th, and 49th native infantry rebelled and disarmed at, April, 1857. LAKENHEATH, Norfolk, great injury sustained at, by a sand-flood, 1667. LAKE REGILLUS, battle, when the Romans defeated the Latins, B.C. 498 ; Macaulay has immortalized this battle in his ' Lays of Ancient Rome.' LAKES, American, sounded, 1826 : Erie, 35 fathoms deep 1025 ; Lake St Claire, 4 ; Lakes Huron, Michigan, and Superior, in some places, 900 feet deep, the latter being 300 feet beneath the ocean level. 474 LAKES OF AMERICA LAMBETH LIBRARY LAKES OF AMERICA, the Americans defeated by the English on those of the United States, Oct. n and 13, 1776, and July 5, 1777; the English defeated by the Americans, Sept. II, 1813. LAMBERT, executed by Henry VIII., for denying the corporal presence, Nov. 20, 1538 ; being burned slowly, in Smithfield, for the doctrine which Henry soon afterwards supported himself. LAMBERT, DANIEL, died, June 21, 1829, weighing 52 stone n Ibs. LAMBETH ARTICLES, which taught ultra Calvinism, attempted to be imposed upon the Church by Archbishop Whitgift, 1595 ; they were brought forward at the Hampton-court conferences, 1604, but rejected ; adopted by the Irish Church, 1615. LAMBETH, first mentioned in a charter of Edward the Confessor, 1062 ; the Col- legiate Church built, 1189 ; the chapel founded by Hubert, Archbishop, 1190 ; the palace built, 1197; the registers preserved since June, 1279 ; the tower of the church erected, 1375 ; the palace pillaged, and the furniture and books burned, by the rebels, under Wat Tyler, June, 1381 ; the Lollards' Tower built, 1434-5 > tne followers of Wickliffe imprisoned and tortured, many being subsequently burned ; Lord Cobham burned alive, being suspended on a gibbet, 1417 ; the Gate House built by Cardinal Morton, 1490 ; the chapel dismantled by the Parliamentary soldiers, and the painted windows destroyed, 1642, afterwards used as a prison for the Royalists ; sold by the Parliament for .7073 ; the hall demolished, rebuilt by Archbishop Juxon, at an expense of ,10,500; attacked by the rioters, 1780, but successfully defended ; rebuilt, 1828-48, by Archbishop Howley, at an ex- pense of 60,000 ; the New Suspension-bridge erected from the designs of Mr Bar- low, total length between the abutments is 828 feet ; width, 32 feet ; cost .30,000 ; opened, Nov. II, 1862 ; a meeting of the bishops held at the palace, 'The Pan Anglican Synod,' Sept. 24, 1867. LAMBETH LIBRARY, founded by Archbishop Bancroft, Oct. 28, 1610; in- creased by Archbishop Abbot, Oct. 15, 1612 ; the books removed to Cam- bridge during the civil war, Feb., 1647, but subsequently restored ; closed, Sept., 1867. A LIST OF THE LIBRARIANS. Henry Wharton was appointed the first librarian. Paul Colomesius, a French Protestant, appointed by Archbishop Sancroft, Nov. 18, 1687. Edmund Gibson, afterwards Bishop of London, appointed by Archbishop Tenison, 1 700 ; he first catalogued the collection. Dr Benjamin Ibbot appointed by Archbishop Tenison, 1708. Dr David Wilkins succeeded to the office, 1715, and completed the catalogue of MSS., 1718. Dr John Henry Ott, a Swiss, appointed by Archbishop Wake, circa 1719. John Jones appointed by Archbishop Potter, 1737. Henry Hall succeeded him, I74 1 - Andrew ColteeDucarel, LL.D., the historian of Lambeth, appointed by Archbishop Hutton, June I, 1738 ; he catalogued the books presented to the library by Archbishop Seeker, and the tracts presented by Archbishop Cornwallis, and also completed the catalogue of manuscripts. Henry John Todd succeeded him ; he published in 1812 a catalogue of MSS. re- ferring to the archbishopric, and also an account of the registers and other records. Rev. Samuel Roffey Maitland appointed circa 1838 ; he published an Index to the books printed before 1600 that are in the library. LAMBE'S CONDUIT LANCASHIRE 475 Rev. John Thomas appointed by Archbishop Sumner ; he was succeeded by the Rev. William Stubbs. Notes and Queries. LAMBE'S CONDUIT, Holborn, erected by William Lambe, at an expense of .1500, 1577; taken down, 1755. Lambe's Chapel, Monkwell-street, formerly the hermitage of St James in the Wall ; Henry de Walleis was appointed guardian of, 1274 ; the custody of, committed to Walter Kemesey, Sept. 16, 1315 ; the site was given to William Lambe, a gentleman of the King's Chapel, and a mem- ber of the Clothworkers' Company, March 13, 1543 ; given to that company, July 12, 1568 ; the building damaged in the fire of 1 666, but the crypt is still perfect ; afterwards restored ; the chapel and almshouses rebuilt, 1825. LAMBLEY-UPON-TYNE, Northumberland, a monastery founded by Alan de Tyndale, circa 1210. LAMMAS DAY. This ancient British pagan festival held on the 1st August, on which lambs were presented as an offering to the ecclesiastics. LAM PETER COLLEGE, Wales, founded by Bishop Burgess, 1822 ; built from the design of C. R. Cockerell ; the first stone laid, Aug. 12, 1822; opened, March I, 1827 ; cost ^20,000 ; incorporated by royal charter, 1828. LAMPS used in London streets, 1681 ; Michael Cole obtained a patent for a globu- lar lamp, 1708 ; Argand invented his lamp, 1789 ; Dr Clanny first conceived the idea of making a lamp to burn with safety in a coal mine, 1806 ; Sir H. Davy and Geo. Stephenson carried out the idea ; Mr Glover improved them, Dec., 1853 ; Messrs Whitehead made an improved one, 1854 ; gas lamps introduced, 1814 ; Davy's wire-gauze lamp for coal mines, 1817. LANARK CASTLE, Scotland, founded, 1314. LANCASHIRE RELIEF FUND. First meeting held for establishing a fund for the relief of the cotton workers, at the Mansion House, London, April 25, 1862. s. d. s . d. Total sura raised in South America ... 2,906 14 i Europe ... 11,911 2 9 Australasia ... 6,486 i 2 Asia ... ... 127,646 15 9 Polynesia ... 2,200 17 5 Africa 3,876 II II Melanesia 3 18 9 North America ... 27,999 o o Total ... 183,031 i 10 LANCASHIRE, England, conquered by the Saxons under Ella, circa 559 ; the first castle built by the Romans under Adrian, A.D. 124 ; partially rebuilt by Constantius Chlorus, 305 ; rebuilt by Roger de Poictou, temp. William I., 1068-80 ; the Gateway Tower by the Earl of Moreton and Lancaster, afterwards King John, 1197, where he received the homage of Alexander II., King of Scotland, 1215 ; John of Gaunt built one of the towers, 1362-80. County of, made palatine by Edward III., in favour of his son, John of Gaunt, 1363 ; court of the duchy instituted, 1356 ; taken by the Pretender, Nov. 24, 1745 > Pres- ton partly burnt by the Scots under Robert Bruce, 1323 ; during the civil war the town was besieged by the Earl of Derby for the King, Sept. 26, 1642; he shortly raised the siege ; Sir John Seaton took Preston and Lancaster for the Parliament, Feb. 10, 1643 ; these towns retaken by the Earl of Derby, March 10 ; Cromwell defeated the Scottish army,, under the Duke of Hamilton, July 17, 1648 ; the county suffered much from pestilence, 1651 ; the Sankey Canal, the first constructed in Europe, opened, 1775-6 ; disturbances in, and destruction of power looms, May, 1826 ; distress caused by the American war, a million sterling raised by voluntary subscription, Jan., 1863; the stores broken into at Staley bridge by rioters, March, 1863 ; Union Rate in Aid Act to extend the area of rating during the present distress, 25 & 26 Viet. c. HO, Aug. 7, 1862 ; relief 476 LANCASTER LANDEN sent from the United States in the ship George Griswold, which arrived at Liver- pool, Feb. 9, 1863, and the Achilles brought 5000 barrels of flour, Feb. 24, 1863; an act passed relative to wills and mortgages, 28 & 29 Viet. c. 40, June 19, 1865 ; Her Majesty received from the Royal Duchy of, for 1864, ^26,000 net ; the like sum in 1865 ; and in 1 866, ,29,000. LANCASTER, Pennsylvania, the capital of the state from 1799 to 1812; Franklin college founded, 1787. LANCASTER GUN. A patent taken out by Mr C. W. Lancaster, for certain improvements in the bore and making of cannons, July 3, 1849, ar "d Jan. 16, 1851 ; the Naval Brigade first used them at the siege of Sebastopol ; they were nick- named 'Long Toms' by the sailors ; three exploded during the siege, and since then they have been discarded. LANCASTRIAN SCHOOLS first established by Joseph Lancaster, and at first much opposed, because he was a Dissenter, and education would make the people too wise. Dr Bell, from India, about the same time, introduced the principle, and was supported by some of the orthodox, 1 808, whence resulted the ultimate establishment of the system, at which Lancaster had laboured from 1798 to 1805, when he opened his first school in the Borough Road, ' The British and Foreign ;' but the schools were not so general as to overcome all opposition, until 1817 ; the plan was introduced into Russia, 1819. LANCERS. 9th, or Queen's Royal Lancers, formed, 1715 ; Owen Wynne appointed Colonel, July 22 ; constituted the Light Dragoons, 1783 ; styled Queen's Royal Lancers, 1830. 1 2th, or the Prince of Wales' Royal Regiment of Lancers, formed, 1715 ; Phineas Bowles appointed Colonel, July 22 ; styled Prince of Wales' Regiment, 1768 ; and constituted a corps of Light Dragoons ; rewarded with the title of I2th, or Prince of Wales' Royal Lancers, 1817. i6th, or Queen's Regiment of Lancers, formed, 1759 ; John Burgoyne appointed Colonel, Aug. 4 ; styled the i6th, or Queen's Regiment of Light Dragoons, 1 766. I7th Regiment of Light Dragoon Lancers, when formed called the i8th, 1759 ; John Hale appointed Colonel-commandant, Nov. 7; made Lieut. -Colonel, April 2 7, 1763. LAND, an ordinance passed for the better measuring of, 33 Edward I. s. 6, 1305 ; generally let in England for is. per acre, 1544; twelve years' purchase was the value ; it rose to 35 years' purchase, 1778, but fell to 24, 1779 ; in 1798, land, and the rent of houses, were together computed at ^60,000,000; 1814 and 1815, lands, houses, mines, &c., were assessed at 53,495,375 in England ; increased in value between 1815 and 1848, 5 per cent., or ,8,500,000 ; the houses, manu- facturing buildings, and warehouses, 30 per cent., or ,26,000,000; the Lands Clauses Consolidation Act, 8 & 9 Viet. c. 18, passed, May 8, 1845. Land sunk in Finland, to the extent of 4000 ells square, but the inhabitants escaped, Feb., 1793 ; a tract of 120 acres, and 60 feet in depth, slid with a tremendous noise into the river Nid, near Drontheim, Norway, March 7, 1816. LANDAU, Bavaria, ceded to France, 1680, and fortified by Louis XIV. ; taken by the Austrians, 1702 ; retaken by the French, Nov. 19, 1703 ; recovered by the Imperialists after the battle of Blenheim, Nov., 1704 ; they retained it until 1713, when it was again ceded to France ; resisted the Austrians and Prussians, 1 793 ; besieged and taken, Nov. 14, 1793 ; given to France by the treaty, of 1814, but restored to the German confederation, 1815. LANDEN, battle, gained by the French over the English and Dutch under William III., July 29, 1693, owing to Dutch cowardice; arsenal of, blown up, Dec. 20, 1794. LANDGUARD CASTLE LANTHANIUM 477 LANDGUARD CASTLE, Suffolk. A fort built by Charles I., 1625-35 ; a castle built, 1647-8 ; Sir Harbottle Grimston, master of the rolls, appointed governor, 1648-83 ; attacked unsuccessfully by a Dutch force, 3000 strong, 1667 ; the Duke of Schomberg appointed governor, 1685, and died here, 1690; the fortifications destroyed by order of parliament, and a new fort built near the site, 1718. LANDSHUT, Bavaria. The Prussians surrendered to the Austrians at, June 23, 1760 ; the university removed here from Ingolstadt, 1 800, but withdrew to Munich, 1826 ; the Austrians defeated by the French here, April 16 and 21, 1809 ; Frederick of Austria was confined in the castle for three years. LAND TAX, the first in England collected by command of King Ethelred, 991, to pay the ransom to the Danes ; in 1018 this tax returned ,82,000 ; every hide of land paid 3J. in 1 109, which was equal to 6s. 6d. in modern money, besides the differences in the price of commodities ; the tax was established in its present form by 4 Will. & Mary, c. I, 1692 ; it was modified, 1760 ; until 1798 it was only granted for one year, it was then made perpetual, 38 Geo. III. c. 60, 1798 ; consolidated by 42 Geo. III. c. 116, June 26, 1802, and again by 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 13, May 17, 1833 ; the terms upon which this tax may be redeemed or purchased, 1 6 & 17 Viet. c. 74, Aug. 15, 1853. LANERCOST PRIORY, Cumberland, founded for monks of the Augustine order by Robert de Vaux, 1169. LANGENSALZA, battle. The Prussian army, under General Flies, attacked the Hanoverians at this place, June 27, 1866, who inflicted a defeat upon the Prussians, who lost 1400 men and 900 prisoners ; the victors lost 1392 men. LANGHARNE, South Wales. This ancient fortified town was taken by the Norman invaders, and the castle built; Henry II. entertained here, 1172; the castle and town taken by Llewellyn, Prince of North Wales, 1215 ; during the civil wars it was first garrisoned for the King, but it was taken by the Parliament- arians, 1644 ; it was afterwards besieged and taken by Cromwell. LANGSlDE, battle, between the Regent of Scotland and the army of Mary Queen of Scots, the latter being defeated, May 13, 1568, the Queen flying to Eng- land. She arrived at Cumberland, May 16. LANGUAGES, 3664 known ; there are 937 in Asia, 587 European, 276 African, and 1624 American, or dialects. Norman-French abolished in law pleadings in England, 1362 ; professors of languages were not appointed in the English uni- versities until the reign of George I., 1724, and George II., 1736. LANGUARD FORT, Essex, built, 1618. LANGUE D'OC ET LANGUE D'OIL, the language of the Troubadours in the north and south of France, attained the greatest perfection in the nth and I3th centuries. LANGUEDOC, France, passed from the Romans to the Goths, and was taken from them by the Saracens ; they were in turn driven out by Charles Martel, 725 ; the Pope proclaimed a crusade against, the town was besieged and taken by storm, the entire population being put to the sword, July 22, 1209 ; a general rising throughout, to resist the Count de Montfort, 1216 ; a crusade against, 1225 ; an- nexed to the crown of France by treaty, April, 1229 ; revolted against the Duke of Anjou, 1 380. The canal connecting the Mediterranean with the Atlantic designed by the engineer Riquetti, opened, May 19, 1681. LANSDOWN, battle. The Parliamentarians, under Sir William Waller, defeated by the Royalists with considerable loss, July 5, 1643. LANTERNS, invented by King Alfred, 890 ; London lighted with them, 1415-16. LANTHANIUM, a metal discovered by Mosander, 1839. 473 LANTHONY ABBEY LATIN LANTHONY ABBEY (Lanthonia Secunda), Gloucester, founded by Milo, Earl of Hereford, 1136. LAOCOON. This magnificent piece of sculpture, the work of three sculptors, Agesander, Polydorus, and Athenodorus, was discovered amongst the ruins of the palace of Titus, 1506, and brought to Rome and placed in the' Vatican, by order of Pope Julius II. ; the arm of one of the figures was afterwards found and restored to the statue. LAODICEA, Syria. Strabo reported that Dolabella sought refuge here, A.D. 43, and being attacked, destroyed a great part of the city, 44. LAON, France. The cathedral erected and dedicated, Sept. 6, 1114; the town captured by the Duke of Burgundy, 1411 ; taken by the English, 1419; retaken from them, 1429 ; surrendered to Henry IV., 1594 ; the allies, under Marshal Blucher, defeated the French, under Napoleon ; after two days' fighting the French lost 6000 men and 46 cannon, March 9, 10, 1814. LAPIS CALAMINARIS, discovered in England, 1561. LAPLAND, Europe. The convent of the Holy Trinity erected, 1556 ; destroyed by the Swedes, 1589; visited by Linnaeus the botanist, 1732; Admiral Little surveyed the coast, 1822 ; the district of Kola destroyed by the English during the Russian war, Aug., 1854. LA ROTHIERE, battle. The French army, commanded by Napoleon, defeated by the allied Prussians, Russians, and Austrians, commanded by Marshal Blucher, who captured 76 cannon, and the French lost nearly 6000 men, Feb. i, 1814. LARYNGOSCOPE, invented by a Polish physician, Czermak of Pesth, 1858 ; he exhibited it before the Medical Society of Vienna, April 9, 1859. LATERAN, Rome. The site of the house of the Senator Plautius Lateranus, con- ferred by Constantine on the Bishop of Rome as his ecclesiastical residence, in the 4th century, and shortly afterwards he founded the Basilica. The chapter takes precedence of St Peter's ; the ceremony of taking possession is one of the first ob- served by the new Pope, and has been so for 1500 years ; the old Basilica was destroyed by fire, 1310; restored by Clement V., 1312 ; one of the principal cere- monies observed here is on the festival of St John the Baptist, June 24, when the heads of SS. Peter and Paul are exposed to the faithful. The councils known as the Lateran Councils were the following five : The ist, when the question of investiture was settled, March 19, 1123. The 2nd, the doctrines of Peter de Bruys and Arnold of Brescia were condemned, and measures taken to terminate the schism of the anti-pope Anacletus II., April 18, 1139. At the 3rd the schism caused by Frederic Barbarossa was terminated, and the doctrines of the Waldenses and Albigenses were condemned, March 5, 1179. The 4th condemned the above doctrines, also the errors of Almaric and the prophet of Calabria ; the Latin Patriarch of Constantinople, the Patriarch of Jerusalem, 400 bishops, and the Ambassadors of England, France, Hungary, Arragon, Sicily, and Cyprus were present, Nov. II, 1215. The 5th council abolished the Pragmatic Sanction, &c., May 3, 1512. LATHAM HOUSE, the chief seat of the Stanleys ; it sustained repeated sieges during the parliamentary struggles ; Sir Thomas Fairfax besieged it with 3000 men, but was successfully resisted by the Countess of Derby, with only 300 men, Feb. 28, 1644 ; the siege raised, May 26 ; surrendered to General Egerton after an obstinate defence, when it was plundered and destroyed, Dec., 1645. LATIN. After the translation of the seat of the empire from Rome to Constanti- nople, the Roman emperors retained the use of the language ; the Latin nation reduced to Roman subjection, B.C. 339; the language ceased to be spoken in Italy, A.D. 581 ; in France in the gth century ; pleas ordered to be enrolled in LATIMER LAUSANNE 479 Latin but pleaded in English, in England, 36 Edward III. c. 15, 1362 ; abolished in law processes by 4 Geo. II. c. 26, 1701. LATIMER, Bishop, martyred by the Romanists, Oct. 16, 1555. LATITAT, a writ calling individuals to the Court of King's Bench ; it was of old usage, but abolished in actions where the defendant was not to be held to special bail, by an act 2 William IV. c. 39, May 23, 1832. LATITUDE, the extent of the arc described by the earth's surface, or by the heavens over it, reckoning north or south of the equator to either pole ; a degree of the latitude was first measured accurately in 1737, in lat. 66 20 N., and found 69.493 ; at the equator, in 1744, in lat. 12 it was reported 68.743 ; in England by Mudge, 69. 148. The degree of latitude from the equator to the pole number- ing 90 is of the same length in all parts of the globe. Professor Lax of Cam- bridge presented several valuable remarks upon, to the Royal Society, 1799. Hipparchus of Nice is said to be the first among the ancients who measured a degree of latitude, 1 70 years before Christ. LATITUDINARIANS, the cognomen given to writers of a certain school who en- deavoured to steer between the strict Presbyterians and the Episcopalians in the early part of the i8th century. LATTER-DAY SAINTS. See Mormons. LATTON PRIORY, built, 1270. LAUD, WILLIAM, Archbishop of Canterbury, made a member of the Star Cham- ber, 1624 ; Bishop of London, 1628 ; Chancellor of Oxford, 1630 ; made a censor of the press, 1637 ; claimed the visitation of both the Universities, 1637 ; falsely accused of treason, 1640 ; imprisoned in the Tower, and martyred on Tower-hill, Jan. 10, 1645. LAUENBERG, Germany, governed formerly by its own dukes ; taken by Napo- leon I., 1805 ; incorporated into the French department, 1810 ; restored to Geo. III., as King of Hanover, 1814 ; Duchy of, ceded to Denmark by Prussia in ex- change for Pomerania and Rugen, June 4, 1815 ; by the peace of Vienna made over to Austria, Aug. I, 1864. LAUNCESTON, Cornwall, the castle built by Robert, Earl of Montaigne, half-bro- ther to William the Conqueror, 1068 ; Hubert de Burgh appointed governor of, by King John; the town incorporated, 1555 ; taken by Fairfax, 1646. LAUNCESTON PRIORY, Cornwall, founded by William Warlewast, Bishop of Exeter, 1126. LAUPEN, battle, between the Bernese and the neighbouring states, June 21, 1339. LAUREL, frigate, lost in Quiberon Bay, the crew being made prisoners, Jan. 31, 1812. LAUREL brought to England from the Levant, prior to 1529 ; the Portugal laurel brought here in the l6th century; the Laurus indica from Madeira, 1665 ; the Alexandrian laurel, 1713; the glaucous laurel brought from China, 1806. LAURENCE, ST, CANONS OF. This order was founded by St Benedict, destroy- ed by the Vandals, resuscitated by Odo, Count of Savoy, 1057. LAURESTINA, man-of-war, lost off the Bahamas, the crew saved, 1813. LAURESTINUS, brought to England from the south of Europe, 1596. LAUSANNE, Switzerland. The cathedral was founded A.L>. 1000 ; the inhabitants placed themselves under the sovereignty of the Canton of Berne, 1536; an aca- demy established here in 1537 ; Gibbon wrote his celebrated History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire at ; International Working-Men's Congress held at, Garibaldi being present, Sept. 2, 1867. 480 LAVAL LAWFELD LAVAL, France. The fortress destroyed by the Northmen in the gth century, after- wards rebuilt by the Laval family ; taken by the English under Lord Talbot, 1466 ; retaken by the French, 1467 ; the town taken by storm by the Vendeans, 1793- LA VALETTA, Malta. The city built by the Grand Master of the Knights of Malta, Sir John de la Valetta, 1566; finished, 1571 ; the cathedral built, 1580; the French fleet, commanded by Adm. Brueys, took the town after an empty show of resistance, 1798 ; ceded by a convention to France, Bonaparte took possession, June 10, 1798 ; Gen. Vaubois with a garrison of 3000 men was left in command ; the English regained possession, Sept., 1800 ; restored to the knights of St John by the peace of Amiens, March 27, 1802 ; ceded to England, 1814. LAVALETTE, condemned at Paris for high treason, escaped from prison, dis- guised in his wife's clothes, Dec. 21, 1815. Major-general Sir Robert Wilson, Michael Bruce, and Captain Hely Hutchinson, were sentenced to three months' imprisonment for aiding his escape from France, April 24, 1816. LA VENDEE, France. See Vendee. LAVENDER, brought from the south of Europe to England, circa 1569. LAW. A commission appointed to inquire into the Courts of Common Law and Chancery, Dec. 13, 1861 ; a supplementary commission issued, July 8, 1862 ; made their first report, July 27, 1863 ; second report, May 23, 1866. LAW. Incorporated Law Society instituted in London, 1827 ; incorporated, 1831, and reincorporated, 1845. LAW AMENDMENT SOCIETY, instituted in London, 1847. LAW ASSOCIATION CHARITY, founded, 1817. LAW'S BUBBLE, the most ruinous of financial schemes ; by crafty and plausi- ble statements to aid his own purposes, he had raised himself to be comptroller- general of the French finances ; he was to pay off the PVench debt by establishing an East India and Mississippi Company ; the French government granted him a patent for the establishment of a bank, May 2 and 20, 1716; he opened a bank in his own name, and the rich and poor alike became sharers in the scheme ; dis- solved by the Regent, Dec., 1718 ; Law was made director of the royal bank, and the shares rose to twenty times their original value ; was made director- general of the Company of the West, 1718; the mint was sold to them for 50,000,000 livres, July 25, 1719 ; in the next year the whole scheme failed, nearly overthrew the French government, and ruined thousands of families, Nov. I, 1720. LAW COURTS. An act passed to supply the means for defraying the expenses of providing courts of justice, 28 & 29 Viet. c. 48, June 19, 1865 ; an act passed to enable the Commissioners of Her Majesty's Works to acquire a site for the erec- tion and concentration of courts of justice, &c., 28 & 29 Viet. c. 49, June 19, 1865. A commission issued to obtain designs for the Palace of Justice to be erected in the Strand ; designs exhibited in Lincoln's Inn, Feb. 8, 1867. The Commis- sioners had calculated .750,000 as the probable cost of the building. The archi- tects go far beyond this sum. Mr Deane calculates the Mr Scott 1,253,266 cost at 1,074,278 Mr Street 1,314,360 Mr Garling ... ... 1,090,061 Mr Brandon ... ... 1,414,913 Mr Abraham ... ... 1,234,266 Mr Water-house ... 1,419,842 Mr Lockwood 1,235,383 Mr Burges 1,584,589 Mr Barry ... ... 1,237,571 Mr Seddon ... ... 2,046,644 LAWFELD, battle. The army under the Duke of Cumberland defeated by the French at this town, near Maestricht, 1 747. LAW INSTITUTION 7 LEADENHALL MARKET 481 LAW INSTITUTION, projected, 1825 ; meeting held to receive the charter of Incorporation, Jan. 24, 1832. The present building, built by subscription from the designs of Lewis Vulliamy, opened, 1832. LAWNS AND THREAD GAUZE, manufactured in Paisley, 1784, to the value of 164,385 i6j. 6% storehouses erected by Simon Eyre, 1449 ; the tron- age of wool and weighing to be done here by charter of Edward IV., 1463 ; de- stroyed by fire, Aug. 27, 1484 ; wheat stored here in the mayoralty of Sir Roger Acheley, 1512 ; the market erected in the reign of Edward III., and regulations made for the sale of poultry at, 1357 ; a chapel for 60 priests founded by William 31 482 LEAGUES LEE BOO Rouse and others, 1466 ; confirmed by the Common Council of London to the Trinity Priests, 1512 ; the present market built, 1730. LEAGUES. The following are amongst the most celebrated in history : League of Public Good, ... 1465 League of France & Henry III. 1576 Cambray, ... ...Dec. 10, 1508 dissolved, ... ... Jan., 1596 Holy League, ... Oct. 9, 1511 League of Wurtzburg, ... 1610 Between the Duke of Milan ,, against the Emperor, 1626 and the Venetians, against Solemn League and Covenant Francis I., .. ... ... 1526 of Scotland agreed to by the Smalcald, ... 1529 English parliament, Sept. 25, 1643 League of the Beggars, ... 1560 League of Augsburg, ... 1686 LEAMINGTON, Warwickshire, given to Robert de Montgomery by William the Conqueror, 1080 ; granted to the priory of Kenilworth, 1160 ; seized by the crown, J 539 5 the old Spa waters were noted as early as 1600 ; described by Dr Guidott, 1689; the second Spa discovered by Mr Abbots, who erected six baths, &c., 1/84, when Dr Kerr of Northampton recommended the use of, to several persons, but more prominently noticed by Dr Lambe, 1797; the assembly rooms erected, 1812; the theatre, 1814 ; St Mary's Church built, 1839-40 ; the college founded, 1844 ; opened, 1847 ; the town funds sequestrated, Aug. 20, 1867 : stayed by the Vice-Chancellor to the 7th Nov. LEAP YEAR, the Bissextile, originated with Julius Caesar, who fixed the year at 365 days six hours from one vernal equinox to another ; the six hours were set aside, and at the end of four years formed a day, to consist of 366 days, which day was added to the month of February ; this was the Julian style, which existed until the time of Pope Gregory, 1582, when the calendar was altered to its present form ; the years to be leap years for the time to come, fixed by 24 Geo. II. c. 23, s. 2, 1751 ; the increasing day and the day before ordered to be one by 21 Henry III, 1236-7. LEASES are of early origin. In the reign of Henry VIII. no tenant could hold the leases of two farms in one parish, 1534 > the present, a species of legal convey- ance, invented by Sergeant Moore, 1535 j an act passed to simplify the terms of, 8 & 9 Viet. c. 124, 1845 ; an act passed to facilitate leases and sales of settled estates, 19 & 20 Viet. c. 120, July 29, 1856 ; amended, 21 & 22 Viet. c. 77, Aug. 2, 1858. In Scotland they were secured by statute against the purchasers of the land until the expiration of their lease, 1449. LEATHER, anciently prohibited from exportation, 27 Edw. III. s. 2, c. I, 1353 ; an act passed for the making of, 5 Eliz. c. 8, 1562-3 ; exportation prohibited, 14 Car. II. c. 7, 1662 ; removed, 1667 ; tax on, abolished, May 29, 1830 ; the duty in England and Ireland produced half a million sterling. Leather Tokens used in London in the I5th century. LEATHER SELLERS' COMPANY incorporated by 6 Rich. II., 1383; con- firmed by 22 Henry VI., 1442; Henry VII. granted them the inspection of leather throughout the kingdom. Leather Sellers' Hall rebuilt upon the site of the hall of St Helen's Priory, 1815 ; a part of the crypt still exists ; the pump has a design engraved upon it by Gibber, 1679. Leather Sellers' Asylum founded by John Hasilwood, 1544. LECHFELD, Italy. The Emperor Otho I. gained a victory over the Magyars, 955- LEDBURY HOSPITAL, Herefordshire, founded, 1232; revived by Queen Eliza- beth, 1580. LEE BOO, Prince, the son of the King of the Pellew Islands, who was brought LEE PRIORY LEICESTER-SQUARE 485 over on a visit to this country by Capt. Wilson, of the Antelope, wrecked there, 1782 ; he was interred in Rotherhithe church-yard, Dec. 27, 1784. LEE PRIORY, Essex, founded by Sir Ralph Gernon, 1230. LEEDS, Yorkshire, the ancient Loidis, made a royal village by Penda, 655 ; Ilbert de Lacey erected a castle here in the time of William the Conqueror ; a charter granted by King John, 1207; the town incorporated by Charles I., 1626; con- firmed by Charles II., 1662 ; the coloured Cloth-hall erected, 1758, and the white, 1775 ; the Old Library founded by the ad vice 'of Dr Priestley, 1768 ; the theatre, 1771 ; Music-hall, 1792 ; gas introduced, 1815 ; the Town Hall built, and opened by Queen Victoria and the Prince Consort, Sept. 6, 1858 ; the Mechanics' Insti- tute established, 1825 ; the Philosophical Society instituted, 1818 ; Assizes held here for the first time, Sept., 1864; the Joint-stock Bank failed, Sept. 19; first execution at (Joseph Myers and James Sargisson), Sept. 10 ; the Industrial Ex- hibition opened, March 2, 1867.. LEEDS CASTLE, Kent, built by Robert de Crevequer, Bishop of Leeds, I III ; rebuilt by William Wykeham, circa 1350 ; refortified by Henry VIII., 1509-45 ; granted to Sir Anthony Le Leger by Edward VI., 1550 ; George III. and Queen Charlotte entertained at, by Thomas Lord Fairfax, 1779. LEESBURG HEIGHTS, battle. The Confederates under Gen. Evans defeated the Federals under Gen. McClellan, with a loss of 1000 men, Oct. 21, 1861. LEGACIES taxed, 1780 ; the tax increased, while land went free, 36 Geo. III. c. 52, April 26, 1 796 ; the law amended, and the duty extended to real property, 16 & 17 Vfct. c. 51, Aug. 4, 1853. LEGH, Devonshire. The Nunnery of Canonlegh founded for Canons by Walter Clavel, circa 1185 ; changed into a nunnery by Matilda de Clare, circa 1288. LEGHORN, Tuscany, called by Cicero, Labro, properly Livorno, almost destroyed by an earthquake, 1741 ; rebuilt and walled by Francisco I., 1577 ; occupied by the French, 1796; evacuated, 1799; attacked unsuccessfully by the English, 1813 ; taken by the Austrians, May 12 and 13, 1849 ; a fire occurred at the theatre during the performance of a piece called the Taking of Sebastopol, 3000 people were present, 60 persons were killed and as many injured, June 7, 1857 ; added to Italy, 1859. LEGION OF HONOUR, instituted by Napoleon, May 19, 1802, and conferred upon merit until Louis XVIII. was placed by the allies on the throne of France, 1815, when it became, as with all orders elsewhere, a matter of interest with the crown ; the first distribution took place, Aug. 16, 1804. LEIBURN CASTLE, Kent, built 1190. LEICESTER, Leicestershire. The castle built by Hugo de Grentmaisnil, circa 1070 ; nearly destroyed by William Rufus ; restored and fortified by Robert de Mellent, Earl of Leicester, 1103-18 ; destroyed by Henry II., 1168 ; rebuilt by Henry Plantagenet, grandson of Edmund, Earl of Lancaster, circa 1343-5 ; a Parliament held here by Henry V., 1414 ; another held by the Dukes of Bedford and Gloucester during the minority of Henry VI., 1425 ; too dilapidated to re- ceive Richard III., who slept at the 'Blue Boar' inn, 1485 ; the town and abbey built, 1143; the former incorporated by King John, 1200; Wickliffe buried in Lutterworth church, 1384 ; his body taken up and burnt by order of council, 1428 ; Richard III. defeated at Bosworth-field, Aug. 22, 1485 ; the town taken by Charles I., and many of the inhabitants killed in the street, May 31, 1645 5 SUI> rendered to the Parliamentarians, and the castle destroyed, June 17, 1646 ; walls ordered to be demolished, 1662. LEICESTER-SQUARE, London. Leicester-house built, circa 1635 ; the town- house of the Earl of Leicester, bought by the Prince of Wales, afterwards Geo. II., 484 LEIPSIC LEOMINSTER 1718; the Duke of Cumberland born at, April 15, 1721 ; taken down, 1784; Savile- house destroyed by fire, Feb. 23, 1865 ; Sir Joshua Reynolds died at his house, No. 47, Feb. 23, 1792; Hogarth resided in this square, 1733; the statue of George II. removed from the residence of the Duke of Chandos, 'The Canons,' to this square, circa 1752 ; the garden in the centre let to Mr Elias by C. A. Tulk, 1808 ; Mr Wyld obtained leave to erect his 'Great Globe,' 1851 1861 ; the Metropolitan Board of Works tried to obtain possession of, but by a decision of the Court of Queen's Bench, the right was confirmed to Mr Tulk, Nov. 13, 1867 ; the Panopticon first opened, March 16, 1854 ; converted into the Al- hambra, and first opened by E. T. Smith, Feb. 7, 1858. LEIPSIC, Saxony, destroyed, 1082 ; rebuilt and fortified, iioo ; Otto IV. captured the town, 1212 ; the University founded, Dec. 4, 1409 ; upwards of a third of the town destroyed by fire, 1420 ; noted for its fairs, the first proclaimed, 1458 ; and three confirmed, 1507 ; the Town-house built, 1556 ; the King of Sweden, Gus- tavus, defeated the Imperialists before, Sept. 7, 1631 ; besieged, 1637 ; taken by the King of Prussia, Nov. 18, 1745 ; surrendered to the Austrians, Aug. 5, 1759 ; abandoned, and again taken possession of by the Austrians, Oct. 4, 1760 ; occu- pied by the French, 1806 ; Napoleon issued his decree against British commerce from ; occupied by the Duke of Brunswick, 1809 ; captured by the Austrians the same year ; the town taken by the allied Russians, Prussians, and English, Oct. 19, 1813, 25 generals, 15,000 soldiers, besides 23,000 in the hospitals, fell into their hands ; the allied sovereigns entered the town the same night. LEIPSIC, battle. The memorable conflict between the allied armies and the French under Napoleon began, Oct. 16, 1813 ; resumed on the i8th ; the French were totally defeated with a loss of 80,000 men killed and wounded, and 65 guns ; the troops of Saxony and Wurtemburg, numbering 12,000, deserted him in the heat of the battle. LEITH, Scotland. This town is first mentioned in a charter of David I. for founding Holyrood Abbey, ^i 128; Robert I. granted the harbour and mill to the city of Edinburgh, 1329 ; taken by the English fleet, 1541 ; occupied by a French force in the service of Mary of Guise, 1549 j captured by the English after a siege of two months, July 6, 1560 ; Cromwell repaired the fort and erected a citadel in the latter part of 1560 ; the docks formed, 1720; the Custom-house quay erected, 1777 ; the bridge built, 1789 ; the wet docks constructed between 1800 and 1817 ; made ^separate magistracy, 1832 ; Dock and Harbour Commissioners ap- pointed, 1838 ; the harbour improved, and the Victoria Dock erected, 1855. LENS, battle. The French under Conde defeated the Austrians at, losing 3000 men and 5000 prisoners, Aug. 20, 1648. LENT, or spring fast of forty days, generally considered an apostolic institution by the Papal Church. See Bingham. It was first observed in England by order of Ercombert, King of Kent, 640 ; a penalty of los. or 10 days' imprisonment ordered to be inflicted upon all who ate meat at this season, 2 & 3 Edw. VI. c. 19, 1548; doubled by Elizabeth for a second offence, 5 Eliz. c. 5, s. 15, 1562; victuallers forbidden to sell meat by 27 Eliz. c. II, s. 5, 1585; further regula- tions made by 35 Eliz. c. 7, 1593. LEO IX., the first pope that kept up a standing military force, 1054 ; Leo X., the patron of literature, he conferred the title of defender of the faith on Henry VIII., Oct. II, 1521 ; he is generally considered an unbeliever in the doctrine of which he was the professed head ; died, Dec. I, 1521. LEOMINSTER, Herefordshire. A priory founded by Merwald, King of Mercia, A.D. 660; ceded to Reading by Henry I., 1125; the town occupied by the Danes, 980 ; fortified by William Rufus, partially destroyed, 1210 ; two burgesses sum- LEON LEUCADIA 485 moned to parliament by Edward I., 1295 ; a charter granted to the town by Queen Mary, 1555 ; taken by the Parliamentarians under Waller, April 27, 1643 ; rechartered by Charles II., 1665 ; Town Hall built, 1633 ; repaired, 1793. LEON, Spain, founded by Ordono I., 850 ; stormed and captured by Al-Mansur, 998; Alonso V. rebuilt the walls, partially removed by Alonso XI., 1324; Leon and Castille united by Ferdinando HI., 1230 ; sacked by Marshal Soult, Dec., 1808. LEON, Central America, founded by the Spaniards, 1523 ; removed to its present position, 1532. LE PANTO, Greece, battle. The most important naval engagement, of modern times : Don John of Austria commanded the Christian armament which encount- ered the Turkish fleet of 230 galleys, and after a severe engagement defeated them with a loss of 200 of their galleys, and 25,000 Turks fell ; 15,000 Christian slaves were released, Oct. 7, 1571. LEPROSY. This disease prevalent from the earliest historical times ; hospitals were established in most countries for their reception ; Louis VIII. promulgated a code of laws for the regulation of the 2000 French leper hospitals, 1226 ; by the Scottish laws they were forbidden to beg or sit in the streets, 1427. LERIDA, Spain. The ancient Roman town was the scene of the Hanno defeat by Scipio, B.C. 216 ; and Ccesar's campaign against Afranius and Petreius, 49 ; destroyed by the Franks, A.D. 256 ; restored, 360 ; the Goths held a council at, 546 ; sacked by the French, 799 ; recovered and rebuilt by Ramon Berenguer, 1 149 ; besieged by the French under Conde, May, 1647, but successfully resisted by the Spaniards; taken by storm, Oct. 12, 1707; the English under the com- mand of Gen. Stanhope defeated the French under Philip V., July 27, 1710; captured by the French, May 14, 1810. LE ROCH, island, near the Falkland Isles, discovered, 1657. LERWICK, Shetland Islands. The fort built, 1665 ; repaired, 1781, and named Fort Charlotte. LESBOS, Mitylene, Isle of, peopled 1000 years before the birth of Christ ; Pittacus called the tyrant of, B.C. 600; came under the Persian yoke, B.C. 570; declared free, 479 ; captured by the Venetians from the Byzantines, A.D. 1185 ; re-captured by the Greeks, and from them by the Turks. LETTERS, said to have been invented by Memnon, the Egyptian, 1822 years be- fore Christ ; they were brought by Cadmus to Greece, and thence into Europe, B.C. 1500 ; they were carried by the Emperor to America, about A.D. 1480, prior to which the Peruvians and Mexicans had used hieroglyphical characters. LETTERS DE CACHET, the tyrannical instruments by which the French kings, before the destruction of the Bastile, immured individuals in that secluded dun- geon ; these letters were abolished, Nov. i, 1789. LETTERS OF MARQUE AND REPRISAL issued in England by Edward I., 1295, to seize an enemy's vessels ; granted by the American government against Great Britain, March 22, 1776. LETTUCE brought to England from the Island of Cos, circa 1520. LEUCADIA, Ionian Islands, originally inhabited by the Telebose and Leleges ; the Corinthians, B.C. 700, founded a new town called Leucas, and cut a canal through the isthmus ; it was filled up, B.C. 218 ; besieged by the Romans, B.C. 197 sub- dued by Rome ; the Bishop of, one of the Council of Nice, A. D. 325 ; seized by the Turks, 1467; ceded to Venice by the treaty of Passarowitz, 1718; the French garrison driven out, and occupied by the English, 1810 ; the fort destroyed by an earthquake, 1825. 486 LEUCTRA LEXINGTON LEUCTRA, battle. The Thebans under the command of Epaminondas defeated the Spartans commanded by Cleombrotus ; in this battle the practice of the con- centrating heavy masses on a given point of the enemy's line was first adopted by the Thebans, B.C. 371. LEUTHEN, battle. The Austrians defeated by the Prussians under Frederick the Great, when the former were defeated, Dec. 5, 1757. LEVANT, the Company of, incorporated to carry on trade at, by letters patent of Queen Elizabeth, Sept. II, 1581, and Jan. 7, 1592; surrendered their charter, 1600; but continued to trade as a private company, 1605 ; their privileges con- firmed by Parliament, 1643. LEVELLERS, any individuals who advocate a state of political or social equality; two leaders of this doctrine in Germany demolished the effigies and images in churches, and taught that all rank was superfluous ; Muncer, one of those persons, swelled his followers to 40,000, but was defeated by the Prince of Hesse, to whom he gave battle ; he was beheaded, 1525 ; in the Parliamentary army of England there were many who professed the most exalted ideas of freedom and contempt for Church or State, they looked upon Charles I. as Ahab, and openly demanded his death, 1647 5 Hugh Peters encouraged these feelings by some violent dis- courses, he was executed as a regicide, Oct. 19, 1660 ; and the name was also applied to advocates of parliamentary reform, under the ministry of Pitt and Per- ceval, not long after the former minister had moved for the same reform in the House of Commons ; Hardy, Tooke, and Thelwall, were so styled by the op- ponent party, 1794. LEVERIAN MUSEUM, collected by Sir Ashton Lever, and exhibited at Leicester House, 1778; won by lottery by Mr Parkinson, 1788; removed to Blackfriars Road, and sold by auction, Sept. 20, 1806. LEVITICUS, the third book of the Pentateuch written by Moses, -circa B.C. 1450. LEWES, Sussex, one of the oldest towns in England ; fortified by the Saxons ; oc- cupied by the Romans, A.u. 287 ; after the battle of Hastings the rape of Lewes was given to William de Warrenne, 1066 ; the castle, the first one erected by King Alfred, 890 ; rebuilt by William de Warrenne, Earl of Surrey, 1070 ; repaired by John Plantagenet, eighth Earl of Surrey, circa 1330 ; Henry III., and Richard, Earl of Cornwall, confined in, by Simon de Montfort, 1264, when the treaty called the Mise of Lewes was signed ; the monastery of St Pancras founded, 1076 ; suppressed, 1538 ; the battle of, between Henry III. and the barons, commanded by Montfort, who defeated the Royalists and took the king prisoner, May 13, 1264 ; three large pits discovered with numerous bodies in, near the present site of the county gaol, supposed to have been the slain from this battle, 1810. A miracle is recorded of the priory of St Pancras : ' 1230. -The chapel of the Blessed Mary was built anew, and on the vigil of St Nicholas the first mass was celebrated in it. ' 1243. On the day of the anniversary of Earl William, the foundation was laid of the new work of our church. ' 1245. Guichard, the prior of Lewes, came to England, and on the eve of St Pancras, entered the church with a great attendance, and was admitted with honour by the convent. ' 1250. In this year, on the day of the SS. Processus and Martinianus, a certain sick man, whose arm and both knees were as if contracted, was cured at the Holy Cross of St Pancras, at Lewes.' LEXINGTON, skirmish of, the first engagement between the English and the Americans, in which the latter were defeated, April 19, 1775- LEXINGTON, Kentucky, the oldest town in Kentucky, founded, 1776 ; incorpor- LEWIS XV. LIBRARIES 487 ated, 1782 ; the government removed to Frankfort, 1792 ; the university founded, 1798 ; surrendered to the Confederates after three days' fighting, Sept. 21, 1861. LEWIS XV., of France, crowned at Rheims, Oct. 14, 1722 ; sent home the Infanta of Spain as too young for a wife, April 5, 1725 ; married a daughter of the King of Poland, July 22, 1725 ; presented Humphrey Parsons, Lord Mayor of London, with his picture set in diamonds, Feb. , 1 730 ; his bed took fire, and he narrowly escaped burning to death, July I, 1747. LEYDEN, Holland, built by Hengist, A.n. 450 ; the Church of St Pancras found- ed, 1280 ; St Peter's, 1315 ; the Town Hall erected, 1573-74 ; besieged by the Spanish army for five months, during which time the inhabitants suffered both from famine and pestilence, 1574 ; the plague carried off 14,000 of the inhabitants, 1655 ; the Elzevir printing carried on in the I7th century; part of the finest portion of the city destroyed by the explosion of a boat with 10,000 Ibs. of gun- powder on board, Jan. 20, 1807, several hundred persons were killed. LIBAU, Finland. Captain Key, in the ' Amphion,' appeared off this town and de- manded the surrender of all merchant vessels, 18 were captured, May 16, 1854. LIBEL, In scriptis, or sine scriptis. The ancient punishment for, was the pillory : in 1371, Nicholas Moliere was ordered to stand in the pillory for one hour with a whetstone round his neck for publishing a libel ; an act for the prevention and punishment of, was passed 60 George III., and I George IV. c. 8, Dec. 30, 1819 ; for providing a remedy against the publication of, in newspapers, II George IV., and I Will. IV. c. 73, July 23, 1830 ; amending the law of libel, 6 & 7 Viet. c. 96, Aug. 24, 1843 ; Colonel Lilburne fined ,5000 for writing one, 1637 ; impri- soned for another, 1645 ; tried again and acquitted, 1649 ; Lord George Gordon, for a libel on the French queen, condemned to five years' imprisonment, and fined ^500, Jan. 28, 1788 ; Dr Withers for a libel on Mrs Fitzherbert, July 14, 1789 ; the Times for a libel on George, Prince of Wales, Feb., 1790 ; the Morning Post for one on Lady E. Lambert, damages .4000, July 9, 1792 ; Peltier for a libel on Napoleon Bonaparte, Feb. 21, 1803 ; William Cobbett found guilty of a libel against the King's Hanoverian Legion, June 15, 1811, fined ^"looo, with two years' imprisonment; Hone for parodies upon the Creed, June 16, 1817; acquitted, Dec. 30. LIBERIA, Africa, the republic of, owes its existence to a few benevolent indi- viduals in Washington, who formed themselves into a society for freeing the slaves, 1816 ; they first established a colony at Sierra Leone, 1820, but it proving so unhealthy, they purchased this tract of land and settled here, April 25, 1822; re- ceived a constitution, 1839 ; proclaimed a free state, Aug. 24, 1047 > commercial treaty with, Nov. 21, 1848. LIBERTINES. In Scripture history a class of Jewish proselytes who had a synagogue at Jerusalem, Acts vi. 9 ; also a religious sect which maintained that all that was done was done by the Spirit of God, 1525 ; that sin was only sin to those whose consciences told them so ; that the soul died with the body, and men should live without scruples about heaven or hell, hence arose the bad sense and use of the term libertine. LIBRARIES. The first on record is the Library of Osymandys, known as the Memnonium, I4th century B.C.; the first public library founded at Athens by Pisistratus, B.C. 537 ; the private one collected by Aristotle, B.C. 534; bequeathed to Theophrastus, B.C. 322, who bequeathed it to Neleus ; the library of Alex- andria founded by Ptolemy Soter, B.C. 284 ; the works of the Greek' dramatists added, B.C. 233; the Pergamus library founded by Attalus I., B.C. 241 197; many libraries were established by the Roman emperors on the Palatine mount ; Constantino founded the library at Constantinople, B.C. 330 ; burnt, B.C. 47 ; in 4 88 LIBRARIES the Middle Ages the monasteries became the depositories of books ; the Benedic- tine Monastery at Wearmouth founded, A.I). 664 the library of the same order at Christ Church, Canterbury, had a considerable catalogue, now extant, in the I3th century ; Richard de Bury, Chancellor of England, made the first private col- lection worthy the name of a private library, 1341 ; the parochial libraries of England were preserved through the care of a few active persons, and an act of parliament was passed, 7 Anne, c. 14, 1709; the first circulating library established at Dunfermline, Scotland, 1711 ; Allan Ramsay established one at Edinburgh, 1725; - the Royal Library of England began by Henry VII., and increased in subsequent reigns ; incorporated with the British Museum by George II., 1759 ; an act was passed giving power to the councils of the various towns in England to erect public libraries and museums, 13 & 14 Viet. c. 65, Aug. 14, 1850 ; extended to Ireland, 16 & 17 Viet. c. 101, Aug. 20, 1853 ; Scotland, 17 & 18 Viet. c. 64, July 31, - 1854 ; Dublin, 17 & 18 Viet. c. 99, Aug. 10, 1854; repealed and other provisions made by 18 & 19 Viet. c. 70, July 30, 1855 ; for Ireland, 18 & 19 Viet. c. 40, June 26, 1855. The following is a list of some of the principal libraries and their founders, with the date of foundation : Library. Founder. Date. Aberdeen College 1634 Advocates, Edinburgh Sir G. Mackenzie 1680 Advocates, Doctors' Commons, London 1708 (Sold, April 22, 1861.) Andrews, St, Scotland H. Wardlaw 1411 Antiquaries Antwerp Town Library 1682 Ashmolean Dr Ashmole 1678 Astor, New York Mr Astor 1839 Bamberg, Royal 1611 Basel, Public 1539 Berlin, Royal 1656 Bodleian Sir T. Bodley Nov. 8, 1602 Bonn University Library 1818 Boston, America 1848 British Museum 26 Geo. II. c. 22 1 753 Bristol R. Redwood 1614 Cambridge Thomas Scott 1475 Chetham H. Chetham Nov., 1655 Copenhagen, Royal Christian III. 1559 Cottonian Robert Cotton 1588 (Made public, 12 & 13 William III. c. 7, 1700 ; partially destroyed by fire, Oct 23, 1731 ; removed to the British Museum, 1753.) Cracow University Casimir the Great 1 343 Dublin, Trinity 1601 Dutch Library, Austin Friars Maria Dubois . 1659 (Removed to the Guildhall Library, 1864.) East India Company 1800 England, the Bank of May, 1850 Escurial, Spain Philip II. 1557 Ferrara, Bologna 1646 Glasgow University Bishop Laing 1475 Grenville Right Hon. Thomas Grenville 1630 (Presented to the British Museum, Oct. 28, 1845.) Genevieve, St, Paris Cardinal de Rochefoucauld 1624 George III.'s Library 1762 LIBRARIES 489 Library. Founder. Date. Herald's College (The Arundel collection presented to, by the Duke of Norfolk, 1678.) (Mr Le Neve presented his collection to, Sept. 24, 1729.) Harleian Robert Harley Aug., 1705 Harvard, Massachusetts J. Harvard 1638 King's College William Marsden, F.R.S. 1835 Lambeth Bishop Bancroft Law Institution Leicester The Corporation Leipsic Town Leyden University Lincoln's Inn John Nethersale (The present library opened, Oct 30, 1845.) Lisbon, the National Liverpool Free Town London, the Corporation Corporation London Institution Francis Baring London Library Manchester Free Mazarine, Paris Cardinal Mazarine Munich Royal Albert V. New Bedford Free Norwich Sir John Pettus (Sold in 1731.) Nuremberg Town Dr Kiihnhofer Paris, the Royal, made public Perugia, Bologna Pesth University Pesth National Prague University Ratcliflfe (Opened, 1749.) Rostock, Germany Royal Institution Royal Society Royal Library of Spain Russell Institution Russia, Imperial Sion College Smithsonian Institution, Washington Spencer Library St Paul's Cathedral Stockholm Royal Sunderland Surgeons, the College of John Hunter Temple, Middle Robert Ashley Tenison Archbishop Tenison (Sold, July 2, 1861.) Troyes Jacques Hennequin Upsal, Sweden Gustavus Adolphus Dr Ratcliflfe Duke John Albert Thos. Howard, Earl of Arundel Philip V. Oct. 28, 1610 1830 1632 1677 circa 1580 1497 1796 1852 June 2, 1824 1806 May, 1841 1852 1652 1570 1852 1608 1445 1737 1320 1655 1802 1366 1737 First by Dr White George John, 2nd Earl Dean and Chapter Gustavus Vasa 1552 1803 1660 circa 1710 1808 1714 1630 1846 1820 1707 1540 Utrecht Town Vatican, Rome Vienna, Imperial Warsaw University C. Spencer,3rd Earl of Sunderland 1690 1786 Sept. 27, 1641 1691 1651 1540 1581 1447 1440 1816 Nicholas V. Frederick III. Emperor Alexander 490 LICENCES 'LIFE-BOATS Library. Founder. Date. Williams's Rev. Dr Daniel Williams 1716 (Opened, 1729; removed to Lincoln's-Inn-Fields, 1864.) Wiirzburg University 1582 Zurich Town 1629 LICENCES. A mode of raising money introduced by Richard L, 1190 ; public- houses were licenced in the time of Edward VI., 1551 ; gaming-houses, 1620; lottery-office keepers, pedlars and hawkers, 1697 ; brewers, &c., 1784 ; the issue of licences regulated by 9 Geo. IV. c. 61, July 15, 1828 ; refreshment houses regu- lated by 23 Viet. c. 27, June 14, 1860. LICHFIELD, Staffordshire. Richard II. kept his Christmas in Lichfield Castle, 1397, when 2OO tuns of wine and 2000 oxen were consumed ; a charter granted to the city by Edward VI., 1549 ; renewed by James I., 1623 ; besieged and taken by the Puritans under Lord Brooke, March 25, 1642-3 ; retaken by the Royalists under Prince Rupert, April 10-20, 1643 > cathedral built, 1086 ; the Lady Chapel founded, 1296 ; the Norman transept rebuilt, 1230 1241 ; the nave, 1291 ; the cathedral is 400 feet long, 66 broad, and the spire is 258 feet high ; long guns were mounted on the spire, 1643 > tne troops destroyed much of the interior, 1643. LICHFIELD, See of, established, 669 ; made an archbjshopric, 786 ; bishopric removed to Chester, 1075 ; from Chester to Coventry, 1086 ; Coventry and Lichfield formed into one chapter, 1185 ; Lichfield restored alone, 1840. LICHTENBERG, Germany, ceded by Prussia to the Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, 1816 ; ceded to Prussia by the Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, 1834. LIEBENAU, Austria. A combat between the Prussian forces under Prince Frederick Charles and the Austrians, who were defeated ; this was the first en- gagement in the war of 1 866, June 26. LIEGE, Belgium, founded in the 6th century ; fortified in the loth ; taken by Henry I., Duke of Brabant, and pillaged for six days by the soldiers, 1212 ; its fortifications destroyed by Charles the Bold, 1467 ; he retook it the next year, with great atrocity, Oct. 30, 1468 ; bombarded by Marshal Boufflers for five days, 1691 ; taken by the Duke of Marlborough, Oct. 14, 1702 ; by the French, June !5> I 75 > noted for its iron and fire-arms ; the palace destroyed by fire, Feb., 1734; the university founded, 1817. LIEGNITZ, Silesia. t > Frederick the Great totally defeated the Austrians here, Aug. 16, 1760 ; the most part of the town and castle destroyed by fire, 1834 ; sub- sequently rebuilt. LIFE-BOATS. The first patent was granted to Mr Lukin, Nov. 2, 1785 ; a com- mittee of gentlemen at South Shields offered a reward for a more perfect one, 1788; Mr Greathead invented what may be considered the parent life-boat, 1789; floated, 1 790 ; in 1 79 1 it saved the crews of the ' Parthenius ' and ' Peggy ;' a reward of 1200 was voted to him by parliament, 1803 ; 31 boats built upon this plan, 1804 ; a steam life-boat was prepared by Sir William Hillary, Bart., 1824 ; a meeting held at the London Tavern through the exertions of this gentleman, Dr Manners Sutton, Abp of Canterbury, in the chair, when the Royal National Institution for the Preservation of Life from Shipwreck was founded, March 4, 1824 ; Captain Rorie invented tubes to be so placed as to add to the buoyancy, 1829 ; the Duke of Northumberland offered a prize for the model of the best life- boat ; Mr James Beeching of Yarmouth was the successful competitor, 1851 ; the tubular life-boat invented by Mr Henry Richardson, 1830 ; Mr Peake, assistant-master shipwright at Woolwich Dockyard, designed one at the request of the National Lifeboat Institution, tried with success at Brighton, Feb. 3, 1852. LIFE-PRESERVERS LIGHTHOUSE 491 LIFE-PRESERVERS. Cork jackets described by Gelacy, 1757 ; experiments made with, on the Thames, 1764 ; girdle of cork, 1790 ; Mr T. C. Daniel received the gold medal from the Society of Arts for his life-preserving jackets, 1806 ; and Capt. Ward, R.N., life-belts, 1854 ;' Lieutenant Bell introduced the mortars for carrying the rope to land, 1 791 ; the Society of Arts awarded him 50 guineas, 1792 ; Manby's mortar and apparatus for, first used, Feb., 1808, and in the first 20 years saved 58 vessels and 410 lives ; Mr Trengrouse introduced the rocket system, 1819. LIGHT. The earliest work upon this subject was Alhayen, commented on by Vitellio, 1270; refraction of, discovered by Snellius, 1624; moves at the rate of 200,000 miles in a second of time, 1667 ; the light of the sun takes eight minutes and the same number of seconds to reach the earth, or travel 95,000,000 of miles; light and colour, theory of, given by Sir Isaac Newton, 1666 ; the polarization of, by Malus, 1808, and since by Brewster. Zodiacal-light noticed by J. D. Cassini, March, 1683. LIGHTHOUSE. The oldest erected by Ptolemy Philadelphus, at Alexandria, B.C. 300 ; one erected on the Norfolk coast, 1272 ; the Tour de Corduan raised at the mouth of the river Garonne, 1584; finished, 1610 ; the first Eddystone light- house designed by Mr Winstanley, 1696 ; completed, 1698 ; a new one constructed by Rudyerd, 1706; opened, 1708 ; Mr Smeaton designed, and the first stone laid of the present, June 12, 1757 ; the light first shown, Oct. 16, 1759 ; the Bell Rock lighthouse, first stone laid, July 10, 1808 ; light finished, Feb. 1, 1811 ; lighthouses are now erected all over the world ; iron lighthouses built by Messrs Grissell, 1852-3, for Jamaica, Falkland Islands, &c. ; reflectors for economizing the light first invented by Wm Hutchinson of Liverpool, 1763 ; M. Lenoir constructed some of silvered copper for the Cordonan lighthouse, 1780 ; Mr T. Smith made the next advance, 1 786 ; the first polished metal reflectors used in Great Britain at the Inch- keith lighthouse, 1803 ; Sir D. Brewster invented the present form of, 1811, and by M. Augustine Fresnel, in France, 1819; Lieutenant Drummond proposed the use of the oxy-hydrous light, 1832. The lights on land, or lighthouses which are at the highest elevation, with the distances they command in clear weather, are given in the following table, compiled from the general return published by the Admiralty : Vr whon Height of Distances at Lantern above which the lights high water. are seen. Lizard ... 1751 ... ... 224 feet 20 miles Needles "... 1786 469 27 Beachy Head 1828 285 22 South Foreland ... 1793 ... ... 372 25 Cromer ... ... ... 1719 ... ... 274 22 Flamborough Head ... 1806 214 ... ... 19 Inchkeith 1804 220 ... ... 18 Isle of May 1816 240 21 Dunnet Head ... ... 1831 346 ... ... 23 Lumburgh Head ... 1821 300 22 Cape Wrath 1828 400 25 Barra Head 1833 680 32 Kintyre 1787 297 22 Mull of Galloway ... 1830 325 23 CalfofMan 1818 375 22 St Bees' Head 1718 333 23 Lundy Island ... ... 1820 540 ... ... 30 Cape Clear 1817 455 27 Clare Island ... ... 1806 ... ... 349 ... ... 27 Skellig's Rock 1826 372 25 492 LIGHTNING LIMBURG LIGHTNING, with thunder, so terrible as to throw down several churches, Feb., 1222 it thundered 15 consecutive days ; the rain flooded and destroyed the pro- duce of the earth, 1233 ; many men and beasts perished by it, and houses were demolished, 1360 ; St Paul's steeple set fire to, and that of Waltham Cross, Candlemas-day, 1443 ; a flash penetrated the theatre at Venice during a repre- sentation, Aug. 17, 1796 ; of 600 people in the house, several were killed, the candles put out, a lady's gold watch-case melted, the jewels and diamonds in the ear-rings of others split. LIGHTNING-CONDUCTORS. Professor Richmann of St Petersburg killed by an explosion from a conductor, 1753 ; the first erected in England by Dr Watson at Payneshill, 1762 ; Sir W. Snow Harris suggested to the Lords of the Admiralty a plaivfor protecting ships by means of, 1821 ; he received a parliamentary grant of ^4000 ; his plan has been since adopted for public buildings. LIGNY, France, battle. Napoleon defeated the Prussians, under Bliicher, losing 20,000 men, the French lost 10,000, June 16, 1815. LIGURIAN REPUBLIC, founded, June, 1802, at Genoa ; incorporated with France at its own request, May 25, 1805 ; it was afterwards made a part of the kingdom of Italy. LILAC TREE, the common, known in England, 1590; the Persian first cultivated about 1597. LILBURNE, COLONEL JOHN, fined 5000 for a libel, 1637 ; tried before the infamous Star-chamber of Charles I., he was sentenced to stand in the pillory and receive 500 lashes, 1638, which he bore, though cruelly inflicted, with great forti- tude ; died at Eltham, 1657. LILIO, ALOYS, inventor of the Gregorian Calendar, 1570. LILLE or LISLE, France, founded by Bandouin IV., Count of Flanders, 1009 ; besieged and taken by Philip the Fair, after a siege of three months, 1297 ; re- taken by Guy, Count of Flanders, 1302 ; the Town Hall built, 1430, contains many pictures of Raphael and Michael Angelo ; the Hopital Comtesse founded, circa 1280 ; the town seriously injured by fire, 1467 ; an attempt made by the Pro- testants to surprise it failed, 1581 ; besieged unsuccessfully by the French, 1645 ; taken from the Spaniards by Louis XIV., 1667 ; fortified by Vauban, 1670 ; re- captured by the allies, under the Duke of Marlborough, 1708, after an obstinate siege of three months ; ceded to France by the treaty of Utrecht, 1713 ; consider- ably enlarged, 1786 ; bombarded by the Austrians for a week, but they failed to take it, Oct. 8, 1792. LILLESHULL PRIORY, Salop, founded by Richard de Belmeis, 1104. LILY, flower so called, a native of Syria, Italy, and of Persia, brought to England about the I4th century ; the Guernsey lily, or Amaryllis, a native of Japan ; that of a red colour from South America ; the gigantic lily from New South Wales, 1800. LILYB^EUM, Italy. This strong fortress besieged by Pyrrhus unsuccessfully, B.C. 276 ; besieged by the Romans from 250 to 241. LILY OF NAVARRE, order of knighthood, 1048; Arragon, 1403. LIMA, Peru, founded by Pizarro, I535> receiving the name of Ciudad delos Keyes ; made the capital, 1537; dreadful earthquakes at, 1586, 1630, 1687, and 1746, Oct. 28, when it was almost wholly destroyed, with Callao ; in 1854-55 the yellow fever made its appearance for the first time, carrying off thousands, and in the interior 200,000 are said to have perished ; part of the town destroyed by an earthquake, April 22, 1 860. LIMBURG, Belgium, ceded to France by the Batavian Republic, 1795 ; afterwards LIMEHOUSE LINCOLN 1 493 restored to the Netherlands ; divided by treaty between Holland and Belgium, 1839- LIMEHOUSE, formerly a hamlet of Stepney, from which parish it was separated, 1730 ; the West India Docks opened, 1802. LIME LIGHT. Mr A. Gordon, C.E., patented a process for generating hydrogen gas from zinc and sulphuric acid, 1835 5 Mr G. Michiel's process, 1853 ; the ap- paratus for producing, improved by Mr Bastable, 1858, and by Mr Prosser, 1859. LIMERICK, Ireland. The old town was built before 1172 ; first charter of incor- poration obtained, 1195. This town was considered the strongest place in the country ; it was taken by the English, 1174 ; besieged by Ireton, June II Hugh O'Niel, with a force of 3000 men, undertook the defence taken by the English, Oct. 27, 1652 ; successfully resisted the army under King William, who conducted the siege in person, Aug. 8, 1690 ; attempt to carry it by assault failed, Aug. 26 ; the siege raised, Aug. 30; surrendered to General de Ginkel, Oct. 3, 1691, when the famous treaty putting an end to the war and re-establishing order was agreed to, Oct. 3, 1691 ; upwards of 100 persons were killed by an explosion of gun- powder at, Feb., 1694 ; Wellesley Bridge erected, 1827 ; Newton Pery was com- menced by Mr Sexton Pery, 1769- LIMING, Kent, a monastery founded by Ethelburga, daughter of King Ethelbert, A.D. 633. LIMITED LIABILITY. An act passed for limiting the liabilities of members of joint-stock companies to the amount of their shares, 1 8 & 19 Viet. c. 133, Aug. 14, 1855.' See Joint Stock Companies. LIMOGES, France, burned by the Romans, 836 ; Hen. II. was crowned Duke of Aquitania here, 1189 ; captured by Edward the Black Prince, who gave up the town to pillage, and ordered the massacre of 3000 of the inhabitants, 1370 ; Place D'Orsay formed, 1714-15 ; a paper and porcelain manufactory established, 1800 ; a great fire broke out at, which destroyed much property and 107 houses, Aug. 15, 1864. LINCELLES, battle, between the English and Dutch armies and the French, in which the latter were repulsed, with the loss of II pieces of cannon, Aug. 18, 1793. LINCLUDEN ABBEY, Scotland, founded by Malcolm, the king, who died, 1165. LINCOLN, battles, between the party of the Empress Maud and that of King Stephen, in which the latter was routed and taken, Feb. 2, 1121 ; again, a con- test between the Dauphin Louis of France and the forces of Henry III. of Eng- land, commanded by the Earl of Pembroke, in which the former was defeated, May 19, 1217 ; a treaty of peace was signed at Lambeth, Sept. n. LINCOLN, Lincolnshire, occupied by the Romans, who built the first castle, of which Newport Gate remains ; a second castle built by Wjlliam the Conqueror, 1086 ; taken by Queen Matilda, 1140 ; besieged and taken by Stephen, 1141 ; he spent his Christmas here, 1 144 ; King John received the homage of David, King of Scotland, 1215; the city burnt, 1235; King John besieged by the barons ; Edward I. held his parliament in the castle, 1301, Edward II., 1307, and Ed- ward III., 1326-27 ; during the civil war it was garrisoned by the Royalists, who were defeated, and the town taken by storm by the Parliamentarians under the Duke of Manchester, May 5, 1644; St Peter's church erected, 1723 ; a library established, 1800; the Architectural Society of the Diocese formed, 1844; the Bishop's Palace at Riseholme partially burnt, Feb. 7, 1863. LINCOLN, the See of, founded, 680, at Leicester and Dorchester ; removed to Lincoln, 1094 ; deanery, archdeaconry, chancellorship, and precentorship erected, 1092 ; subdeanery, 1 140. 494 LINCOLN CATHEDRAL LINLITHGOW BRIDGE LINCOLN CATHEDRAL, begun by Bishop Remigius, circa 1090 ; partially destroyed by fire, 1124 ; the choir built, 1186 ; the nave, 1209 ; the great tower fell down, 1244-5 ; repairs began, 1306 ; finished, 1324 ; the bell called Great Tom founded in the reign of James I., 1610 ; recast, June, 1834; it weighs 9894 Ibs ; the building is 524 feet long, and 80 wide ; the towers, one 300 feet, and the other 281 feet high. LINCOLN COLLEGE, Oxford, founded by Richard Fleming, Bishop of Lincoln, 6 Hen. VI., Oct. 12, 1427 ; hall built by Dean Forest, 1436 ; interior repaired, 1701 ; college increased by Bishop Rotherham, 1478 ; south quadrangle built by Sir Thomas Rotherham, 1612 ; chapel consecrated, Sept. 15, 1631. LINCOLN'S INN, London, built, 1229 ; converted from the Bishop of Chiches- ter's palace to an inn of court, 1312 ; the old hall rebuilt, 1506 ; chapel erected, 1626 ; theatre built, 1695 ; square railed round, 1737 ; new buildings erected, 1782 ; new buildings, or hall and library, erected from the designs of P. Hardwicke, R. A. ; first stone laid, April 20, 1843 ; opened by Her Majesty Victoria, Oct. 30, 1845 ; it is 80 feet long, and 40 feet wide ; cost .88,000. New Square built, 1697, and stone-buildings, 1780. Lincohfs-Inn-Fields Theatres: the first, the DukJs Theatre, erected by Sir William Davenant, and opened, June 25, 1661 ; the second theatre was erected for Congreve, and opened by him with his comedy of Love for Lave, April 29, 1695 ; the third erected by Christopher Rich, 1714 ; opened, Dec. 18, 1714; the first Oratorio performed here, 1732; transformed into a barracks for 1400 men, 1756 ; its site is now occupied by the Museum of the College of Surgeons ; Lord Russell beheaded there, July 21, 1683. LINDISFARNE, Northumberland. The castle built by Prior Castell, circa 1500 ; garrisoned for the parliament, 1646 ; seized for Prince Charles Edward by Launcelot Errington, 1719. Aidan, a Scot, established a bishop's see at, 634. LINDISFARNE, Northumberland, or Holy Island Monastery, founded, 651 ; re- built, 1014; and transferred to Durham by Bishop William de Carileph, 1082. LINEN. Egypt was originally the great centre of its manufacture ; frequent al- lusion is made to it in the Bible ; blue, purple, and scarlet were presented by the Israelites from Egypt for the tabernacle, Gen. xli. 42 ; first manufactured in England by Flemings, under the protection of Henry III., 1253 ; began in Lon- don, 1368 ; a company established for; staining of, first known in England, 1579; a colony of Scotch, in the reign of James I., who fled from religious persecution to the north-east of Ireland, established the manufacture there about 1630 ; the products of the flax labour were permitted to be exported, 1696 ; Irish linen board established, 1711; the Duke of Ormonde ordered hat-bands and scarfs to be made of, 1712 ; machinery began to be used, 1725 ', Scotland became famed for its linen, 1725 ; a board of trustees appointed, 1727 ; Linen Hall, Dublin, opened, 1728 ; abolished, 1828 ; before linen was used, woollen sheets were worn ; flax spinning by machinery introduced into Belfast, 1820 ; a society formed for en- couraging the growth of flax in Ireland, 1841 ; an act passed to prevent frauds in the weaving of, 3 & 4 Viet. c. 91, Aug. 10, 1840 ; amended, 3O&3I Viet, c. 60, July 15, 1867. LINLITHGOW, Scotland, made a royal burgh by David I ; charter granted by Robert II., 1389; palace erected by Edward I., circa 1304; Mary Queen of Scots was born in the parish of Linlithgovv, James V., her father, dying of a broken heart the same year, 1542. LINLITHGOW BRIDGE, battle, between the Earls of Angus and Lennox, who fought for the possession of the person of James V., then in his minority, 1526; the Earl of Lennox was subsequently killed by Sir James Hamilton. LIXXEAN SYSTEM LITANIES 49$ LINNEAN SYSTEM, or that of Linnaeus, a Swede, was began about 1725-30 ; he first compiled a dictionary of 7300 plants, which he classed and accurately arranged according to the sexual parts, their number, and situation. The society called, after him, the Linnean Society of London, founded, 1788; incorporated, March 26, 1802 ; Transactions published, 1791 ; the library of Dr Smith purchased for ,1000. LIXTZ, Austria, formerly a Roman station ; Leopold II. purchased it, 1036; success- fully resisted Fardinger, the peasant leader, 1626 ; Holy Trinity Column erected by Charles V., 1723 ; seventy houses and the palace burned, Aug. 12, 1800. LIXWOOD'S EXHIBITION OF NEEDLEWORK. This wonderful exhibition of genius and industry was the work of Miss Mary Linwood of Leicester. It was first exhibited to the Royal Family at Windsor Castle, 1785 ; and at Hanover Square, 1 798, subsequently removed to Savile House, Leicester Square ; the collection consisted of 64 subjects (Salvator Mundi) after Carlo Dolce, be- queathed to Queen Victoria. .LIOPPO, battle. The Neapolitans defeated by Garibaldi, May 16, 1860. LIPSTADT, battle between the Swedes and Austrians, in which the King of Sweden was killed at the moment of victory ; the Austrian commander fell at the same moment, Nov. 6, 1632. LISBON, Portugal. Overrun by the barbarians after they had defeated the Romans, A.D. 409; taken by the Arabs, 711 ; conquered by the Moors, 716 ; taken from them by the Portuguese under Alphonso, 1147, when 200,000 Moors perished ; burnt by the King of Castile, 1372 ; made the capital of Portugal, 1506 ; taken by the Duke of Braganc^, 1640 ; reduced to a heap of ruins by a dreadful earthquake, 40,000 people being killed, Nov. I, 1755 ; Custom-house burned, May 31, 1766; the court fled to the Brazils, Nov., 1807 ; the French took possession of the town, Nov. 29, 1807 ; defeated by Sir Arthur Wellesley, Aug. 21, 1808 ; Junot em- barked his army under the infamous Convention of Cintra, Sept. 15, 1 808 ; in- surrection in, Aug. 21, 1831 ; massacre of the inhabitants, June 9, 1834 ; first lighted with gas, 1850 ; the yellow fever raged violently, carrying off 80 persons a day from Nov. 19, 1857, to Dec. 24, 1859. LISBURN, Ireland. The castle erected by Sir F. Conway, 1610 ; the town built by his son, 1627 ; attacked by the Irish insurgents, and partially destroyed, 1641; became the abode of the Huguenots ; the whole town destroyed by fire, 1707 ; rebuilt, 1710; cathedral erected, 1807. LISKEARD, Cornwall, incorporated, 1580. LISLE, LADY, beheaded at Winchester, Sept. 2, 1685. LISMORE, Ireland. A monastery founded here by St Carthagh in the 7th cen- tury ; pillaged by the Danes in the gth century ; castle built, 1265 ; council held here by Henry II., circa 1170; burnt by the insurgents, 1645; visited by James II., 1689 ; became the property of the Duke of Devonshire, who re- built the castle, 1753 ; bishopric of, founded, 636 ; the cathedral repaired, 1130 ; bishopric united to Waterford, 1363. LISSA, naval battle. The Austrian fleet under Adm. Tegethoff defeated the Italian fleet under Adm. Persano, July 20, 1866 ; two iron-clads, the Re d'ltalia and the Palestro were sunk, and the Affondatore sunk at Ancona ; the Austrians returned to Fasana without a missing vessel on the 2ist ; Persano was deprived of his command, and tried before the Italian senate. See Italy. LITANIES first used in churches, 443 ; the processional litanies at Rome, 590 ; English litany ordered to be used by Henry VIII., 1543 ; made a separate ser- vice until 1661, since which time it has been read in the morning service. 496 LITERARY CLUB LITERARY SOCIETIES LITERARY CLUB founded by Dr Johnson and Sir Joshua Reynolds, 1764; they first met at the Turk's Head Tavern, Soho ; the number of members limited to 40, 1776 ; removed to Prince's, in Sackville-street, 1783, and to St James's-street, 1792 ; the centenary of the club held at the Clarendon, the Dean of St Paul's in the chair, 1864 ; the name of the club has been changed to the 'Johnson.' LITP^RARY FUND, the Royal, established, May 18, 1790, to assist literary men. who have published works of merit ; incorporated, 1818 ; Prince Albert pre- sided at a public dinner of, 1842. LITERARY, LEARNED, AND SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES, with the date of their institution : Aberdeen Philosophical ... 1840 Abernethian ... ... ... 1 795 Abbotsford Club 1835 Actuaries Institute ... ... 1848 Aelfric 1843 African Association ... ... 1788 Agricultural, Royal, of England 1838 Anglia Christiana Society ... 1847 Anthropological Society ... 1863 Antiquaries ... ... ... 1572 Revived, 1707; incorporated 1751 Archaeological Association ... 1843 Archaeological Institute ... 1843 Architects, Royal Institute of British ' ... 1834 Architectural Photographic . As- sociation ... ... ... 1862 Architectural Publication Society Arts, Manufactures, and Com- merce Society .. ... 1753 Art Union of London establish- ed, 1836 ; incorporated ... 1846 Arundel Society ... ... 1848 Ashmolean Society, Berkshire... 1840 Asiatic Society, Oxford, institut- ed, 1823 ; incorporated ... 1824 Astronomical Society, Royal, es- tablished, 1820; incorporated 1831 Bannatyne Club ... ... 1823 Bath and West of England Agri- cultural and Art Society ... 1777 Bedfordshire Archaeological So- ciety ... ... ... 1847 Berwickshire Naturalists' Club 1831 Birmingham Philosophical In- stitution ... ... ... 1830 Birmingham Institution of Me- chanical Engineers ... 1 847 Botanical Society ... ... 1836 Botanical Society of London, Royal 1839 Bristol Philosophical Society ... 1823 Architectural Society ... 1836 Bristol, Athenaeum 1844 Fine Arts' Society ... ... 1844 Microscopical Society ... 1843 Naturalists' Society ... ... 1862 British Association for the Ad- vancement of Science ... 1831 Buckinghamshire Archaeological Society ... ... ... 1847 Caledonian Horticultural Society 1 8 1 1 Calvin Translation Society ... 1843 Cambrian Archaeological Asso- ciation ... ... ... 1846 Cambrian Institute ... ... 1853 Cambridge Antiquarian Society 1840 Philosophical Society institut- ed, 1819; incorporated ... 1832 Camden Society 1838 Caxtdn Society ... ... ... 1845 Cavendish Society ... ... 1846 Celtic Society ... ... ... 1843 Chemistry, Royal College of ... 1845 Chemical Society ... ... 1841 Chester and Cheshire Archaeolo- gical Society ... ... 1850 Chetham Society ... ... 1845 Chronological Institute ... 1852 Cork Cuvierian Society ... 1836 Scientific and Literary So- ciety ... ... ... 1814 Cornwall Geological Society ... 1814 Royal Institution ... - ... 1818 Royal Polytechnic Society ... 1833 Cymmrodorian, or Metropolitan Cambrian Institution, in- stituted, 1751 ; suspended, J 773 > revived ... ... 1820 Dilettanti Society ... ... 1734 Dublin Geological Society ... 1832 Gaelic Society 1807 Microscopical Society ... 1840 Natural History Society ... 1838 Royal Society, established, 1731 ; incorporated ... 1750 LITERARY, LEARNED, AND SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES 497 Dublin University Philosophical Society 1842 Dudley and Midland Geological Society ... 1842 Durham and Northumberland Archaeological Society ... 1 860 Early English Text Society ... 1864 Ecclesiastical History Society... 1846 Ecclesiological Society 1 839 Edinburgh Botanical Society ... 1836 Geological Society ... 1834 Harveian Society ... I75 2 Hunterian Society ... 1824 Juridical Society ... 1773 Medical Society ... 1731 Royal Medical Society insti- tuted, 1737 ; incorporated 1778 Philosophical Society ... 1848 Physicians, Society of ... 1773 Plinian Society ... ... 1829 Royal College of Physicians 1681 Royal Society established/ 1 782 ; incorporated, 1 783 ; re-incorporated ... ... l8ll Royal Physical Society iasti- tuted, 1771 ; incorporated 1788 Walls' Institution 1821 Wernerian Natural History Society 1808 Education, Central Society of... 1837 Egyptian Society ... ... 1819 Electrical Society ... ... 1837 Engineers, Institution of Civil, established, 1818 ; incorpor- ated 1828 Engineers, Corps of Royal ... 1838 Engineers, Smeatonian Society of 1771 Engineers' Society 1854 English Historical Society ... 1838 Entomological Society ... ... 1833 Epidemiological Society ... 1850 Ethnological Society ... ... 1843 Etching Club 1838 Exeter Diocesan Architectural Society ... 1841 Fine Arts, Society for the en- couragement of ... ... 1858 Gaelic Society 1830 Genealogical and Historical So- ciety 1857 Geographical Society, Royal ... 1830 Geological Society instituted, 1807 ; incorporated ... 1823 Geological Museum and Survey of the United Kingdom ... 1839 3* Geologists' Association ... 1858 Glasgow Archaeological Society 1856 Geological Society 1858 Literary Society ... ... 1758 Natural History Society ... 1851 Philosophical Society ... 1802 Statistical Society ... ... 1836 Guy's Hospital Physical Society 1772 Hakluyt Society ' 1846 Handel Society 1844 Hanserd Knollys Society ... 1845 Harveian Society 1831 Highland and Agricultural So- ciety of Scotland ... ... 1785^ Historical Society of Science ... -1841 Homoeopathic Association ... 1845 Homoeopathic Society 1859 Horological, British, Institute... 1858 Horticultural Society instituted, 1804; incorporated ... 1809 Hull, Royal Institution ... 1822 Humane Society, Royal ... 1774 Hunterian Society ... ... 1819 Iberno-Celtic Society 1818 Ham Anastatic Drawing Society 1859 Ireland, Royal Agricultural Im- provement Society ... ... 1841 Ireland, Association of the Fel- lows and Licentiates of the Queen's College of Physi- cians ... ... ... 1816 Institution of Civil Engineers of 1835 R oyal Zoological Society ... 1 826 Royal Irish Institution ... 1813 Irish Art Union, Royal ... 1838 Irish Royal Academy ... ... 1786 Kent Archaeological Society ... 1857 Kilkenny Archaeological Society 1849 Lancashireand Cheshire Historic Society 1848 Law Amendment Society ... 1847 Law Incorporated Society, in- stituted, 1827; incorporated 1831 Leeds Mechanics' Institution 1844 Philosophical and Literary Society 1818 Leicester Philosophical Society 1835 Lichneld Ecclesiastical Society 1842 Lincoln Architectural Society 1844 Lincolnshire Topographical So- ciety 1841 Linnaean Society 1788 Literature, Royal Society of, in- stituted, 1823; incorporated 1826 Literature and Art, Guild of 1851 498 LITERARY, LEARNED, AND SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES Liverpool Literary and Philoso- phical 1812 Architectural and Archaeologi- cal 1848 Polytechnic Society ... 1838 Royal Institution ... ... 1847 London and Middlesex Archaeo- logical Society ... ... 1855 Londonderry Natural History Society Maitland Club Manchester Literary and Philo- sophical Society ... ... 1781 Geological Society ... ... 1838 Natural History Society ... 1821 Manx Society ... ... ... 1858 Medical Association, British ... 1853 Medical and Chirurgical Society, Royal, instituted, 1805 ; in- corporated ... ... 1834 Medical and Chirurgical Know- ledge, Society for the Im- provement of ... ... I79 2 Medical, Provincial, Associa- tion 1832 Medical Society of London ... 1773 Medico-Botanical Society ... 1821 Meteorological Society ... 1821 Meteorological Society, British 1851 Microscopical Society ... ... 1839 Motett Society 1841 Musical Antiquarian Society ... 1840 National Association for Social Science ... ... ... 1857 Naval Architecture, institution of 1 860 Newcastle-on-Tyne Society of Antiquaries ... ... 1813 Literary and Philosophical So- ciety 1793 Typographical Society ... 1818 Norfolk and Norwich Archaeolo- gical Society ... ... 1 845 Literary Institution ... ... 1822 North of England Institute of Mining Engineers ... 1851 Northampton Architectural So- ciety ... ... ... 1844 Northumberland Agricultural Society 1846 Northumberland, Durham, and Newcastle Natural History Society 1829 Numismatic Society ... ... 1836 Obstetrical Society 1858 Odontological Society ... ... 1856 Oriental Translation Fund ... 1828 Orkney Natural History Society 1837 Antiquarian and Natural His- tory Society ... ... 1844 Ornithological Society ... 1837 Ossianic Society ... .. 1853 Oxford Architectural Society ... 1839 Painters in Water Colours, Insti- tute of 1831 Painters in Water Colours, So- ciety of 1804 Palaeontographical Society ... 1847 Parker Society ... ... 1840 Pathological Society ... ... 1846 Penzance Natural History and Antiquarian Society ... 1839 Percy Society ... ... ... 1840 Perth Literary and Antiquarian Society ... ... ... 1784 Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain ... ... ... 1841 Philobiblon Society ... ... 1853 Philological Society ... ... 1842 Photographic Society ... ... 1852 Physicians, Society of ... ... 1763 Physicians, Royal College of ... 1523 Plymouth Institution of Natural History 1812 Promoting Christian Knowledge, Society for ... ... 1703 Propagation of Gospel in Foreign Parts, Society for the, in- corporated ... .. 1701 Pure Literature Society ... 1854 Ray Society ... ... ... 1844 Royal Asiatic Society ... 1823 Royal Institution of Gt Britain, incorporated ... ... 1 800 Royal Society of Literature ... 1822 Royal Society, incorporated ... 1662 St Albans' Architectural and Archaeological Society ... 1845 Scotland, Society of Antiquaries 1 780 Architectural Institute of ... 1 850 Society for Propagating Chris- tian Knowledge ... ... 1709 Scottish Royal Academy of Painting, founded, 1826 ; incorporated ... ... 1838 Royal Society of Arts, institut- ed 1821 ; incorporated ... 1841 Scottish Institution of Civil En- gineers ... ... ... 1857 Shipbuilders' Association ... 1860 Shakespeare Society ... ... 1840 LITERATURE Sheffield Literary and Philo- sophical Society ... ... 1822 Shropshire and North Wales Natural History and Anti- quarian Society ... ... 1835 Somersetshire Archaeological So- ciety 1849 South Wales Institution of Min- ing Engineers ... ... 1857 Spalding Club 1839 Spottiswoode Society 1843 Staines Literary and Scientific Institution ... ... 1836 Statistical Society 1834 Suffolk Institute of Archaeology 1848 Surgeons, Royal College of, in- corporated ... ... 1808 Surrey Archaeological Society 1853 Surtees' Society 1834 Sussex Archaeological Society 1846 Swedenborg Society ... ... 1810 Sydenham Society 1843 Sydenham Society, New ... 1858 Syro-Egyptian Society ... 1844 Tweedside Physical and Anti- quarian Society ... ... 1834 Tyneside Naturalists' Field Club 1846 Ulster Chemico-Agricultural So- ciety 1845 LITURGY 499 Ulster Statistical Society ... 1838 United Service Institution, Royal 1 83 1 Veterinary Medical Association 1835 Veterinary Surgeons, Royal Col- lege of ... ... ... 1844 Warwickshire Natural History and Archaeological Society 1836 Welsh Manuscripts Society ... 1837 Wernerian Club ... ... 1844 Wharton Club 1854 Whitby Literary and Philosophi- cal Society ... ... 1823 Wiltshire Archaeological and Natural History Society ... 1853 Topographical Society ... 1840 Wodrow Society ... ... 1841 Worcester Diocesan Architect- ural Society ... ... 1850 Worcestershire Natural History Society 1838 York County Architectural So- ciety 1842 Yorkshire Agricultural Society 1837 Geological and Polytechnic So- ciety of the West Riding ... 1838 Philosophical Society ... 1822 Antiquarian Club ... ... 1850 Zoological Society of London ... 1826 LITERATURE, the Royal Society, established, May 16, 1822; incorporated, 1826. LITHOFRAGE, the art of breaking the stone in the bladder, first performed in England by Mr Casteloe, 1833. LITHOGRAPHY, invented by Alois Senefelder, 1796 ; patented in Bavaria, 1800; opened an establishment in Vienna, 1802 ; in Paris and London soon after. The author published to the world, for the first time, a practical work on the new art, and the circumstances which led to its invention, 1817 ; he died, Feb. 26, 1834. LITHOTOMY, the operation of cutting for the stone in the bladder, first prac- tised, 17 A. D. ; the high mode of operating, considered the oldest, performed by M. Colet, in Paris, on a criminal, 1475 ; taught by Frere Jacques, 1697. LITH U ANI A, Poland, taken by Russia in the 1 2lh century, but afterwards regained its independence ; Ringold assumed the title of Grand Duke, 1230 ; united to Poland, lagello having married Hedvig, Queen of Poland, who with the court were baptized publicly, in Arakan, Feb. 14, 1386 ; the temple of Wilna made a Christian church, 1387 ; the nations united formally by the Diet of Lubin, 1569 ; Lithuania annexed to Russia, 1792-93. LITTLE MALVERN, Worcestershire. The priory founded by two brothers, Jocelyn and Edred, monks of Worcester, 1171. LITTLE MARCIS AND GEDDINGHAM, Yorkshire. The priory founded by Roger de Clere, 1163. LITTLE MARLOW, Bucks. A nunnery founded by Lord Spenser, circa 1186. LITTLE ROCK, Arkansas, United States, settled, 1820 ; the town founded, 1829. LITURGY. The Genevan formula published, 1543 ; the liturgy of the Church 500 LIVERPOOL of England was composed, 1547, and established by 2 & 3 Edw. VI. c. I, 1548 ; first read in Ireland at the cathedral of Christ's Church, Dublin, April 6, 1550 ; reformed 5 & 6 Edw. VI. c. i, 1552 ; abolished by Queen Mary, re-established I Eliz. c. 2, 1558 ; amended by James I., 1604 ; the last revision by convocation, and sanctioned by act 13 & 14 Chas. II. c. 4, 1662. France long retained the Genevan ; the last alteration took place, 1569. In Scotland Knox's liturgy was in use, 1562, but perished with its author ; the English first read by authority, July 23, 1637, but great opposition being offered to it, it was not pressed ; altered, 1712. LIVERPOOL, Lancashire, originated in the buildings around a castle erected by Roger de Poitiers, 1076 ; not mentioned in Doomsday Book, but received its first charter, 1129; Henry II. granted another charter, 1173 ; King John granted an extension of their privileges by charter, Aug. 28, 1207 ; Henry III. made the town a free corporation for ever for a fine of 10 marks, and granted it another charter, 1227 ; tower in Water-street built, 1252 ; Henry IV. granted a charter to the town, 1309 ; the charter of Edward III. given, 1326 ; castle and borough estimated as worth ^30 los. per annum, 1327 ; St Nicholas' church rebuilt, 1360 ; King Richard II. granted the town a charter, 1390; the dues leased by John of Gaunt, 1399 ; Sir Richard Molyneux, constable of the castle of Liverpool, 1420 ; the shipping of the town, 12 vessels, 177 tonnage and 75 men, 1540 ; in 1555 the tonnage of the 12 vessels increased to 223 tons; Manchester cotton bartered with some Liverpool merchants for wine, 1558 ; the old tower destroyed by a storm, 1560 ; six streets only inhabited, containing 38 cottages, 1561 ; the number of householders 138, 1565 ; the first lottery in England proclaimed here, 1566 ; 2s. per day allowed to the members of parliament while in London, the money collected, 1584 ; 24 vessels of 362 tonnage, belonged to the town, 1618 ; Charles I. granted a charter to the town, which was made a body politic and cor- porate, July 4, 1626; King Charles illegally levied ship money, Liverpool ^25, Chester 26, Bristol 2000, 1636 ; trie town besieged by Prince Rupert, and taken by storm, June 26, 1644; the town again declared for the parliament, 1645; 15 vessels belonged to the town, from 15 to 35 tons each, 1650 ; the castle demol- ished, 1659 ; town hall built, 1674 ; Liverpool made a distinct parish from Wal- ton, 1699 5 the old dock made, 1699 ; the castle granted to the corporation, 1704; 84 ships in all, 5789 tons, belonged to the port, and the first slave-ship sailed for Africa, 1708 ; the first dock of 3^2 acres constructed, 1715 ; ships increased to 220, making 19,176 tons, 1751 ', 53 sailed for Africa, 1751 ; a pottery established by Mr R. Chaffers, 1750 ; Mr Sadler invented printing upon pottery, from copper plates, 1756 ; the town hall built, 1754 ; consumed by fire, 1795 ; restored, 1798 ; the dome and cupola completed, 1802 ; the portico, 1811 ; Williamson's first news- paper published, 30 advertisements, Dec. 27, 1764 ; a stage coach to London once a week, being four days on the road, 1760; in 1764 no less than 74 vessels sailed to Africa ; first stone of St George's dock laid, 1767 ; theatre-royal opened, 1775 5 alarming riots of seamen, 1775 ; mail to London established, 1785 ; interior of the town hall destroyed by fire, 1 795 ; a new town hall opened, 1 797 ; the Bootle water- works commenced, 1797 ; the Athenaeum library commenced, 1799 ; botanic gar- den planted, 1 800; Lyceum opened, 1802 ; theatre, Williamson-square, opened, 1803 ; the building of the exchange was commenced, 1803, and finished, 1809 ; the Lyceum library built, 1804 ; first stone of corn exchange laid, 1807 ; the spire of St Nicholas' church fell, 24 children killed, 1810; Royal Institution began, 1814 ; open- ed, 1817 ; Prince's Dock began, 1816 ; the steam-ship Savannah arrived from the port of that name in 26 days, June 20, 1819 ; St John's market, the largest in the world, opened, 1822; musical festival receipts, ^"6000, Oct., 1823; 'Alert' packet, from Dublin, wrecked, and IOO persons drowned, March 25, 1823 ; post packets with Ireland commenced, 1826 ; Liverpool and Manchester railway began, 1826; first stone of the Rock Perch lighthouse laid, June 8, 1827 ; first stone of the new LIVERPOOL ADMINISTRATION LLANDAFF 501 custom-house laid, 1828 ; Liverpool and Manchester railway opened, MrHuskis- son killed, Sept. 15, 1830 ; W. Roscoe died, June 30, 1831, aged 79 ; wreck of the 'Rothsay Castle,' and 100 passengers lost, Aug. 17, 1831 ; the cholera visited the town, 1832 ; Zoological Gardens opened, May 27, 1833 ; Waterloo Dock opened, Aug. 18, 1834 ; assizes held at Liverpool on the 1 5th of Aug., 1835 ; Trafalgar and Victoria Docks named, 1836 ; in 1837 the corporation had an estate of 3, 000,000 value, it having doubled in 45 years ; statistical society founded, 1838; the first steam-ship, 'The Royal William,' left Liverpool for New York, July 5, 1838 ; St George's Hall and courts begun, 1841 ; a fire, which de- stroyed property to the amount of .500,000, 1842 ; the first stone of the Sailors' Home laid by Prince Albert, 1846, cost 30,000 ; a statue erected to Mr Huskis- son, 1847 ; serious fire at, and a large amount of property destroyed, Sept. 23, 1844 ; the Queen and Prince Albert visited the town, Oct. 8, 1851 ; Walton gaol opened, 1854 ; St George's Hall, 167 feet in length and 77 in width, the roof is 82 feet high, it is supported by 22 columns of polished granite, opened, Sept. 1 8, 1854. Upwards of 15,000 workmen thrown out of employment by the cotton famine ; they paraded the town, and broke into the provision stores, Feb. 19, 1855 ; the Duke of Cambridge entertained by the corporation in the town hall, Oct. 10 ; free library, the first stone laid by Mr William Brown, at whose expense it was built, April 15, 1857 ; the Sailors' Home destroyed by fire, April 29, 1860 ; the free library and museum opened by Mr Brown, Oct. 8 ; the Brownlow Hill workhouse burnt with 25 inmates, Sept. 8, 1862; the bark 'Lotty Sleigh' lying in the Mersey, with several tons of gunpowder on board, caught fire and blew up, causing considerable damage to the town, Jan. 9, 1864 ; the new Prince of Wales Theatre opened, Oct. 15, 1866 ; Mr Mayer presented his valuable collection of gems and antiquities to the town, 1867 ; the Royal bank suspended payment, Oct. 21 ; the foundation- stone of the New Southern Hospital laid by Earl Derby, Oct. 23 ; the Greek vessel 'Bubulina' exploded in the Mersey, several persons drowned, and much damage done, Nov. 29 ; Prince Arthur and Prince Christian visited the town, Jan. 8, 1868. LIVERPOOL ADMINISTRATION succeeded that of Mr Perceval, who was shot May n, 1812 ; it terminated April, 1827, by the death of Lord Liverpool ; there were many changes in the cabinet. LIVERPOOL RAILWAY to Manchester, 31 miles long, begun Oct., 1826; partially opened, July 30, 1829 ; opened to Manchester, Sept. 15, 1830 ; to Birmingham, July 4, 1837, as the Grand Junction ; to London, the whole length, Sept. 17, 1838. LIVING SKELETON, Calvin Elson, died at New York of tape-worm, 1833 he had been exhibited in London several years before. LIVINGS, An act passed for the augmentation of small, 2 & 3 Anne, c. 20, 1703. LIVINGSTONE, DR, returned from South Africa, having travelled 11,000 miles in that country, Dec. 10, 1856 ; received thegold medal of the Geographical Society, Dec. 15 ; returned to Africa, March 10, 1865 ; rumours of his death reached Eng- land, Feb., 1867 ; an expedition commanded by Mr Young left England in search of him, June 9 ; returned bringing news of his safety, Jan. 19, 1868. LIVONIA, Russia, a trading port established at the mouth of the Dwina, by Bremen merchants, 1158 ; Meinhard, a monk, endeavoured to rescue them from Paganism, 1186 ; Riga built, 1200 ; the Schwertbruder, or brothers of the sword, founded to spread the gospel by force of arms, I2OI ; they took several towns, 1220 ; Frederick II. conferred this town upon Valquin, their Grand Master, 1230 ; captured by Poland, l6th century ; surrendered to Sweden by the treaty of Oliva, May 3, 1660; transferred to Russia by the treaty of Nystadt, Aug. 30, 1721. LIZARD POINT, Cornwall, patent passed to erect the new lighthouses upon, June 29, 1751. LLANDAFF, bishopric founded, 180; the cathedral begun by Bishop Urban, 502 LLANDEGAR CHURCH LOANS AND SUBSIDIES 1120; completed, 1240, 270 feet long and 70 broad ; the S. W. tower blown down, 1722; repaired, 1 760 ; restored by Dean Knight, 1842. LLANDEGAR CHURCH, said to have been founded in the 6th century by St Tagai, the son of a French nobleman ; the present erected, 1348. LLANDEILOVAWR, Caermarthen, remarkable for a battle fought, 1282, between Edward I. and Llewellyn the Great, the latter being defeated. LLANDOVERY CASTLE, Caermarthenshire, S. Wales, besieged, 1 1 16, by Gryffyd ap Rhys ; taken, 1214 ; taken from Rhys Frechan by a united force of Welsh and Normans ; Thomas Phillips founded an educational institution, 1849. LLANDRINDOD. Cefu-Llys castle built by Ralph Mortimer, 1242 ; mineral waters discovered, 1670; visitors flocked to, 1726 ; Mr Grosvenor built a large hotel, which was opened, 1749. LLANELIAN, Anglesey, the church founded, 540, by St Elian. LLANGOLLEN BRIDGE, built by John Trevor, Bishop of St Asaph, 1345 ; re- paired, 1656. LLANLUGAN NUNNERY, Montgomeryshire, founded, 1234. LLANSTEPHAN CASTLE, Caermarthenshire, built, 1138. LLANTARNHAM ABBEY, Monmouthshire, built, mo. LLANRWST, N. Wales. The old church built from the designs of Inigo Jones in the 1 5th century, contains a large stone coffin of Llewellyn ; the Conway bridge de- signed by the same artist, built, 1636. LOADSTONE, polar attractions of, known in France, according to some authori- ties, 1180; Roger Bacon generally reputed to have known them, 1267. LLOYD'S. First established at a coffee-house kept by a Mr Lloyd at the corner of ' Abchurch-lane, Lombard-street, previous to 1700; in 1710, Steele dated No. 246 of the Tatler from ; and Addison in No. 46 of the Spectator, April 23, 1711, speaks of the Auction Pulpit ; business removed to the N.W. corner of the Ex- change, 1774, and the business of insuring vessels began, 1775 j during the re- building of the Exchange they removed to the South Sea House, 1838, but re- turned to their present rooms, 1844. The registry of British and foreign shipping established, 1760 ; improved, giving the class to which each vessel belongs, 1834. LOANS. Several guaranteed by the English government under special convention (see list) ; the Greek loan in 1833 guaranteed by England, France, and Russia, on the establishment of the Greek monarchy ; the Turkish loan guaranteed by Eng- land and France to enable Turkey to carry on the war against Russia, 1855. LOANS AND SUBSIDIES, &c., advanced by England to foreign nations from the year 1792 to 1861 : Hanover ... ... Hesse Cassel Sardinia Baden Hanover Hesse Cassel Hesse Darmstadt Prussia ... ... Sardinia ... ... Baden Brunswick Germany, imperial loan, 35 Geo. III. c. 93 Hanover s. d. 492, 650 190,622 17 16 "1 5^1793 150,000 o oJ 25,196 5 71 559,375 ii 3 473, 105 102,073 i o of'794 1,226,495 o o 200,000 o o. i,793 15 3 97,721 4,600,000 13 o of '795 478,347 17 6j LOANS AND SUBSIDIES 503 Hesse Cassel 317,492 ii 2-j Hesse Darmstadt ... 5 6 M795 Sardinia 150,000 o oj Brunswick 12,794 9 5\ Hesse Darmstadt 20,075 g j 1 79" Brunswick 7,570 ii 6-1 Hesse Darmstadt ... ... ... ., 57,oi5 3 4M797 Germany, imperial loan, 37 Geo. III. c. 59 . 1,620,000 oj Brunswick 7,000 o \ Portugal 120,013 n o f i 79 Hesse Darmstadt 4,812 IO 0-) Prince of Orange ... ... ... ., 20,000 o 05.1799 Russia 825,000 oj Bavaria 501,017 6 Germany . ... German Princes 1,066,666 500,000 13 o J['* Russia ... ... ... 545,494 oj Germany ... ... 150,000 o German Princes ... ... 200,000 o o Hesse Cassel 100,000 o o ViSoi Portugal ... ... ... 200,113 IS *! Sardinia 40,000 oJ Hesse Cassel ... 33,450 18 8 1 Russia ... ... ... 200,000 o o I 'so 2 Sardinia ... ... ... 52,OOO OJ Hanover ... ... ... 117,628 S 7 \ Portugal 31,647 4 Russia 63,000 o 0) Hesse Cassel 83,303 19 5\ 8r> Sweden 2O,II9 4 IIJ 4 Hanover ... 35,340 H 6 1805 Germany ... 500,000 en Hanover 76,865 2 4>i8o6 Hesse Cassel 18,982 2 iiJ Hanover 19,899 4 2 1 Hesse Cassel 45,000 ol Q Prussia ... ... 180,000 o 1807 Russia ... ... ... ... 614,182 16 4J Sicily 300,000 oj Spain 1,497,873 6 Sweden 1,000,000 oJ Austria 85,000 o )- Portugal, 49 Geo. III. c. 71 600,000 o Sicily 300,000 o 1809 Spain ... 529,039 I Sweden ... ... ... 300,000 o HesseCassel ... 45,150 3 31 Portugal 1,237,517 19 Sicily ... 425,000 | Spain ... ... ... ... 402,875 5 : 2%j Portugal . 1,832,168 4 10-j Portuguese sufferers ... ... 39,555 S Sicily ... 275,000 o 1 Spain . . 220,689 IO J Morocco ... ... 1,952 2 7 1812 504 LOANS AND SUBSIDIES s. d. Portugal 2,167,831 15 2"| Portuguese sufferers ... ... 60,444 H 8 Sicily ... 400,000 o of- Spain ... 1,000,000 o o Sweden 278,291 17 5; Austria ... ... ... ... ... ... 500,000 o o] Morocco ... ... ... 14,419 o 8 Portugal 1,644,062 17 2 Prince of Orange, repaid ... ... ... 200,000 o o Prussia ... ... ... ... 650,039 16 Russia ... 657,500 o o Russian sufferers ... 200,000 o o Sicily ... ... 600,000 o o Spain ... 1,000,000 o o Sweden 278,291 17 5; Austria ... ... ... ... ... ... 1,064,881 13 4 Denmark ... ... ... ... ... ... 121,917 16 o France, repaid ... ... 200,000 o o Hanover ... ... ... ... ... ... 500,000 o o Portugal 1,500,000 o o Prussia ... ... ... ... ... ... 1,319,128 18 Russia 2,169,982 2 Sicily 316,666 13 4 Spain T 450,000 o o Sweden ... 800,000 o oJ Austria 1,796,229 8 Hanover ... ... 200,000 o o Portugal ... 100,000 o o Prussia 2,294,222 3 n Russia 3,241,919 7 y z Spain 147,295 18 II Sweden 521,061 17 i- Russia 1,096,355 17 7) Sicily "7,748 6 8i gg Spain ... ... ... 1,000 o of Sweden 506,098 13 jj Greek Loan, 2 & 3 Will. IV. c. 121, and 6 & 7 Will. s. d. IV. c. 94, advanced from 1843 to 1861 882,574 2 I Repaid ... ... ... ... 35,029 6 o Holland Fortifications, Netherlands, 1 818,1819, and 1 820 1,529,765 2 8 Morocco, 1862 ... ... 426,000 o o Russian-Dutch Loan guaranteed by conventions, May 19, 1815, and Nov. 16, 1833, confirmed by 55 Geo. III. c. 115, and 2 & 3 Will. IV. c. 81 25,000,000 florins Repaid up to 1857 ... ... 10,500,000 florins Sardinian, 1st Loan, from 1855 to 1856 2,000,000 o o Repaid ... ... ... 124,610 o o Sardinian, 2nd Loan, from 1859-63 ... 2,000,000 o o Turkish Loan, Aug. 15, 1855 5,000,000 o o Loans to foreign states contracted by English capitalists : Argentine .2,500,000 London, Jan. 3, 1 866 Austria 3,500,000 London, 1823 ,, 85,569,800 florins 1851 1815 LOBAU LOCHLEVEN CASTLE 505 Austria 35,000,000 florins 1852 Brazil .3,686,000 London, 1824 312,512 London, 1839 ,, 73 2 . 000 1843 Buenos Ayres 1,000,000 1824 Chili 1,000,000 1822 Chilian 450,000 Feb. 26, 1866 Colombia 2,000,000 1822 , 4,750,000 1824 Cuba 450,450 1834 ,, 112,600 1837 Denmark 3,000,000 London, 1822 5.500,000 1825 ,, 800,000 Part in London, 1849 ,, 800,000 1850 Egyptian Government Railway Loan 3,000,000 London, Jan. 16, 1866 Loan to the Viceroy 1,693,000 March 20, 1866 Greece 800,000 London, 1824 ,, 2,000,000 1825 2,343,750 1833 (Guaranteed by England, France, and Russia.) Guatemala .1,428,571 London, 1825 Massachusetts State Loan ... 413,000 Oct. 16, 1866 Mexico 3,200,000 1824 ,, 3,200,000 1825 Naples 2,500,000 1824 New South Wales (colony) ... 850,000 Sept. 8, 1866 Peru 450,000 1822 ,', 750,000 1824 ,, 616,000 1825 Portugal 1,500,000 1823 ,, 6,000,000 1835 Prussia 2,000,000 1837 3,500,000 1822 Russia 3,500,000 London, 1822 ,, 5,500,000 1850 Sardinia 90,000,000 lira 1851 Spain ... ji, 500,000 1821 1,500,000 1823 Sweden 450,000 London, 1852 LOBAU, Germany. This island was captured by Napoleon I., May 19, 1809, and a bridge made to the opposite shore by the 2 1st ; destroyed by the Austrians, 22nd ; the island fortified, 23rd, 24th ; passage from, to Guzersdorf effected by the French army, July 4, 1809. LOCARNO, Italy. The church of La Madonna del Gasso crushed by a heavy fall of snow, killing 53 worshippers, Jan, 9, 1863. LOCHLFVEN CASTLE, built in Lochleven lake, 1257 ; besieged by the English, 1301, and again, under John de Strevelin, 1335 ; the first Archbishop of St Andrews imprisoned at, died, 1447 ; visited by Mary Queen of Scots, 1563 ; Earl of North- umberland confined in, 1569 ; Mary Queen of Scots, June 16, 1567 ; made to ab- dicate her crown here, July 25 ; escaped, May 2, 7568. 506 LOCK HOSPITAL LOGIC LOCK HOSPITAL, Harrow-road, the only one of the kind for diseased females in London, established, 1746. LOCKS. The earliest representation of, are to be found among the bassi rdievi of Karnak and Herculaneum, B.C. 2500 ; at the rebuilding of Jerusalem locks are spoken of as being used, Nehem. iii. 6 ; reference to keys may be found in Judg. iii. 25, Is. xxii. 22 ; in mediaeval times we have the tumbler or lever lock of the Chinese ; the letter-lock is mentioned by Beaumont and Fletcher in the play of 'The Noble Gentleman,' 1615 'a cap-case for your linen and your plate, with a strange lock that opens with A.M.E.N '; this description of lock is also spoken of by Carew, 1620 ; in the book of the accounts of the manor of Savoy, in the reign of Richard I., there is an entry of the purchase of 'two stock-lokkes price Kad. and two hange lokks, xvi Pope Gregory subdued the Lom- bards under Liutprand, 730 ; they invaded the Roman territory, 749 ; Pepin crossed the Alps and defeated the Lombards under Astolphus Susa, and concluded a peace at Pavia, 754 ; defeated by Charlemagne, 773 ; Pavia besieged and taken after a heroic resistance, 774, and united to Germany. LOMBARDS. These merchants were first sent to England by Pope Gregory IX. to assist individuals in paying their tithes to the Church, by lending money to them, 1229 ; considered usurers, had their articles seized by the king, 1337 ; they were also charged with demanding usurious interest ; in time they became eminent dealers in money, being generally natives of Genoa, Venice, or Florence ; they had their offices in Lombard-street ; accused of usury, as all foreign money- lenders were in those times. Queen Elizabeth expelled them from the kingdom about 1580. LOMBARDY, Italy, surrendered to Austria by treaty between Louis XIV. of France and Joseph I., March 13, 1707; municipal government given to, Dec., 1755 ; taken by France and made part of the Cisalpine republic, Oct. 17, 1797; mu- nicipal privileges revoked, 1798 ; restored to Austria by the treaty of Paris, Nov. 20, 1815 ; municipal government restored, 1816 ; the central congregation met, Jan., 1857 ; ceded to Napoleon III. by the treaty of Villa-Franca, July II, 1859, who transferred it to Italy; incorporated into that kingdom, 1866. LOMBE, SIR THOMAS, invented the silk mills, for which he received ,14,000, April 3, 1732. LONDON, Canada. The town was laid out, 1826 ; almost destroyed by fire, 1844 ; four blocks of houses, covering 30 acres, burnt, April 13, 1845. LONDON, NEW, N. America, organized into a township, 1644 ; besieged by the British under Gen. Arnold, and partially destroyed, Sept., 1781. So8 LONDON LONDON, England. Llyn-din reported to have been the capital of the Trino- bantes, B.C. 54 ; a colony of Romans settled here under Ostorius Scapula, A.D. 49 ; fortified, 50 ; called Colonia Augusta, or Londinium ; taken and burned by Queen Boadicea, and 70,000 of the inhabitants massacred, 61 ; she was defeated by Suetonius, and 80,000 of her subjects slain, 6l ; London walled in, 306 ; 800 vessels employed in the port of London for the export of corn, 359 ; made a Metropolitical see, 180, Theanus being the first bishop ; Mellitus, who was after- wards translated to Canterbury, was the first prelate under the Anglo-Saxon dynasty, 604 ; Westminster Abbey built by Sebert, 604 ; St Paul's Cathedral erected, 664 ; ravaged by a plague, 664 ; the city nearly consumed by fire, 798 ; another almost as destructive, 801 ; a Witena-gemote or Parliament held to de- vise measures against the Danes, 833 ; taken by the Danes, 839 ; they fortified it and held it with a large garrison, 851 ; taken by Alfred, who repaired the walls, 884 ; Ethelred appointed governor, 886 ; nearly destroyed by fire, 893 ; King Edmund held a Witena-gemote for establishing a code of ecclesiastical laws, 945 ; a malignant fever raged which carried off half the citizens, 961 ; St Paul's Cathe- dral burnt, 961 ; the Danes again attempted a landing at, 992 ; Old London Bridge built of wood, 993 ; the city attacked by Aulaf and Sweyn, kings of Norway and Denmark, with a fleet of 94 ships, 994 ; the Danes made frequent assaults with varying success, 1009 ; Edmund Ironsides proclaimed king by the Londoners, 1016 ; Canute fitted out an expedition to reduce the city, but was de- feated at the bridge, 1017 ; he dug a trench across the marshes and so brought his ships to the western side, but after besieging the city for some weeks, he was forced to retire, 1018 ; Edward the Confessor chosen King by the citizens, 1041 ; a grievous famine, wheat selling for 5^. a quarter, 1043 ; a great council held to determine the best way to resist the Danish pirates ; St Paul's and a great part of London burnt, 1087 ; Earl Godwin sailed up the Thames to London with a large fleet, 1052; declared for William the Conqueror, 1066; who granted the first charter to, 1067 ; visited by a terrible fire, which almost destroyed the city, 1077; the Tower erected, 1079 ; another fire broke out at Ludgate, which consumed St Paul's, 1086 ; St Mary-le-bow, Cheapside, built, 1087 ; the Jews compete with the Christians concerning their faith, 1089; visited by a famine, 1125; almost consumed by fire, 1 132 ; a fire broke out at London bridge, which destroyed every edifice, including St Paul's and St Clement's Dane, 1135.; the river Thames frozen over so that carriages crossed upon the ice, Dec. 9, 1150; the citizens paid to King Stephen 1000 marks for the privilege of choosing their own sheriffs, 1139; total eclipse of the sun, 1140 ; the citizens presented the king with a donum of ^"1043, 1158, and 1000 marks, 1159 and 1170 ; the Jews massa- cred at the coronation of Richard I., 1189 ; the lord mayor first mentioned as chief butler at this coronation ; Henry Fitz-Alwyn elected the first mayor, serving the office for 24 years, 1189; assize for buildings published, 1189; London bridge built of stone, 1209 ; houses to be built of stone with party-wall, 1191 ; Richard entertained by the mayor and citizens after his return from Palestine, 1194 ; the citizens presented King John with .300, 1207; the sheriffs imprisoned by the king, 1209 ; the parliament met at the palace in St Bride's, when the king exacted from the clergy and religious houses ; 100,000, 1210 ; the city walls re- built, 121 1 ; a great fire in Southwark, reaching to the bridge foot, the chapel of St Thomas, and the priory of St Mary, and 3000 of the inhabitants burnt, 1212 ; the privilege of electing their own mayor given to the citizens, 1213 ; King Louis of France invited to visit England, and was received by the mayor at London, 1216; the Hanseatic merchants established at Guildhall in Thames-street, 1220 ; riots against Henry III., Hubert de Burgh, Chief Justiciary, inflicted severe punishment upon the citizens, 1222 ; the city partially destroyed by fire, 1232 ; a piece of ground in St Clement's, Strand, granted to Walter Le Brunn, a farrier, 1235 ; Henry III. received by the citizens of London after his marriage at Canterbury, 1 236 ; water LONDON 509 conveyed in pipes from Tyburn, 1236 ; Gerard Bat chosen mayor of the city, but rejected by the King, 1241 ; the citizens fined 1500 marks for allowing Walter Bukerel to remain within the walls, 1244 ; the Fee Farm of Queenhithe pur- chased by the citizens, 1245 ; an earthquake causing much damage happened, Feb. 13, 1247 ; Henry III. established a watch, 1253 ; the mayor and sheriffs committed to the Marshalsea by the king, 1254 ; Henry III., with his brother Richard, King of the Romans, and their queens, made a public entry on Candle- mas-day, 1259 ; the king met the citizens at Paul's Cross, Nov. 6, 1259; the right of the sheriffs of London to enter the city of Westminster established, 1262 ; the citizens fined 20,000 marks by the king, 1266 ; Hugh Fitz-Otho appointed custos of London, 1270 ; the king restored their right of electing their own magistrates, 1270; the common council first noticed, 1262; regulated by ordi- nances of the 7th, 8th, and 9th of Rich. II. ; first elected by the wards, 8 Rich. II., July 31, 1384; the number of common councilmen fixed at 40, I Edw. I., 1273 5 tne convent of Blackfriars built, 1275 ; the wall between the Thames and Ludgate repaired, 1276 ; a tax raised, called Murage, to keep the walls and ditches n repair, 1279 ; theHanseatic merchants repaired Bishopsgate, 1282 ; five arches of London Bridge destroyed by floods, 1282 ; the first writ issued, June 28, 1283, directing the mayor, citizens, and sheriffs of London to send representatives to the parliament to be held at Shrewsbury ; the conduit in Cheapside built, 1285 ; the city divided into 24 wards, 1285 ; at a parliament held at York the city was represented by Walter de Finchingfield and Adam de Folcham, 1298 ; the houses built of wood, 1300 ; Sir William Wallace brought a prisoner to London and confined in the house of Wm. Delect, in Fenchurch-street, 1305 ; Edward III. held a tournament in Cheapside between Wood-street and Queen-street, 1329 ; the election of mayor by the aldermen and citizens established on a more regular system, 1345 ; a terrible pestilence which carried off 50,000 citizens, 1349 ; the privilege of having a gold or silver mace carried before the chief magistrate granted, 1354 ; John, King of France, and Edward the Black Prince received and enter- tained by the mayor and citizens, May 24, 1357 ; their privileges taken away by the king, but restored upon their submission to his authority, 1366 ; the common council increased to 156, 1376; William Walworth elected mayor, 1380; Wat Tyler killed by Walworth in Smithfield, June 15, 1381 ; the king ordered the walls to be repaired and the ditch cleansed, 1386 ; the sheriffs ordered to go by water to Westminster instead of on horseback, Oct. 15, 1389 ; a tournament held in Smithfield on the Sunday after Michaelmas, 1390 ; the aldermen elected for life, 17 Rich. II. c. xi , 1393; Farringdon-\vard Without to elect an alderman, 17 Rich. II. c. xiii., 1393 ; the charters seized by the King, 1395 ; Blackwell-hall established as a cloth market, 1397 ; visited by a plague which carried off 30,000 citizens, 1407; Stock's market built, 1410-11 ; first lighted by lanterns, 1415 ; the Guildhall began building, 1411 ; finished, 1416 ; the citizens to hang out a lantern with a whole candle lighted, 1416 ; Whittington thrice elected mayor, viz., Oct. 13, 1397, 1406, and 1419 in this year he entertained King Henry V. at Guildhall, when he destroyed the bonds of that monarch for moneys lent him to the value of ,60,000 ; ^1000 presented to Henry V. by the mayor and aldermen at Westminster, Feb. 23, 1422 ; Baynard's Castle destroyed by fire, 1427 ; the Thames frozen over from Nov. 24 to Feb. 10, 1434 ; the conduits of Fleet -street, Aldermanbury, and Cripplegate, erected by Sir William Eastfield, 1439 ; Jack Cade defeated by the citizens at London bridge, July 5, 1450 ; the first civic procession on the Thames, in the mayoralty of Sir John Norman, 1453 ; Fal- conbridge endeavoured to take the city, 1471 ; stocks erected in each ward for punishing vagrants, 1472 ; the election of lord mayor and sheriffs vested in the livery companies by act of common council, 1475 ; the sweating sickness, or plague, raged from Sept. 21 to the end of Oct., 1485 ; the sheriffs fined ^50 for kneeling too near the lord mayor at St Paul's, 1486 ; Baynard's Castle rebuilt, 5io LONDON 1487 ; the artillery ground enclosed, 1498 ; St Paul's school founded by Dean Colet, 1508 ; the Court of Requests erected by act of common council, Feb., 1517 ; the fatal sweat visited London, 1517 ; the evil May-day, 1517 ; an engage- ment between the Dutch and French fleets near London bridge, Walsingham, the Lieutenant of the Tower, boarded and seized both the combatants, Feb., 1528 ; the custody of the great beam and common balance granted to the mayor, commonalty, and citizens, 22 Henry VIII., April 13, 1531; the streets first paved, 1533 ; the government of Bethlehem Hospital granted to the mayor and citizens, 28 Henry VIII., Jan. 13, 1547 ; the manor of South wark purchased by the Cor- poration of the Duke of Suffolk, April 23, 1550 ; the sweating sickness again visited London, 1551 ; 40 taverns allowed in the city and three in Westminster, 7 Edw. VI. c. v., 1553 ; Alderman Draper instituted the office of bellman, Jan., 1556; the spire of St Paul's Cathedral consumed by fire, July 4, 1561 ; the first lottery drawn at the western door of St Paul's, Jan. n, 1569; Sir Thomas Gresham laid the foundation-stone of the first Royal Exchange, June 7, 1566 ; bequeathed it to the Corporation and the Mercers' Company, Nov. 26, 1579 ; the Thames water conveyed into the city by leaden pipes, 1580 ; the erection of new buildings in London forbidden by proclamation of Queen Eliza- beth, July 7> 1$% > Cheapside Cross pulled down, 1581 ; the water-works at London bridge erected, 1582; six ships-of-war fitted out, 1594; the aldermen made justices of the peace, 43 Eliz. c. 2, s. 8, 1601 ; 30,578 persons perished by the plague, 1602 ; the Thames frozen over, Dec. 22, 1606 ; the metage and weigh- ing of coals confirmed to the citizens, 3 James I., Aug. 20, 1606, and again by 12 James L, Sept. 15, 1614; Aldgate rebuilt, 1609 ; Hicks' Hall, Clcrkenwell, built, 161 1 ; the New River water brought into the city, 1613 ; Hackney coaches first per- mitted to stand in the city for hire, 1625 ; the city of London fined 1500 marks for alleged neglect of duty, 1632 ; their plantations in Ulster seized, and a fine of ^50,000 to be levied upon the city of London for neglect in their management, March 8, 1633 ; London fortified, 1643 ; the Corporation entertained the members of the House of Commons at Grocers' Hall, 1649 ; Cromwell entertained at, 1653 ; the lord mayor and sheriffs arrested, 1652 ; Charles II. made his public entry into the city, June 14, 1660; 68,596 persons perished by the great plague, 1665 ; great fire of London began, Sunday, Sept. 2, and ended, Thursday, Sept. 6, 1666 ; act for the rebuilding of the city, 19 Car. II. c. 3, 1667 ; an act passed for establishing a court of judicature for settling the properties of the citizens after the fire, 19 Car. II. c. 2, 1667 ; amended, 14 Geo. III. c. 78 ; commissioners of sewer to be appointed by the common council, by 19 Car. II. c. 3, s. 22, 1667. An act of common council passed for the better protection of the city from fire : for this purpose it was divided into four quarters, and each quarter was furnished with 8000 leather buckets, 50 ladders, and several hand-squirts of brass, 24 pickaxe-sledges, and each ward with a bellman, Nov. 15, 1667. Honey-lane market opened, Sept. 8, 1669 ; St Paul's Cathedral ordered to be rebuilt, 22 Car. II. c. II, 1670 ; erection of the monument to commemorate the fire began, 1671 ; finished, 1677 ; the freedom of the city presented to Charles II. at Guildhall, Oct. 29, 1675 ; the greater part of the borough of Southwark destroyed by fire, 1676 ; the streets first lighted by lamps, 1681 ; charters de- clared forfeited, 1682 ; taken away, 1688 ; restored, 1689 ; the sheriffs sent to the Tower for continuing the poll after the lord mayor had adjourned it, 1682 ; the penny post first established by Mr Murray, 1681 ; William and Mary entertained by the Corporation at Guildhall, April, 10, 1689 ; a National Bank suggested by William Paterson, chartered, June 8, 1694 ; Billingsgate made a free market, 31 Will. III. c. 24, May 10, 1699 ; Queen Anne entertained at Guildhall, Nov. 9, 1702 ; a devastating storm called Tke High Wind, which destroyed many houses in London and Westminster, Nov. 16, 1703; act passed for the erection of 50 new churches, 1711 ; the nightly watch regulated, June 16, LONDON. 511 1704; Sir Gilbert Heathcote was the last lord mayor who rode in the Lord Mayor's Show to Westminster on horse-back, 1710 ; ward elections regulated by act of common council, April 15, 1714 ; George I. and the Prince of Wales entertained at Guildhall, Nov. 9, 1714 ; South-Sea bubble commenced, 1716 ; ex- ploded, 1720; Chelsea water-works formed, 8 Geo. I. c. 26, 1721 ; a military camp formed in Hyde Park, 1 722 ; an act passed regulating the election of com- mon councilmen, II Geo. I. c. 18, 1725 ; George II. and his family entertained at the Guildhall, Nov. 9, 1727 ; the senior alderman removed to Bridge-ward Without, 1725 ; an act passed for enclosing the Fleet Ditch, 4 Geo. II. c. 22, 1 733 ; Whitefriars annexed to Farringdon-ward Without, and Blackfriars to Far- ringdon-ward Within by act of common council, March II, 1736, and Feb. 28, 1806 ; police rate fixed by IO Geo. II. c. 22, 1737 ; Fleet market opened, Sept 30, 1737 ; great frost which lasted from Dec. 25, 1739 to Feb. 8, 1740 ; Lord Mayor Humphry Parsons the first lord mayor who rode to Westminster in a state coach drawn by six horses, 1741 ; the last charter granted to the city confirming their rights, 15 Geo. II., Aug. 5, 1741 ; Sir John Barnard's Act passed to prevent the sale of offices, SepL 22, 1 749 ; a shock of an earthquake felt in London, Feb. 8, 1750; the New Mansion House first inhabited, 1753; an act passed for building Blackfriars bridge, 29 Geo. II. c. 86, 1756; London bridge repaired, 1758; the city gates pulled down, by 33 Geo. II. c. 30, 1760 ; Blackfriars bridge began, Oct. 31, 1760; George III. and his family entertained at the Guildhall, having first seen the civic procession from the house of Mr Barclay in Cheapside, Nov. 9, 1761; the freedom of "the city presented to the Speaker Onslow, May 5, 1761 ; the common councilmen appeared at court in new blue Mazarine gowns, Sept. 14, 1761 ; the City Road opened, 1761 ; the mystery of the Cock- lane ghost discovered, July 10, 1762 ; John Wilkes taken into custody for publishing the 45th number of the North Briton, April 30, 1763 ; the spire of St Bride's church destroyed by lightning, June 18, 1765 ; John Williams, bookseller of Fleet-street, stood in the pillory in New Palace Yard, for republishing the North Briton, Feb. 14, 1765 ; the distressed Spitalfield weavers, to the number of 8000, assembled in Moorfields, May 1 6, 1765 > & serious fire broke out in Bishopsgate-street, burning the houses at the corners of Grace- church-street, Leadenhall-street, and Cornhill, Nov. 7, 1765 ; great floods in London, much damage done, Sept I, 1768 ; the King of Denmark entertained at the Mansion House, Aug. 23, 1768; Mr Wilkes elected for Farringdon-ward Without, Jan. 2 and 27, 1769 ; Beckford elected mayor a second time, Oct. 10, 1 769 ; the first stone of the new gaol of Newgate laid by the lord mayor, May 31, 1770 ; the Lord Mayor Brass Crosby and Mr Aid. Oliver committed to the Tower, April 27, 1771 ; released and the city illuminated, May 8, 1771 ; the common petition to the king for the shortening of parliament, Feb. n, 1772 ; the first stone of the Marine Society House, Bishopsgate-street, laid, April 30 ; Stone's scheme for regulating the admission of the livery to the Guildhall, 1774 ; the common council discontinued their gowns, 1 775 ; a vote of thanks passed to Lord Chatham, Feb. 10, 1775 ; several political documents burnt at the Royal Exchange by the hangman, March 26 ; thanks of the city of Dublin presented to Mr Aid. WUkes, Sept. 7 ; a serious riot broke out amongst the prisoners at New- gate, Aug. 20, 1777 ; a statue erected by the Corporation to the memory of the Earl of Chatham, Dec 12, 1779 ; the Gordon riots, June, 1780 ; the freedom of the city presented to Admiral Drake, June 20, 1782 ; the royal hospitals re- gulated by act of parliament, 22 Geo. III. c. 77, 1782 ; memorable storm of rain, doing serious damage, June 26, 1788; the Thames frozen over, Jan. 10, 1789; thanksgiving at St Paul's Cathedral by George III., April 23, 1789; Astley's theatre destroyed by fire, Aug. 17, 1 794 ; Crimping riots in the east of London, Aug. 15 19, 1794; .16,000 raised for the benefit of the sufferers in the late fire at Ratcliffe Highway, Oct. 29, 1794; the East India House, Si2 LONDON. Leadenhall-street, erected, 1798 ; the first stone of the London docks laid, June 26, 1802 ; the horse patrol established in London, 1805 ; London docks opened, July 30, 1805 ; the public funeral of Lord Nelson, at St Paul's, Jan. 9, 1806; the East India docks opened, Aug. 4, 1806; gas first used in the city, 1807 ; riots in consequence of the committal of Sir F. Burdett to the Tower, April 6, 1810 ; the Royal Mint opened, 1811 ; the first stone of Waterloo bridge laid, Oct. II, 1811 ; banquet to the allied sovereigns at Guildhall, June 18, 1814 ; Southwark bridge began building, Sept., 1814 ; the first stone of the Lon- don Institution laid, May 4, 1815 ; Queen Caroline's funeral passed through London, Aug. 14, 1821 ; the Bank of England built, 1821 ; the first pile of new London bridge driven, March 15, 1824 ; the National Gallery opened, May 10 ; the Thames tunnel began, March, 1825 ; Jews first admitted to the freedom of the city, March 4, 1828 ; the Thames tunnel opened to the public a second time, May 24 ; the new Corn Exchange opened, June 24 ; the London University opened, Oct. I ; St Katherine docks opened, Oct. 25 ; a severe hurricane visited London, April 28, 1829 ; the new Post-office in St Martin's le Grand opened, Sept. 23 ; the metropolitan police system commenced, Sept. 29, 1829 ; Farring- don market opened, Nov. 20 ; the English opera-house destroyed by fire, Feb. 16, 1830 ; political panic, no Lord Mayor's Show, Nov. 9, 1830 ; the pillory ceased to be used for punishment, 1830 ; public meeting held at Exeter Hall for provid- ing relief for the distress raging in Ireland, ^60,000 raised, May 26, 1831 ; Lon- don bridge opened by King William IV. , Aug. I, 1831 ; the Lowther Arcade, Strand, opened, 1831 ; the cholera visitation, general fast held, Feb. 6, 1832 ; the freedom of the city presented to Lords Grey and Althorpe for their exertions in the question of reform, July II, 1832; Queen Adelaide present at the anniversary meeting of the charity children in St Paul's Cathedral, and afterwards visited the Mansion House, June 13, 1833 ; Hungerford market opened, July 3 ; package and scavage dues sold to the Crown for j 162, 500, Dec. 5, 1833 ; act passed for, 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 66, 1833 ; commissioners appointed to inquire into the Corporation, July 18, 1833 ; made their report, April 25, 1837 ; the Handel Festival held in Westminster Abbey, June 24, 26, 28, and July I, 1834 ; the Central Criminal Court Act, 4 5 Will. IV. c. 36, July 25, 1834; Mr Alexander Raphael, a Roman Catholic, sworn one of the sheriffs of London, Sept. 28 ; the Houses of Parliament destroyed by fire, Oct. 16 ; persons ad- mitted to the freedom of the city without belonging to a company, March 17, 1835 ; Goldsmiths' Hall opened, July 15, 1835 > David Salomons of the Jewish persuasion elected sheriff, Sept. 28, 1835 > Lord Brougham laid the first stone of the City of London school, Oct. 21, 1835 ; opened, Feb. 2, 1837 ; the Queen entertained upon her accession to the throne at Guildhall, Nov. 9, 1837 ; the Royal Exchange destroyed by fire, Jan. 10, 1838 ; the National Gal- lery completed and opened, April 9 ; the Corporation entertained the foreign am- bassadors attending Her Majesty's coronation, July 13 ; a hurricane visited Lon- don, doing immense damage, Oct. 28 ; the London and Westminster Bank built, 1838 ; the Reform Club opened, 1838 ; an act for making a new street from Hoi- born bridge to Clerkenwell Green, July 27, and for improving the site of the Royal Exchange, Aug. 10 ; police act passed, Aug. 17, 1839; the penny postage estab- lished, Jan. 10, 1840 ; Sheriffs Wheelton and Evans imprisoned by the House of Commons, Jan. 21 ; Wheelton released, Feb. 12 ; Evans, March 5 ; the com- mon council increased to 206 by act of May 8, 1840 ; addresses presented to the Queen and Prince Albert upon their marriage, March 3 ; freedom of the city presented to Prince Albert, Aug. 28 ; the spire of Spitalfields church much injured by a severe thunder-storm, Jan. 3, 1841 ; statue of William IV. erected in King William-street ; the Tower of London partially burnt, Oct. 30; first stone of the Royal Exchange laid by Prince Albert, Jan. 17, 1842 ; the Duke of Cambridge admitted to the freedom of the city, March 17 ; Thames LONDON 513 tunnel opened again, March 25, 1843 ; an address presented to the King of the French (Louis Philippe) by the Corporation of, at Windsor Castle, Oct. 12, 1844; Royal Exchange opened, Oct. 28 ; the Fleet prison purchased from the government by the Corporation for .25,000, March, 1845 ; a serious fire broke out in Alder- manbury, Aug. 18 ; meeting of the livery of London held at Guildhall praying for the repeal of the Corn Laws, Dec. 15 ; an act for rebuilding the coal market passed, June 18 ; Billingsgate Market Act, Aug. 3, 1846 ; London City Improve- ment Act for widening Cannon-street to Queen-street passed, July 22, 1847 ; the chartist meeting at Kensington Common, the city fortified, April 10, 1848; the cholera reappeared in London, Oct. 3 ; the lord mayor entertained 300 of the National Guards of Paris at the Mansion House, Oct. 25 ; a serious visitation of cholera, in London, from Oct., 1848 to Oct., 1849 ; the number of deaths reported was 14,497 ; Baron Rothschild returned as member of par- liament for London, the first Jew elected to that office, July 3, 1849 ; the coal exchange opened by Prince Albert, Oct. 30 ; the lord mayor of London en- tertained the mayors of the various towns in the United Kingdom, to stimulate their friendly interest in the Great Exhibition ; Prince Albert held a levte in the drawing-room of the Mansion House, March 21, 1850 ; an act passed for making a new street from Queen-street to St Paul's Churchyard, July 15, 1850 ; a meeting of the livery held in the Guildhall to protest against the papal bull, Nov. 25, 1850; the Great Exhibition opened, May I, 1851 ; the Great Exhibition ball at Guildhall, Her Majesty and Prince Albert being present, July 9 ; an act passed enabling the Corporation to remove Smithfield market and to build a new market, Aug. I ; an address presented to Louis Kossuth, Oct. 30 ; the public funeral of the Duke of Wellington at St Paul's, Nov. 18 ; the prison- ers removed from Giltspur-street compter to the new gaol at Holloway, Oct. 6, 1852 ; a monument erected in the Guildhall to the memory of the Duke of Wel- lington, at a cost of ^5000, April 14, 1853 ; the old Excise Office, Broad-street, pulled down, and the site sold for .108,000, May 14; commissioners appointed to inquire into the state of the Corporation of London, June 22 ; made their re- port, 1854 ; a great fall of snow, stopping the traffic by road and river, Jan. I, 1854 ; war declared with Russia at the Royal Exchange, March 31 ; an address presented to the King of Portugal by the Corporation, June 19 ; cab strike, July 27 ; patriotic fund established, Oct. 13 ; 2000 given by the Corporation towards the, Oct. 26 ; a meeting of merchants at the Mansion House to raise a fund for the relief of the wounded soldiers and their families, called the Patriotic Fund, Nov. 2 ; the Prefect of the Seine visited the Lord Mayor (Moon), April 17, 1855; visit of the Emperor Napoleon III. to the Corporation, April 19 ; peace pro- claimed with Russia at the Royal Exchange and Cheapside, April 29 ; the Lord Mayor (Moon) returned the visit of the Prefect of the Seine, June 4 ; Smithfield market closed for the sale of cattle, June 1 1 ; the King of Sardinia entertained by the Corporation, Dec. 4 ; ,500 granted by the Corporation towards the relief of the sufferers by the inundation in France, June 26, 1856 ; stoppage of the British Bank, Sept. 3 ; street tolls abolished, Dec. 18 ; the South Kensington Museum opened, June 24, 1857 ; Thames Conservancy Act passed, taking from the Corporation their jurisdiction over the river Thames, and appointing a board of commissioners, Aug. 17, 1857; amended, July 29, 1864; the freedom of the city presented to Prince Frederick William of Prussia, the affianced husband of the Princess Royal, July 13 ; Indian mutiny fund, the first meeting held at the Mansion House, Aug. 25 ; the freedom of the city presented to the Duke of Cambridge, Nov. 7, 1857 ; bill introduced by Sir George Grey to amend the Corporation, Feb. 4, 1858 ; withdrawn, July 2, 1858 ; address to Prince Frederick William of Prussia, upon his marriage with the Princess Royal, Jan. 30, 1858 ; the Legion of Honour conferred by the Emperor Napoleon III. upon Sir F. G. Moon, Bart., the late lord mayor, and the sheriffs, in testimony of his 33 514 LONDON reception in the city of London, March 3, 1859 ; the Corporation took .20,000 shares, amounting to .200,000, in order to assist the construction of the Metro- politan Underground Railway, April I ; serious fire in the brandy vault of the London docks, July 26 ; an act passed to enable the Corporation to build a dead- meat market in Smithfield, Aug. 13, 1860 ; frauds upon the Union Bank, Mr Pullinger sentenced to 20 years' transportation, May 15, 1860 ; a bill for reform- ing the Corporation introduced into the House of Commons by G. C. Lewis, Jan. 30, 1860; withdrawn, July 20, 1860 ; the freedom of, presented to the Earl of Elgin, March i ; to Sir Francis Leopold McClintock, May 19'; to Baron Clyde and Sir James Outram, Dec. 20 ; the first street tramway opened, March 23, 1 86 1 ; an act passed to dismarket Newgate market, 24 & 25 Viet. c. clii. , June, 1861 ; a public meeting held at the Mansion House for the purpose of ascertaining the wish of the citizens as to the introduction of the Public Library Act, Negative, June II ; 750 granted by the Corporation for the ornamentation of St Paul's Cathedral, April 18, 1861; a dreadful fire broke out in Tooley-street, Southwark, June 22 ; the Inner Temple library opened by the Prince of Wales, Oct 31 ; ,150,000 presented to London for the relief of the poor by Mr George Peabody, March 12, 1862; the International Exhibition opened, May i; new Westminster bridge opened, May 24 ; meeting of the National Association for the promotion of social science, held in the Guildhall, June ; the freedom of, presented to George Peabody, July 10 ; the first stone of the Lunatic Asylum at Stone laid by Mr Alderman Dakin, July 29 ; an entertainment to distinguished foreigners upon the opening of the International Exhibition, July 17 ; the Metropolitan Rail- way opened to Farringdon-road, Jan. 9, 1863 ; Blackfriars' bridge, plan for there- building of, by Joseph Cubitt, adopted, July 3 ; public reception of the Princess Alexandra of Denmark, March 7 ; presentation of jewels to, March 9 ; a bill for amalgamation of the city police with the metropolitan introduced into parliament by Sir George Grey, April 21, withdrawn ; ball given to the Prince and Princess of Wales, and the freedom presented to the Prince, June 8, 1863; an act passed for rebuilding Blackfriars' bridge, 26 & 27 Viet. c. Ixii., June 8 ; an act passed for making a new street from the Thames embankment at Blackfriars to the Mansion House, 26 & 27 Viet. c. 45, July 13 ; an act passed for the regulation of traffic in London, 26 & 27 Viet. c. ccvi. , July 28 ; model lodging-house built in Victoria- street, at a cost of 20,000, by the Corporation ; the Charing Cross railway opened, Jan. n, 1864; Sir Rowland Hill resigned his office as secretary to the post-office, March 8 ; the freedom of London presented to Garibaldi, April 20 ; an act passed for the improvement of the Holborn Valley, 27 & 28 Viet. c. Ixi., June 23 ; Savoy chapel destroyed by fire, July 7 ; Haberdashers' Hall partially destroyed by fire, Sept. 19 ; Southwark bridge opened for six months free of toll, the Corporation of London paying ,1834, Nov. 8 ; Surrey theatre destroyed by fire, Jan. 30, 1865 ; and Savile House, Leicester-square, Feb. 23 ; the main drainage works of the southern outfall opened by the Prince of Wales, April 4 ; the foundation-stone of Blackfriars' bridge laid by the lord mayor (Warren Stormes Hale), July 20, 1865 ; Beale's wharf, Tooley-street, destroyed by fire, Oct. 30 ; a gasometer at Nine Elms exploded, 10 persons killed, Oct. 31 ; the Industrial Exhibition opened at the Guildhall, March 6, 1866 ; closed, April 16 ; the Lunatic Asylum at Stone opened, April 16 ; Southwark bridge purchased by the Corporation of London for 200,000, May 31 ; the Duke of Edinburgh ad- mitted to the freedom of the city, June 7 ; riots in Hyde Park at a meeting of reformers, July 23, the railing thrown down and several constables wounded ; the right of the lord mayor to the presidency of St Bartholomew's Hospital disallowed by the Court of Queen's Bench, Nov. 21 ; Mr Alderman Philips knighted, Dec. 28 ; great distress in the east of London, 40,000 persons dependent upon charity, Jan., 1867 ; London visited by a severe snow-storm which lasted from the 2nd to the 1 7th Jan., many of the telegraphs broken and railways stopped ; 40 persons LONDON. 515 drowned by the breaking of the ice on the ornamental waterof the Regent's Park, Jan. 15. A parliamentary committee appointed to inquire into the local govern- ment of the metropolis, Feb. 12 ; 1st report published, March 7 ; 2nd report, May 6 ; 3rd report, May 20. Meeting of working men at Trafalgar-square, who marched to the Agricultural Hall, Islington, where a reform meeting was held, Feb. 1 1 ; a demonstration in Hyde Park in favour of reform, May 6 ; Mr Aid. Rose received the honour of knighthood, and the dignity of a baronet conferred upon Thomas Gabriel, lord mayor, the sheriffs, Sydney, H. Waterlow, and Francis Lycett, knighted, in honour of the visit of the Sultan, Aug. 3 ; a severe thunder-storm in, doing serious damage, Aug. 19-20 ; the first stone of the Holborn Valley viaduct laid, June 3 ; the first stone of New Smithfield market, June 5- The Viceroy of Egypt visited London, July 6 ; received by the Queen at Windsor, July 8 ; banquet to, at the Mansion House, July II ; entertained by the United Service Club, July 12 ; he visited the Crystal Palace, July 13, and presented $oo to the restoration fund, and ^500 to the Dramatic College ; address presented to, by the Corporation of London, at Dudley House, July 1 6 ; left London, July 18 ; he presented a valuable brooch to the Lady Mayoress as a 'Souvenir.' The Sultan of Turkey arrived in London by the Charing Cross Railway, July 12 ; visited the Queen at Windsor Castle, July 13 ; and afterwards entertained by the Prince and Princess of Wales at Marl- borough House; state visit to the Royal Italian Opera, July 15; visited Woolwich dockyard and the Crystal Palace, July 16 ; entertained by the Cor- poration of London, July 18 ; visited the Duke of Cambridge at Gloucester House, July 19 ; ball in honour of, given at the New India Office, July 19 (sudden death of Madam Musurus, wife of the ambassador) ; state visit to the review of volunteers at Wimbledon, July 20 ; banquet and concert in honour of, given at Strafford House, July 22 ; visit to the Horticultural Gardens, July 22 ; departure of, July 23 ; previously to his departure he forwarded to the lord mayor ^2500, to be distributed among the poor of the city of London, July 22 ; divided among the charitable institutions in, by the lord mayor, Sept. 23. The Belgian volunteers entertained by the Corporation of London at the Guildhall, July 12 ; ball in honour of, at the Agricultural Hall, July 18 ; entertained by Miss Burdett Coutts, July 19 ; present at the volunteer review at Wimbledon, July 20 ; the officers entertained by the lord mayor, July 20 ; departure of, from London, July 22. Meeting in Hyde Park to protest against the Closing of the Parks Bill, Aug. 3, 1867; the Election Act Amendment Act, 30 & 31 Viet. c. i., April 5 ; extended the right of election for municipal officers to all persons rated at 10 ; Middle Row, Holborn, pulled down, Sept. 30 ; a fund for the relief of the sufferers in the West Indies inaugurated at the Mansion House, in Nov. ; a meeting held at St James's Hall for considering a scheme for local self- government, Nov. 4. LONDON, THE LORD MAYOR'S SHOW. The first show or pageant of which we have any record is that of Sir William Roche, 1 540 ; the first printed description known is the pageant of Sir Woolston Dixi, Oct. 29, 1585 ; the lord mayor presented to the Barons of the Exchequer, Oct. 29, by charter 37 Henry III., June 12, 1253 ; the day altered to the 9th Nov. by 24 George II. c. 48, s. 1 1, 1751 ; they ceased to go by land to Westminster, 1436, when it appears by an entry in the records of the Grocers' Company, that Thomas Catworth and Robert Clop- ton, sheriffs, went in procession on the Thames to Westminster; Sir John Norman proceeded, accompanied by the city companies, on the Thames in their state barges, 1453 ; the custom having fallen into disuse, it was revived at the swearing- in of Christopher Pack, lord mayor, 1654 ; Sir Gilbert Heathcote was the last lord mayor who rode to Westminster on horseback, 1710; in 1711, a state carriage drawn by four horses ; the number of horses increased to six, 1741 ; the new mayor (Ironside) was so unwell that he was carried in a sedan chair to West- 516 LONDON, LORD MAYORS OF minster, but Alderman Bean rode in the state coach, 1753 ; the present civic coach was built, 1757, at a cost of ^1065, by a subscription of 60 from each of the junior aldermen, subsequently each alderman when sworn into office contri- buted ;6o towards its repair, and each lord mayor 100 ; it was subsequently transferred to the Corporation ; Marsh Dickenson was the first lord mayor who rode in it to Westminster ; in 1852, on account of the death of the Duke of Wel- lington, there was no show, the procession going in private carriages ; the Thames Conservancy Act, which defrauded the Corporation of their ancient jurisdiction over that river, passed, and the procession of Sir Robert Walter Garden proceeded by land to Westminster, Nov. 9, 1857 ; the services of the lord mayor's watermen being dispensed with, a gratuity of ^5 was presented to them, 1858; the state coach not used in the procession of, Nov. 9, 1867. The navigation barge ordered to be built by the court of common council, Jan. 17, 1816 ; cost of, with fittings, ^375 1 3 s - 5< christened the Maria Woodsy the wife of Sir Matthew Wood, then lord mayor ; sold for ^630 15^., 1859 it was 140 feet by 19 ; the last state barge built by Searle of Standgate, 1807, cost ^2579 ; sold in 1860 for ,105 it was 85 feet by 13, with 18 oars. LONDON, THE LORD MAYOR OF. William the Conqueror, in the first year of his reign, appointed William the Port-Reeve ; Henricus Fitz Alwyn, of London Stone, was made the first Lord Mayor in the first year of the reign of Richard I., and was mayor until his death, for nearly 25 years. King John in his fifth charter, dated May 9, 1215, gave the citizens power to elect their own mayor yearly; these privileges were confirmed by the second charter of Henry III., Feb. 1 8, 1227 ; in 1245, Michael Tony was elected, but not admitted, the city being without a mayor until the feast of St Hilary ; the mayor formerly belonged to one of the 12 companies ; the first mayor who broke this rule was Robert Wil- limott, a member of the Coopers' Company, Oct. 28, 1742 ; by an act of com- mon council, 37 Hen. VIII., Oct. 6, 1546, it is ordained that no person should be compelled to serve the office a second time ; the title of lord conferred by the charter of maces, 28 Edw. III., June 10, 1354. After the reign of Edward I. the usual term of holding office was for two years, until 10 Richard II., 1386, from which period until 1815 (with the exception of Sir T. Pilkington, 1689) a new mayor was elected every year ; in 1815, Sir Matthew Wood was elected for two successive years ; Sir John Key also in 1830-1, and William Cubitt, 1 860- 1. The election of lord mayor was formerly held on the feast of the translation of St Edward, Oct. 13, but was altered to Michaelmas day by an act of common council, 30 Hen. VIII., 1546 ; if the 291)1 of Sept. falls on a Sunday, then the election is to take place the day before, 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 31, 1833, and act of common council, Sept. 18, 1834 ; the lord mayor is sworn into office on the 8th Nov., 25 Geo. II. c. 30, s. 4 ; the lord mayor has exercised the office of butler at the coronation of the sovereign from the earliest time the record exists as far back as 1194, 5 Rich. I. LONDON, LORD MAYORS OF. Abbot, Sir Maurice, 1638 Alsop, Robert, 1751 Abney. Sir Thomas, 1700 Alwyn, Henry Fitz, from 1189 to 1212 Abyngdone, Stephen, 1315 Alwin, Peter Fitz, 1247 Acheley, Sir Roger, 1511 Alwin, Sir Nicholas, 1499 Acton, Sir William, 1640 (discharged Alwin, Roger Fitz, 1213 by the House of Commons) Allen, Sir John, 1525, 1535 Adams, Sir Thomas, 1645 Allen, Sir William, 1571 Adrian, John, 1270, 1271 Allen, William Ferneley, 1867 Alderman, James, 1216 (for part of the Alleyn, Sir Thomas, 1659 year) Allot, Sir John, 1590 LONDON, LORD MAYORS OF Amcotes, Sir Henry, 1548 Anderson, Sir John William, Bart. , 1 797 Andrew, James, 1367 Andrews, Sir Thomas, 1648, 1650 Ansley, John, 1807 Asgill, Sir Charles, Bart., 1757 Ashurst, Sir William, 1693 Ashwy, Raphe, 1243 Askew, Sir Christopher, 1533 Askham, Sir William, 1403 Astrie, Sir Raphe, 1493 Atkins, John, 1818 Atkins, Sir Thomas, 1644 Aubrey, Andrew, 1339, 1340, 1351 Avenpn, Sir Alexander, 1569 Aylmer, Sir Lawrence, 1507 Bailey, Sir William, 1524 Baldrie, Sir Thomas, 1523 Bamme, Adam, 1390, 1396 (part of the year) Barber, Sir John, 1732 Barentine, Sir Drew, 1398, 1408 Barkham, Sir Edward, 1621 Barnard, Sir John, 1737 Barnavers, Ralph, Warden, 1289 Barne, Sir George, 1552, 1586 Barnes, John, 1370, 1371 Barton, Sir Henry, 1416, 1428 Basing, Adam, 1251 Basing, Solomon, 1216 Basset, Robert, 1475 Bat, Gerard, 1240 Bateman, Sir Anthony, 1663 Bateman, Sir James, 1716 Baylis, Sir Robert, 1728 Beachcroft, Sir Robert, 1711 Becher, Sir Edward, 1727 Beckford, William, 1762, 1769 Bedingfield, Sir Robert, 1706 Bellamy, Sir Edward, 1734 Benn, William, 1746 Bennet, Sir Thomas, 1603 Betaigne, Richard, 1326 Bethell, Slingsby, 1755 Billers, Sir William, 1733 Billesden, Robert, 1483 Billingsley, Sir Henry, 1596 Birch, Samuel, 1814 Blachford, John, 1749 Blakiston, Sir Matthew, 1760 Blanke, Sir Thomas, 1582 Blount, Sir John, Warden, 1301 to 1307 Bludworth, Sir Thomas, 1665 Boleyn, Sir Geffrey, 1457 Bolton, Sir William, 1666 Bolles, Sir George, 1617 Bond, Sir George, 1587 Bongay, Raymond, 1241, 1242 Bowes, Sir Martin, 1 545 Bowyer, Sir William, 1543 Boydell, John, 1790 Bradbury, Sir Thomas, 1509 Branche, Sir John, 1580 Brembre, Sir Nicholas, 1377, 1383, 1384, 1385 Bridgen, William, 1763 Bridges, George, 1819 Britaine. See Betaigne. Briton, Sir John, Warden^ from 128910 1291, and for 1296 Brocas, Sir Richard, 1729 Brockley, Sir John, 1433 Bromfield, Sir Edmund, 1636 Brown, Anthony, 1826 Browne, John, 1480 Browne, Sir Richard, Bart., 1660 Browne, Sir Stephen, 1438 and 1448 Browne, Sir William, 1507 Browne, Sir William, jun., 1513 Bryce, Sir Hugh, 1485 IJrydges or Brugges, Sir John, 1520 Buckingham, Sir Owen, 1 704 Buckle, SirCuthbert, 1593 Bukerel, Andrew, from 1231 to 1237 Bull, Frederick, 1773 Burnell, John, 1787 Bury, Adam de, 1364, 1365, and 1373 Butler, Sir William, 1515 Calthrop, Sir Martin, 1588 Calvert, Sir William, 1 748 Cambell, Sir Thomas, 1609 Cambell, Sir James, 1629 Cambridge or Cauntbrigge, Sir William, 1420 Canning, Sir Thomas, 1456 Capell, Sir William, 1503, 1509 Garden, Sir Robert Walter, 1857 Carroll, Sir George, 1846 Carter, John, 1859 Catworth, Thomas, 1443 Cavendish, Stephen de, 1362 Challis, Thomas, 1852 Chalton, Sir Thomas, 1449 Champion, Sir Richard, 1565 Champneis, Sir John, 1534 Chaplin, Sir Francis, 1677 Chapman, Sir John, 1688 Chawry, Sir Richard, 1494 Chester, Sir William, 1560 LONDON, LORD MAYORS OF Chichester, John de, 1369 Chichley, Sir Robert, 1411 and 1421 Chigwell, Hamo de, 1319, 1321, 1322, 1324, 1323, and 1327 Child, Sir Francis, 1698 and 1731 Chitty, Sir Thomas, 1759 Chiverton, Sir Richard, 1657 Clark, Richard, 1784 Clarke, Sir Edward, 1696 Clayton, Sir Robert, 1680 Cletherow, Sir Christop., 1635 Clopton, Sir Hugh, 1491 Clopton, Robert, 1441 Coates, Sir John, 1542 Cockayne, Francis, 1750 Cockayne, Sir William, 1619 Colet, Sir Henry, 1486 and 1495 Combe, Harvey Christian, 1799 Conduyte, Reynold de, 1334 Conyers, Sir Gerard, 1722 Copeland, William Taylor, 1835 Copinger, Sir William, 1512 Cooke, Thomas, 1462 Cotton, Sir Allen, 1625 Coventre, John, 1425 Cowan, Sir John, Bart, 1837 Craven, Sir William, 1610 Crosby, Brass, 1770 Crowder, John, 1829 Crowmar, Sir William, 1413, 1423 Cubitt, William, 1860, 1861 Curteis, Sir Thomas, 1557 Curtis, Sir William, Bart. , 1 795 Darcy, Henry, 1337, 1338 Dashwood, Sir Samuel, 1702 Davies, Sir Thomas, 1676 Deane, Sir Richard, 1628 Delme, Sir Peter, 1 723 Dethicke, Sir John, 1655 Dickenson, Marshe, 1756 Dixie, SirWolstane, 1585 Dobbes, Sir Richard, 1551 Dodmer, SirRaphe, 1529 Dolesley, Simon, 1359 Domville, Sir William, 1813 Dormer, Sir Michael, 1541 Draper, Sir Christopher, 1566 Drope, Sir Robert, ,1474 Due, Roger le, 1227 to 1230 Ducie, Sir Robert, 1630 Ducket, Sir Lionel, 1572 Duke, Sir James, Bart, 1848 Duncombe, Sir Charles, 1708 Earner, Sir John, 1801 Eastfield, Sir William, 1429, 1437 Edward, Sir Stephen, Warden, 1268 Edwardes, William, 1471 Edwards, Sir James, 1678 Edwin, Sir Humphrey, 1697 Esdaile, Sir James, 1777 Exmewe, Thomas, 1517 Exton, Nicholas, 1386, 1387 Eyles, Sir John, 1687 Eyles, Sir John, Bart, 1726 Eyre, Sir Symon, 1445 Falconer, Sir Thomas, 1414 Farebrother, Charles, 1833 Farndone, Nicholas de, 1308, 1313, 1320, 1323 Farncomb, Thomas, 1849 Fenn, Sir Richard, 1637 Fielding, Sir Godfrey, 1452 Finnis, Thomas Quested, 1856 Fleet, John, 1692 Flower, Sir Charles, 1808 Fludyer, Sir Samuel, Bart, 1761 Foot, Thomas, 1659 Forbes, Sir Francis, 1725 Ford, Sir Richard, 1670 Forman, Sir William, 1538 Foster, Sir Stephen, 1454 Fowke, John, 1652 Fraunces, Sir John, 1400 Fraunceys, Adam, 1352, 1353 Fraunceys, Simon, 1341, 1342, 1355 Frederick, Sir John, 1661 Freeman, Sir Ralph, 1633 Freshe, Sir John, 1394 Frowick, Sir Henry, 1272 (for part of the year) Frowick, Sir Henry, 1435, 1444 Fryer, Sir John, 1 720 Gabriel, Sir Thomas, Bart. , 1 866 Gardyner, Richard, 1478 Garrard, Sir John, 1601 Garrard, Sir Samuel, Bart., 1709 Garratt, John, 1824 Garway, Sir Henry, 1639 Gascoyne, Sir Crispe, 1 752 Gayer, Sir John, 1646 Gedeney, Sir John, 1427 and 1447 Geffery, Sir Robert, 1685 Gerard or Garrard, Sir William, 1555 Gibbs, Michael, 1844 Gill, William, 1788 Gisors, John de, 1245, 1246, 1250, 1259 Gisors, Sir John, 1311, 1312, 1314 Glyn, Sir Richard, Bart, 1758 Glyn, Sir Richard Carr, Bart, 1798 LONDON, LORD MAYORS OF Godschall, Sir Robert, 1741 Gore, Sir John, 1624 Gore, Sir William, 1701 Grantham, John, 1328 Gregory, Sir William, 1451 Gresham, Sir John, 1 547 Gresham, Sir Richard, 1537 Gurney, Sir Richard, 1641 (discharged by parliament) Racket, Sir Cuthbert, 1626 Haddon, Sir Richard, 1506 and 1512 Hadley, John, 1379 and 1393 Hale, Warren Stormes, 1864 Halifax, Sir Thomas, 1776 Halliday, Sir Leonard, 1605 Hammersley, Sir Hugh, 1627 Hammond, John, 1343, 1344 Hampton, Sir William, 1472 Hanson, Sir Robert, 1672 Hardel, William, 1215 Hardell, Richard, 1253 to 1258 Harley, Right Hon. Sir Thomas, 1767 Harper, Sir William, 1561 Hart, Sir John, 1589 Harvey, Sir James, 1581 Harvey, Sir Sebastian, 1618 Harvey, Sir Walter, Warden, 1272, "73 Hatherley, John, 1442 Hawes, Sir James, 1574 Hayes, Sir Thomas, 1614 Heathcote, George, 1741 Heathcote, Sir Gilbert, 1710 Hende, Sir John, 1391 and 1404 Herriot, Sir William, 1481 Hewet, Sir William, 1559 Heyford, Sir Humphrey, 1477 Heygate, Sir William, Bart., 1822 Heyward, Sir Rowland, 1570, 1590 Hill, Sir Rowland, 1549 Hill, Thomas, 1484 Hoare, Sir Richard, 1712 Hoare, Sir Richard, 1745 Hollis, Sir William, 1539 Hooker, Sir William, 1673 Hooper, John Kinnersley, 1847 Hopkins, Sir John, 1791 Home, William, 1487 Houblon, Sir John, 1695 Hubberthom, Sir Henry, 1546 Hulin, Sir William, 1459 Humfreys, Sir William, Bart., 1714 Humphrey, John, 1842 Hunter, Sir Claudius Stephen, Bart., 1811 Hunter, William, 1851 Ireton, Sir John, 1658 Ironside, Edward, 1753 James, Sir Bartholomew, 1479 Janssen, Sir Stephen Theodore, Bart., 1754 Jennings, Sir Stephen, 1508 Johnson, John, 1845 Johnson, Thomas, 1840 Jolles, Sir John, 1615 Jones, Sir Francis, 1620 Joslyn, Ralph, 1464 and 1476 Joyener, William, 1239 Judde, Sir Andrew, 1550 Kebble, Sir Henry, 1510 Kelly, Thomas, 1836 Kendale, Robert de, Warden, 1321 Kendrick, Sir John, 1651 Kennet, Brackley, 1779 Key, Sir John, Bart., 1830 and 1831 Kite, Sir Robert, 1766 Knesworth, Sir Thomas, 1505 Knolles, Sir Thomas, 1399 and 1410 Kyslyngbury, Richard de, 1350 Ladbroke, Sir Robert, 1 747 Lambard, Sir Nicolas, 1531 Lambert, Sir Daniel, 1 740 Lane, Sir Thomas, 1694 Langley, Sir John, 1576 Large, Robert, 1439 Laurie, Sir Peter, 1832 Lawrence, Sir John, 1664 Lawrence, William, 1863 Laxton, Sir William, 1544 Lee, Sir Richard, 1460 and 1469 Lee, Sir Robert, 1602 Leget, Richard, 1345 Legge, Thomas, 1347 and 1354 Leigh, Sir Thomas, 1558 Leighton, Sir William, 1806 Leman, Sir John, 1616 Level, Sir Richard, 1699 Lewen, Sir William, 1717 Lewes, Sir Watkin, 1780 Lodge, Sir Thomas, 1562 Louikin, John, 1348, 1358, 1365, 1366 Lowe, Sir Thomas, 1604 Lucas, Matthias Prime, 1827 Lumley, Sir Martin, 1623 Lyon, Sir John, 1554 Magnay, Christopher, 1821 Magnay, Sir William, Bart., 1843 Mallory, Sir Richard, 1564 Marrow, Sir William, 1455 Marshall, Sir Chapman, 1839 LONDON, LORD MAYORS OF Marshall, Sir Henry, 1744 Martin, Sir Richard, 1588, 1593 Martin, Sir Roger, 1567 Martin, Sir William, 1492 Mathew, John, 1490 Mercer, Serle le, 1214, and from 1217 to- 1222 Merfyn, Sir Thomas, 1518 Merlawe, Richard, 1409, 1417 Merttins, Sir George, 1 724 Mesurier, Paul le, 1793 Michell, Sir John, 1424, 1436 Middleton, Sir Thomas, 1613 Milbourn, Sir John, 1521 Monoux, Sir George, 1514 Moon, Sir Francis Graham, Bart., 1854 Moore, Sir John, 1681 Mordon, Simon de, 1368 More, Sir William, 1395 Moseley, Sir Nicholas, 1599 Moulson, Sir Thomas, 1633 Mundy, Sir John, 1522 Musgrove, Sir John, Bart., 1850 Nash, William, 1771 Nelson, George, 1765 Newnham, Nathaniel, 1782 Nicholas, Sir Ambrose, 15 75 Norman, Sir John, 1453 Northampton, John, 1381, 1382 Not, John, 1363 Offley, Sir Thomas, 1556 Oldgrave, Sir Thomas, 1467 Olney, John, 1446 Osborne, Sir Edward, 1583 Oteley, Sir Roger, 1434 Otho, Hugh Fitz, Warden, 1269 Oxonford, John de, 1341 Packe, Christopher, 1654 Paddesley, Sir John, 1440 Pargitor, Sir Thomas, 153 Parkhurst, Sir Robert, 1634 Parsons, Humphrey, 1730 and 1740 Parsons, Sir John, 1 703 Parveis, Sir John, 1432 Peacock, Sir Stephen, 1532 Peake, Sir John, 1686 Peake, Sir William, 1667 Peche, John, 1361 Peckham, Robert, 1783 Peers, Sir Charles, 1715 Pemberton, Sir James, 1611 Pennant, Sir Samuel, 1749 Pennington, Sir Isaac, 1641 (for part of the year), and 1642 Ferchard, Peter, 1804 Percival, Sir John, 1498 Perring, Sir John, Bart., 1803 Perry, Micajah, 1738 Phillips, Sir Benjamin Samuel, 1865 Phillip, Sir Matthew, 1463 Philpot, Sir John, 1378 Pickett, William, 1789 Pilkington, Sir Thomas, 1688, 1689, 1690 Pipe, Sir Richard, 1578 Pirie, Sir John, Bart., 1841 Plomer, Sir William, 1781 Plumbe, Samuel, 1778 Preston, John de, 1332 Price, Sir Charles, Bart., 1802 Pritchard, Sir William, 1682 Proby, Sir Peter, 1622 Pullison, Sir Thomas, 1584 Pulteney, John de, 1330, 1331, 1333, and 1336 Purchase, William, 1497 Pycard, Henry, 1356 Pyel, John, 1372 Rainewell, Sir John, 1426 Rainton, Sir Nicholas, 1632 Ramsey, Sir Thomas, 1577 Rawlinson, Sir Thomas, 1 705 Rawlinson, Sir Thomas, 1753 (for part of the year) Rede, Sir Bartholomew, 1502 Relham, Richard de, 1310 Remington, Sir William, 1500 Renger, Richard, 1223 to 1226, again 1228 to 1230, and again 1237-38 Rest, Sir John, 1516 Reynardson, Sir Abraham, 1648 Richard, Thomas Fitz, 1262 to 1265 Richard, William Fitz, 1260, 1261, and 1266 Rider, Sir William, 1600 Robinson, Sir John, Bart., 1662 Roche, Sir William, 1540 Roger, Fitz Roger, 1249 Rokesley, Gregory, 1275, 1281, and 1285 Romeyn, Thomas, 1309 Rose, Sir William Anderson, 1862 Rowe, Sir Thomas, 1568 Rowe, Sir Henry, 1607 Rowe, Sir William, 1592 Rudstone, Sir John, 1528 Russel, Elias, 1299,1300 Ryvers, Sir John, 1573 Sanderson, Sir James, Bart, I79 2 Sandwich, Ralph de, 1285 to 1289, and from 1291 to 1295, and 1296 LONDON, LORD MAYORS OF 521 Salter, Sir John, 1739 Salomons, David, 1855 Sainsbury, Thomas, 1786 Saltonstall, Sir Richard, 1597 Sawbridge, John, 1775 Scholey, George, 1812 Scot, Sir Thomas, 1458 Sevenoke, Sir William, 1418 Seymer, Sir Thomas, 1526 Sidney, Thomas, 1853 Shaa, Edmund, 1482 Shadworth, Sir John, 1401 Shaw, Sir John, 1501 Shaw, Sir James, Bart., 1805 Shelden, Sir Joseph, 1675 Shorter, Sir John, 1687 Skinner, Sir Thomas, 1596 Skinner, Thomas, 1794 Slany, Sir Stephen, 1595 Smith, Christopher, 1817 Smith, Joshua Jonathan, 1810 Smith, Sir James, 1684 Smith, Thomas, 1809 Soame, Sir Stephen, 1598 Souche, Alan de la, Warden, 1267 Spencer, Sir James, 1527 Spencer, Sir John, 1 594 Stable, Adam, 1376 Staines, Sir William, 1800 Stampe, Sir Thomas, 1691 Stanier, Sir Samuel, 1713 Starling, Sir Samuel, 1669 Stevenson, Sir William, 1764 Stewart, Sir William, 1721 Stocker, Sir William, 1484 Stodeye, John de, 1357 Stokton, Sir John, 1470 Stondon, Sir William, 1392, 1407 Swandland, Richard de, 1329 Swinnerton, Sir John, 1612 Taillour, William, 1468 Tate, Sir John, 1473 Tate, Sir John (the younger), 1496, 1513 Tate, Robert, 1488 Thompson, Sir John, 1 736 Thompson, William, 1828 Thorold, Sir George, Bart., 1719 Thorpe, John Thomas, 1820 Titchboume, Sir Robert, 1656 Tolason, John, 1252 Tony, (or Tovy), Michael, 1244 and 1284 Townsend, James, 1772 Trecothic, Barlow, 1769 Tulse, Sir Henry, 1683 Turke, Walter, 1349 Turner, Samuel, 1768 Turner, Sir William, 1668 Twyford, Sir Nicholas, 1388 Venables, William, 1825 Venour, Sir William, 1389 Verney, Ralph, 1465 Vyner, Sir Robert, Bart., 1674 Vyner, Sir Thomas, 1653 Waithman, Robert, 1823 Walcot, John, 1402 Walderne, Sir William, 1412, 1422 Waleys, Henry de, 1274, and 1282 to 1284, and for 1298 Walworth, Sir William, 1374, 1380 Ward, John, 1375 Ward, John, 1484 Ward, Sir John, 1718 Ward, Sir Patience, 1680 Warner, Sir John, 1647 Warren, Sir Raphe, 1536, 1543 (part of the year) Waterman, Sir George, 1671 Watson, Sir Brook, Bart., 1796 Watts, Sir John, 1606 Webbe, Sir William, 1591 Weld, Sir Humphrey, 1608 Wells, Sir John, 1431 Westley, Sir Robert, 1743 White, Sir John, 1563 White, Sir Thomas, 1553 White, Sir William, 1489 Whitmore, Sir George, 1631 Whittington, Sir Richard, 1396, 1397, 1406, and 1419 Wichingham, Geffery de, 1346 Wilkes, John, 1774 Williams, Sir John, 1735 Willimot, Sir Robert, 1742 Wilson, Samuel, 1838 Wimborne, Thomas, Warden, 1268 Winchester, Henry, 1834 Winger, Sir John, 1504 Wingrave, John de, 1316, 1317, 1318 Winterbottom, Thomas, 1751 Wire, David William, 1858 Withers, Sir William, 1707 Wollaston, Sir John, 1643 Wood, Sir Matthew, Bart., 1815, 1816 Woodcocke, Sir John, 1405 Woodroffe, Nicholas, 1579 Wotton, Nicholas, 1335, 1415, 1430 Wright, Sir Edmund, 1640 Wright, Thomas, 1785 Wroth, John, 1360 522 LONDON, SHERIFFS OF Wych, Hugh, 1461 Wyfold, Nicholas, 1450 Yarford, Sir James, 1519 Young, Sir John, 1466 LORD MAYORS WHO HAVE DIED IN OFFICE. Alderman, James, 1216 Allot, Sir John, Sept. 17, 1591 Alwyn, Henry Fitz, 1212 Bamme, Adam, June 6, 1397 Beckford, William, June 21, 1770 Bowyer, Sir William, April 13, 1544 Bradbury, Sir Thomas, Jan., 1510 Browne, Sir William, March 22, 1508 Browne, Sir William, jun., June 3, 1514 Buckle, Sir Cuthbert, July i, 1594 Bukerel, Andrew, 1237 Calthrop, Sir Martin, May 3, 1589 Chapman, Sir John, March 17, 1689 Copynger, Sir William, Feb. 7, 1513 SHERIFFS, FROM Abbiss, James, 1860 Alderson, George, 1817 Alexander, James, 1802 Allen, William F., 1857 Ansley, John, 1805 Atkins, John, 1809 Bell, Thomas, 1815 Besley, Robert, 1864 Birch, Samuel, 1811 Blades, John, 1812 Booth, Felix, 1828 Branscombe, James, 1806 Bridges, George, 1816 Brown, Anthony, 1824 Cadell, Thomas, 1800 Carden, Robert W., 1849 Carroll, George, 1837 Carter, John, 1852 Cave, Thomas, 1863 Challis, Thomas, 1846 Chaplin, W. J., 1845 Cockerell, G. J., 1861 Conder, Edward, 1858 Copeland, W. T., 1828 Cotterell, Thomas, 1851 Cowan, John, 1831 Cox, R. A., 1801 Croll, A. A., 1852 Crosley, C. D., 1854 Crowder, John, 1825 Cubitt, William, 1847 Dakin, Thomas, 1864 Desanges, Francis, 1817 Domville, William, 1804 Duke, James, 1836 Freeman, Sir Ralph, March 16, 1634 Godschall, Sir Robert, June 26, 1742 Hill, Sir Thomas, Sept. 23, 1485 Ironside, Edward, Nov. 27, 1753 Oxenford, John de, June 18, 1342 Parsons, Humphrey, March 21, 1741 Pennant, Sir Samuel, May 20, 1750 Renger, Richard, 1238 Shorter, Sir John, Sept. 4, 1688 Skinner, Sir Thomas, Dec. 31, 1596 Stocker, Sir William, Sept. 29, 1485 Ward, John, 1484 Winterbottom, Thomas, June 4, 1752 1800 TO 1867. Evans, William, 1839 Farebrother, Charles, 1826 Farncombe, Thomas, 1840 Figgins, James, 1865 Finnis, Thomas Quested, 1848 Gabriel, Thomas, 1859 Garratt, John, 1821 Gibbons, Sills J., 1865 Gibbs, Michael, 1840 Goodbehere, Samuel, 1810 Goodhart, Jacob E., 1848 Gwynne, Lawrence, 1818 Hale, Warren Stormes, 1858 Harmer, James, 1833 Heygate, William, 1811 Hill, Charles, 1847 Hodgkinson, G. Edward, 1850 Hooper, J. K., 1842 Hoy, Michael, 1812 Humphrey, John, 1832 Hunter, Claudius S., 1808 Hunter, William, 1844 Illidge, John, 1834 Johnson, John, 1836 Johnson, Thomas, 1838 Jones, Hugh, 1862 Keats, Frederick, 1856 Kelly, Thomas, 1825 Kennard, R. W., 1846 Kennedy, Richard H., 1855 Key, John, 1824 Kirby, Robert, 1816 Lainson, John, 1835 Lawrie, John, 1845 Lawrie, Peter, 1823 LONDON, RECORDERS OF 523 Lawrence, James Clarke, 1862 Lawrence, William, 1849 Lawrence, William, 1857 Leigh, Joseph, 1814 Leighton, Sir William, 1803 Lucas, Mat. P., 1822 Lusk, Andrew, 1860 Lycett, Sir Francis, 1866 Me Arthur, William, 1867 Magnay, Christopher, 1813 Magnay, William, 1841 Marsh, Thomas C. r 1813 Marshall, Chapman, 1830 Mechi, John J., 1856 Miles, Jonathan, 1806 Montenore, Moses, 1837 Moon, Francis Graham, 1843 Muggeridge, Henry, 1854 Musgrove, John, 1843 Nicoll, Donald, 1849 Nissen, Henry Nich., 1863 Parkins, J. W r ., 1819 Peek, Richard, 1832 Perring, John, 1 800 Phillips, Benjamin S., 1859 Phillips, Richard, 1807 Pilcher, Jeremiah, 1842 Pirie, John, 1831 Plomer, Sir William, Knight, 1810 Poland, William Henry, 1830 Raphael, Alex., 1834 Rawlings, William, 1801 Reay, John, 1814 Richardson, William H., 1829 Roberts, John, 1818 Rogers, Alex., 1841 Rose, W. A., 1855 Rothwell, Richard, 1819 Salomons, David, 1835 Scholey, George, 1804 Shaw, James, 1803 Sidney, Thomas, 1844 Smith, Christopher, 1807 Smith, Thomas, 1805 Spottiswoode, Andrew, 1827 Stable, Charles, 1827 Stone, David H., 1867 Swift, Richard, 1851 Thompson, William, 1822 Thorpe, John T., 1815 Twentyman, William H., 1 86 1 Venables, William, 1821 Waithman, Robert, 1820 Wallace, George A., 1853 Ward, Thomas, 1829 Waterlow, Sir Sydney H., 1866 Welch, Richard, 1802 Wheelton, John, 1839 Whittaker, G. B., 1823 Wilde, E. A., 1827 Williams, James, 1820 Wilson, Samuel, 1833 Winchester, Henry, 1826 Wire, David W., 1853 Wood, Matthew, 1809 Wood, Thomas, 1838 RECORDERS, FROM 1298 TO l868. Adair, James Adam, Richard Anne, Alexander Baker, John Barton, John, senior Benn, Anthony Billyng, Thomas Bowes, William John Broke, Richard Broke, Robert Bromley, Thomas Calthroppe, Henry Chaloncr, John Cheyne, William Cholmely, Ralph Cholmely, Roger Coke, Edward Cokayn, Thomas Cokeyn, John Elected. Died or resigned. OcL 17, 1779 resigned, June 24, 1789 Jan. 17, 1748 surrendered, Feb. 6, 1753 1436 1439 1526 1535 1415 1426 March 15, 1616 1618 1450 resigned, Oct. 3, 1454 July 13, 1440 1442 uly 19, 1510 1520 ov. 12, 1545 1553 June 22, 1566 1568 Dec. 28, 1635 resigned, Jan. 25, 1635 1508 1510 1383 1390 1553 died, April 25, 1563 1535 surrendered, Nov. 10, 1545 Jan. n, 1591 resigned, June 17, 1592 Oct 27, 1439 1440 1394 1398 524 LONDON, RECORDERS OF Coventry, Thomas Crooke, John Danvers, Robert Depham, Roger de Dolben, William Drew, Edward Eyre, James Finch, Heneage Fitzwilliam, Thomas Flemming, Thomas Fletewoode, William Fray, John Gardiner, Thomas Glyn, John Glynn, John Greene, John Gurney, Russell, Q.C., M.P. Halden, William de Heath, Robert Hertpoll, Jeffery de Holt, Sir John Howell, John Jefferies, Sir George Jenner, Sir Thomas King, Peter Knowlys, Newman Law, Hon. Charles Ewan Littleton, Edward Lodelowe, Thomas Long, Lisleborne Lovell, Sir Salathiel Makenade, William Martin, Richard Mason, Robert Moreton, William Mountagu, Henry Norton, Gregory de Norton, Jeffery de Onslow, Richard Pheasant, Peter Preston, John Rose, John William Selby, James Sheffelde, Sir Robert Shelley, William Shute, Robert Silvester, John Simond, John Somers, John Southworth, Matthew de Steele, William Sterky, Humphrey Stracey, John Strange, John Elected. Died or resigned. Nov. 16, 1616 resigned, 1616 Nov. II, 1595 resigned, May 26, 1603 July 14, 1442 1450 1339 *353 Feb. 8, 1676 resigned, Oct. 22, 1678 June 17, 1592 March 27, 1594 April 7, 1763 resigned, Oct. 29, 1772 Feb. 15, 1620 died, 1631 June 19, 1483 1496 March 27, 1594 resigned, Nov. u, 1595 April 28, 1571 Jan. II, 1591 1426 1426 Jan. 25, 1635 discharged, May 2, 1643 May 30, 1643 resigned, Aug. 25, 1649 Nov. 17, 1772 died, 1779 March 18, 1658 died, 1659 Dec. 16, 1856 1365 1383 Nov. 10, 1618 resigned, Jan. 20, 1620 1320 removed, 1320 Feb. 1 8, 1685 1687 April 14, 1668 resigned, Feb. 8, 1676 Oct. 22, 1678 surrendered, Dec. 2, 1680 Oct. 1 6, 1683 1685 July 27, 1708 surrendered, Mar. I, 1714 April 10, 1822 resigned, June 24, 1833 July 2, 1833 died, Aug. 13, 1850 Dec. 7, 1631 resigned, Oct. 20, 1634 1353 1365 June I, 1655 died, 1658 June 10, 1692 surrendered, July 13, 1708 1392 1394 Oct. I, 1618 1618 Oct. 20, 1634 died, Dec., 1635 Feb. 15, 1753 died, 1763 May 26, 1603 resigned, 1616 1329 1339 1298 1303 1563 resigned, June 22, 1566 May 2, 1643 resigned, May 30, 1643 1406 1415 June 30, 1789 died, 1803 Oct. 25, 1688 declined, Oct. 29, 1688 1496 1508 1520 1526 Jan. 20, 1620 died, 1620 Oct. 20, 1803 died, 1822 Oct. 22, 1426 H36 Oct. 23, 1688 declined, Oct. 25, 1688 1398 1404 Aug. 25, 1649 resigned, June I, 1655 Jan. 19, 1471 1483 May 14, 1746 died, 1748 Nov. 13, 1739 surrendered, Dec. 7, 1742 LONDON, COMMON SERJEANTS OF 525 Swalchyne, Robert de Tate, Mr Sergeant Thompson, William Treby, George Treby, Sir George Tremayne, John Thronburgh, Thomas Urling, Simon Urswyk, Thomas Wangrave, John de \Vilbraham, Thomas Wortley, The Hon. James Stuart Wylde, William TOWN CLERKS, Ashurst, Henry, 1700 Avery, William, 1667 Barnett, Richard, 1438 Batequell, Johes de, 1284 Blackwell, William, 1538 Carpenter, John, 1417 Depham, Roger de, 1316 Dunthorne, Will. E., 1461 Gibson, James, 1705 Goodfellow, John, 1691 Hodges, Sir James, 1757 Jackson, Thomas, 1724 Man, Miles, 1737 Marchant, John, 1387 Merewether, Henry Alworth, Serj. Law, 1842 Mitchell, Robert, 1641 Packenham, Nicholas, 1489 Padington, Henry de, 1368 Elected. Died or resigned. 1320 1329 May 10, 1687 removed, Feb. 20, 1687-8 March 3, 1714 died, 1739 Dec. 2, 1680 displaced, June 12, 1683 Dec. 6, 1688 resigned, June 7, 1692 1390 1392 1404 1406 Dec. 14, 1742 died, 1746 Oct. 3, 1454 1471 33 1320 March 15, 1568 resigned, April 24, 1571 Sept. 24, 1850 resigned, Nov. 29, 1856 Nov. 3, 1659 resigned, April 21, 1668 FROM 13 EDW. I. Paver, William, 1514 Perot, Henry, 1375 Rix, William, 1774 Rushton, Thomas, 1533 Sadler, John, 1649 Sebright, William, 1573 Sherborne, John de, 1316 Spicer, Roger, 1446 Stapleton, Arthur, 1570 Stracey, Randolph, 1717 Stubb, Walter, 1510 Wagstaffe, William, 1672 W'altham, Hugode, 1311 Weld, John, 1612 at Weld, John, 1660 Woodthorpe, Hen., 1801 Woodthorpe, Henry, LL.D., 1825 Woodthorpe, Frederick, 1859 Atkyns, Thomas, 1546. Baldwyn, John, 1462 Brooke, Robert, 1536 Browne, Sir Richard, 1661 Bryan, Thomas, 1459 Bullock, Edward, 1850 Bylling, Thomas, 1443 Chambers, Thomas, 1857 Crisp, Henry, 1678 Danvers, Robert, 1441 Dee, Duncan, 1700 Denman, Thomas, 1822 Fairfax, Guy, 1456 Frowicke, Thomas, 1486 Garrard, Thomas, 1729 Greene, John, 1521 Gurney, Russell, 1856 Hall, Edward, 1532 SERJEANTS, FROM 4! EDW. III. Haugh, John, 1485 Higham, Richard, 1485-6 Hills, Daniel, 1613 Ingelton, Robert, 1456 Jeffreys, George, 1671 Jones, Thomas, 1613 Kirton, Thomas, 1583 Knowlys, Newman, 1803 Latham, Ralph, 1625 Law, Hon. Charles Ewan, 1830 Lingard, John, 1720 Marowe, Thomas, 1490 Marsh, John, 1547 Mirehouse, John, 1833 Moyle, Richard, 1442 Molyneux, Robert, 1469 Nedeham, John, 1449 Nugent, Thomas, 1758. 526 LONDON, CHAMBERLAINS OF LONDONDERRY Onely, John, 1530 Urswick, Thomas, 1453 Proby, Henry, 1642 Walsingham, William, 1526 Randolph, Bernard, 1563 Wentbrigg, John, 1367 Rigby, Thomas, 1457 Wheeler, Richard, 1601 Silvester, John, 1790 White, Henry, 1521 Southwell, Robert, 1534 Wilbraham, Richard, 1601 Strode, Ralph, 1376 Wilton, John, 1437 CHAMBERLAINS. Bosworth, Sir J. , 1 734 Janssen, Sir Stephen Theodore, 1 765 Brown, Anthony, 1844 Key, Sir John, 1853 Clark, Richard, 1798 Ludlam, Sir George, 1718 Cuddon, Sir Thomas, 1696 Robinson, Samuel, 1727 Fazakerly, Sir William, 1702 Scott, Benjamin, F.R.A.S., 1858 Harrison, Sir Thomas, 1751 Shaw, Sir James, 1831 Heygate, Sir William, 1843 Wilkes, John, 1779 Hopkins, Benjamin, 1766 LONDON, THE, steamship, with passengers for Melbourne, foundered with 270 passengers and the crew on board, Jan. II, 1866 ; 19 persons only saved. LONDON AND NORTH WESTERN RAILWAY STATION, Euston-square, built from the design of P. Hardwick, R. A. LONDON BRIDGE (Old). The wooden bridge erected, 994 ; destroyed by the Norwegian Prince Olaf, 1008 ; rebuilt, 1014 ; swept away by a flood, 1091 j re- built, 1097; burnt, 1136; re-erected, 1163, by Peter of Colechurch ; first stone bridge began to be erected, 1176; finished, 1209; the houses at both ends taking fire, and many people crowding upon the bridge, thinking to suppress it, were hemmed in, and leaping over into boats and barges upwards of 300 were drowned, 1212 ; Henry III. was repulsed here by De Montfort, Earl of Leicester, 1264 ; Wat Tyler entered the city by this route, 1381 ; the citizens received Richardll. here with civic pomp, 1392; several houses were set on fire by Falconbridge, 1477 ; the water- works established by ' Morice,' 1582 ; more than a third of the dwellings were consumed by fire, Feb. II, 1632 ; the whole labyrinth of dwellings were destroyed in the great fire of 1666 ; rebuilt, 1680 ; another fire causing much damage, Sept. 8, 1725 ', an act passed for improving, widening, and enlarging the passage over and through the bridge, 29 Geo. II. c. 40, 1756 ; the houses taken down, 1757; temporary bridge burnt, April 10, 1758; water-works burnt, 1774 ; toll ceased, May 27, 1782. LONDON BRIDGE (New). An act passed for the rebuilding of and for making suitable approaches, 4 Geo. IV. c. 50, July 4, 1823; built from the design of John Rennie, F. R.S. ; first pile driven, March 15, 1824 ; built by Mr W. Jolliffe and Sir Edward Banks ; first stone laid by the lord mayor (John Garratt), June 15, 1825 ; the first arch keyed, Aug. 4, 1827 ; the last, Nov. 19, 1828 ; opened by King William IV. and Queen Adelaide, Aug. I, 1831, Sir John Key, mayor. It was 7 years, 5 months, and 13 days building ; it consists of 5 arches, 2 of 130 feet, 2 of 140, and the centre of 152 ; the roadway is 52 feet wide, length 928 feet, with 690 feet of water-way ; cost .425,181 9^. 2d., and with the approaches a total of 1,458, 31 1 &r. ud. LONDON COFFEE-HOUSE, Ludgate-street, was first opened as a punch- house, 1771-2. It was here that the juries who were unable to agree to their ver- dict, or when the case lasted for several days, were ' locked up ' of a night. Pur- chased by the Corporation of London for 38,500, Jan., 1868. LONDONDERRY, Ireland, existed, 546 ; abbey of, burned, 783; town surprised and garrison put to the sword, 1606 ; granted to the Corporation and the London Livery Companies by James I., March 29, 1613; fortified, 1616 ; the several LONDON DOCKS LONGBEARD 527 companies gave cannon to the town for its defence, 1642 ; besieged for four months, 1649 ; successfully defended by Walker for 105 days ; siege raised, July 28, 1689 ; the town rebuilt by the Irish Society, 1690. LONDON DOCKS. See Docks. LONDON GAZETTE. See Gazette LONDON INSTITUTION, established, 1805, and located at Sir William Clay- ton's house, Old Jewry, 1806 ; the first stone of the present building laid, May 4, 1815 ; opened, April 21, 1819, William Brooks architect, cost ^31, 124. LONDON LIBRARY, St James's-square, established in Pall Mall, May, 1821 ; removed to its present site, 1844. LONDON MISSIONARY SOCIETY established, 1795. LONDON PHILANTHROPIC SOCIETY, established for the supply of the poor with bread and coals during the winter months, 1841. LONDON SACRED HARMONIC SOCIETY, established to encourage the study of sacred music, 1848. See Musical Societies. LONDON STONE, the memorial of the Roman occupation of London ; repaired by Sir C. Wren, 1667 ; removed from the south to the north side of the street, 1742 ; removed to the church wall, 1798. LONDON, THE GATES OF : ALDGATE, first mentioned in 967 ; taken down, 1606 ; the first stone of the new gate laid, 1607 ; finished, 1609. Sold for ,\TJ ios., and taken down, 1661. ALDERSGATE, rebuilt by the Corporation, 1616 ; partially destroyed in the fire of 1666. BISHOPSGATE, first mentioned in 1210; rebuilt by the merchants of the steel- yard, 1479; rebuilt by the Corporation, 1731-5. CRIPPLEGATE, built, circa 1010 ; rebuilt at the expense of the Brewers' Com- pany, 1244 ; and again rebuilt by Edmund Shaa, 1483 ; by the Corporation of London, 1663 ; sold for ^"91, and removed, 1761. LUDGATE, constituted a free prison, 1373 ; rebuilt, 1586 ; sold for ^"148, 1760. MOORGATE, built, 1415? rebuilt, 1574; escaped the fire of 1666; repaired, 1672; removed, 1761. NEWGATE, repaired, 1420, and again, 1630 ; destroyed in the fire of 1666. LONDON, TOWER OF. The white tower erected for William the Conqueror by Bishop Gundulph, 1078 ;' strengthened by William Rufus, 1097 ; King Stephen kept his court here, 1140 ; the wall and ditch made, 1190 ; St Peter's chapel built by Henry I., 1272 ; Henry VII. held a tournament here, 1501 ; consider- ably damaged by fire, Nov. 22, 1548 ; the white tower rebuilt, 1637-8 ; Colonel Blood made an unsuccessful attempt to steal the crown jewels, May 9, 1671 ; the fortifications repaired, 1792 ; the horse armoury built, 1826 ; the menagerie re- moved to the Zoological Gardens, Regent's Park, 1834; the ditch filled with water and cleansed, 1830 ; filled up and drained and made a parade ground, 1843 ; the storehouse of the royal train of artillery and the small armoury for 150,000 stand of arms burnt, Oct. 30, 1841 ; the first stone of the Waterloo bar- racks laid by the Duke of Wellington, June 14, 1845 ; the first prisoner was Ralph Flambard, Bishop of Durham, noo; Balliol, King of Scotland, 1296. LONDON UNIVERSITY, charter of, dated Feb. n, 1826 ; building commenced, April 30, 1827 ; college opened, Oct. I. 1828 ; by the reform bill power given to return a member to parliament, 30 & 31 Viet. c. 102, Aug. 15, 1867. LONGBEARD, WILLIAM FITZOSBORN, a notorious impostor, who pretended a divine mission to banish poverty and evil from the world, being the saviour of the poor ; he resisted the laws, and was hanged, 1197 ; after his death, the people came from all parts of Kent to gather particles of the ground on which he had last 5z8 LONGEST DAYS LONGEVITY trod, as holy relics ; numbers of women waited for days, expecting that he would - return to life, the blind and lame came from far and near to touch his corpse, hoping that they would thereby recover their sight and the use of their limbs. LONGEST DAYS. At Berlin and London, the longest day has iV/z hours ; at Stockholm and Upsal, the longest has 18,^ hours, and the shortest $y 2 ; at Ham- burg, Dantzic, and Stettin, the longest day has 17, and the shortest 7 ; at St Petersburg and Tobolsk, the longest has 19, the shortest 5 hours ; at Torneo, in Finland, the longest day has 2\ l / 2 hours, and shortest 2^ ; at Wardhous, in Nor- way, the day lasts from May 21 to July 22, without interruption ; and in Spitz- bergen the longest lasts three months and a half. LONGEVITY, some remarkable instances of : Roger Brook, of Halifax, Yorkshire, died, Oct. 8, 1568 ... ... aged 133 John Bailes, of Northampton, died, April 14, 1706 ... ... ... ... 126 Mary Brittle, died at Twickenham, 1822 ... ... ... ... ... 105 John Brookey, of Broad Rush-Common, Devon, living there in July, 1778 135 General Buckley, Cobham Hall, Ireland, died, 1826 ... ... ... 105 Christian Cliff, died at Kilreedy, near Limerick, 1814 ... ... ... 109 Mrs Clum, near Lichfield, who lived 103 years in one house, died Jan. 23, 1772 138 Mrs J. Crawford, Jamaica, died, 1815 ... ... ... ... ... 151 Thomas Damm, of Leigh ton, near Minshall, Cheshire, died, 1648 ... 154 William Edwards, Caeru, near Cardiff, Glamorganshire, died, 1668 ... 168 John Effingham, born and died at Penryn, Feb., 1757 ... ... ... 144 Mr W. Ellis, Liverpool, died, 1780 ... ... ... ... ... ... 130 M. Fairbrother, Wigan, Lancashire, died, May, 1770 ... ... ... 138 James Forthern, Grenada, W. Indies, died, Feb. 10, 1773 ... ... 127 Vychan Gaener, Aber-cowarch, near Dinas, Mowddwy, 1686 ... ... 140 Peter Garden, Auchern ess, Scotland, died, Jan., 1775 ... ... ... 131 Nicholas Garvey, ofTully, Ireland, died, 1817 ... ... ... ... 107 Frederick Harpe, Fish Hill, Cumberland, died, Feb., 1792 120 Sier de la Haye, died, Feb. 2, 1774 ... ... 120 Henry Jenkins, Yorkshire, died, 1670 ... ... ... ... ... 169 James Lack, died at Hackney, Oct. 31, 1807 ... ... ... ... 105 William Leland, of Ireland, died, Jan., 1732 ... 139 James Macdonald, died at Cork, Aug., 1760 ... ... ... ... 117 Mackfindlay, Esq., of Tipperaiy, died, June, 1773 143 Mr Movat, a surgeon, at Dumfries, died, Feb., 1776 ... ... ... 136 Mr John Mount, of Langholm, Dumfries, died, March, 1776 ... ... 136 Thomas Newman, of Brislingt on, near Bristol, died, 1542 ... ... 152 Robert Parr, Kinver, Salop, died, Sept. 21, 1757 124 Thomas Parr, lived in 10 reigns, died, 1635 ... ... ... ... 152 Saint Patrick, first Bishop of Ireland, died, 491 ... ... 122 Margaret Patten, near Paisley, Scotland, died, 1737 136 Thomas Plum, died at Whitechapel, Aug. 25, 1832 ... 108 Mary Ralphson, died at Liverpool, June 27, 1808 ... ... no Robertson, of Hopetoun Hall, near Edinburgh, died, 1793 137 Mrs J. Scrimshaw, died in the workhouse, near Tower Hill, Dec. 6, 1711 127 George Stanley, Homington, near Salisbury, died, 1719 ... ... ... 151 Morris Thurston, of Guinea-street, Exeter, died, Dec. 24, 1844 108 MrTice, Hagley, Worcestershire, died, Feb. 26, 1774 ... 125 William Wakeley, ofShiffnal, Salop, died, 1714 124 Mrs Mary Yates, Shiffnal, Salop, died, Aug., 1776 ... ... ... 127 William Mortimer, of Straffan, in the county of Kildare, died at the advanced age of 125 years, Nov. 13, 1833. He fought at the battle of Bunker's Hill, in LONGEVITY OF FISH LORD CHANCELLORS 529 America, where he was taken prisoner, and conveyed from thence to Spithead, where he remained in confinement on board a prison ship until peace was con- cluded between Great Britain and America ; he retained all his faculties to the last. An authenticated case of centenarianism, says Mr Thorns, is very rare, and he quotes one of William Plank, of the Sailers' Company, born, Nov. 7, 1 767 ; died, Nov. 19, 1867, aged 101. LONGEVITY OF FISH ; some few instances show that fishes seldom die of old age ; and that generally, -while they live, they increase in size, which is not the case with most other animals. In the year 1775 a codfish was taken at Scarborough, which weighed 78 Ib. The conger-eel has been known to measure more than 10 feet in length. A common perch (the Perca fltcviatilis) was taken in the Ser- pentine river, Hyde Park, which weighed 9 Ib. this fish grows slowly. A pond in the garden of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, contained a carp that had been there for more than 70 years. A few years ago, a pike was caught in Winder- mere lake, which weighed 35 Ib. , and another more recently, 33 Ib. A pike was taken in lake Zernictz, in Carniola, that was known to be nearly 300 years old, and weighed 3 cwt ; this fish was put into the lake by an Emperor of Germany, who fastened a ring to its fin, with a date on it. LONG ISLAND, America, battle. The Americans defeated by the English, under General Howe, with a loss of nearly 2000 men, Aug. 27, 1776. LONGITUDE, a reward of .10,000 promised by parliament for the best means of ascertaining, at sea, 12 Anne, s. 2, c. 15, 1713 ; directions for, 14 Geo. II. c. 39, 1741 ; Mr Eberhard of Eisleben claimed the reward, 1715 ; further directions, 26 Geo. II. c. 25, 1753 ; an act passed for the more effectual discovering of, 58 Geo. III. c. 20, May 8, 1818 ; repealed, 9 Geo. IV. c. 66, July 15, 1828; accurately determined by Harrison's time-piece, 1764, for which he received the reward. Le Roe, in Paris, invented a watch that kept better time, 1776. LONG PARLIAMENT, The, met at Westminster, Nov. 3, 1640 ; dissolved by Oliver Cromwell, protector, April 20, 1653. LONGWOOD, St Helena, made the residence of Napoleon I., Dec. 10, 1815, where he died, May 5, 1821. LONGWY, France. During the revolution the allies under the King of Prussia took this fortress, Aug. 20, 1 792 ; restored, Sept. 30, 1 792 ; besieged unsuccess- fully, July I-I5> 1815 ; siege renewed, and town surrendered, Sept. 18. LOOKING-GLASSES superseded mirrors, made at Venice, 1300; in England, at Lambeth, 1673 ; the largest made at Ravenhead, 1851. LOOMS. They were used in Egypt more than 1000 years B.C. ; they are represented on the tombs of Thebes ; first introduced in England by the Flemings, who settled at Norwich, 1131-33 ; Cartwright's loom patented, 1785 ; the Jacquard loom in- vented at Lyons, Sept., 1801 ; there are said to be 260,000 hand-looms in Eng- land, and 74,000 power-looms ; steam-looms introduced, 1807. LOPES, Sir M. M., fined .10,000 and imprisoned in Exeter gaol for bribing the electors of Grampound ; born, 1755; died, 1831. LORCA, a city of Murcia, in Spain, destroyed by the bursting of a reservoir that inundated more than 20 leagues, and carried away looo persons, besides cattle, &c., April 30, 1802. LORD AUCKLAND'S ISLAND discovered by Capt Bristow, 1809. LORD CHANCELLORS. According to Selden, Ethelbert appointed Augmendus his chancellor, 605 ; Turketel was appointed by Edward the Elder, 920 ; the first one appointed by William the Conqueror, Arfastus, 1068 ; the office purchased, by Geoffrey Rufusfrom Henry I. for 3006 13^. 4^., equal to ,45,000 of our pre- sent money ; Thomas i Becket appointed, 1154. 34 530 LORD GREAT CHAMBERLAIN LORRAINE LORD GREAT CHAMBERLAIN OF ENGLAND, a great state officer, whose duties attach to public ceremonies ; the office was for centuries in the family of De Vere, from 1101 ; whence in 1779 it came to the Lady Willoughby de Eresby and her sister, with power to appoint a deputy. LORD HIGH ADMIRAL first appointed, 1512. LORD HIGH CONSTABLE, an officer of the crown, hereditary until 1521, when it became forfeited to the king by the treason of Edward Stafford, Duke of Buckingham, May 21 ; the same title is of ancient standing in Scotland, and was reserved in the Articles of the Union, 1 707, to the family of Enrol. LORD HIGH STEWARD OF ENGLAND, an officer of ancient origin, now only revived at a coronation or on the trial of a peer ; the office was abolished, except as thus stated, 1265. LORD STEWARD OF THE HOUSEHOLD, an officer appointed, 1540, in place of one entitled Grand Master of the Household. LORD HIGH TREASURER OF ENGLAND. The Bishop of Bayeux, 0 tne l ast > Glasgow lotteries, July 25, 1834. LOUIS OF HESSE-DARMSTADT, order of knighthood, instit, Aug. 25, 1807. LOUIS, ST, of France, order of knighthood, began, May 10, 1693 ; confirmed by Louis XV., 1719. LOUIS, ST, Missouri, founded, 1764 ; the University established, 1832 ; the Mer- cantile Library Association organized, 1846, and incorporated, 1815. LOUIS XV. of France escaped being burnt, July I, 1747 ; stabbed by Damien, Jan. 5, 1757; died, May 10, 1774, aged 64, reigned 59 years. LOUIS XVI., accession to the throne of France, 1774 ; deposed, Aug. IO, 1792 ; beheaded, June 21, 1793, and his queen beheaded, Oct. 16 following. LOUIS XVIII. retired to St Petersburg, allowed a pension by the Emperor of Russia, April 3, 1 798 ; landed at Yarmouth under title of Count de Lille, Oct 6, 1807 ; his public entry into London, April 21, 1814; sailed from Dover, April 23, reached Compeigne, April 29, Paris, May 3, 1814 ; fled from Napoleon, March 21, 1815 ; resumed government, July, 1815 > died, Sept. 16, 1824. LOUISBURGH, Cape Breton, taken by the English after 49 days' siege, June 15, 1745 ; restored to France, 1749 ; taken after a siege of two months, July 22, 1758. LOUIS D'OR, a French coin, of gold, value 24 francs, struck by Louis XIII., 1641, then valued at 10 livres ; and in the reign of Louis XV. they rose in value to 40 livres ; the Napoleon superseded it, of the same value. LOUISIANA, N. America, discovered by Ferdinand de Soto, 1541 ; visited by CoL Wood, 1654 ; and by Capt. Boll, 1670 ; M. de la Salle landed with a few people, 1685 ; the first colony formed by French-Canadians under M. D'Iberville, 1699 ; granted to a company formed by John Law, by Louis XIV., 1718 ; ceded to Spain, Nov., 1762, but possession was not obtained until Aug. 17, 1769 ; the city of New Orleans built, 1717 ; restored to France, Oct. I, 1800 ; sold by, to the United States for ,3,200,000, April 30, 1803 ; admitted into the Union, 1812. 532 LOUISVILLE LUCERA LOUISVILLE, Kentucky, was first colonized, 1770; laid out, 1773; town estab- lished, 1780. LOUTH, Ireland, conquered by De Courcy, 1180; made a county by King John, 1210 ; granted to Baron de Courcy, and afterwards to Baron de Lacey. LOUTH PARK ABBEY, Lincolnshire, built by Alexander, Bishop of Lincoln, 1239, for a Cistercian brotherhood. LOUVAIN, Belgium, founded circa 885 ; Godfrey, Duke of Normandy, encamped near the town ; castle built by the Emperor Arnulph, called Caesar's Castle, circa 900 ; walled round, 1165 ; Henry I. assassinated at, 1038 ; the cathedral founded, 1040 ; destroyed by fire, and rebuilt, 1358 ; John IV., Duke of Brabant, founded the University, 1426 ; the Guild-hall founded, 1317, and the Town-hall, 1448 ; the town taken by the French under Gen. Kleber, 1792, evacuated, March 3, 1798. LOUVIERS, France, noted for its manufacture of cloth as early as 1660 ; the church of Notre Dame erected, 1496; captured by Henry V. of England, 1418; retaken by the French, 1450 ; besieged by the Duke of Bedford, 1451, and the town par- tially destroyed ; rebuilt, 1463-4. LOUVRE, Paris. Louis Augustus laid the foundation of, 1222 ; Francis I. rebuilt the palace, from the designs of Pierre Lescot, 1552 ; Henri II. finished the west side ; the marriage of Henri IV. with Margaret de Valois celebrated at, 1572 ; the east front built from the design of Claude Perrault, 1666 ; first exhibi- tion of painting and sculpture opened, Aug. 22, 1 740 ; the building finished by Napoleon I. ; many of the treasures returned in 1814 to the various countries from which they were taken by Napoleon I.; improved by Napoleon III., 1863. LO VAT'S REBELLION. Lord Lovat joined the Pretender, 1745 ; confined in the Tower ; tried, March 9, 1 747 ; beheaded on Tower-hill, April 9, 1 747 . LOVE, MR JOHN, of Weymouth, died, Oct., 1793, aged 41, and weighed 36411)5., or 26 stone. LOWTHER CASTLE, Westmoreland, rebuilt by Vise. Lonsdale, 1685 ; nearly consumed by fire, 1720 ; rebuilt by William Lowther, Earl of Lonsdale, 1808. LOYOLA, IGNATIUS, founder of the Jesuits, born, 1491; died, July 31, 1556 ; canonized by Pope Gregory XV., 1622 ; his festival is kept on July 31. LUBECK, Germany, founded by Adolphus II., 1143; ceded to Henry, Duke of Saxony, 1158; the Dom or Cathedral began, 1170; finished, 1241 ; made a free city by Frederick II., 1226; became the head of the Hanseatic League, 1260 ; the city destroyed by fire, 1276 ; the Marien Kirche founded, 1304; the Town-hall built, 1517 ; the League dissolved, 1632 ; Gen. Bliicher fled here after the battle of Jena, 1806 ; the town stormed by the French, and pillaged for three days ; annexed to France, 1810 ; restored to its independence, 1813 ; joined the German Confederation ; a new constitution agreed to by this free state, Dec. 29, 1851. LUBIN, Poland, city of, burnt, 1209 ; again, 1276. LUCCA, North Italy. This ancient town belonged to the district of Etruria at the close of the 3rd century B.C.; taken by the Romans and colonized, B.C. 177; raised to a municipality, 49; the cathedral of St Martin founded, A.D. 1060; St Michael's church founded, 764 ; after the Lord of Pisa had held the country in bondage for a long period, Charles IV. sold the inhabitants their freedom for 300,000 florins, 1370; Town-hall erected, 1413; town seized by the French, J 799 > given by Napoleon to his sister Eliza, 1805 ; the aqueduct built by Not- tolini, measuring two miles in length, and supported upon 459 arches, began, 1815 ; finished, 1832. LUCERA, Italy. The town was formerly a Greek town, it having been founded LUCERNE LUKE'S HOSPITAL 533 by Diomed ; captured by the Samnites, B.C. 321 ; the following year the Ro- mans besieged and took it ; the inhabitants revolted to the Samnites, 314; the Romans speedily repressed the insurrection, and destroyed most of the inhabitants, 317 ; the Goths held the town for some years ; it was destroyed in the 7th century and remained in ruins until 1239, when the Emperor Frederick II. colonized it with Silician-Saracens ; Charles of Anjou expelled the Moors, 1269, and converted the mosque of Lucera into a church. LUCERNE, Switzerland, invaded by the Austrians under the Emperor Leopold, 1386 ; taken from the French by the Swiss, 1798 ; retaken, Dec. 16, 1813. LUCIA, ST, West India Island, first discovered on St Lucia's day, 1635 ; colon- ized by the English, 1639, but they were driven off by the Caribs ; the French made a settlement, 1650; the colonists massacred by the Caribs, 1654 ; several other attempts were made both by the French and English to again colonize this island, 1672 and 1723 ; assigned to France by treaty, Feb., 1763 ; 900 per- sons destroyed by an earthquake, Oct. 12, 1788; the island captured by the English, 1 779 ; restored, 1 783 ; retaken, 1 794 ; restored, 1 795 ; recaptured, 1803, and since remained part of the English possessions. LUCIFER MATCHES superseded the flint and steel, 1834 ; a machine for mak- ing, invented by Mr Partridge, 1842 ; Sturge's patent for, granted, 1853, since much improved. LUCKNOW, Hindustan. This ancient city was the residence of the early govern- ors of Oude, but was abandoned by Dowleh after the battle of Buxar ; reoccupied by the Court, 1774; an iron bridge erected to join the two portions of the city, 1816 ; finished, 1842 ; annexed to the English possessions, Feb. 7, 1856 ; mutiny of the native troops at, May 31, 1857 ; besieged the British residency, July 2 ; relieved by General Havelock, Sept. 25 ; the English army and residents left, Nov. 22 ; captured by Sir Colin Campbell, and flight of 50,000 rebels, March 8 19, 1858 ; a State Durbar held at, by the Viceroy, Nov. 9, 1867. LUDDITES, Outrage of. The weavers at Nottingham, to oppose the introduction of machinery, destroyed several manufactories, Nov., 1811 ; resisted the mili- tary, Jan. 29, 1812 ; many of the leaders were hung, 1813 ; riots of, 1814. LUDGATE, London. Geoffrey of Monmouth states that this gate was built by King Lud, B.C. 66 ; fortified by the barons, 1215 ; repaired, 1260 ; made a prison, I Rich. II., 1378 ; an act of common council passed for its better management, 1382 ; chapel added by Sir Stephen Forster, knight, lord mayor, 1454 ; the gate was rebuilt, 1586 ; taken down and sold for .140, in 1760. LUDLOW CASTLE, Salop, built by Walter de Lucy, circa 1082 ; fortified and enlarged by Henry I., who presented it to Joce de Dinan, 1121 ; defended by Gervase Pagnall against King Stephen, 1138; nearly destroyed by Simon de Montfort, 1262 ; restored by Roger Mortimer, 1326-30 ; stripped and plundered by Henry VI.; Prince Arthur, son of Henry VII., resided here with his bride Catherine of Arragon, 1501 ; this castle was the theme and theatre of Milton's masque of ' Comus, ' which was performed by the children of the Earl of Bridge- water, on Michaelmas night, Oct. II, 1634; the tower contained four stories, and was no feet high, and from 9 to 12 feet thick. LUFFIELD, North Hants. Priory founded by Robert Bossu, Earl of Leicester, 1 124. LUGGERSHALL CASTLE, Wilts, built, 1199. LUKE, GOSPEL OF, written by St Luke, the friend and companion of the Apostle St Paul ; it was written in Greek whilst he was imprisoned at Rome, A.D. 02-63; some writers suppose it to have been written at Philippi, circa A.D. 57. LUKE'S HOSPITAL, ST, established at Windmill Hill, Moorfields, 1751 ; the 554 LULLINGTON CASTLE LUXEMBURG first stone laid of the new building in the City-road by the Duke of Montague, July 30, 1782; completed, 1785; cost .55,000; exempted from parish rates, 1760 ; incorporated, 1838 ; reading-room added, 1843 > organ presented by Sir Charles Knightley, 1848; several improvements effected, 1851. LULLINGTON CASTLE, Kent, built by Odo, Earl of Kent, circa 1068 ; occu- pied by Hugo de Poyntz, 1307, and by Sir John Peche, 1368 ; sold to John Polhill, 1574. LULLWORTH CASTLE, Dorsetshire, built by Howard, Earl of Suffolk, 1590; became the residence of Charles X. of France until he left this country for Ger- many, 1830. LUNACY AND LUNATICS. The king's prerogative in case of lands belonging to, 17 Edw. II. s. I, c. 10, 1324; lunatics punished for high treason, 33 Henry VIII. c. 20, 1541 ; persons untruly found lunatic by inquisition may traverse, 2 & 3 Edw. VI. c. 8, s. 6, 1548 ; limiting the time for such traverse, 6 Geo. IV. c. 53, June 22, 1825 ; the laws for the conveyance of trust and other property amended, 6 Geo. IV. c. 74, June 27, 1825 ; invested in trustees, 13 & 14 Viet. c. 60, Aug. 5, 1850; new provisions for the care and treatment of lunatics, the appointment of commissioners in lunacy, and the licensing of houses for the re- ception of patients, 8 & 9 Viet. c. 126, Aug. 8, 1845 ; first meeting of the com- missioners, Aug. 14, 1845 ; first report, 1847 ; the proceedings under commissions of lunacy regulated, 16 & 17 Viet. c. 7> Aug. 15, 1853 ; explained and amend- ed, 18 & 19 Viet. c. 13, April, 1855 ; amended, Aug. 7, 1863 ; further amend- ed, 28 & 29 Viet. c. 80, June 29, 1865 ; pauper lunatics provided for, and asylums regulated, 16 & 17 Viet. c. 97, Aug. 20, 1853 ; amended, 18 & 19 Viet. c. 105, Aug. 14, 1855 ; 19 & 2O Viet. c. 87, July 29, 1856 ; better provision made for the custody and care of criminal lunatics, 23 & 24 Viet. c. 75, Aug. 6, 1860 ; amended, 30 Viet. c. 12, April 12, 1867. LU NEVILLE, France. The French army took this town and destroyed the fortifications, 1638 ; the Duke of Lorraine built a palace here in the i8th century ; Stanislaus, King of Poland, resided here after the defeat of the Austrians at Hohenlinden by Moreau ; a treaty was concluded between Austria and France, Feb. 9, 1801, fixing the Rhine as the boundary between France and Germany. LURGAN, Ireland, founded by the Brownlow family, 1619, containing 42 houses, all inhabited by English Protestant settlers ; destroyed by fire, 1641 ; in the year 1814 the town contained 379 houses, inhabited by 2207 persons. LUSATIA, Germany, founded, 931 ; annexed to Bohemia, 1370 ; ceded by Ferdi- nand II. to the Electorate of Saxony, 1635 ; ceded by Saxony to Prussia, 1815. LUTHERANS, the followers of Luther ; they are more allied to the Roman Catholics in doctrine than any of the reformed churches ; became a distinct body, 1580. LUTTERBERG, battle. The Prussians, under Ferdinand of Brunswick, defeated by the French, under the Prince of Soubise, Oct. 7, 1758. LUTZEN, battles. The King of Sweden, Gustavus Adolphus, was killed at the battle of Lutzen, Nov. 6, 1632, in the moment of victory; the battle is sometimes called that of Lutzengen ; battle between the French and the combined Russians and Prussians, May 2, 1813, in which both sides claimed the victory, and Gen. Duroc was mortally wounded ; in the battles of Bautzen and Wurtzen which fpllowed, the allies were routed by Napoleon, May 20 and 21. LUXEMBURG AND LIENBURG, Holland. Luxemburg erected into a duchy by Charles IX., 1354; fell to Philip of Burgundy by marriage, 1443 5 taken by the French, 1543 ; by the Spaniards, 1544 ; by the French, 1684 ; and given up to Spain, 1697 ; taken again by the French, 1701 ; ceded to the emperor, 1713 ; LUXEMBOURG PALACE LYCEUM THEATRE 535 taken by the Imperialists, Jan. 18, 1714-1$ ; retaken by the French, June 7, 1795 ; ' ceded to the King of the Netherlands, 1814 ; dismembered, 1831 ; reunited to the Confederation, 1839; constitution decreed, 1815 ; amended, July 9, 1848; the Grand-Duke William III. succeeded, March 17, 1849; Railway opened, 1858; cession of the Duchy to France contemplated, April 2, 1867 ; a meeting at Berlin declared against separation from Germany, April 7 ; a conference convened by the King of Holland, April 29 ; first meeting held in London, May 9 ; treaty signed confirming this state to Holland, May II ; the fortifications destroyed, Nov. 1 8. LUXEMBOURG PALACE, Paris, built from the designs of M. Desbrosses, began, 1615 ; finished by Louis Philippe, 1843 ; made the palace of the Directory, 1795, and of the imperial senate, 1 800 and 1852. LUXOR, Egypt, the temple of, erected by Amunoph III. and Rameses II., B.C. 1350 ; the two almost perfect obelisks form the entrance, one 82 feet high and the other 76 ; this was removed by the French, 1831, and re-erected in the Place de la Concorde, Paris, Oct. 25, 1836. LUXURIES of the olden time. There were few chimneys in capital towns ; the fire was laid to the wall, and the smoke issued at the roof, door, or window. The houses were wattled and plastered over with clay, the furniture and utensils were of wood ; the people slept on straw pallets, with a log of wood for a pillow. Lord Kames says that Henry the Second of France, at the marriage of the Duchess of Savoy, wore the first silk stockings that were made in France. Queen Elizabeth, in the third year of her reign, received a present of a pair of black silk knit stockings, and she never wore cloth hose any more. Before the Conquest there was a timber bridge upon the Thames between London and South- wark, burnt by accident in the reign of Henry the Second. At that time (A.D. 1176), the late old London bridge was projected, though not finished until 1209. In the former part of the reign of Henry the Eighth, there did not grow in Eng- land cabbage, carrot, turnip, or other edible root ; Queen Catherine herself could not command a salad for dinner, until the king brought over a gardener from the Netherlands. About the same time the artichoke, the apricot, and damask rose, made their appearance. Turkeys, carps, and hops, were first known in 1524. The currant shrub was brought from Zante in the year 1533 ; in 1540, cherry- trees from Flanders were first planted in Kent. In 1563, knives were first made in England. Pocket watches were brought from Germany, 1577. About 1580, coaches were introduced, before which Queen Elizabeth rode behind her cham- berlain. A saw-mill was erected near London in the year 1633 ; afterwards de- molished, that it might not deprive the poor of employment. LUXURY, restricted by an English law, wherein the prelates and nobility were con- fined to two courses every meal, and two kinds of food in every course, except on great festivals ; it also prohibited all who did not enjoy a free estate of 100 per annum from wearing furs, skins, or silk ; and the use of foreign cloth was con- fined to the royal family alone, to all others it was prohibited, loEdw. III. s. 3, 1336 ; excess in dress prohibited by Edward IV. and Henry VIII. An edict was issued by Charles VI. of France, which says, 'Let no one presume to treat with more than a soup and two dishes,' 1340. LUZON, Philippine Islands, discovered by Legaspi, 1571, and a Spanish set- tlement formed ; invaded by the Chinese, 1574 ; again by the Japanese, 1581. LYCEUM THEATRE, London. The exhibition-room or Lyceum built, 1765 ; converted into a theatre, 1790; enlarged by Mr Arnold, 1809; the English Opera-house built by Mr S. Beazley, 1816; destroyed by fire, Feb. 16, 1830; rebuilt and opened to the public, July 14, 1834 ; decorated by Madame Vestris, 1847. 536 LYING-IN -HOSPITALS MACARONI LYING-IN-HOSPITALS, first began in Ireland, at Dublin ; the first opened, March, 1745; the modern, 1757; the British, Endell-street, 1749; the City of London, 1750; Queen Charlotte's Lying-in-Hospital, 1752; the Royal Mater- nity, 1757; the Westminster, 1765; the General, 1765; the Charlotte-street and Westminster General, 1778; the Benevolent, Castle-court, Strand, 1780; the Eastern, Great Alie-street, 1782 ; the Maternity, Newman-street, 1787 ; the Endeavour, 1794; the Central, Great Queen-street, 1816 ; the Royal West London, Villiers-street, 1818 ; the United, Warwick-street, 1822 ; an act passed for the better regulation of, 13 Geo. HI. c. 82, 1773, &c. LYME CASTLE, Kent, built before 791. LYME REGIS, Dorset, chartered by Edward I., 1279 ; the Duke of Monmouth landed here, 1685 ; a serious breach made by the great storm, 1825. LYMPHATIC VESSELS, discovered by Asellius, 1622 ; published, 1627. LYNCHBURG, Virginia, founded, 1786; incorporated, 1805. LYNCH LAW is said to have originated with a magistrate named Lynch, of Galway, whose inexorable sense of justice caused himself to execute the sen- tence of the law upon his own son, 1493. LYON KING OF ARMS, Scotland, first appointed in the I2th century ; was present at the coronation of Robert II., 1371 ; the court office and emoluments settled by 30 Viet. c. 17, May 3, 1867. LYONS, France, founded, B.C. 590, or by Plancus, called then Ludunum, 3.0.40; the councils at, in the 1 3th and I4th centuries ; silk manufactures began at, 151$ ; nearly destroyed by a flood, 1711 ; library of 80,000 volumes and 800 MSS.; be- sieged, 1793, by the Convention, and surrendered after a struggle of two months, Oct. 7, when dreadful massacres followed ; the Convention ordered the city to be demolished, Oct. 12 ; surrendered to the Austrians, March 14, and July 15, 1814 and 1815 ; revolt among the mechanics of, and popular excesses, Nov. 21, 1831; great riots at, April 15, 1834 ; inundations at, Nov. 4, 1840 ; visited by the Emperor Louis Napoleon, 1852; inundated, 1856. LYON'S INN, London, made an inn of Chancery, temp. Henry VIII. ; Sir Edward Coke was appointed reader, 1578 ; the hall built, 1700 ; taken down, 1865. LYTHAM, Lancashire, a priory founded by Richard Fitz Roger, circa 1197. LYTHAM LIGHTHOUSE destroyed by a gale, Jan. 22, 1863 M MACADAM, JOHN, London, introduced into England his improved system of road-making, Macadamize, 1815 ; he published an account of his system in A Practical Essay on the Scientific Repair and Presei-vation of Public Roads, 1819, and Remarks on the Present State of Road-making, 1820; appointed general sur- veyor of roads, 1827 ; .10,000 granted to him by government. MACAO, China. A Portuguese settlement, 1537 ; made a free port, 1849 ; ceded to Portugal by the treaty of Tien-tsin, Aug. 13, 1862. MACARONI CLUB founded by men of fashion in London, 1772. MACARONI, the gallants of the I7th century, known by their eccentricities of dress, I 77'7S- Horace Walpole ascribes their origin to the wealth lately gained by certain persons in India : ' Lord Chatham begot the East India Company, the MACASSAR MACKENZIE RIVER 537 East India Company begot Lord Clive, Lord Clive begot the Macaronis, and the Macaronis begot poverty.' MACASSAR, Celebes, visited by the Portuguese, 1525 ; converted from the Ma- hommedan faith, 1606 ; conquered by the Dutch, 1669 ; declared a free port, 1846, to be opened, Jan. I, 1847. MACCABEES, Books of. The first book contains a history of the patriotic struggle, from the first resistance of Mattathias to the settled sovereignty and death of Simon, a period of 33 years, B.C. 168 135. The second book, the history of, be- gins some years earlier than the first book, and closes with the victory of Judas Maccabceus over Nicanor, a period of 20 years, B.C. 180 161. The third book contains the history of events which preceded the great Maccabean struggle, be- ginning with B.C. 217. The fourth book contains a rhetorical narrative of the martyrdom of Eleazer, and of the Maccabean family. MACCLESFIELD, Earl of, his marriage dissolved, April, 1698, when his notori- ous lady married Colonel Brett, and disowned the impostor Richard Savage ; Earl of, fined and committed, May 6, 1725. MACCLESFIELD, Cheshire. This town was formerly occupied by the Romans; made a free borough by Prince Edward, Earl of Chester, 1260. The church of St Michael was founded by Queen Eleanor, 1278 ; rebuilt, 1740 ; a free grammar school founded by Sir John Percival, lord mayor of London, 1502 ; endowed by Edward VI., 1552 ; the school rebuilt, 1768 ; Christ Church built, 1775 ; a sub- scription library established, 1770; the manufacture of silk introduced, 1787; and school of design, 1 85 1 . MACE, a symbol of authority borne before officers of state and the heads of muni- cipalities ; the right to carry one before the lord mayor of London was conceded by charter, 5th of Edward III., June 10, 1354 ; the Speaker's mace in the House of Commons was ordered to be taken away, and the doors locked, by Oliver Cromwell, April 20, 1653 ; melted and sold by order of the Commons, Aug. 9, 1649. MACEDONIA, Greece, existed in the 7th century B.C., but little is known of this kingdom until the reign of King Amyntas, circa 500 ; King Alexander died, B.C. 323 ; King Perseus lost the battle of Cynocephalae, June 22, B.C. 168. The coin of Alexander I. of Macedon is the first known monarchic coin in the world, B.C. 500, type, a Macedonian warrior leading a horse ; he bears two lances and wears a Macedonian hat. Attila conquered the country, A.D. 441-2 ; colonized by the Persians, 840 ; they were driven out by the Bulgarians, 978 ; retaken by Basilius II., 1000 ; conquered and annexed to the Ottoman kingdom, 1430. MACEDONIAN WARS, the first broke out and lasted for three years, from B.C. 208 to B.C. 205 ; the second began, B.C. 200 ; the third, B.C. 171 ; the fourth, B.C. 148. MACHIAVEL and his PRINCIPLES, as laid down in his Prince,' which is rather a satire than a recommendation, being a picture of the practices of most rulers but too faithfully drawn; he was a native of Florence, and his work appeared, 1517 ; he died, June 22, 1527. MACHPELAH, the Cave of, at Hebron, the burial-place of the patriarch Abraham and Sarah his wife, also Isaac and Rebekah, Jacob and Leah. It is considered by Mussulman pilgrims the fourth most sacred place in the world ; first described by Moawiyeh Ishmail, Prince of Aleppo, A.D. 1089 ; visited by H.R. H. Prince of Wales, April 7, 1862 ; he is the first European to whom this privilege has been granted since 1187. MACKENZIE RIVER, North America, discovered and named after Alexander Mackenzie, 1785. 538 MACKEREL MADELEINE MACKEREL permitted, together with milk, to be cried in the streets of London on Sundays, 1698. M'MAHONE, one of the conspirators in the Irish massacre, convicted and executed in London, Nov. 1 6, 1644. MACON, France. The Austrians defeated the French at, March n, 1814; suffered from an inundation which destroyed much valuable property, Nov., 1841. MACON, North America, founded, circa 1818; college founded, 1839. MACTAN, Philippine Island. The celebrated Magellan killed by the inhabitants, Aug. 26, 1521. MADAGASCAR, Indian Ocean, discovered in 1506, and a settlement formed by the Portuguese, 1548 ; they were driven out by the French, who settled here, 1642 ; a colony formed by the English at St Augustine Bay, 1644 ; several French colonists murdered by the natives, 1672 ; the French Governor-general, Count Benyowski, took command of the settlement, 1775 ; killed in an engagement, May 23, 1786 ; King Radama I. ascended the throne, 1810; the French settle- ment taken by the English, Feb. 17, 1811 ; they were defeated, May 19-20 in the same year, and formed a settlement at Port Loquez, 1813 ; a treaty signed between the English and the king abolishing the slave trade, Oct. 18, 1817 ; ratified, 1820 ; missionaries sent out under the auspices of the London Missionary Society, arrived at the capital, 1818, and taught the natives to read and write ; King Radama died, July 27, 1828 ; his Queen Ranavolona ascended the throne, June ii, 1829; Tamatava assaulted by the French in Oct.; repulsed at Foule- point, Oct. 26 ; a treaty signed in Nov. ; the missionaries ordered to leave the Island, 1835 ; an embassy from, received by William IV., March I, 1837 ; they visited Windsor Castle, March 7 ; Tamatava attacked by an allied force of Eng- lish and French, and the town destroyed, June, 1845 ; the native Christians almost exterminated, 1849 ; the island visited by Mr Ellis, July 18, 1853 ; the merchants paid an indemnity to the queen, in order to reopen the trade, in Nov. ; seven Frenchmen killed, and upwards of 100 taken prisoners, Nov. 2, 1855 ; Mr Ellis visited Tamatava, July, 1856 ; the queen died, Aug. 23, 1861 ; Radama II., her son, succeeded to the throne ; treaty of commerce signed with England and France, Sept. 12, 1862 ; the king assassinated by the natives, and his widow pro- claimed queen, May 12, 1863; two ambassadors from, visited England, Feb., 1864; a commercial treaty signed with England, June 27, 1865 ; the first English church erected at Tamatava, 1866; Captain Brown, by desire of the queen, visited the city, 1867. MAD PARLIAMENT, summoned by Henry III. at Oxford, June n, 1258; a committee appointed to arrange matters in dispute between the king and the barons ; they recommended a meeting of parliament three times a year ; Henry III. refused his assent to, Feb., 1261 ; confirmed by a council, Sept. 8, 1263; annulled by a council of barons, who met at Amiens, Jan. 23, 1264. MADEIRA ISLANDS, discovered by an Englishman (Machin), circa 1351 ; colonized by the Portuguese under Prince Henry, 1433 ; Funchal made a city, 1508 ; the seat of a bishop, 1514, and of an archbishop, 1539 ', governed by Spain from 1580 to 1641 ; some English troops garrisoned the island, 1801 ; severely damaged by an inundation, Oct., 1803 ; General Beresford landed with a strong force to protect the island ; restored to Portugal by treaty, 1814 ; Funchal damaged by a severe storm, Oct., 1842 ; and again, Dec., 1855. MADELEINE, Paris, begun, 1764 ; stopped by the revolution of 1789 ; Napoleon I. ordered it to be converted into a temple of glory, 1806 ; finished by Louis Philippe from the design ofM. Huve, 1842. MADONNA OF GUADALOUPE MADRID 539 MADONNA OF GUADALOUPE, order of, founded by Iturbide, Emperor of Mexico, Nov. II, 1853. MADRAS, Hindustan. Permission given to the East India Company to erect a factory at, 1639 ; Fort St George completed, 1641 ; made a separate govern- ment, 1652 ; made a presidency, 1654 ; Bengal joined to, 1658 ; the first English church built, 1680; the Mayor's Court established, 1726; besieged by the French under M. de la Bourdonnais, Sept. 10, 1744; restored by the treaty of Aix-la- Chapelle, Oct. 18, 1748; evacuated by the French forces, Sept., 1749; besieged by the French, under General Lally, Dec. 14, 1758 ; siege raised, Feb. 16, 1759, the French leaving 52 cannon and their wounded ; Hyder Ali captured the town, April 4, 1776, and a treaty of peace signed ; Hyder Ali again threatened the town, Aug. 10, 1776, and again, 1781 ; defeated by Sir Eyre Coote, July I, 1781 ; General Stuart arrested by the Madras government and sent to England, 1 783 ; an act passed for appointing a governor and council for managing the affairs of, 24 Geo. III. c. 25, 1784; Sir Thomas Strange appointed first judge of, Dec. 26, 1800 ; the Military Male Orphan Asylum founded, 1787 ; it was here that the Madras system of instruction was established by Dr Bell, 1789 ; an observatory erected by Michael Tapping, 1 793 ; assizes to be held twice each year, 1 793 ; the forces which afterwards overthrew Tippoo collected here, April 9, 1 799; a fire broke out which destroyed upwards of 1000 houses in, Feb., 1803 ; the Madras army, under General Arthur Wellesley, marched for Poonah, March, 1803 ; the town partially destroyed by a hurricane, Dec. 9, 1807 ; mutiny of the native troops at, 1809 ; arrival of Lord Minto, who published a general amnesty, Sept. 29 ; a serious hurricane by which the ships at anchor were driven into the town, and 70 sunk with part of their crews, May, 181 1 ; a college for the instruction of civilians established, 1812; the Pindarees threatened the town, 1817; St Andrew's Scotch church, designed by Major Fiottde Havilland, the first stone laid, April 6, 1818 ; opened, 1820, cost ,20,000 ; St Andrew's bridge, designed by the same architect, 1817, cost ,8000 ; the lighthouse on the Esplanade completed, and the light first shown, Jan. I, 1841 ; college established, 1833 ; ice houses erected at, 1845 ; the railway opened to Bangalore, July 6, 1864. MADRAS, See of, erected by 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 85, Aug. 28, 1833 ; the Rev. D. Corrie appointed first bishop, Feb. 4, 1835. MADRAS, GOVERNORS OF : Macartney, Lord, 1785 Abercromby, Lieut .-Gen. John, 1813 Davidson, Alexander, 1785 Elliot, Hugh, 1814 Campbell, Sir A., 1786 Munro, Sir Thomas, 1820 Hollond, John, 1789 Lushington, Stephen R., 1827 Medows, Major-General William, 1790 Adam, Sir Frederick, 1832 Oakely, Sir Charles, Bart., Aug. I, Elphinstone, Lord, 1837 1792 Tweedale, Marquis of, 1842 Hobart, Lord, 1794 Pottinger, Sir Henry, Bart., 1848 Harris, Lord, 1798 Thomason, James, 1853 Clive, Lord, 1799 Harris, Lord, 1854 Bentinck, Lord William, 1803 Trevelyan, Sir Charles E., 1859 Petrie, William, ) ~ Denison, Sir W. T., 1860. Barlow, Sir George, \ I8 7 MADRID, Spain, first mentioned, circa 930 ; taken by the Moors, 1069 ; retaken by Alonso VI., 1083 ; Enrique IV. made some additions to the old town, 1461 ; the town was surrounded with forests down to 1590 ; the university of Alcala founded by Cardinal Ximenes, 1508 ; transferred here, 1836 ; Charles V. resided here, 1532 ; made the residence of the court by Philip II., 1560 ; Philip III. en- deavoured to remove the court, but failed, 1601; taken possession of by Charles 540 MADURA MAGENTA III., June 24, 1706 ; abandoned and retaken by Philip, Dec. 2, 1710 ; the Royal Academy founded, 1713; the Palace Real destroyed by lire, 1734; the present one began, 1738, and finished, 1764; the bull-ring, Plazade Toros, built, 1749; Custom-house built, 1769; the gate Puerto, de Alcala built, 1778 ; taken by the French, under Prince Murat, March 28, 1808 ; a fearful conflict between the citizens and the French, May 2, 1808 ; Joseph Bonaparte entered Madrid as king, July 20 ; he soon afterwards quitted the city, which was held by the French until Aug. 12, 1812 ; Madrid entered by the British army, Sept., 1812 ; pillaged by the French, 1813; evacuated by them, June 27, 1813 ; 'Ferdinand the Be- loved ' restored by Wellington, May 14, 1814; the church of San Ildefonso rebuilt, 1827 ; a military revolt in, 100 killed and 1700 taken prisoners, June 22, 1866. MADURA, Hindustan, founded, B.C. 500. Little is known of the ' Athens of South India' until 1532; Nagama Nayak founded a new dynasty, 1552; the choultry or mandapam began, 1623, and finished in 22 years, at a cost of a million of pounds ; Captain Calliaud repulsed in attempting to take the city by storm, July Io > J 757 > obtained possession of it, Aug. 8 ; plundered by Hyder Ali, 1769. MAESTRICHT, Holland, taken by the Prince of Parma after a siege of four months, having revolted from Spain, 1579; taken by the Prince of Orange, 1648; by the French, under Louis XIV., 1673 ; the Town-hall built, 1652 ; besieged by the Prince of Orange unsuccessfully, 1676 ; restored to the Dutch, 1678 ; be- sieged by the French, 1 748 ; besieged by the French, Feb. 1 7, 1 793 ; siege raised, March 3 ; taken by the Revolutionary army, Oct. 2, 1794 ; ceded to them by Holland, Dec. 25 ; surrendered by the treaty of Paris, May 30, 1814 ; success- fully resisted the Germans, Sept., 1830 ; ceded to Holland by treaty, 1831. MAGDALEN COLLEGE, Cambridge, founded and called Buckingham College, 1483 ; its name changed by Baron Audley, of Walden, to St Mary Magdalen, 1 544 ; the Pepysian Library left to this college by Samuel Pepys, 1 702. MAGDALEN COLLEGE, Oxford, founded by William Waynflete, Bishop of Winchester and Lord Chancellor, May 6, 1448 ; charter of foundation sealed, July 18, 1458 ; the foundation-stone laid, May 5, 1474 ; the fellows expelled for electing Dr John Hough instead of the nominee of James II. , Anthony Farmer, Dec., 1687. MAGDALEN HALL, Oxford, founded by Bishop Waynflete, 1487 ; removed to Hertford College, 1820; Magdalen College school founded, 1456; rebuilt, 1851. MAGDALEN HOSPITAL, Goodman's Fields, for the relief of penitents, founded by Robert Dingley and Jonas Hanway for fallen women ; opened, Aug. 10, 1758; incorporated, 1769 ; removed to St George's Fields, I77 2 - This charity took its name from the nunneries called the Magdalens, on the Continent, which were in- habited by penitent courtesans ; one at Naples was established, 1424 ; another at Mentz, 1452 ; at Paris, 1492 ; an institution of the same kind at Rome, by Leo x., 1515- MAGDEBURG, Prussia. This town was taken by the Austrians, under Tilly, and burned to the ground, only 150 houses left standing, May 10, 1631 ; the cathe- dral, which was built circa 1300, was saved ; invested by the French, Oct. 19, 1806 ; surrendered to Marshal Ney, Nov. 8 ; ceded to the French by the treaty of Tilsit, July 7 9, 1807 ; restored by the treaty of Paris, May 30, 1814. MAGELLAN, Strait of, discovered, 1519, by Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese navigator, who died, 1521. MAGENTA, battle. The Austrians defeated by the French, under Napoleon HI., and the Sardinians, under Victor Emmanuel, June 4, 1859 ; the former lost 15,000 MAGENTA DYE MAHARAGPORE 541 MAGENTA DYE, from coal tar, discovered in the early part of 1860, in France. MAGI, ' Wise Men ' who were guided by a star from the East to Jerusalem, where they suddenly appeared in the days of Herod the Great, inquiring for the new- born King of the Jews, St Matthew ii. I 12, A.D. I ; according to tradition the three Magi are represented as three kings, named Caspar, Melchior, and Belthazar ; their bodies are supposed to have been discovered in the East, and brought to Cologne and buried in the cathedral, 1162 ; they became a favourite London sign. MAGIC LANTERN, invented by Roger Bacon, circa 1261, but not generally known until M. Kircher brought it to the notice of the scientific, circa 1669-70; the argand lamp introduced in the use of, 1789. M AGNA CHART A, the body of laws and charter of English liberty, extorted from King John by the barons, and signed at Runnymede, June 15, 1215, a charter continually violated in subsequent reigns. Several copies of this charter remain : perhaps the most perfect is in Lincoln cathedral ; the clause protecting the per- sonal liberty and property of all freemen runs thus ' No freeman shall be taken or imprisoned, or be disseized of his freehold, or liberties, or free customs, or be outlawed, or exiled, or any othenvise destroyed ; nor will we pass upon him, nor send upon him, but by lawful judgment of his peers, or by the law of the land. We will sell to no man, we will not deny or delay to any man, justice or right.' The King, while seeming to submit passively to the regulations, despatched a messenger to Rome to the Pope, who annulled the charter, Sept. 15, and excommunicated the barons ; the charter confirmed by Henry III., 1256 ; no fewer than 38 solemn ratifications of it are recorded by different sovereigns. MAGNANIME, French ship of war, taken by Admiral Hawke, Feb. 24, 1748. MAGNANO, battle of, between the French and Austrians, when the former were defeated, April 5, 1799. MAGNESIA, a white earth prepared from the purging mineral waters and their salts, and from the residuum of sea water after the salt has been crystallized ; with vitriolic acid it forms Epsom salts : Dr Black explained its properties fully, 1755. MAGNESIUM. First discovered by Sir Humphrey Davy, 1808. MAGNETIC POWER, known to the Chinese before iioo ; the magnet said to be known to Roger Bacon, 1294 ; the compass used by the Chinese, 1 150 ; improved by Gioja of Naples, 1302 ; the dip discovered by Robert Norman of London, 1576 ; Julius Caesar, a surgeon of Rimini, first observed the conversion of iron into a magnet, 1590 ; artificial magnets improved, 1751 ; the magnetism of the earth described by Hansteen, 1818 ; the gold medal of the Society of Arts awarded to Mr J. H. Abraham for his invention, 1821 ; rotation magnetism discovered by Arago, 1825 ; electro-magnets of horse-shoe form discovered by Mr Sturgeon, 1825 ; magnetism produced by friction, and described by Professor Haldat, 1830-1 ; the compass improved by Sir W. Snow Harris, 1831 ; electricity produced by the use of a magnet by Professor Faraday, who described the laws of diamagnetism, 1846 ; he subsequently made several other discoveries in this science. MAGNIFYING GLASSES, convex, invented by Roger Bacon, 1252. MAGNOLIA GLAUCA brought to England from North America, 1688 ; the dwarf 'pumila' came from China, 1789 ; the brown stalked, 1789 ; the purple, 1790; and the slender, 1804; the grandiflora from North America, 1731 ; this, the large magnolia, the Laurier tulipieroi the French, is first seen in North Caro- lina, near the river Nuse, in the latitude of 35 deg. 31 min. ; and proceeding from this point is found in the maritime parts of the Southern States as far up the Mississippi as Natches above New Orleans. MAHARAGPORE, battle. General Gough defeated the Mahratta army and took 56 pieces of artillery, Dec. 29, 1843. 542 MAKE MAINE MAKE, Hindustan, occupied by the French, 1722, but was retaken by the English, 1761 ; restored to the French by the treaty of Paris, Feb. 10, 1763, but was again captured, 1793 ; again restored to the French, 1815. MAHOGANY, introduced into England, 1595 ; first used in cabinet work by Mr Wollaston of London, 1720. MAHOMET, the prophet, born at Mecca, A.D. 569 ; the founder of Mahometan- ism ; see Koran. He was attacked by the Koreish, and defeated them, at Beder, 623 ; he in turn was defeated and wounded at Mount Ohud ; shortly after they be- sieged Medina, 625, but failed to take it ; he died, 632. MAIDA, battle, between the French, under General Regnier, and the English, under Sir John Stuart ; the French were defeated with a loss of 3000 men, July 6, 1806. MAIDEN, an instrument of decapitation, used at Halifax, March 20, 1541, and transplanted into Scotland by the Regent Morton, who suffered by it himself, 1581 ; the last execution took place, 1650. MAIDS OF HONOUR, in the establishment of Edward I. There are eight at- tached to the present court, each with an allowance of .400 a year. MAIDSTONE, Kent. The college of All Saints founded, 1260 ; rebuilt, 1390 ; sup- pressed, 1538 ; possessed by the Archbishop of Canterbury, whose palace was erected by Ufford, 1348 ; hospital for pilgrims erected, 1244 ; the town incor- porated by Edward VI., 1549 ; taken by the Parliamentary forces under Col. Fairfax, 1648; the blue-coat school established, 1711 ; George II. confirmed its municipal privileges, 1748; suffered from fire, 1756; the town-hall built, 1764; the county ball-rooms, 1819 ; the theatre, 1824 ; the church of the Holy Trinity consecrated, 1838 ; St Paul's church restored, and opened, 1859 ; St John's, 1860. MAIL-COACHES, invented by Mr Palmer of Bath ; submitted his scheme for the use of mail-coaches to carry the mails, to Mr Pitt, 1783 ; ordered to be tried, July 24, 1784 ; the first left London for Bath at 8 o'clock, Aug. 8 ; one from Bristol to London, this left Bristol at four in the afternoon, Aug. 8, 1784 ; they speedily ran to all parts of the kingdom; freed from toll, 1785 ; a direct mail-coach estab- lished between London and Glasgow, 1788 ; introduced in Ireland on the Cork and Belfast roads by Mr Anderson, 1790; in 1836, there were 50 four-horse mails in England, 30 in Ireland, and 10 in Scotland ; there were also 49 two- horse mails ; Mr Vidler built these coaches for many years, but in 1835 the contract was open to competition ; on the birthday of the Sovereign the mail- coaches went in procession from Lombard-street to Millbank. MAILS. The earliest date at which any postal service is known to have existed is that planned by the Emperor Charlemagne, 807 ; Edward IV. established a regular riding post, 1481 ; Henry VIII. instituted the office of 'Master' of the Posts, 1530 ; the French posts regulated by Queen Elizabeth in council, 1558 ; special or extraordinary posts established upon the unwelcome news received from France, 1797. See Postage and Post-office. MAIMING and Wounding made felony, 5 Hen. IV. c. 5, 1403 ; ordered to be punished by death, 22 & 23 Car. II. c. I, 1670 ; altered to transportation, 7 Will. IV. & I Viet. c. 85, s. I, July 17, 1837 ; penal servitude substituted, 24 & 25 Viet. c. 100, s. 1 8, Aug. 6, 1861. MAINE, North America, discovered, 1497 j first settlement formed at Phipps- burg, 1607 ; granted to Sir F. Gorges by charter, 1639 ; united to Massachusetts, 1652 ; purchased from the Gorges family, 1676 ; granted to England by the treaty of Utrecht, 1712; Portland bombarded by the English, 1775 ; made a distinct MAINE LIQUOR LAW MALAKHOFF 543 State, 1820 ; the boundaries with Canada settled by the Ashburton treaty, Aug. 9, 1842 ; the State reform school opened, 1853. MAINE LIQUOR LAW. This law passed to arrest and imprison drunkards, June 2, 1851. MAINE ET LOIRE, France, added to the English conquest by Henry II. of Eng- land in the I2th century ; united to France by Louis XL, 1481. MAIN, Plot. The conspiracy conducted by Sir Walter Raleigh and Lord Cobham to place Arabella Stuart, cousin of James I., upon the throne, 1603, discovered in July ; the principal conspirators tried for high treason, and sentenced to death, afterwards reprieved ; Raleigh imprisoned in the Tower; released, 1616. MAI SON DIEU HOSPITAL, Dover, built, 1229 ; belonged to John de Langton, 1308 ; Edward II. lodged here, 1326. MAITLAND CLUB, named after Sir Richard Maitland the Scottish Antiquary; formed, March 31, 1828; first work published in 1829. MAJOLICA or RAFFAELLE WARE, made at Majorca in I2th century ; the city taken by the Italians, 1115, who thus became acquainted with this art ; used as church decorations by Luca della Robbia, 1438-1446 ; Urbino was the principal seat of this manufacture, 1540-1560. MAJORCA, Mediterranean. These Balearic islands were subjected by the Romans, B.C. 123 ; taken by the Vandals, A.D. 423 ; by the Moors, 798 ; made a separate Moorish kingdom, 1009; the Moors expelled by Spain, 1232, but returned and were again expelled, 1349 ; a university founded, 1483 ; the peasants rose against the nobility and massacred many, 1512 ; reduced by the French under Villars, 1707; subjugated, June, 1715. MALABAR, Hindustan, conquered by Hyder Ali, 1763 ; evacuated the country, 1768 ; recovered possession, 1783, and made a settlement ; the country con- quered by the English under General Abercromby, 1790 ; added to the English possessions, 1792. MALACCA, West of the Malay Peninsula, founded by the Malays, 1252 ; the Portuguese visited the island for trading purposes, when a quarrel broke out and some of them were killed, 1 508 ; war declared by Portugal ; the town stormed and taken by Alfonzo Albuquerque, 1511 ; the Dutch destroyed the fleet in the roads, 1605 ; the town taken after a severe struggle, 1640 ; added to the British possessions, 1795 ; restored to the Dutch, March 27, 1802 ; retaken by the English soon afterwards, but restored, 1818 ; exchanged with the King of the Netherlands for Sumatra, March 17, 1824; gold mines discovered, 1731. MALAGA, Spain, taken from the Moors by Ferdinand of Spain, Aug. 18, 1487 ; the mole built to protect the shipping, 1588 ; the cathedral commenced by Diego de Siloe, architect, 1526 ; completed by Joze Bada, 1782 ; the bishop's palace erected, 1772 ; the custom-house built upon the site of the ancient Moorish fortress Alcazaba, begun 1791, but not finished till 1829; taken, and the city sacked by the French under Sebastiani, Feb. 5, 1810. MALAGA, naval battle. The allied Dutch and English fleet, commanded by Sir George Rooke, 53 vessels in all, defeated the French fleet, consisting of 58 vessels of war, off this town, Aug. 13, 1704. MALAKHOFF, Crimea, the site of a wine-shed in the occupation of a sailor of that name, 1832 ; fortified by the Russians, Dec., 1854 ; attacked unsuccessfully by the French, June 18, 1855 ; stonned and taken by the French and Sardinians, Sept. 8, after a brave resistance. 544 MALAVELLY , MALT MALAVELLY, battle. The British, under Wellington, defeated Tippoo's army, 55,000 strong, taking 2000 prisoners, March 27, 1799. MALDON, Essex. The town taken, and the palace of the Roman governor burned by the Britons, led by Queen Boadicea ; rebuilt by the Romans ; burned by the Danes, 913 ; the church of All Saints built by Ingelric, 1056 ; rebuilt by Charles II.; incorporated by Henry II., 1155 > confirmed by Mary, 1553; free grammar-school built, 1608 ; forfeited, 4 Geo. III.; the town remained 46 years without a charter ; restored, 1810; public library built, 1860. MALCOLM, SARAH, executed in Fleet-street, for murder, March 7, 1738. MALEGNANO, battles. The allied German and Swiss army, commanded by Maximilian I., defeated by the French under Francis I. and the Cavalier Bayard, Sept. 13-14, 1515 ; Francis afterwards defeated and taken prisoner-, he lost 9000 men, Feb. 23, 1525 ; the Austrians defeated by the allied French and Sardinian army, June 8, 1859. MALESHERBES, C. W., counsel for Louis XVI., guillotined, 1794, age 73. MALESTROIT, Treaty of, signed between Edward III. of England and Philip VI. of France, suspending hostib'ties in Flanders, Jan. 19, 1343. MALGHERA, Venice. This fort constructed by the French, 1807 ; besieged by the Austrians, April 30, 1849 ; taken, May 26. MALINES, Belgium. The Normans destroyed this town, 883 ; rebuilt, 890 ; ceded by France to the Bishop of Liege ; taken by the Spaniards and pillaged, 1572 ; taken by the Prince of Orange, 1578 ; captured by the English, commanded by the Duke of Marlboro ugh, 1706 ; taken by the French, 1746 ; restored, Oct., 1748 ; retaken by the French, 1792 ; and its fortifications destroyed, 1804. MALLING NUNNERY, Kent, built by Gundulph, Bishop of Rochester, 1090. MALMESBURY, Wiltshire. Monastery founded by Marldulph, circa 673 ; burnt by the Danes. The castle built by Henry I., 1 134 ; taken by the Parliamentarians under Waller, 1643; incorporated by Charles I.; confirmed by William III., 1696. Museum formed at, by Sir R. C. Hoare, 1823. MALO, ST, naval battle. The Norman fleet defeated by the English, April, 1293. MALOES, ST, France, bombarded by the English, Sept. 19, 1693 ; again, 1695 ; attacked again, June 8, 1758- MALPAS CASTLE, Cheshire, built and fortified by Hugh de Abrincis, surnamed Lupus, William the Conqueror's nephew, second Earl of Chester, 1080. MALPLAQUET, battle, between the allies under the Duke of Marlborough and Prince Eugene, and the French under Marshal Villars ; the hostile armies num- bered on each side nearly 120,000 men ; the French were defeated, but the loss was great, the allies losing 20,000 men, Sept. II, 179- MALT. Malt Liquor is said to have been made in Britain in the reign of Cerains, B.C. 330. Strabo, quoting Pytheas, says, 'that the Britains have wheat and honey of which they make a beverage ;' and Dioscorides (De Medica Materia, lib. ii. c. no) says, 'and that drink which is called Curmi, prepared from barley, which is frequently made use of as a beverage instead of wines.' Tax first established by Charles I.; granted to the king by 13 & 14 Will. III. c. 5, 1701 ; confirmed and extended to Scotland by 12 Anne, s. I, c. 2, 1713 ; to Ireland, 1783; riots in Scotland against, 1723 ; regulated by statute of 3 Geo. IV. c. 18, April 3, 1822 ; amended by n Geo. IV. and I Will. IV. c. 17, May 29, 1830; and again by 7 Will. IV. and I Viet. c. 49, July 12, 1837 ; the duty on, raised from los. id. to 34-r. %d. , 1806 ; reduced to i6j., 1816 ; bill to repeal brought into parliament, but not carried, 1821 ; motion to repeal by the Marquis of Chandos defeated, March, 1835 ; for the use of animals to be made free of duty, 27 & 28 Viet. c. MALTA MANCHESTER 545 9, April 28, 1864 ; the excise upon, to be charged according to weight, 28 &29 Viet. c. 66, June 29, 1865 ; a select committee appointed to inquire into the operation of the malt tax, May 19, 1867 ; report presented, July 25. MALTA, Mediterranean. In the first Punic war the Romans captured this island and laid it waste, B.C. 257 ; St Paul suffered shipwreck on this island, Acts xxvii. 39 44, A.D. 62 ; captured by the Vandals in the 5th century ; recovered by the Romans, commanded by Belisarius, 533 ; taken by the Arabs, 870 ; recovered by Count Roger the Norman, 1090, who held the island to 1189 ; it then passed to the German emperors till 1258, and to France till 1282; Charles V., king of Arragon, gave the island to the knights of Malta, 1525. The Turks besieged it with a fleet of 159 vessels and 30,000 troops : the attack began May 24, 1565 ; the Turks retired at the end of August, having lost 25,000 men ; the city of La Valetta built by them, 1566 1571 ; the Turks made a second attempt to take the island, but were defeated, 1601 ; taken possession of by Bonaparte, July 12, 1798 ; General Vaubois with a garrison of 3000 men were left in command at Valetta ; the British army defeated the French, and Malta surrendered to the former, Sept. 5, 1800 ; restored to the knights of St John, and its independence guaranteed by the treaty of Amiens, March 27, 1802 ; disputes with France upon, 1803; ceded to Great Britain by treaty, May 30, 1814; the first dock commenced, 1844 ; the second built, 1854; and a new dock commenced, 1865 ; the practice of presenting arms at the passing of the host in procession, discon- tinued, March 28, 1859. MALVERN, Worcestershire. The priory founded by Henry I., 1083 ; Powyke church built, 1314; the chase granted to Richard Heath, May, 1630; dis- afforested, May 12, 1631. Celebrated for its waters; the Holy Well discovered, 1610. MAMELON, Crimea. This fortification constructed by the Russians in the face of the allies, Feb. 23, 1855 ; stormed by the French unsuccessfully at midnight of the 23rd ; captured by the French, June 8, 1855. MAMELUKES, or Mamlouks, Circassian and Turkish slaves, established by Malek Salah as his body-guard, 1230 ; they deposed and massacred Turan Shah, May I, 1250, and afterwards selected one of their number to rule the country; Ezz-ed-din Moaz Ibegh, 1254, was the first sovereign ; they became subject to the Turks, 1517, when they were taken into Turkish pay and iccruited from all lands, with other men-at-arms ; on the French invasion of Egypt they retreated into Nubia, most of the cavalry being destroyed at the battle of the Pyramids, July, 1798 ; they were routed by Bonaparte, and kept afterwards in the desert until the French evacuated Egypt ; they then returned, endeavouring to reinstate themselves in the government, but were treacherously decoyed into the castle at Cairo, by Mehemet Ali, on the specious pretext of an entertainment, and put to death in cold blood, March I, 1811 ; a numerous body of, who had followed Napoleon from Egypt, murdered at Marseilles, June 25 and 26, 1815. MAN, Isle of. See Isle of Man. MANASSAS, battles. The Federal army defeated by the Confederates at Bull's Run, Tennessee ; the defeat became a route and they abandoned most of their arms, July 21, 1861 ; again defeated, Aug. 28, 29, 1862. MANCHESTER, Lancashire, mentioned early in history as Mancunium, and said to have been occupied by Agricola, A. D. 79 ', taken by the Saxons, 488 ; subdued by Ella, 620 ; St Mary's church built, 627 ; occupied by the Danes, 870 ; Edward the Elder rebuilt the town and erected a castle, 920 ; erected into a k manor, 1070 ; annual fair granted by Henry III., 1215 ; Salford made a free borough, 1215 ; land at, let for 3J. 6d. per acre, 1290; made a free borough, 1301 ; Flanders manufactures introduced at, by Edward III., 1330, and the first 35 546 MANCHESTER fulling-mill erected ; visited by the plague, 1352 ; the college of the Blessed Virgin established, and rectory appointed, May 12, 1422 ; sweating sickness at, 1490; grammar-school founded by Hugh Oldham, Bishop of Exeter, 1515 ; col- lege of the Virgin restored by Queen Mary, 1555 ; made a place of sanctuary, 1540; college dissolved by parliament, 1546; Manchester cottons, rugs, and friezes mentioned for the first time, 1552 ; John Bradford martyred at, 1555 ; Ellys, calling himself a prophet, appeared, 1562 ; the clergy of the Reformed Church beaten by the people, and one stabbed, 1674 ; college charter renewed under Queen Elizabeth, as Christ's College, 1575 ; the manor of Manchester sold to one John Lacey for ^3000, May 15, 1579 ; Sir J. Smithwick imprisoned for being a Roman Catholic, and Campion, accused of being a Jesuit, executed, 1581 ; manor sold to Sir N. Mosley for ,3500, March 23, 1596 ; charter of Manchester enrolled, Sept. 16, 1623 ; Trinity Chapel founded, 1634 ; Charles I. granted a new charter to the college, Sept. 30, 1635 ; Edward Barber, of Man- chester, executed at Lancaster for being a Romish priest, April jo, 1641 ; Charles I. issued his commission of array, 1642 ; Lord Strange besieged the town for the king, July 4, and was repulsed ; again besieged, Sept. 25, by Strange and Derby, who were repulsed; made the head-quarters of General Fair- fax, 1643; visited with pestilence, 1644; George Fox the Quaker began his ministry at, 1647 ; Chetham's hospital and library founded, 1651 ; Charles II. as King of the Scots passed through the town, 1651; dismantled of its fortifications, 1652 ; the first representative of the town returned to parliament, 1654 ; Chet- ham hospital founded by Sir Humphrey Chetham, 1668; a special assize to try the adherents of James II. in the Lancaster plot, 1694 ; Syddall the barber renewed the rebellion, 1715 > Henry with his adherents, Sept. II, 1716; the post to London with letters there three times a week, eight days being re- quired for an interchange, 1721 ; the Old Exchange built, 1729 ; John Wyatt, of Birmingham, commenced spinning with rollers, 1733 ; the first newspaper published at, 1737; Wyatt's machine improved, 1741; the Pretender entered Manchester, Nov. 28 and 29, 1745 ; Deacon and Syddall executed for high treason, and their heads stuck on the Exchange, 1746 ; the Royal Infirmary built, 1752 ; Queen's Theatre first built, 1753 ; the Infirmary established, 1752 ; buildings erected, 1755; cotton goods first exported, 1760; Manchester navi- gation opened, 1761 ; Lunatic Asylum founded, 1765 ; Agricultural Society in- stituted, 1767; Christian, king of Denmark, visited Manchester, 1768; Cromp- ton invented the mule jenny, 1779; gave it to the public, Nov. 20, 1780; the Queen's Theatre rebuilt, 1775; subscription concerts established, 1777; the manufacture of muslin first attempted, 1 780 ; the Literary and Philosophical So- ciety established, 1781; New Bailey Bridge completed, 1785; Sir Richard Ark- wright's patent annulled by the King's Bench, his invention thrown open, 1785 ; Cartwright's power-loom patented, 1787 ; Queen's Theatre burnt down, 1789, and re-erected, 1790 ; New Bailey built, 1790 ; Assembly-rooms, Mosley-street, built, 1792; Sir Robert Peel and Yates subscribed ^10,000 for the defence of the country, 1798; Philological Society instituted, 1803; the Archdukes John and Lewis of Austria visit Manchester, 1805 ; fever hospital erected, 1805 ; Theatre Royal erected, 1806 ; Exchange and commercial buildings erected, and opened, Jan., 1809 ; the Manchester and Salford water-works established since 1809 ; the Grand-Duke Nicholas, since Emperor of Russia, visited the town, 1817 ; Lock Hospital established, 1819. At the Manchester reform meeting several troops of the Cheshire Yeomanry and the Manchester Volunteer Light- Horse were let loose upon a crowd of 60,000 persons ; eleven of them were killed and 400 wounded : this is known as the 'Manchester Massacre,' or Peterloo, Aug. 16, 1819. New Brunswick bridge built, 1820; Chamber of Commerce established, 1820; Law Library founded, 1820; Natural History Society projected, 1821 ; New Quay company founded, 1822 ; the church of Prestwich built from the designs of MANCHESTER MANCHESTER HOUSE 547 Charles Barry ; first stone laid by Lord Wilton, Aug. 3, 1822 ; Campfield church built from the design of Charles Barry ; first stone laid by the Bishop of Chester, Aug. 12, 1822 ; deaf and dumb school instituted, 1823 ; Royal Institution form- ed, 1823 ; the Floral and Horticultural Society established, 1823 ; Mechanics' Institution founded, 1824 ; distress of the operatives, 1826 ; musical festival first held, 1828 ; at the launch of a vessel, which heeled and upset, upwards of 200 persons then on deck were precipitated into the river, 51 perished, Feb. 29, 1828; a factory was burnt, and an immense quantity of machinery destroyed in a riot, May 3, 1829 ; new concert-room established, 1829 ; great fire at, Oct. 12, 1829 ; glee club instituted, 1830; Messrs Sharp and Co. 's self-acting mule invented, 1830; the races established, 1830; Manchester and Liverpool railway opened, Sept 15, 1830 ; Manchester constituted the second time a parliamentary borough, June 7, 1832 ; Choral Society established, 1833 ; the Statistical Society, the first formed in England, Sept. 2, 1833 ; act for the Manchester and Leeds railway passed, 1836 ; Geological Society instituted, 1838 ; the Anti-Corn Law League formed, Sept. 1 8, 1838 ; charter of incorporation, Oct. 23, 1838; great reform meeting held at Kensal Moor, July, 1839 ; Manchester Police Act, Aug. 26, 1839 ; great disorders in the midland counties among the artisan classes extend to this town, Aug., 1842 ; Free-Trade Hall built, and opened, Jan., 1843 > great free-trade meet- ings held here, Nov. 14, 1843 5 the Royal Theatre burnt down, May 7, 1844 ; great meeting held at the Athenaeum, Oct. 3, 1844; the Royal Theatre rebuilt, and opened, Sept. 29, 1849 ; great anti-corn law meeting, at which ^61,984 were subscribed in four hours, Dec. 23, 1845 ; the Queen's Park, Peel Park, and Philips' Park opened, Aug. 22, 1846 ; bank failures at, 1847. Manchester made a free city, Sept. i, 1847 ; Chartists' riots at, April, 1848 ; a meeting held in the Free-Trade Hall to welcome L. Kossuth, Nov. II, 1851 ; a free library opened, Sept. 2, 1852 ; Peace Society meeting at, Feb., 1853 ; a charter granted con- stituting the town a city, April x, 1853 ; the New Free-Trade Hall built from the designs of Edward Wallers, and opened, Oct. 8, 1856 ; opening of the Art Treasures Exhibition by Prince Albert, May 5, 1857 ; visited by the Queen, June 30, 1857 ; the church of St John's erected upon a site given by the Earl of Derby, and consecrated, Feb. 18, 1866 ; robbery of 7000 worth of postage stamps from the post office in Cross-street, May 27, 1866 ; the commissioners for in- quiring into trades' outrages held their first meeting, Sept. 4, 1867. A daring attack made upon the police van by 40 armed Fenians ; the two leaders, Kelly and Deasy, rescued ; constable Charles Brett shot, Sept. 18 ; several persons taken for the murder of, and examined before the magistrates ; 23 committed for trial, Oct. 25 ; a special commission opened for the trial of, Oct. 29 ; W. O'Meara Allen, M. Larkin, W. Gould, T. Maguire, and E. Shore tried for the murder, found guilty, and sentenced to be executed, Nov. I ; six of the accused persons acquitted, Nov. 6, and three convicted on the 8th ; Allen, Larkin, and Gould executed, Nov. 23 ; demonstration in honour of these men held, Dec. I. MANCHESTER, the See of, made a bishopric by 10 & II Viet. c. 108, July 23, 1847 ; Dr Lee first bishop, Jan. n, 1848. MANCHESTER, North America. This town founded, circa 1838 ; first charter granted, 1846. MANCHESTER COLLEGE. Thomas de la Warre built and endowed a colle- giate church and college, 1419 ; the college regulated by the 3 & 4 Viet. c. 113, Aug. 1 1, 1840 ; the parish divided and the revenues of the cathedral fixed by the 13 & 14 Viet c. 41, July 22, 1850. MANCHESTER HOUSE, Manchester Square, built for the Duke of Manchester, begun, 1776 ; completed, 1788 ; it has since been the residence of the Spanish and French embassies. 543 MANCHESTER SOCIETIES MANSOURAH MANCHESTER, LITERARY SOCIETIES established at: Literary and Philo- sophical, 1781 ; Geological, 1838; and the Natural History Society, 1821 ; Chet- ham Society instituted in, March, 1843. MANFREDONIA, Naples. t The modern town founded by King Manfred i, 1266. MANGALORE, Hindustan. The Portuguese burnt the town and desolated the country by fire and sword, 1547 ; rebuilt, 1555 ; occupied by them, 1567 ; taken by the Rajah of Bednore, circa 1655 ; captured by Hyder Ali, 1763 ; taken by the British, 1768 ; retaken by Ali the same year ; besieged and captured by the British army, Feb., 1783; invested by Tippoo Saib, May 23, with 60,000 horse and 30,000 infantry; repulsed in an assault, July 4 ; capitulated, Jan. 23, 1784 ; restored the same year, and the fortifications destroyed ; occupied by the Eng- lish, 1799. MANICHEANS, a Persian sect, which held that there were two deities, one good and the other evil ; this religious imposture arose under the leadership of Manes, and spread over the principal countries of the East ; subsequent persecution in- creased his followers ; the immediate cause of his execution was, his pretending to cure one of the royal family by prayers and laying on of hands, dismissing the physicians, when the patient died under his exorcisms ; this sect branched from that of the Gnostics. The prophet was executed by Sapor, king of Persia, A.D. 277. MANILLA, Philippine Islands. First settlement made by the Spaniards, 1571; subject to earthquakes, one of which levelled a mountain, 1617 ; in 1635, a large part of the city of Manilla was levelled by one, and 3000 persons perished; and others doing much damage, 1645, 1762, 1824, and 1852 ; taken by the English, r 757 5 again by storm, Oct. 6, 1761, when it was ransomed for ^1,000,000, but the larger portion of the money was not paid, 1764 ; dreadful fire at, Oct., 1799. Free trade allowed to the English, 1809 ; to all foreigners, 1814 ; almost entirely destroyed by an earthquake, which lasted from Sept. 16 to Dec. 16, 1852. MANILLA, British frigate, wrecked on the Dutch coast, Jan. 30, 1812. MANNHEIM, Baden. Frederick IV. raised this village into a city and fortified it, 1606 ; taken by the French, 1688 ; restored and made the reigning seat of the Elector, Karl Philip, 1720 ; the court removed to Munich, 1777 > bombarded by the French, 1794 ; the Austrians destroyed half the town ; surrendered to Gen. Pichegru, Sept. 2O, 1795; taken by Bernadotte with an army of 10,000, March, 1799 ; granted to Baden by the treaty of Luneville, Feb. 9, 1801. MANORBEER CASTLE, Pembrokeshire, built, 1088. MANSION HOUSE, London, projected, June, 1735 ; designed by George Dance, 1736 ; begun, March 4, 1737 ; first stone laid by Micajah Perry, Oct. 25, 1739, on the site of Stock's Market; completed, 1752 ; Sir Crisp Gascoigne was the first lord mayor who resided in it, 1753 ; cost ,42,638 iSs. %d.; ordered that ^"4000 be laid out in furniture for it, July 21, 1752 ; finished, 1755 ; fines of per- sons refusing to serve the office of sheriff devoted to the erection of; the interior entirely redecorated, 1 868. MANS, LE, France, formerly a Roman town (Suindinutn). Hen. II. of England born here, 1133 ; the Cathedral of St Julien founded in the nth century; Beren- garia, the consort of Richard I., buried in the I2th century ; the Vendean army at- tacked by the Republican forces under Marceau ; the Royalists were defeated, and upwards of 10,000 soldiers and citizens were destroyed by the victors, Dec. 12 and I3 1793- MANSOURAH, battle. The Crusaders, commanded by the Count of Artois and the Earl of Salisbury, with the Knights Templars, defeated the Saracens, but upon MAXTES MARCHES 549 entering the town the latter rallied and killed the two leaders, with 500 knights and 200 Templars, Feb. 8, 1250. MAXTES, ISLE OF, France. The town destroyed by the soldiers of William I., 1087 ; the king riding to view the scene, his horse trod upon some hot ashes, started aside and threw the king violently upon the pommel of his saddle, and being in a bad habit of body as well as in advancing years, the injuries proved his death ; he died at the monastery of St Gervas, Sept. 9, and was buried in the church of St Stephen at Caen. M AXTFIELD, Sussex. Several bars of gold connected by links, supposed to be or- naments worn by Celtic kings, found here in a field by a labourer, Jan. 12, 1863. MANTINEA, battles. The Argives defeated by the Lacedaemonians under Agis with a loss of noo men, June, B.C. 418 ; the Mantineans and Lacedaemonians defeated by Epaminondas, the latter general being slain, B.C. 362; the Lacedaemon- ians again defeated by the Greeks under Philopoemen, and 4000 slain, B.C. 207. MANTUA, Italy, an older city than Rome, governed in turn by Roman, Goth, and Frank. Palazzo Imperiale built, 1302 ; it was in possession of the Gonzagas from 1328 to the death of Vincenzio II., 1627 ; claimed by Austria and France as a fief ; the Austrians, besieged the town, April 8, 1630 ; taken by storm, July 18, and plundered of 8,000,000 ducats ; united to Austria, 1707; Academia delle Belle Arti, founded, 1775; besieged by Napoleon, June 14, 1796; taken, Feb. 2, 1797 ; retaken by the Austrians after four days' bombardment, July 30, 1799, and joined to the Cisalpine republic ; restored to the Austrians, 1814 ; blockade of, by the Sardinians, July 14, 1848 ; the garrison relieved, July 26. MANX SOCIETY, established at Douglas, Isle of Man, for the publication of na- tional documents of the island, 1858. MAPS AND CHARTS first brought to England by Bartholomew Columbus, 1489; Mercator's charts projected, 1556 ; one of the moon's surface first drawn at Dant- zig, 1647; maps were invented by Anaximander, 600 B.C.; George Lilly com- pleted one of England, 1520 ; and Aggas one of London, 1560. MAR, Earl of, retired from court, 1715 ; proclaimed the Pretender, Sept. 6 ; his forces increased to 5000 ; entered Perth, Sept. 28 ; the Duke of Argyll sent with a force against him ; the rebels were joined by a force under M 'Intosh, and ar- rived at Kelso, Oct. 22; defeated at Preston, Nov. 13, and at Sheriffmuir, Oct. 22; attainted with Murray, 1715 ; seized at Geneva, 1719 ; released, June 2, 1720. MARAT assassinated by Charlotte Corday, July 13, 1793. MARATHON, battle. Miltiades, with an army of 10,000 Athenians, totally de- feated the Persian forces of 600,000 men commanded by Datis and Artaphemes, B.c. Sept. 28, 490. MARBLE, art of staining, discovered about 1684 ; green, resembling verde antique, '' r found in Ireland, in the western part, 1823. MARBLE ARCH erected by George IV., at a cost of .80,000, at Buckingham Palace, 1829-31 ; removed to Cumberland Gate, Hyde Park, March 29, 1851. MARBURG, Hesse Cassel. In the early part of the I3th century this place was raised from a village to a town ; it was wholly destroyed by fire, 1261 and 1319 ; the church of St Elizabeth begun, 1235 ; completed, 1283 ; the university, the first founded in Germany after the Reformation, 1527 ; the castle was the scene of a conference between Luther, Melancthon, and Zwingle upon the question of tran- substantiation, 1529 ; garrisoned by the French, 1759. MARCH was the first month in the year; the legal year began on the 25th until 1752, when it was made the third month. MARCHES in Wales and Scotland, the country lying on the borders. Lawless 550 MARCIONITES MARIGNANO ravages committed on the frontiers in the I4th century : the lords of the marches were noblemen who lived on the borders, and were continually involved in petty feuds ; the banditti at their heels were called moss-troopers in Scotland ; the lords of, made attendant upon the crown, 28 Edw. III. c. 2, 1354 ; their government restricted, 26 Hen. VIII. c. 6, s. 2, 1534 ; the lordship marches divided into counties, 27 Hen. VIII. c. 26, s. 3, 1535 ; 28 Hen. VIII. c. 3, 1536 ; 33 Hen. VIII. c. 13, 1541 ; an act passed to prevent theft and rapine of the moss-troopers upon the northern borders, 13 & 14 Charles II. c. 22, 1662. MARCIONITES, followers of one Marcion, who founded the sect ; they differed little from the Manichees, but preceded them, A.D. 140. MARENGO, battle. The Austrians under Melas were defeated by Bonaparte after carrying his army over the summit of the Alps ; in the early part of the day the advantages were with the Imperialists, but the arrival of Desaix with a fresh corps turned the tide of fortune ; the Austrians lost 700x3 killed, 12,000 prisoners, and 45 pieces of cannon ; the killed on the victors' side were fully equal to the Aus- trian loss ; Gen. Desaix was killed while leading on his forces, June 14, 1800. MARGAN ABBEY, Glamorganshire, founded by Robert Earl of Ferrars, 1 148. MARGARET, Countess of Salisbury, daughter of the Duke of Clarence, brother of Edward IV., beheaded, May 27, 1541, aged 70, by Henry VIII. MARGARITONE, of Arezzo, invented the art of gilding with leaf gold and bole ammoniac; he died, 1275- MARGATE, Kent. In the reign of Henry VII., this now flourishing town was but a small village. A pier built in the reign of Henry VIII. ; bathing machines invented by Benjamin Beale, and used for the first time, 1790; part" of the pier carried away by a storm, Jan. 14, 1808 ; the wooden pier substituted by one in . Whitby stone, erected from the design of John Rennie, 1815 ; Cecil Square built, 1769; theatre erected, 1787; the first stone of the sea-bathing infirmary laid, 1792 ; Trinity Church erected, 1825 ; the town incorporated, 1857. MARGUS, battles. Diocletian defeated by Carinus in the Plains of, 285 ; the Roman army defeated by the Goths and Huns, 505. MARHAM NUNNERY, Norfolk, founded by Isabella, widow of Hugh de Albini, Earl of Arundel, 1249. MARIA ISLAND, Van Diemen's Land, discovered by Tasman, 1642. MARIA LOUISA, an order for ladies instituted by Charles IV., king of Spain, March 19, 1792. MARIAN PERSECUTIONS against heretics commenced, 1555, by the seizure of a congregation of 30 persons in the city of London using the service book of King Edward VI., and terminated with the death of Queen Mary, Nov. 17, 1558; hundreds of persons were executed and burnt. MARIA THERESA, order for ladies, instituted in Spain, 1792. MARIA THERESA, order of knighthood, instituted in Austria by the Empress, June, 1757 ; increased to by the Emperor Joseph II., 1765. MARIENBURG, Prussia, founded by the Teutonic knights in the 1 3th century ; the castle built by them, circa 1270 ; additions made to it, 1309 ; the seat of the order fixed here, 1310; the Poles attacked the castle unsuccessfully, 1410 and 1420 ; surrendered to them, 1457 ; partially restored, 1815. MARIETTA, North America. A settlement made by English colonists under General Putnam, 1788; college founded, 1835. MARIGNANO, battle, between the Swiss and French, near, Sept. 13, 1515 ; the Swiss were defeated. MARINE HOSPITAL MARQUESAS 551 MARINE- HOSPITAL, at Brest, burnt with 50 galley slaves, and a great number of sick, Dec. I, 1776. MARINE SOCIETY of London, established by Mr F. Walker, 1756 ; W. Hickes left it .300 per annum, 1763 ; from 1763 to May, 1769, the operations of the society were suspended ; incorporated by act, i2Geo. III. c. 67, 1772; the house in Bishopsgate begun, April 30, 1773. MARINE SOLDIERY, serving either afloat or on shore ; a corps with this name established, 1684 ; the council settled a code of laws for their governance, July I, 1702; the number of the force increased, 1749 and 1755 ; greatly extended, 1760 ; reduced, 1770 ; increased to 150 companies, 1782 ; in 1815, it reached to 35,668 officers and men ; regulated while on shore by 30 & 31 Viet. c. 14, April 2, 1867. MARISCHAL COLLEGE, Aberdeen, founded by George Earl Marischal, 1593 ; a new building erected at a cost of .22,000. MARK, ST, order of, founded at Venice, 737 ; the honour was conferred by the Doge; revived, 1562. MARK, ST, the Evangelist, wrote his Gospel in Greek, A.D. 26 ; his festival first celebrated, 1090. MARK'S, ST, palace at Venice, built, 450 ; the church at, 826. MARK, a gold coin current in England, 878, value 13^. ^d. ; silver marks were established as worth &s. 6 the royal family restrained by act of parliament, under George III., because he disapproved of his brother's consort, 12 Geo. III. c. II, 1772 ; regulated by canon law before 1753 ; still so governed in Scotland. All marriages void, except those of Quakers and Jews, afteri753, by the act of that year, unless celebrated in an Episcopal church ; an act passed for amending the laws of, in England, 4 Geo. IV. c. 76, July 18, 1823 ; Roman Catholic marriages in Ireland and Scotland made valid, 4 & 5 Will. IV. c. 27, July 25, 1834 ; new marriage act, 6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 85, directing all the rules prescribed by the Rubric to be duly observed by all clergymen, and permission given to Jews and Quakers to contract marriage according to their own usage, the act to come in force after March i, 1837, Aug. 17, 1836 ; Marriage Registration Act, 7 Will. IV., and I Viet. c. 22, June 30, 1837 ; amendment of, 3 & 4 Viet. c. 72, Aug. 7, 1840. Marriages may now be celebrated in all Dissenting places of worship that are licensed for the purpose, as well as in the parish church, or they may be con- cluded with the same legality before the registrar of the district, without any religious form at all ; marriages were solemnized before a justice of the peace, under an act of parliament in 1653 ; an act removing doubts as to Quakers and Jews married before certain periods, 10 & n Viet. c. 58, July 2, 1847 ; the Marriage and Registration Act amended, 19 & 20 Viet. c. 119, July 29, 1856 ; the law of marriage in India amended, 14 & 15 Viet. c. 40, July 24, 1857 ; an act passed to amend the laws relating to divorce and matrimony in England, 20 & 2 1 Viet. c. 85, Aug. 28, 1857; amended, 21 & 22 Viet. c. 108, Aug. 2, 1858; also by the 23 & 24 Viet. c. 144, Aug. 28, 1860 ; the law regulated in Ireland by 7 & 8 Viet. c. 81, Aug. 9, 1844; amended, 26 & 27 Viet. c. 27, June 8, 1863 ; an act passed to provide for the registration of, 26 & 27 Viet. c. 90, July 28, 1863 ; a bill introduced to legalize marriage with a deceased wife's sister, March 6, 1866 ; withdrawn, May 2. MARRICK NUNNERY, Yorkshire, founded by Roger de Aske, circa 1154. MAR'S INSURRECTION. See Mar, Earl of. MARSEILLAISE, revolutionary hymn said to have been composed by M. Roquet de Lille, a French officer quartered at Strasburg, Feb., 1792 ; received its name in July, 1 792, from being played by the band of a body of troops from this town whilst entering the capital. Notes and Queries. MARSEILLES, France. This ancient Roman town after the decline of that power was possessed by the Goths ; taken and sacked by the Saracens, 720; became a re- public, 1214; obliged to recognize the authority of the counts of Provence, 1243; bequeathed to Louis XI. by Charles du Maine, 1482 ; besieged by the Im- perialists, under the Constable de Bourbon, 1524 ; made an arsenal and dock- yard by Louis XIII. ; rebellion in, against Louis XIV., 1660; the Hotel Dieu founded, 1188 ; the church of St Victor erected by Pope Urban V., 1350 ; the MARSHAL MARTIN, ST 553 castle of St Jean, the prison of Philippe Egalite, built, 1460 ; the Exchange erected, 1858-60; the docks considerably enlarged by the Emperor Napoleon III. ; visited by a plague, 1720, which carried off 50,000 people ; partially de- stroyed by fire, July 5, 1862. MARSHAL, a military rink : in England, first conferred upon John Duke of Argyll, and the Earl of Orkney, 1736 ; first instituted in France, 1436; abolished, 1791 ; revived by Napoleon. There were 21 Marshals of France under the empire : Augcreau, Duke de Castiglione Massena, Prince d'Essling, and Duke Bernadotte, Prince of Ponte Corvo de Rivoli Berthier, Prince de Neufchatel M 'Donald, Duke de Toronto Bessieres, Duke d'Istria Moncey, Duke de Conegliano Davoust, Prince of Eckmuhl, Duke Mortier, Duke de Treviso d'Auerstadt Murat, King of Naples Jourdan, a French peer Ney, Prince of Moskwa, and Duke Junot, Duke d'Abrantes d'Elchingen Kellerman, Duke of Valmy Oudinot, Duke de Reggio Lannes, Duke de Montebello Soult, Duke of Dalmatia Lefebvre, Duke de Dantzick Suchet, Duke d'Albufera Marmont, Duke de Ragusa Victor, Duke de Belluno MARSHAL'S COURT. The jurisdiction of, regulated by 28 Edward I. c. 3, 1300 ; confirmed by 5 Edward III. c. 2, 1331 ; powers defined by 3 Henry VII. c. 14, 1487. MARSH ALSEA AND PALACE COURT. Anciently its jurisdiction was con- fined to the royal household, and the Earl Marshal presided ; it subsequently be- came a minor court of record for actions for debt ; it held its sittings in South- wark until 1801 ; abolished by 12 & 13 Viet. c. IOI, s. 14, Aug. I, 1849 ; held its last sitting at Westminster, Dec. 28, 1849. MARSHALSEA PRISON, erected in Southwark in the I2th century ; broken open by a mob of sailors, 1377 ; the marshal of, beheaded by Wat Tyler, 1381 ; the prisoners released and the prison partially destroyed in the Gordon riots, June 7, 1780; part of the walls fell in, May 16, 1802 ; abolished by 5 Viet. c. 22, May 31, 1842. Since made a military prison. MARSTON MOOR, battle, between the Royalists and Parliamentarians; the former were under the command of Prince Rupert, the latter under Cromwell ; both armies had 23,000 men in the battle ; at first the enemy fled before Rupert, but he pursuing General Ireton too far, Cromwell by his masterly conduct gained a decided victory ; the number killed was 4150, July 2, 1644. MARTABAN, Burmah, stormed and captured by the British Indian forces, April 5, 1852. MARTIAL LAW. A law of war, that depends not upon the just, but arbitrary power and pleasure of the king. An act was passed by Edward I. to enable him to punish his forces ; the court of High Constable and High Marshal had almost exclusive power until the passing of the statute, 13 Richard II. c. 2-3, 1389; by this limited to 12 miles around the king's dwelling ; this law proclaimed in times of riot, &c. The Mutiny Act first passed to enable William III. to punish the Eng- lish and Scotch troops, I Will, and Mary, c. 5, April 3, 1688, to continue in force for one year, but it has been annually renewed, with the exception of three years from April, 1698, to Feb., 1701. MARTIN, ST, festival of, instituted, 812. MARTIN, ST, Martin-in-the-Fields, Westminster, made an independent parish, 1535, and church built ; a chancel added by Henry Prince of Wales, 1607 ; the 554 MARTIN'S, ST, HALL MARYLEBONE present church built from the designs of Mr Gibbs, commenced, 1721 ; finished, 1726, at a cost of ^36,000 ; celebrated for its fine portico. MARTIN'S, ST, HALL, Longacre, erected from the design of R. Westmacott ; begun, June, 1847; opened, Feb. II, 1850; damaged by fire, Aug. 26, 1860; and in 1867 became the Queen's theatre. MARTIN'S, ST, Le Grand, the college founded by Withred, king of Kent, 700 ; rebuilt, 1050 ; the sanctuary of, founded, 1056 ; confirmed by William I., 1068 ; pulled down, 1817 ; annexed to the ward of Aldersgate by the Post-Office Act, 55 Geo. III. c. xci., s. 71, June 28, 1815. MARTINERE COLLEGE, Calcutta, founded by General Claude Martin, who left two hundred thousand Sicca rupees by will ; he died, Sept., 1800. MARTINIQUE, W. Indies, discovered by the Spaniards, 1493; colonized by the French, 1635; they commenced the culture of sugar, 1650, and planted cocoa trees, 1 66 1 ; these trees became a great wealth to the island, but they were destroyed, 1718; nearly destroyed by an earthquake, Sept. 12, 1756; captured by the English, 1762 ; restored, 1763 ; attacked by the British, under the command of Sir John Jervais, Feb. 3; taken, March 1 6, 1794; restored, 1802; again taken, 1809, and restored to France, 1814. MARTYROLOGY, A catalogue of Martyrs. First one published, 831 (Florus Lyons was the author). Waldenburtus published his in 844 ; Lisnard, 875 ; Not- ker, 894 ; Foxe's Book of, 1562-3. MARTYRS, order of knighthood of, in Palestine, began in the tenth century ; con- firmed by Pope Jean, 1024, and again in 1319. MARY, ST, the glorious order of knighthood, began in Italy, 1233 ; in Rome, 1618. MARY, ST, de Merced, order of knighthood, began in Spain, 1218. MARY, ST, Abbey of, York, begun, 1088. MARY, ST, Priory of, Thetford, built by Roger Bigot, 1104; dissolved, 1519. MARY, Queen of Scots, the daughter of James V. of Scotland and Mary of Lor- raine, born Dec. 8, 1542 ; married the dauphin of France, afterwards Francis II., April 24, 1558 ; assumed the government of Scotland, Aug. 19, 1561 ; married Lord Darnley, July 29, 1566 ; Bothwell, May 15, 1567 ; forced to retire from the throne, June 17, 1567 ; fled to England, May 16, 1568 ; beheaded, Feb. 8, 1587, aged 44. MARY I., Queen of England. See England. MARY, wife of William III., was the eldest daughter of James II. and Anne Hyde, born, 1662; married the Prince of Orange, Nov. 4, 1677. MARYLAND, N. America. The first settlement formed by William Clairboume, 1631 ; Charles I. granted this territory by charter to Lord Baltimore, 1632, who named it Maryland from Queen Henrietta Maria ; colonized by Roman Catholics, 1633 ; they passed the Toleration Act in 1649 ; the seat of government fixed at Annapolis, 1699 ; restored to the Baltimore family by Charles II. ; governed by England from 1689 ; restored to the Baltimore heir, 1715 ; constitution granted, 1776 ; the frontiers settled, 1785 ; invaded by the Confederate army, Aug., 1862, June, 1863, and May, 1864. MARYLEBONE, Middlesex [St Mary at the Bourne], from the Tyborne Brook, in the hundred of Ossulston, an early Saxon hundred. The parish was subdivided by an act passed 3 Geo. IV. c. Ixxxiv., 1822; the old church taken down by license of the Bishop of London, dated, Oct. 23, 140x3, and rebuilt ; this was taken down May 30, 1 740 ; what is now called the old church erected and opened for divine service, April, 1742; converted into a parish chapel by 51 Geo. III. MARYLEBONE GARDENS MASSACHUSETTS 555 c- 151, Feb. 4, 1811 ; the present edifice, designed by Thomas Hardwick, was erected and consecrated, Feb. 14, 1817; St Mary's Church, Wyndham Place, built from the designs of Sir Robert Smirke, and consecrated, Jan. 7, 1824 ; All Souls' Church, erected from the designs of Mr Nash, with the pointed spire ; the first stone laid, Nov. 18, 1822; consecrated, Nov. 25, 1824; Christ Church, de- signed by Philip Hardwick, consecrated, 1825 ; Trinity Church, designed by Sir John Soane, R.A., consecrated, 1828 ; the cemetery on the south side of Pad- dington-street consecrated, 1733; St John's Wood chapel and cemetery con- secrated, 1814; Oxford-street made, 1729; Cavendish-square laid out, 1717; Portman-square, the north side erected, 1 764 ; Portman Hay -market opened in 1830; Regent's Canal begun, 52 Geo. III. c. cxcv., July 13, 1812; Portland Place built, 1772-3; Marylebone Park vested in the crown until granted by Charles I. to Sir George Strode, May 6, 1646 ; plan of Mr White to improve, 1793 ; Mr Nash was directed to prepare a plan, which was adopted by parlia- ment ; the Colosseum commenced, 1824, and completed, 1827 ; the Diorama, 1823; the workhouse erected, 1775 ; the charity school established, 1791 ; created a borough by William IV., June 7, 1832 ; Edward B. Portman and Sir William Home the first members elected, Dec. 12, 1832 ; the almshouses built, 1836 ; the free library established, Jan. 9, 1854. MARYLEBONE GARDENS, London, a celebrated place of amusement, opened, 1735 ; Dr Arne was leader of the orchestra, and produced most of Handel's music ; Mount Etna was exhibited, with fireworks, in honour of the King's birthday, June 4, 1772; suppressed, 1778. MASKS, muffs, fans, and false hair, used by the female sex ; introduced into PVance from Italy, and from thence brought to England, 1572 ; worn by ladies at theatres, 1786. See Iron Mask. MASONS' COMPANY. Regulations for the trade of, made by the mayor and aldermen of London; incorporated, 2 Henry II., 1411 ; reincorporated by 28 Charles II., Dec. 17, 1677; confirmed by 9 Anne, Dec. 17, 1711; Hall built in Masons' Alley after the fire of 1666. MASQUE, a theatrical drama. The first performed in England at Greenwich in 1512; one at Whitehall, before the court, 1530; the favourite amusement of Charles I. ; five performed in the year 1633. MASQUERADES. Invented by M. Granacci in Italy, 1509 ; became the fashion in the court of Hen. VIII., 1512 ; at an entertainment given by the King at Greenwich, he with 1 1 others disguised in masks danced together on the night of the Epiphany ; common in the time of Charles I. ; a splendid one held by Heidegger at the Opera House, 1717-18; preached against by the clergy, 1723, and suppressed by Geo. I. in 1723 ; flourished under George III. at Ranelagh, the Pantheon, and other places, 25 guineas being paid for a ticket at the former place, between 1770 and 1780, though in violation of the laws, being favoured by the fashionable world. Mrs Cornelys', held at Carlisle House, Soho, 1770; the first in Scotland, Friday, Jan. 15, 1773. MASS, as used in the Romish Church ; first used in England, 680 ; elevation of the host and prostration, 1201 ; the Emperor Henry VII. poisoned by a monk with the mass wafer, at Beneventum, 1313 ; private masses abolished in England, 1548. MASSACHUSETTS, N. America. The first settlement made by a few English Puritans, at Plymouth, Dec., 1620 ; the second settlement was formed at Salem, 1628. A charter obtained by the Nonconformists from Charles I., 1629 ; annulled by the king in 1686 ; Boston the capital, 1630 : the two colonies united, 1692 ; governed by a viceroy, 1776; constitution passed, 1780; revised, 1820; and again, 1840; slavery abolished, 1775 ; the supreme court decided in 1783 that all men are born free ; Harvard University founded at Newtown by the Pilgrim 556 MASSACRES Fathers, 1636; John Harvard bequeathed his library and part of his property to, and the name changed to Harvard, 1638 ; Williams', 1793 ; Amherst, 1821 ; Holy Cross, 1843 ; Tuft's, 1854. MASSACRES : Of all the Carthaginians in Sicily, B.C. 397 ; 2000 Tyrians cruci- fied and 8000 put to the sword, for not surrendering Tyre to Alexander, 331 ; the Jews of Antioch fell upon the other inhabitants, and massacred 100,000, for re- fusing to surrender their arms to Demetrius Nicanor, tyrant of Syria, 154 ; a dreadful slaughter of the Teutones and Ambrones near Aix by Marius, the Roman general, 200,000 being left dead on the spot, 102 ; the Romans throughout Asia, women and children not excepted, cruelly massacred in one day, by order of Mithridates, king of Pontus, 89 ; a great number of Roman senators massacred by Cuma, Marius, and Sertorius, and several of the patricians dispatch themselves to avoid their horrid butcheries, 86 ; again under Sylla and Catiline, his minister of vengeance, 82 and 79 > a t Praeneste, Octavianus Caesar ordered 300 Roman senators and other persons of distinction to be sacrificed to the manes of Julius Caesar, 41. At the destruction of Jerusalem, 1,100,000 Jews put to the sword, A.D. 70 ; the Jews, headed by Androe, put to death 100,000 Greeks and Romans at Cyrene, they ate the entrails and covered themselves with the skins of their un- happy victims, 115 ; Cassius, a Roman general, under the Emperor M. Aurelius, put to death 400,000 of the inhabitants of Seleucia, 197 ; at Alexandria, of many thousand citizens by order of Antoninus, 213 ; the Emperor Probus put to death 700,000 of the inhabitants upon his reduction of Gaul, 277; eighty Christian fathers, by order of the Emperor Gratian, at Nicomedia, put into a ship, which was set on fire, and they driven out to sea, 370 ; Thessalonica, when upwards of 7000 persons invited into the circus were put to the sword by order of Theodosius, 390 ; 300 nobles in England, by Hengist, 475 ', Belisarius put to death above 30,000 citizens of Constantinople for a revolt on account of two rapacious ministers set over them by Justinian, 552 ; 1200 of the monks of Bangor, by Ethelfrid, king of North Cumberland, 580 ; all the Danes in the southern counties of England, Nov. 13, 1002, 23Ethelred II.; at London it was most bloody, the churches being no sanc- tuary ; amongst others was Gunilda, sister of Swain, King of Denmark, left in hostage for the performance of a treaty but newly concluded ; of the Normans at Durham, 1069 ; of the Jews, some few pressing into Westminster Hall at Rich- ard l.'s coronation, were put to death by the people, and a false alarm being given that the king had ordered a general massacre of them, the people in many parts of England, from an aversion to them, slew all they met ; in York, 50 who had taken shelter in the castle, killed themselves rather than fall into the hands of the multitude, 1189; of the Latins by Andronicus, at Constantinople, 1184. The Sicilians massacred the French throughout the whole island of Sicily, without dis- tinction of sex or age, on Easter-day, the first bell for vespers being the signal ; this horrid affair is known in history by the name of the Sicilian Vespers, March 30, 1282. A general massacre of the Jews at Verdun by the peasants, who, from a pretended prophecy, conceived the Holy Land was to be recovered from the infidels by them ; 500 of the Jews took shelter in a castle, and defended them- selves to the last extremity, when, for want of weapons, they threw their children at the enemy, and then killed each other, 1317 ; at Limoges, by order of the Black Prince, 3000 defenceless persons were slain, 1370 ; at Paris many of the inhabit- ants, by order of the Duke of Burgundy, June 12, 1418. 70,000 Huguenots, throughout the kingdom of France, attended with circumstances of horrid treachery and cruelty ; it began at Paris on the night of the festival of St Bartholomew, Aug. 25, 1572, by secret orders from Charles IX., king of France, at the instigation of the queen dowager, Catherine de Medicis, his mother; it is styled in history the Massacre of St Bartholomew. Of the Christians in Croatia, by the Turks, when 65,000 were slain, 1592 ; the English, by the Dutch at Amboyna, 1624 ; of the Protestants in Ireland, when 40,000 were killed, Oct. 23, 1641 ; at Drogheda, MASSINGHAM MAGNA PRIORY MATHEMATICS 557 Ireland, after the town had been taken by Cromwell it was given up to pillage for five days, 1000 killed in the cathedral alone, Aug. 14, 1649 ; of the Macdonalds ofGlencoe, Scotland, Feb. 13, 1692; at Batavia, 12,000 Chinese killed by the Dutch, Oct., 1740, under the pretext of an intended insurrection ; of the inhabit- ants of Ismael, 25,000 slain by the Russian conquerors, 1790; in Paris during the reign of Robespierre, at the prisons, 1793-4, several thousand by a ferocious mob ; of 600 negroes by the French at St Mark's, 1802; at St Domingo the whites killed by the revolted negroes, March, 1804 ; many thousands perished at Algiers, March 10, 1806 ; insurrection and massacre at Madrid, May 2, 1808 ; massacre of the Mamelukes in Cairo, March I, 1811; many of the inhabitants of Cadiz killed by the soldiers, March 6, 1820 ; the Janissaries massacred by order of Sultan Mah- moud at Constantinople, June 15, 1826. The native troops mutinied at Meerut, May 10, n, and at Cavvnpore, and killed the English. garrison, June 27, 1857. MASSINGHAM MAGNA PRIORY, Norfolk, founded by Nicholas le Lyre, circa 1250. MASTER of the Ceremonies in the courts of Europe, instituted, for the reception, of ambassadors and other distinguished persons, in England, by James I., 1603. MASTER in Ordinary of Chancery, an officer to whom references were first made in 1307 ; continued until the changes in the Court of Chancery, when the office was abolished, 15 & 16 Viet. c. 80, June 30, 1852, and taxing masters appointed. MASTER of the Revels. Sir Thomas Cawerden was appointed first to this office, 1546 ; he was succeeded by Sir Thomas Benger, March, 1577. 'The office of ye Revells consistethe,' says Tylney, 'of a Wardropp and several other Roomes, for artifficers to worke in, with a convenient place of ye Rehearsalls. ' See Cunning- ham's account of the Revels at Courts in the Shakespeare Society's Papers, 1842. MASTER of the Rolls. Adam de Osgodby appointed first master, Oct. I, 1295 ; the Rolls Office built, 1232-34 ; the chapel finished, 1235 ; annexed to the office, 1377. MASTER and Servant. An act passed for preventing the counterfeiting of cer- tificates of the characters of servants, 32 Geo. III. c. 56, 1792 ; the statute law between, amended, 30 & 31 Viet. c. 1 14, Aug. 20, 1867 ; an act to prohibit the pay- ment in certain trades of wages in goods, or otherwise than in the current coin of the realm, I & 2 Will. IV. c. 37, Oct. 15, 1831-. The laws of arbitration of dis- putes between, consolidated by 5 Geo. IV. c. 96, June 21, 1825 ; amended, 7 Will. IV. & I Viet. c. 67, July 15, 1837 ; regulations as to the tickets of work to hosiers and silk weavers, 8 & 9 Viet. c. 77, Aug. 4, 1845, an( i c - 12 &> Aug. 9,. 1845. MASTER of the Wardrobe. The official robes were kept at the king's wardrobe, circa 1235 ; Piers Courteys appointed keeper of the king's ' Crete Warderobe within the Citee of London,' by Edward IV., April 18, 1480. MASULIPATAM, Hindustan. Formerly one of the French Circars, 1753; taken by Lord Clive, 1 753 ; ceded to the East India Company by the king of Delhi, 1 765. M. \TAMORAS, Mexico. The town besieged by the Americans under General Taylor, May 17, 1846; surrendered, the i8th ; the American army under Geu. Taylor defeated .the Mexican forces, May 8, 1846 ; the French defeated the Juarists, Oct. 25, 1865. MATCHES. & the town nearly destroyed by fire, 1613 ; visited by the plague, 1637; the hospital founded, 1638 ; the canal formed, 1790. MELVILLE, LORD, impeached by the House of Commons, April 29, for apply- ing the interest of public moneys in his hands to private purchases ; acquitted by the peers, June 12, 1806. MELVILLE Transport wrecked near the harbour of Kinsale, Ireland, when eleven persons were drowned, Jan. 31, 1816. MEMEL, Prussia, erected, 1279; fortified, 1314; granted to the Teutonic Knights, 1328 ; seriously damaged by fire, 1540 and 1678 ; captured by the Russians, 1757; the town almost destroyed by fire with immense stores for the Russian army, Oct. 4, 1854. MEMPHIS, Egypt, founded by Menes, the first king, B.C. 2700 ; the whole country united under one government, B.C. 1525 ; invaded by Cambyses, B.C. 525 ; made the capital, B.C. 272; taken by Antiochus Epiphanes, B.C. 171 ; partially restored by Severus, A.D. 202 ; fell into decay in the 7th century, and Cairo erected on its site ; the ruins discovered, 1850. MEMPHIS, North America. The Confederate fleet of eight gun-boats destroyed by the Federal fleet under Commodore Davis ; the city surrendered, June 6, 1862. 36 562 MENAI STRAIT MERCHANTS' MARKS MENAI STRAIT, between Carnarvonshire and Anglesey, crossed by the Romans to annihilate the Druids, 59 ; a ferry-boat lost in, containing 50 persons, Dec. 4, 1785. Suspension-bridge erected from the designs of Telford ; the works begun, 1819 ; the masonry work finished, 1824 ; the first chain raised, April, 1825, and the last, July 9 ; completed and opened, Jan. 30, 1826 ; the two main piers are 153 feet high ; total length of bridge, 1710 feet ; the total weight of iron used, 2187 tons, and cost .120,000. Tubular bridge over, called the Britannia, designed by Robert Stephenson ; the foundation-stone laid, April 10, 1846 ; opened for public traffic, March 18, 1850; two lines of tubes, each a quarter of a mile in length, supported only at the ends by a tower 200 feet high, erected in the middle of the strait, through which tubes the railway carriages pass. MENDICANT FRIARS. Several religious orders that commenced craving alms in the I3th century; they were at last confined by Pope Gregory X., 1272, to the Dominican, Franciscan, Carmelite, and Augustine orders, from which the Capu- chins and others were offshoots ; mendicant friars in Ireland were forbidden by the Pope, Nov., 1750. MENDICITY. On account of the closing of the monasteries, this practice in- creased to such an alarming extent, that it was ordered to be suppressed, I Edw. VI. c. 3, 1547'; repealed, 3 &4Edvv. VI. c. 16, 1549 ; Mendicity Society estab- lished to suppress the practice of public begging, founded, 1818. MENDOZA, South America. The towns of San Juan and San Louis destroyed by an earthquake, and 15,000 persons killed, March 20, 1861. MENNONITES, a sect which insisted that Christ did not partake of the nature of his mother, from Menno, who promulgated the doctrine, 1536. MENTANA, battle. The French and papal forces defeated the Garibaldians commanded by General Garibaldi, with great loss, Nov. 3, 1867; an order or medal distributed by the pope to the forces engaged, it consists of a cross with the words 'Pius Papa Nonus,' and the date, Nov. 3, 1867. MENTZ. See Mayence. MERCATOR'S CHARTS invented, 1556, of which attempts have been made to rob him of the credit. MERCERS' COMPANY, London, established, 1172 ; incorporated, 17 Rich. II., 1393 ; the monastery of St Thomas of Aeon granted to them by Henry III., 1268 ; charter confirmed by 3 Hen. VI., Feb. 14, 1425 ; subsequently by 36 Charles II., Dec. 22, 1684 ; arms granted, circa 1568 ; the first Hall erected, circa 1500 ; Henry VIII. and his Queen Jane Seymour stood in this hall to see the watch march past, 1536; the hall destroyed in the fire of 1666 ; rebuilt from the designs of Jerman, 1672; the chapel rebuilt from the designs of Sir C. Wren, 1668. MERCERS' SCHOOL, London, received the sanction of parliament, 25 Hen. VI., 1447, by an act, 22 Charles II., 1670 ; a plot of ground in the Old Jewry was set aside for building a school ; taken down in 1787, and removed to Budge Row, subsequently to Wattling-street, and to College Hill, Sept., 1808. MERCHANT ADVENTURERS established by the Duke of Brabant, 1296 ; ex- tended to England by Edward III. ; original charter granted by Henry IV., Feb. 5, 1406-7; it was confirmed by Henry V., Oct. 21, 1413, and by Humphrey Duke of Gloucester, July 6, 1420; again by Henry VI., Nov. 9, 1438; an act of parliament passed, regulating, 12 Hen. VII. c. 6, 1497 ; charter again confirmed by Henry VII., Sept. 28, 1505, and Jan. 4, 1506 ; he also granted them a mart at Calais, Jan. 15, 1505 ; incorporated by Elizabeth, 1561 ; the last grant to the company was, Jan. I, 1661. MERCHANTS' MARKS. An act passed to amend the law relating to, 25 & 26 Viet c. 88, Aug. 7, 1862. MERCHANT SHIPPING MERTON 563 MERCHANT SHIPPING. An act passed to amend and consolidate the acts relating to 'The Merchant Shipping Act,' 17 & 18 Viet. c. 104, Aug. 10, 1854 ; amended, 30 & 31 Viet. c. 124, Aug. 20, 1867. MERCHANT TAILORS' COMPANY of London, incorporated as the tailors and armourers of the Linen Armoury of St John the Baptist, 5 Edw. IV., 1466 ; re- incorporated by 1 8 Hen. VII., 1503; arms gran ted to, 1481; confirmed by 22 Hen. VIII., 1530; crest and supporters granted to, Dec. 23, 1584; James I. and Prince Henry entertained by the company, 1607 ; the Duke of Wellington, 1815 ; and Sir Robert Peel, May II, 1835. First Hall built, circa 1430; destroyed in the fire of 1666 ; rebuilt by Mr Jarman soon afterwards^ the festival of the sons of the clergy is held here annually; Prince Albert admitted a member of, June n, 1849. MERCHANT TAILORS' SCHOOL, founded, Sept. 24, 1561 ; present school- house erected by Sir C. Wren in Suffolk Lane, Cannon-street, 1675. M KRCI A. This kingdo'm founded by Crida, 584 ; the Mercians defeated by Oswy, king of Northumbria, at Winwidfield, near Leeds, and was annexed to Northum- bria, 654 ; Wulphere succeeded to the throne of Mercia, and defeated the forces of Wessex at Pontisbury, 661 ; they suffered a defeat at Burford, Oxfordshire, from the Wessex anny under Cuthred, 75 2 > the country invaded by the Danes, and most of the churches destroyed, 868 ; they burnt the monastery of Repton and placed Ceohvulf upon the throne, he was the last King of Mercia, 874. MERCURY, the planet so called, traversed the sun's disc, visible with the naked eye from 12 to 2 o'clock, at London, Nov. 25, 1769. MERCURY. The metal well known to the ancients ; Pliny states that Callias, an Athenian, discovered the preparation, B. c. 505 ; Carniola mines of, discovered, 1497 ; anti-venereal virtues of, found out by Carpus, 1522 ; given to persons who had undergone inoculation, as calomel, 1745 ; discovered to be malleable by M. Orbelin, 1785 ; first congealed by Mr Braun of St Petersburg, Dec. 14, 1759 ; fulminating mercury discovered by the Hon. Edward Charles Howard, 1810. MERCY, Order of, erected in France to release Christian captives from slavery, 1 198 ; formed into a regular society, 1218. MEREVAL ABBEY, Warwickshire, founded by Robert, Earl of Ferrars, 1 148. MERIDA, Estremadura, Spain, a Roman town. The Emerita Augusta was built by Publius Carisius, B.C. 23 ; became the capital of Lusitania in the 4th century; conquered by the Moors under Musa, Oct. 23, 715 ; they built the Alcazar, 835 ; reconquered by Alonso el Sabio, Nov. 19, 1229 ; the Guadiana is crossed by a Roman bridge of 8 1 arches, 2575 feet long, 26 broad, and 33 above the river; repaired by Philip III., 1610 ; taken by the French, Jan. 8, 1811 ; French de- feated near, by Lord Hill, Oct. 28, l8il ; taken by the English, Jan., 1812. MERIT, Order of, a military Prussian order of knighthood, founded, 1730. MERMAID CLUB, the oldest in London, established at the tavern of that name in Friday-street by Sir Walter Raleigh, 1603. MERRY ANDREW, the name arising from Andrew Borde, a droll physician, who used to harangue the market people, 1547. MERTH YR T YDVIL, Wales. Mr Bacon opened an iron manufactory here, 1 755, which increased very largely, 1 783 ; serious riots in the town, ending in the loss of several lives, June 3, 1831 ; made a borough, 1832 ; 50 persons killed by an explosion of gas in the Cethin coal-pit, Feb. 19, 1862. MERTON, Surrey. Cynewulf, King of Wessex, murdered here, 784; the Danes defeated the Saxons, 871 ; a convent of St Augustine, founded, 1117 ; the manor granted to, 1121; the priory founded by Gilbert Norman, circa 1130; a Parliament 564 MERTON COLLEGE METAMORPHISTS held at Merton in Surrey, in the monastery, when the statutes called the Pro- visions of Merton were enacted, 20 Hen. III., Jan. 23, 1236; the priory sold, 1680. MERTON COLLEGE, Oxford. Walter de Merton, Bishop of Rochester, founded this college in Surrey, 1264 ; removed to Oxford, 1274 ; library built by Bishop Rede, 1349 ; the tower completed by Sir Walter Hungerford, 1440; the great quadrangle built, 1610 ; the constitution of, amended by 17 & 18 Viet. c. 81, Aug. 7, 1854. MERVYN, LORD, convicted of a nameless crime, and hanged, May, 1631. MESMERISM, so named from F. A. Mesmer, who promulgated his notions in 1766, reviving the old absurdity of planetary influences, &c. ; he effected, it is said, many cures in Bavaria and Vienna, 1777 ; not meeting encouragement he came to Paris, 1778, where he gained proselytes and money, until the government ap- pointed several scientific men to investigate his pretensions, among them the cele- brated Dr Franklin, when they fully exposed the quacjcery and presumption of Mesmer in a paper which for a time set the doctrine of the empiric asleep, between 1780 and 1790; it has been recently revived. MESOLONGHI, Greece. In the War of Independence, Mavrocordato defended this town, which was besieged by 14,000 Turks, under Omer Vrioni, for two months unsuccessfully, when the siege was raised, Nov., 1822 ; invested a second time by Reschid Pasha, April, 1825 ; Ibrahim Pasha joined him with an army of 20,000, Jan., 1826 ; bombarded for three days, Jan. 25-27 ; the fleet also took part in the siege ; the garrison attempted to escape, April 22, 1826 ; the de- fenders set fire to a powder magazine, which exploded and destroyed the town, April 23 ; Lord Byron died in this town, April 19, 1824; the town retaken by the Greeks, May 17, 1829. MESOPOTAMIA, Asia, taken by the Macedonians, B.C. 334 ; by the Romans under Trajan, who divided it into two parts, A.D. 115 ; by the Persians, 363 ; subdued by the Turks, 1515. MESSALIANS, a sect that adhered to the verbal in place of the true sense of the scriptures, refusing to labour, because they were told not to work for the food which perishes, 310. MESSENA, founded by Epaminondas, B.C. 370; taken by Lycortas, 182. MESSENIA, Greece, conquered by Sparta, B.C. 724; they made another effort for independence but were unsuccessful, 685, and again, 464 ; the inhabitants ex- pelled, 405 ; restored, 389 ; conquered by the Romans, 146. MESSENIAN WARS. The first from B.C. 743 to 724 ; the second from 685 to 668 ; the third, 464 ; they were entirely subdued the following year. MESSINA, Sicily, captured by Samians, circa B.C. 470 ; Himilcon landed an army and destroyed the town, 396 ; defeated and expelled by Dionysius of Syracuse, 312 ; seized by the Mamertini, 289; captured by the Saracens, A.D. 829; ex- pelled by the Normans, 1071-2 ; Richard I. landed here on his way to the Holy Land, Sept. 14, 1190; revolted against the Spaniards, 1672 ; captured by that power, Sept., 1678 ; almost destroyed by an earthquake, 1692-3 ; retaken by the Spanish forces, Sept. 18, 1718, and by the Austrians, Oct. 19, 1719; ceded to them, Feb. 17, 1720. The plague destroyed a large part of the population, 1743 ; severely injured by another, 1780 ; and in March, 1783, a great pan of the town laid in ruins by an earthquake. Occupied by a British force from 1804 to 1814 ; bombarded and partially destroyed, Jan. 12, 1848 ; insurrection at, March 15, 1860 ; since annexed to the new kingdom of Italy. .METAMORPHISTS, a religious sect that appeared about 1450, promulgating new - theories about the body of Christ. METEORIC STONES METEORS 565 METEORIC STONES, or aerolites, substances that fall occasionally from the at- mosphere. No satisfactory account has been given where they are formed ; some of them have been in large masses. There is in the library of Colmar a stone which fell at Ensisheim in Alsace, 1492, which weighed 260 Ib. In 1581, a stone 30 Ib. weight fell in Thuringia, so hot that no person could touch it. In 1668, two stones, one 300 Ib. and the other 200 Ib. weight, fell near Verona. In 1751, two masses of iron, of 71 Ib. and 16 Ib., fell in the district of Agram, the capital of Croatia ; the larger is hi Vienna. Several specimens of meteoric stones, which have fallen from the atmosphere at different times, are in the British Museum. A sword, stated to have been made of meteoric iron, was pre- sented to the Emperor Alexander. A great fall took place at L'Aigle, Normandy, Apr. 26, 1803; they were about 3000 in number, and the largest weighed about 17 Ib. A stone fell near Eggenfelde in Bavaria, weighing 3^ Ib., Dec. 13; two stones fell at St Etienne and Valence, one of them weighed 8 Ib., March 15, 1806 ; a stone weighing 2,J Ib. fell near Basingstoke in Hampshire, May 17 ; a stone of 160 Ib. fell at Fimochin, in the province of Smolensko in Russia, March 13, 1807 (June 17, according to Lucas). A great shower of stones fell near Weston in Connec- ticut ; masses of 20 Ib., 25 Ib., and 35 Ib., were found, Dec. I ; stones weighing 4 Ib. or 5 Ib. fell near Stannern in Moravia, May 22, 1808 ; stones, some of which weighedabout 21 Ib., fell in Caswel county, North America, Jan. 30, 1810 ; a great stone fell at Shahabad in India, it burned five villages, and killed several men and women ; a stone weighing 7 1 Ib. fell in the county of Tipperary in Ire- land, Aug. 10, 1810 ; stones fell at Mortelle, Villerai, and Moulinbrule, in the department of Loiret, one of them weighed 40 Ib. and the other 30 Ib., Nov. 23 ; a stone of 15 Ib. fell in the village of Konglinbowsh, near Romea, in Russia, Mar. 12 or 13, i8n ; a shower of stones fell near Toulouse, April 10, 1812 ; a stone, the size of a child's head, fell at Erxleben, a specimen of it is in the possession of Professor Haussman of Brunswick, April 15 ; stones fell at Cutro in Calabria, during a great fall of red dust, Mar. 14, 1813 ; a stone fell near Bucharest in Russia, Feb. 3, 1815 ; stones, some of which weighed 18 Ib., fell in the vicinity of Agen, Sept. 5 ; there is reason to think that masses of stone fell in the Baltic after the great meteor of Gottenburg, May 2 and 3, 1817 ; a great stone appears to have fallen at Limoges, but it was not disinterred, Feb. 15, 1818. A stone of 7 Ib. fell at the village of Slobodka, in Smolensko ; it penetrated nearly 16 inches into the ground ; it had a brown crust with metallic spots. The late Major Topham published a particular account of a stone, which fell near his house, in the wolds of Yorkshire, that he found had pene- trated deeply into the earth, and was warm when taken up, 1 798. METEpROLOGICAL SOCIETY, London. Instituted, 1821. The British So- ciety instituted, 1851. METEOROLOGY, the science of, first formed by Professor Daniel, who pub- lished his Meteorological Essays in 1823. Since then great attention has been paid to this science. The English Government established an office for meteor- ological objects in 1854. The latest worker in this field was the lamented Admiral Fitzroy, who published his Weather-book, 1863. METEORS. The first on record is one seen by the Arabs in Spain on the death of King Ibrahim ben Ahmad, Oct. 902, o.s. ; another is recorded, A.D. 1202; one is mentioned in Portuguese history, Oct. 22, O.S. 1366. Humboldt de- scribed one seen by him and M. Bonpland atCumana, South America, Nov. 12, 1799 ; the same was seen by Mr Andrew Ellicott at sea off the coast of Florida ; a brilliant shower seen by Major Strickland at Canada West, Nov. 14, 1833. Sir John Herschel described a display of meteors seen by him, Nov. 14, 1866 ; re-appearance of, Nov. 13 and 14, 1867. 566 METER METROPOLITAN COMMONS METER for time and distance invented by M. Van Hecke in Paris, Nov., 1857. METHODISM in the United States of America. The Methodist General Confer- ence resolved in 1839 to send delegates to England in 1842, and one to Canada in 1841. During the four years ending Sept,, 1840, 515 ministers, and 89,781 church members, were added to this denomination. Since that account was made, the increase is ascertained to be 14,000, making the whole addition 103,781. METHODISTS, Wesleyan. This sect founded at Oxford by John Wesley, 1729; and in 1734 John Wesley and George Whitfield began to preach openly, wherever a congregation could be assembled to hear them, which was considered a scandal by the Church of England, in the pale of which they at first professed to instruct. The first Conference held, 1744. The Methodist missions commenced, 1 769, and two were sent to North America ; missions reduced to a system, and a society organized for their support, 1817; in 1767* the number of itinerant preachers was no more than 92, and the number of their members, 25,911 ; in 1795, the number of their preachers was 357> ar >d the members, 83,368 ; at a later period, 1827 and 1828, their number was estimated at 2 11,887 i n England ; 22, 760 in Ire- land ; 36,917 in foreign nations, exclusive of America, or in all about 700,000; their preachers in the American connexion, in 1827, were 1576; in foreign stations, 172 ; in Ireland, 145 ; in England, 829 ; total, 2722 ; since which they have in- creased considerably. In England and Wales they map into 296 circuits, and claim about one in 56 of the total population as members of their community ; in 1839, the Methodists reckoned 3290 ministers, and 740,459 members ; in 1851, 13,000, and raised .140,000. The Welsh Calvinistic Methodists founded by Mr Howel Harris of Trevecca, 1735- METHUEN, treaty between England and Portugal, regulating the commerce between the two countries, concluded, Dec. 27, 1703; abrogated, 1836. METIS, a Gravesend steamboat, came into collision with the screw collier ' Wentworth,' off Crossness Point, on the River Thames, when the former sunk and four persons were drowned, Sept. 6, 1867. METRONOME, invented in France, 1698 ; greatly improved by Maelzel, 1812. METROPOLITAN BENEFIT SOCIETIES' ASYLUM, Ballspond Road, founded, 1829; present building erected, 1836; additional buildings added, 1865. METROPOLITAN BOARD OF WORKS, established by act of 18 & 19 Viet. c. 1 20, Aug. 14, 1855, for the better local management of the metropolis, and the functions of the commissioners of sewers were transferred to them ; Mr Thwaites elected chairman at their first meeting in the Common Council Chamber at the Guildhall, at a salary of 1500 per annum, Dec. 22, 1855 ; the main drainage of the metropolis placed under their control by 21 & 22 Viet. c. 104, Aug. 2, 1858 ; amended, 26 & 27 Viet. c. 68, July 21, 1863 ; loans extended, 28 & 29 Viet. c. 19, May 9, 1865 ; the embankment of the Thames entrusted to them. See Thames. The salary of the chairman increased to 2000 per annum, Jan. 22, 1864; the main drainage works opened by the Prince of Wales at Crossness-point ; Mr Thwaites knighted, April 4, 1865. METROPOLITAN BUILDING ACT, for the better construction of buildings in the metropolis and its neighbourhood, 18 & 19 Viet. c. 122, Aug. 14, 1855 ; amended, 23 & 24 Viet. c. 52, July 23, 1860. METROPOLITAN CATTLE MARKET, Copenhagen Fields, Islington, estab- lished by the act 14 & 15 Viet. c. 61, Aug. I, 1851 ; built from the designs of J. B. Bunning, the City's architect, and opened by Prince Albert, June 13, 1855, cost .350,000 ; first market held, June 15, 1855. METROPOLITAN COMMONS. An act passed making provision for their pro- tection and better management, 29 & 30 Viet. c. 122, Aug. 10, 1866. METROPOLITAN INTERMENTS MEXICO 567 METROPOLITAN INTERMENTS. An act passed making better provision for the interment of the dead in and near the metropolis, 13 & 14 Viet. c. 52, Aug. 5, 1850 ; amended, 14 & 15 VicL c. 89, Aug. 7, 1851 ; the London Necropolis Bill passed, May 21, 1852. METROPOLITAN LOCAL TAXATION. A select committee appointed to inquire into, March 7, 1866 ; made their first report, April 16 ; second, May 6, 1867 ; third report, May 20. METROPOLITAN MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT. Leave given to Mr J. S. Mill to bring in a bill for, Aug. 6, 1867. METROPOLITAN POOR BILL. See Poor. METROPOLITAN RAILWAY from Paddington underground to Farringdon- street ; act passed for the making of, 16 & 17 Viet. c. clxxxvi., Aug. 15, 1853 ; opened for traffic to the public, Oct. I, 1862. METROPpLITAN TRAFFIC. An act passed for regulating the traffic in the metropolis, 30 & 31 Viet c. 134, Aug. 20, 1867. METTINGHAM CASTLE, Suffolk, built by John de Norwich, 1342 ; he founded a college in this castle, and removed the master and chaplains from Ravingham College, Norfolk, to, 1379. METZ, France. The inhabitants murdered by Vitellius, A.D. 71 ; the town de- stroyed by the Huns in the latter part of the 5th century ; made the capital ot Austrasia ; the cathedral built, 1332 ; spire, 1427; besieged by Charles VII., 1444 ; captured by the Constable Montmorency by stratagem for Henry II., 1552. Besieged for 10 months by Charles V. with an army of 60,000 men, but unsuc- cessfully; after losing 30,000 men, he raised the siege, Jan. II, 1553. Reform ban- quet at, Aug., 1840. MEWS, Charing Cross, Westminster, built, circa the reign of Richard II.; John de la Becke appointed keeper of, 1319 ; burnt, 26 Hen. VIII., 1534 ; rebuilt by Kent, 1732 ; so called from the French mue, a cage for hawks, a proper appella- tive for the place at Charing Cross, where this aviary once existed ; but when its designation was altered, and it became a receptacle for the ' royal stud,' nothing could be more improper than the retention of the name ; taken down, 1830. MEXICO, North America, inhabited by the Toltecs, 580; the nation destroyed by a pestilence, 1040; the Chichemecas emigrated to this country, 1150 ; the city founded, 1325 ; a monarchy established, 1351 ; the city partially destroyed by an earthquake, 1446 ; the inhabitants almost perished by a famine, 1452 ; the temple built, 1486 ; visited by an earthquake which did considerable damage, 1487 ; first discovered by Hernandez de Cordova, 1517. Hernando Cortez landed with a large force of Spaniards, April, 1519; took the city, 1520; defeated the Mexi- cans at Tlascalan, July 8, 1520 ; besieged the city and captured it, 1521 ; the mint established, 1535; after suffering the oppression of the Spaniards for 300 years, they raised the standard of revolt, Sept. 16, 1810 ; captured Valladolid, Oct. 17 ; defeated, March 21, 1811 ; Morelos raised a force against the Spaniards, Jan., 1812 ; the National Congress held at Chilpanzingo, declared the independence of the kingdom, Oct., 1813; Morelos defeated before Valladolid by Iturbide, Dec. 24, 1813 ; Guanajuato taken by the insurgents under Mina, Oct. 24. 1817 ; Itur- bide declared Emperor, May 19, 1822; General Victoria proclaimed a federal constitution, Oct. 4, 1824; commercial treaty signed with England, April, 1825; and a boundary treaty signed with the United States, Jan. 12, 1828 ; the Span- iards expelled, Dec. 4, 1828 ; Santa- Anna elected President, July, 1832 ; defeated by the Texians, April 21, 1836 ; a treaty for the suppression of the Slave-Trade signed with England, Feb. 24, 1841 ; war declared against America, 1846 ; Ma- tamoros taken by General Taylor, May 18, 1846 ; Santa- Anna appointed Presi- dent, Dec. 6, 1846 ; Monterey, Sept. 24 ; Vera Cruz invested by General Scott, 568 MEXICO March 9, 1847 ; taken, May 18 ; New Mexico and California ceded to America, Feb. 2, 1848 ; treaty signed, May 19, 1848 ; Santa- Anna re-elected President, Dec. 12, 1853 ; a boundary treaty with the United States signed, Dec. 30 ; re- volution under Juan Alvarez, Jan. 22, 1854 ; Comonfort appointed President, Dec., 1855 5. insurrection at, Feb., 1856 ; the ecclesiastical property confiscated, March 31 ; Comonfort driven from, by an insurrection, Jan. 21, 1858 ; Zuloaga elected President, Feb., 1858 ; Juarez also claimed that office, and a civil war began ; Miramon elected and Zuloaga deposed, Jan. 6, 1859 ; Miramon assumed the government in April ; insurrection against, Sept. ; defeated, Dec. 26, and Vera Cruz besieged, March 13, 1860; siege raised, March 21 ; deposed by Zuloaga, and taken prisoner, May 9 ; the British Legation withdrawn, May 10, and Miramon defeated at Siloa ; Juarez entered the city, Dec. 25 ; made Presi- dent, Jan. 19, 1 86 r ; appointed dictator, June 30 ; a convention signed between England, France, and Spain, for the restoration of order, Oct. 31 ; the two former governments despatched an ultimatum to the President, Nov. 24 ; the English and French Legation left the country, Dec. 16 ; the Spanish forces landed at Vera Cruz and occupied the town, Dec. 17 ; an address issued by the Allied Powers, Jan. 10, 1862 ; the reply received to the ultimatum not being favourable they de- termined to proceed to Mexico, Jan. 29 ; the English and Spanish forces left the country in April ; the French declared war, April 16 ; the French army defeated the Mexicans, April 28 ; defeated by the Mexicans at Puebla. May 5 ; the French under General Forey besieged Puebla, March 18, 1863 ; the Mexicans under Comonfort defeated at San Lorenzo, May 8 ; Puebla captured, May 18 ; the French entered the city, June 10 ; an assembly of Mexicans formed who determin- ed to make it an empire, July 20, and the crown offered to Archduke Maximilian of Austria, Oct. 3; accepted by him, April 10, 1864; landed at Vera Cruz, May 24, and issued a proclamation to the Mexicans, May 28 ; made a public entry, June 12 ; the Empress made Regent in the absence of the Emperor, June 26 ; the Mexicans under Juarez defeated at Estanzuela, Sept. 20, 21 ; again defeated at Xiquilpan, Nov. 22, and at Colima, Dec. 20; they attack unsuccessfully Mazatlan, Dec. 31; the Hon. Peter Scarlett appointed Envoy extraordinary, Nov. n, 1864; Juarez the President issues a proclamation calling upon the people to assist him in repelling the invaders, Jan. 10, 1865 ; the French captured Oaxaca with 8000 men, Feb. 9 ; the constitution proclaimed, April 10 ; Urnpau occupied by the French forces, July 14, and defeated the Juarists at Matamoras, Oct. 25 ; Zoluca taken by the Juarists, Jan. 3, 1866, and Chihuahua, March 25, and Matamoras, June 23 ; President Johnson refused to recognize the blockade of the Port of the Matamoras, Aug. 17 ; the French troops left the country, Feb. 16, 1867 ; Maxi- milian placed himself at the head of the Mexican army, Feb. 5 ; betrayed at Santa Cruz by Lopez, May 15 ; the city taken, tried and condemned to death, June 14; shot with Gens. Miramon and Mejia at, June 19 ; the city of Mexico captured, June 20, 21; proclamation of Juarez issued, July 15 ; Admiral Tegethoff claimed the body of the Emperor Maximilian, Aug. 13 ; refusal of the Republic to give up the remains, Sept. 5 ; Juarez elected President, Oct. 12 ; Santa-Anna banished in Oct. ; the body of the late Emperor given up, Nov. 1 1 ; war declared against Guatemala, Nov. 19. PRESIDENTS OF MEXICO SINCE 1821. 1821 Iturbide, Generalissimo. 1827 General Pedraza, President. 1822 Iturbide, Emperor. 1828 General Guerrero, President. 1823 General Guerrero, ) 1829 General Guerrero, Dictator. General Bravo, > Dictator. 1830 General Bustamente, Presid. General Negrete, ) 1832 General Pedraza, President. 1824 General Guadalupe Victoria, 1835 General Santa-Anna, Presid. President. 1836 St Jose Justo Caro, Presid. MEXICO MIDDLE AGES 569 1837 General Bustamente, Presid. 1853 General Santa-Anna, Presi- 1840 General Farias, Dictator. dent, April 20; elected con- 1841 General Bustamente, Presid. stitutionally, Dec. m, same 1841 General Santa-Anna, Dictator. year. 1843 Santa-Anna retired, succeeded 1855 Don Juan Alvarez, President. by , after whom again 1856 General Comonfort, President. succeeded, 1858 Don Felix Zuloaga, President. 1844 General Santa- Anna, Dictator. 1858 General Miramon, President. 1845 General Canalize, President. 1859 Don Felix Zuloaga, Vice-Pre- 1845 General Herrera, President. sident. 1847 General Paredes, President. 1 860 General Miramon, President. 1850 General Arista, President. 1861 Dr Juarez, President. 1852 Dr M. Juan Ceballos, Presid. 1864 Maximilian, Emperor. 1853 St Manuel Lombardini, Presid. 1867 Dr Juarez, President. MEZZOTINTO ENGRAVING, invented by Colonel de Siegen, 1643, attributed to Prince Rupert by Evelyn ; his earliest engraving was finished, 1658. MICHAEL, ST, Order of Knighthood instituted in France by Louis XL, 1469 ; the number of knights fixed at 100 by Louis XIV., 1665 ; the order established in Germany, 1618; confirmed by Pope Urban VIII., 1624; the order established in Bavaria, 1693. MICHAEL, ST, a Vale Castle, Guernsey, built, 1114 ; the church, 1117. MICHAEL, ST, Festival of, first kept, Sept. 29, 487. MICHAEL, ST, Mount, Cornwall, monastery of, built, 1030 ; fortified in the I2th century ; taken by John de Vere, 1471 ; captured by the Cornish rebels, 1548; by Colonel Hammond, 1646. MICHAEL, ST, Mount, France, or Mont St Michael, in the department of La Manche, 4 leagues S.W.S. from Avranches, monastery of, now a prison, erected, 966, by Richard II., Duke of Normandy ; completed by William I. of England, 1070; Henry II. held his court here in 1166 ; besieged unsuccessfully, 1417, and by the English under Lord Scales, 1423, but the English fleet being destroyed in a gale the siege was raised, April, 1424. MICHAELMAS, from the feast of St Michael, the patron of the Roman Catholic Church, as being the reputed head of the angelic host, instituted, 487. MICHIGAN, North America. This French possession came into the hands of the English at the peace of 1763; added to the Union, 1796; made a territorial government, 1805 ; taken by the British, commanded by Gen. Hull, 1 812 ; ad- mitted to the Union, 1837 ; capital punishment abolished, 1848 ; the constitution adopted, 1850. MICROMETER, invented by Mr Gascoigne, circa 1640 ; improved by Auzout, 1666 ; subsequently by Christian Huygens. MICROSCOPES first used in Holland, 1592 ; Hans Zansz presented one to Prince Maurice, 1617; with double glasses, invented by Torricelli, 1624; Lettwenhoek communicated to the Royal Society, 1673, a description of the construction of a bee and a louse ; solar microscopes invented by Dr Hooke, according to some, and to others by Liebeckuk, 1 740 ; improved by Dr Baker, 1 763, Dolland and Dr Smith, Ross, Sir D. Brewster ; and first applied to photography by Mr R. Hodgson and Mr J. Delves, 1852. MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY, London, instituted, Sept. 3, 1839 ; first Transac- tions published, 1842; the Quekett, 1865. MIDDLE AGES, according to Sharon Turner, commenced at the accession of 570 MIDDLE CLASS EXAMINATIONS MILAN William the Conqueror, Dec. 25, 1066, and terminated with the death of Henry VII., April 12, 1509. See Age. MIDDLE-CLASS EXAMINATIONS, instituted by the Oxford University, June 1 8, 1857 ; first held at Oxford, June 21, 1858. MIDDLE-CLASS SCHOOLS. A meeting held at the Mansion House, London, for the purpose of supporting a scheme for providing cheap middle-class educa- tion, suggested by the Rev. Wm. Rogers, .50,000 subscribed, Jan. n, 1866; the first school opened in Bath-street, City Road, Oct. I, 1866. MIDDLEHAM CASTLE, Durham, the residence of the bishops, built, 1190. MIDDLEHAM CASTLE, Yorkshire, built by Robert Fitz Ranulph, 1180; Fal- conbridge beheaded at, 1471 ; Edward IV. confined in, by the Earl of Warwick, 1470; given by Edward IV. to his brother Richard, Duke of Gloucester. MIDDLE LEVEL Drainage Embankment on the Ouse, near Kings-Lynn, burst, inundating upwards of 10,000 acres of cultivated land, May 4, 1862. MIDDLESBOROUGH, Yorkshire, built, 1830 ; incorporated, Jan. 21, 1853 ; St Hilda church erected, 1839. MIDDLESEX, England. The Trinobantes occupied part of, B.C. 76; they sub- mitted to the Roman invaders, B.C. 54 ; granted to the city of London by charter Henry I., confirmed by King John, 1199 ; writ issued to return two members to parliament, Oct. 3, 1295 ; William de Brok and Stephen de Gravesend re- turned, Nov. 13. MIDDLESEX HOSPITAL, instituted in 1745 ; begun erecting, May 15, 1755 ; enlarged, 1834 ; incorporated, 1836 ; new wing added, 1848. MIDDLETON, Stony, Oxfordshire, Earl Jersey's seat, burned, April 29, 1755. MIDDLETON ABBEY, Dorset, built by King Athelstan, 938. MIDHURST, Sussex. John de Rohun established a Benedictine house and built Easebourne church, temp. Henry III. ; Cowdray Castle built in the next reign ; visited by Queen Elizabeth, 1591 ; destroyed by fire, 1793 ; the grammar school erected by Gilbert Hannam, 1672. MIDWIFERY, taught by Hypocrates, B.C. 400 ; improved by Celsus, A.D. 37 ; and Galen, 131 ; E. Rhodion published a treatise upon this science, 1532 ; in England first treated as a science, 1518 ; the noted Harvey practised in, 1603, in many difficult cases ; employ of men in, not general until 1663 ; the construction and use of the forceps made known by Mr Butter, 1 732 . MILAN, Italy. The ancient Roman city was captured by the Goths in the 3rd century ; made an imperial residence by Maximian, 303 ; an edict in favour of the Christians, issued, 313 ; a great council held at, 300 bishops being present, 356 ; sacked byAttila, 452 ; a diet was held here, 955 ; destroyed by the Franks, 538 ; proclaimed its independence, 1158 ; the agents of Frederick I. driven from the town, April 16, 1159 ; taken by Frederick I. after a siege of seven months, and razed to the ground and the name extinguished, 1161 ; the Lombard league established, April 7, 1 167; restored to the Milanese, April 27, 1 167; the first dicta- tor appointed, 1186 ; invaded by Frederick II., 1239 ; and again, 1245 ; Land Tax introduced, 1248 ; Napoleone made Vicar-General, 1273 ; made prisoner, Jan. 21, 1277 ; governed by dukes from 1395 to 1535- The cathedral Duomo, erected in the 4th century, burnt, 1075 ; rebuilt and destroyed by Frederick L, 1162 ; the first stone of the present building laid, 1387 ; completed, 1685 ; the Basilica of St Ambrose, built, 387 ; repaired, 1631 ; the ancient ducal castle built by Galeazzo, 1358 ; taken by the French, June 9, 1796 ; Napoleon makes a triumphal entrance into, May 15 ; captured the cas f le, May 27 ; the Russian General Suwarroff entered the city after defeating the French army, April 26, MILAN MILLS 571 1799; taken by the Austrians, 1736 ; became subject to Austria, 1748; taken again by the French, May 31, 1799 ; Napoleon made his second entry, June 2, 1800; Napoleon Bonaparte crowned with the iron crown of Charlemagne, May 26, 1805 ; decree against continental intercourse with England issued from, Dec. 17, 1807 ; insurrection in, 1815 ; the arch of peace began, 1807 ; completed, 1830; the arena erected by Canonica, 1806 ; the first race, June 17, 1807 ; in- surrection at, and retreat of the Austrians, March 18, 1848 ; capitulates to the Austrians, under Radetsky, Aug. 6, 1848 ; treaty of peace between Austria and Sardinia, Aug. 6, 1849 ; visited by the Emperor of Austria, Jan. 15, 1857 ; and by Napoleon III. and Victor Emmanuel, June 8, 1859. MILAN, the decree of, issued by Napoleon, Dec. 17, 1807; it declared all vessels of whatsoever nation that should submit to the British orders in council, lawful prizes. MILE, measure first determined, 1593, to be 5280 feet, or 1760 yards; a square mile to be 27,178,400 square feet, or 640 square acres. MILESTONES. William Warren, fellow of Trinity Hall, Camb., planted the first milestone in England ; it is on the road to Cambridge and Trompington, 1725. MILFORD, near Godalming, set on nre, and burned, July 29, 1806. MILFORD HAVEN, South Wales. Richard II. embarked with his forces for Ireland from, 1399 ; Henry VII. landed at, Aug. 7, 1485 ; packets to Water- ford established, 1787 ; the town founded by Mr Greville, 1790 ; the dockyard re- moved from the town, 1815, to Pembroke ; the haven would contain the whole navy of England; the 'Great Eastern' laid up here, 1860; and repaired at, 1861. MILITARY ACADEMY, Woolwich, established, 1741. MILITARY ASYLUM, Chelsea. The first stone laid by the Duke of York, June 19, 1801 ; a site purchased under II & 12 Viet. c. 103, Sept. 4, 1848. MILITIA. A force similar to our militia was enrolled by Alfred the Great, circa 900; an assize of arms was held, 1181 ; the last inspection was held at Winchester, 1286 ; the first commission of array formed, 1422 ; arrays limited, 5 Henry IV. ; Charles I. refused to give the command to the parliament, Feb. 28, 1642 ; the parliament took the command of, May 5; the present force established by 13 Car. II. c. 6, 1661, and 14 Car. II. c. 3, 1661 ; amended by 15 Car. II. c. 4, 1663 ; the laws consolidated, 42 Geo. III. c. 90, 91, June 26, 1802 ; and Ireland by 49 Geo. III. c. 120, June 19, 1809 ; the whole system throughout the United Kingdom remodeled by 15 & 16 Viet. c. 50, June 30, 1852 ; again, England and Wales, 17 & 18 Viet. c. 105 ; Scotland, c. 106, and Ireland, c. 107, Aug. n, 1854 ; their services to be accepted out of the United Kingdom, 18 & 19 Viet. c. I, Dec. 23, 1854 ; the laws of, amended, c. 57, July 16, 1855 ; act passed as to the qualifications of officers, c. 100, Aug. 14, 1855; ballot suspended, c. 106, Aug. 14, 1855 ; a bill was brought in by Lord John Russell to establish a local militia of 70,000 men, but was defeated, Feb. 16, 1852 ; an act passed for the better management of, 30 & 31 Viet. c. 92, Aug. 12, 1867 ; a reserve of, to join the army in the event of war, 30 & 31 Viet. c. Ill, Aug. 20, 1867. MILKY WAY. Galileo discovered that it was composed of separate stars, circa 1611. MILLIDUSE, battle. The Turks defeated by the Russian army, under General Paskiewitch, with a loss of 30 pieces of cannon and 1400 prisoners, July 2, 1829. MILLS of the ancient Hebrews probably differed but little from those at present in use in the East ; they consisted of two circular stones, about 18 inches or two feet in diameter, the lower being fixed ; so essential were they in daily life, that they were forbidden to be taken in pledge, Deut. xxiv. 6. Wind-mills were first 572 MILLUM CASTLE MINISTRIES known in Hungary, circa 710, but were not known in England for 300 years later. Silk mills invented by Sir Thomas Lombe, April 3, 1732. MILLUM CASTLE, Cumberland, built, circa 1190; fortified by Sir John Hudles- ton, 1335 ; bought by Sir James Lowther, 1774. MILTON, Kent, celebrated for its oyster fishery, granted by King John, 12 1 1 ; con- firmed by Charles II., 1675 ; manor granted by Edward III. to Queen Philippa ; chantry founded by Aymer de Valence, 1323 ; visited by a plague, 1602. MILTON, GREAT, Oxfordshire, 16 houses burned at, July 4, 1762. MINCIO, battles. The Austrians, under Beaulieu, defeated by the French, May 29, 1796 ; the passage of, by the French army, Dec. 20, 1800 ; defeated by the Austrians, Dec. 26 ; the Austrians defeated by the French here, Feb. 8, 1814 ; the Sardinian army, commanded by Charles Albert, forced the passage, April 8, 1848; recrossed, July 26; the Austrians retired across, after their defeat at Magenta, June 9, 1859 ; crossed by the allied French and Sardinians, Aug. I. MINDEN, battle, between the French and the allied English, Hanoverians, and Hessians, under Prince Ferdinand, when the latter gained a complete victory, Aug. I, 1759 ; for his conduct while commanding the horse in this battle, Lord George Sackville was tried by a court-martial and dismissed the service, but re- stored on the accession of George III. to the throne, 1760. MINEHEAD, Somersetshire, 47 houses burned down at, July 4, 1791. MINERALOGICAL SOCIETY, the British, established, 1801. MINERALOGY. John Woodward first published an Essay towards a natural history of the earth and terrestrial bodies, especially in minerals, 1695 ; he is looked upon as the founder of this science ; since improved by Werner; Jame- son's system published, 1805 ; Dana's, 1854. MINES. Tin mines were worked in Cornwall from the earliest times ; one at Altenhery, Saxony, discovered, 1455 ; the tin mines of Sumatra discovered, 1710 ; the lead mines of Cumberland were worked as early as A.D. 1235 ; large lead deposits discovered in the United States, 1828 ; the Hartz mines worked, 1520 ; an act passed for the better government and inspection of, 23 & 24 Viet. c. 151, Aug. 28, 1860 ; women prohibited from working in, by the 5 & 6 Viet. c. 99, Aug. 10, 1842 ; a committee appointed to inquire into the operation of the acts for the regulation and inspection of, Feb. 8, 1867 ; made their first report, July 31 ; schools for the teaching of this science established in Hungary, circa 1765 ; many others sprang up in Germany; one opened in London, Nov. 6, 1851. MINES for military purposes. Two were anciently employed in attacking a fortress ; mines of this description were employed at the siege of Melun, 1420 ; and at Harfleur, 1449; gunpowder used by the Genoese at the siege of Lerezandla, 1487 ; the castle de 1'Ovo at Naples taken by the explosion of a mine, 1503 ; the Venetians defended Candia against the Turks from 1666 to 1669, by this method ; the town of Schweidnitz defended for two months against the Prussians by the Austrians, 1 762 ; great improvements have since been made in the construction of, and the charge used. MINIE RIFLE, invented by M. Minie, at Vincennes, 1833 ; first used in the British army, 1851. MINISTRIES : Prime Minister. Appointed. Prime Minister. Appointed. Sir Robert Walpole Apr., 1721 Duke of Newcastle Apr. 5, 1754 Lord Carteret, after- Duke of Newcastle Oct., 1761 wards Earl Granville Feb. , 1 742 Earl of Bute May 29, 1 762 Mr Pelham Nov., 1744. George Grcuville (de- MINORCA Prime Minister. Appointed. signaled the Duke of Bedford's Ministry) Apr. 16, 1763 Marquis of Rockingham July 12, 1765 Duke of Grafton Aug. 2, 1766 Lord North Jan. 28, 1770 Marquis of Rockingham Mar. 3, 1782 Earl of Shelburne July 1 3, 1782 Duke of Portland Apr. 5, 1783 William Pitt Dec. 23, 1783 Henry Addington, after- wards Lord Sidmouth Mar. 17,1801 William Pitt re-ap- pointed May 12, 1804 Lord Grenville (Fox, Secretary of State) Duke of Portland Spencer Perceval Earl of Liverpool George Canning MINT Prime Minister. Viscount Goderich Duke of Wellington Earl Grey Viscount Melbourne Duke of Wellington, Sir Robert Peel Viscount Melbourne Sir Robert Peel Lord John Russell Sir Robert Peel Lord John Russell Earl of Derby Earl of Aberdeen Viscount Palmerston Earl of Derby Viscount Palmerston Lord John Russell Lord Derby Benjamin D'Israeli 573 Appointed. Aug. 10, 1827 Tan. 25, 1828 Nov. 22, 1850 July 11, 1834 Nov. 1 6, 1834 Dec. 8, 1834 Apr. 1 8, 1835 Sept. 3, 1841 Dec. 10, 1845 Dec. 20, 1845 June 26, 1846 Feb. 22, 1852 Dec. 9, 1852 Feb. 5, 1855 Feb. 21, 1858 June 13, 1859 Nov. 3, 1865 June 27, 1867 Feb. 28, 1868 Jan. 8, 1806 Mar. 13, 1807 June 28, 1810 June 8, 1812 Apr. II, 1827 MINORCA, Mediterranean, taken by Alfonso, a Spaniard, 1287 ; captured by the English under General Stanhope, Aug. 28, 1708; a French force of 12,000 men took it from the English, June 27, 1756 ; Admiral Byng was shot for not relieving it, March 14, 1757; re-taken by Spain, 1782 ; restored to England by the Peace of Versailles, Sept. 3, 1783 ; English re-took it, Nov. 15, 1798 ; ceded by the treaty of Amiens, March 25, 1802 ; the naval hospital built, 1722 1795. MIXOTAUR, of 74 guns, wrecked upon the Haaks Bank, on the Dutch coast, when 480 of the crew perished, Dec. 22, 1810. MINSK, Russia. The Russians under General Bronykowski defeated the French, and captured the town with its immense magazines and 2000 men, Nov. 16, 1812. MIXSTRELS, originally players on pipes for the amusement of feudal lords and their households. They are not to be confounded with the bards or poets, who were of older date, and whose compositions they often played, succeeding the Saxon glee-men. John of Gaunt had a court of them at Tutbury, 1380 ; Henry V. had 18 men in 1415 ; one recited before Queen Elizabeth at Kenilworth Castle, 1575 ; wandering minstrels punished as vagabonds, 39 Eliz. c. 4, i$97- MI XT. This establishment was appended to a public treasury near the Tower, as is supposed, about the year A. D. 400, before the Romans quitted the island. An ingot of silver was found in 1777 in the old foundation of the ordnance office in the Tower Ex Otficio Ilonorii ; with some gold coins of the reign of Arcadius and Honorius ; the shape was square, with the four corners extended out of the straight line, so as to render the four sides a jagged curve ; its proper name is a skillet, and forms a proof of the preparatory operations of the monetary systems of the Romans, to whom the art of coining was then familiar, though of considerably less exactness than that of modern times ; they had mints at Rome, Constanti- nople, York, and London ; they were found at a great depth below the artificial stratum, which consisted of almost impenetrable foundations of flint, and cement equally hard. Dr Hunter had in his collection one of these coins. One of them had the impression Aug. G.G., and denoted its date to be A. D. 420. Athelstan first regulated the mint, at a later period, 928, and there were also provincial mints; the mint office in the Tower was established, 1065; the mint was worked by Italians, 1278, from the native ignorance of its management ; the workmen were 574 MINT MISSUNDE formed into a corporation by Edward III., about 1343, when the first entry of gold for coinage occurs ; an act passed for regulating the mint, I Hen. VI. c. 4, 1422, and 2 Hen. VI. c. 12, 1423 ; tin coined by Charles II., 1684 ; Sir Isaac Newton made master of the mint, 1699 ; mints erected at York, Bristol, Exeter, and Chester, 1695 ; the present building erected from the designs of Mr Johnson and Sir Robert Smirke between 1806 and 1810, for which the sum of ,262,000 was voted by parliament ; a new constitution of the mint ordered by 57 Geo. III. c. 67, July 7, 1817, and a second change and re-arrangement by 7 Will. IV. and I Viet. c. 9, April 21, 1837. MINT, the, a notorious district in Southwark, Surrey, so called from a mint being established at, by Henry VIII. ; Sir Edward Peckham, Knight, appointed trea- surer, 1550, and Sir John Yorke under-treasurer, 1551 ; an issue of crowns, half- crowns, shillings, and sixpences were coined here ; visited by Ed ward VI., 1549 ; the property given to Archbishop Heath by Queen Mary, sold by him in 1557 ; clandestine marriages celebrated here, 1712-16 ; once used as a place of refuge for debtors ; suppressed by 8 & 9 Will. III. c. 27, s. 15, 1697, and 9 Geo. I., c. 28, 1722. MIRRORS, or Looking-Glasses, anciently of polished metal, Ex. xxxviii. 8, Job xxxvii. 1 8 ; first made at Venice of silvered glass, 1300, and in England at Lam- beth, 1673. MISSENDEN ABBEY, Buckinghamshire, founded by Sir W. de Missenden, 1133. MISSIONARIES. The first institution established in London for sending out missionaries was the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, 1649 ; the Methodists first adopted the principle, 1785 ; the Royal Danish Mission to Greenland, 1713 ; the United Brethren, 1732 ; since which time many have been founded. The principal missionary societies : Baptist Missionary ... ... 1792 Jews, Society for the Propaga- British and Foreign ... ... 1804 tion of the Gospel among 1842 Church Missionary Society for London Missionary ... ... 1795 Africa and the East ... 1799 Moravian Missions ... ... 1732 Colonial Bishoprics Fund ... 1841 Primitive Methodists ... ... 1829 Colonial and Continental Church Society for advancing the British Society founded ... ... 1835 faith in the \Vest Indies, Present name adopted, May I, 1861 incorporated ... ... 1799 Coral Missionary Fund... ... 1860 The Society for the Propagation Foreign Aid Society ... ... 1841 of the Gospel in Foreign Hawaiin Church and Mission, Parts, incorporated, June 16, 1701 April ... ... ... 1 86 1 Turkish Missions Aid Society 1854 Jewish Converts ... ... 1831 Wesleyan Methodists ... ... 1816 MISSIONARY RIDGE, Tennessee, battle. The Confederates defeated by the Federals under General Grant, Nov. 25, 1863. MISSISSIPPI, North America. First settled by the French under Bienville, 1698 ; ceded to England by France by the treaty of Paris, 1763 ; surrendered to the United States, 1784; constitution adopted, 1817, revised, 1832; admitted into the Union, 1818 ; seceded to the Southern Confederacy, Jan. 9, 1861. MISSISSIPPI SCHEME. See Law's Bubble. MISSOURI, North America. The town of St Genevieve founded, 1755 ; St Louis, 1764 ; added to the United States, 1803 ; admitted into the Union, 1820-1 ; constitution adopted, 1820; subsequently amended, 1822, 1843, and 1850. MISSUNDE, battle. The Prussians defeated by the Danish army, Feb. 2, 1864. MIST MODLIN 575 MIST, a notorious printer, committed to Newgate for a libel, by the House of Commons, although at the same time a prisoner for debt in the King's Bench, June 3, 1721. MITCHELSTOWN, Ireland. A number of young persons meeting in a barn to celebrate a wedding, it took fire, and the bride, with 20 other persons, were burned to death, Feb. 12, 1816. MITHRIDATIC WARS. The first social war broke out, B.C. 91, and lasted four years ; the second, B.C. 75 ; the forces of Mithridates were almost annihilated, and he escaped to Comana, B.C. 73. MITRE, a cap belonging to popes and bishops, in imitation of that worn by the high-priest among the Jews ; the pope has four, differently formed according to the ceremony that demands them. The cardinals wore mitres until 1245, when they were appointed to wear hats by the council of Lyons. MITTAU, Russia, the capital of Courland, founded, 1266; castle erected, 1739 ; Louis XVIII. resided at, 1796; the ducal palace destroyed by fire, Dec. 21, 1788. MITYLENE, island of, in the Greek Archipelago, with 2000 houses, destroyed and ravaged by an earthquake, May 27, 1755 ; visited by an earthquake, which de- stroyed part of the island and killed several hundred persons, March 8, 1867. MNEMONICS, discovered by Simonides, a Greek poet, B.C. 490. Roger Bacon wrote a work upon this science, ' Tractatus de Arte Memorativa ; ' Laurenz Fries of Strasburg published a treatise upon, 1523 ; Lambert Schenkel published his Mnemonics, 1547 ; Dr R. Grey printed his ' Memoria Technica," 1730 ; Major Beniowski published 'A Handbook of Phrenotypics,' 1846 ; J. H. Bacon pub- lished his system, 1861 ; Dr Pick wrote a work upon Memory, 1862. MOBBERLEY PRIORY, Cheshire, founded by Patrick de Mobberley, 1206. MOBILE, North America, founded by the French under Bienville, 1702 ; ceded to England, 1763 ; ceded to the United States, 1813 ; attacked by the Federal fleet under Admiral Farragut, Fort Gaines surrendered, Aug. 10, 1864 ; the Federal iron-clad ' Tecumseh ' blown up by a torpedo, Aug. 15. MOBILIER, a banking corporation in Paris, founded by M. Pereire, Nov. 18, 1852. MOCKERN, battles, between Eugene Beauharnois and the French, and the allied Russian and Prussian army, which was defeated with much loss, April 13, 1813 ; a second battle, yet more sanguinary, Oct. 16, 1813. MODENA, Italy. Made a duchy, 1451 ; purchased from Maximilian by Leo X. for 40,000 ducats, 1514 ; taken by Alfonso I., 1527 ; made the capital, Jan. 12, 1598 ; the prince of, arrived in London, Oct. 16, 1735 ; surrendered to the King of Sardinia, June, I74 2 > prince of, pensioned by the Austrians with 90,000 florins, 1753 ; taken by the French, June 9, 1796 ; revolutionary government established, 1796 ; incorporated with the Cisalpine republic, April 9, 1797; the allied Russians and Austrians defeated by the French under General Macdonald, with a loss of 1500 men, June 12, 1799 ; annexed to the Cisalpine republic by the treaty of Luneville, Feb. 9, 1801 ; formed part of Italy, 1805 ; Francis of Este restored to, 1814; insurrection at, and flight of the duke, Feb. 3, 1831 ; after- wards occupied by Austrian troops ; annexed to Italy, 1860. MODENA order of merit, established for soldiers who have served for 18 years, May 16, 1852. MODERN LANGUAGES, professor of, appointed in the English universities, 1724, by George I. MODLIN, Austria, occupied by the French, Jan. I, 1807 ; garrisoned by them, Jan. 1 6, 1813 ; blockaded by the Russians, Feb. 12 ; surrendered to the allied Austrians and Russians with 1200 men, Dec. 25. 576 MGESKIRCH MONASTERIES MCESKIRCH, battle. The Austrians under the Duke of Lorraine were defeated by the French, commanded by General Moreau, with a loss of 6000 men, May 3, 1800. MOGADORE, Morocco. The town burnt and the troops defeated, Aug. 15, 1844. MOGUL EMPIRE in India, conquered first by the celebrated Jenghis Khan, a Tartar prince, who died 1236 ; Timor Bey became Great Mogul by conquest, 1399 ; the throne continued in his descendants ; Kouli Khan invaded it, and car- ried off enormous treasure into Persia, March 7, 1 734 ; at length Delhi and the Mogul empire fell into the hands of the English, in the present century. MOHACZ, battles, between the King of Hungary and the Turks under Solyman II., when the former was defeated, with the loss of his life and 22,000 men, 1526 ; a second battle here, Aug. 18, 1687, in which the Turks were defeated with the loss of 10,000 men, by Prince Charles of Lorraine. MOHAMMEDAN ERA dates from July 15, 622. MOHAWKS, disorderly ruffians so locally named, who went about London streets at night, wounding and disfiguring passengers, 1711 ; ^"100 was offered for the apprehension of any of them. MOHILOW, battle, between the Russians and the French under Davoust ; after a most sanguinary combat the Russians were defeated with loss, July 23, 1812. MOIR, Captain, found guilty of murdering a fisherman who trespassed on his grounds at Little- Warham, Essex, July 30, 1830; executed, Aug. 2. MOISTERAS, destroyed by a volcano in the island of Fuego, April 30, 1757. MOLDAVIA. Came under the protection of Turkey, 1536 ; Peter the Great of Russia forced the Turks to restore their independence, 1710; invaded by the Russians, 1738; subsequently evacuated, 1741 ', occupied again by Russia, 1769; restored by the treaty of Kainardji, 1774 ; a part subsequently given to Austria, 1778; Russia again invaded these territories, 1791 ; they again took the town, 1807 ; occupied by them, 1828 ; restored by the treaty of Adrianople, Sept. 14, 1829 ; taken by Russia, July 3, 1853 ; evacuated by them, Sept. 15, 1854 ; M. Couza elected Hospodar of Wallachia, thus uniting the two principalities, Feb. 7, 1859 ; assembling of the conference of representatives of the European powers in reference to the principalities of, held in Paris, April 7 ; the Sultan sanctioned the double return of Prince Couza on condition of his rendering homage to the Sultan at Constantinople, Aug. 6, 1859. MOLE at Athens, built, 120. MOLESWORTH, Lady, and her three children burned to death in her house, 1764. MOLINISTS, founded by Molina in Spain, 1586 ; Clement VIII. appointed a Council to decide as to its orthodoxy, 1594 ; they decided against them, 1601. MOLUCCAS, or Spice Islands, first discovered by the Portuguese, 1510 ; the Dutch settled here, 159$; the Dutch East India Company founded, 1603; dis- solved, 1795 ; taken by the English, 1797; returned to Holland, 1800; again occupied by the English in 1810 ; restored by the treaty of Paris, May 30, 1814. MOLWITZ, battle, between the Prussians and the Imperialists under Frederick the Great ; the Austrian loss was immense, April 10, 1741. MOMBAS, Africa, visited by Vasco de Gama, 1498 ; the town burned by the Por- tuguese, 1505 ; rebuilt, 1520; again burned by the Portuguese, 1529; held by them until 1 720. MONASTERIES, the first founded where the sister of- St Anthony retired, 270 ; monks first associated, 328 ; the first founded in France, near Poictiers, by St Martin, 360 ; Constantino IV. sent for a great number of friars and nuns to MONCONTOUR MONMOUTH'S REBELLION 577 Ephesus, ordered them to change their black habits for white, and to destroy their images ; on their refusal he ordered their eyes to be put out, banished them, and sold several of their monasteries, appropriating the produce, 770 ; the first founded in England, 596 ; 27 built by Edgar, 959 ; deprived of their privileges, Oct. 6, 1275 ; lent the king money for his wars, 1314 ; suppressed by Wolsey to endow Ipswich and Christ Church, Oxford, 1525 ; suppressed to endow Eton and King's College, Cambridge, 1528 ; the lesser united, 1528 ; observant suppressed by Henry VIII., 1534; 321 suppressed, to the value of 32,000 per annum, 1535-36 ; 21 suppressed and 121 resigned their charters, above ,100,000 taken from them, 1538; in all 645, of the yearly valueof ,161,000 of money of that time, seized by Henry VIII., under the following Acts of Parliament : 25 Henry VIII. c. 21, 1533 ; 27 Henry VIII. c. 28, 1535; 31 Henry VIII. c. 13, 1539 ; 32 Henry VIII. c. 20, 1540 ; 37 Henry VIII. c. 4, 1545. Several re-established in the reign of Mary ; suppressed and their possession vested in the crown, I Eliz. c. I, 1558. The/m/4 Monasteries : In 1537, 1538, and 1541. Acts of Parliament were passed for the suppression of religious houses in Ireland ; and during the reigns of Henry VIII., Edward VI., and Elizabeth, all the abbeys, monasteries, priories, convents, &c. , were abolished. MONCONTOUR, battle. The Huguenots defeated by the Catholic army under the Duke of Anjou, on the river Dive, 6000 being slain, Oct. 3, 1569. MONEY first mentioned as a medium of commerce : Abimelech gave Abraham a thousand pieces of silver to purchase veils for Sarah and her attendants, Gen. xx. 16, circa B.C. 1898 ; and also that Abraham gave Ephron 400 shekels of silver for the purchase of a burial-place, xxiii. 3 et seq., B.C. 1860; first made at Argos, B.C. 894; changed 18 times in value from 1290 to 1789, and 12 times its value from 1530 to 1789. Silver increased 30 times its value since the Norman conquest ; a pound in that age was three times the quantity that it is at present, and ten times its value in purchasing any commodity. See Coinage. MONEY ORDER OFFICE established in London, 3 & 4 Viet. c. 96, Aug. 10, 1840 ; amended, 1 1 & 12 Viet. c. 88, Aug. 31, 1848 ; office in St Martin's le Grand built, 1849 5 a reciprocal system adopted between England and Canada, May 19, 1859- MONK. Paul of Thebais was the first ; he fled into the mountains to avoid the Dacian persecution, 260 ; some contend that St Anthony was the first who led a regular monastical life, at Mount Colzim, near the Red Sea, 305 ; after this period the monks began to associate, and to form orders ; Athanasius is said to have introduced the monastic life into Rome, 341 ; in 360 it was begun in Egypt and Persia; the former country soon had no less than 96,000 of the brother- hood, according to some authorities. Monks of Canterbury driven out of Eng- land by King John, 1207 ; the foreign expelled the country, 1380 ; 25 executed for opposing Henry VIII., 1535 ; rendered incapable of inheriting estates, 1551. MONKS OF THE SCREW, or the Monks of the Order of St Patrick ; a patriotic and convivial club founded in Ireland, 1779, but died out in 1795. MONMOUTH, Monmouthshire. The castle was erected by the Saxons ; rebuilt by William Fitz Baderon de Monmouth, 1087 ; John of Gaunt resided at, and Henry V. born in, 1388 ; a priory founded at, by Wihenoc de Monmouth, before 1125; incorporated by Edward VI., 1550; taken by the Parliamentarians, 1646; Charles II. granted a charter of confirmation, 1666 ; the church rebuilt, 1740. MONMOUTH'S REBELLION. The duke landed at Lyme, Dorsetshire, June ii, 1685 ; proclaimed king at Taunton, June 20; defeated at the battle of Sedge- moor, July 6 ; taken prisoner, July 8 ; beheaded on Tower Hill, July 15. He was the natural son of Charles II. ; banished to the Continent for a conspiracy, 1683. 37 5?3 MONOPOLIES MONTEREAU MONOPOLIES, a public nuisance, and parliament petitioned against them at the close of the reign of Elizabeth,' 1602 ; further suppressed as contrary to law, by 21 James I. c. 3, 1623; encouraged by Charles I., but suppressed at his death, 1649. MONOTHELITES, a sect who held that in Christ there was but one will ; it arose under Theodoric, 540 ; the Emperor Honorius published an edict in its favour, 630 ; the doctrine condemned by the CEcumenical Council, 680. MONS, Belgium, the site of a Roman camp and castle built by Caesar ; made by Charlemagne the capital of Hainault, 804 ; the church of Waltrudis began, 1450; completed, 1580 ; tower erected, 1662 ; the town-hall began, 1458 ; the Prince of Orange defeated by Marshal Luxemburg, 1678; besieged and taken by the French, 1691 ; restored by the peace of Ryswick ; taken by the English, under Marlborough, 1709; the Austrians destroyed the fortifications, 1784; captured by the French, 1792 ; annexed to France, 1794, and made the capital of Jemappe, 1795 ; restored to Belgium at the peace of 1814 ; refortified, 1818. MONTACUTE PRIORY, Somersetshire, built, 1070. MONTAGUE HOUSE, built by Robert Hooke ; burnt, Jan. 19, 1686 ; rebuilt by Peter Paget, 1689. See British Museum. MONTAIN, the, a party formed by the Red Republicans, in the National As- sembly during the French Revolution, under Danton and Robespierre, 1791 ; they inaugurated the Reign of Terror, 1793; an attempt made at the revolution of 1848 to form a party, failed. MONTANISTS, a sect that had for its founder one Montanus, of Ardaban, Phrygia, a very extraordinary enthusiast, professing the gift of prophecy, calling himself the promised Comforter, 171. MONTAUBAN, Languedoc, the principal stronghold of the Huguenots, besieged by the Royalists for three months, 1621. MONT CENIS RAILWAY. A railway over this mountain proposed by J. B. Fell, of Ulverston, 1862, and a company formed ; trial trip made over 48 miles, Aug. 21, 1867 ; the first train made the through journey, passing over the sum- mit, the elevation being 6700 feet above the sea, Aug. 26 ; the tunnel through the mount begun, 1859 ; advanced four miles at the end of 1867; they have three miles more to complete the work. MONTEBELLO, battles. The French, under Gen. Lannes, defeated the Austrians with the loss of 1400 men and five pieces of cannon, June 9, 1800 ; the Austrian army, 15,000 strong, attacked the French, but were defeated with a loss of 294 killed and 800 wounded, May 20, 1859. MONTEGO BAY, Jamaica, a fire at, which did damage to the extent of ,400, coo, June 14, 1795. MONTEJA, order of knighthood in Spain, began, 1223. MONTEM, a triennial custom of the Eton scholars, who paraded to Salt-hill, dis- tributing salt and levying contributions on all persons ; it was originally held on the 6th of Dec.; in 1759 the day was changed from the 23rd of Jan. to the Tues- day in Whitsun week ; discontinued, 1847. MONTENEGRO, Turkey, declared independent, 1700; defeated the Turks, 1712, and 1796 ; on tne death of Vladika Pierre Petrovitsch, his nephew Daniel suc- ceeded to the government, the constitution being changed, 1851 ; invaded by the Turks, under Omer Pasha, 1853 ; again, 1862 ; a treaty of peace signed, Sept. 9. MONTENOTTE, battle. Napoleon defeated the Austrians at this pass with a loss of looo killed and 600 wounded, and five pieces of cannon, April 12, 1796. MONTEREAU, battle, between the French under Napoleon and the allied armies, MONTE VIDEO MONTSERRAT 579 when the latter were defeated with great loss ; one of the latest triumphs of that extraordinary commander, Feb. 18, 1814. MONTE VIDEO, South America, colonized, 1723 ; besieged by the English, under General Auchmuty, and taken by storm, Feb. 3, 1807 ; retaken by the Brazilians from the Spaniards, 1821 ; made the capital of the new Republic of Uruguay, 1828. MONTGOMERY, castle of, rebuilt, 1093. MONTIEL, battle. Pedro the Cruel was defeated and killed at, by (he French, under Du Queslin, March 14, 1369. MONTMARTRE, France. The convent attacked by a mob of 30,000 men, 1789 ; the nuns, with the Lady Abbess, guillotined in the Reign of Terror, June I, 1794 ; stormed and taken by the Russians, March 30, 1814. MONTORGUEL CASTLE, Jersey, built, 1000. MONTPELLIER, France, purchased by Philip VI. of France from James III. of Majorca for 200,000 crowns of gold, 1350; the Huguenots having taken possession of the town, they were besieged by Louis XIII., 1622 ; during the performance of a play, the theatre gave way, and 500 persons were killed or wounded, July 17, 1786. MONTREAL, Canada, discovered, 1534 ; settled, 1629 ; the town founded, 1642 ; the General Hospital founded by Madame d' Youville, 1 747 ; the town surrendered by France to England, Sept. 8, 1760; damaged by a fire, 1765; again, 1768; taken by the provincial Americans, Nov. 12,1775? retaken by the English, June 15, 1776 ; the church, Jesuits' college, prison, and other buildings burned down, June 6, 1803 ; military riot at, Sept. 19, 1833 ; royal institution founded, 1835 '> tne city incorporated, 1840 ; gas introduced, 1847 ; the disaffected Royalists assault- ed the Governor-General, drove the members out of the House of Assembly, and set fire to the building, April 26, 1849 ; destructive fire in the city, Aug. 23, 1850 ; another, which consumed a third of the city, July 8, 1852 ; another, which de- stroyed property valued at a million sterling, and 1200 houses, July 12, 1852 ; Christ Church Cathedral destroyed by fire, Dec. 10, 1856 ; a serious inundation, the damage amounting to 1,000,000 dollars, April, 1861 ; an act passed to amend and consolidate the provisions of the ordinance of incorporation and to increase the privileges of the town, 14 & 15 Viet. c. 128, Aug. 30, 1861 ; the waterworks established, Dec. 9, 1843 J tne Recorder's Court, rules and bye laws for the better government of, passed, Nov. 10, 1852; the cathedral, with its fine organ and altar, burnt, Jan. 8, 1867. MONTROSE packet, and 'Primrose,' English sloop of war, mistaking each other foran enemy, engaged for two hours off Lisbon, within pistol shot, March 30, 1814. MONTROSE, Scotland, made a royal burgh by David I. in the nth century ; Sir James Douglas embarked from here for the Holy Land with the heart of King Robert Bruce, 1330 ; Chevalier St George embarked here for France, Feb. 4, 1715 ; the lunatic asylum erected, 1780; theacademy, 1814; the foundation-stone of the suspension-bridge laid, Sept. 18, 1829, cost .20,000; opened, 1837 ; the hospital, 1837 ; Dorward's House of Refuge, 1839 ; and the seminary, 1832. MONTROUGH CLUB, formed by the Orleanist conspirators in Paris, 1789. MONTSERRAT, Spain. This celebrated stronghold was captured by the French, July 25, 1811 ; evacuated by them, Sept. IO ; fortified by the English, 1812 ; de- stroyed by fire, July 29, 1812. MONTSERRAT, West Indies, island of, discovered by Columbus, 1493 ; settled by the English, 1632; taken by the French, 1664; restored at the peace of Breda, 1783. 580. MONUMENT MORAVIANS MONUMENT of the Fire of London, designed by Sir Christopher Wren, and erected pursuant to 19 Charles II. c. 3, s. 29, 1667, cost ^13,700; begun, 1671; finished, 1677 ; it is 202 feet high ; the staircase of 345 steps ; the urn on the top is 42 feet high ; the Latin inscription was written by Dr Gale, Dean of York ; some offensive words were added against the Papists in 1681, but they were erased by or- der of the Common Council, Jan. 26, 1831. The following persons have committed suicide from : John Cradock, a baker, July 7, 1788; Lyon Levi, a Jew diamond- merchant, Jan. 1 8, 1810 ; Margaret Moyes, of Hemming' s Row, a baker's daughter, Sept. n, 1839; a boy named Hawes, aged 15, Oct. 18, 1839; Jane Cooper, a servant, aged 17, Aug. 19, 1842, after which the gallery was enclosed with iron work. William Green, a weaver, in looking from the railing accidentally fell over, June 25, 175- MOODKEE, battle, in India, between the Sikhs, 14,000 strong and 22 guns, and the English, who were attacked with great resolution, but the Sikhs were repulsed, losing many men, and 15 pieces of cannon, Dec. 18, 1845. MOOLTAN, Hindustan. This ancient city was plundered by Mahmoud of Ghizni, circa 1006 ; by Timour, 1398 ; by Runjeet Singh, 1806 ; and again, when the whole garrison of 3000 men were cut to pieces, 1818; the town taken by the English, Jan. 2, 1849 ; the citadel surrendered unconditionally, Jan. 22. MOOLTAN, battle, between the Sikhs and the English, in which the former were repulsed, Nov. 7, 1848. MOON, the worship of, extensively practised in the East, 2 Kings xxiii. 4, 5 ; practised in Palestine, Jer. vii. 18 ; xliv. 17. The festival of the new moon is frequently mentioned. First map of, made at Dantzic, 1647. The accelei - ation of the mean motion discovered by Dr Halley, 1693. La Hire in 1706 drew attention to the volcanoes in ; Louville perceived one during the eclipse of, May 3, 1715 > Herschel presented a memoir to the Royal Society ' on three volcanoes seen by him in the moon,' April 19, 1787. Photograph of the full moon taken by Mrde la Rue, Oct. 4, 1865. MOORFIELDS, London, first mentioned in the temp, of Edward II. An attempt made by Thomas Falconer, mayor, to reclaim this tract of land ; he also built a gate, 1414; Roger Atchley, Lord Mayor, drained it, 1512. Laid out in garden plots, 1606; many evidences of these were discovered during the excavations for the railway ; levelled, 1614, and planted, 1640 ; the gate rebuilt, 1672 ; division walls taken down, 1754 ; the gate taken down and sold for ^91, 1760. MOORS, their first invasion of Spain, 173 ; subdued the country, 712 ; their power broken by Alphonso I., King of Navarre, 1118; they sought refuge in Granada and founded a kingdom there, 1238 ; Alphonsus VI., of Leon and Castile, defeated and slew a vast number of them, 1347; Ferdinand V., King of Castile, captured Granada and drove out the Moors, 1491 ; Algiers and Tunis founded by them, 1516 ; the Emperor Charles V. of Spain published an edict ordering all Moors in Spain to be baptized or to leave the country, 1525 ; they suffered severe perse- cution and were finally expelled the country by Philip III., 1608-9. MOORSHEDABAD, Hindustan, subjugated by Acbar, 1584 ; the city plundered by the Mahrattas, 1742; Lord Clive, 1757, defeated Suraja Dowlah, and ap- pointed Jafner Khan ruler, 1 760 ; the territory conferred upon the East India Company by Shah Allum, Emperor of Delhi, 1765. MORAT, battle. Charles, Duke of Burgundy, defeated by the Swiss, April 2, 1476. MORAVIANS, a religious sect founded in Moravia, or rather revived there by Count Zinzendorf, 1722, is well known. In ancient records they are known by the title of Unilas Fratrum, or United Brethren. In the year 1750, Count MORDEN COLLEGE MORMONS 581 Zinzendorf formed an establishment at Chelsea, and hired a plot of ground to erect a large building for the reception of 300 Moravian families, to carry on a manufactory ; and he purchased the Duke of Lancaster's old mansion, called Lindsey House, and of Sir Hans Sloane a piece of land, part of the gardens of Beaufort House, for a burial-ground, together with the stables belonging to that old mansion ; and a slip of ground as a carriage way from the stables, which they intended to make their chapel to Lindsey House. He took a long lease of 99 years, from Sir Hans Sloane, of most of the remaining site of Beaufort House. The chapel was fitted up, but the settlement failed. Count Zinzendorf lived at Lindsey House, and presided over the community as long as he dwelt in England. He also visited America, and there established, more particularly in the town of Bethlehem, a very flourishing settlement of Moravians, the females of which are employed in the education of their own sex, and the men in different manufac- tures ; the Count died at Chelsea, June 7, 1760. MORDEN COLLEGE, Kent, founded for decayed merchants, by Sir John Morden, Knight, at Blackheath, 1695 ; opened, 1702 ; an act passed for the settlement of the property at East Greenwich, and increasing the pensions of the in- habitants, 2 Geo. III. c. 10, 1771 ; Sir Gregory Page by his will in 1775 left ,300 towards repairing the chapel. MORGARTEN, battle, between 1300 Swiss and above 20,000 Austrians under Duke Leopold, in which the latter were defeated ; the Swiss occupied the heights commanding the defile through which their enemies were marching into Zug, Nov. 15, 1315. MORGUE, Paris, erected, 1804; the number of dead exhibited in 1846 was 320; in 1856, 475 ; in 1866, 733. MORLEY, Lord, tried at Westminster Hall for the murder of Mr Hastings, April, 1666, and convicted of manslaughter. MORMONS, or Latter Day Saints. The founder, Joseph Smith, discovered the golden plates of the Book of Mormon, ' The Urim and Thummim and Breast- plate,' Sept. 22, 1827 ; the Church of Jesus Christ organized at Manchester, New York, April 6, 1830 ; the first conference held at Fayette, June I, 1830 ; the Book of Mormon published, 1830 ; the sect removed to Kirkland in Ohio, Feb. I, 1831 ; Mr J. Smith, jun., tarred and feathered for dishonourable dealings, March 25, 1832 ; Brigham Young converted, April 14 ; at an Qicumenical Council held at Independence, Mo., it was decided to print the ' Book of Doctrines and Cove- nants,' May I ; the gift of tongues conferred, Jan. 22, 1833 ; 10 Mormon houses destroyed by the populace in Jackson County, two of the people killed by the saints, Oct. 31 ; twelve apostles organized, Feb. 14, 1835 ; missionaries sent to England, June 12, 1837 ; first preached at Preston, July 4 ; first divine baptism in the river Ribble, July 30 ; first confirmation of members, Aug. 4 ; first confer- ence held in England at the Cock Pit, Preston, Dec. 25 ; they fled to Missouri, July 6, 1838 ; Mr J. Smith and 52 Mormons tried for a riot and shooting the militia, Nov. 12, 1838 ; the first house built by the saints at Commerce, after- wards called Nauvoo, June II ; the city of Nauvoo built, April 21, 1840 ; the town incorporated, Dec. 16 ; Mr J. Smith appointed Lieut.-Gen., Feb. 4, 1841 ; the temple founded, April 6 ; Mr J. Smith appointed mayor of Nauvoo, 1843 ; became a candidate for the Presidency, Feb. 7, 1844; J. Smith and his brother Hyram taken to Carthage gaol for riot, when they were killed by the mob, June 27, 1844 ; the charter of Nauvoo repealed, Sept. 24, 1845 > tne saints repelled from, Sept. 16, 1846; the pioneer band, 143 men, headed by Mr Brigham Young, set out for the Great Salt Lake, entered the valley and founded the city, July 24, 1847 ; the temple in Nauvoo burnt, Nov. 10. 1848 ; the first branch of the church established in France, Dec. 7, 1 850 ; the Great Salt Lake city incorporated, Jan. 582 MOROCCO MORTON-HAMPSTEAD 9, 1851 ; Mr B. Young sworn in as Governor of Utah, Feb. 3, 1851 ; the taber- nacle begun, April 7, 1851 ; corner-stone of, laid, April 6, 1853; Brigham Young re-appointed Governor, Sept. 9, 1854 ; endowment house consecrated, May 5, 1855 > I S saints massacred by the Indians, Sept. 4, 1857 ; General Wells sets out with an army to Utah, Sept. 14, 1857 ', Mr Brigham Young issues a pro- clamation proclaiming Martial Law, Sept. 15 ; Mr Brigham Y 7 oung with 25,000 of the saints left the city and marched to Provo, April 5, 1858 ; peace pro- claimed, June 14 ; the Federal troops evacuated the city, 1861. MOROCCO, Africa. Augustus gave Mauritania to Juba II., King of Numidia, B.C. 25 ; Bocchus usurped the whole kingdom, 33 ; Mauritania came under the power, A.D. 40 ; Claudius divided the kingdom into two provinces, 42 ; the power of the Vandals was destroyed by Belisarius, 534 ; the city Fez, 807 ; the first sovereign of Morocco was Abu Bekr, 1055 ; Fez became independent, 1202 ; the Moors were driven back from Spain, 1492 ; Mulai Sherif-el-Fileli, King of Tafilet, established a dynasty, 1648 ; hostilities commenced between France and, May 30, 1844; the French took possession of Ouchda, June 16, 1844 ; Tangier bombarded, Aug. 6, 1844 ; the town of Mogadore captured and burned, Aug. 15, 1844 ; defeated the Moors on the bank of the Isly, Aug. 14, peace concluded with, Sept. 10. Abd-el-Kader expelled from the country, 1847 ; surrendered to the Due d' Aumale at Nemours, Dec. 22, 1847, and con- fined at Toulon, Dec. 28 ; released by Napoleon III. in 1852. War declared against, by Spain, Oct., 1859 ; the Moorish forces defeated near Tetuan, March 23, 1860; peace signed with Spain, April 27; ambassadors from, presented to Napo- leon III., Jan. 3, 1866; rebellion began against the Bey of Tunis, Sept. 19, 1807. MORPETH, Durham. Held by Roger de Merlay after the conquest ; burned, 1215 ; again burned, 1689 ; the town-hall built from the designs of Vanburgh, at the expense of the Earl of Carlisle, 1714; the county-hall built, 1818, cost ;8o,ooo; a free grammar-school founded by Edward VI., 1552 ; rebuilt, 1857. MORPETH CASTLE, Northumberland, built about 1230; tower of, burned by the inhabitants, from hatred to King John, 1215 ; re-erected by Lord William Greystock, 1358 ; taken by the Scots, 1641 ; retaken by the Royalists, 1642. MORTALITY, bills of, in the metropolis, first compiled, 1536. MORTARA, Edgar, the son of Jewish parents, residing at Bologna, Italy, taken from his home by order of the Inquisition, June 23, 1858. MORTARS. This ancient engine of warfare first made in England, 1543 ; em- ployed at the siege of Naples, 1495 ; red-hot shots were used, 1665. MORTELLA TOWERS, erected by the Spaniards for the defence of their coast, 1540 ; they are named after a tower which commands the entrance to the har- bour of St Fiorenzo, Corsica, which Ensign de Tellier, with a garrison of 38 men, defended successfully against Lord Hood, Feb. 8, 1794 ; the towers (74) extend round the English coast, from Hythe to Seaford. MORTIMER'S CROSS, Herefordshire, battle of. The Yorkists under Jaspar Tudor, Earl of Pembroke, defeated with a loss of 4000 men by Edward, Earl of March, Feb. 2, 1461. MORTMAIN. Edward I. passed a statute to prevent the alienation in mort- main under any pretext, 7 Edw. I. st. 2, 1279 ; amended by 13 Edw. I. c. 32, 1285 ; extended to all corporations, 15 Rich. II. c. 5, 1391 ; repealed, i & 2 Philip and Mary, c. 8, 1554 ; restrictions reimposed by Elizabeth, 1558 ; grants or gifts in mortmain restrained by 9 Geo. II. c. 36, 1736. MORTON CASTLE demolished by David II. of Scotland, 1340. MORTON-HAMPSTEAD, Devonshire, much injured by fire, June 24, 1757 ; 15 houses and an aged woman at, burnt, Jan. 13, 1816. MOSCOW MOUNTAINS 583 MOSCOW, Russia, founded, 1 147 ; Ivan built the Kremlin, and surrounded the city with wooden walls, 1330 ; Demetrius surrounded the city with stone walls, 1365 ; taken by Tamerlane, 1382 ; set on fire by the Tartars, 1571 ; taken by Sigismund, King of Poland, 1610 ; 2000 houses in, destroyed by a fire, July, 1736 ; again, June, 1750 ; 8000 houses destroyed by fire in May and June, 1752 ; entered by the French, Sept. 14, 1812 ; set on fire by the inhabitants, and 1 1, 800 houses burned, Sept. 15-20 ; evacuated by the French, Oct. 19, and re-entered by the Russians, Oct. 22, 1812; the Kremlin rebuilt, 1816; the railway opened, 1851, to St Petersburg ; the French theatre consumed by fire, March 23, 1853. MOSKWA, battle of, between the French and Russians, Sept 7, 1812 ; the Rus- sians defeated, and the French entered Moscow without opposition, Sept. 14. MOSQUITIA, Central America, discovered by Columbus, 1502 ; given to Diego Garcia de Palacio, 1576; taken possession of by the English, April 1 6, 1740; partially colonized by the English, 1741; fortifications destroyed and the island given up to the Spaniards by the treaty of Paris, Feb. 10, 1763 ; confirmed by treaty of Aug. 28, 1814 ; convention between the United States and England, April 19, 1850 ; the Bay Islands ceded by England to Honduras, Nov. 28, 1859. MOSSTROOPERS, a body of Borderers who, living on the borders of England and Scotland, committed ravages upon the peaceful inhabitants ; they were numerous in the reign of Ed ward I., 1290 ; an act passed for their suppression, 13 & 14 Charles II. c. 22, 1662. MOTESFONT PRIORY, Hants, founded by William Briwere, circa 1216. MOUNTAINS, the principal : the Alps in Europe, the loftiest of which, Mont Blanc, had not been ascended before 1785, between which year and 1825 there were six ascents ; since then they have become frequent : 1. Dr Paccard from Chamouni, Aug. 8, 1786. 2. M. Saussure from Geneva, Aug. 3, 1787. 3. Baron Doortheser and M. Forneret, Aug. 10, 1802. 4. Count Matezeski, Aug. 4, 1818. 5. Dr Renselaer and Mr Howard, July 12, 1819. The height of the principal European mountains is as follows : By Englishmen about the same period :- 1. Colonel Beaufoy, Aug. 9, 1787. 2. Mr Woodley, Aug. 5, 1788. 3. Capt. Undrell, R.N., Aug. 13, 1820. 4. Mr Clissold, Aug, 18, 1822. 5. M-r Jackson, Sept. 4, 1823. 6. Dr Clarke and Mr Sherwell, Aug. 26, 1825. Mont Blanc, Alps Mont Rosa, do. The Finsterhorn, do. The Jungfrau, do. St Bernard, do. The Sifnplon, do. St Gothard, do. Mont Cenis, do. Mont Viso, do. Brenner, do. Oertler Spitze, Tyrol Chassoul, in the Jura St Cimone, Apennines Mt Perdu, Pyrenees, France Pic d'Arbison do. Feet. Feet. 15,744 Pic de Montaigne ... ... 7,310 I 5>555 Mulhacen, in Spain, in the Ne- 14,096 vada 11,670 13,725 ^Etna, Sicily, a volcano ... 10,963 1 1, 006 Terglon, in Carniola, Austria 10,390 11,000 Olympus, in Greece ... ... 6,600 9>7S Vesuvius, Naples ... ... 4000 11,785 Hecla, Iceland, volcano ... 4,690 12,584 Snowdon, Wales . . 3,571 5, no Carnedd David, do. ... 3,427 15,364 Camedd Llewellyn, do. ... 3,320 5,260 Cader Idris, do. ... 2,914 6,981 Scafell, England ... 3,166 11,209 Helvellyn, do. ... 3,055 8,344 Skiddaw, do. ... 3,022 584 MOUNTJOY PRIORY MCGGLETONIANS Dartmoor, Devon, England, highest peak Brown Willy, Cornwall Wreckin, Shropshire Marvern, Worcestershire Ben Macdhui, Scotland Ben Nevis, do. Feet. 2,000 1,368 1,320 i,444 4,39 4,368 Cairngorm, Scotland Ben Lomond, do. Hart Fell, do. Ben Wyvis, do. Lugnaguilla, Wicklow, Ireland Carn-tual Gillicuddy's Reeks, Croagh Patrick, do. Feet. 4,080 3,262 3,3o 3,720 3,070 3,440 2,640 NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA. Rocky Mountains White Mountains, near Hants Alleghanies, ... Mount of St Elie, Mexico Popocatepetl, volcano, do. Chimborazo, Andes, Quito ... Gebel Tedla, or Atlas Range Geesh, Abyssinia Amid-amid, do. A Malman, do. Nieuweldt Berg, South Africa Ararat, in Armenia ... Mount Lebanon White Mountain of the Hima- layan chain, in Thibet Jewahir or Himalaya Peak, north of Delhi Kinchinjunga Everest Dhawalagiri ... Kamet Jematura, on the Sutlej A pass in Thibet, Himalaya range ... 12,500 Catopaxi, volcano, Andes, Quito 18,875 7,800 Sangai, volcano, do. 17,125 3,010 Sierra Nevada de Santa Morta 15,165 18,222 Sinchutahua ... ... ... 16,300 16,365 Blue Mountains, Jamaica ... 8,180 21,424 Souffriere, vSt Vincent ... 5,010 AFRICA. 12,050 Devil's Mountain ... ... 3,315 15,000 Peak of Teneriffe, Canary Isle 12,358 13,000 Peak of Fuego, Cape Verd 11,200 Islands ... ... 9,79O 10,000 Renio Peak, Madeira ... 5, 350 ASIA. 9,600 Hamar or Petchu, in Honan, 9,520 China ... ... ... 21,000 Sochonda Mountains, China 12,600 26,462 Parmesan, Isle of Banca ... 10,050 Moonakoah, Sandwich Isles 18,000 25,749 Mount Ida, Anatolia ... 5,800 28,180 Mount Ophir, Sumatra ... 13,842 29,000 Italitzkoi, in Tartary ... 14,735 28,000 Sea-view Hill, New South 22,260 Wales ... ... ... 6,500 25,500 Awatscha, Kamschatka, a vol- cano ... ... ... 9,600 18,600 MOUNTJOY PRIORY, Norfolk, founded by William de Gisnets, circa 1212. MOUNT TABOR, battle. A Turkish force defeated here by Bonaparte, April 1 6, 1799. MOURNING, a particular colour of dress worn for the dead ; in Europe, generally black ; in China, white ; in Turkey, violet or blue ; in Egypt, yellow ; France, violet ; in Spain, white before 1495. MOUSQUETAIRES, or MUSQUETEERS. French cavalry, the first company created by Louis XIII., 1622 ; the second, 1660. The first were called Mous- quetaires, Gris ; the second Noirs, the colour of their uniforms ; they were called rouge, 1673 ; suppressed, 1775 ; re-formed by Louis XVIII. MOZAMBIQUE, Africa, discovered by Vasco de Gama, 1498 ; the chief town founded by Alfonzo de Albuquerque, 1506 ; the town of Angozba destroyed, 1847 ; visited by Dr Livingstone, March, 1856. MUGGLETONIANS, a sect that sprung up in the time of Charles I., whose leader was a tailor's journeyman, named Ludovic Muggleton, 1657 ; he set up for a pro- MUGHOUSE RIOT MUNICIPAL CORPORATIONS 585 phet, and had pretended revelations ; they asserted that God the Father had suffered death, and that Muggleton and an associate named Reeves were the two last witnesses who should appear to call men from their sins before the end of the world ; they had many followers. Muggleton was arraigned at the Old Bailey for blasphemy, and found guilty, Jan. 17, 1676 ; soon after, his works were published. MUGHOUSE RIOT, a tumult in Salisbury-court, Fleet-street, for which five per- sons were hung, July 23, 1716; several clubs established, called the Mughouse Clubs, circa 1716 ; and many riots occurred. MULBERRIES, The. A club formed at the Wrekin Tavern, Covent Garden, each member being bound to contribute some literary production upon Shake- speare, 1824. MULBERRY GARDENS, Whitehall, planted by order of James I. with a view of producing silk in England, 1609 ; several ship-loads of trees imported from France granted to Lord Aston, 1629 ; made a place of amusement, circa 1645. MULBERRY TREES, the first planted in England, at Sion House, 1609 ; a cele- brated mulberry tree at Stratford-on-Avon, planted by Shakespeare, under which Garrick, Macklin, and others, were entertained in 1742 ; it was cut down by a person named Gastrel for fuel, but the wood was saved by a silversmith, who purchased it, and manufactured it into various articles in memory of the poet. MULE, invented by Mr Samuel Crompton, 1779, for which he received 6j 6s. f>d., Nov. 20, 1780 ; $ooo granted by parliament to, June 24, 1812. MULGRAVE CASTLE, Yorkshire, built by Robert, Lord de Turnham, com- panion of Richard I. to the Holy Land, 1209 ; given by King John with De Turnham, daughter to Peter de Manly, as a reward for the murder of Prince Ar- thur ; a modern edifice built near it by the Earl of Mulgrave, 1636. MUM, a liquor brewed from wheat in place of barley, much used in Germany, and greatly at Brunswick, where it is said to have been first made, 1489. MUMFORD, Mr, murdered near Quendon, in Essex, by Pallet, a labourer who worked for him, on the 4th Dec., 1823 ; the murderer was discovered, and after- wards executed at Chelmsford. MUNCASTER CASTLE, Cumberland, built by John Pennington temp. William Rufus, 1090 ; Henry VI. secreted here from his enemies by Sir John Pennington. MUNCHENGRATZ, battle. The Prussians under Prince Frederick Charles de- feated the Austrians and captured 1000 prisoners, June 28, 1866. MUNICH, Germany. The town formed as a salt store in the nth century ; forti- fications destroyed, 1791 ; occupied by the French, June 28, 1800; again, Oct. 9, 1805 ; captured by the Austrians, April 17, 1809. St Peter's church built, 1370; restored, 1607; the cathedral built, 1470; the palace erected, 1590 1616 ; destroyed by fire, April 5, 1749, and again, with 200 houses, April 28, 1762 ; the new palace completed, 1835 ; Wittelsbach palace built, 1844 ; the new university founded, 1472 ; removed here, 1826. Riots at, in consequence of the king's partiality for his mistress Lola Montez, Feb. 9 12, 1848. MUNICIPAL CORPORATIONS and LAWS. By the Julian Law all the municipal towns of Italy, as well as the colonies, received the full Roman fran- chise, B.C. 90. There are traces of municipalities in this country in Saxon times ; they were better organized during the Roman occupation. At the time of the Norman conquest, the county sheriff was supplanted by the Vice comes, while the borough or port-reeve gave place to the bailiff, the new officer being appointed by the king instead of by the resident freemen ; with this exception, these local institu- tions remained the same. Henry I. granted charters to several boroughs, not of in- corporation, but enlarging their powers of local self-government. The first charter 586 MUNSTER MURRAY of Incorporation to a municipal body was granted by Heniy VI. to Kingston- upon-Hull, 1439 ; many towns were subsequently incorporated, abuses having crept into them; an act was passed, $ & 6 Will. IV. c. 76, Sept. 9, 1835, regu- lating 178 corporate towns ; the City of London and 67 others were not included, being reserved for further legislation ; an act passed to amend, 7 Will. IV. & i Viet. c. 78, July 17, 1837 ; persons of the Jewish persuasion admitted to hold municipal offices by 8 & 9 Viet. c. 5 2 > July 3*> I 845 j municipal election regu- lated by 22 Viet. c. 35, April 19, 1859 ; municipal corporations in Ireland regu- lated by 3 & 4 Viet. c. 108, Aug. 10, 1840. MUNSTER, Ireland, taken by Henry II., 1172 ; divided into counties by Henry VIII.; Clare added to, 1601-2. MUNSTER, Prussia, founded in the 6th century ; taken by Charlemagne, 780, and made a bishopric ; John of Leyden, leader of the Anabaptists, took posses- sion of the town with a number of followers, Feb. 27, 1534 ; surrendered to the Hanoverians, Nov. 20, 1759 ; the fortifications destroyed, 1765 ; the peace con- cluding the 30 years' war, signed, Oct. 24, 1648, called the Treaty of Westphalia. MUNTZER, THOMAS, the founder of the sect of Anabaptists, put to death for his belief, 1525. MURAT, JOACHIM, once king of Naples, shot after landing in Italy, Oct. 14, 1815. MURCIA, Spain, taken from the Moors by Alfonso, son of King Ferdinand, 1240 ; the cathedral erected, 13881450; the bishop's residence, 1750; the seminary of San Fulgencio founded, 1592 ; town taken by Gen. Sebastian! and plundered, Nov. 3, 1810 ; the French army under Soult plundered the town in 1812; seriously damaged by an earthquake, March 21, 1829. MURDER. This term was anciently applied only to the secret killing of another, for which, under the Saxon law, a fine was inflicted ; the plea of Englescherie abolished by 14 Edw. III. c. 4, 1340 ; made capital, the king only having the right to pardon, 13 Rich. II. st. 2, c. I, 1389 ; murder by poison made treason, and punished by boiling to death, inflicted, 22 Hen. VIII. c. 9, 1530 ; repealed, I Edw. VI. c. 12, 1547 ; another act passed regulating the punishment for this crime, 23 Hen. VIII. c. I, 1531 ; any woman killing a bastard child, to suffer death, 21 Jac. I. c. 27, 1623 ; repealed, 43 Geo. III. c. 58, June 24, 1803 ; the judge to direct the criminal to be executed the next day but one after he is found guilty; his body to be delivered for dissection, the body to be afterwards hung, 25 Geo. II. c. 37, 1752 ; repealed, 9 Geo. IV. c. 31, June 27, 1828 ; amended, 2 & 3 Will. IV. c. 75, s. 1 6, Aug. i, 1832 ; hanging in chains abolished, 4 & 5 Will. IV. c. 26, July 25, 1834 ; the punishment for, regulated by 6& 7 Will. IV. c. 30, July 14, 1836 ; since amended by 24 & 25 Viet. c. 100, s. I, Aug. 6, 1861. See Executions. MURET, battle. The Crusaders under De Montfort defeated the combined forces of Spain under Pedro II., who, with 15,000 men, perished, Sept. 12, 1213. MURFREESBOROUGH, battles. The Federal army, 45,000 men and 100 pieces of artillery, attacked the Confederates under Gen. Bragg, but were defeated, Dec. 31, 1862. The Federals under Gen. Rosencrans captured the town, defeating the Confederates under Gen. Bragg, Jan. 2, 1863 ; each army lost 10,000 men killed and wounded. MURRAY, Major, killed a man named Roberts in Northumberland-street, Strand, in self-defence, July 12, 1861. MURRAY, Mr, committed to Newgate for his conduct in the Westminster election, Feb. 7, 1 750 ; having attained his liberty at the end of the parliamentary session, again committed, Nov. 20, 1751- MURRAY, the illegitimate brother of Mary Queen of Scots, caused her great MURVIEDRO MUTINIES 587 trouble, 1566; made Regent of Scotland, Aug. 10, 1567; defeated, May 17, 1568; killed, Jan. 23, 1570. MURVIEDRO, Spain, the ancient Saguntum, besieged by the French under Suchet unsuccessfully, Sept. 28, 1811; again, Oct. 18; capitulated, Oct. 25. MUSEUM of ALEXANDRIA founded by Ptolemy Philadelphus, B.C. 280. MUSEUM, The British. See British Museum. MUSEUM, The London, erected in Piccadilly, 1811-12. MUSEUM, South Kensington, opened to the public, June 24, 1857. MUSIC. The present scale of music arranged by Guido, the monk of Arezzo, cina A. D. 960 ; the adoption of the first seven letters of the Roman alphabet as the octave system of signs was invented by Pope Gregory I. at the close of the 6th century ; those at present used, 1338 ; counter-point by Palestrina, 1516 ; Italian style of, introduced into England early in the i/th century. Professorship of, founded at Oxford by Dr W. Hychin, about 1604 ; the first music in England being principally that of the church, masses, and madrigals. A machine invented for ruling music paper by Mr Woodham, 1769 ; a uniform pitch in music recom- mended by the Society of Arts, June 5, 1 860 ; the first concert-room erected in Villiers-street, .York Buildings, 1680; pulled down, 1768; act passed for the better regulation of street music, 27 & 28 Viet. c. 55, July 25, 1864. Mt'SICAL FESTIVALS, now common : the first at Hereford, 1724 . : at Birming- ham, 1778; Norwich, 1811 ; Edinburgh, 1815; one at Westminster Abbey, when William IV. and his Queen were present, 1834. MUSICAL ANTIQUARIAN SOCIETY established in London for reprinting early music, 1840 ; republished William Byrd's Mass for five voices (1558), 1841. MUSICAL INSTITUTION. The ancient academy formed, 1710 ; the Madrigal Society, 1741 ; the Royal Society of Music, 1785 ; the Royal Academy opened, March 24, 1824. MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS, the Inventor of, vtz&Jubal, a Canaanite, Gen. iv. ; was the father of all such as handle the organ. The first mention of music in the time after the deluge is in the narrative of Laban's interview with Jacob, Gtn. xxxi. 27. The silver trumpets made by the metal-workers, and used by the children of Israel to direct the movements of the camp, Numb. x. i 10. MUSICIANS' COMPANY incorporated, James I., 1604; arms granted, Oct. 1604. MUSKETS, matchlock, first used in France at the siege of Arras, 1414 ; at Nu- remberg, 1517; used at the siege of Rhegen, 1521 ; in the Netherlands by the Duke of Alva, 1569 ; in England generally, 1530 ; superseded by the rifle. MUSLINS from India first worn in England, 1670 ; made in England and Scot- land, 1778, 1780. MUSTARD. Mrs Clements of Durham first discovered the secret of grinding this seed. Previously it was pounded ; this gave rise to the ' Durham Mustard,' 1720. MUTE, in a criminal court, refusing to plead, to be taken as a plea of guilty, by 12 George III., and execution to follow ; of this practice there were cases in 1778, 1792, and 1801. MUTINY ACT first passed, I Will. & Mary, c. 5, 1688 ; since renewed annually. M UTINIES. One on board the Bounty, 1789. See Bounty. On board the Fleet, Apr., 1797, demanding an advance of wages; quelled by a promise 'from the Admir- alty which was not fulfilled ; at Plymouth, of the marines, June, 1797, four shot, which occasioned a re-commencement on board the ' London ' man-of-war, when Admiral Colpoys and his captain were put into confinement for ordering the marines to fire, whereby three lives were lost, the mutiny subsided, May 10, 588 MYCALE NAG'S HEAD TAVERN 1797, and an act passed to raise their wages, and the king pardoned the muti- neers. A more considerable one at the Nore, which blocked up the trade of the Thames: it subsided, June 10, 1797, the principal mutineers put in irons, and several executed. The Danae frigate, taken into Brest by her crew, 1800 ; in the fleet in Bantry Bay, 1807 ; at Malta, where the mutineers blew themselves up with a powder magazine, 1 807 ; at Vellore, 1 807. MYCALE, battle. The Greeks totally defeated the Persians at this place, Sept. 4, B.C. 479. MYL.^E, Sicily. A Greek colony, B.C. 648; taken by Laches, B.C. 427, and by Rhegian, B.C. 394. MYSORE, Hindustan. Invaded by the Mussulmans, 1310; incorporated with Delhi, 1327 ; taken and sacked, 1339 ; Deo Raj defeated the army of Mussul- mans sent to destroy his kingdom, 1737 ; Hyder Ali became sovereign of, 1760 ; first war with, Nov. 12, 1767 ; the Mahrattas overrun the country, 1770 ; part of, ceded to the Mahrattas, 1772; re-conquered by Ali, 1774; he died, Dec. 7, 1782; invaded from Bombay, Dec., 1/82; treaty of, March n, 1784; Tippoo Saib defeated, 1789; again defeated by Lord Cornwallis, Feb., 1792; peace signed, Feb. 19, 1792; Seringapatam taken, May 2, 1798; invaded by the British army under Gen. Harris, Feb. 10, 1799 ; the territory taken in the name of the British government, May, 1799 ; annexed to the British territories, 1847. MYSTERY PLAYS. The first held in England at Dunstable in the I2th century. MYSTICS. A sect of Christians which arose in the 4th century. They were numerous in the western empire in the 9th century. N NAARDEN, Holland. Taken by the Spaniards and most of the inhabitants massacred, Dec. 2, 1572 ; captured by the French, 1672 ; by the Dutch under William III., 1673. NAAS, battle, between the Irish rebels and two regiments of the Royal forces; the former were defeated with considerable loss, May 24, 1 798. NABONASSAR, the era of, beginning Feb. 26, B.C. 747. NACHOD, battle. The fifth corps of the Prussian army, under the Crown Prince, defeated the Austrians under Gen. Ramming, with a loss of 900 men, and two generals, June 27, 1866. NAGASAKI, Japan. The only port in which the Europeans were allowed to trade. The Portuguese established a settlement, 1566 ; the Dutch, 1641 ; the commercial treaty with Great Britain opening the port of, to English traders, signed, Aug. 26, 1858. NAGPORE, Hindustan, formerly one of the Mahratta confederation. Rajah Ra- gogee united with Scindia against the English, 1803 ; defeated and surrendered the province of Cuttack, 1804 ; Appa Sahib with a force of 20,000 men and 36 guns attacked the British residency, which was defended by Col. Hopeton Scott with 1350 men and 6 guns, when the former were defeated, Nov. 26 & 27, 1817 ; Gen. Doveton again defeated them, Dec. 16; they attempted to take the town, but unsuccessfully, Dec. 23 ; the palace destroyed by fire, 1845 ; annexed to the English eastern possessions, 1854. NAG'S HEAD TAVERN, Cheapside. Romish writers have stated that Matthew NAIAD NANTUCKET 589 Parker, Archbishop of Canterbury, was consecrated here in 1559, but the story has since been proved false ; he was consecrated at Lambeth, Dec. 17 in that year. NAIAD, transport, lost off the coast of Newfoundland, Oct. 22, 1805. NAILS. Mr W. Finch, of Wimbome, Staffordshire, and Mr T. Clifford, of Bristol, obtained a patent for making nails by machinery, 1790; and Messrs Wilmore and Tonk patented their process, 1808 ; iron nails made by the Ameri- cans by machinery, 1810. N AJAR A, battle. Edward the Black Prince marched into Castile, in order to re- store Peter the Cruel, who had been driven from his throne by his brother Henry, Count of Transtamare, in conjunction with the French ; Edward totally defeated him with a loss of 20,000 men, losing only 4 knights and 40 private men, 1367. NAKHITCHEVAN, Persia, taken by the Russians, OcL 26, 1827 ; ceded to them, Feb. 22, 1828. NAMUR, Belgium, founded in the early part of the 8th century ; besieged by the French, May 25, 1692 ; surrendered, June 5 ; retaken by the English and Dutch forces under William III. after a siege of 10 months, Sept. 5, 1695 > garrisoned by the Dutch, 1715 ; taken by the French, 1746 ; restored to the Austrians, Oct. 7, 1 748 ; the fortifications destroyed, 1 784 ; retaken by the French, Nov. 30, 1792, and evacuated the next year ; retaken by them, 1794 ; surrendered to the allies, 1814 ; fortifications rebuilt under the directions of Wellington, 1817. NANCY, France, formerly the residence of the Dukes of Lorraine, and the capital town. Taken by Charles the Bold, 1475 ; he was killed under the walls of the town, 1477. The church of Notre Dame de Bon Secours rebuilt by Stanislaus, King of Poland, 1 738 ; revolt of the French and Swiss troops at, and plunder of the town, Aug., 1790 j quelled by Gen. Bouille ; captured by the Prussians under Blucher, 1814. NANKIN, China. The porcelain tower built, 1277 ; the fleet under Sir W. Par- ker bombarded the town, Aug. 17, 1842; treaty of peace concluded, Aug. 29; supplementary treaty, Oct 8, 1843 ; taken by the Taepings, March 19, 1853 ; the porcelain tower destroyed, Feb. 10, 1857 ; retaken by the Chinese, May 21, 1862 ; defeated the following year by the rebels, who recovered possession, but were driven out by the Imperialists, July 19, 1864. NANTES, France. The Condrvincum of the Romans, inhabited by the Nannetes ; captured by the Normans, 853 and 859 ; besieged and taken by the English, 1343 ; and by the English under the Earl of Buckingham, 1380; Charles VIII. of France captured the town, 1491 ; St Peter's cathedral built, 1434 ; Prince Charles Edward embarked from, for Scotland, 1745 ; the town taken by the Royalists, June 29, 1793 ; a revolutionary tribunal established at, under the presidency of a miscreant named Carrier, who destroyed 13,000 persons by every species of cruelty, in the months of Oct., Nov., and Dec., 1793 ; a powder magazine at, exploded, May 28, 1 800, destroying a number of persons and houses, a four-pounder cannon was blown to a long distance ; reform banquet at, June 14, 1840 ; the bank of, stopped payment, 1848 ; revolution at, April 27, 1848 ; the statue of M. Billault unveiled by M. Rouher, Sept. 15, 1867. NANTES, Edict of, published by Henry IV. of France, granting toleration to the Protestants, April 15, 1598 ; registered by the parliament of Paris, Feb. 25, 1599; renewed by Mary de Medici, 1610; revoked by Louis XIV., Oct. 17, 1685; not less than 50,000 French Protestants left their native land and settled in Eng- land, to which they carried the manufactures of their own country, more especially that of silk, which began in Spitalfields. NANTUCKET, Massachusetts. Three parts of the town destroyed by fire, July 13, 1846. 590 NANTWICH NAPLES N ANT WICH, battle. The five Irish regiments under Lord Byron attacked the Parliamentarians at this town, but were defeated by Sir Thomas Fairfax and Col. Monk, and 1600 men made prisoners, Jan. 25, 1644. NAPIER'S BONES, pieces of ivory invented by Napier, baron of Merchiston, the inventor of logarithms, 1617, and used to aid in the computation of numbers, so that the multiplication and division of high numbers may be easily performed. NAPLES, Italy. Great part of the country anciently held by the Etruscans, who built Nola and Capua, formerly called Capua and Campania ; it has undergone many changes and revolutions : it was distinguished subsequently from the king- dom of Puglia, governed first by Roger, Count of Sicily, 1127 ; the Goths were once masters of Naples and Sicily, but were driven out by Belisarius, 536 ; Totila captured it, 542 ; the Lombards were the next possessors, and were dis- possessed by Charlemagne, 802 ; Pandolfo IV., Prince of Capua, took posses- sion of the throne, 1027 ; he was expelled by Duke Sergio, 1030 ; Roger, Count of Sicily, besieged and took Neapolis, 1130, and founded the present kingdom ; in 1266, Charles of Anjou, brother of St Louis, King of France, obtained the crown from the pope to the exclusion of the rightful heir, Conradin, who was be- headed, aged 16 ; a general massacre of the French by the Sicilians, one only escaping, March 30, 1282 ; Peter of Arragon came to the throne, 1282. The cathedral built from the designs of Masuccio I. ; begun, 1272; finished, 1316. Castel Nuovo built, 1283. The Porto Grande begun, 1302; increased, 1792. The castle of St Elmo built by King Robert the Wise, 1343. The crown of Sicily dis- joined from Naples, 1303. The King of Hungary (Durazzo) murdered at the instigation of the queen regent, in her presence, 1386 ; she was subsequently taken out of her carriage whilst travelling and thrown into the river Bosseth, 1387 ; Sicily united to Naples, and the kings since called kings of the Two Sicilies, 1442 ; the city taken by the French under Charles VIII., Feb. 22, 1495 ; taken from the French and annexed to Spain, May 14, 1502. The palace built from the designs of Domenico Fontana, begun, 1600. The Museo Borbonico begun in 1586 ; made the university, 1615 ; reduced in size and made a museum, 1790. The tyranny of the Spaniards led to an insurrection, incited by Masaniello, a fisherman, who in 15 days raised 200, ooo men, 1647 ; Masaniello murdered, 1647 ; the Duke of Guise attempted to seize the crown, 1647 ; the kingdom entirely re- duced by Prince Eugene, 1707 ; Naples ceded to Austria, April, 1713, and Sicily, 1720 ; the two kingdoms recovered by the Spaniards, June, 1734; Charles, the son of Philip of Spain, crowned, July 3, 1735 > the theatre, Reale di San Carlo, the largest in Europe, built from the designs of Carasale, opened, 1737 ; Ferdinand IV. crowned, 1759 ; the French invade the country, the king and family embarked on board Nelson's fleet for Sicily, Dec. 21, 1798 ; the city taken, Dec. 23 ; insurrection at, 1799 ; Nelson appeared, Naples retaken, and the king restored, July 13, 1799; re-taken by the French, April 7, 1801 ; earthquake throughout the kingdom, and thousands perished, July 26, 1805 ; a treaty signed between the Emperor of France and Naples, Oct. 8, 1805 ; the streets first lighted with oil lamps, 1806 ; Ferdinand IV. driven from Naples, and Joseph Bonaparte crowned king, Feb. 15, 1806 ; Joseph abdicated, made king of Spain, June I, 1808; the crown transferred to Joachim Murat, July 15, 1808; anew constitution granted to Sicily, 1812 ; Naples surrendered to the British fleet, and Ferdinand restored, June 17, 1815; Joachim Murat shot, Oct. 15, 1815; the theatre, Reale di San Carlo, destroyed by fire, 1816 ; rebuilt from the designs of Nicolini, 1817 ; General Pepe headed a number of dissatisfied citizens, July 15, 1820; revolution at Palermo, July 15, 1820; suppressed, Oct. 5 ; suppression of the Carbonari, Sept. 16, 1820; reciprocity treaty with England, 1823; death of Ferdinand IV., who reigned 66 years, and reign of Francis I., 1825 ; the Porto Militare begun, 1826 ; reign of Ferdinand II., Nov. 8, 1830 ; the streets lighted with gas, 1840; a dispute arose relative to the so-called monopoly in sulphur NAPOLEON I. NAPOLI-DI-ROMANIA 591 but was satisfactorily adjusted, March 15, 1840. Palermo and the great towns of Sicily rose in insurrection against the King of Naples : they proclaimed a provincial government, and decided on observing the constitution of 1812, Jan. 12, 1848 ; their wishes were complied with, after some fighting, proclaimed, Jan. 29, 1848 ; insurrection at Messina, Jan. 28, 1848 ; the town bombarded from March 7 to May 2 ; fighting at Naples between the Royal troops and National Guard, the former were successful, May 15, 1848 ; Messina bom- barded for five days by the Neapolitans, and taken, Sept. 7, 1848 ; Catania taken by the Royal forces, April 2, 1849 ; blockade of Palermo, April 30, 1849 ; en- tered by the Neapolitans after much fighting, May 13, 1849, and the absolute monarchy re-established ; an attempt made to assassinate the king by a soldier, Dec. 8, 1856; 10,000 inhabitants destroyed by an earthquake, Dec. 16, 1857 ; the Inquisition abolished in Tuscany, Nov. 16, 1859 ; the director of the Sicilian police stabbed in Palermo, Dec. 2, 1859 ; General Filanghieri resigned the com- mand of the Neapolitan troops, Feb. 7, 1860; general rising of the Sicilians against Naples, March 15 ; the insurrection at Palermo suppressed by Neapolitan troops, April 4 ; Sicily convulsed by political commotion, April 12; Garibaldi defeated the Neapolitan forces, May 22 ; entered Palermo, May 27 ; the minis- ters resign, May 29 ; the soldiers evacuate Sicily, July 20 ; the king left for Gaeta, Sept. 7 ; Garibaldi, accompanied by his staff only, entered the town, Sept. 8, and organized a government ; Victor Emmanuel proclaimed King of Italy at, Sept. 9 ; the Neapolitan fleet handed over to the Sardinian admiral, Sept. n ; Pessaro taken, Sept 12; Perugia, Sept. 14; the Neapolitan army defeated at Volturno by Garibaldi, Oct. I ; Capua taken, Nov. 2 ; Gaeta be- sieged, Nov. 3 ; declared for annexation to Sardinia, by 1,302,064 against 10,312 votes, Nov. 3; Victor Emmanuel entered the city, Nov. 7; Gaeta sur- rendered to Gen. Cialdini, Feb. 13, 1861 ; the ex-king and queen left in the French ship-of-war 'Monette,' Feb. 12 ; Torre del Greco destroyed by an eruption of Vesuvius, Dec. 8 ; serious outbreak of cholera at, July and Aug., 1867 ; insur- rection at, in consequence, quelled, Sept. I ; eruption of Vesuvius, Nov. 12. NAPOLEON I., Emperor of the French, King of Italy, and Protector of the Con- federation of the Rhine, born at Ajaccio in Corsica, Aug. 15, 1769 ; married Madame de Beauharnais (afterwards the Empress Josephine), March 9, 1 796 ; divorced from, Dec. 15, 1810, and married Maria Louisa of Austria, by proxy, March 1 1 ; the ceremony repeated at the Tuilleries, April 2 ; she gave birth to a son, March 20, 1811. Napoleon died at St Helena, May 5, 1821, aged 52; his remains brought from St Helena, and deposited in the Hotel des Invalides, at Paris, Dec. 15, 1840 ; the tomb and house at Longwood, in which he resided at St Helena, purchased by Napoleon III., May 7, 1858 ; the funeral car presented by Queen Victoria to the French nation, Nov. 5, 1858. NAPOLEON II., son of Napoleon Bonaparte, and King of Rome, and styled in Vienna Duke of Reichstadt, born, March 20, 1811 ; created King of Rome ; pro- claimed Emperor of the French under the title of Napoleon II., June 21, 1815 ; died of a decline at the palace of Schoenbrunn, July 22, 1832. NAPOLEON III., born, April 20, 1808 ; elected President, Dec. IO, 1848 ; pro- claimed, Dec. 20 ; coup d'etat, Dec. 2, 1851 ; elected Emperor, Nov. 21, 1852 ; made his entry into Paris, Dec. 2 ; married Eugenie Marie de Guzman, Com- tesse de Teba, Jan. 29, 1853 ; the Prince Imperial born, March 16, 1856. NAPOLI-DI-ROMANIA, Greece. This second Gibraltar is situated upon a rock 800 feet high. The Turks besieged in it by the Greeks unsuccessfully, Dec. 15, 1821 ; the Greeks captured it by escalade, Dec. 12, 1823 ; made the seat of government, June 24, 1824 ; the town taken by the rebels, Feb. 13, 1862 ; they were defeated and driven out, March 13. 592 NARBONNE NATIONAL DEBT N ARBONNE, France, formerly the Roman colony, Narbo Martins, founded B. c. 118. It was captured by the Visigoths, A. D. 462 ; by the Burgundians, 508 ; by the Franks, 53 1 > an( i by the Moors, 779 ; the latter were expelled by Charles Martel. Cathedral of St Just founded, 1272 ; finished, 1332. NARVA, battle, between Peter the Great of Russia and Charles XII. of Sweden, Nov. 30, J7OO, in which Peter the Great lost 30,000 men, and as many more made prisoners, while the Swedish army did not amount to more than 30,000 opposed to thrice as many Russians. NASEBY, battle, at Market Harborough, between Charles I. and the Parliament- arians under Sir Thomas Fairfax ; Cromwell, who was present with his iron re- giment of horse, turned the tide of the battle, which was decisive, the king, aban- doning his baggage, obliged to fly for his life ; many ladies of distinction killed in the flight ; all his cannon taken, 5000 prisoners, and 9000 stand of arms, June 14, 1645. NASHVILLE, North America. The university founded, 1806 ; the capitol built, 1845 ; evacuated by the Confederate army, Feb. 23, 1862 ; the Federals under Gen. Thomas, 30,000 strong, defeated the Confederates under Gen. Hood, Dec. 1 6, 1864. NASMYTH'S STEAM HAMMER, invented by him and patented, June 9, 1842; amended, Jan. 4, 1843 ; improvements made in, by the inventor and Mr Gaskel, Feb. 23, 1848. NASSAU, Germany, noted for its porcelain, 1740-50 ; constitution decreed, Sept. I, 1814; modified, 1848; Adolf I. succeeded to the title of Duke of, Aug. 20, 1839. NATAL, Africa, discovered by the Portuguese, Dec. 25, 1498 ; the first English settlement was made under Lieut. Fanwell, 1824 ; the Dutch made a settlement, 1837 ; the Dutch settlers were attacked by the Kafirs, when the latter were de- feated, 1838 ; the Dutch declared their independence, 1839 ; Capt. Smith took military possession of, for England, June, 1842 ; constituted a separate govern- ment, Nov., 1845; made a bishopric, and the Rev. J. W. Colenso consecrated the first bishop, Nov. 23, 1853 ; John Maclean, C.B., appointed Lieut. -Governor of, April 6, 1864. NATCHEZ ON THE MISSISSIPPI, visited by a tornado, which killed 317 per- sons, and destroyed much property, May 7, 1840. NATIONAL ANTHEM, composed by Dr Henry Carey in honour of a birthday of Geo. II., and first sung, Jan., 1740. ChappelVs Popular Music of the Olden Time, NATIONAL ASSEMBLY, France. The States constituted themselves, June 17,' 1789 ; first meeting at the church of St Louis, June 22; transferred to Paris, Oct. 6; assumed the executive power, June 26 ; assembly dissolved itself, Sept. 30, 1791. NATIONAL ASSOCIATION for the Promotion of Social Science, founded under the auspices of Lord Brougham, July 29, 1857 ; the first meeting held at Bir- mingham, Oct. 12. NATIONAL CONVENTION, formed in France, Sept. 17, and opened in due state, Sept. 21, 1792; Louis XVI. tried before, Dec. II ; declared war against Great Britain and Holland, Feb. I, 1793 ; appointed a committee to draw up a new constitution, accepted by the Convention, Aug. 22, 1 795 ; broken up after a continuous session of three years and two months, Oct. 26, 1 795. NATIONAL DEBT. This debt consists of moneys raised by loans to make up deficiencies in the income of the country. There is the unfunded debt, consisting of the issue of Exchequer and Navy Bills, and the funded debt, which begun with the closing of the Exchequer by Charles II., with sums amounting to a total of ;i, 328,000, Jan. 2, 1672 ; the principal was never repaid ; the creditors, after much litigation, were to receive 3 per cent, interest upon their claims after Dec. NATIONAL GALLERY NATURALIZATION 593 2 5> '"OS. l>y I2 & 1 3 Will. III. c. 12, s. 15, 1700-1 ; the sum agreed to was .064,263 ; this formed the first item in the National Debt. A loan of 1,000,000 was raised at 10 per cent, on life annuities, 5 Will. & Mary, c. 5, 1693. At the pi.\ice of Ryswick, the debt amounted to 21,515,742, Sept. 20, 1697 ; at the commencement of Queen Anne's war, .16,394,702, 1702 ; at the peace of Utrecht, .52,145,303, April II, 1713; at the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, j79 2 93>7!3, Oct. 18, 1748; at the peace of Paris, 138,865,430, Feb. IO, 1763 ; at the peace of Versailles, 249,851,628, Sept. 3, 1783 ; at the peace of Amiens, 520,207,101, March 25, 1802 ; at the treaty of Vienna, TJ3, 195,93I March 23, 1815, the interest of which amounted to .28,128,107 ; in 1818 it had reached 56, 729,400 ; in 1834 it was 773,234,401 ; in 1844 it was reduced to .18,407,300. The debt has grown from a sum of .3,130,000, and an annual charge of 232,000, to a sum of .865,078,554, with a charge of 28,204,299 ; 24,000,000 ster'ing ordered to be converted into terminable annuities by 30 Viet, c. 26, May 31, 1867. Barber, Fletcher, Saunders, his wife, and Mrs Dorey, found guilty of a conspiracy to defraud the Commissioners of, by forging Wills, April 22, 1843. The National Debt. Florence finding itself in debt to the amount of .60,000, formed this sum into a joint-stock at 5 percent, interest, 1341. Of Aus- tria was ; 1 6, 600, ooo, 1789 ; in 1841 it was ,100,000,000 ; the interest of, was ^"4,281,700; in 1866, 247,094,474. Of France, amounted to .260,000,000, 1789 ; to Fr. 12,315,946,794, 1864. Of India was <), 142,720, 1792 ; it had in- creased to 44, 800, ooo, 1833; was .36,322,819, 1843; increased to 49,043,526, 1853 ; and to ^"98,518,145, 1858. Of Prussia, amounted to 39,191,795. Of Russia, amounted to ,120,000,000, 1864. Of Spain, 163,977,472, 1866. NATIONAL GALLERY OF PAINTING, founded by Parliament, April 12, 1824 ; Mr Angerstein's collection of pictures purchased for 57,000, March 26 ; first exhibited in Pall .Mall, May 10, 1824 ; Sir G. Beaumont gave 16 pictures, 1826 ; the building at Trafalgar-square built from the design of Professor Wilkins, R.A., 1832-38 ; an act passed for the enlargement of, 29 & 30 Viet. c. 83, Aug. 6, 1866 ; amended, 30 & 31 Viet. c. 41, July 15, 1867 ; designs for the erection of a new gallery exhibited at the Royal Gallery, Westminster, Jan., 1867; report of the Commissioners upon the designs, Feb. 28. NATIONAL GUARD, France, raised by the revolutionists; it consisted of 48,000 men ; it was at first named the Parisian militia ; its colours were red, white, and blue, 1789 ; reorganized by Napoleon I., 1805, and again re-established by Charles X., July, 1830 ; disbanded by Charles X., April 30, 1827 ; reappointecl, Aug. 3, 1830. NATIONAL LIFE-BOAT ASSOCIATION, founded, 1824. NATIONAL PORTRAIT EXHIBITION, suggested by Lord Derby, May 6, 1865 ; first exhibition opened at South Kensington, April 16, 1866 ; closed, Aug. 18, 1866 ; the second opened, May I, 1867 ; closed, Aug. 31 ; third opened, April 13, 1868. NA 1TONAL PORTRAIT GALLERY, established by government, Dec. 2, 1856; opened, Jan. 14, 1859, by tickets ; opened to the public, Feb. 25, 1860. NATIONAL RIFLE ASSOCIATION, formed, Nov., 1859; first meeting held at Wimbledon, Her Majesty firing the first shot, July 2, 1 860. NATIVITY. The nativity of St John the Baptist is celebrated in the Romish Church on the 24th June ; the nativity of the Holy Virgin, a feast established by Pope Sergius I., celebrated the 8th Sept ; the Nativity of Christ, or the feast of Christmas, Dec. 25. NATURALIZATION, first Act for, passed in England, 7 James I. c. 2, 1609 ; re- pealed, Nov. 26, the same year ; only naturalized by Act of Parliament until 38 594 NAUMBERG NAVARRE a more simple and inexpensive mode was adopted by 7 & 8 Viet. c. 66, Aug. 6, 1844; for the Jews, 26 Geo. II. c. 26, June 7, 1753; repealed, 27 Geo. II. c. I, Dec. 20,1753. NAUMBERG, Prussia. The cathedral built and opened, 1249; the Hussites be- sieged the town, 1482 ; captured by the French, Oct. 10, 1806. NAUVOO, North America, founded by the Mormons, April 21, 1840 ; the corner- stone of the Mormon temple was laid, April 6, 1841 ; dedicated, May i, 1846 ; destroyed by fire, Nov. 10, 1848 ; municipal charter granted, Dec. 16, 1840; the Mormons obliged to emigrate to Utah, 1847 ; the Nauvoo legion formed, Feb. 4, 1841. NAVACTA, Macedonia. Taken by the Turks, and 4000 Greeks massacred, 120 villages were burnt, April, 1822. NAVAL ARCHITECTURE, School of, founded at Portsmouth, 1816. NAVAL ASYLUM, founded by the Duke of Clarence, 1801 ; established at Greenwich by George III., Jan., 1818. NAVAL BENEVOLENT SOCIETY, the Royal, established, 1839, to assist officers and their widows in distress. NAVAL COLLEGE, Portsmouth, founded on Portland Island, 1720. NAVAL DRESS, or uniforms, regulations of, 1748 ; blue, faced with white, until altered by William IV. to blue and red ; the white facing has since been restored. In the reign of James I., 1609, the six principal masters in the navy wore coats of fine red cloth. NAVAL FEMALE SCHOOL, the Royal, established for the daughters of the Royal Navy, 1840. NAVAL FUND, established by Queen Adelaide, to help the orphan daughters of seamen, 1850. NAVAL KNIGHTS of Windsor, founded by the will of Samuel Travers, Auditor- General to the Prince of Wales, for seven naval officers, who were to receive 60 per annum, July 16, 1724 ; added to the military knights by letters patent of Geo. III., June 23, 1798. NAVAL SALUTES, the compliment paid by ships to each other's flag at sea be- longing to different nations, or on entering foreign ports, answered generally by fewer guns ; fired also at the presence of royalty, or a commander-in-chief on the spot hoisting his flag ; formerly an honour exacted from all vessels in what were called the British seas ; the Dutch disputed it, but agreed to submit to the custom after their defeat, 1653 ; it was formally assented to by France, 1/04. NAVAL SCHOOL, the Royal, established, 1833 ; incorporated, 1840. NAVARINO, Greece, the Pylos of the ancients, and the supposed birthplace of the venerable Nestor, situated on an eminence overlooking the vast harbour of the same name. The Turks took it from the Venetians, 1498, and in 1722 built the citadel, defended by six bastions ; the Russians took it, 1770 ; capitulated to the Greeks, Aug. 9, 1821 ; besieged by the Turks, under Ibrahim Pasha, March 21, 1825 ; captured, May 9 ; surrendered to the combined forces of England and France, Sept. 7, 1829 ; evacuated by the French troops, July, 1833. NAVARINO, naval battle. The combined fleets of England, France, and Russia, under the command of Admiral Codrington, defeated the fleets of Turkey and Egypt, under the command of Ibrahim Pasha, in the bay of, Oct. 20, 1827. 62 vessels of the latter powers were burnt and the majority of their crews destroyed. NAVARRE, France, at one time the head-quarters of Cassar ; at another of Charle- magne; then of Edward the Black Prince; annexed to France by Henry IV., 1620; Wellington advanced into France through, 1814. NAVARRE NAVY 595 NAVARRE, Spain. Inigo Arista chosen king, and the national liberties guaran- teed by the celebrated Fueros de Sobrarbe, 843 ; annexed to Castile by Ferdinand el Catolico, 1512 ; incorporated with Castile, June, 1515. General Mina attempt- ed to raise a revolt at, Sept. 26, 1814; insurrection at, Feb. 25, 1820; again, 1821. NAVIGATION, Art of, first recorded of the Phoenicians and Tynans ; Hanno's voyage to the Gambia, or to Senegal, B.C. 500; to Cornwall, the Cassiterides, whence tin came, from Gades, or Cadiz, B.C. 1200 ; voyage to, related inFestus Avienus, the metal spoken of, temp. Solomon ; great advance in navigation about A.D. 1490, on the discovery of America, and in the lythand i8th centuries ; rendered more perfect by the chronometer and by steam, i8ioto 1850 ; also by the follow- ing discoveries and improvements, from 1420 to 1820 : plane charts and compass, 1420 ; compass, variation discovered, 1492 ; first work on navigation, 1537 ; the log, 1577 ; Mercator's chart, 1592 ; Wright published his Correction of Errors in Navigation, 1597; Davis's back-staff for measuring angles, 1600 ; Gunter's ap- plication of the logarithmic tables, 1620 ; middle latitude sailing, 1623 ; the lo- garithmic tables applied to the different modes of sailing, by Addison, 1625 ; Norwood measurement of 367, 196 feet to a degree, 1635 ; Harrison's time-keeper used, 1 764 ; Nautical Almanac published, 1 767 ; Barlow's correction of the com- pass, 1820; the first attempt at circumnavigation from Seville, 1519; Sir F. Drake's from Plymouth, 1577 ; Richie's pendulum researches, 1761; Ulloa, Con- damine, Godin, and Bouguer, went to South America to measure an arc, 1735 ; Maupertuis, Clairault, and others, to Tornea, to measure an arc, 1736 ; measure- ment between Paris and Amiens, 1756 ; longitude between the sun and Sirius found, 1684 ; reward offered by Philip of Spain for the longitude, 1598 ; by the English parliament, 12 Anne, c. 15, 1713 ; amended, 26 Geo. II. c. 23, 1753 ; again, .20,000 if within 30 miles of the truth, 1774 ; reward of 10,000 livres by the Duke of Orleans, 1716 ; Werner's mode by the moon and stars, 1514 ; im- proved by Morin, 1634 ; Harrison's idea longitudinis, 1696 ; Dr Halley's im- provements of, 1730 1731 ; Meyer's lunar tables, 1755 ; ditto purchased for .3000, 1762 ; Euler's lunar theory rewarded with .300 ; Maskelyne's advance of lunar observations, 1764; longitude by the occultations of a star, 1676 ; G.xlileo discovered the satellites of Jupi'er, Jan. 7, 1610 ; he applied them to dis- cover longitude, 1611 ; longitude by the clock and chronometer, by Hook and Huygens, 1662 1664; by Roy and Berthoud, Paris, 1754 1/67; Harrison in England received in all .24,000 for his chronometer, 1735 1762 ; Mudge received 500 for an improvement, 1777 ; longitude by the variation chart oi Ilalley, 1760 ; new azimuth compass, 1789 ; latitude by the altitudes of the sun, 1594 ; the astrolabe and cross staff superseded by Hadley's quadrant, 1731. NAVIGATION LAW r S. Oleron's code said to have been made as early as 1194; an act passed by Henry VIII., 1541 ; by the Commonwealth, Oct. 9, 1651, which was the foundation of the statute, 12 Charles II. c. 18, 1660 ; encouraged by 2 & 3 Anne, c. 6, 1703 ; several alterations made by 3 Geo. IV. c. 41-4, June 24, 1822 ; amended by 4 Geo. IV. c. 77, July 8, 1823 ; and 5 Geo. IV. c. i, March 5, 1824 ; British shipping and navigation encouraged by 12 & 13 Viet, c. 29, June 26, 1849. NAVY, Royal, of England, consisted in Alfred's time of very small vessels, number unknown, 897 ; under King Edgar, amounted to 350, in 965; in the nth, I2th, and I3th centuries, the kings of England had occasionally large fleets under their command, but they consisted of merchant ships only, gathered from the different ports of England, in some emergencies being pressed with their crews ; the maritime towns furnished their quota of ships to the. crown ; Cinque ports were established by William I., having certain privileges for which they had to furnish 52 ships with 24 men each for 15 days, in cases of emergency, 1066 ; Richard I. transported his forces to the Holy Land in loo ships and 50 galleys, which he afterwards increased 596 NAVY to 250 sail ; King John had a force of 500 sail ; Prince Louis embarked with his forces to conquer England in 80 ships of war, but was defeated by the English fleet of 60 sail, commanded by Hubert de Burgh, in the Straits of Dover, Aug. 24, 1217 ; a battle between the French and English fleets, when the latter took and destroyed 240 sail, April 14, 1295. The largest ship of war, in 1346, had a crew of 40 men. Edward III. summoned his ports to supply their quota for the siege of Calais, 1346 ; he possessed but 25 ships of his own, manned by 419 seamen, divided into the South and North-East Fleet : Fowey supplied 47 ships ; Dartmouth, 32 ; Plymouth, 26; London, 25 ; Bristol, 22; Sandwich, 22 ; Southampton, 21 ; Winchelsea, 21 ; Shoreham, 2O ; Dover, 16 ; Margate, 15 ; Isle of Wight, 13 ; Weymouth, 13 ; Teignmouth, 7 ; Ilfracombe, 6 ; Ex- mouth, 10 ; and the other towns supplied theirs. The North-East Fleet : Yarmouth, 43 ; Newcastle, 17 ; Hull, 16 ; Lynn, 16 ; Harwich, 14; Grimsby, 12 ; and the others in proportion. On 40 days' notice, each port sent its ships, many manned with 2O men only, and 15 days' charge after setting sail, every year if demanded, and the king to pay the rest. The following will show the size of ships of war at this period, and their equipments : in 1406 the vessel which car- ried Philippa, sister of Henry IV., Queen of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, to her home had ' two guns, 40 Ibs. of powder, 40 stones for guns, 40 tampones, 4 touches, I mallet, 2 fire pans, 40 pavys, 24 bows and 40 sheaf of arrows. (Rymer's Feed. torn. viii. p. 447.) Henry V. had a truly royal navy, consisting of 1500 sail, 1417. The navy having fallen into a low and bad condition, Henry VII. caused it to be increased, 1487 ; the naval yards of Deptford founded, 1512 ; in 1513 the English fleet consisted of 24 men of war ; Henry VIII. built the Great Harry at Erith, I5!5> an d founded the Woolwich and Portsmouth dockyards : he is called the founder of the royal navy. An act passed for the better maintenance of, 32 Henry VIII. c. 14, 1541 ; during the reign of Elizabeth the fleet was increased and greatly improved in build ; the number assembled to meet the Invincible Armada is said to have been 37 of H.M. ships and 143 vessels supplied by other powers, with 15,000 men ; an act passed for the maintenance of the navy, 5 Eliz. c. 5, 1562. Drake circumnavigated the globe with five vessels ; he left England, Nov., I577> an d returned to Plymouth, Sept., 1580 ; he destroyed 100 ships in the harbour of Cadiz, and a great many at Lisbon, 1587 ; at the close of the reign of James I. the navy was reduced to 39 ships; the 'Royal Sovereign' was launched at Woolwich, 1637; the length of her keel was 128 feet ; main breadth, 48 ; length from stem to stern, 232 feet ; she carried 60 guns and had 1 1 anchors. When Cromwell usurped the government he had only 14 ships of two decks ; he augmented the number to 150 during his reign ; the Dutch were successfully defeated by Blake and Monk, 1652 ; Admiral Lawson first adopted the manoeuvre of breaking the enemy's line in an engage- ment with Van Tromp, in the Yarmouth Roads, June 2, 1653 ; in this engage- ment chain-shot was first used by the Dutch, the invention of Admiral De Witt; an act was passed for regulating the navy, 13 Car. II. s. i, c. 9, 1661 ; Charles II. had 76 ships in commission, 1679 ; the discipline of, was maintained by 5 & 6 Will. & Mary, c. 25, 1694 ; King William III. increased the number and efficiency of the fleet, 1697 ; there were 272 ships on the books of the Admiralty in the reign of Queen Anne, 1 700 ; 50 ships destroyed by a severe storm, 1 707 ; the size of the ships-of-the-line increased by George II., 1740 ; at the end of his reign there were 412 sail-of-the-line ; at the conclusion of the American war, in the reign of George III., the fleet had increased to 600 sail, many of them being 2,200 ton ships, 1782 ; increased to 671 sail, some carrying looguns, 1821. The naval forces of Europe consisted, in 1839, of: Line-of-battle-ships. In commission. Line-of-battle-ships. In commission America, 15 ... ... 2 Denmark, 6 ... ... o NAVY OF FRANCE NEAPOLITAN FISHERMAN 597 In commission. ... 9 ... 24 ... 10 Line-of-battle-ships. Russia, Spain, Sweden, Turkey, 50 3 10 15 In commission. ... 40 ... o ... o 10 America Austria Denmark England France Italy Norway Portugal Prussia Russia Spain Turkey Guns. 1631 639 367 1298 500 82 556 Sailing-vessels. 38 41 12 59 36 35 Guns. 145 306 170 539 641 Line-of-battle-ships. Egypt, 12 ... England, 90 ... France, 49 ... Holland, 8 in 1865-6 of: Steamers. 208 .. 39 29 414 340 .. 94 .. 156 . II 38 258 78 47 According to a return made to the House of Commons, June 13, 1865, the English armour-clad fleet consisted of 31 ships ; and on the 1st of Feb., 1866, the whole fleet consisted of 497 ships, steam and sailing. A steam-fleet of 17 vessels sailed from Spithead for the Baltic, March n, 1854. In 1854 the English fleet for the Baltic : screw men-of-war, 28 ships ; paddle, 23 ; sailing, 4. Black Sea fleet : screw, 10 ships ; paddle, 18 ; sailing 12. The fleet reviewed by Her Majesty in the presence of both Houses of Parliament, April 18, 1856. A Coast Volunteer force formed by 16 & 17 Viet. c, 73, Aug. 15, 1853; a volunteer force, called the Naval Reserve, established by 22 & 23 Viet. c. 40, Aug. 13, 1859. An iron-clad fleet of 28 vessels added to the navy, 1867 ; inspected by the Lords of the Admiralty at sea, July 7 ; reviewed by the Queen in the presence of the Sultan, at Spithead, July 17. NAVY OF FRANCE, first noticed in records of 725, when it defeated the Prisons ; much improved under Henry IV., 1697 ; reached its highest point during the American war, both of warlike efficiency and seamanship. Of the I no vessels of different nations, captured or destroyed by the English navy, between 1793 an( * 1815, no less than 683 were French, of which no were of the line and 216 were frigates ; force in 1853, 168 vessels, or 130 at sea, 38 in port, and 24,624 men ; since largely increased. NAVY OFFICE, erected on the site of Lumley House, formerly belonging to the Fratres Sancttz Cruets (or Crutched Friars), 1644; burnt, Jan. 29, 1671-2; altered, 1782 ; sold for .11,500, July 17, 1788, and removed to Somerset House. NAWORTH CASTLE, Cumberland, the seat of the Howards, built by Ralph de Dacre, 1335 ; repaired, 1605 1620; destroyed by fire, May 18, 1844. NAXOS, Grecian Archipelago. This island was founded by the Thracians ; the Persians endeavoured unsuccessfully to take it, B.C. 501, but they captured it, 490 ; they revolted, 471, when they were reduced to subjection by the Athenians. A Venetian, Marco Sanudo, established a state which he called the duchy of the ^Egean Sea, A.D. 1207; destroyed by the Turks, 1566, and united to Greece. NAZARENES, a Jewish sect in Palestine, converts to the belief of Christianity ; they disappeared at the beginning of the fifth century. NEAPOLITAN FISHERMAN, revolution made by one, commonly called Tomasi Aniello, 1647 ; his name generally contracted to Masaniello ; he was but 24 years old when he aroused the people, and for ten days was absolute master of 598 NEATH ABBEY NEPAUL that large city ; he overawed the nobility, terrified the government, disposed of princes, and put to death or elevated whom he pleased, and repealed the taxes ; but on July 16, 1645, ten days after his assumption of power, he fell the victim of his audacity, in the midst of 100,000 citizens, who had suffered themselves to be led by him. NEATH ABBEY, Glamorganshire, built by Richard and Constance de Grainville, 1150 ; the castle at the same place, 1090. NEBRASKA, North America, joined the Union, 1803 ; Kansas separated from it and made a State, 1854. NECKCLOTH OF LACE, a fashion adopted in the reign of Charles II., 1674. NECROMANCY, sometimes called the black art, patronized by Mary de' Medicis, mother of Henry III. of France, 1572, at which time it was generally studied. NEEDLE MAKERS' COMPANY, London, incorporated by Oliver Cromwell, Nov. 10, 1656 ; regulated by act of Common Council, 1658. NEEDLES, said to have been first manufactured in England, in Cheapside, by a negro, 1 545 ; he refused to divulge the method ; a German named Elias Krause reintroduced the manufacture of, 1566 ; it was some time afterwards neglected and fell into disuse ; Christopher Greening established a manufactory in Bucking- hamshire, 1650 ; soon after Whitechapel became famous for the best make. NEERWINDEN, battle. The Austrians, under the Prince of Coburg, defeated the French, commanded by Dumouriez, with a loss of 4000 men, March 18, 1793. NEGAPATAM, Hindustan. The Portuguese settlement taken by the Dutch, 1660, who made it the capital of their settlement ; it was besieged, Nov. 3, 1781, and taken by the English, Nov. 12 ; ceded to them, 1783. NEGAPATAM, naval battle. The French fleet, under Suffrein, defeated by the English, commanded by Admiral Hughes, July 3, 1782. NEHEMIAH, the Book of, written by the prophet, contains the history of Jerusa- lem and the nature of the Persian government, in the reign of Artaxerxes Longimanus, B.C. 445-433. NEISSE, Prussia, made a fortified town, I594> taken by Frederick II., 1741, who met the Emperor Joseph II. at the Episcopal palace, 1769; besieged by the French, Jan. 17, 1806 ; taken, June 6, 1807, and the celebrated library destroyed during the siege. NELSON, LORD, born, Sept. 29, 1758 ; killed at the battle of Trafalgar, Oct. 21, 1805 ; the body lay in state at the hospital, Greenwich, from Jan. 5 to 8, 1806 ; public funeral at St Paul's, Jan. 9, 1806. NELSON, New Zealand. The settlement formed by the New Zealand Company, 1840 ; the natives destroyed almost all the settlers in this town, July, 1843 ; con- stitution granted, 1852; gold discovered, 1857; bishopric founded, 1858. NEMOURS, France, captured by the allied Russians and Prussians, Feb. 14, 1814 ; evacuated in March ; reoccupied, March 15, 1814. NEOMONOSCOPE for magnifying photographs, invented, 1862. NEOPOLIS, battle, between Sigismund of Hungary and the Turks, when the latter were victors, fought, 1396. NEPAUL, Hindustan, taken and subdued by Hurr Singh, 1323 ; a treaty of com- merce made with Great Britain, March I, 1792 ; the British army invaded the country and captured the fort of Kalanga, Nov. 30, 1814; Malaun taken, May 8, 1815; war renewed, Jan., 1816 ; treaty of peace concluded, March 3, 1816 ; embassy from, to England, of Jung Bahadoor, who arrived at Southampton, May 23, 1850, to whom due honour was paid ; he quitted England to return via Paris, Aug. 20 ; assisted the English in the Indian Mutiny, 1857. NEPTUXK NEVIS 599' NEPTUNE, a planet discovered by Mr Adams of St John's College, Cambridge, Sept. 23, 1846, and by M. Galle at Berlin ; M. Leverrier announced the spot where it would be found, Aug. 30, 1846 j one of its satellites discovered by Mr Lassell, near Liverpool, Aug., 1847. NERVII, a Belgic tribe, defeated and lost a great number of men and 300 chiefs by Caesar, in Gaul, on the river Sambre, B.C. 57 ; they joined the Eburones and attacked the camp of their enemies, but were defeated by Quintus Cicero, B.C. 54. The Roman governor entered their country in the winter season, destroying most of their cattle and habitations the next year. This nation had to supply a con- tingent of 5000 men for the relief of Alesia, B.C. 52. N ESTORIANS, a sect founded by Nestorius the Patriarch of Constantinople, 428 ; he was tried by the third CEcumenical Council at Ephesus and deprived of his titles and offices, 431 ; the school of Edessa, Persia, became celebrated for its disciples of the new doctrine, 435 ; a new system or doctrine adopted, 495 ; its members divided into two factions, 1551. NETHER HALL, Essex, built, 1280. NETHERLANDS declared themselves free, 1565 ; Counts Egmont and Horn imprisoned by Alva, Aug., 1567 ; rebellion in, Jan., 1571 ; re-asserted their free- dom, assisted by the Prince of Orange, Feb. 21, 1572; the Duke of Anjou elected sovereign, July 27, 1581 ; Queen Elizabeth accepted the office of Protector of, July, 1585; the French invade, Feb. 22, 1677; Louis XIV. takes Ghent and Ypres, March 15, 1678; peace concluded, 1678; became a province of France, 1724 ; placed under the House of Orange, 1814 ; revolted, and were made a king- dom under Prince Leopold of Saxe Coburg, called Belgium, 1831 ; constitution proclaimed, Nov. 3, 1848 ; William III. succeeded to the throne, March 17, 1849. NETLEY ABBEY, Hants, built by Henry HI., 1239. NETLEY HOSPITAL, the foundation-stone laid by Queen Victoria, May 19, 1856. XI.UFCHATEL, Switzerland, was admitted into the Swiss Confederation, 1398; the country of Valendis joined to, 1579 ; ceded by the treaty of Tilsit to France, Dec. 15, 1805 ; given by Napoleon to Marshal Berthier, April, 1806 ; restored to Prussia, 1814 ; annexed to Switzerland, May 27, 1815 ; made a Republic, 1848 ; an attempt was made by a party of -Royalists to re-establish the power of Prussia over ; they were taken, Sept. 2, 1856 ; treaty between Her Majesty, the Emperor of the French, the King of Prussia, the Emperor of Russia, and the Swiss Con- federation, relative to the delivering up of the Royalists upon the King of Pnissia resigning all claims to the kingdom, May 26, 1857. NEUTRALITY LAWS. The Plenipotentiaries of Great Britain, Austria, France, Russia, Sardinia, and Turkey, assembled at Paris, agreed to a declaration con- cerning the Maritime I^aws, April 16, 1856. NEVA, Russia, several times suffered from inundations, but almost destroyed by one, which carried off upwards of 90,000 of the inhabitants and left a hundred- gun ship in the market-place, Nov. 19, 1824. NEVA, battle. The Swedes and Danes in their march to attack Novogorod, were attacked by the Russians, under Alexander, and defeated, 1703. NKVILLE'S CROSS, battle. The English army, under Henry Percy, defeated the Scots, under David Bruce ; he was taken prisoner, and 15,000 of his men slain, Oct. 12, 1346 ; the king was detained in captivity in England till 1357, when he was ransomed for 100,000 marks. NEVIS, Island of, West Indies, discovered by Columbus. A settlement was made by the English in 1628 ; taken by the French, Feb. 14, 1782; restored at the peace of 1 783. 600 NEWARK NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE NEWARK, Nottinghamshire, the Sidnacester of the Saxons. Egbert erected a castle, which was rebuilt by Alexander Bishop of Lincoln, 1125; King John died at, Oct. 19, 1216 ; Cardinal Wolsey lodged here, 1530 ; held for Charles I. during the civil war ; the king established a mint, 1645-46 ; the castle de- livered up to the Scots, May 8, 1646 ; dismantled by the Parliamentarians, the ruins are still preserved ; bridge built, 1775 ; the Stock Library founded, 1825. NEWARK PRIORY, Surrey, built by Rualdde Calva, about 1189. NEWBURGH, or DE NOVO, Burgo Abbey, Yorkshire, founded by Roger de Mowbray, 1145. NEWBURN-UPON-TYNE, battle. TheScottish army were opposed by an English force under Conway, only 2500 strong ; they were defeated, Aug. 27, 1640, and the Scots entered Newcastle. NEWBURY, Berks, a considerable town, sending two members to parliament, in the nth of Edw. I.; Jack of Newbury (John Winchcombe), a clothier, entertain- ed Henry VIII. and Queen Katherine ; he died, 1519 ; Christopher Shoemaker burnt for reading the Gospels to John Hay, 1518 ; and Julius Palmer, a Romanist, July 16, 1556 ; the town incorporated by Queen Elizabeth, May 26, 1596 ; a stone bridge erected over the river Kennet, 1770; the Corporation School founded by John Kenrick, Dec. 29, 1624. NEWBURY, battles. The Parliamentary army, commanded by Essex, were at- tacked by the Royalists, commanded by Charles I. The battle was fought with the most determined bravery on both sides, but the Parliamentarians having in their ranks the militia of London, who equalled the veteran forces, were enabled to keep a bold front, until night put an end to the action on the king's side ; Lord Falkland was killed, Sept. 20, 1643 ; the Parliamentarians proceeded the next day to London. The Royalists defeated by the Parliamentarians, under the Earl of Manchester, at this place, Oct. 27, 1644. NEW CALEDONIA. This island, in the Pacific Ocean, discovered by Captain Cook, Sept. 4, 1774; made a French convict settlement, 1854. NEWCASTLE ADMINISTRATION. Thomas Holies, Duke of Newcastle, made Premier of England, March 10, 1754; resigned, Nov. II, 1756; he had held different offices in the cabinet for 45 years ; retired, ^300,000 poorer than when he took office. NEWCASTLE, Duke of, obtained a verdict for ,20,000 against the Hundred of Boxholme for the wanton destruction of his castle of Nottingham, Oct., 1831, Aug. 9, 1832. NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE. The Romans founded a station here called the Pans j$Llii ; the bridge was rebuilt and a castle erected on the site of the old Roman fortress by Robert, eldest son of William I., 1080; taken by storm by William Rufus, from the Earl Mowbray, 1095 ; the black gate built, 1268 ; St Nicholas church founded, 1091 ; burned, 1210; the present structure built, 1359. On the death of Henry I., David of Scotland took possession of this town on behalf of Queen Matilda, 1136 ; restored by treaty to Henry II., 1157 ; a licence was granted to the town to dig for coal, 1239 ; Baliol of Scotland did homage for his crown to Edward I. in the castle, 1292 ; Blackfriars bridge built, 1251 ; burnt by accident, 1349. The town besieged by the Scots, 1322 ; and again, when Queen Philippa assembled an army of 16,000 men and defeated the Scots, 1346 ; the town declared for the Royalists ; besieged by the Scottish army and captured, Oct. 29, 1644; the Guildhall and Exchange built, 1658; enlarged, 1809; stone bridge of nine arches built, 1781; the Antiquarian Society established, 1813 ; the new institution erected at an expense of ^13,885, 1825 ; the Grand Stand de- stroyed by fire, Dec. 4, 1844 ; failure of the banks at, Oct., 1847 ; great loss of NEW COLLEGE NEW GRANADA 601 life and property by an explosion of combustibles, Oct. 6, 1854 ; a most destruc- tive fire broke out at, when property valued at .70,000 was destroyed, June 24, 1866 ; a temporary pier gave way during a boat race between Kelly and Cham- bers, when upwards of loo persons were precipitated into the Tyne, several being drowned, May 6, 1867 ; the Central Exchange news-rooms damaged by fire, Aug. 1 1 ; another serious fire at, which destroyed property valued at ^60,000, Aug. 13 ; Constitutional Association formed at, Sept. 2 ; seven persons killed by an ex- plosion of nitro-glycerine on the town moor, Dec. 17 ; the new buildings in Queen-street, Quay Side, burnt, and property destroyed valued at ,50,000, Dec. 20. XKW COLLEGE, Oxford, founded by William de Wykeham, June 30, 1379; the foundation-stone laid, March 5, 1380 ; opened, April 14, 1386 ; the hall restored, 1866. NEW COLLEGE, St John's Wood, for Dissenters ; first stone laid by the Rev. Dr John Pye Smith, May n, 1850; opened, Oct. 8, 1851. XKW CUT from the river Lea to Limehouse, London, made, Sept. 17, 1770. NEW ENGLAND, North America, settled by the Plymouth Company, 1614 ; New Plymouth built by the Puritans, 1620; Salem built, 1628, and Boston, 1630. NEWENHAM ABBEY, Devonshire, built by Reginald de Mohun, Earl of Somerset, 1246. NEW FOREST, Hampshire, afforested by William I., 1080; Rufus killed in, Aug. 2, noo ; first perambulated and the boundaries fixed by Edward I., 1280 ; large tract of woods burned at, near St John's, 1786 ; the timber ordered to be pre- served by 9 & 10 Will. III. c. 36, 1698 ; the rights of the crown to deer extin- guished by 14 & 15 Viet. c. 76, Aug. 7, 1851. NEWFOUNDLAND, discovered by John Cabot, June 24, 1497 ; the French and Portuguese carried on an extensive fishing trade, 1500 ; attempt to form a settle- ment, unsuccessfully made, 1520; Sir Humphrey Gilbert landed with 200 followers, and took possession of the island in the name of Queen Elizabeth, 1583, but most of them died ; a charter for the colonization of, granted ; another attempt, more successful, was made by Lord Baltimore, 1623 ; the town of St John surrendered to the French, 1696; they again ravaged the country, 1705 ; they burnt St John's, 1768; given up to Gt Britain by the Treaty of Utrecht, April n, 1713 ; made a bishopric, 1839 ; a legislative council established by 5 & 6 Viet. c. 76, July, 1842; the town of St John's destroyed by fire, damage done to the amount of "1,000,000 ; 12,000 persons left destitute, June 9, 1846 ; an act passed for the rebuilding of, 12 & 13 Viet. c. 21, May 24, 1849. NEWGATE. The gate was used as a prison at a very early period ; it was taken down and rebuilt at the expense of Sir Richard Whittington, 1423 ; destroyed by the fire of 1666, and rebuilt by Wren, 1672 ; burnt down in the Gordon riots, June 8, 1780 ; the present prison erected from the designs of George Dance ; the first stone laid, May 31, 1770; completed, 1782. First execution at, Dec. 9, 1783. The last public execution (Barrett), May 26, 1868. The interior remodeled, 1857-9. NEWGATE MARKET, anciently held in Newgate-street. There were a market- house and shops in the Middle-row ; it was a meal market, 1548 ; removed toils present site after the fire of London by 22 Car. II. c. II, s. 61 ; the dean and chapter of St Paul's to lease ground to the corporation for that purpose, 1670; ordered to be dismarketed by 24 & 25 Viet. c. lii., June 7, 1861, when the new market in Smithfield is completed. NEW GRANADA, S. America, discovered by Columbus, 1498 1502; the Spaniards driven out of, 1824; the Republic of, founded, Nov. 21, 1831; the con- stitution proclaimed, 1832 ; re-formed, 1843 ; slavery abolished, Jan. I, 1852. 602 NEW HAMPSHIRE NEW RIVER NEW HAMPSHIRE, N. America. First settlement formed, 1623 ; made a separate province, 1679; constitution agreed to, 1784. NEW HAVEN, Connecticut, first settled by the English, 1638 ; united to Con- necticut, 1665 ; Yale College founded, 1717 ; taken by the British forces, 1779. NEW HOLLAND, Australia, the island of, though nearly as large as Europe, the south extremity only discovered by Tasman, 1642 ; Cook surveyed east and north- east coasts, 1770, from 38 S., and ascertained its separations by Torres Strait from New Guinea ; its circuit completed by Captain Furneaux, 1773 ; Bass dis- covered the South Point to be part of an island, separated from New Holland by a strait ; large colonies are now formed on the southern, eastern, and western coasts ; Port Jackson in, first settled, 1 787. NEW INN, formerly the Lady Inn ; the society of lawyers who occupied St George's Inn, Snow Hill, removed here in the reign of Edward IV., 1483 ; the junior members of this society rebelled and stole several MSS., 1669-70; the readings from the middle temple ceased, 1846. NEW JERSEY, N. America. The first settlement was made by the Dutch, 1614 ; and by the Swedes, 1637 ; granted by Charles II. to the Duke of York, 1664, who sold it to Sir Geo. Carteret, 1666 ; the Dutch recaptured it, 1673, but re- signed it to the English, 1682 ; proprietary government of, surrendered, 1702. NEWMARKET, Cambridgeshire, made a market town, 1227 ; James I. built a lodge here for the purpose of enjoying the diversion of hunting ; it was rebuilt by Charles II. as a racing lodge, 1671 ; the races in great repute, 1669; the town destroyed by fire, March 22, 1683. NEW MINSTER ABBEY, Northumberland, built by Ranulph de Merlay, 1 139. NEW ORLEANS, America, founded by Bienville, the French governor of Louis- iana, 1717 > conveyed by them to the Spaniards, 1769; re-conveyed to the French, 1800, and sold by Napoleon I. to America, 1803 ; the British force, under General Pakenham, defeated at, the General and 3000 men killed and wounded, the American loss was slight, Jan. 8, 1815 ; inundation at, May 31, 1849 ; taken by Commander Farragut with a fleet of 46 steam sloops, and gun-boats carrying 286 guns and 25 mortars, after a bombardment of five days, April 24, 1862 ; Gen. Butler appointed governor, superseded by Gen. Banks, Dec. 14, 1863. NEWPORT, Isle of Wight. First charter granted to the town by Richard de Redvers, 1193 ; the church built, 1172 ; incorporated by James I. ; confirmed by Charles II., 1673 ; the meetings of the commissioners of parliament who carried on the negotiations with Charles I., held in the Free Grammar School, Joiners' - street, Sept. I Oct. 28, 1648 ; treaty signed by Charles I. at, giving up to par- liament the army, &c., Nov. 27, 1648 ; the House of Industry erected, 1770 ; Albany barracks, 1798; converted into a juvenile prison, 1838; the town-halt built by Nash, 1814 ; the first stone of St Thomas's church laid by Prince Albert, Aug. 23, 1854 ; the town disfranchised by the reform bill, 1832. NEWPORT, Monmouthshire. The castle erected by Robert Consul, Earl of Gloucester, circa 1139 ; seized by Henry VIII. on the execution of the Duke of Buckingham, 1521 ; a riot caused by 10,000 Chartists under the direction of John Frost, upwards of 20 persons were killed, Nov. 4, 1839 ; he was captured the same night ; tried, Dec. 31 Jan. 16, 1840, and sentenced to be hanged ; re- mitted to transportation, Feb. I. NEW RIVER, London. Water-works erected under the 3 James I. c. 18, 1605, and 4 James I. c. 12, 1606 ; the powers so obtained by the Corporation of London, transferred to Mr Hugh Myddleton, citizen and goldsmith, March 28, 1609, who after five years' labour completed the undertaking ; opened in the presence NEW ROAD NEWSPAPERS 603 of the civic authorities, Sept. 29, 1620. The length of the river in 1723 was 4 miles ; it is crossed by 250 bridges, and has 40 sluices ; its length has since been shortened by 10 miles, the stream covered over, and the water conveyed in pipes, 1861; the cost of the whole was .17,219,985; James I. agreed to assist the works, and he advanced ,8609 14^. (td. ; the original shares of ,100 have been sold at .5, recently they have fetched ^9000 : the capital of the Com- pany is nearly ,3,000,000. An act passed to enable the Company to improve their supply, 15 & 16 Viet. c. clx., June 30, 1852 ; another passed to enable them to construct new reservoirs, &c., 17 & 18 Viet. c. Ixxii., June 16, 1854; amended, 18 & 19 Viet. c. cxcvi., Aug. 14, 1855. NEW ROAD from the Angel, Islington, to the Yorkshire Stingo, Lisson Green, formed under 29 Geo. II. c.88 ; begun, May 8, 1756 ; completed in a few years ; the Metropolitan Railway built underneath, first sanctioned, 16 & 17 Viet. c. clxxxvi., Aug. 15, 1853. NEW ROYALTY THEATRE, Soho, first opened by Miss Kelly, May 26, 1840; first called Royalty, 1861. NEWSPAPERS, or, ' News' -papers ' as originally written, are the successors of the news'-letters. The weekly news from Italy, Germany, May, 1622 ; ' London Weekly Courant,' 1622, the first containing general information ; the 'Weekly Courant,' 1662 ; many provincial papers appeared, as the ' Kingdom's Weekly Intelligencer,' the ' Mercurius Bellicus,' the 'Parliament's Scout,' ' Mercurius Civicus, or London Intelligencer,' the ' Weekly Account,' ' Mercurius Britanicus,' by Marchmont Needham, Aug. 22, 1643 ; the ' Mercurius Politicus,' June, 1650 ; the ' Public Intelligencer,' by Sir R. L'Estrange, Oct. 8, 1655; which ceased when the 'London Gazette' ivas established, the first number printed at Oxford, Nov. 14, 1665 ; continued in London, Feb. 5, 1666. Newspapers and pamphlets were pro- hibited from publication without a licence by Charles II., May 12, 1680 ; the censorship of the press abolished, 1695. There were nine weekly papers and one daily in 1696 ; in 1849, 547 ; and in 1867, 1000. The ' London Courant,' 1709 ; the 'British Mercury,' established, March 27, 1710 ; the 'English Chronicle, or Whitehall Evening Post,' 1747 ; the ' Public Advertiser,' containing the letters of Junius, first appeared, Dec. 19, 1769: the sale of this paper was upwards of 83,000 copies ; the ' Public Ledger,' Jan. 12, 1760 ; the ' Morning Chronicle' begun by William Woodfall, 1769; 'Johnson's Sunday Monitor,' 1778. The 'Norwich Postman' sold for Yzd., 1706; the last of the ancient penny newspapers, 'Parker's London News ' (No. 1005), appeared, April 25, 1725. Duty on newspapers fixed at a halfpenny, 10 Anne, c. xix. s. 101, July 19, 1712 ; to come into operation, Aug. 12; removed, 1714; reimposed, 1725; increased to a penny, 1761 ; raised to \ l / 2 d. by Lord North, May 28, 1776; to 2d., 29 Geo. III. c. 50, Aug. 12, 1789 ; to zYzd., 37 Geo. III. c. 90, June 22, 1797 ; to 3J 1860 Athenaeum Jan. 2, 1828 Atlas May 21, 1826 Atlas for India 1842 Australian Mail ... May, 1859 Baker's Record 1864 Banker Jan. 7, 1 868 Bayswater Chronicle June, 1860 Beehive Oct. 19, 1861 Bell's Life in London ... 1820 Bell's Weekly Messenger May I, 1796 Bethnal Green Times Oct., 1861 Brazil Mail Nov. 7, 1863 Britannia ... ... ... 1839 British Banner ... Jan. I, 1848 British Medical Journal Jan. J, 1853 British Journal of Photography Jan., 1854 British Lion ... June 29, 1867 Briton, North ... May 29, 1762 Builder Feb. II, 1843 Building News March I, 1854 Builders' Trade Circular ... 1866 Bullionist Jan. 6, 1865 Camden Town Gazette April, 1866 Chemical News ... Dec. 10, 1859 Christian Times ... ... 1863 Christian World 1859 Chronicle ... March 30, 1867 Church Review ... Jan., 1861 Church News March 13, 1867 Church and State Review ... 1862 Church Mail ... April 5, 1867 Church Times 1863 Church Opinion ... Dec. I. 1866 Churchman ... Jan., 1843 City Press, The ... July 18, 1857 Civil Service Gazette Jan. I, 1853 Colliery Guardian ... Jan. 5, 1 86 1 Commercial Gazette ... i%53 Constitution ... ... 1853 Cosmopolitan ... Oct., 1865 Country Life ... Aug. 15, 1867 County Courts Chronicle, Monthly 1846 County Chronicle ... ... 1787 County Herald ... ... 1790 Courier ... ... Jan., 1865 Courrier de 1'Europe ... 1840 Cottage Gardener ... ... 1848 Court Circular ... April 26, 1856 Court Journal ... ... 1829 Dispatch, The Weekly ... 1801 Ecclesiastical Gazette July 10, 1838 Economist ... ... Sept. 2, 1848 Engineer ... ... Jan. 4, 1856 English Independent Jan. 5, 1867 English Leader ... Oct., 1861 Era, The Sept. 30, 1837 Examiner ... ... Jan., 1808 Fanner ... ... ... 1843 Field ... ... Jan. i, 1853 Finsbury Free Press May 23, 1868 Freeman ... ... Jan. 24, 1855 Freemason's Magazine July 9, 1859 Fun "... 1861 Gardiner's Chronicle Jan. 2, 1841 Guardian ... ... Jan. 21, 1846 Hackney Independent March, 1860 Hackney and Kingsland Gazette April, 1864 Hackney Times ... Dec. 14, 1867 Hampstead and Highgate Express, 1 860 Herman ... ... Jan., 1859 Holborn and St Pancras Journal, Feb. 27, 1857 Illustrated London News, May 14, 1842 Illustrated Weekly News, Oct. 12, 1861 Illustrated Sporting and Theatri- cal News ... Feb., 1862 Imperial Review ... Jan. 5, 1867 Independent ... Jan., 1867 Inquirer ... ... July 9, 1842 Insurance Gazette Jan. i, 1856 Islington Gazette ... ... 1856 Jewish Chronicle ... ... 1845 M:\VSPAPERS 6o 5 John Bull Dec. 17, 1820 Journal of Gaslighting Feb. 10, 1849 Judy 1867 Journal of Horticulture Oct., 1848 Journal of the Society of Arts 1852 Justice of the Peace Jan. 28, 1837 Lady's Own Paper Nov. 24, 1 866 Lancet, The ... Oct. 3, 1823 Land and Water ... Jan., 1866 Law Journal ... Jan., 1866 Law Times ... ... April 8, 1843 Leader ... ... Sept. 21, 1867 Licensed Victuallers' Guardian, Feb., 1 86 1 Literary Churchman May 5, 1855 Lloyd's Weekly Newspaper, Nov., 1842 London Commercial Record, June 29, 1842 London and China Express 1858 London and China Herald 1867 London and China Telegraph 1858 London and Provincial News 1860 London Mercantile Journal 1832 London Mercury . . Jan. 4, 1868 London New Price Current 1812 London Review ... July 7, 1860 London Scotsman ... July 15, 1867 Magnet ... ... March, 1837 Mark Lane Express Dec., 1832 Marylebone Mercury ... 1857 Mechanics' Magazine Dec. 31, 1858 Medical Press ... Jan. 14, 1850 Medical Times ... July 6, 1850 Methodist Recorder April 4, 1861 Methodist Times 1849 Middlesex Chronicle Jan., 1859 Mining Journal ... Aug. 29, 1835 Mitchell's Maritime Register, Sept. 27, 1856 Mitchell's Steam Shipping Journal ... Aug. 19, 1859 Money Market Review ... 1860 Musical Standard ... Aug., 1862 Musical Times ... June, 1844 Musical World 1836 Naval Chronicle ... March, 1853 Naval and Military Gazette, Feb. 9, 1838 News of the World ... Sept. 29, 1843 Newspaper Press ... ... 1865 Nonconformist ... April 14, 1841 Notes and Queries ... Nov. 3, 1849 Netting Hill and Bayswater Times 1861 Orb Aug., 1863 Orchestra Oct., 1863 Overland Mail ... July 10, 1855 Paddington Times ... ... 1859 Parochial Critic ... Jan. 2, 1867 Pawnbrokers' Gazette ... 1839 Penny Illustrated Paper, Oct. 12, 1851 Photographic Journal March, 1853 Photographic News Sept. 10, 1858 Postman Oct., 1867 Press and St James's Chronicle, May 7, 1853 Prince's Price Current Public Opinion Punch Queen Racing Times Railway News Railway Record Railway Times Railway Gazette 1782 Oct. 5, 1 86 1 July 1 7, 1841 Sept. 7, 1 86 1 Feb. 26, 1851 Jan. 2, 1864 April 13, 1844 1837 1845 Record Jan., 1828 Reporter ... 1847 Reynolds' Weekly Newspaper, May 5, 1850 Rock Saturday Review Shoreditch Advertiser Shoreditch Observer Solicitors' Journal ... South LondoH Chronicle South London Journal South London Press Spectator Sporting Life Sporting Gazette Sportsman Sunday Times Tablet Nov. 3, Tan., Jan. 17, 1868 1855 1857 1857 1857 1859 Oct. 2, 1855 Jan. 7, 1865 July 5, 1828 March 16, 1859 Oct., 1862 Aug., 1865 1822 1840 Tomahawk ... ... ... 1867 Tower Hamlets' Express Aug., 1861 Tower Hamlets' Independent, Nov. 17, 1866 Train July 13, 1866 United Service Gazette Feb. 9, 1833 Universe ... ... Dec. 8, 1860 Universal News ... Dec. 29, 1860 Volunteer Service Gazette Oct. 26, 1859 Watchman ... ... Jan. 7, 1835 Weekly Budget ... Jan. 5, 1860 Weekly Review ... April, 1862 Weekly Times ... Jan. 24, 1847 Wellington Gazette ... 1857 West London Observer ... 1855 West London Times ... 1860 West Middlesex Advertiser, Nov. I, 1856 6o6 NEWSPAPERS West End News Westminster Gazette 1856 Witness Dec. 29, 1866 COUNTRY NEWSPAPERS of the last century. Bath Chronicle Cambridge Chronicle Chester Courant Derby Mercury Hereford Journal Hereford Times Leeds Mercury 1757 1748 1730 1732 1739 June 30, 1832 May, 1718 Newcastle Courant Norfolk Chronicle Northampton Mercury Norwich Mercury Norwich Postman Nottingham Journal Shrewsbury Chronicle Worcester Journal York Herald Yorkshire Post Nov., 1867 Aug. n, 1711 July 1 8, 1761 May 2, 1 720 1720 1706 1710 Nov. 23, 1772 June, 1719 Jan. 2, 1790 July 2, 1724 Lincoln, Rutland, and Stamford Mercury, ... ... 1695 (and is still continued). Liverpool Courant ... ... 1712 NEWSPAPERS were first printed at Constantinople, 1797; in Holland, 1605 ; in Germany, 1615 ; New South Wales, 1803. The United States of America : the first paper was published at Boston, Sept., 1690; the 'Penny Press' was introduced at New York; the first being 'The Daily Sun,' Sept. 23, 1833 ; the 'New York Tribune,' edited by Horace Greeley, established, 1851, daily circulation 29,000 copies ; in New York alone there are now 300 differ- ent papers published every week. A great sensation was producd in New York by the publication of an extra sheet of the ' Sun,' giving an account of an aerial voyage across the Atlantic performed in three days, May 28, 1844 ; of course it turned out a Yankee hoax. The number published in Austria is 271; Bavaria, 190; Germany, 900; Hanover, 99; Italy, 302; Saxony, 230; Wurtemberg, 119; the 'Venetian Gazette,' 1570 (this is the oldest in the British Museum). NEWSPAPERS, French. When, between 1820 and 1830, the arbitrary system of rule in England disappeared, the advance of the free press became rapid and ex- traordinary ; so in France, after the exclusion of the Bourbon dynasty, and its arbitrariness, the same kind of advance was observable ; the first French paper was the 'Gazette,' published by Renaudot, May, 1631 ; 'Journal des Savans,' 1665; ' Mercure Galant,' 1672; the 'Nouveau Journal de Paris,' 1777 ; the ' Moniteur,' 1789; the ' Journal des Debats,' 1789; the 'Gazette,' 1790; the ' Quotidienne,' 1792 ; the 'Constitution,' 1815 ; the ' Press,' 1836 ; the ' Siecle,' 1836. In 1816, the 'Moniteur' published, 1650, 'Journal des Debats,' 8000, ' Gazette de France,' 3000, ' Journal de Commerce,' 3500, ' L'ami de la Religion et du Roi,' 3300, 'Quotidienne,' 3100, 'Journal des Maires,' 4300. The liberty of the press ceased on the accession of Louis Napoleon, 1852-3. NEWSPAPERS, Irish. There were 102 issued in 1850; advertisement duty at u-., i 1, 806 ; stamps, 6,302, 728 at id., and 43,358 at Yzd. ; the first Irish newspaper, ' Pue's Occurrences,' published 1700; the Flying Post, 1708; 'Faulkner's Journal, 1728; Dublin 'Evening Post,' 1725; Dublin 'Freemasons' Journal,' 1763; ' Dublin Gazette,' 1711; ' Clare Journal,' 1776; ' Limerick Chronicle,' 1766; 'Londonderry Journal,' June 3, 1772. In 1867, 128 newspapers were published. NEWSPAPERS, Scotch. There were 94 in 1850; stamps, 7,643,045 at id, 241,264 at y 2 d. The first newspapers of Scotland were published in London and sent down ; the oldest are the 'Aberdeen Journal,' 1748 ; Caledonian Mercury,' 1720; the Edinburgh ' Evening Courant,' 1718; 'Edinburgh Gazette,' 1690; ' Glasgow Courant,' 1715; 'Glasgow Gazette,' 1782; the ' Dumfries Journal,' 1750. In 1867, 138 journals were published. NEW SOUTH WALES NEW YORK 607 NEW SOUTH WALES, Australia. First founded as a convict settlement ; a fleet of eleven sail with 757 convicts left Portsmouth, May 13, 1787. Three ships arrived at Botany Bay, Jan. 18 20, 1788, and Captain Arthur Philip made governor, Jan. 26, 1788 ; the colony then contained 1060 inhabitants ; increased to 5547, 1801 ; first grant of land made to convicts, 1790 ; a newspaper printed, 1803 ; a rebellion broke out among the convicts, but they were defeated, 1804 ; the Sydney Gazette first published, March, 1803 ; made a free settlement, 1821 ; a local council appointed, 1823 ; an act passed for the more effectual government of, 9 Geo. IV. c. 83, July 25, 1828 ; first legislative council proclaimed, July 13, 1829; transportation abolished, 1839 ; coal raised in the colony valued at .14,647, 1849 ; gold discovered, April 3, 1851; Sydney University inaugurated, Oct. n, 1852 ; separated from Victoria, 1854, and a constitution granted, 1855. An attempt to assassinate the Duke of Edinburgh was made at Clontarf, Sydney, March 12, 1868; O'Farrell, the assassin, executed, April 21. The prince laid the foundation-stone of the town-hall at Sydney, April 4. GOVERNORS OF: Belmore, Earl of Aug. 22, 1867 Gipps, Sir Geo. Feb. 23, 1838 Blyth, Capt. Wm. Aug., 1806 Hunter, Capt. Aug. 7, 1795 Bourke, Sir R. April 27, 1831 King, Capt. P. G. Sept. 27, 1800 Brisbane, Sir T. M. Feb. 10, 1821 Macquarie, Gen. Jan. i, 1810 Darling, Sir R. Dec.. 19, 1826 Philip, Capt. Arthur Jan. 20, 1788 Denison, Sir Wm. Sept. 19, 1854 Young, Sir John March 6, 1860 Fitzroy, Sir Chas. Aug. 3, 1826 NEWSTEAD ABBEY, Nottinghamshire, built, 1170. NEWSTEDE PRIORY, Lincolnshire, founded by William de Albini III., circa 1 1 66. NEW STYLE. See Calendar. NEW TESTAMENT translated into the Coptic, 3rd century ; into the Chinese language by the East India Company's Translator at Canton, and printed, 1814. NEWTOWNBARRY, Ireland, riot at, on the clergy seizing stock for tithes ; the yeomanry fired on the people, and 35 men, women, and children were killed and wounded ; the coroners inquest could not agree on a verdict, June 18, 1831. NEWTON BUTLER, battle. Lord Mountcashel defeated by the Protestants of Enniskillen, the former being taken prisoner, Aug. I, 1689. NF.W YORK, America, discovered by Henry Hudson, an Englishman, 1609 ; set- tlement made at Manhattan's Island, 1614; at Albany, 1615 ; the Dutch West India Company colonized the central portion of the State, 1624 ; Charles II. granted it to the Duke of York, Sept. 8, 1664 ; retaken by the Dutch, 1673 ; sur- rendered to England, 1674; the first congress met, Oct. 7, 1765 ; part of the town burnt, Dec. 29, 1773, again Nov. 20, 1776 ; the British Gen. Burgoyne and 6000 troops surrendered to the State Militia at White Plains, Oct. 17, 1777 ; 300 houses destroyed by fire, Aug. 7, 1778; the Colonial Government was sus- pended, May, 1775 ; a provincial Government administered the State to April 20, 1777 ; constitution agreed to April 20, 1777 ; ratified by the State legislature, July 26, 1778 ; revised, 1821 ; fire at, which destroyed property valued at 20,000,000 dollars, Dec. 15, 1835 ; the Old Bowery Theatre burned down for the fourth time, April 25, 1845 ; riot at the Astor- Place Opera House to prevent Macready playing, May 10, 1849 ; a new constitution granted, 1846, and came into operation, Jan. I, 1847 ; amended, 1854 ; the Park Theatre burnt, Dec. 16, 1848 ; a new charter given to the city, May I, 1857 ; suspension of the banks, Oct. 14, 1858 ; tlu Crystal Palace erected and opened by the President, July 14, 1853 ; was destroyed by fire, Oct. 5, 1858 ; serious riots at, in attempting to en- 608 NEW ZEALAND NICOLAITANS force the conscription, property destroyed valued at ^"80,000, 76 persons killed, 20 negroes murdered by the mob, and 300 persons wounded, July 13 17, 1863; Barnum's Museum burnt, July 13, 1865. NEW ZEALAND, discovered by Tasman, 1642 ; Captain Cook visited the island, 1769 and 1774; first settlement made by the English, 1815 ; government estab- lished, 1833 ; New Zealand Company formed, 1837 ; received its charter, 1839 ; dissolved, 1851 ; made a colony by charter, Nov. 16, 1840 ; separated from New South Wales, May 3, 1841 ; Capt. Hobson, the founder, and first governor, from Jan., 1840, to Sept., 1842 ; Bishopric established, 1843; war declared against the Kaffirs, April 4, 1846 ; legislative council opened by Sir George Grey, Dec. 20, 1848 ; a representative constitution granted to the colony by 15 & 16 Viet. c. 72, June 30, 1852 ; gold fields discovered near Goulburn, Jan. 17, 1853 ; term- ination of the Kaffir war, Feb. 22, 1853 ; great distress amongst the Kaffirs, Nov., 1857 ; war again declared in consequence of a dispute about land, May 3, 1860 ; the natives submit to the English, March 19, 1861 ; war renewed, 1863. NGAMI, Africa. This lake is to be found set out on Portuguese maps, as early as 1508; visited by Livingstone, Murray, and Oswell, July 28, 1849. NIAGARA, North America, the fort near the celebrated falls of that name, in North America, taken by the English, July 24, 1759; the largest of the falls is the horse- shoe, 1800 feet broad, having a fall of 165 feet ; the American fall is about 600 feet broad ; Mr Weld was among the first who ventured under the cataract to within six yards of the water, 1796 ; the suspension bridge over the falls, opened, Aug. I, 1848; M. Blondin crossed upon the tight-rope, Aug., 1859; part of the Table Rock blown away, July 26, 1867. NICARAGUA, America, discovered by the Spaniards, 1503 ; revolted from Spain, Sept. 21, 1821 ; joined the republic, 1824; an earthquake at, which did much damage to the town, Jan. 23, 1835 ; withdrew from the Central American con- federation, 1852 ; the cathedral of Leon was finished, 1743, at a cost of ^1,000,000 sterling ; Walker, the American filibuster, landed at Scott's Wharf, Nov. 25, 1857; treaty of commerce with Great Britain, Feb. II, 1860 ; two volcanoes broke out at Leon, Nov. 14, 1867. NICE, France, founded by the Greeks in the middle ages ; it was strongly fortified ; taken by the Goths, A.D. 262 ; a marble cross built to commemorate the recon- ciliation of Charles V. and Francis I., 1538 ; plundered by the Turks, 1543 ; overrun by the troops of the republic, 1792 ; incorporated with France, Dec., 1792 ; formally ceded to France by Italy, 1796 ; the Austrians took the town, May n, 1800; restored to Sardinia by the treaty of, 1814; ceded to France, March 29, 1860, to take effect, June 14. NIC^JA, Bithynia. The Nicene Creed composed at the council of Nice, held at, by the command of the Emperor Constantine ; first sitting held, July 14, the last, Sept. 9, A.D. 525 ; here the Ai'ians were condemned, and 318 bishops settled the time to observe Easter. The Creed, that part which asserts the ' Divinity of the Holy Ghost,' was added at the council of Constantinople, 381, and the words 'and the Son,' coming after 'who proceedeth from the Father,' added by the Spanish bishops, 447 ; adopted at Rome, 883 ; a second council was held who declared the worship of images to be lawful, "jBj. NICKEL, a metal used in the composition of German silver, first named by Cron- stedt, 1751 ; published, 1775. NICOLAITANS, a sect founded by Nicholas, one of the first deacons of the Church, who, taking a vow of continence, bade his wife marry whom she pleased ; hence his followers maintained the doctrine of a community of wives ; the Nicolaitans about the year 68 denied the Divinity of Christ. NIGER NINEVEH 609 NIGER, Africa. The French geographers devoted much attention to find out the sources of; De Lisle published his plan of, 1714; D'Anville, 1749; the African Association formed in England to discover the course and source of, Mungo Park was employed by them, he left England, May 22, 1795 5 ne traced it for 300 miles, and returned, June 10, 1797 ; he was afterwards sent out by H. M. Government, Jan. 30, 1805 ; drowned at Boussa, in Dec. The brothers Sanders discovered the mouth of the river, Nov. 18, 1830; the Government sent an expedition of three steam vessels, 1841, but they only ascended to Egga. Mr Macgregor Laird was sent out in the Pleiad iron-screw steamer, May 20, 1854, and ascended the river within about 50 miles of the confluence of the Benne and Faro, they were 118 days on the river. NIGHTINGALE, MISS. A meeting held at Willis's Rooms, Hanover-square, in order to raise a fund for establishing an institution for the purpose of training nurses after the Crimea war, Nov. 29, 1855. NIJNI NOVGOROD, Russia, founded, circa 1222; occupied by the Tartars, 1237; added to Moscow, 1418 ; the cathedral of the Transfiguration founded, 1221 ; of Archangel, 1222 ; rebuilt, 1620 ; a fair for mercantile purposes was held here, as early as 1366; became the property of the state, 1751 ; removed to its present site, 1824. NILE, Egypt. Mercator's map of Africa, published 1593, gave the source of the Nile to be two large lakes ; Mr Browne and Dr Beke attribute the source to be in the Mountains of the Moon in 10 lat. N. ; Bruce thought he had reached the source, Nov., 1770, but Capt. Speke is said to have discovered the source to be the Lake Nyanza, July 28, 1862 ; reported his discovery to the Royal Geo- graphical Society, June 24, 1863 ; Capt. Baker discovered the Albert Nyanza, Jan. 22, 1864; the river overflowed, killing 30,000 people, 1829. NILE, naval battle. Nelson discovered the French fleet, anchored in the bay of Aboukir close in shore, consisting of 1 8 ships of war, 1 1 78 guns ; the English fleet consisted of 1 5 ships, 942 guns ; the French were totally defeated ; the battle begun at 6 p.m. ; by 8 o'clock p.m. four of the French van had struck ; between 9 and IO the Admiral's ship, the L'Orient, blew up ; the battle continued dur- ing the night, only four of the enemy's ships escaped, Aug. I and 2, 1 798. NILOMETER. An instrument used among the ancients to measure the height of the water of the Nile ; it is said to have been erected by Joseph during his regency in Egypt ; it measures 16 cubits ; some authorities attribute it to the Sultan Soli- man in the 8th century. NIMEGUEN, Holland. An ancient Roman town built by Julius Caesar ; the castle rebuilt by Charlemagne, 775 ; united to Holland, 1248 ; sold by William III., King of the Romans, to Otho the III., 1270; the town -hall built, 1554; taken by the French, 1672 ; the treaty between Louis XIV. and Charles II. of Spain, signed in the town-hall, July 31, 1678; again taken by the French, Nov. 8, 1794. NINEVEH, Assyria. First mentioned in the loth chapter of Genesis ; it is there placed among the primitive cities ; it is next found in the book of Jonah, B. c. 850 ; it was the residence of Sennacherib, King of Assyria, circa B.C. 710 ; de- stroyed by the Medes, B.C. 626. M. Botta, the French Consul at Mosul, exca- vated the mound Kouyunjik, where he found a few fragments of ruins, but at Khorsabad, 1842, he discovered several upright slabs with figures in bas-relief, and several halls and chambers. Mr Layard opened a mound at Nimroud, Dec., 1845, and in the following year discovered several halls with winged lions and bulls, also a gigantic head ; first collection arrived in England, Oct., 1850 ; ex- cavations continued by M. Place, 1854. 39 610 NINGPO NONES NINGPO, China, taken by the English, Oct. 13, 1841 ; the Chinese attempted to recapture the city, but failed, March 10, 1842 ; evacuated, May 7, 1842 ; opened to foreign trade, 1843 ; captured by the Taepings, Dec. 9, 1861, but re- taken by the Imperialists, May 21, 1862. NISBET, battle, between the English and Scotch, in which the latter were routed, and 10,000 slain, May 7, 1402. NISI PRIUS. Previously to the statute of Westminster, trials by assizes or juries could only be held where the king resided, or before the justices going their septennial circuit, but this custom was amended by the writ of Nisi Prius, com- manding the sheriff to empanel a jury at Westminster, 13 Edw. I. c. 30, 1285. NISSA, Servia, captured by Amurath II., 1389; by the Austrians, July 28, 1737 ; retaken by the Turks, Nov. 13, 1737. NITHESDALE, Earl of, taken prisoner at Prestonpans, Nov. 13, 1715; con- demned to death for high treason, but escaped from the Tower, Feb. 23, 1715-16. NITRIC ACID, discovered by the chemist Lully, 1287. NITROUS ACID, discovered by Scheele, 1771 ; gas by Dr Hales ; oxide gas by Priestly, 1776. NITRO-GLYCERINE. See Glycerine. NIVE, battles. Wellington attacked the French, under Soult, on the river Nive, Dec. 9, 1813 ; series of battles begun, Dec. 10, and continued till the I3th, when the latter were defeated. The British lost 5000 men in, killed and wounded ; the French, 6000 men and two guns. NIVELLE, battle. The English army, commanded by the Duke of Wellington, defeated the French army, under Marshal Soult, on the banks of this river, after a gallant struggle, Nov. 10, 1813 ; the English crossed the river on the I2th ; the French lost 4000 men. NOBILITY in England permitted to build castles in 1150; the privilege with- drawn, and eleven hundred pulled down, 1153 ; patents to nobles of an estate granted by Philip the Fair of France, 1095 ; Neville, Duke of Bedford, degraded from the peerage for being poor, temp. Edward IV., 1478 ; noblemen's privileges restrained, June, 1773. NOBILITY of France renounced their privileges, May 23, 1789; liveries and armorial bearings abolished, June 18, 1790; records of, destroyed, June 25, 1792 ; a new nobility created by the Emperor Napoleon, 1808 ; hereditary peer- age abolished in France, Dec. 27, 1831. NOBLE. Edward III. ordered a gold coin of the value of 6s. Sd. to be struck, 1344. NOCTON PARK PRIORY, Lincolnshire, founded by Robert D'Arcy, circa 1156. NOCTON PARK, seat of Lord Ripon, destroyed by fire, July 15, 1834. NOLA, Italy. Marcellus attacked Hannibal, under the walls of this town, B.C. 216 ; destroyed by Alaric, 410 ; Augustus died here, A. D. 14. NONCONFORMISTS, Protestant dissenters. An act was passed to suppress, I Eliz. c. 2, 1558; a congregation of, seized at Plumbers' Hall, London, June 16, 1567; fines converted into imprisonment, 35 Eliz. c. i, 1593; two acts passed in the reign of James I. ; 3 James I. c. 4, 1603 ; 21 James I. c. 4, 1623 ; a new act of uniformity passed, 13 & 14 Car. II. c. 4, when upwards of 2000 ministers left the Church, refusing to sign the 39 Articles, Aug. 24, 1662 ; declaration of indulgence by James II., April 4, 1687; act of toleration, by which all Dissenters who did not deny the Trinity were relieved, I Will. & Mary, c. 18, May 24, 1689. NONES, the 7th of March, May, July, and October, and the 5th of all the other NONJURORS NORTHALLERTON 611 months ; the nones are the six days following the above four months named, and of the other months, the four days next after the first. XOXJURORS, or High Churchmen who were attached to the Stuarts and refused to take the oath of allegiance to Will. & Mary ; the Archbishop of Canterbury, the Bishops of Bath and Wells, Ely, Gloucester, Norwich, and Peterborough, were deprived of their sees, Feb. I, 1691 ; doubly taxed and compelled to register their estates, May 27, 1723 ; on the decease of the Pretender, 1788, they tendered their loyalty, and the penal laws against them were withdrawn, 1 792. NONPAREIL, an American life-raft, sailed from New York with a crew consist- ing of the captain and two men ; reached Southampton, July 25, 1863, being 43 days on their voyage. NON-RESISTANCE. An act passed by the House of Commons ' that it is not lawful to take up arms against the king,' June, 1661, but thrown out in the Lords, Oct., 1665. Doctrine of, maintained at Oxford, July 24, 1683. NONSUCH, Surrey, the manor purchased by Henry VIII. of Sir Richard de Codington, July 10, 1539 ; the palace built by that monarch, 1543 ; exchanged by Queen Mary for certain lands in Norfolk to Henry Fitz-Alan, Earl of Arundel, *557 5 visited by Queen Elizabeth first, Aug. 5, 1559 ; George Lord Berkeley appointed keeper, Sept. 5, 1660 ; given by Charles II. to Barbara, Countess of Castlemaine, Jan. 18, 1671; pulled down by her orders, 1708. NOOTKA SOUND, British North America, discovered by Captain Cook, 1778 ; settled by the English, 1 786 ; the Spaniards, in 1 789, took possession of the set- tlement ; a demand of reparation was made and arranged amicably, 1 790. NORBERTINES, order of, instituted by St Norbert, 1120. NORDLINGEN, battles. The Swedes defeated by the allied Austrians and Ba- varians, Sept. 6, 1634 ; the French, under Turenne and Conde, defeated the allied Spaniards and Austrians, commanded by Count de Mercy, Aug. 7, 1645. NORE, the Mutiny at. The fleet mutinied, calling themselves a floating republic, under the presidency of Richard Parker, a sailor, May 20, 1 797 ; they returned to their duty and delivered up Parker, June 14, who was tried and executed at Sheerness, on the 3Oth. NORFOLK ISLAND, South Pacific Ocean, discovered by Captain Cook, 1774; made a penal colony, 1787; abandoned and the buildings destroyed, 1810 ; it was again made a penal settlement, 1825 ; abandoned, June, 1856 ; the descend- ants of the Mutineers of the Bounty settled here, 1 856. NORFOLK, Virginia, the navy-yard and docks destroyed by the Confederates, and the city taken by the Federals, under Gen. Wool, May 10, 1862. NORHAM CASTLE, Northumberland, built by Flambard, Bishop of Durham, 1121 ; David, King of Scotland, besieged it with a large force, and nearly de- stroyed it, 1 1 38 ; restored, and the great tower built by Bishop Pudsey, 1 1 54 ; William the Lion of Scotland met King John at, 1211 ; Edward I. held a meet- ing with the Scottish nobles here, 1286 ; it was taken by the Scots, 1513. NORMANDY, France, once part of Neustria, conquered by Rollo, 875 ; he married Gisele, daughter of Charles the Simple of France, who ceded the dukedom to him, 876 ; was succeeded by his son William, 931 ; reduced by the English, 1137 ; conquered by the French, 1204 ; purchased of the English by the French, 1259. NORMAN LANGUAGE, first used in English courts of law, 1079. Norman Architecture prevailed in England from 1066 to 1189. NORTHALLERTON, Yorkshire. This Roman station was seriously injured by the ravages of Beornredus, 769 ; William II. gave the town to the See of Durham. The battle of the Standard was fought here ; the English, commanded by Bishop 612 NORTH AMERICA NORTHMEN Ralph and Walter 1'Espec, defeated the Scots, led by King David, with a loss of n,ooomen, Aug. 22, 1138; the bishop's palace destroyed, 1174; the town was plundered by the Scots, 1318 ; the Sessions House erected, 1790. NORTH AMERICA, discovered by S. Cabot, 1497; the French first settled here, 1604 ; expelled by the English, 1614 ; granted to Sir William Alexander by charter, 1621 ; Scotch settlement made, 1622 ; the French settlers increased, but were subjugated by the English forces, 1654; ceded to France by the treaty of Breda, 1667; confirmed to England by that of Utrecht, April n, 1713; the French in- creased, 1747 ; the government gave grants of land to emigrants, 1750 ; constitu- tion granted, 1758 ; made a bishopric, 1787 ; confirmed to England by the treaty of Paris, Feb. 10, 1762; Cape Breton annexed to, 1819. NORTHAMPTON, battle. The Lancastrians who favoured Queen Margaret, under the command of the Duke of Buckingham, defeated by the Yorkists, commanded by the Earl of Warwick, Henry VI. being taken prisoner, and the Queen escap- ing to Durham, and afterwards to Scotland, July 10, 1460. NORTHAMPTON, Northamptonshire, made a Danish station, 921 ; they plundered and burnt it, 1010 ; the town plundered by Tostig, 1065 ; Harold made peace here with Morcar and the Northumbrians, Oct. 27, 1065 ; the castle built by Simon de St Liz, circa 1085 ; St Sepulchre's church founded by the Knights Templars, 1092 ; the barons swore allegiance to Queen Matilda here, 1131 ; Stephen held a council here, 1138 and 1144; a parliament held here, 1175; and again, 1176 ; the kingdom divided into six circuits for the judges by the council assembled at the castle, 1180 ; the town incorporated, 1184 ; Richard I. established a mint here, 1209 ; the castle besieged for 15 days by the barons, under Robert Fitzwalter, 1215 ; taken by the royal army, Baron Montford being defeated, 1265 ; Henry II. held a parliament here, 1266 ; 50 Jews hanged here, 1278 ; the last parliament met in the castle by order of Richard II., 1380, and established the poll tax. Queen Eleanor died at Hardby, Nov. 28, 1290 ; she was brought to Northampton, Dec. 9 ; and a cross erected to her memory, 1292. St Thomas's hospital founded, 1450 ; the Lancastrians defeated by the earls of March and Warwick in Hardingstone Fields, July 20, 1460 ; the town ravaged by a plague, 1637 ; taken by the Parliamentarians, under Lord Brooke, 1642 ; walls destroyed, 1661 ; 50x3 houses destroyed by fire, 1675 ; restored at the public expense, ,150,000, 1676-7 ; the barracks built, 1796; the theatre erected, 1806 ; the Roman Catholic chapel of St Felix built by Pugin, 1844 ; the new Town- hall erected, from the designs of E. W. Godwin, 1864. NORTH BRITAIN paper, Wilkes, No. 45, April 23, 1763 ; it contained a satirical commentary on the king's speech ; Wilkes arrested on a general warrant, April 30 ; released, May 6 ; obtained damages, ^300, for false imprisonment, July 6 ; ordered by the House of Commons to be burned by the common hangman, Nov. 15 ; burnt in the Royal Exchange, Dec. 3. NORTH-EAST PASSAGE to Russia discovered, 1553. NORTH FERRELY PRIORY, Yorkshire, founded by Lord Eustace Vescy, 1463. NORTH, LORD, administration of, under which England lost her North Ameri- can colonies ; Earl Gower was Lord-President, Lord Halifax privy seal, &c. ; Lord North became premier, Jan. 28, 1 770, and remained in office until March 20, 1782 ; he then leagued himself with the Whigs, and the Coalition Ministry was formed, April 2, 1783 ; he died Earl of Guildford, Aug. 5, 1792. NORTHMEN made several permanent settlements in France, 850 ; and under Rolf the Ganger, or as he is more generally called, Rollo, obtained possession of the district around the mouth of the Seine, since called Normandy, 875 ; defeated before Paris, 886. NORTHUMBERLAND NOSE MANUFACTURE 613 NORTHUMBERLAND, made a kingdom by Ida, King of Bernicia, 547 ; sub- dued by Egbert, King of Wessex, 828 ; conquered by the Northmen, 871 ; taken by Athelstan, 925 ; subjugated by Edred, 946 ; divided into counties, 950. NORTHUMBERLAND HOUSE, Strand, erected by Henry Howard, Earl of Northampton, upon the site of the Hospital of St Mary Rounceval, 1606-7 > first called Northumberland House, 1643 ; the building has been since much altered and repaired, but the gateway remains ; a fire destroyed part of the building in 1780 ; another fire, which did considerable damage, broke out, Aug. 19, 1868. NORTH-WEST PASSAGE. Parliament offered a reward of 20,000 for the discovery of, 18 Geo. II. c. 17, 1745 ; confirmed by 16 Geo. III. c. 20, 1818; amended, I & 2 Geo. IV. c. 2, 1821. .Captain M 'Clure discovered the passage in the 'Investigator,' Oct 26, 1850 ; awarded the gold medal by the Geographical Society, May, 1854. NORTON PRIORY, Cheshire, built, 1210. NORWAY. The crown assumed by St Olaf, 1013 ; he was defeated and slain at Vaedal, Aug. 31, 1030; slavery abolished, 1329; united with Denmark by the league of Calmar, 1397 ; visited by an earthquake, July 18, 1686 ; and again, April 1 5, 1692 ; ceded to Sweden by Great Britain, March 3, 1813 ; taken possession of by Sweden, Jan. 14, 1814, and a new constitution proclaimed, Nov. 4 ; hereditary nobility abolished, 1821 ; the order of St Olaf instituted, Aug. 21, 1847 ; Charles XY. of Sweden took the oath to the constitution at Christiania, Oct. 6, 1859, and was crowned at Drontheim, Aug. 5, 1860 ; electoral law amended, March 20, 1863. NORWICH, Norfolk, the Venta Icenorum of the Romans, burned by Sweyn, King of Denmark, 1004 ; made an Earldom, 1049 ; the castle built by Canute, 1018 ; fortified by Ralph Guador, 1066 ; in 1086 it had 1476 houses ; refortified by Hugh Bigod, 1 140 ; the Cathedral begun by Bishop Losing, 1096 ; nave com- pleted by Bishop Everard, 1135; spire by Bishop Percy, 1361; it is 411 feet long, 72 broad, and the steeple is 313 feet high ; the town incorporated by King John, 1 199 ; made the sole staple for the wool trade of Suffolk and Norfolk, 1331 ; the first worsted manufactory established at, 1340 ; suffered from the plague, 1348 ; the chief magistrate first styled mayor, 1430 ; St Andrew's Hall built, 1415 ; noted for its worsteds, 1533 > the city besieged by the Rebels, under Kelt, July 22, 1549, who set it on fire, Aug. 5 ; Kelt hanged at the castle, Dec. 7 ; the Flemings settled at, 1565 ; charter granted to the town by Charles II., 1663; the public library established, 1784; weavers' riots, 1826; and again, June 12, 1828 ; the new canal and harbour opened, June 3, 1831 ; free library, 1857. NORWICH, the See of, founded at Dunwich, Suffolk, 630 ; divided into two by Bisi, 669 ; the second to be at Elmham, 673 ; removed to Thetford, 1070 ; transferred to Norwich, 1092. NORWOOD CEMETERY, Surrey, the chapels built, from the designs of Mr Tite; consecrated, Dec. 6, 1837. NOSE MANUFACTURE. This art invented by Gasper Taliacolius, bom at Bononia, 1553, professor of physic and surgery ; he died, 1599. His statue stands in the Anatomy Theatre there, holding a nose in his hand. He wrote Chirurgia Nota, in which he teaches the art of engrafting noses, ears, lips, &c. He shows that Alexander Benedictus, a writer on surgery, described the operation for lost noses before him ; and the great anatomists, Vesalius and Mr Charles Barnard (Sergeant Surgeon to Queen Anne), assert, that it has been practised with dexterity and success, from authorities not to be contested. Dr Fludd, a Rose- crucian philosopher and physician, informs us of a nobleman in Italy who lost part of his nose in a duel : he was advised by one of his physicians to take one of his slaves, and make a wound in his arm, and to join the little remainder of his nose to the wounded arm of the slave, and continue it there for some time, till the 614 NOTABLES NOVARA flesh of the arm was united to his nose. The nobleman prevailed on one of his slaves to consent to the experiment, by which the double flesh was united, and a piece of flesh was cut out of the slave's arm, which was so managed by a skil- ful surgeon as to serve for a natural nose. The slave, being rewarded and set free, went to Naples, where he fell sick and died ; at the same instant a gangrene appeared on the nobleman's nose ; upon which that part of the nose which be- longed to the dead man's arm was, by the advice of his physicians, cut off, and, being encouraged by the experiment, he was prevailed upon to have his own arm wounded in the like manner, and to apply it to the remainder of his nose, which was done, and a new nose was cut out of it, which continued with him till his death. Again practised, 1815-24. Slitting or cutting the nose off made felony, by the Coventry Act, 22 & 23 Car. II. c. I, s. 7, 1670. NOTABLES of France. Richelieu called a meeting of, to advise as to the state of the kingdom, 1614 ; convened by the minister Calonne, to take into con- sideration the financial condition of the country, Feb. 22, 1 787 ; they were dis- missed by the king, May, 1788. Notables of Spain, assembled at Bayonne, May 25, 1808, conformably to a summons issued by the Emperor Napoleon to that effect. NOTARIES PUBLIC, originally appointed by the Fathers of the Church to collect the acts and the remains of Martyrs, in the 1st century ; afterwards changed to a commercial office ; an act passed to regulate their transactions, 41 Geo. III. c. 79, June 27, 1801 ; amended, 3 &4 Will. IV. c. 70, Aug. 28, 1833; again amended, 6 & 7 Viet. c. 90, Aug. 24, 1843. NOTRE DAME, church of, at Paris, begun, 1160 ; choir completed, 1182 ; made the Temple of Reason, 1793 ; bell in, baptized and named after the Duke and Duchess of Angouleme, the Prince de Foix and Duchesse Damas acting as proxies, Nov. 15, 1816 ; captured by the Insurgents, July 28, 1830 ; defaced by them, Feb. 14, 1831 ; the Archbishop's Palace adjoining entirely destroyed, Feb. 15 ; the cathedral restored, 1845-7. NOTTINGHAM, England, invaded by the Danes, circa 867 ; town burned, 1140 ; a parliament held here by Richard I., March II, 1194; Plumptre's Hospital founded, 1390 ; Charles I. erected his standard of civil war, Aug. 22, 1642 ; an act passed to rebuild the town, 27 Hen. VIII. c. I, 1535 ; the lace trade exten- sively carried on, 1778 ; Mr Lee invented the stocking machine here, 1589 ; General Hospital built, 1781 ; bobbin-net machine invented, 1 799 ; subsequently improved, 1823. Luddites riots broke out, March n, again, Nov. 24, 1811, and Jan. and April, 1812 ; finally ceased, Oct., 1816. Watch and Ward Act enforced, Dec. 2, 1816; Inclosure Act passed, June 30, 1845; the People's College founded by Mr Gill, 1847 ; the foundation-stone of the Lunatic Asylum laid by the Duke of Newcastle, Oct. 30, 1857. NOTTINGHAM CASTLE, said to have been built by William the Conqueror, 1068 ; a parliament held at, by Richard I., 1189 ; the Earl of March taken here by surprise, Oct. 19, 1330, and hung at the Elms in Smithfield as a traitor, Nov. 29; a parliament held by Edward III., 1340, and Richard II., 1386; enlarged by Edward IV., 1461 ; repaired by Richard III., 1485 ; Henry VII. held a council of war at, 1487 ; besieged by the Parliamentarians under Col. Hutchin- son, and taken, Sept. I, 1642 ; rebuilt by the Duke of Newcastle, from the designs of Robert Smithson, 1674 ; burnt in the Reform riots, Oct. 10, 1831. NOVA CASTELLA, Italy, and a number of villages near, destroyed by an earth- quake, Sept. 30, 1789. NOVARA, battle. The Austrians, under the command of Marshal Radetsky, de- feated the Piedmontese, March 23, 1849 ; a treaty of peace signed, Piedmont renouncing all pretensions to Lombardy, Parma, and Modena. NOVA ZEMBLA NUREMBERG 615 NOVA ZF.MI5LA, Arctic Ocean, discovered by Sir Hugh Willoughby, 1553 ; visited by Steven Burrough, 1556. NOVEMBER, the ninth month of the Roman calendar, and thus the eleventh from the year 713 B.C. NOVGOROD, Russia, founded by the Sclavonians in the 5th century ; Ruric, a Norman prince, took up his residence here and founded the Russian monarchy, 864 ; cathedral of St Sophia built, 989 ; the present one, 1045 ; the town made a republic in the I2th century ; captured by Ivan Vassilievich I., 1477, and incorporated with the grand-duchy of Moscow, 1478 ; the Swedes, under Delagardie, killed two priests in the cathedral of St Sophia, and destroyed their charter, 1504 ; 25,000 of the inhabitants massacred by Ivan IV., 1570; a de- structive fire at, June 1 6, 1864. NOVI, battle, betsveen the French, under General Joubert, and the Russians, under Suwarroff, Aug. 15, 1798 ; the French were defeated with the loss of Gen. Joubert, and 1500 killed, 5500 wounded, and 3000 prisoners. A second battle be- tween the French and Austrians took place at Novi, Jan. 8, 1800, when the former were defeated. NOYON, France, an ancient Roman town, Naviomagtis. Made a bishopric, 531 ; cathedral built, 1137, and finished, 1167; treaty of peace between Charles of Austria and Francis I. of France, signed, Aug. 13, 1516, putting an end to the de- structive wars engendered by the League of Cambrai ; John Calvin born here, 1509. NUBIA, Egypt. The temple of Rameses VII. built, B.C. 1289 ; the temple of Aboo-Simbel visited and opened by Belzoni, after being closed 3000 years, Aug. I, 1816 ; assigned by treaty to Mehemet Ali, Feb. 13, 1841. NUGENT, The Lady, a government troop ship, foundered in a hurricane with 350 rank and file, Sept., 1854. NUISANCES, an act passed to prevent, 'The Nuisances Removal and Diseases Prevention,' II & 12 Viet. c. 123, Sept. 4, 1848 ; amended, 12 & 13 Viet. c. ill, Aug. I, 1849 ; and again, amended by the 18 & 19 Viet. c. 121, Aug. 14, 1855 ; and 23 & 24 Viet. c. 27, Aug. 6, 1860. NUMBERS, the fourth book of the Pentateuch, written by Moses, B.C. 1490 ; takes its name from the double numbering or census of the people ; the first of which is given in ch. i. iv. ; the second in ch. xxvi. It is a general history of the Is- raelites from the time of their leaving Sinai, in the second year of the Exodus, till their arrival at the borders of the Promised Land. NUMISMATIST SOCIETY, established by Dr Lee, 1836 ; first meeting held, Jan. 26, 1837. NUNEATON NUNNERY, Warwickshire, built, 1170. NUNNERY, the first in France founded at Poictiers, by the sister of St Marcellina, 360 ; the first in England established at Folkestone, by King Edbald, 630. NUNS. They were established by St Syncletica, circa 363 ; existed in England in 630, and called the Lord's handmaidens, 745 ; married nuns anathematized at Rome, 721 ; allowed to wear lamb's-wool or cat's-skin, 1127 ; forbidden to wear grey, 1 138 ; ordered to wear black, 1200 ; expelled from their convents by Henry VIII. in England, who seized their property for his own use, 1545 ; many ex- pelled from their convents in Germany, 1785, and from those of France, Jan., 1790. NUREMBERG, Bavaria, castle built by the Emperor Conrad II., 1030 ; made a free market town by Henry III. in the llth century; made a free city, 1219; the church of St Sebald erected in the loth century ; the Catholic church built, 1361 ; a manufacture of porcelain established here, 1470-2, and became celebrated for a certain glaze used ; the Town -hall erected, 1619 ; it is adorned with paint- 616 NURSERY FOR ACTORS OATES'S PLOT ings by Albert Diirer ; the town ceded to the King of Bavaria by Napoleon, 1806 ; the castle of Conrad presented to the king, 1855. NURSERY FOR ACTORS. A patent granted by Charles II. to William Legge, groom of the bedchamber, giving him the privilege of instituting a nursery for young actors, March 3, 1664 ; one, according to Pennant, was established in Golden Lane, Barbican, and another in Hatton Garden : this is mentioned in Killigrew's Diary, Aug. 2, 1664. NUTLEY ABBEY, Buckinghamshire, built by Walter Giffard, second Earl of Buckingham, 1162. NYMPHENBURG, treaty of. Louis XV. engaged to take the field with two armies, one of which was to watch George II. the Elector of Hanover, the other to unite itself with the troops of the Elector of Bavaria, 1741. o OAK sawdust first found to be useful in tanning, as well as the bark, 1765 ; the timber best adapted for ship-building ; named by Dr Halley the royal oak, from Charles II. having hid in one, 1676. The ilex, or evergreen oak, brought from the south of Europe to England in the i6th century ; the scarlet oak, from the north, in the 1 7th century ; the chestnut-leaved oak, from North America in the i6th century ; the Turkey oak, from the south of Europe, 1735. OAKEN-CROWN, order of merit founded by King William III. of the Nether- lands, Dec. 29, 1841. OAKHAM, Rutlandshire, castle built by Walcheline de Ferrars, 1162 ; grammar- school founded, 1584 ; Geoffrey Hudson, a page to Queen Henrietta Maria, a dwarf, 3 feet 9 inches high, was born here, 1619 OAKHAMPTON, or Okehampton, Castle, Devonshire, built, 1058, by Baldwin de Brioniis, one of \Villiam I.'s favourites ; the town incorporated by Jas. I., 1623 ; confirmed by Chas. II., 1685. OAK OF NAVARRE, order of knighthood instituted in Spain by Ximenes, 722. OAKS, roses first grafted on, by M. Borrowsky, 1825. OAKS COLLIERY, at Barnsley, explosion at, 450 persons killed, Dec. 12, 1866 ; the pit re-opened, Aug. 31, 1867 ; a second explosion at, Nov. 5. OAKS STAKES ran for at the Epsom races, originated by Edward Smith Stanley, I2th Earl of Derby, May 14, 1779. OATES'S PLOT. Titus Oates, a chaplain of a man-of-war, was dismissed the service for immoral conduct, became a public lecturer, and, in conjunction with one Tongue, invented a plot, affecting to be the discovery of an intention to assassinate King Charles II., for which several persons of the Romish faith were tried and executed, 1678 ; he declared Sir Edmondbury Godfrey to have been murdered by the Romanists, Oct. 15 ; a parliamentary committee appointed to ex- amine the plot, Oct. 21 ; the Earl of Powys, Lords Strafford, Petre, Arundel, and Belasyze, Romish peers, committed to the Tower, Oct. 23 ; Coleman, secre- tary to the Duke of York, condemned, Nov. 27, and executed, Dec. 3 ; Whit- bread and four other priests tried, and three executed, Jan. 24, 1679; Bedloe, an ac- complice of Oates, gave further particulars of the plot, and endeavoured to show that the Queen was concerned in it ; Hill, Green, and Berry, her servants, executed as OATHS OCEAN MAIL 617 the murderers of Sir Edmondbury Godfrey, Feb. 21 27 ; Gates received a pen- sion, which was taken from him, April 21, 1681 ; ^100,000 damages given against him for scandal respecting the Duke of York, June 18, 1684 ; convicted of perjury, whipped from Newgate to Tybum, and fined 2000 marks, to be stripped of his canonical habits, to stand in the pillory five times a year, and to be imprisoned for life, May 16, 1685 ; pardoned, and pensioned with ^300 per annum, May 31, 1689 ; died, July 23, 1705. OATHS. The practice of using oaths on important occasions has been always ob- served : Abraham charged his servant to swear, Gen. xxiv. 2, 3, 37 ; the first judicial oath occurs in Levit. vi. 3, 5. The Greek nation also had oaths, as ap- pears from Herodotus, &c. First used in England by the Saxons, circa 600 ; ad- mitted in decisions, 824 ; administered to a judge, 1344 ; of supremacy, first ad- ministered to the English by Henry VIII., 1535 ; refused by all the bishops but one, 1559 ; of allegiance, first framed, 1605, temp. James I. ; of engagement, im- posed by parliament, Feb., 1648; of abjuration, enjoined, 13 Will. III., March 2, 1701 ; ' So help me God and all the saints ! ' concluded every oath until 1550 ; oath modified on repeal of the Test and Corporation Act, 1828 ; certain oaths abol- ished in the customs and excise departments, substituting declarations, 1831 ; affirmations in place of oaths by Separatists, 1833 1837 ; Quakers were admitted to an affirmation, 1702 ; altered and modified, 1721 ; since again altered ; a com- mission appointed to inquire into, May 17, 1866; a second commission issued, July 16, 1866 ; report giving the various oaths issued, 1867 ; declaration against transubstantiation abolished in civil offices, franchise, or right, 30 & 31 Viet. c. 62, July 25, 1867 ; religious disabilities removed, and the law relating to the oaths of office amended, 30 & 31 Viet. c. 75, Aug. 12, 1867. OBELISKS. The largest is called the 'Lateran,' from its situation at Rome ; it was brought from the Temple of Ammon Ra, Pliny says, during the reign of Rameses, King of Egypt, B.C. 1200 ; Ungarelli assigns to it an antiquity of B.C. 1740 ; removed by Constan tine's order to Rome, A.D. 357 ; it was discovered buried, 1588 ; re-erected by Pope Sixtus V. The next in size is the one at the entrance of the temple at Karnak . There are 22 in various places in Europe, re- moved from Egypt ; one erected on the spot where the Emperor Joseph II. and General Lacey ploughed an acre of land, Aug. 19, 1769. OBI DOS, battle. The advance guard of Wellington's army defeated the division of the French army, under Thiebault, Aug. 17, 1808. OBLATIONS, offerings in kind for the maintenance of the Ministers of the Church, and divided by the Rules of Pope Simplicius, 476 ; and by order of the Council of Meacon the communicants brought theirs every week, 1582. OBOLUS, an old Greek coin in silver and brass, of about five farthings in value ; noted in the record of the ungrateful treatment of Belisarius by the Emperor Justinian, who, after all his public services, was forced to beg alms at the gates of Constantinople, ' Give an obolus to Belisarius,' about the year 560. Two were placed in the mouth of a dead person to pay his passage over the Styx. OBSERVATORIES, for astronomical purposes and the aid of nautical science. One anciently in Egypt, on the tomb of Osymandias ; at Benares ; in Alexandria ; the first at Cassel, 1561 ; Tycho Brahe's at Uraniburg, 1676 ; at Copenhagen, 1656 ; Royal French, at Paris, 1671 ; at Greenwich, 1676 ; Nuremberg, 1678 ; Utrecht, 1690; Berlin, 1711; Bologna, 1714; St Petersburg, 1725; Oxford, 1772; Dublin, 1783; Armagh, 1793; Cambridge, 1824. OBSTETRICAL SOCIETY, instituted in London, 1858; Report first published, 1859. OCEAN MAIL, trading- vessel, lost in the China seas, with a cargo valued at j 1 00,000, Sept. 1 8, 1863. 6i8 OCEAN MONARCH OHIO OCEAN MONARCH, American emigrant ship from Liverpool to Boston, with the Prince and Princess de Joinville, and the Duke and Duchess d'Aumale, and 396 passengers on board, took fire near Great Orme's Head, North Wales, and of those on board 178 perished in the flames or in the sea, Aug. 24, 1848. OCHOTSK, Siberia, a dreadful gale of wind at, from the south-east, came on to- wards the end of Jan., 1810, which lasted two days : the waters of the Ochotsk rose 12 feet, flowed over the tops of the houses, and a transport was driven into the middle of the town. OCTOBER, the eighth Roman month under Romulus, B.C. 753 ; and tenth after- wards, both among Roman and Christian nations in general. OCTOBER CLUB, established at Bell Tavern, King-street, Westminster, 1712. OCTROI, duties under, levied in France in the I4th century ; abolished, 1789 ; re- imposed, Oct. 18, 1798 ; extended to the line of fortification, Jan. i, 1860. OCZAKOFF. The Russians besieged and captured this town, and after suffering great hardships for five months, 15,000 Turks perished, Dec. 17, 1789. ODESSA, Russia. The Empress Catherine of Russia took possession of this town, 1791 ; added to Russia by the treaty of Jassy, 1792 ; visited by Alexander, 1818 ; made a free port, 1819 ; the ' Furious' under a flag of truce fired upon, April 14, 1854 ; bombarded by the Allied Fleet, April 22 ; the 'Tiger' war-steamer ran ashore at, in a heavy fog, the crew, 200 in number, taken by the Russians, May 12 ; bombarded by the English and French fleets again, May 23. ODIHAM CASTLE, Hants, built by Walkeline, bishop of Winchester, 1093 ; f ranted in dower to Eleanor, the Queen of Edward I., 1298 ; David Bruce con- ned in, for 13 years, 1346-59. ODOMETER, a degree of the meridian, measured with an instrument ; one by Fernel, 1550 ; one described by Hulsius of Frankfort, 1604 ; the most perfect made by one Hoklfield in Saxony, 1765 > the most complete now used, having an index and dial-plate, invented by Mr Payne of Bond-street, the watchmaker. ODONTOLOGICAL SOCIETY, London, instituted, 1856; Vol. I. of their Trans- actions published, 1858. OENOPH YTA, battle. The Athenians defeated the Boeotians at Boeotia, by which Thebes fell under their power, B.C. 456. OESEL, belonged to the Teutonic Knights ; ceded to Sweden by the Danes, 1645 ; taken by Russia, circa 1705 ; ceded to them, 1721. OFFA, King of the Mercians, 757 ; made England tributary to Rome, 790. OFFA'S DYKE, an intrenchment from the Wye to the Dee river, made by Offa the Saxon, to secure the country from Welsh incursions, 774. OFF AN, vStratford-on-Avon, damaged greatly by fire, May 14, 1754. OFFERINGS first instituted by Pope Pelagius II., 558. OFFICERS of the board of works, great wardrobe, treasurer of the chamber and jewel office, and cofferer of the household, abolished by parliament, July, 1781. OFFICERS, GENERAL COUNCIL OF, appointed by the army, 1659; obtained the supreme authority after the dissolution of the parliament, April 22. OFFICERS' WIDOWS, corporation founded for their relief, Oct. 23, 1732. OHIO, North America, settled by the French under D'Iberville, 1673-4. The English Ohio Company's settlement formed, 1750; destroyed by the French, 1752 ; ceded to England, 1763 ; a great portion of the country ceded by the Indians, 1795 ; the first meeting of the legislature held, Sept., 1799; admitted into the Union, 1803 ; the legislature met, 1803 ; the Indians defeated, 1811 ; constitution adopted, 1851. OIL OLYMPIADS 619 3IL. In the reign of Appius Claudius 12 pounds of oil sold for anaj, 505 ; and in 680, 10 pounds for an as. Vegetable oils: many inventions for pressing adopted ; Mr Blundell's double hydrostatic press generally used. The oil of the Dahlia dis- covered by Mr Payen, 1824 ; lard oil made in America, 1830. Oil wells described by Strabo in his Geography ; springs of oil discovered in America, 1863-4. OILCLOTH first made in England, 1660 ; Nathan Taylor established the first floor- cloth manufactory at Knightsbridge, 1754. OLD BAILEY Sessions-house, London, built, 1773; enlarged, 1809; sessions held at, twelve times in the year for the county of Middlesex and city of London ; the lord mayor, one alderman, two judges, the greatest part of the jury, and numbers of spectators, caught the jail distemper and died, May, 1750; again fatal to several, 1772. Old Bailey, the place of execution removed here from Tyburn : first person hung, Dec. 9, 1783 ; the last, May 26, 1868 ; 30 persons killed during the execution of Mr Steel's murderers, Holloway and Haggerty, Feb. 22, 1807. OLD BUCKENHAM PRIORY, Norfolk, founded by William de Albini, Earl of Chi Chester, circa 1140. OLDCASTLE, Sir John, Lord Cobham, burned, under pretence of heresy, before his own residence in Smithfield, Dec. 25, 1417. OLDENBURG, Germany, made a Dukedom, 1156; became part of Denmark, 1667 ; made a Duchy by Joseph II. of Austria, 1777 ; conquered by Napoleon, 1810 ; restored, 1813. The Duchess of, visited England, March 31, 1814 ; left with the emperor of Russia and king of Prussia, June 27, 1814 ; married the Duke of Wurtemberg, Jan. 23, 1816. Peter I. succeeded to the title of Grand Duke, Feb. 27, 1853. Constitution granted, Feb. 18, 1849; revised, Feb. 22, 1855. OLD FORT, Crimea. The allied English and French army disembarked here when invading the Crimea, Sept. 14, 1854. OLD MAN OF THE MOUNTAINS, king of the assassins, or assassinians, in the vicinity of Tyre, in Syria ; his people were Mahometans, and trained up their children to kill such as their chief devoted to die ; he gave the French king, Louis IX., notice that he spared him on account of his virtues, 1235. OLD STYLE. See Calendar. OLERON, Laws of, regarding maritime affairs, said to have been made by Richard I., King of England, when at the Isle of Oleron, in France, 1194; by some authorities they are attributed to Louis IX. of France, circa 1265-6. OLIVE, first planted in Italy, B.C. 562 ; the Romans limited their culture to Italy ; the Cape Olive introduced into England, 1730-1 ; from Madeira, 1785. OLIVEXZA, Spain, captured by the Spaniards, 1801 ; ceded to Spain, June, 1801 ; taken by the French, Jan. 22, 1811 ; retaken by the English under Beresford, 1811 ; reoccupied by the French, who destroyed the fortifications, June 25, 1811 ; by the treaty for the settlement of Europe, 1815, this country was ordered to be returned to Portugal, but this has not been carried out. OLIVES, GARDEN OF, an order of knighthood founded at Jerusalem, by Baudoin, King of, 1197. OLTENITZA, battle. The Turkish army under Omar Pacha defeated the Russian force of 12,000 with a loss of 1200, the former lost 120 men, Nov. 4, 1853. OLVESTON PRIORY, Lincolnshire, built, 1058. OLYMPIA, an ancient Grecian town founded by the Eleians, B.C. 572; temple erected, B.C. 457. OLYMPIADS, the old Greek measure of time : the first, B.C. 776 ; 2nd, 772 ; 3rd, 768; 4th, 764; 5th, 760; 6th, 756; 7th, 752; 8th, 748; 9th, 744; loth, 740; nth, 620 OLYMPIC GAMES OPERAS 736 ; I2th, 732 ; I3th, 728 ; I4th, 724 ; 15*, 720 ; l6th, 716 ; I7th, 712 ; i8th, 708 ; igth, 704 ; 2Oth, 700 ; 2ist, 696 ; 22nd, 692 ; 23rd, 688 ; 24th, 684 ; 251!], 680; 26th, 676 ; 27th, 672 ; 28th, 668 ; 29th, 664 ; 391)1, 624 ; 43rd, 608 ; 46th, 596 ; 55th, 560. This mode of computation ceased after the 364th, A. D. 440. OLYMPIC GAMES, one of the great festivals of the Greeks, founded by Heracles, at Olympia, a city in Elis ; it lasted for five days. Revived by Iphitus, King of Elis, and Lycurgus the Spartan legislator, B.C. 77^5 finally abolished by the Emperor Theodosius, A. D. 394 : it was celebrated every four years, and the in- terval which elapsed between each celebration was called one Olympiad. OLYMPIC THEATRE, Wych-street, Drury Lane, built by Philip Astley on the site of Craven House, and opened, Sept. 18, 1806 ; destroyed by fire, March 29, 1849 ; rebuilt and opened, Dec. 26, 1849. OLYNTHUS, Greece, the early Bottisean town, became of importance, B.C. 392; attacked by the Spartans, with a force of 10,000 men, who were defeated, but the Olynthians were compelled to submit, 379 ; concluded a peace with Athens, 352 ; war renewed, 350 ; captured by Philip, and all that survived, men, women, and children, were sold unto slavery, and the town destroyed, 347. OMAGH, Ireland. The castle of Omy destroyed, 1498 ; rebuilt, and again de- stroyed by Sir Phelim O'Neil, 1641 ; burnt by James II., 1689, and again suffered from an accidental fire, 1 743. OMER, ST, France. Cathedral built, 645 ; taken by the French, 1487 ; ceded to France, Aug. 10, 1678. OMNIBUSES established in Paris by a decree of Louis XIV., to hold eight per- sons, and first used, March 18, 1662 ; they ceased running after a few years ; re- established, 1819 and 1827 ; a large one tried in London with six wheels and four horses, but failed, 1800 ; Mr Shillibeer first introduced the present vehicle, and started two to run between the Yorkshire Stingo, New-road, and the Bank, July 4, 1829 ; first used in Amsterdam, 1839 ; the London General Omnibus Company first began their operations on the Holloway line, Jan. 7, 1856. O'NEIL, Irish Rebellion headed by : attempt to surprise Dublin Castle failed, but upwards of 40,000 Protestants of both sexes massacred, between Sept. 23, 1641 and 1643. OODEYPORE, Hindustan. The town founded, 1568 ; the Rajpoots declared their freedom, and expelled the Moguls, 1713 ; besieged by Scindiah unsuccess- fully, 1768 ; made a tributary of the English, 1818. O. P. RIOTS at Covent-garden theatre, O. P. meaning old prices, Sept. 18, 1809, on opening the new theatre ; the performances for many weeks could not be heard ; a committee was appointed by the proprietor, who reported that the profits were only three per cent. , Oct. 4, when the theatre re-opened ; at last the manager, who had raised the prices, gave way, and peace was restored, Dec. 15, 1809 ; O. P. riots at the Liverpool Theatre, July, 1810. OPERA HOUSE. See Haymarket. OPERA HOUSE, The Italian. See Covent Garden. OPERAS invented by one Rinuccini, of Florence, 1597 ; they were performed in 1600 in Italy ; and one in 1607, called 1'Orfeo, by Monteverde, was the first pub- lished. Operas were introduced into Paris, 1669 ; in 1672 ' Pomona' was got up there ; Sir William D' Avenant introduced them into England, and they were per- formed at the houses of the nobility, 1685 ; performed in York building, 1692 ; the first theatre for the performance of, built on the site of the present Haymarket, 1704 ; opened, April 9, 1705 ; the first at Drury-lane was in 1705 ; first Italian opera performed at the Opera House was 'AlmahiJe,' Jan., 1710; Handel's 'Rinaldo' appeared in 1711. OPTICS 621 OPHITES, a religious sect which believed that the serpent which tempted Eve was a god, 187. OPHTHALMIC HOSPITAL (Royal) for diseases of the eyes, founded in Moor- fields, 1804 ; the Royal Westminster, established at Charing Cross, 1816 ; the Central Hospital, Gray's Inn Lane, 1843. OPIUM, cultivated in Turkey in the I5th century ; it now forms a great staple of our East India trade ; the East India Company assumed the monopoly of, 1773 the contract exposed to public competition, 1785; transferred to the Board of Trade, 1793; several regulations concerning the cultivation of, were published, 1799 ; introduced from Turkey, 1815 ; the revenue derived from the sale of, annually was ,4,000,000; a club of opium-smokers founded in Paris, 1849. OPORTO, Portugal, founded by the Alani, and called Castrum Novum, A.D. circa 350 ; taken by the Goths, 540, and by the Moors, 716 ; they were defeated by Alfonso I., and the city captured, 820 ; again taken by the Moors, 870 ; retaken by the knights of Gascony, 1092 ; noted for a species of wine strengthened with brandy, drank out of the country almost exclusively by the English, a duty being paid of a third less upon it than on other wines, by a treaty called the Afet/iuen treaty, Dec. 27, 1703 ; a company monopolizing the trade was formed here, 1753, which regulated the exports, so as to keep up prices ; dissolved in 1834 by Don Pedro, but re-established, 1841. Insurrection at, 1756 ; the English factory erected, 1790; the town taken by Marshal Soult, with great carnage, April 29, 1809; Soult was surprised here by Wellington, and defeated, May 12, 1809 ; the town, naturally very strong, was besieged by the partisans of Don Miguel, but they were obliged to retire, Sept. 19, 1832, 16,000 persons killed ; an insurrection, in which the in- surgents entered Oporto, 1847 ; a Spanish force entered Oporto on behalf of the Queen, and the insurgents capitulated, June, 1847 ; 28,000 pipes of port wine were imported into England in 1854. OPTICS. The early history of this science is obscure, but Aristophanes in his Comedy of ' the Clouds ' speaks of burning glasses, B. c. 424 ; Euclid published his first treatise upon, B.C. 300 ; Aristotle improved upon several branches of this science, B.C. 412 ; Seneca, A.D. 67, and Cleomedes, 49; but to Claudius Ptolemy we are indebted for our present system : he published his treatise in five books, circa 1 20. Alhazen greatly improved the science, 1108, and Vitello, 1270; Roger Bacon suggested the microscope and telescope in his Opus Majus, circa 1270 ; spectacles invented by Salvinus Armatus at Florence, circa 1292 ; Mauro- lycus published his ' Theoremata de Lumine,' 1525 ; camera obscura invented by Baptista Porta, 1560 ; telescopes said to have been invented by Leonard Digges, about 1571 ; telescope made by Lippershey of Germany, 1608, who also invented the ' binoculus ; ' the same instrument constructed by Galileo, without knowing the invention of Lippershey, 1609 ; Harriot made several drawings of the moon's disc by, 1610 ; astronomical telescope suggested by Kepler, 1611 ; microscope, according to Huygens, invented by Drebelius, about 1621, but it is generally acknowledged that they were invented by Galileo, 1612 ; Cassegrainian reflector, 1621 ; law of refraction discovered by Snellius, about 1622 ; re- flecting telescope, James Gregory, 1660 ; the inflection of light discovered by ;naldi, 1660 ; and by Newton, 1666 ; motion and velocity of light discovered by Roemer and Casini, 1667 ; double refraction explained by Bartholinus, 1669 ; Newton's discoveries, 1674 ; telescopes with a single lens, by Tschirnhausen, about 1690; polarization of light, Huygens, about 1690; structure of the eye ex- plained by Petit, about 1700 ; achromatic telescope constructed by Mr Hall, 1733 ; and by Dollond, 1757 ; the different degrees of light explained by Lambert, 1 760 ; Herschel's great reflecting telescope erected at Slough, Aug. 28, 1 789 ; camera lucida, DrWollaston, 1807; M. Malus discovered the polarization of light by reflection, March, 181 1 ; M. Arago made several further discoveries in the polar- 622 ORAN ORDNANCE i/ation of light, and invented a polarimeter, 1814; Ramage's reflecting telescope erected at Greenwich, 1820; Sir David Brevvster discovered the spectrum, 1820; Sir John Herschel made several discoveries in light, 1820, and Professor Airy, 1827-36. ORAN, Algeria, taken by the Spaniards, 1509, and colonized by them ; driven out by the Moors, 1707; they recaptured the town, 1732; almost destroyed, with its inhabitants, by an earthquake, Oct. 8, 1790 ; taken by the French, 1830, and made a French colony. ORANGE, Family of. The title came with the Nassau family by the marriage of Claude de Chalons with the Count of Nassau, 1530. William, the first Prince of, the founder of the Dutch Republic, assassinated, June 30, 1584. William, Prince of this house, subsequently William III., married the Princess Mary, Nov. 4, 1677 ; landed in Torbay with an army, Nov. 5, 1688 ; proclaimed King of Eng- land, France, and Ireland, Feb. 13, 1689 ; crowned with Mary, daughter of James II., April n, 1689. The Prince of, excluded from his right in Zealand, 1732 ; made knight of the garter, 1733 ; arrived in England, 1733 ; married the Princess Mary, March 14, 1733-4; attended the House of Commons and was naturalized, March 21, 1733-4; returned to Holland, April 22, 1734; his princess visited England, July 2, 1734 > returned, Nov. 9 ; had a princess, Dec. 10, 1739; the Prince got possession of the principality of Nassau-Dittingburg, Aug. 1 6, 1739 ; elected Stadtholder, July 14, 1746. Prince of, embarked at Deal for Hol- land, Nov. 25, 1813 ; made his entry into Amsterdam, as sovereign prince of the United Netherlands, Dec. 2, 1813 ; his sovereignty confirmed by the allied princes, Feb., 1815 ; inaugurated at Brussels, Sept. 21, 1815 ; hereditary prince of, married to the grand duchess Anna Paulowna, sister of the Emperor of Russia, June, 1816. ORANGEMEN, a party in Ireland affecting great attachment to Protestantism, and continually concocting broils with their Roman Catholic fellow-countrymen, dressing up the statue of King William in Dublin, and promoting party feuds ; they formed a lodge in Armagh, Sept. 21, 1795, an d others in Dublin, 1798- ORANGE TREES, carried to Spain by the Moors, and cultivated at Seville in the 1 2th century, Rome in the I3th century, and England in 1500; planted in St James's Park, 1664. ORANSEY ABBEY, Scotland, built, 567. ORATORIANS, priests so called at Rome, from the place where they officiated, 1564; they also appeared in France, 1612. ORATORIOS known as early as 1520 ; Stradella's ' Oratorio di S. Gio. Battista' was played in 1670 ; the species of music was introduced into England by Handel, 1720 ; ' Esther ' was performed at the King's Theatre, Haymarket, May 2, 1731, and several at the Lincoln's Inn Theatre, March and April, 1 732. ORBITS OF THE PLANETS first determined by a Saxon clergyman, 1681. ORBITS PARABOLIC, of comets, explained, 1680. ORDEAL. This ancient mode of trial was known before the Christian era ; it was abrogated about A.D. 829 ; revived in the loth century ; held in high esteem by the Hindoos ; abolished by a decree of the fourth Lateran Council, 1215 ; ordeal by fire and water abolished, 3 Hen. III., 1218, according to Rymer ; the last trial by battle was waged in Tothill- Fields, Westminster, 1511 ; abolished by Henry II., and in France by Louis the Pious, 1260 ; formally abolished by 59 Geo. III. c. 46, June 22, 1819.' See Battle, Wager of. ORDNANCE, England famous for. The first hand-guns were called hand-cannons and Coulouverines ; the hand-guns were limited to one yard in length, and the haquebutte to % of a yard ; an act passed for the maintenance of artillery, ORDNANCE ORISSA 623 33 Hen. VIII. c. 9, 1541-2; bayonets introduced in France, circa 1671; the present bayonet described, 1728; the musket-lock introduced, 4 Will. III., 1693 ; 612 pieces or ordnance cast in the forest of Dean, 1629. ORDNANCE. This office is mentioned as early as 1213 ; the office burnt, 1788 ; rebuilt subsequently on its present site, Pall Mall. ORDNANCE SURVEY, begun in 1784, by Gen. Roy, continued by Col. Colby, and completed by Col. James, 1856 ; the publication of the Maps begun, 1819. OR DO DISCIPLINARUM, an order of knighthood in Bohemia, begun by the German Emperor Sigismund, in the year 1412. OREGON, North America, discovered by Drake, 1579 ; visited by Capt. Cook, March, 1778 ; first entered by Capt. Baker, 1792, and Capt. R. Gray, May 1 1, 1792 ; first mission established, Oct., 1835 ; colonized by the United States, 1842-4 ; framed their constitution and legislature, July, 1843 ; ceded to the United States, June 12, 1846 ; constitution adopted, Aug. 14^ 1848 ; admitted into the Union, 1859. OREL, Russia, 1237 houses and 4 bridges destroyed by fire, June 7, 1848. ORGAN. This is an ancient instrument. It is mentioned in Genesis iv. 21, Job xxx. 31, and in Psalm cl. 4. The hydraulic organ invented by Ctesibus of Alexan- dria, circa B.C. 520 ; introduced into Christian churches, circa 700 ; St Aldhelm, who died in 709, described one with golden pipes in England ; the Emperor Constantine V. sent one to King Pepin, which was placed in the church of St Cor- nelius at Compiegne, 757 ; one erected at Winchester with 400 pipes, 40 keys, and 26 bellows, by Bishop Elphege, 951 ; the key-board remodelled in the I2th century. The largest known is at Weingarten, Germany : it has 66 stops, and 6666 pipes ; the next in size is of York minster, 4500 pipes. Imported generally from Flanders in the last century : a pair cost in 1500, 15 6s. 8 13 & 14 Car. II. c. 12, s. 21, 1662 ; their authority limited by 4 & 5 Will. IV. c. 76, Aug. 14, 1834 ; and by 7 & 8 Viet, c. 101, s. 22, Aug. 9, 1844. OVIEDO, Spain. The fortress, 'The Real Castillo,' built by Alonso III., A.D. 913 ; almost destroyed, 1818 ; the cathedral built in the 8th century ; restored by Bishop Gutierrez de Toledo, 1388 ; the town partially burnt, 1521 ; the university founded by Philip III., 1604 ; library founded, 1764 ; a junta formed here, May, 1808 ; captured^by the French, under Marshal Ney, May 19, 1809. OWEN GLEND'OWER, the celebrated Welsh chieftain, born, 1348, died, 1415. OWHYHEE, Island of, discovered by Capt. Cook, 1778 ; that brave officer killed here, in consequence of a dispute with the natives, Feb. 14, 1779. OXFORD AND CAMBRIDGE BOAT RACE. A list of the winners from 1829 to 1869, from the 'Rowing Almanack : ' . Year. Date. Winner. Place. Time. Won by 1829 June 10 Oxford Henley 14 m. 30 s. easy l8 3 6 June 17 Cambridge W. to P. 36 m. o s. I min. 1839 April 3 Cambridge W. to P. 31 m. os. I m. 45 s. 1840 April 15 Cambridge W. to P. 29 m. 30 s. I length 1841 April 14 Cambridge W. to P. 32m. 305. i m. 4 s. 1842 June 1 1 Oxford W. to P. 30 m. 45 s. 1 3 sec. 1845 Mar. 15 Cambridge P. to M. 23m. 303. 30 sec. 1846 April 3 Cambridge M. to P. 21 m. 55.* 2 lengths 1849 Mar. 29 Cambridge P. to M. 22 m. o s. easy 1849 Dec. 15 Oxford P. to M. a foul foul 1852 April 3 Oxford P. to M. 2 1 m. 36 s. 27 sec. 1854 April 8 Oxford P. to M. 25 m. 29 s. ii strokes 1856 Mar. 15 Cambridge M. to P. 25 m. 50 s. l /2 a length 1857 April 4 Oxford P. to M. 22 m. 55 s.t 35 sec. * The first University race rowed in outriggers, t The first race in which either University rowed in the present style of eights without keel ; also the first time either rowed with round oars. Both used the same kind of oars and boats. OXFORD 627 Year. Date. Winner. Place. Time. ' Won by 1858 Mar. 27 Cambridge P. to M. 21 m. 23 s. 22 sec. 1859 April 1$ Oxford P. to M. 24 m. 30 s. Cam. sank 1860 Mar. 31 Cambridge P. to M. 26 m. 5 s. I length 1861 Mar. 23 Oxford P. to M. 23 m. 28 s. 48 sec. 1862 April 12 Oxford P. to M. 24 m. 41 s. 30 sec. 1863 Mar. 28 Oxford M. to P. 23 m. 10 s. 43 sec. 1864 Mar. 19 Oxford P. to M. 22 m. 15 s. 26 sec. 1865 April 8 Oxford P. to M. 21 m. 245. 4 lengths 1866 Mar. 24 Oxford P. to M. 25 m. 48 s. 15 sec. 1867 April 13 Oxford P. to M. 22 m. 395. Yi a length 1868 April 4 Oxford P. to M. 20 m. 563. 3 lengths 1869 Mar. 1 7 Oxford P. to M. 20 m. 22 s. 6 lengths OXFORD, Oxfordshire. Council held at Burford, by the kings Etheldred and Burthwald, 682 ; Ethelbald, King of Mercia, defeated by Cuthred, King of Wes- sex, at Battle Edge, 752 ; a wittenagemot held at Woodstock, 866 ; one at Shif- ford, by Alfred the Great, 885 ; Thorne plundered by the Danes, 1010 ; Edmund Ironside murdered at Oxford, Nov. 30, 1016 ; great council at Oxford, held by King Canute, confirming the edicts of King Edgar ; Harold Harefoot crowned at Oxford, 1036 ; William I. stormed the city, 1069 ; Parliament held by King Stephen, at, when dane-gelt was abolished, 1136; the public schools first founded at, 1439. The Empress Maude besieged in the Castle by Stephen, for three months, when the ground being covered with snow, and the water frozen, she made her way out with three knights, dressed in white, and escaped on foot to Abingdon, 1142. Church of St Frideswide's Priory erected, circa n8o; the priory surrendered to Wolsey, 1522, and the church transferred to the See of Ox- ford. A council held at, by Stephen, when he adopted Henry II. as his heir, Jan., 1154; one at Wallingford, March 27, 1155, and at Oxford, April 24, June 12, 1177, Dec. 7, 1197, Feb. 9, 1207, Nov. 15, 1213 ; at a council held, Feb., 1227, King Henry III. declared himself to be of age. A female of the city being killed by a student, the towns people seized and hung three students, 1209 ; a Parlia- ment held, the statutes of which settled the popular representation, three meetings to be held annually, June II, 1258 ; annulled, Jan. 23, 1264. St Mary's church built, 1492-98. A public disputation held : Cranmer, Ridley, and Latimer stated their opinions, April 16 18, 1554; burned for heresy, 1555. Three hundred per- sons, the sheriff, and others, died of the gaol distemper, 1577 ; the Botanic Gardens founded by Henry Danvers, Earl of Danby ; the first stone of the walls laid, July 25, 1632 ; the city occupied by the Royalists, under Charles I., 1642 ; negotiations for peace carried on with Charles I., Jan. 30 to April 15, 1643 '> tne Mongrel Parliament met at, Jan. 22, 1644 ; seriously damaged by fire, Oct. 6, 1644 ; Parliament held at, on account of the plague, Oct. 9, 1665 ; the Courts of Law also held at, in this year. Theatre built, July 9, 1669 ; again part of the town destroyed by fire, April 25, 1671 ; Parliament summoned to meet by Charles II., which ended in a dissolution, March 21, 1681 ; William III. visited the town and university, Nov. 10, 1695 ; Queen Anne and Prince George, Aug. 26, 1702 ; a riot broke out at, Oct. 22, 1716 ; serious bread riots at, Nov. 9 n, 1867. OXFORD, the See of, established by Henry VIII., and Robert King elected first bishop, 1541. OXFORD, Earl of, his administration : Harley, Earl of Oxford, First Lord of the Treasury ; Sir Simon Harcourt, Lord Keeper ; Lord Bolingbroke and Lord Dart- mouth, Secretaries of State ; the Hon. -Robert Benson, the Chancellor of the Ex- chequer, &c., May 29, 1711 ; resigned, July 27, 1714. 628 OXFORD OXFORD UNIVERSITY OXFORD AND CAMBRIDGE CLUB, built from the designs of Sir Robert Smirke, R.A., 1835-38. OXFORD ASHMOLEAN SOCIETY, instituted, 1828. Oxford Architectural Society, instituted, 1839. OXFORD CANAL, opened, Jan. 2, 1790. OXFORD CASTLE, Oxfordshire, built by Robert D'Oiley, 1074. OXFORD, EDWARD, fired two pistols at Queen Victoria, on Constitution Hill, June 10, 1840; tried at the Central Criminal Court, and found insane, and sent to Bethlehem Hospital, July 9 ; released, but prohibited from residing in England, Nov., 1867. OXFORD MUSIC HALL (Oxford Street), destroyed by fire, Feb. II, 1868. OXFORD SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY established by Sir William Petty, Dr Ward, and others, 1651. OXFORD-STREET, London. The bazaar burnt, May 27, 1829 ; an act passed for making Ne%v Oxford-street, 3 & 4 Viet. c. 87, Aug. 7, 1840 ; the Princess Theatre built, sold for ^16,400, Sept. 8, 1841 ; first opened for dramatic per- formances, Dec. 26, 1842 ; 'King Henry VIII. 'represented for 100 nights, 1855. OXFORD UNIVERSITY. John Russell, Bishop of Lincoln, was elected chancel- lor, 1483, and held that office until 1494 ; five professorships were founded by Henry VIII., 1546; the office of public orator established, 1564 ; incorporated by 13 Eliz. c. 29, 1570; provisions made for the extension of, 17 & 18 Viet. c. 81, Aug. 7, 1854, and commissioners appointed to inquire into, extended by 20 & 21 Viet, c. 25, Aug. 10, 1857 ; ordinances made for the government of Christ Church repealed, 30 & 31 Viet. c. 76, Aug. 12, 1867; the degree of Passive Obedience published, July 21, 1683; the King's order for electing a Romanist master of Magdalen College rejected, April n, 1687 ; several of the fellows expelled, and their places filled by Romanists ; Dr Hough and some of the rejected fellows restored, Oct. 17, 1688 ; the Bodleian library opened, Nov. 8, 1602 ; the Rad- cliffe, April 13, 1749; George III. visited the university, Oct. 12, 1785; the Emperor of Russia and King of Prussia, 1814; the Prince and Princess of Wales, and the degree of D.C.L. conferred, June 16 18, 1863. PROFESSORSHIPS. Name. Founder. Date. Anatomy Richard Tomlins 1624 Anglo-Saxon Richard Rawlinson, D.C.L. !795 Arabic Archbishop Laud 1636 Botany Henry Dan vers, Earl of Danby 1669 Divinity Margaret, Countess of Richmond 1502 Geometry and Astronomy Sir Henry Savile 1619 Hebrew Scriptures Edward Grindfield, M.A. ^59 Hindustani University 1859 History, Ancient William Camden 1622 History, Modern George I. 1 724 Latin Literature President & fellows of Corpus Christi 1854 Law, English Charles Viner Dec. 20, 1755 Law, International University ^59 Logic University 1839 Medicine : The Clinical Lecture George Henry Lee, Earl of Lichfield 1780 Medicine, The Practice of George Aldrich, D.M. Jan. 26, 1798 Mineralogy and Geology Prince Regent 1813 Music William Heather 1626 Philosophy, Experimental Nathaniel Lord Crew 1747 OXYGEN GAS PADDINGTON 629 Name. Founder. Date. Philosophy, Moral Thomas Whyte, D.D. 1621 Philosophy, Natural Sir William Sedley Oct. 29, 1618 Physiology President, &c., of Merton College 1858 Poetry Henry Berkhead 1708 Political Economy Henry Drummond 1825 Sanskrit John Boden 1830 Zoology Frederick William Hope 1861 OXYGEN GAS, discovered by Priestley, Aug. 17, 1774, the principle of atmo- spheric air. OVER AND TERMINER, and Gaol Delivery, court of, to whom the writ shall be granted, 13 Edw. I. s. I, c. 29, 1285 ; no lawyer to be upon the commission in his own county, 8 Rich. II. c. 2, 1384, and 33 Henry VIII. c. 24, 1541 ; the former acts repealed, and any man permitted to be on the gaol delivery, by 12 Geo. II. c. 27, 1739. OYSTER CLUB, established at Preston, 1771. OYSTERS. The fishery in the River Medway regulated by 2 Geo. II. c. 19, 1729; stealing oysters from beds or fisheries made larceny, 7 & 8 Geo. IV. c. 29, s. 36, June 21, 1827 ; an immense bed of, discovered off Brighton, 1824. PACIFICATION, Edicts of, in France, the name given to royal concessions from time to time in favour of Protestantism, to appease public disturbances on account of religion. Edict published by Charles IX., allowing his subjects free exercise in all religious matters, within his realm 1561-62 ; the lords, justiciaries, and other distinguished persons permitted to think for themselves, 1563 ; the revoca- tion of all decrees, and all Protestant ministers ordered to leave the kingdom in 15 days, 1568 ; certain lords and others allowed to have domestic service in their houses, and granting public service to be held in certain towns, 1570-1 ; the massacre of St Bartholomew authorized, Aug. 24, 1572. Henry III. issued the celebrated edict for pacification, April, 1576 ; revoked, Dec. 26, 15/6, but sub- sequently renewed for six years, Oct., 1577. Henry IV. of France issued the Edict of Nantes, granting full toleration to his Protestant subjects, April 15, 1598; registered by the French Parliament, Feb. 25, 1599 ; this edict was confirmed by Mary de Medici, 1610 j also by Louis XIV., 1652 ; revocation of the Edict of Nantes by Louis XIV., Oct. 17, 1685. The edict for the pacification of Ghent signed, Nov. 8, 1576. The treaty between the Scotch and Charles I., known as the Pacification of York, June 18, 1639. PACIFIC STEAMER lost between Liverpool and New York, with all her pas- sengers and crew of 186 persons ; she sailed from the former port, Jan. 23, 1056, supposed to have been lost in March. PADDINGTON, Middlesex, the manor of, purchased by Sir John Frederick, 1742; the old church taken down, 1791 ; the first stone of the new church laid, Oct. 20, 1788; consecrated, April 27, 1791 ; the canal begun, 1796; opened, July 10, 1801 ; the Grand Junction Waterworks Company established, 51 Geo. III. c. 169, 1811 ; Regent's Canal Company established, 52 Geo. III. c. 195, 1812; the canal finished in Aug., 1820 ; the Church of the Holy Trinity built in Bishop's Road, 1846, cost .18,458; St Mary's hospital instituted, 18435 the first stone laid by Prince Albert, June 8, 1845. 630 PADERBORN PAINTERS PADERBORN, Prussia, cathedral erected, 1143 ; the bishopric of, ceded to Prussia by treaty, May 23, 1802 ; the state ceded to France by the treaty of Tilsit, July 9, 1807 ; restored to Prussia, 1813. PADLOCKS were used by the Romans. Greatly improved by Hans Ehrman of Nuremberg, 1540. PADUA, Italy, built, B.C. 1269 ; destroyed by Attila, 452, and by King Agilulf, 60 1 ; destroyed by an earthquake, A.D. 1117 ; formed a league with Verona, 1164; joined the Greaf Lombard League, 1167 ; acknowledged by the peace of Constance, 1183 ; taken by Eccelino da Romano, 1239 ; he was defeated, 1256, and the town became an independent state ; taken by Prince Carrara, 1337 ; by Venice, 1405 ; the church of St Antonio began, 1231 ; finished, 1307 ; walled round by the Venetians, who united it to their dominion, 1406 ; it was admirably fortified by the Venetians ; the bastion of Cornaro constructed in 1534 by San Micheli, much boasted of ; the first bishop said to have been the disciple of St Peter ; Marcils, bishop, 1123 ; noted for its brilliant fete of St Anthony, on the 1 3th of June; the Specola or observatory erected, 1767; ceded to Austria by treaty, 1797; capitulated to the Austrians, June 12, 1848. PAGANISM overthrown under the Roman empire, in the reign of Theodosius the younger, 388 and 395 ; the Emperor Constantine had previously ordered the pa- gan temples in his empire to be destroyed. PAGEANTS, the Lord Mayor's. See London Pageants. PAINTERS, the most celebrated artists of Italy, France, Flanders, and Holland, have long had their positions in art assigned to them by De Piles, in the following table, as to their various merits ; the dates of their birth and decease are added : School. Name, Birth, and Decease. Com- posi- tion. De- sign. Co- lour- ing. Ex- pres- sion. Lorn. Albano,F., March 17, 1578, Oct. 4, 1660 H I 10 ~~6~ Flem. Albert Durer, May 30, 1471, April 6, 1528 8 IO IO 8 Rom. & Flor. Andrea del Sarto, 1488, 1530 ... 12 16 9 8 Rom. Baroccio, F., 1528, 1612 14 IS 6 10 Ven. Ponte Bassano, 1510, 1591 6 8 17 o Ven. John Bellini, 1422, 1512 4 6 14 Fr. Sebastian Bourdon, 1616, 1671 10 8 8 4 Fr. Charles Le Brun, 1619, 1690 ... 10 16 8 16 Ven. Claude Lorraine, 1 600, 1682 18 18 16 o Lom. Annibale Caracci, 1560, 1609 ... IS 17 13 13 Lom. Antonio Coreggio, 1494, 1534 ... 13 13 IS 12 Rom. Daniel da Volterra, 1509, 1566 12 IS S 8 Flem. Abraham Van Diepenbeck, 1607, 1675... II 10 H 6 Lom. Zampieri Domenichino, 1581, 1641 15 17 9 17 Rom. Giulio Romano, 1492, 1546 15 16 4 H Ven. Giorgione, 1478, 1511 8 9 18 4 Lom. Giovanni Guercino, I59O> 1666... 18 10 10 4 Lom. Guido Reni,i574, 1642 13 9 12 Flem. Hans Holbein, 1498, 1554 9 10 16 13 Flem. James Jordaens, 1594, 1678 10 8 16 6 Flem. Luca Giordano, 1629, 1704 13 12 9 6 Lom. Giovanni Lanfranco, 1581, 1647 14 13 10 5 Rom. Leonardo da Vinci, 1445, 1520 iS 16 4 H Flem. Lucas of Leyden, 1494, 1533 ... 8 6 6 4 Rom. M. Angelo Buonarroti, 1474, Feb. 17, 1563 8 17 4 8 Lom. Michael da Caravaggio, 1569, 1609 ... 6 6 16 o PAINTERS PAINTER STAINERS' COMP. 63' School. Name, Birth, and Decease. Com- posi- tion. De- sign. Co- lour- ing. Ex- pres- sion. Yen. Girolamo Mutiano, 1528, 1509 6 8 15 4 Flem. Otho Venius, 1556, 1634 13 14 10 10 Yen. Palma the Elder, 1 548, 1556 5 6 16 Yen. Palma the Younger, 1544, 1628 12 9 14 6 Rom. Fran Parmegiano, 1503, 154 IO IS 6 6 Yen. Paul Veronese, 1532, 1588 .' 15 10 16 3 Rom. Pierino del Vaga, 1500, 1547 IS 16 7 6 Rom. Pietro da Cortona, 1596, 1669... 16 H 12 6 Rom. Pietro Perugino, 1446, 1524 4 12 10 4 Rom. Polidoro da Caravaggio, 1495, 1543 ... IO 17 o 15 Yen. Gio Pordenone, 1484, 1540 8 14 17 5 Fr. Poussin, Nich., 1594, 1665 IS 17 6 15 Rom. Fran Primaticcio, 1490, 1570 ... 15 14 6 10 Rom. SanzioRaffaelle, Mar.28, 1483, Ap-7, 1520 17 18 'l2 18 Flem. Van Rembrandt, 1606, 1674 ... IS 6 17 12 Flem. Peter Paul Rubens, 1577, July, 1640 ... 18 13 17 17 Rom. Fra. Salviati, 1510, 1563 13 IS 8 8 Fr. Eustace Le Sueur, 1617, 1655 IS IS 4 15 Flem. David Teniers, 1582, 1649 IS 12 13 6 Rom. Pietro Testa, 1611, 1650 ii IS o 6 Yen. G. Tintoretto, 1512, 1594 IS H 16 4 Yen. T. V. Titian, 1477, 1576 12 IS 18 6 Flem. Sir A. Vandyck, Mar. 22, 1 599, Dec .9, 1641 IS IO 17 13 Rom. F. C. Vanni, 1563, 1610 13 IS 12 13 Rom. Zucchero, Taddeo, 1529, 1566 13 H IO 9 THE ENGLISH SCHOOL OF PAINTERS Born. Died. Barty, James Oct. n, 1741 Feb. 22, 1806 Cooper, Samuel ... ... ... 1609 May 5, 1672 Dobson, William ... ... 1610 1646 Gainsborough, Thomas Haydon, Benjamin R. Hogarth, William Hudson, Thomas Lely, Sir Peter Mortimer, John H. Oliver, Isaac Opie, John Reynolds, Sir Joshua Romney, George Turner, J. M. W. West, Benjamin Wilkie, Sir David Wilson, Richard Wright, Joseph, of Derby 1727 Jan. 25, 1786 Nov. 10, 1697 1701 1617 1741 1556 1761 July 1 6, 1723 Dec. 15, 1734 1774 Oct 10, 1738 Nov. 1 8, 1785 1714 Sept. 3, 1734 Aug. 2, 1788 June 22, 1846 Oct. 26, 1764 Jan., 1779 1680 Feb. 4, 1779 1617 April 9, 1807 Feb. 23, 1792 Nov. 15, 1802 Dec. 19, 1851 March n, 1820 June I, 1841 May, 1782 Aug. 29, 1797 PAINTERS, Society of British, in Suffolk-street, formed, 1824 ; new society of, in water colours, 1825. PAINTERS IN WATER COLOURS, Society of, London, founded, 1804; In- stitute of, 1831. PAINTER STAINERS' COMPANY, first regulated by Edward I., 1283 ; incor- porated by 23 Eliz., July 19, 1581 ; reincorporated by James II., 1685 ; most of 632 PAINTING PALEMBANG the celebrated painters were members of this company ; an art exhibition first held at the Hall of this company, June i, 1860, since held annually ; hall built in the reign of Henry VII.; destroyed in the fire of 1666 ; but rebuilt. PAINTING, the art of, first attributed to the Egyptians, in relation to the exploits of Osymandias, then pictured, B.C. 2200 ; introduced into Rome from Etruria, by Quintus Fabius ; the paintings of the town of Phoceea are mentioned on the capture of that city by Harpagus, B.C. 544; the passage of Darius over the Bosphorus with his army, painted for Mandrocles, B.C. 508 ; Cimon of Cleonee was well known for his skill in this art, B.C. 560 ; the best pictures came to Rome from Greece ; the first Grecian painter of renown was Polygnotus, B.C. 463 ; he first painted the open mouth, to show the teeth ; Apollodorus of Athens first introduced light and shade, B.C. 455 ; no painters of note appeared for a long time after the Emperor Augustus ; painting in oil introduced into England, 1230; one of the earliest pictures was an Ecce Homo, 1455 5 painting introduced into Venice, by Venetiano, 1450; into Italy by Antonello, 1476; Uccello said to have been the first who studied perspective. PAINTING, British Institution for Exhibition of, formed, June 4, 1805. PAINTING, English Royal Academy of, established, 1768; first exhibition held, April 26, 1769 ; National Gallery of Paintings, March,. 1824. PAISLEY, Scotland, a monastery founded, 1163 ; grammar school established by James VI. and chartered, Jan. 3, 1576; visited by James VI., 1597; five persons burned for witchcraft, 1697 ; one member given to, by the Reform bill of 1832. PALACE COURT, instituted to administer justice between the king's domestics ; it was originally held before the steward and marshal of the king's house ; the jurisdiction confined to within 12 miles of the king's residence, by 13 Richard II. c. 3) 1389-90. According to Kerr's Blackstone, Charles I. in the sixth year of his reign, 1630-31, erected by letters patent a new court of record, called Curia Palatii or Palace Court; abolished by 12 & 13 Viet. c. 101, s. 13^ Aug. I, 1849, powers to cease, Dec. 31, 1849. ^ PALyEONTOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, instituted in London for figuring and describing the British fossils, 1847. PALAIS ROYAL. Great part of this palace destroyed by fire, 1765 ; restored, 1781 ; the signal given for the insurrection of 1789 from this place ; plundered by the mob, 1848. PALATINATE, Germany : the Elector took refuge in England, 1635 ; Cromwell settled .8000 per annum upon him, 1644 ; he visited London, 1680 ; restored to the palatinate, Oct. 19, 1708; protested against the Elector of Hanover taking the title of arch-treasurer of the empire, May 29, 1735. PALATINE, a dignity of German origin ; Hugh d'Avranches made Palatine of Chester, 1070; conferred upon Hugh Lupus by William the Conqueror, 1077; abolished by n Geo. IV. & I Will, IV. c. 70, s. 14, July 23, 1830 ; a palatine of Lancaster created by Edward III., 1376 ; Pembroke disenfranchised, 27 Hen. VIII. c. 26, 1535-6 ; the bishoprics of Ely and Durham were made palatinates ; Elizabeth abrogated that of Hexham, made by her father, 14 Eliz. c. 13, 1572; the palatinate of Durham was separated from the crown as to its jurisdiction, and vested in the crown by 6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 19, June 21, 1836. PALE. The territory called the English Pale in Ireland comprehended the counties of Louth, Dublin, Meath, and Kildare, in 1641. PALEMBANG, Sumatra. The Dutch settled here, l8n, but were barbarously murdered by the Sultan ; the Dutch regained their possessions, 1816 ; the Em- peror restored, 1818 ; the Dutch factories attacked unsuccessfully, 1820-21. PALERMO PALL MALL 633 P VLERMO, Sicily. This ancient town was captured by Hamilcar and his Car- thaginian troops, B.C. 480; and by Pyrrhus, 276 ; taken and retaken during the first Punic war, 254 ; taken by the Saracens, A.D. 855. Cathedral erected, 1180 ; palace erected, 1 129 ; university founded, 1394 ; nearly destroyed by an earthquake, Aug. 21, 1726 ; revolution at, July 15, 1820 ; massacre of Prince Catolica and the nobles, by the revolutionists, July 16, 1820 ; suppression of, by Gen. Pepe, and capitulation of the city, Oct. 5 > revolt of, Jan. 12, 1848; bombardment of the city by the royal fleet, Jan. 16 ; a constitution given to, Jan. 28 ; an amnesty granted to political offenders, Feb. I ; parliament declared for a constitutional monarchy, July II ; insurrection in, against Ferdinand II., and a provisional government proclaimed, Dec. 12 16; a new constitution given to, Feb. 28, 1849; insurrection renewed, in March ; the town surrendered, April 22 ; taken by Garibaldi, May 27, 1860 ; annexed to Sardinia, Nov. 3 ; insurrection again in Sept., 1866. PALESTINE, Syria. Abraham and his nephew, Lot, emigrated here by Divine command, B.C. 1921 ; the country invaded by Chedorlaomer, who took Lot prisoner, 1912 ; Abraham rescued him, and defeated the king near the source of Jordan; Sodom and Gomorrah destroyed, 1897; kingdom overthrown by Ne- buchadnezzar, 588; conquered by Pompey, 63; conquered by Saladin, A.D. 1197. PALESTINE EXPLORATION FUND, formed at Cambridge, in the early part of 1865 ; an exploring party left England under the command of Captain Wilson and Lieut. Anderson, and landed at Beyrout, Dec., 1865 ; they surveyed most of the country. A second expedition left England to survey Jerusalem in the begin- ning of 1867. PALESTRO, battle. The combined army of Sardinia and France, commanded by the King of Sardinia, defeated the Austrian army, taking uoo prisoners, May 30, 1859. PA USSY THE POTTER, a French artist. Palissy ware first made by him, 1545 ; discovered the method of placing the enamel upon stone ware, 1559 ; he died, 1590. PALL, or PALLIUM. A long strip of fine woollen cloth ornamented with crosses, the middle of which was formed into a loose collar resting on the shoulders. It was at first a badge given by the emperors to patriarchs ; St Mark gave it to the Bishop of Ostia, 336 ; when it came to be given by popes it was for some time nothing but a symbo lum fraternitatis, a mark of communion with Rome. It was no necessary part of the archiepiscopal dignity, and many archbishops never had it ; ordered by the Council of Macon to wear it, 581. At length, however, it was imposed by Rome as essential to them, about A.D. 1235, and was sold for vast sums of money. It was first worn by an Irish archbishop in 1152. Pope Gregory sent one to St Augustine of Canterbury, 734. PALLAS frigate wrecked, together with the Nymphe, of 36 guns, below Dunbar, and several lives lost, Dec. 19, 1810. PALLAS. This planet discovered by M. Olbars, at Bremen, March 23, 1807. PALL MALL. This fashionable game, Pailee Maille, known in France, 1598 ; in- troduced into England in the early part of the 1 7th century ; King James recom- mends it to his son, Prince Henry, in his ' Basilicon Doron,' or instructions for his son, 1610 ; a favourite game of Charles II., a mallet and ball long preserved by Mr Vulliamy ; Pepys in his Diary, April 2, 1661, speaks of seeing the Duke of York playing in St James's Park. PALL MALL, London, first laid out in walks, circa 1660 ; Nell Gwyn lived here, 1670 ; Marlborough House built, 1709 ; the first street lighted with gas, Jan. 28, 1807. 634 PALMA NUOVA PANOPTICON PALMA NUOVA, captured by the French, March 17, 1797 ; Napoleon issued his declaration of war against Venice, May 3 ; restored to Austria, Oct. 18, 1797; besieged by Austria, Dec. 9, 1813 ; surrendered to the allies, April 17, 1814 ; surrendered to the Italians, March, 1848. ADMINISTRATIONS, first formed after the resignation of the Aberdeen Ministry, Feb. 16, 1855 ; second, upon the resignation of the Derby administration, June 30, 1859 ; Lord Palmerston died, Oct. 18, 1865. PALM SUNDAY, Pascha floridum, and observances of the Church, in honour of the day when Christ made his triumphal entry into Jerusalem, April I, A. D. 30 ; this observance on the Sunday before Easter was instituted in the Greek Church in the 4th century, in England the 8th century, and ordered to be continued by Henry VIII., 1536. PALMYRA, Syria, an independent city under the early Roman empire, submitted to the Emperor Adrian, A. D. 130; besieged and destroyed by Aurelian, 273 ; plundered by Tamerlane, 1400 ; discovered by some English travellers from Aleppo, 1678, and again, 1691 ; Wood and Dawkins visited these ruins, 1751, and published an account of them, 1753 ; Cap. Mangles examined the ruins, 1816; when visited by the Rev. J. L. Porter, the village contained only 60 people, 1851. PAMPELONA, Spain. The cathedral built, 1397 ; the citadel constructed by Philip II., 1571 ; besieged by Andre de Foix, 1521 ; by the Spaniards, 1379, but relieved by the British ; taken by the French on their invasion of Spain, Feb. 9, 1808 ; besieged by the British, 1813 ; surrendered, Oct. 31, after being three months invested ; surrendered to the French, Aug. 27, 1823 ; taken by O'Don- nell, Sept., 1841. PANAMA, Central America, discovered by Columbus, A.D. 1502 ; colonized by Spain ; burnt by Sir Henry Morgan, 1670 ; rebuilt and destroyed by fire, 1737 ; revolted and proclaimed a free State, 1810 ; the railway opened, 1854. PAN-ANGLICAN SYNOD of bishops, met at Lambeth Palace, Sept. 2427, 1867 ; address of the bishops to the clergy, Sept. 28. PANDECTS, the digest of the civil law compiled by the command of Justinian, in 3 years, A.D. Dec. 15, 530, to Dec. 16, 533 ; discovered at Amalphi in Italy, 1 137 ; then removed to Pisa, 1416 ; they promoted the revival of the Roman law from the excellence they exhibited. PANDORA, sloop of war, struck on a rock off the coast of Jutland, and 29 of the crew perished from the severity of the weather, Feb. 13, 1811. PANIC, Commercial, in London. Failure of Overend, Gurney and Co. (Limited), with liabilities for 10,000,000, May 10, 1866 ; the directors committed for trial for defrauding the shareholders, Jan. 27, 1869 ; bank discount raised to 9 per cent, May n, 1866. Peto and Belts stopped for ^"4,000,000, Mayii. Imperial Mercantile Credit Association, stopped, May II. The Bank Charter Act, sus- pended, and discount raised to 10 per cent., May 12. The European Bank stop- ped, May 19; the Bank of London, May 23 ; the Consolidated, May 28 ; reopened, July I ; consuls at the lowest 85^, June 4. Agra and Masterman's stopped, June 6. The London and Chatham Railway failed to keep its engagements, July 2. The Bank's rate reduced to 8 per cent., Aug. 16; to 7> Aug. 23; to 6, Aug. 30; to 5, Sept. 6 ; to 4^, Sept. 27 ; to 4, Nov. 8; and to 3^, Dec. 20. PANOPTICON, Leicester Square. This scientific institution was incorporated by charter, Feb. 20, 1851 ; built, 1854, from the designs of Mr Lewis. Afterwards opened for various entertainments ; re-named the Alhambra Palace, and opened for the performance of sacred music, 1858 ; changed into a concert hall, 1863 ; leased to R. Strange, 1864. PANORAMA TAPER 635 PAXORAMA, a species of exhibition, the invention of Robert Barker, 1788 ; by some ascribed to Sir Geo. Beaumont ; first shown in Edinburgh, and subsequently in Leicester Square. PANORMUS, battle. The Roman Consul, Metellus, defeated the Carthaginian General, Hasdrubal, in the first Punic war, with great slaughter, B.C. 250. PAXTALOOX SA, the brother of the Spanish ambassador, executed for murder, July 6, 1764. PANTHEON, Oxford-street, London, opened, Jan. 27, 1772 ; turned into an opera-house, 1791 ; wholly destroyed by fire, Oct. 3,1792 ; rebuilt, 1795 ; taken down, 1812, and the present erected; finally converted into a bazaar, and opened, April 24, 1834 ; closed, 1867. PANTHEON, a circular temple at Rome, built by Agrippa, with niches to contain the images of the gods ; the gates were of brass, as well as the interior of the roof, B. c. 25 ; Pope Boniface mutilated it, and converted it into a church dedicated to the Virgin Mary, calling it the Santa Maria de Rotunda, circa 608. PANTOMIMES, originally introduced on the Roman stage by Pylades, in the time of Augustus Caesar, in plays acted by gesture only, being the most difficult species of action. The modern pantomime introduced into England from Italy, and first performed by grotesque characters in this country at Drury-lane Theatre ; it was composed by Mr Weaver, and called the Tavern Bilkers, 1702 ; the first harlequinade composed by William Rich, and performed at the Lincoln's Inn Fields' Theatre, Dec. 26, 1716. PAPAL AGGRESSION, a new phrase applied to the appointment of bishops and cardinals of the Church of Rome to places in England, Sept. 30, 1850, at a con- sistory held at Rome by Pius IX. ; in consequence of this a letter was written to the bishop of Durham, by the premier, Lord John Russell, which detached the Romanists from the number of his supporters, Dec. 31, 1850, and an act of parlia- ment was passed to disallow their titles, 14 & 15 Viet. c. 60, Aug. I, 1851. Dr Wiseman made a cardinal by the pope, Sept. 30, 1850 ; enthroned as Archbishop of Westminster at St George's Cathedral, Southwark, Dec. 6, 1850 ; died, Feb. 15, 1865 ; buried with great pomp at Kensal Green, Feb. 23, 1865 ; he was suc- ceeded by Dr Manning, June 8, 1865. PAPAL AUTHORITY abolished in England by 23 Henry VIII. c. 20, 1531-2. PAPAL STATES, Italy, first recognized, 1278 ; some of the states annexed, by Xapoleon I., to the Cisalpine Republic, 1797 ; the Roman Republic founded, March 20, 1798 ; annexed to Italy by Napoleon, May 21, 1808 ; restored by the treaty of Vienna, 1814 ; consist of 20 provinces, governed by the Corpus Juris and the Jus Canonicum of Gregory XVI., passed, July 10, 1831. Gates : Porta Tiburtina, 402 ; Porto del Popolo, erected 1561 ; Porta Pia, 1564. Insurrection, Feb., 1831 ; suppressed, March 31 ; a Constitution proclaimed, Jan. 28, 1848; a Republican Government appointed, Feb. 8, 1849 ; Rome, with the Two Sicilies, annexed to the kingdom of Italy, Nov., 1 860. See Rome. PAPER, made by the Egyptians from a reed called Papyrus, circa B.C. 167 ; known to the Chinese about the same time ; Montfaucon proves that the Greeks made paper from rags, 1050; first used in Europe, circa 1300; there is a Book of Customs in the Record Office written on paper in England, 1307-27 ; the first mill erected at Stevenage, Hertford, by John Tate, jun., mentioned by Wynkyn de Worde in Bartholomeus de Proprietatibus Rerum, printed, 1495. The next paper-mill was erected at Dart ford, 1588 ; the manufacture of, en- couraged, 1690 ; greatly improved by Watson, 1713 ; paper-mills erected in America, in Elizabethtown, New Jersey, by William Bradstreet, 1728 ; made of asbestos, in America, 1792 ; Fourdrinier's machine for making, patented, 1802, 636 PAPIER MACHE PARIS and although continued improvements are made, still the principle of the ma- chine remains. Machines erected in France, 1815. A sheet made 13,800 feet long and four feet wide at the Whitehall mills, Derbyshire, 1830. Paper-hangings: flock paper made, 1620 ; Louis Roberts invented an endless paper for paper- hangings, patented in France, 1 799, and in England at Chelsea, by Messrs Echardts, 1786; since much improved, and satin paper introduced, 1840; Messrs Potter invented a machine for printing, 1841. Duty on foreign paper reduced from 6 lOs. per cwt. to ^3 lev. ; to 3 2 84, 1719 ; taxed ^100,000, Nov. 3, 1722 ; ordered by proclamation to be apprehended, Dec. 7, 1745; indulgences granted to, by parliament, 1779 ; admitted to seats in parliament, April 10, 1829 ; chap- lains admitted to the gaols, 1861. PARACHUTES first tried by Blanchard at Lisle, Aug., 1785 ; M. Garnerin de- scended in London, Sept. 2, 1802 ; Mr Cocking killed in descending at Lee, Kent, July 24, 1837. PARAFFIN, discovered by Reichenbach, 1830, and by Christison of Edinburgh, who named it Petroleum, 1831. PARAGUAY, S. America, discovered by the Spaniards, 1525 ; founded a colony at, 1535; the Jesuits expelled, 1767; became a province of Rio de la Plata; de- clared its independence, 1810; Dr Francia appointed dictator, 1814; constitution agreed to, 1844 ; treaty of commerce with Gt Britain, signed Nov. 2, 1853 ; a French colony established, 1855, but afterwards abandoned ; Don Lopez elected president, Sept. 10, 1862 ; war with Brazil begun, March, 1865 ; Angostura taken, Dec. 27, 1868. PARC-AUX-CERFS established by the Duchess of Pompadour, the Duke of Richelieu suggested it to her ; ' the girls, after the king had done with them, re- ceived fortunes and married ' a la haute bourgeoisie des fermes et de la finance ; the Duchess died, April 14, 1764. Notes and Queries. PARCHMENT, invented by Eumenes, King of Pergamos, B.C. 197 159. Vegeta- ble parchment invented by Mr Gaine, April, 1857. PARDONS, the first granted at coronations, 1327, by Edward III.; no one allowed to pardon but the king,27 Henry VIII. c. 24, 1535-6 ; one for of 70 Scotch prisoners passed, Aug. 10, 1748. PARGA, Turkey,, captured by the French, 1797; besieged by AH Pasha, 1814; ceded to Turkey, the town evacuated by the whole of the inhabitants, June 10, 1820. PARIAN MARBLES, chronology of, put together 264 years before Christ, dis- covered in the Isle of Paros, 1610, and presented to Oxford University by Lord Arundel, 1667. See Arundelian Marbles. PARIS, France, the ancient Lutetics Parisiortim, the city of the Parjsii. An assem- bly of the tribes held here by Caesar, B.C. 54; captured by the Franks, under Clovis, 494 ; Clovis made it his capital, 507; burned, 574 ; St Denis built, 613 ; taken by the Normans, 841, and again, 857 ; fortified, 880 ; the Normans be- sieged unsuccessfully by Rollo, Nov., 885 ; paved with stone, 1186; the city PARIS PARIS GARDEN THEATRE 637 rebuilt, 1231; Notre Dame begun, noo, completed, 1312; first Parliament held, 1302 ; insurrection against Le Bel, 1306 ; the Jews banished, 1307 ; the city fortified, 1367 ; conquered by the English, 1380 ; the bridge of St Michel built, 1384 ; that of Notre Dame, 1414 ; in possession of England by the treaty of Troyes, 1420 ; taken by the French from the English, April, 1436 ; the Louvre begun, 1522; the Hotel de Ville, 1533; the Boulevards cleared, 1536; the Tuileries erected, 1560-4; wars with the Huguenots and the massacre of St Bartho- lomew, Aug. 24, 1572 ; Pont Neuf, 1578; barricades erected over the town to oppose the Duke of Guise, 1588. Besieged by Henry IV., May, 1590; 13,000 persons perished; surrendered, March 22, 1594; and again, 1648. The Hotel Dieu built, 1606; the Luxemburg, 1612; the Hotel des Invalides founded by Louis XIV., 1670; the Palais Royal erected, 1610 ; the military school, 1751; peace concluded which put an end to the Seven Years' War at, Feb. 10, 1763 ; the church of St Genevieve, 1 764 ; the corn-market begun, 1 763 ; opened, 1767; the Pantheon, 1764; the Bourse begun, 1808; finished, 1826; riots on account of the dearness of provisions, April and May, 1775 ; the Bastile captured and burnt, July 14, 1789. Buonaparte proclaimed Emperor, May 18, 1804 ; Rue de Rivoli commenced by, 1807, and the Arc de 1'Etoile from the de- signs of M. Chalgrin, 1806; stopped, 1815 ; re-commenced, 1825. The Emperor Alexander and the King of Prussia entered Paris, March 31, 1814 ; the entry of Louis XVIII., June 8, 1815 ; the allied sovereigns, July 8 and n, 1815 ; treaty of peace signed, Nov. 20 ; attempt to assassinate the Duke of Wellington by M. Cantillon, Feb. n, 1818 ; the Emperor Alexander of Russia visited, Dec. 2 ; financial crisis at, Dec., 1818 ; the execution of the Rochelle conspirators at, Feb., 1821 ; the entry of Charles X. into, Sept. 27, 1824 ; the National Guards disbanded, April 13, 1827 ; insurrection in, July 27, 1830 ; contest in the streets, July 28, 29; the Louvre and Archbishop's palace sacked, July; abdication of Charles X., Aug. i; outbreak of cholera, March 29, 1832; insurrection, June 5, the city de- clared in a state of siege, June 6 ; attempt made to assassinate Louis Philippe by Fieschi, July 28, 1835; execution of, Feb. 19, 1836 ; 24 persons crushed to death, June 14, 1837 ; the Italian Opera burnt, Jan. 15, 1838; Palais de Justice captured by the insurgents, May 12, 1839 ; fortified, 1840; re-intennent of the remains of Napoleon I. in the church of the Invalides, Dec. 15, 1840 ; riots, Sept., 1840; Pro- visional Government appointed, 1848; the Palais Royal sacked, Feb. 23, 1848; suspension of the Savings' Banks, March 27, 1848; insurrection, June 22, 1848 ; Cavaignac appointed dictator, June 24 ; fighting in the streets, June 25 ; the Archbishop of Paris shot, June 25 ; constitution proclaimed, Nov. 4 ; return of Louis Napoleon to, Sept. 17 ; elected president, Dec. 20 ; Coup d'Etat, Dec. 2, 1851 ; Napoleon elected president for 10 years, Dec. 20, 21 ; elected emperor, Dec. I, 1852 ; attempt upon his life by Orsini, Jan. 14, 1858 ; peace with Russia signed, March 30, 1856; M. Sibour, the archbishop of, murdered by a clergyman, Louis Jean Verger, at the church of St Etienne du Mont, Jan. 3, 1857 ; the Eng- lish permitted to visit without passports, Jan. 1861 ; the remains of Napoleon I. removed to a tomb erected by Napoleon III. in the Invalides, March 31, 1861. Set France. PARIS. The Industrial Exhibition, opened by the Emperor Napoleon III., May 15, 1855 ; visited by Queen Victoria, Aug. 24, 1855. The Universal Exhibition erected in the Champ de Mars, from the designs of M. Alphaud, begun, Sept. 25, 1865 ; opened by the Emperor and Empress, April I, 1867 ; prizes distributed by the Emperor in the presence of the Sultan, July I ; closed, Nov. 3. PARIS GARDEN THEATRE, Bankside, leased by Henslow and Alleyne, April 27, 1592 ; the manor of Paris Gardens was given to the monastery of Bermondsey, 1113; conveyed to Henry VIIL, 1537 ; constituted the parish of Christ Church, 22 & 23 Charles II. c. xxviii., 1670. 638 PARISH APPRENTICES PARLIAMENT. PARISH APPRENTICES may be bound by consent of churchwardens, 43 Eliz. c. 2, s. 5 1601 ; new law respecting, making the assent of two magistrates necessary to bind them, Oct. I, 1816, and 8 Viet. c. 101, s. 12, Aug. 9, 1844. PARISH CLERKS' COMPANY, incorporated, 17 Hen. III., 1233; arms granted, March 30, 1582. PARISHES, Bounds of, fixed by Honorius, archbishop of Canterbury, 630 ; mentioned in the laws of Edgar, 970; reduced to 10,000 in the I5th century. The parishes of England and Wales given, with some variations, in one statement, England, 14,397; Wales, 1212; in others, in England 14,353 parishes; others, in Wales, 1182 ; making a total of 15,535. PARISH REGISTERS commenced, 1586. PARKER, RICHARD, hanged for inciting the sailors onboard the Fleet at Sheer- ness to mutiny, June 30, 1797. PARKER SOCIETY, established at Cambridge for the publication of works by the Fathers of the Reformed Church, 1840. PARKS. The first in England made by Henry I. at Woodstock, 1123. St James', 91 acres, drained by Henry VIII., 1537 ; planted, 1688 ; improved, 1774; deer removed and drains filled up, 1775 ; improved further, and ornamented, 1825. Hyde Park, 388 acres, 1500; enclosed, 1670; the Serpentine river made about 1730. Regent's Park, 472 acres, 1793. Battersea Park, begun, 1854-56. Vic- toria Park, 265 acres, laid out under 4 & 5 Viet. c. 27, June 21, 1841. Ken- sington Park, 34 acres, 1851-3. Green Park, 60 acres, 1767. PARLIAMENT of England, succeeded the council or curia. The council of Merton held, 1235-6. The Parliament assembled in London, in the reign of Henry III., Feb. 9, 1248 ; Henry III. issued a writ commanding two knights of the county, chosen by the men of the county, to assemble at Westminster, April 15, 1255 ; two knights for every county, and two burgesses for cities, to be elected and sent to the Parliament to be holden Jan. 20, 1265 ; a meeting summoned at Shrewsbury by Edw. I., II earls, 99 barons, two knights for each county, and 21 cities to send two citizens they met, and passed the statute 'de Mercatoribus,' Sept. 30, 1283 ; at first only a deliberative assembly, but they subsequently became a legislative power, whose assent was essential to constitute a law, 1307, and to be called together once every year, and the king not to leave the kingdom without their assent, Aug. 8, 1311. A writ addressed to Rich. Damery, Justiciary of North Wales, to cause 24 repre- sentatives of Wales to be summoned to the Parliament at Westminster, Jan. 7, 1327. The Blessed Parliament passed the Statute of Treason, 1351 ; the character of the two houses of Lords and Commons made perfectly distinct, and to hold separ- ate meetings, Nov. 23, 1373 ; the Good Parliament met in the reign of Edward III., 1376 ; the Wonderful Parliament was dissolved after a session of one hun- dred and 22 days, June 2, 1388 ; the votes of supplies accorded to the Commons, 1399; 400 lawyers excluded from the House, 1404 ; the Illiterate Parliament met, 1404 ; a statute passed settling the mode of election, and who shall be electors, 17 Hen. IV. c. 15, 1405-6; members obliged to reside at the place they repre- sented, 1417 ; freeholders only to elect knights, 1413 ; the Journals of the Com- mons commenced, 1501 ; Acts of Parliament printed, 1483 ; members protected from arrest, Jan. 16, 1542 ; Francis Russell, son of the Earl of Bedford, was the first peer's eldest son who sat in the house, 1549 ; denied the authority of the Lords to levy taxes, 1593; the Addled Parliament met, 1614; the court and country party first formed, June, 1620 ; the meeting held at Oxford on account of the plague in London, Aug. I, 1625 ; the Long Parliament, which voted the House of Lords useless, assembled, Nov. 23, 1640 ; triennial parliaments established, 16 Charles I. c. I, 1640 ; attempted arrest of the five members by Charles I., Jan. 4, 1642 ; ordered a new seal to be made, and declared that of Charles PARLIAMENT 639 1. void, seized the regalia and plate, and sold them, Nov. II, 1643 ; the Mongrel Parliament met at Oxford, Jan. 22, 1644 ; the members entertained at Grocers' Hall, June 17, 1645 ; voted the deposition of the king, Sept. 22, 1646 ; 41 mem- bers seized and imprisoned by the army, Dec. 6, 1647-8 ; the trial of the king ordered, Jan. I, 1649 ; resolved that under God the people are the origin of all just power, Jan. 4 ; styled themselves the Commonwealth of England, Jan. 30 ; voted the Peers useless, and the House of Lords abolished, Feb. 6 ; abolished kingly government, Feb. 7 > l aw proceedings ordered to be in English, Oct. 25, 1650 ; a seal for the Commonwealth ordered, Jan. 22, 1651 ; incorporated Scot- land into the commonwealth, March 19, 1652 ; the Scotch sent 21 members, Aug. 16, 1652 ; the Barebones Parliament turned out by Cromwell, April 20, 1653 ; met at the summons of Cromwell, July 4; dissolved, Dec. 12 ; a new Parliament summoned, Sept. 4, 1654 ; dismissed, Jan. 22, 1655 ; the members invited to dine with the Lord Mayor at Grocers' Hall, April 6, 1659 ; the Long Parliament, or Rump, restored, May 6, 1659 ; restored a third time, Dec. 26, 1659 ; dissolved, March 16, 1660 ; Convention Parliament met, April 25, 1660 ; the first sitting of the Pensionary Parliament, May 8, 1661 ; the Triennial Act repealed, April 5 1664 ; controversy with the Lords for making amendments to money bills, April 17, 1671 ; act for triennial parliaments, 6 & 7 Will. & Mary, c. 2, 1694; the meeting held at Oxford on account of the plague, Oct. 9, 1665 ; the Duke of Buckingham, Lord Wharton, and the Earl of Shaftesbury, sent to the Tower for contempt, Feb. 15, 1676-7 ; made a breach of privilege to publish their proceedings, Feb. 27, 1698-9 ; Queen Anne refused her assent to an act for the Scotch militia, March II, 1707 ; the Triennial Act repealed, and the Sep- tennial passed, l Geo. I. st. 2, c. 38, May I, 1715 ; expelled the members who were directors of the South Sea Company, Jan. 23, 1720 ; deprived them of their estates, May 17, 1721 ; expelled Sir R. Sutton and Sir A. Grant for defrauding the charitable corporations, May 4, 1 732 ; summary of debates first published by Boyer, in the 'Political State,' Jan., 1710-11 ; the Irish Parliament merged with the English at the Union, and called the Imperial Parliament ; the first Parliament of Great Britain met, Oct. 24, 1707 ; the journals ordered to be printed, 1752 ; the first Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland met, Jan. 22, 1801 ; Sir Francis Burdett com- mitted to the Tower, April 6, 1810; return of Mr O'Connell for Clare County, Ireland, the first Roman Catholic elected since the revolution, July 5, 1828; the Duke of Norfolk took his seat in the House of Lords, being the first Roman Catholic Peer, April 28, 1829; the Reform Act, 2 Will. IV. c. 45, passed, June 7, 1832 ; the Reform Parliament met, Aug. 7, 1832 ; both houses destroyed by fire, Oct. 16, 1834; Mr Abercromby, the Speaker, resigned, May 15, 1839; Mr Shaw Lefevre elected, May 27 ; Mr Stockdale committed for a breach of privileges, Jan. 17, 1840; Prince Albert naturalized, Jan. 20, and ^"50,000 per annum granted to his Royal Highness, Jan. 27 ; the bill to extend the County Franchise brought in by Locke King, July 9, 1850; Baron de Rothschild, member for the City of London, presented himself to take the oaths, but substituting ' on the true faith of a Christian ' for ' so help me God,' the Speaker decided that he could not sign the roll, July 30, 1850 ; Mr A. Gage and Mr C. Cream committed by the House of Lords to Newgate, for fraudulently obtaining names to a petition, Aug. 13, 1850 ; Mr Solomans, a Jew, member for Greenwich, claimed to take his seat in the House, was removed by the serjeant at arms, July 21, 1851 ; Her Majesty opened the House, entering for the first time by the Royal entrance, Victoria Tower, Feb. 3, 1852 ; a Reform Bill introduced by Lord Russell, Feb. I, 1854 ; Mr J. E. Denison elected Speaker, May 7, 1857 ; the Jews' Relief Bill passed, and the oaths altered, July 23, 1858; Mr Washington Wilks committed for a breach of privilege, May 28, 1858 ; an act passed abolishing the observance of the 5th Nov. and 29th May, March 25, 1859 ; the prorogation of Parliament simplified during 640 PARLIAMENT the recess, 30 & 31 Viet. c. 810, Aug. 12, 1867; an act for amending the re- presentation of the people in England and Wales, 30 & 31 Viet. c. 102, Aug. 15, 1867; the same for Ireland, c. 49, July 13, 1868; Scotland, c. 48, July 13, 1868; an act passed for amending the laws relating to election petitions, and for the prevention of corrupt practices at elections, 31 & 32 Viet. c. 125, July 31, 1868. Mr J. E. Denison re-elected Speaker, Dec. 10 ; Bill for the disendowment of the Protestant Church in Ireland, brought in by Mr Gladstone, March 8, 1869 ; the second reading carried by a majority of 118, March 23. THE DURATION OF THE SESSIONS OF PARLIAMENTS SINCE THE REIGN OF HENRY VIII. Reign. Day of Meetin g. When Dissolved HENRY VIII 21 Jan. 1510 23 Feb 1510 4 Feb. 1512 7 Nov 1513 5 Feb. ... ISIS 22 Dec 1515 15 April ... 1523 13 Aug. !5 2 3 3 Nov. ... 1529 4 April 1536 8 June ... 1536 iSJuly 1537 28 April ... 1540 24 July i54i i6Jan. 1542 29 March r 544 23 Nov. 1546 3i Jan 1547 EDWARD VI 4 Nov. 1547 15 April 1552 I March ... 1553 31 March 1553 MARY 5 Oct. 1553 5 Dec 1553 2 April 1554 5 May 1554 12 Nov. 1554 16 Jan 1555 21 Oct. 1555 9 Dec 1555 20 Jan. 1558 17 Nov 1558 ELIZABETH 23 Jan. 1559 8 May 1559 II Jan. 1563 2 Jan 1567 2 April 1571 29 May 1571 8 May 1572 19 April 1583 23 Nov. 1584 14 Sept 1585 29 Oct. 1586 23 March 1587 12 Nov. 1588 29 March 1589 19 Feb. ... 1593 10 April IS93 24 Oct. 1597 9 Feb 1598 27 Oct. 1601 19 Dec 1601 JAMES I 19 March ... 1604 9 Feb 1611 5 April ... 1614 7 June 1614 30 Jan. 1621 8 Feb 1622 12 Feb. 1624 27 March 1625 CHARLES I. 17 May 1625 12 Aug 1625 6 Feb. ... 1626 15 June 1626 17 March ... 1628 10 March 1629 13 April ... 1640 5 May 1640 3 Nov. 1640 20 April 1653 COMMONWEALTH 4 July ... i653 12 Dec 1653 3 Sept. ... 1654 22 Jan 1655 17 Sept ... 1656 26 June i657 20 Jan. 1658 22 April 1659 CHARLES II 25 April ... 1660 29 Dec 1660 PARLIAMENT 641 Reign. Day of Meetin g- When Dissolved CHARLES II 8 May ... 1661 24 Jan 1678 6 March ... 1679 12 July 1679 17 Oct. 1679 iSJan 1681 21 March ... 1681 28 March 1681 JAMES II 19 May 1685 2 July 1687 WILLIAM III 22 Jan. 1688 20 Jan 1689 20 March ... 1689 II OcL 1695 22 Nov. 1695 7 July 1698 6 Dec. ... 1698 19 Dec 1700 6 Feb. ... 1701 II Nov 1701 30 Dec. 1701 7 July 1702 \\\E 20 Oct. 1 702 23 April I7OC 25 Oct. * / " 1705 5 June I/VT) 1707 23 July ... 1707 17 April 1708 1 6 Nov. 1708 21 Sept I7IO 25 Nov. ... 1710 8 Aug. 1713 16 Feb. ... 1714 5 Jan 1715 GEORGE I 17 March ... IT'S 10 March 1721 9 Oct. 1722 7 Aug 1727 GEORGE II 23 Jan. ... 1728 18 April 1734 14 Jan. 1735 28 April 1741 i Dec. 1741 iSJune 1747 10 Nov. 1747 8 April 1754 31 May 1754 20 March I76l GEORGE III 19 May 1761 12 March 1768 10 May 1768 30 Sept 1774 29 Nov. 1774 I Sept 1780 31 Oct ... 1780 7 April 1784 18 May ... 1784 6 July 1790 25 Nov. 1790 2O May 1796 27 Sept. ... 1796 29 June l802 1 6 Nov. 1802 24 Oct 1806 15 Dec. 1806 27 April 1807 22 June 1807 29 Sept 1812 24 Nov. 1812 lojune 1818 14 Jan. 1819 28 Feb 1820 GEORGE IV 21 April ... 1820 2 June 1826 14 Nov. 1826 24 July 1830 WILLIAM IV 26 Oct. 1830 II May 1831 14 June 1831 3 Dec 1832 5 Feb. ... i833 30 Dec 1834 19 Feb. i83S 17 July 1837 VICTORIA 15 Nov. 1837 30 June 1841 . 19 Aug. ... 1841 23 July 1847 18 Nov. ... 1847 22 Aug. 1852 4 Nov. 1852 21 March 1857 30 April ... 1857 23 April 1859 31 May 1859 6 July 1865 6 Feb. ... 1866 II Nov. 1868 10 Dec. 1868 PARLIAMENT HOUSE, Westminster, designs advertised for, June, 1835, to be 41 *" 642 PARLIAMENTS PARTITION TREATIES sent in, Nov. I ; the Commissioners awarded the prize to C. Barry, Feb. 29, 1836; the unsuccessful designs exhibited, March 21; committee upon, March 10 ; petition against Mr Barry's design presented to the House of Commons by Mr Hume, June 22 ; considered, July 22 ; first vote of money for the building, July 3, 1837; the first stone laid privately, April 27, 1840 ; a commission appointed to superin- tend its completion, March 17, 1848 ; Dr Reid appointed to superintend the warming of the building, Jan., 1840 ; the House of Lords first occupied, Feb., 1847 ; Her Majesty made her first public entrance through the Victoria Tower, Feb. 3, 1852; Mr Barry knighted at Windsor, Feb. II, 1852 ; the first meeting held in the New House, Feb. 3, 1852; total cost of the building with fittings and purchase of ground, l, 997, 246 1 5-r. lid.; power given to purchase land in connection with the New Palace, 30 & 31 Viet. c. 40, July 15, 1867. The bell called Big Ben, tried for the first time, Nov. 13, 1856 ; the clapper weighed 16 cwt., the sound was pure natural E; found to be cracked, Sept. 24, 1857 > recast, and first begun to strike, in July, 1859 ; cracked again, in Sept. 28. PARLIAMENTS, France. There were twelve different parliaments in France anciently : one at Aix, 1501 ; Besan9on, 1422 ; Bordeaux, 1460 ; Doway, 1668; Dijon, 1476; Grenoble, 1453; Metz, 1633 ; Pau in Beam, 1519 ; Paris, 1254, and Nov. 12, 1774; Rennes, in Bretagne, 1553; Roesen, 1499; Tholouse, 1302. PARLIAMENTS, Ireland, abolished, and joined to the English Parliament by the Act of Union, 39 & 40 Geo. III. c. 67, July 2, 1800 ; first meeting under the new system, Jan. 22, 1801. . PARLIAMENTS, Scotland. The first National Council called the Parliament by John Balliol, and met at Scone, Feb. 9, 1292 ; Bruce held his famous Parlia- ment at Cambuskenneth, July 15, 1326; united to the English Parliament, 5 Anne, c. 8, May I, 1707. PARMA, Italy, founded by the Etruscans ; made a Roman colony, B.C. 187 ; de- stroyed in the wars of the Triumvirate, and rebuilt by Caesar ; cathedral built, 1106 ; ceded to Leo X., 1515 ; made a duchy, and given by Paul III. to his bastard son, Pier Luigi Farnese, 1545; came to Spain by marriage, 1714; given by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle to the son of Philip V. , 1 748 ; library established, 1769 ; taken by the French, 1796 ; the duke of, raised to the throne of Tuscany, 1801, as King of Etniria ; united to France by treaty, May 23, 1802 ; incorporated with the empire, 1805 ; captured by Prince Eugene, 1814; conferred on the Empress Marie Louise, April 5, 1814; the duchy conferred on the duke of, by treaty, May 5, 1817 ; the duchess of, abdicated, Feb. 8, 1831 ; restored, March, 1831 ; annexed to Tuscany, 1847 ; revolt in, March 9, 1848 ; the duke fled the city, appointing a Regency, March 20 ; the duke of, assassinated in his own capital, March 26, 1854, and died the next day ; an insurrection against the Regent, April and May, 1859 ; annexed to Italy, 1860. PARMA, battles. The Confederates against the Emperor, indecisive, June 29, 1 734 ; between the French and Russians, in which the former were defeated, July 12, 1799. PARTIES, the first distinction of, in the English Court, in a political sense, by the titles of ' town and country parties,' 1 8 James I., Jan. 20, 1621 ; of Whigs and Tories, 21 Charles II., 1682, occasioned by the meal-tub plot ; of High and Low Church, caused by the prosecution of the notorious Sacheverel for seditious ser- mons, 8 Anne, 1710; of Jacobites, from 1716, those who appeared in arms for, or expressed their wishes in behalf of, James II. PARTITION TREATIES between England and Holland signed, Oct. I, 1698 settling the Spanish succession ; another, between England, France, and Holland, signed in London, Feb. 21; at the Hague, March 14, 1700, declaring the Arch- PASSARO PATRAS 643 duke Charles presumptive heir ; for the partitions of Poland, secret and infamous, between Russia and Prussia, Feb. 17, 1772, and the same with Austria, Aug. 5, 1772 ; a third, to the same unworthy end, between Austria, Russia, and Prussia, Nov. 25, 1795. PASSARO, naval battle. Adm. Byng, with 20 ships-of-the-line, defeated the Spanish fleet off Cape Passaro, taking or destroying most of them, Aug. n, 1718. PASSAU, Bavaria, treaty of, between the Emperor Charles V. and the Protestant princes of Germany, Aug. 2, 1552 ; a large part of the town consumed by fire, 1662 ; occupied by Austria, Aug., 1802 ; ceded to Bavaria, Feb. 25, 1803 ; forti- fied by Napoleon, 1809. PASSION OF JESUS CHRIST, order of knighthood in France, began, 1382. PASSOVER, an historical and typical festival of the Jews, held in commemoration of the destroying angel passing over the houses of the Egyptians, Exod. xii. 13, B.C. 1491 ; it was to be celebrated in the mouth of Nisan, from the I4th to the 2ist ; the second kept in the Desert, Num. ix. ; third, celebrated by Joshua at Gilgal, Josh. v. ; fourth, kept by Hezekiah upon the restoration of the National Worship, 2 Chron. xxx.; fifth, by Josiah, 2 Chron. xxxv. ; sixth, by Ezra after the return from Babylon, Ezr. vi. ; seventh, the Last Supper. PASSPORTS granted by Queen Anne for permission to travel, 1713; abolished between France and England, Jan., 1861, between Italy and England, June, 1862. PASTOUREAUX, an insurrection of the peasants, under the guidance of ' Le Maitre de Hongrie,' committing great excesses against the Church, 1251 ; they rose a second time against the Jews, murdering a great number, 1320-21. PATENT ROLLS. Rotulus Cancellarii, an account of the king's revenue in the third year of King John, A.D. 1201, 1202; Rotuli Chartarum in Turri Londi- nensi asservati, from A.D. 1199 to 1216 ; Rotuli Litterarum Patentium Clausarum in Turri Londinensi asservati, from A.D. 1204 to 1224 ; Rotuli Literarum Patentium in Turri Londinensi asservati, from A.D. 1201 to 1216. PATENTS granted for titles, first, 1344, by Edward III.; for printing books, 1591 ; one, for copper and brass coins in England, granted, 1636; the Letters Patent of the King to be granted by warrant, 18 Hen. VI. c. I, 1439 ; for general purposes, granted for 14 years by 5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 83, Sept. 10, 1835 > Patent Law Amendment Act, 15 & 16 Viet. c. 83, July I, 1852 ; amended by 16 & 17 Viet. c. 115, Aug. 20, 1853. PATHOLOGICAL SOCIETY, instituted in London, 1846; Transactions pub- lished, 1848. PATNA, Hindustan, conquered by the Emperor of Delhi, and annexed to his em- pire, 1 194 ; several English factories were early established here ; a dispute arose between Meer Cossim and the English traders ; he captured several boats laden with arms for the English at Mongheer ; Mr Ellis, the chief of the English factory, with a small force, captured Patna, but they were subsequently driven out, not only from the city but from their factory, and most of them destroyed ; Mongheer taken, Sept., 1763, when Mr Ellis, with 200 prisoners, were executed in cold blood by the orders of Meer Cossim, by Sumroo, a Swiss, Oct. 3, Mr Fullarton, a surgeon, alone escaping ; the town taken by storm, Nov. 6, 1763 ; attacked by a large native force, but without success, May 13, 1764. PATRAS, Greece, sold to the Venetians, 1408 ; taken by the Turks, 1446 ; re- taken by Doria, 1532 ; captured by the Turks, 1714 ; destroyed by an earthquake, April 1 8, 1785 ; revolt of the inhabitants, April 2, 1821 ; captured by the Greeks, April 6, 1821 ; retaken by the Turks, 15,000 Greeks perished, April 15 ; cap- tured by the Greeks, 1847. 644 PATRAY PAUL'S CROSS, ST PATRAY, battle, in which the brave Joan of Arc, the maid of Orleans, was pre- sent, and the Earl of Richmond defeated the English, and took the celebrated Talbot, Earl of Shrewsbury, prisoner, June 18, 1429 ; Sir John Fastolf was dis- graced for cowardice, Charles VII. entered Rheims in triumph, and was crowned, July 17 ; Joan carried the sword of state upon the occasion. PATRICK, ST, Order of, instituted by George III. in Ireland, a grand-master and 15 knights elected, Feb. 5, 1783 ; number of knights increased to 22, 1833. PATRICK, ST, the Irish apostle, said to have been born 373 ; consecrated circa 440 ; died, 493, and buried at Down-patrick. PATRIOTIC FUNDS. The first established by the subscribers to Lloyd's by a vote of ^20,000, 1803, .5000, 1809, and ; 1 0,000, 1812, for the relief of those engaged in the defence of this country during the war ; one for the relief of the orphans and widows of soldiers and sailors killed in the war with Russia, ;i, 000,000 raised, June 13, 1854 ; a commission appointed, Prince Albert and others being the commissioners, Oct. 7 ; report presented, March 26, 1858 ; better provisions made for, 30 & 31 Viet. c. 98, Aug. 12, 1867. The Indian Mutiny Fund established at a meeting held at the Mansion House, under the presidency of Thos. Q. Finnis, lord mayor, Aug. 25, 1857 ; .434,729 raised. PATTEN-MAKERS' COMPANY incorporated, 22 Car. II., Aug. 2, 1670; ordinances allowed by the Lord Keeper, June 20, 1674 ; livery granted by the Court of Aldermen, March 26, 1717. PATTENS, worn by the clergy. Two pair of, left for the use of the priest of St Mary-at-IIill, London, 1491. PAUL JONES, Commander of an American privateer, burnt the shipping in Whitehaven harbour, April 10, 1778; landed in Scotland, and took the house- hold plate of Lord Selkirk, April 23 ; he took two vessels of the navy, with which he entered a port of Holland, and the Dutch refused to deliver them up, 1779. PAUL, SIR JOHN DEAN, and Mr Strahan, bankers, found guilty of misdemeanor, and sentenced to 14 years' transportation, Oct. 27, 1855 ; released after four years' penal servitude, Oct. 22, 1859. PAUL, ST, converted, A.D. 35; according to Greswell, he wrote his First and Second Epistles to the Thessalonians, 50 ; i and 2 Corinthians and Galatians, 55 ; Ro- mans, 56 ; Ephesians, Colossians, Philippians, and Philemon, 60 ; Hebrews, 63 ; Titus, 64 ; I Timothy, 65 ; 2 Timothy, 66 ; visited Athens and Corinth, 50 ; died, 67- These dates are traditional only. Festival of, instituted, 813 ; order of, instituted at Rome, 1 549. PAUL'S CATHEDRAL, ST, London, said to have been the Temple of Diana ; first church founded by Ethelbert, A.D. 610 ; burnt down, 1087 ; rebuilding 150 years, finished, 1240 ; partially destroyed by lightning, 1443 ; almost destroyed by fire, 1561 ; repaired and re-opened by the lord mayor, Nov. I, 1561. Inigo Jones built a classic portico to the Gothic church, 1633 ; destroyed in the great fire of 16665 nrs t stone of the present church laid, June 21, 1675 ; first service in, Dec. 2, 1697 ; the last stone laid, 1710 ; cost ,736,752 2s. 35^., and paid for by a tax on coals ; the organ built by Schmydt, 1694 ; the clock erected, 1708 ; first lighted with gas, May 6, 1822 ; suicide of Mr Alex. Smart from the whispering gallery, March 14, 1856 ; the first service held under the dome, Nov. 28, 1858 ; fund raised for the ornamentation of, 1 860-61 ; the churchyard iron balustrade encloses two acres of land, and cost .11,202. PAUL'S CROSS, ST. William Fitz-Osbert preached against the government of Rich. I., 1191 ; Henry III. summoned a Folksmote to meet him and his brother Richard here in 1259 ; defaced by lightning, 1382 ; rebuilt by Bishop Kemp, 1456; repaired, 159$; pulled down by order of parliament, 1643. PAUL'S SCHOOL PEEP-OF-DAY BOYS 645 PAUL'S SCHOOL, London, founded by Dean Colet for the education of 153 boys of all countries, 1509, and placed under the management of the Mercers' Company; school-house built, 1508 1512 ; destroyed in the fire of 1 666 ; rebuilt by Wren, 1667 ; taken down, 1824 ; rebuilt from the designs of George Smith, 1826-27. PAVIA, Italy, taken by the Lombards, 568 ; the university founded by Charle- magne, 774; restored, 1361 ; citadel built, 1469; cathedral begun, 1488; taken by Austria, 1 706 ; university buildings repaired by the Emperor, 1 787 ; taken by the French, 1796; the inhabitants rebelled against their harsh rule, 1796; ceded to Austria, 1814 ; insurrection in, March 23, 1848 ; taken by the Austrians, Aug. 5, 1848; annexed to Italy, 1859. PAVIA, battle between the French, under Francis I., and the Imperialists, when the latter gained the victory, and Francis was taken prisoner, Feb. 24, 1525. PAVILION THEATRE, Whitechapel, London, damaged by fire, July 5, 1850; totally destroyed by fire, Feb. 13, 1856 ; rebuilt, and opened, Oct. 30, 1858. PAWNBROKERS begun their trade in Italy about 1458; regulated by various statutes ; their rates of profit fixed, 39 & 40 George III. c. 99, July 28, 1800 ; declarations substituted for oaths, 5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 62, s. 12, Sept. 9, 1835 ; an act to amend, 19 & 20 Viet. c. 27, June 23, 1856. PEABODY, MR GEORGE, an American merchant, presented ,150,000 to ameliorate the condition of the poor and needy in London, March 12, 1862 ; presented with the freedom of London in a gold box by the corporation, July IO ; gave a second donation of .100,000, Jan. 29, 1866 ; letter from Queen Victoria to, thanking him, March 28, 1866 ; reply of Mr Peabody, April 3 ; portrait of the Queen presented to, May, 1867 ; a further sum of .100,000 presented, Dec. 5, 1868 ; died in London, Nov. 4,1869. PEACE, great ceremonies at the proclamation of, in London, 1814 ; procession to St Paul's on thanksgiving day, for the restoration of, July 7, 1814 ; national jubilee in the parks in celebration of, Aug. I, 1814 ; at the termination of the Russian war in the parks and other places, May 29, 1856. PEACE CONGRESS, a society thus denominated for the purpose of promoting peace between different nations, and sending deputations to other countries for that purpose ; the sittings of the society commenced at Exeter Hall, Oct. 30, but there had been a previous meeting at Paris, Aug. 22, 1849 ; the society also met at Frankfort, Aug. 22, 1850; at Birmingham, Nov. 28, 1850 ; at Manchester, Jan. 2 7 *853 ; at Edinburgh, Oct. 12, 1853 ; a deputation received by the Emperor Nicholas I., Feb. 10, 1854. PEARL, a substance found in a particular species of the oyster, highly valued for ornamental purposes ; one, said to have been found in 1574, as large as a pigeon's egg, valued at 13,996 ; a very large one spoken of by Tavernier, belonging to the Shah of Persia, valued at 110,000 ; artificial, first invented and manufac- tured, 1686 ; a Joint Stock Company formed for the fishery of pearls, Jan., 1825. PEARL ASHES, manufactory of, established in Ireland, 1783. PEEL CASTLE, Isle of Man, built before 124$. PEEL CASTLE, Lancashire, built by the Abbot of Furness, 1 140. PEEL, SIR ROBERT, first administration, Dec., 1834 ; resigned office, April 8, 1835; second administration, Sept. 8, 1841 ; Sir Robert resigned, June 29, 1846; thrown from his horse, June 29, and died, July 2, 1850. PEELITES, the Conservative party who remained followers of Sir Robert Peel after the repeal of the Corn Laws, July, 1846. PEEP-OF-DAY BOYS, in Ireland, a species of banditti, who visited houses to rob them of arms ; they first appeared, July 4, 1784. 646 PEERS PENAL LAWS AND TESTS PEERS, first created in England by William the Conqueror, 1066, in the person of William Fitzosborne, made Earl of Hereford ; the first made by patent was Lord Beauchamp of Holt Castle, by Richard II., Oct. 10, 1387 ; in Ireland, Sir John de Courcy was the first made, as Baron Kinsale, 1181 ; in Scotland, Gil- christ was created Earl of Angus by Malcolm III., 1037 ; eldest sons of, first permitted to sit in the House of Commons, 155 > protection of, cancelled, Jan. 17, 1723-24. PEERS OF FRANCE begun to be created, 778; 12 appointed by Philip Augustus, 1205 ; abolished, 1790 ; renewed by Napoleon, 1801 ; made hereditary, Aug. 19, 1815 ; abolished, 1848. PEGU, Asia, captured by the British, 1824 ; taken by the British army, Nov. 21, 1852 ; invested by the Burmese force, Dec. 3 ; annexed to the British frontier, June 30, 1853. PEIHO, China. The English and French squadrons, under Adm. Hope, repulsed by the Chinese force, the allies lost 89 killed and 300 wounded, June 24, 25, 1859, and compelled to retire ; returned, and the entrance forced, Aug. 21, 1860. PEKIN, China, taken by Genghis Khan, 1210 ; made the capital in the I3th century ; Lord Macartney, the English ambassador, visited, Sept. 14, 1793; the allied English and French forces entered the city, Oct. 12, 1860, the prisoners given up ; conven- tion signed, Oct. 24 ; the troops evacuated the city, Nov. 5 ; British plenipoten- tiary, Mr Bruce, arrived, and took up his residence, Feb. 26, 1861. PELAGIUS, the founder of the Pelagian sect, a native of Britain, 400 ; he main- tained that Adam was mortal by nature, whether he had sinned or not ; that the consequences of his sin were confined to his own person ; that new-born infants were in the same state as Adam before he fell ; that the law qualified men for heaven, and was founded upon equal promises with the gospel ; that the general resurrection does not follow in virtue of the Saviour's, &c. ; these doctrines were held to be most dangerous heresies by the Church ; he was a disputant with St Augustine ; arraigned before the council of Jerusalem and Diospolis, 415 ; ana- thematized by Pope Innocent I., 417- PELEW ISLANDS, Pacific Ocean. The Antelope wrecked upon, 1783 ; the King Abba Thulle permitted Captain Wilson to bring his son Lee Boo to England, where he died, 1784, of the small-pox. PELHAM ADMINISTRATION, called the Broad Bottom, having in its ranks nine dukes of all party colours, Aug. 1 7, 1 743 ; ceased, March 3, 1 754. PELOPONNESIAN WAR. The Lacedsemonians summoned a general meeting of the confederacy at Sparta, B. c. 432 ; the meeting decided for war in the begin- ning of the next year ; hostilities commenced in the spring of, B.C. 431 ; terminated by the entire destruction of the Athenian fleet at ^Egospotami, B.C. 406. PEMBRIDGE CASTLE, Herefordshire, built by Ralph de Penebruge ; custody of, granted by King John to' William de Cantelupe, 1216 ; taken for the Parlia- mentarians by Gen. Massy, 1644. PEMBROKE COLLEGE, Cambridge, founded by Mary de St Paul Valence, Countess Pembroke, 1324. PEMBROKE COLLEGE, Oxford, founded by Thomas Tesdale, June 29, 1624 ; the chapel was consecrated by Bishop Potter, 1732 ; the hall rebuilt, 1848. PEMBROKE PRIORY, Pembrokeshire, founded by Arnulph, Earl of Pembroke, circa 1098-9. PENAL LAWS, treaty of, Limerick ; this treaty signed, Oct. 3, 1691, was rati- fied by William III., April 5, 1691, and by parliament, 1697. PENAL LAWS AND TESTS, attempted repeal of, as far as related to Protest- PENAL SERVITUDE PENSIONERS 647 ants, 1732 ; Test and Coqx>ration Acts' repeal argued against by Pitt, 1792; sub- sequently repealed by 9 George IV. c. 17, May 9, 1828. PENAL SERVITUDE. An act passed to substitute penal servitude for transporta- tion, 1 6 & 17 Viet. c. 99, Aug. 20, 1853 ; and amended, 20 & 21 Viet. c. 3, June 26, 1857, 27 & 28 Viet. c. 47, July 25, 1864. PENANCE introduced into the Church, 157 ; in the English, at present, only ad- judged for scandal, brawling, or fornication. PENDENNIS CASTLE, Cornwall, built by Henry VIII. for the defence of Fal- mouth, 1530; fortified by Queen Elizabeth, 15601570; Henrietta Maria took refuge in, on her way to France, 1644 ; captured by the Parliamentarians after a desperate defence, 1646. IT. X OR AGON CASTLE, Westmoreland, built by Robert de Vipout, Earl of Westmoreland, circa 1227 ; burnt by the Scots, 1341 ; repaired by the Dowager Countess of Pembroke, 1661 ; destroyed by the Earl of Thanet, 1685. PKXINSULAR WAR, begun by Murat entering Madrid, March 23, 1808 ; ended by the treaty of Paris, May 14, 1814. PEXISCOLA, Spain, formerly belonged to Knights Templars ; Benedict XIII. took refuge here from Dec. I, 1415, to Jan. 29, 1428 ; fortified, 1578 ; betrayed to the French, under Suchet, Feb. 12, 1812 ; besieged by Spaniards, March, 1814. PKXITENTIARY HOUSE, Milbank, for the imprisonment of convicts, act for the erection of, 52 Geo. III. c. 44, Aug. 12, 1812 ; name altered to Milbank, 6 & 7 Viet. c. 26, June 27, 1843 ; convicts removed into, June, 1816. PEXITENTS, in the Roman Church, of many orders ; Magdalens, &c. The order of St Magdalen penitents was founded at Marseilles, 1272 ; those of Jesus, in Spain, 1556 ; those of Orvieto became an order of nuns, 1662 ; there were others in Italy and Germany. PEXNAN CASTLE, Anglesey, built, 540. PENNARVON PRIORY, Anglesey, built, 540. PENNSYLVANIA, North America, colonized by Swedes, 1638 ; taken by Dutch, 1658 ; ceded to England, 1664 ; granted to William Penn by charter of Charles II., March 4, 1681 ; Philadelphia erected, 1683; first jury empanelled, 1688; first rules for the good government of, made, 1682. A number of Irish people settled here, 1730; constitution adopted, Dec. 13, 1787; amended, 1838. PENNY, the first English coin current among the Anglo-Saxons, first mentioned in the laws of Ina ; in the reign of Edward I. it was stmck with a cross, that it might be parted into halfpence and farthings ; the first struck in copper by order of George III.,for the Isle of Man, 1786; a new coinage for England ordered,consist- ing of penny and twopenny pieces, besides halfpence and farthings, Dec. 4, 1 799. PENNY POSTAGE. See Postage and Post-office. PENRITH, Cumberland. The Roman town was destroyed by the Scotch, 1385 ; captured by them, 1715 and 1745 ; the castle built by Ralph de Nevill, 1390; repaired and fortified by Richard III., 1476. PENRUDDOCK'S REBELLION in favour of Charles I. suppressed, and Mr Penruddock beheaded at Exeter, May 16, 1655. PENRYN, Cornwall, incorporated, 1610 ; surrendered to the Parliamentarians, under Fairfax, 1646. PENS, first made from quills, 635 ; from steel, 1845. PENSHURST CASTLE, Kent, built by John de Pulteney, 1346 ; the Hall, 1349. PENSIONERS, the band of, first established, 1590. 648 PENSIONS PERSECUTIONS PENSIONS, Government, restricted by the I Anne, c. 7, 1701 ; pensions on the civil list to be paid by the Exchequer, 22 Geo. III. c. 82, 1782 ; an act passed to enable His Majesty, George III., to recompense the services of persons holding civil offices, 57 Geo. III. c. 65, July 7, 1817 ; amended, 6 Geo. IV. c. 90, July 5, 1825 ; amended, 4 & 5 Will. IV. c. 24, July 25, 1834; superannuation, 22 Viet. c. 26, April 19, 1859 ; civil service, 23^24 Viet. c. 89, Aug. 13, 1860 ; re- stricted in Ireland, 1757 ; limited to ^"80, ooo, 1793 ; reduced to $0,000, 1820. PENTATEUCH, The, the five books written by Moses, circa B.C. 1451. PENTECOST, a Jewish feast established by Divine command by Moses, Lev. xv. xxii., to be celebrated seven weeks after the Passover, B.C. 1490. PENZANCE, Cornwall,burnt by the Spaniards, July, 1595 ; incorporated by James I., 1614 ; plundered by Parliamentary army, 1646 ; harbour constructed, 1766. PERCEVAL'S, SPENCER, administration commenced, Oct. 30, 1809 ; it ter- minated with his death, being assassinated in the lobby of the House of Commons by a person named Bellingham, May II, 1812. PERCUSSION CAPS, invented and patented by the Rev. A. J. Forsyth, April n, 1807 ; improvement in, by Mr Wright, 1820 ; published his invention, 1823. PERCY SOCIETY, established for the publication of Early English poetry, 1840; 94 books published, the last in Feb. , 1852. PERED, battle. Hungarians, under Georgey, defeated by Austrians, June 20, 1849. PERE-LA-CHAISE Cemetery, Paris, given to the Jesuits, by a lady, and Pere la Chaise appointed Superior, 1705 ; purchased by the city of Paris for 160,000 francs, 1800; laid out as a cemeteiy, the first burial, May 21, 1804 ; the remains of Moliere and Fontaine removed here, 1805 ; Abelard and Helo'ise removed here, and tomb erected, 1817. There are in it upwards of 16,000 stone monuments. PERFUMERY, a stamp tax upon, and a licence required by the vendor of, 26 Geo. III. c. 49, 1 786. PERKIN WARBECK, the impostor/personated Richard Duke of York, and landed at Cork, 1492 ; acknowledged by Charles VIII. of France, 1493 '> married Catherine Gordon, daughter of James IV. of Scotland, 1496; raised a rebellion in Cornwall, Sept. 7, 1497; hanged at Tyburn, Nov. 28, 1499. PERJURY punished with the pillory, or imprisonment for six months, 5 Eliz. c. 9, 1562 ; made perpetual, 29 Eliz. c. 5, 1587 ; seven years' transportation, 2 Geo. II. c. 25, s. 2, 1729 ; made perpetual, 9 Geo. II. c. 18, 1736; amended, 14 & 15 Viet. c. loo, s. 19, Aug. 7, 1851. J>ERONNE, France. The church of St John built, 1374; treaty of, between Louis XI. of France and the Duke of Burgundy, confirming Arras and Conflans to the duke, 1468 ; taken by the Duke of Wellington, June 26, 1815. PERPIGNAN, France. The university founded, 1349 ; taken by Louis XI., 1474, and restored to Spain ; besieged and taken by Marshal la Meilleraie, Sept. 9, 1642 ; ceded to France by the treaty of the Pyrenees, 1659. PERRAEU, Robert and Daniel, executed for forgery, Jan. 17, 1776. PERROTT, MR, a bankrupt, hanged for embezzling his estate and effects, Oct. 26, 1761. PERSECUTIONS : the first, A.D. 33 ; the second, 44 ; the first general persecution of the Christians was under Nero, 64 ; under Domitian, 95 ; under Trajan, 106 ; under Adrian, 118 ; under Marcus Aurelius, 166 ; under Severus, 198 ; under Maximus, 235 ; under Decius, 250 ; under Valerian, 257 > under Aurelian, 272 ; under Diocletian, 303 ; by the Arians under Constantine, 337 ; under Sapor, 340 ; under Julian the Apostate, 361. PERSEPOLIS PERU 649 PERSEPOLIS, Persia, the capital of Persia in the temp, of Alexander, founded, circa B.C. 1341 ; taken by Alexander, B.C. 330, and burnt the next year. PERSHORE MONASTERY, Worcestershire, founded by Oswald, nephew of King Ethelred, A.D. 689. PERSIA, founded by the Medes, B.C. 880 ; Artaxerxes made king of, 235 ; sub- jugated by the Greeks, 238; conquered by the Saracens, 30,000 perishing,A. D. 641 ; taken by the Turks, 1068 ; Timour, 1370 ; the Afghans, under Mahmud, defeated the Persians, and he usurped the throne, Oct. 21, 1722 ; Nadir Shah assassinated by his nephew at Korassan, 1736 ; the eyes of Looft-Ali-Khan plucked out, and the Emperor afterwards killed, 1 789 ; Aga-Mahomed Khan assassinated, 1 794 ; Georgia subdued, 1800; treaty of commerce with Gt Britain, Feb., 1801 ; treaty of peace with Russia, 1815 ; war with Russia, July, 1826 ; treaty of peace with, Oct. 29, 1827 ; Herat besieged by Persia, Oct., 1837 ; the siege raised after the place had been invested for 10 months, July, 1838 ; treaty of commerce with Gt Britain, Oct. 28, 1841 ; Mr Murray, the British minister at the Court of Persia, insulted, and the mission withdrew, Dec. 5, 1855; Herat captured, Oct. 26, 1856; the British declared war against, Nov. I, 1856 ; Kharg occupied by the British, Dec. 3 ; Bushire taken, Dec. 10 ; the Persians defeated at Khoosh-aub, Feb. 8, 1857 ; treaty of peace signed at Paris, March 3 ; Mahammerah captured, March 26 ; Awaz, April i ; cessation of hostilities, April 5 ; marriage of the heir to the throne, Mosaffer Eddin Mirza, to his cousin, Oct 6, 1867. Began to reign, A.D. Hassein ... ... 1694 Mahmud ... 1 722 Ashrof 1725 Thamasp II. ... 1730 Abbas III. ... 1732 Thamasp Kouli Khan ... 1736 Adil Shah ... 1747 Shah Rokh ... 1748 Kureem Khan ... 1753 Abool-Fatteh-Khan 1779 Ali-Moorad-Khan 1781 JaffierKhan ... 1785 Aga Mahmud Khan 1 789 Feth Ali Shah ... 1798 Muhammad Shah 1834 Nasiru'd-din Sep. 4, 1834 PERTH, Scotland, founded by Agricola, A.D. 70 ; made a burgh, IIO6 ; fortified, 1300; besieged by Robert Bruce, 1311 ; a Parliament held at, 1367; in this year a great scarcity of provisions prevailed, and many persons died from starvation; visited by a plague, 1512 ; again in 1645, when 3000 persons perished. The hos- pital erected by James VI., 1569 ; the town taken by Oliver Cromwell, 1651; the Gowry conspiracy discovered, Aug. 5, 1600 ; bridge over the River Tay erected, 1771- PERU, S. America, discovered by Spaniards, 1511 ; visited by Pizarro, 1524; an expedition for conquest of, commanded by Pizarro, left Panama, Jan., 1531 ; the Inca wounded and the Indians massacred by the Spaniards, Nov. 16, EMPERORS OF: Began to reign, A.D. Began to reign, A.D. Artaxerxes I. 223 Chosroes II. 523 Sapor I. 242 Honnisdas III. ... Honnisdas I. ... 272 Chosroes III. 591 Varanes I. 272 Siroes 628 Varanes II. 276 Ardesyr 629 Varanes III. 293 Sarbarazas 629 Narses * ... 294 Tourandokht 629 Hormisdas II. ... 301 Hormisdas IV ... 632 Sapor II. ... 309 Genghis Khan ... 1218 Artaxerxes II. ... 380 Tamerlane 1395 Sapor III. ... 384 Ismael I. 1501 Varanes IV. - 389 Thamasp I. 1525 Isdigertes I. 400 Ismael II. 1575 Varanes V. 420 Mohamed 1577 Varanes VI. ... 441 Hamzeh 1585 Perozes . . . ... 457 Abbas I. 1586 Obalas ... ... 482 Sen Mirza 1628 Cabades ... 486 Abbas II. 1642 Zambades ... 498 Solyman I. 1666 650 PERUGIA PETER'S, ST 1532; Inca ransomed for .3,500,000 sterling, but subsequently garotted by Pizarro, Aug. 29, 1533, who entered the capital, Nov. 15, 1533 ; the town of Rimac founded, Jan. 6, 1535 ; Cuzco besieged by the Indians, Feb., 1536 ; Cuzco taken by Almagro, July 12, 1537 ; his forces defeated by Pizarro's, June 26, 1538 ; assassinated, June 26, 1541 ; Viceroy appointed by Spain, March 4, 1544 ; Gonzalo Pizarro defeated the Viceroy, Jan. 18, 1546 ; defeated and exe- cuted, Dec., 1547; Quito annexed to New Grenada, 1718 ; insurrection, 1780; declared independent, July 28, 1821 ; Bolivar appointed dictator, Sept. I, 1823 ; Spaniards driven out, Jan. 19, 1826 ; constitution agreed to, June 18, 1827 ; war declared against Chili, May 17, 1837 ; a new constitution promulgated, Nov., 1839 ; insurrection in, March, 1858 ; commercial treaty with Gt Britain, April 10, 1850 ; exchanged, Oct. 15 ; Pezet elected president, April 3, 1863 ; civil war in, 1865 ; a treaty agreed to with Chili in Dec.; bombarded by the Spanish fleet, under Adm. Nunez, fleet driven off, much damaged, May 2, 1866. PERUGIA, Italy. This ancient colony was besieged and taken by the Romans, under Octavius, and destroyed, B.C. 41 ; taken by Totila, A.D. 547 549 ; de- vastated by a plague, 1348, and again, 1524-25 ; united to the Papal See by Pope Julius II., 1512 ; insurrection against that power, May, 1859 ; put down by the Papal forces in June ; captured and annexed to Italy, Sept. 14, 1860. PERUKE, the first used in France and Italy, 1620 ; brought into England, 1660. PESCHIERA, Italy, seized by the French, 1796; restored to Austria, Oct. 18, 1797; besieged by the Austrians, April 26, 1799 ; surrendered, May 9, 1799 ; blockaded by the French, Dec., 1801 ; surrendered, June 16, 1801; restored by the treaty of Paris, May 30, 1814; besieged by the Sardinians, May 18, 1848, and captured, May 31 ; surrendered to the Austrians, Aug. 9; invested, 1859 ; given up to Italy, Sept., 1866. PESHAWAR, Hindustan, Governor of, and best part of his army killed by Patans, 1673 ; ceded to Runjeet Singh, June 26, 1838; captured by Sikhs, July I, 1848. PESTALOZZI, J. H., established a system of education in Switzerland, in 1775 > adopted by the State, 1798 ; he died, Feb. 17, 1827. PESTH, Hungary, occupied by the Hungarians after the siege of Vienna, 1684 ; a dreadful flood which almost destroyed the town, March, 1838 ; the Grand Theatre destroyed by fire, Feb. 2, 1 847 ; attacked successfully by the Austrians, Jan. 5, 1849; evacuated by them in April; the Town-hall erected, 1844; the Emperor Francis Joseph visited the town, June 6, 1865, and again, Jan. 30, 1866. PETARD, a species of mortar, consisting of a conical chamber, with a rim to sus- pend it against gates intended to be blown open ; said to have been first used by the Huguenots, 1580, at Cahors ; applied for breaching under some circumstances. PETER, First Epistle of, addressed to the churches of Asia Minor, circa A. D. 60 ; the Second Epistle, A.D. 66. PETER I. of Russia, born, June II, 1672; visited England, 1697; married Catherine, March 17, 1711 ; disinherited his eldest son, Feb. 14,1718; condemned him to death, June 21, 1717 ; took the title of Emperor, Oct., 1721 ; died, Jan. 28, 1725. PETER II., married the daughter of his Prime-minister, Nov. 30, 1729 ; died of the small-pox, Jan. 29, 1730. PETER III. crowned, Jan. 5, 1762, and strangled, July 16, 1762. PETER, ST, festival of, established, 813. PETER, ST, order of knighthood, instituted by Leo X. at Rome, 1520. PETER'S, ST, Church, at Rome, begun in 1514; finished, 1629. PETER-PENCE PETROPAULOVSKI 651 PETER-PENCE, originally presented by Ina, King of the West Saxons, to the pope, for the endowment of an English college there, 720 ; it was paid at the feast of St Peter, and levied on all families possessing yxt. per annum in land, yearly rent ; confirmed by Offa, 777, and afterwards claimed by the pope as an annual tribute; ordered not to be gathered and paid to Rome by Edw. III. c. 21, 1366 ; again revived, but finally suppressed by Henry VIII., 1534. PETERS, Hugh, a fanatical regicide, who for having signed the sentence of Charles I. was executed, 1660. PETER THE WILD BOY, a youth found in a state of nature in a forest of Han- over, in the reign of George I., in Nov., 1725 ; he was supposed then to be about 13 years old ; he preferred for food wild plants, leaves, and bark, to the luxuries of the royal table ' he was never known to articulate a syllable, nor vary in his savage habits, but died as he had lived, Feb. , 1 785, aged 72. PETERBOROUGH, Northamptonshire, founded, 633 ; Peada, King of Mercia, built an abbey at, dedicated to St Peter, 689 ; destroyed by fire, Aug. 3, 1116 ; rebuilt, and Queen Catherine buried in, Jan. 26, 1536 ; the monastery turned into the cathedral by Henry VIII., and made a bishop's see ; the first bishop was the last abbot of the monastery, John Chamber, 1541. The foundation of the monastery laid, 1117 ; choir finished, 1143 ; transepts, 1150 ; nave, 1177 ; west front, 1250; length 471 feet, transept 203 feet wide. PETERHEAD, Scotland, erected into a burgh, 1593 ; municipal charter granted, *593 5 the seat of the Greenland whale fishery, 1787; the south breakwater erected, 1773; the north, 1818 ; partially destroyed by a storm, 1819; com- pleted, 1822. PETERHOUSE COLLEGE, Cambridge, founded by Hugh de Balsham, Bishop of Ely, 1257; chartered, 1284. PETERLOO, Manchester. At a political meeting held 'near Peter-street, 60,000 persons being present, the soldiers attacked the crowd, five persons were killed, and 70 were wounded, Aug. 1 6, 1819. PETERSBURG, North America. Four hundred houses destroyed by fire, 1815 ; attacked by the Federals, 15,000 strong, under Gen. Baldy Smith : they at first carried the outer works, but upon attempting to carry the inner lines they were defeated with great loss, June 15, 1864 ; Gen. Grant made a general assault, but was defeated with serious loss, July 30, 1864; abandoned by the Confederate army, April 2, 1865. PETERSBURG, ST, Russia. The foundation of the fortress laid by Peter the Great, May 16, 1703 ; first brick house built, 1710 ; the Admiralty built, 1711 ; compulsory emigration to, 1717 ; the public offices removed to, 1721 ; the Winter Palace completed, 1762; the hermitage built, 1765 ; completed, 1780; made a picture gallery ; library built, 1795; reading-room added, 1862. 2000 houses de- stroyed at, by fire, Aug. 12, 1736, and 11,000 in 1780; inundated, Sept. IO, 1777, and again, to the height of 10% feet, Nov. 7, 1824; the Winter Palace destroyed by fire, 1837 ; rebuilt, 1839 ; a large magazine of stores and 100 sail of vessels burned, June, 1796 ; extensive fires at, June 10, 1862. PETERSWALSDEN, Convention of, between Great Britain and Russia, at which they planned a decisive course of action against France, July 6, 1813. PETROLEUM, several springs of, discovered in N.W. Pennsylvania and Ohio, 1859-60 ; an act passed for the safe keeping of, in England, 25 & 26 Viet. c. 66, July 29, 1862. PETROPAULOVSKI, Kamschatka. The allied fleet of France and England, 7 sail, assaulted the town unsuccessfully, Aug. 31, 1854; and again, when they 652 PEVENSEY PHILIPHAUGH were repulsed with the loss of 52 killed ; they retired on the 6th ; on the 7th they captured two vessels ; the Russian garrison of, escaped to the Amoor, April 19, 1855- PEVENSEY CASTLE, Sussex, built on a Roman fortress, which existed in 1088; escheated to the crown, 19 Hen. I., 1118; besieged unsuccessfully by King Stephen ; granted to the Earl of Pembroke by Hen. III., 1235. John Pel- ham made constable of, 1394, afterwards confirmed by Henry IV., Feb. 12, 1400 ; succeeded by his son John, 1415. PEWS. The open benches were so called in the will of William Wintringham, 1458, and in Bishop Bale's work, 1497 ; provisions respecting, and of rents made, 58 Geo. III. c. 45, s. 75, May 30, 1818 ; 59 Geo. III. c. 134, s. 6 & 26, July 13, 1819 ; 3 Geo. IV. c. 72, s. 23, July 22, 1822 ; 5 Geo. IV. c. 103, s. 18, June 24, 1824 ; I & 2 Will. IV. c. 38, s. 4 & 22, Oct. 15, 1831 ; i & 2 Viet. c. 107, s. 18, Aug. 15, 1838 ; a permanent provision being secured, pew rents may cease, 14 & 15 Viet. c. 97, s. i, Aug. 7, 1851. PEWTERERS' COMPANY, incorporated by 13 Edw. IV., Jan. 26, 1474 ; con- firmed by 20 Hen. VII., May 19, 1505 ; by 4 Hen. VIII., Jan. 4, 1513 ; by 2 & 3 Philip & Mary, Oct. 14, 1555 ; by 2 Eliz., Nov. 20, 1577, and re-incorpor- ated by i Anne, Sept. 19, 1702 ; arms granted to, 19 Edw. IV., May 20, 1479 j hall built in Lime-street. PFAFFENDORF, battle, between the Prussians and Imperialists, when the latter were defeated by the King of Prussia with great slaughter, which prevented the junction of the Russian with the Austrian, Aug. 15, 1760. PHARISEES, the most important of the Jewish sects, existed B.C. 150; they are mentioned in St Luke's Gospel as a strictly religious sect. PHARMACEUTICAL SOCIETY, founded in London, June I, 1841 ; charter granted to, Feb. 18, 1843 5 regulated by 15 & 16 Viet. c. 56, June 30, 1852 ; an act passed for regulating the qualifications of pharmaceutical chemists, 15 & 16 Viet. c. 56, June 30, 1852 ; amended, 31 & 32 Viet. c. 121, July 31, 1868. PHAROS, Egypt, celebrated for the lighthouse erected at the entrance of the port of Alexandria, from the design of Sostratus, at the command of Ptolemy. ' The upper stories had windows looking seawards, and torches of fire were kept bum- ing in them by night;' cost 800 talents, B.C. 280. PHILADELPHIA, North America. The plan of this city laid out by Penn, 1683 ; the hospital built, 1752; National Independence declared, July 4, 1776; taken by the English under Lord Cornwallis, Sept. 26, 1777 ; retired from, June 18, 1778 ; the Constitution of the United States agreed to by a convention, Sept. 17, 1787 ; the United States' Bank established, 1797 ; the theatre destroyed by fire, Dec. 28, 1799 ; the capital removed to Washington, 1800 ; a college for orphan boys founded by Stephen Gerard, Dec. 26, 1831 ; the town consolidated, 1854. PHILANTHROPIC SOCIETY, instituted in St George's Fields, 1788; incor- porated, 1806. PHILEMON, the Epistle of Paul to, written A.D. 63 or 64. PHILHARMONIC SOCIETY, established, 1813; first concert held, Mar. 8, 1813. PHILIP II., of Spain, bom at Valladolid, May 21, 1527 ; married the Princess Mary of Portugal, 1543 ; crowned King of Spain, Jan. 17, 1556; married Mary, Queen of England, June 23, 1554 ; Princess Elizabeth of France, 1559 ; refused the order of the Garter sent to him by Queen Elizabeth, 1559 ; married Anne of Austria, 1571 ; died, Sept. 13, 1598. PHILIP III. published his renunciation of the crown of France, July 8, 1712. PHILIPHAUGH, battle. The Scots under Montrose defeated at Selkirk by Les- PHILIPPIANS PHRENOLOGY 653 ley, Sept. 13, 1645 ; the prisoners were all butchered in cold blood without trial as Irish rebels. PHILIPPIANS, Epistle to the, written by St Paul from Rome to the Church of Philippi, A.D. 62 or 63. PHILIPPICS. The orations of Demosthenes delivered against Philip II., B.C. 351 and 344. Cicero delivered 14 ; he accused Marcus Antonius, B.C. 44 43. PHILIPPINE ISLANDS discovered by Magalhaens, a Spaniard, 1521 ; taken possession of by Philip II., 1565 ; colonized, 1571 ; Manilla taken by the British, Oct. 5, 1762 ; restored, 1763. PHILIPPOLIS, Turkey. This ancient town founded by Philip, the father of Alexander the Great ; 4000 persons destroyed by an earthquake, Feb., 1749 ; the town almost destroyed by another, 1818 ; visited by a terrible fire, which burnt three parts of the town, 1846. PHILIPPSBURG, Germany, taken by the Imperialists, July 9, 1676 ; the French under Prince Eugene besieged the town ; Eugene was killed by a cannon-ball whilst examining the progress of the operation in one of the trenches, June 12, 1 734 ; evacuated by the Austrians, 1 798 ; besieged by the French, May, 1 799 ; raised, and afterwards resumed, Aug. 26, 1 799 ; besieged by Napoleon and taken, I8oo ; restored to Prussia, 1802. PHILOLOGICAL SOCIETY, instituted in London for investigating the structure of ancient languages, 1842. PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY of Great Britain, or the Victoria Institute, estab- lished in London, 1866, to investigate fully and impartially the most important ques- tions of Philosophy and Science, but more especially those that bear upon the great truths revealed in Holy Scripture, with a view of defending those truths against the oppositions of science falsely so called ; inaugural address delivered by the Rev. Walter Michell, M.A., May 24, 1866. PHILPOT, JOHN, a divine of England burnt in Smithfield, Dec. 18, 1555. PHOSPHORIC BAROMETER, phenomena of, discovered, 1699. PHOSPHORUS, discovered by Brandt, 1667 ; Scheele prepared it from bones ; Kunckel, a Saxon chemist, 1670, and by Boyle, in England ; Canton's phos- phorus, so named from its discoverer, 1678 ; proto-phosphoretted hydrogen dis- covered by Sir Humphrey Davy, 1812. PHOTOGALVANOGRAPHY, invented by M. Paul Pretsch of Vienna, presented by the Society of Arts with their gold medal for his invention, June, 1856. PHOTOGLYPHIC ENGRAVINGS, discovered and patented by Mr FoxTalbot, Oct. 29, 1852. PHOTOGRAPHY, known, 1780. A considerable trade in picture-copying carried on by Mr Boulton at Soho Square, 1 781 ; Mr Wedgewood made several discoveries in the art ; Mr Fox Talbot succeeded in fixing the pictures, 1834 ; Daguerreotype invented, 1839 ; Talbotype, 1839 ; another patent granted to, Feb. 8, 1841 ; collodion process introduced, 1850. Mr R. Price of Worcester, Mass., United States, patented his invention of photographing on wood, May 5, 1856 ; the Pho- tographic Society established in London, Jan. 20, 1853. PHOTOZINCOGRAPHY. This art of transferring photographs to zinc, or stone, first brought to perfection by Col. James of Southampton, 1860. PHRENOLOGY, one of the principal sciences in which Germany has been so fer- tile, promulgated by Dr Gall, 1796 ; in England, 1815 ; Spurzheim followed the steps of Gall, and in 1812 published a work on ' Anatomy and Physiology of the Nervous System ; ' and societies have been established for the same pursuit in Eng- land. Mr Combe published some essays upon this subject, 1819. 654 PHYLACTERIES PIANOFORTE PHYLACTERIES, or FRONTLETS, strips of parchment on which were written four passages of Scripture rolled up in a case, Ex. xiii. 16 ; Matt, xxiii. 5. PHYSIC. Hypocrates is said to be the founder of this science, circa B.C. 420 ; the practice of, confined to ecclesiastics from 1206 to 1500 ; school of, established in Dublin, 1814. PHYSIC GARDEN, the first cultivated in England, by John Gerard, at London, 1567 ; one endowed at Oxford by the Earl of Danby, 1652 ; one at Chelsea begun by Sir Hans Sloane, given to the Apothecaries' Company, 1721; the botanic garden, Dublin, commenced, 1763. PHYSICIANS. Celsus is the earliest known physician, he practised in Rome, A.D. I ; Galena, native of Pergamos, succeeded him ; Paulus Agimeta was the first who wrote upon small-pox and measles, circa 640 ; Avicenna appointed physician to the court of the Caliph of Bagdad, 980 ; physicians to be examined and approved by the Bishop of London, or Dean of St Paul's, 3 Hen. VIII. c. 1 1, 1511-12 ; their number limited to 12 in the city of London, and excused from certain civil duties, 5 Hen. VIII. c. 6, 1513-14; discharged from serving certain offices, 32 Hen. VIII. c. 40, 1540 ; the right to practise physic extended to the graduates of Oxford and Cambridge and London, by 17 & 18 Viet. c. 114, Aug. n, 1854; new charter granted to, 21 & 22 Viet. c. 90, Aug. 2, 1858; and amended, 23 & 24 Viet. c. 66, Aug. 6, 1890. PHYSICIANS, College of, projected in London by Dr Linacre, who obtained a patent, constituting it a corporate body of regular physicians, Oct. 23, 1518, he being the first president ; Dr Harvey elected president, 1654, but refused to serve ; built them a library and public hall, bequeathed his books and instruments to ; their college at Amen Corner burnt down in the fire of 1666 ; the college in Warwick-lane, built by Sir Christopher Wren, and opened in 1689 ; new college erected, from the designs of Sir R. Smirke, R. A. , in Trafalgar-square, and opened, June 25, 1825. PHYSICIANS, Society of, instituted in London, 1763. PHYSICIANS, Dublin, College of, founded by Charles I., 1626; rcincorporated, 1692 ; Royal College of Physicians, Edinburgh, Nov. 29, 1681. PHYSIOGNOMY, the discovery of the mental passions by the natural form and expression of the features of the face, in 1776; Lavater, of Zurich, carried re- searches on the subject the farthest, for the idea was not new. PIACENZA, Italy, became a Roman colony, B.C. 219 ; plundered by the Gauls, A.D. 200 ; the cathedral founded, 324; rebuilt, 1104 ; the campanile begun, 1333 ; the citadel erected, 1395 ; the town ceded to Leo X., 1515 ; given by Paul III. to his son Farnese, 1545 ; the Austrians defeated the French and Spaniards, June 16, 1746 ; invaded by Napoleon, 17965 ceded to Austria, 1812 ; annexed to the kingdom of Italy, 1863. PIANOFORTE. One made by Tschudi, 1765 ; first used on the stage of Covent Garden Theatre, 1767 ; this is the earliest public notice of this instrument known: ' On Saturday next, being the i6th of May, 1767, the Beggars' Opera, &c.; end of Act I., Miss Brickler will sing a favourite song from Judith, accompanied by Mr Dibdin on a new instrument, called Piano-Forte. ' Invented by Christofali of Venice, 1711 ; another by a Frenchman, Marius, Feb., 1716 ; Schroeter, a German, made a model of one, 1717 ; Silberman of Saxony constructed two pianofortes, and sub- mitted them to Sebastian Bach, who praised them very much, circa 1736 ; M. Zumpe established a manufactory, in England, 1 760 ; Gluck used one made by John Pohlman, 1772 ; Broad wood patented his grand pianoforte, July 18, 1783 ; Stodart patented his improvements upon, Nov. 21, 1777 ; the grasshopper action invented by John Gieb, 1 786 ; additional keys from F to C suggested by Francis PICCADILLY PILGRIMAGES 655 Panormo, circa 1700 ; Robert Wornum improved the upright or cottage piano, 1811 ; Collard's patent for his improved instrument, 1811 ; Erard established a manufactory at Strasbourg, 1797 ; patenteed his repetition action, 1821. PICCADILLY, St James's, first mentioned by Gerald in his Herbal, 1596 ; first paved, 1721; Half-Moon-street built, 1730; Berkeley-street built, 1642; Clarendon House erected by Lord Chancellor Clarendon, 1664 ; Bond-street, 1686 ; Arlington-street, 1689. PICHEGRU, GENERAL, conspiracy of, against Bonaparte, detected ; arrested with Georges and Moreau, Feb. 4, 1797, and confined in the Temple ; escaped, but again taken, Feb. 17, 1804 ; he strangled himself, April 5-6, 1804, aged 43. PICKERING CASTLE, Yorkshire, built, circa 1280 ; Elizabeth imprisoned in, during the reign of Queen Mary, 1553-58. PICKETT, WILLIAM, revived the art of painting on glass, died Oct. 14, 1795. PICQUIGNY, Amiens, treaty of, between Edward IV. of England and Louis XL of France, Aug. 29, 1475. PICQUET, the first known game on cards, invented circa 1390. PICTS, first mentioned in history the Scots being the mountaineers, and the Picts the lowlanders, supposed to have been a German colony ; defeated by the Romans, A.D. 47 ; penetrated as far as London, but were defeated by Theodosius, 318 ; they were subdued by the Scotch, under Kenneth, who extended the terri- tory of Scotland nearly as far as Newcastle, 842. PICTS' WALL, the first from the Forth to the Clyde, built by Agricola, A.D. 85 ; in Northumberland, from the town of Newcastle to Carlisle, in Cumberland, for 74 miles, 8 feet thick and 12 high, erected by Adrian, to defend the south from the incursions of the northern barbarians, 121 ; that of the Emperor Severus, from the mouth of the Tyne to Bowness, on the Solway Frith, 209. PIEDMONT, Italy, established by Peter, Count of Savoy, 1220 ; Ivrea ceded to, 1248 ; and Ceva, 1313 ; and Nice, 1388 ; the lordship of Vercelli ceded, 1427 ; the duchy of Montferrat, 1630; Arona by the treaty of Worms, 1743; confirmed by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, 1748 ; occupied by the French, 1813 ; made a monarchy, 1848 ; made a part of the kingdom of Italy, Sept. 9, 1 860. PIE-POUDRE COURT, or Dusty-Footed Court, a tribunalfor doing justice between buyers and sellers, at fairs and markets, a Saxon institution ; by the 1 7 of Edw. IV. c. 2, 1477, and I Rich. III. c. 6, 1483, the contract to be made in fair time. The justice of, was called the justice of the pavilion, 1476. One of these courts was held at Bartholomew fair from time immemorial ; it was subsequently held at the Hands and Shears in Cloth Fair ; the officers of the court were the two sergeants at mace for the Lord Mayor, two for the Poultry, and two for the Gtltspur-street Compters, and a constable was appointed by the steward of Lord Kensington ; the last court held, Tuesday, Sept. 6, 1853 ; the court book pre- served in the Guildhall library commences Sept. 3, 1790 ; the last entry is Sept. 2, 1850 : 'The Lord Mayor not having proclaimed Bartholomew fair, the Court of Pie-Powder consequently was not held. George Martin, Steward." PIKE. This weapon was known in Scotland as early as 1 165 ; the price of one was fixed at 4s. f>d., 1631. PILGRIMAGE OF GRACE, an English insurrection in Yorkshire, so denomin- ated, headed by Robert Aske of Doncaster, Edward Lee, Archbishop of York, Lord Darcy, Latimer, Scroop, Sir Thomas Percy, and 40,000 followers, against Henry VIII. ; they were subdued by the Duke of Norfolk, when a great number suffered death, 1536-7. PILGRIMAGES began in the middle ages of religious superstition, but were most 656 PILGRIM FATHERS PINS in repute about the year 1 100 kings, nobles, and common people performed the most painful journeys ; some to Rome, others to more distant shrines, even to Palestine. The foundation of hospitals was owing to their necessities, about the year 840 ; licences were issued to vessels to take the pilgrims abroad, 1428 ; regu- lations made for, by 9 Edw. III. st. 2, c. 8, 1335 ; 12 Rich. II. c. 7, 1388, and 13 Rich. II. st. I, c. 20, 1390. PILGRIM FATHERS left Delft Haven in the ' Speedwell ' and arrived at South- ampton ; this vessel proving unseaworthy, they embarked in the ' Mayflower,' Sept. 6, 1520, and landed at Plymouth, Massachusetts, Dec. 20, 1620. PILGRIMS. The number of pilgrims who visited Rome in 1750, when a jubilee was proclaimed, was, at the opening of the Holy Gate, 1300 and in the week which followed Christmas, 8400. In 1850, only 36 pilgrims attended the opening of the Holy Gate, and but 440 arrived during the ensuing week. PILLORY. This mode of punishment instituted for the punishment of bakers, butchers, forestallers, and others, who gave short weight ; also for perjury and forgery, 51 Hen. III. s. 6, 1266. Alex. Leighton, a divine, pilloried and his ear cut off and his lips slit, for printing 'Zion's plea against Prelacy,' 1638 ; Lilburn, for seditious works, April 18, 1638; Titus Gates nearly pelted to death while stand- ing in one he was sentenced to stand every year of his life in the pillory on five different days, 1685 ; Daniel Defoe pilloried for three days, July 29 31, 1703 ; abolished in all cases except perjury and subornation, 56 Geo. III. c. 138, July 2, 1816 ; the punishment of, totally abolished in England by 7 Will. IV. and I Viet. c. 23, June 30, 1837, and in France, 1832. PILNITZ, near Dresden. A conference took place here between the Emperor Leopold and the King of Prussia, at which it was agreed to seize and reappro- priate the territories acquired by Louis XIV. of France, in the Netherlands and Bavaria, Aug., 1791. PILOTS, a society for the training of, founded at Deptford, 1514 ; now regulated by the Merchant Shipping Act, 17 & 18 Viet. c. 104, Aug. 10, 1854. PIMLICO, Middlesex. Buckingham House erected, 1703, on the site of the Mulberry Gardens ; purchased for the Queen by a parliamentary grant of ,21,000, 1761; made an ecclesiastical district, July, 1830; St Peter's church begun, Sept., 1824; opened, 1827; the rail way bridge cost ^90,000 ; opened, 1859-60. An act to make improvements in, and in the neighbourhood of Buckingham Palace, 15 & 16 Viet. c. 78, June 30, 1852 ; amended by the 16 & 17 Viet. c. 44, Aug. 4, 1853 ; and again, by 20 & 21 Viet. c. 17, Aug. 25, 1857. PINES, these trees were introduced into England at different periods ; the stone and cluster pine, and other sorts, it is uncertain when, but the Weymouth pine was introduced from North America, 1705 ; the frankincense pine, before 1713. PINGO, BENJAMIN, the York Herald, crushed to death at the Haymarket theatre, Feb. 3, 1794. PINKIE, near Musselburgh, battle, between the English, commanded by the Pro- tector Somerset, and the Scotch, when thelatter were defeated with the loss of 10,000 men and 1200 prisoners, while the victors did not lose 200, Sept. 10, 1547. PIN-MAKERS' COMPANY, London, incorporated by 1 1 Car. I., Aug. 20, 1636. PINS first used in England, and mentioned in our statutes as articles of foreign commerce, 1483 ; made of brass wire brought from France, 1540 ; they were previously made of bone. An act of parliament passed for the true making of, 34 & 35 Hen. VIII. c. 6, 1542-3 ; repealed, 37 Hen. VIII. c. 13, 1545 ; machinery patented for making, by Mr Wright, an American, 1 824. PIPES PIX 657 PIPES of lead for water conveyance, and by tiie Romans, first cast by the Rev. Robert Brook, 1539. PIPPINS first planted in Lincolnshire, 1525. PIRATES. In the reign of Elizabeth the English seas were infested with them. William Holdstock, comptroller of the navy, sent against them and captured 20 ships with 9000 men. The English and Irish coast infested by them, 1634 ; an act passed for the suppression of, 27 Hen. VIII. c. 4, 1535 ; and 28 Hen. VIII. c. 15, 1536 ; an act passed for the suppression of, 8 Geo. I. c. 24, 1721 ; another passed for encouraging the capture of piratical vessels by giving a bounty on the number of pirates taken or killed, 6 Geo. IV. c. 49, June 22, 1825 ; fitting re- wards provided for services against, 13 & 14 Viet. c. 26, June 25, 1850. PIRMASENS, battle. The French defeated by the Prussians with a loss of 4000 men and 22 pieces of cannon, Sept. 14, 1793. PIRN A, Germany. The fortress stormed by the Swedes, 1639 ; captured by the Prussians, 1758; fortified by Napoleon, 1813 ; taken by the allied Russians and Prussians, 1813. PISA, Italy. A Roman colony founded here, B.C. 180 ; afterwards held by the Goths and Franks ; the cathedral founded, A.D. 1067; consecrated, 1118 ; injured by fire, 1 596; the famous leaning tower is at the end of this cathedral, 1 79 feet high, and overhangs its base more than 13 feet,begun, Aug., 1174 ; republic of, founded, 1403; the harbour destroyed, 1290 ; Sardinia seceded from, 1326; the university founded in the I4th century; made a republic, 1403; captured by Florence, 1406 ; the town captured again, June 8, 1509, and united to Florence ; taken by the French, 1799 ; annexed to the kingdom of Sardinia, March 12, 1860. PISTOLS, invented by Camillo Vitelli at Pistoria in the reign of Henry VIII. ; wheel-locks used, 1510 ; used at the battle of Ivry, 1590; Henry II. of France passed an ordinance respecting the use of, 1549 ; flint-locks used, 1560 ; tricker- lock invented, 1629. PITCAIRN'S ISLAND, in the Pacific, discovered by Capt. Carteret, 1767; in- habited by the descendants of the mutineers of the Bounty, Capt. Bligh, 1 790, unknown until 1814; emigrated to Otaheite for want of water, March, 1831, but, disgusted with the Otaheitan manners, returned again, 1832 ; left for Norfolk Island, where they arrived, June 8, 1856. PITCH AND TAR first made from pit coal, at Bristol, 1774. PITTSBURG, N. America. The French erected a fort here, 1754 ; captured by the English, under Gen. Forbes, Nov. 25, 1758 ; besieged by the Indians, 1765; the town founded, Dec., 1765 ; incorporated, 1806; chartered as a city, 1816 ; the canal opened, 1829 ; more than noo houses and ,140,000 worth of property destroyed by fire, 1845 ; Gen. Johnston attacked the Federals, 40,000 strong, under Gen. Grant ; the Confederates were defeated, Gen. Johnston being killed, April 6, 1862 ; the battle was renewed the next day when the Confederates retired. PITT'S MINISTRY, the first formed, Dec. 18, 1783 ; dissolved, Feb. 16, 1801 ; the second formed, May 12, 1804 ; Pitt died, Jan. 23, 1806. PITT'S STRAITS, in the East Indies, discovered, April 30, 1760. PIUS, order of knighthood, instituted at Rome, June 17, 1847. PIX, the box that contains the Host, as ordered by the Lateran Council, 1215. PIX, the trial or assay of. This generally takes place at Westminster upon the is- sue of a new coinage ; the wardens of the goldsmiths select a jury of freemen of their company with their assay master ; they are presided over by the Lord Chancellor ; this custom was known previous to 1281. 42 658 PLAGUE PLAGUE. Numerous visitations of that scourge occur before the Christian era. At Rome, 10,000 persons perished, A.D. 78 ; again ravaged the Roman Empire, A. D. 167 ; and from the year 250 to 265, 500 persons died in one day at Rome. In Britain a plague raged so formidably, and swept away such multitudes, that the living were scarcely sufficient to bury the dead, A.D. 430 ; one began in Europe, extended all over Asia, Africa, and Constantinople, when 200,000 of its inhabit- ants perished ; it lasted for 52 years, from 542 to 594. At Chichester, in England, an epidemical disease carried off many persons, 762. In Scotland, 40,000 persons perished of a pestilence, A.D. 940. In London, a great mortality, 1094 ; and in Ireland, 1095. Again in London : it extended to cattle, fowls, and other do- mestic animals, mi. In Ireland, after Christmas, Henry II. was forced to quit the country, 1172 ; again in Ireland, when a prodigious number perished, 1204. A general plague raged throughout Europe, causing great mortality ; in London alone,2OO persons were buried daily in the Charterhouse Square, 1235. In England, 1247 and 1347, when 50,000 died in London, 1500 in Leicester. In Germany, 90,000 people died, 1348. In Paris and London, a fearful mortality prevailed, 1361-2, and from May 3 to Sept. 29, 1349 ; and in Ireland, 1370; a great pesti- lence in Ireland, called the fourth, destroyed a great number of people, 1383 ; 30,000 persons perished of a dreadful pestilence in London, 1407; again in Ire- land, caused by famine, great numbers died, 1466 ; Dublin was wasted by a plague, 1470 ; a pestilence at Oxford, 1471 ; and throughout England, which destroyed more people than the continual wars for the 15 preceding years, 1478. The sweating sickness destroyed great numbers in London, Aug., 1485 ; the plague at London so dreadful, that Henry VII. and his court removed to Calais, 1500. Again, the sweating sickness : in most of the capital towns in England half the inhabitants died, and Oxford was depopulated, 9 Henry VIII. ; 22O people died in Westminster in one day, 1517- Limerick was visited by a plague, when many thousands perished, 1522 ; a pestilence throughout Ireland, 1525; and the English sweat, 1528; in 1529 its ravages were confined to the Netherlands and Germany, breaking up the Conference between Luther and Zwingle. London again visited by the sweating plague, 1551, and in 1563, 22,000 died. Broke out in Edinburgh, 1513, the year before the battle of Flodden field ; disappeared until 1645; all business and intercourse suspended, from April to Dec.; of 5000 inhabit- ants in Leith 3000 perished ; a great famine followed. At Stirling the magistrates, the executioner, and all the town council died. Pestilence in London, 1582 - *5%7- 3O>578 persons perished of the plague in London alone, 1603, 1604 ; an act passed for the relief of persons infected, I Jac. I. c. 31, 1603 : 20,000 perished of a pestilence at Constantinople, 1611 ; in London a great mortality prevailed, and 35,41 7 persons perished, 1625 ; memorable. plague, which carried off 68, 596 persons in London, 1665 ; 60,000 persons perished of the plague at Marseilles and neighbourhood, 1720 ; at Messina, Feb., 1743 ; at Algiers, 1755 ; Bohemia lost half its inhabitants, and it extended to Russia, where 20,000 died, 1770 ; at Moscow 120,000 died, 1772 ; at Bassorah, in Persia, when 80,000 persons perished, 1773; at Smyrna, about 20,000 inhabitants died, 1784; and 32,000 at Tunis, 1784; 1000 in the Levant, 1786 ; the yellow fever destroyed 2000 at Philadelphia, 1793 ; on the coast of Africa, particularly at Barbary, 3000 died daily. One of the most terrible plagues that ever raged prevailed in Syria, 1760. In Egypt more than 800,000 persons died of plague, 1792 ; in Barbary, 3000 died daily; and at Fez 247,000 perished, 1799; in Spain and at Gibraltar immense numbers were carried off by a pestilent disease, 1804-5; at Arta, 1817, two-thirds of the population taken off after 48 hours' illness. At Malta it committed great ravages, 1813 ; in Lesser Asia, Syria, and the adjacent islands, by which Smyrna is computed to have lost 30,000 persons, 1814 ; in Naples, 1816 ; again, at Gibraltar, an epidemic fever much resembling the plague caused great mortality, 1828 ; depopulated parts of Russia, Poland, and Hun- PLAGUE PLANETS 659 gary, 1831 ; the Asiatic cholera made its first appearance in England, at Sunder- land, Oct. 26, 1831 ; in Scotland, at Haddington, Dec. 23, in the same year; and in Ireland, at Belfast, March 14, 1832 ; in Scotland 150,000 died, 1847 ; again visited England, 1848-9. PLAGUE in London ; the mortality from this disease most fatal the last year of its appearance, Sept., 1665, when 7165 died in one week ; I person died, Feb. 14 ; 2, April 25 ; 9, May 9 ; 3, May 16 ; 14, May 23 ; and so it increased up to Sept. 17, when 8297 died, of which number 7165 died of the plague ; these fell to 281 in the week of Dec. 19, of all diseases, including these cases, 525. The great plague years of London gave for deaths of plague, besides other diseases, 1592, 11,503 of plague ; 1603, 30,561 ; 1625, 35,403; 1630, 1319; 1636, 10,400 ; 1664-5, 68,596. In 1625 the total deaths were 54,256 ; of plague, 35,403, includ- ing within and without the walls in the liberties in Middlesex and Surrey, the 9 out-.parishes and the post-house ; 121 parishes were infected, and one was clear. Two or three persons were reported annually to die of it for nearly fourscore years previous to its extinction, the year of the great fire, 1666. PLAINS OF ABRAHAM, battle, Canada, between the French, under the Mar- quis of Montcalm, and General Wolfe, Sept. 13, 1759 ; both the commanders fell, and have monuments on the field where they died. PLANETS, the inferior planetary orb of the earth's system, or rather of the sun's ; the primary planets are Mercury, Venus, the Earth, Mars, Jupiter, known 2000 years B.C.; Saturn, Uranus, discovered 1781, and Neptune. The space between Mars and Jupiter being void, while all the distances between the other planets were proportional, it was imagined that one was not yet observed ; it was found that there were ten or twelve fragments of a planet moving in the vacant space at the point where the planet should be that was missing, some being only 400 miles in diameter ; these are named Ceres, Juno, Vesta, Pallas ; the satellites of Jupi- ter were discovered by Galileo, 1610, of Uranus by Herschel, of Saturn by Huy- gens and Herschel PLANETS, list of the, with the name of the discoverer and time of discovery. Pknet. Aglaia Amphitrite Alexandra Ariadne Asia Astrsea Atalanta Bellona ... Calliope ... Calypso . . . Ceres Circe Clio Concordia Daphne ... Diana Doris Egeria Eugenia ... Eunomia . . . Euphrosyne Europa . . . By whom discovered. Place of discovery. Date of discovery. Luther Bilk Sept. 15, 1857 Marth London ... March I, 1854 Goldschmidt Paris Sept. 10, 1858 Pogson ... Oxford April 15, 1857 Pogson ... Oxford April 18, 1861 Hencke ... Driesen ... Dec. 8, 1845 Goldschmidt Paris Oct. 5, 1855 Luther Bilk March I, 1854 Hind London ... Nov. 16, 1852 Luther ... Bilk April 4, 1858 Piazzi Palerno Jan. I, 1801 Chacornac Paris April 6, 1855 Luther Bilk Aug. 15, 1865 Luther Bilk March 24, 1860 Goldschmidt Paris May 22, 1856 Luther ... Bilk March 15, 1863 Goldschmidt Paris Sept. 19, 1857 De Gasparis Naples ... Nov. 2, 1850 Goldschmidt Paris June 28, 1857 De Gasparis Naples ... July 29, 1851 Ferguson Washington Sept. I, 1854 Goldschmidt Paris Feb. 6, 1858 66o PLANTAGENET PLASSY Euterpe ... Fides Flora Fortuna ... Harmonia Hebe ... Hestia Hygeia . . . Irene Iris Isis Juno Leda Letitia ... Leto Leucothea Lutetia . . . Massilia ... Metis Melpomene Nemansa Niobe Nysa Olympia . . , Pales Pallas ... Pandora Parthenope Phocea . . . Polyhymnia Pomona ... Prosperine Sappho . . . Thalia . . . Themis ... Thetis Titania ... Urania Vesta Victoria . . . Virginia . . . Hind Luther . . . Hind Hind Goldschmidt Hencke ... Pogson . . . De Gasparis Hind Hind Pogson . . . Harding ... Chacornac Chacornac Luther Luther . . . Goldschmidt De Gasparis Graham . . . Hind Laurent . . . Luther . . . Goldschmidt Chacornac Goldschmidt Olbers ... Searle De Gasparis Chacornac Chacornac Goldschmidt Luther . . . Pogson . . . Hind De Gasparis Luther . . . Ferguson Hind Olbers ... Hind Ferguson London . . . Bilk London . . . London . . . Paris Driesen . . . Oxford ... Naples . . . London . . . London . . . Oxford ... Lilienthal Paris Paris Bilk Bilk Paris . . Naples Markree ... London Marseilles Bilk Paris Paris Paris Bremen . . . Naples . . . Marseilles Paris Paris Bilk Oxford ... London ... Naples Bilk Washington London . . . Bremen . . . London . . . Washington Nov. 8, 1853 Oct. 5, 1855 Oct. 1 8, 1847 Aug. 22, 1852 March 31, 1856 July I, 1847 Aug. 1 6, 1857 April 12, 1849 May 19, 1851 Aug. 13, 1847 May 23, 1856 Sept. I, 1804 Jan. 12, 1856 Feb. 8, 1856 April 18, 1861 April 19, 1855 Nov. 15, 1852 Sept. 19, 1852 April 25, 1848 June 24, 1852 Jan. 22, 1858 Aug. 13, 1 86 1 May 27, 1857 Sept. 13, 1860 Sept. 19, 1857 March 28, 1862 Sept. 10, 1858 May u, 1850 April 6, 1853 Oct. 28, 1854 Oct. 26, 1854 May 5, 1853 May 2, 1864 Dec. 15, 1852 April 5, 1853 April 17, 1852 Sept. 14, 1860 July 22, 1854 March 28, 1802 Sept. 13, 1850 Oct. 4, 1857 PLANTAGENET kings of England, fourteen in number, from Henry II., 1154, to Richard III. , 1485 ; the name was derived from Planta Genista the Spanish broom plant, a sprig of which was commonly worn by Geoffrey, Henry's father, in his hat. PLASTER OF PARIS, properly gypsum, Andrew Verocchio invented the method of taking a mask with, 1470. PLASTERERS' COMPANY, incorporated, 16 Hen. VII., March 10, 1501 ; their hall built in Addle-street, 1667. PLASSY, battle, between the English under Lieutenant-Colonel Clive, and the natives under Surajah Dowlah, June 23, I757> the English, with only 100 Eu- ropeans, and 2000 Sepoys, with 10 field-pieces, vanquished the Surajah at the head of 50,000 men, and 40 pieces of artillery, and thus laid the foundation of the Indian empire ; the Surajah lost all his artillery and baggage. PLATA PLEBEIANS 66 1 PLATA, LA, South America, discovered by Juan Bias de Solis, 1516; Cabot visited it, 1526; Buenos Ayres founded, 1535, was subsequently burnt by the Indians; rebuilt, 1542; made a vice-royalty, 1778; captured by the English under Sir Home Popham, June 26, 1806 ; retaken by Spain, Aug. 12 ; Monte Video stormed by the British, Feb., 1807 ; convention between the Government and England, and the troops withdrawn, May, 1807 ; Republic established, May 25, 1810 ; declared independent, 1816 ; recognized by England, 1824; in- surrection in, 1842; a treaty of peace agreed to, Jan., 1855. PLAT^EA, Greece, founded by the Thebans. Allied with Athens, B.C. 519; captured and burnt by the Persians, 480. The Athenians under Pausanias defeated the Persians under Mardonius with a loss of 200,000 men, and all their camp equip- ages, 479 ; town rebuilt, 431 ; besieged by the Peloponnesian army, under Archi- damus, which 500 Athenians kept at bay for 2 years, when they surrendered, and were murdered in cold blood, 427. The Plataeans recovered the city, but were again driven out, 372 ; restored by Philip, 338. PLATE and PLATING. The privilege of assaying gold and silver plate con- ferred upon the Goldsmiths' Company, by 28 Edw. I., 1300 ; confirmed by Par- liament, 1379 ; the use of, prohibited at inns, with the exception of spoons, by 8 Will. III., 1696 ; no silver plate to be made of less fineness than n oz. 10 dwts. of fine silver in every pound troy, 8 & 9 Will. III. c. 7, 1697 ; Plate Act passed, 29 Geo. II. c. 14, April 15, 1756 ; an additional duty of Ss. per ounce on gold, and 6d. on silver-plate, fixed by 25 Geo. III., c. 64, July 20, 1785 ; the laws for marking, amended, 7 & 8 Viet. c. 22, July 4, 1844 ; of assaying, amended, 17 & 18 Viet. c. 96, Aug. 10, 1854, and the 18 & 19 Viet. c. 60, July 23, 1855. Plating early used on tombs ; a contract for gilding with gold the Latone sta- tues upon the tombof Richard Beauchamp, Earl of Warwick, signed, June 13,1453. PLATE GLASS manufactory established in Lancashire, 1773 ; first made in France, 1688. PLATINA, first described by Mr Wood, 1750. PLATOMETER for reading figures, invented by John Long, Dec. 24, 1851. PLATONIC YEAR, that which the equinoxes occupy to complete their revolu- tions, at the end of which time the stars and constellations will have the same place in regard to the equinoxes as they had at first; it would require 25,816 years of the common time to complete this precession ; some making it a century more, some the same term less. PLATTSBURGH, North America. The expedition undertaken by Sir George Prevost against that town on Lake Champlain, was abandoned in consequence of the defeat of the British naval force, Sept. li, 1814. PLAY-GROUNDS, village greens to be protected, 15 & 16 Viet. c. 79, June 30, 1852; grants of land for adults and children, 22 Viet. c. 27, April 19, 1859; power to levy rates for the purchase and maintenance of, 23 & 24 Viet. c. 30, July 3, 1860. PLAYS first performed in England, 1378; those by the clergy or clerks, 1390; suppressed by parliament, 1647 ; permitted again, 1659 ; subjected to a censorship, 1737, called 'the Playhouse Bill.' PLEADINGS in the law courts introduced, 786 r changed from the Saxon into French, 1066 ; into English, 1327 ; Cromwell ordered all law proceedings to be in English, 1650 ; Latin was used in deeds of conveyance until 1731. PLEBEIANS, the commonalty of Rome, divided by Servius Tullius into 26 tribes; they gained many advantages, B.C. 494; reconciled with the Patricians, 286. 662 PLELIRES POET LAUREATE PLEURES, Switzerland, destroyed by the falling of the part of a mountain upon it, when 2000 persons perished, Aug. 22, 1618. PLUM, a native fruit of England; other and better kinds introduced about 1522 ; the date-plum brought from Barbary in the i6th century. PLUMBERS' COMPANY, incorporated by 9 James I., April 12, 1611. PLURAL PRONOUN ' we,' as used by the kings of England, first adopted by John, 1179. PLYMOUTH, Devonshire. The French attempted to burn the town, but were re- pulsed after burning 300 houses, 1339; again attempted, 1377 ; incorporated by Henry VI., 1439; fortified, 1512 ; besieged by the Royalists for three months unsuccessfully, 1647 ; the Royal Naval Hospital founded, 1762 ; fortified by order of Parliament, 1786; the Channel Fleet mutinied, Sept., 1797; the Dockyard built, 1728-1762 ; the Victualling Office burned, July 22, 1779 ; the Breakwater, first stone of, laid, Aug. 12, 1812; completed, 1840; the Town-hall built, 1822; arrival of Napoleon in the ' Bellerophon ' at, Aug., 1815; the Royal Hotel and Theatre built, 1818 ; the Athenreum, 1819 ; the Royal William Victualling Yard, designed by Rennie, finished, 1835, cost ji, 100,000 ; the Lighthouse began, 1841 ; finished, 1844 ; the Roman Catholic Cathedral fell down, June 3, 1857 ; the 72-gun ship, 'Talavera,' and the 28-gun frigate, 'Imogene,' destroyed by fire in the dockyard; the hotel assembly rooms and theatre destroyed by fire, Jan. 6, 1863 ; the town visited by the Prince and Princess of Wales, July 18, 1865. PLYMOUTH, North Carolina. The Pilgrim Fathers arrived, in the 'Mayflower,' Dec. 15, 1620, and landed, Dec. 20; the town captured by the Confederates, under Gen. Hoke, with 2500 prisoners, April 17, 1865. PLYMOUTH BRETHREN, first appeared in the town of Plymouth, circa 1830, under their leader, John Darby ; they had 130 places of worship in 1850. PLYMPTON PRIORY, Devonshire, founded by William Warwas, bishop of Exeter, 1121. PNEUMATIC DESPATCH COMPANY, formed under 22 & 23 Viet. c. cxxxvii , Aug. 13, 1859 ; the first line of tubes from Euston Station to Eversholt Street, opened for the transmission of letters and parcels, Feb. 2O, 1863 ; from Eversholt Street to Holborn, Nov. 7, 1865. POACHING. Several measures passed by the legislature, punishing all persons for night poaching, and fixing the term of imprisonment, 9 Geo. IV. c. 69, July 19, 1828 ; 7 & 8 Viet. c. 29, July 4, 1844; penal service substituted for transporta- tion, 16 & 17 Viet. c. 99, Aug. 20, 1853 ; 20 & 21 Viet. c. 3, June 26, 1857. An act passed for the prevention of, 25 & 26 Viet. c. 114, Aug. 7, 1862. PODOLL, battle. The Austrians defeated by the Prussians, under Gen. Home, June 26, 1866. POET LAUREATE, the first, 1251, temp. Henry I.; Chaucer appointed, 1389 ; James I. granted to the laureate, 1615, a hundred marks as a pension ; augmented by Charles I. to 100, with a tierce of canary wine out of the royal cellar annu- ally. Gibber, Colley ... ' ... 1730 1757 Southey, Robert ... 18131843 Davenant, Sir W. Dec. 13, 1638 1668 Spencer, Edmund ... 1591 1599 Dryden, John Aug. 18, 1670 1689 Tate, Nahum Dec. 24, 1692 1714 Eusden, Nicholas Dec., 1718 1730 Tennyson, Alfred ... 1850 Jonson, Ben ... ... 1630 1637 Warton, The Rev. Thos. 1785 1790 Pye, Henry James ... 1790 1813 Whitehead, William 1757 1785 Rowe, Nicholas ... 1716 1718 Wordsworth. William 1843 1850 Shad well, Thomas ... 1689 1692 POITIERS POLAND 663 POITIERS, France, an ancient Roman town ; Clovis defeated the Visigoths, and slew their king Alaric, 507 ; Charles Mattel defeated the Saracens, 732 ; the cathedral founded by Hen. II. of England, on his marriage with Eleanor of Guienne, 1153 ; the town captured by Philip II., 1204 ; retaken by the English, 1360, who held it for 12 years. POITIERS, battles. Edward the Black Prince defeated John, King of France, who commanded a force of 60,000 of the chivalry of France, 10,000 fell in the battle, and about the same number were made prisoners with the king, Sept. 19, 1356 ; the king was brought to England as a prisoner, and resided at the Savoy Palace, May 24, 1357; liberated, July 8, 1360; returned, Jan., 1362; died, April 8, 1364. POITOU, France. The Vendean revolt begun, 1791 ; the peasants massacred at, 1793- POLAND, anciently the country of the Vandals, made a duchy, 694 ; Piastus, a peasant, elected to the ducal dignity, 830 ; he lived to 120, and his reign was so prosperous, that every succeeding native sovereign was called a Piast. Christianity introduced, 965 ; the Russians under Jarislas invaded Poland, 1018 ; Red Russia added to Poland, 1059 ; Boleslas II., in his reign the bishop of Cracow was mur- dered, for which the kingdom was laid under an interdict by the pope, 1081 ; Uladislas 1. deposed, 1102 ; war renewed with Russia, 1153 ; Premislas assassin- ated, 1296 ; the University of Cracow founded, 1362 ; Louis of Hungary came to the throne, 1370 ; war upon the Teutonic knights proclaimed, 1447 ; the Wal- lachians carried off by fraud 100,000 Poles, and sold them to the Turks as slaves, 1498 ; reign of Sigismund II., 1548; Stephen raised a force called Cossacks, a race of semi-barbarians, he gave them in trust the Ukraine, 1575 ; Courland ceded to, by Russia, 1582 ; peace concluded with Sweden, 1660 ; abdication of John Casimir, 1669 ; 150,000 Turks, under Mahomet IV., take Podolia, but were defeated by Sobieski, 1672 ; he again defeats them, 1674 and 1685 ; Sobieski elected king, 1674; massacre of the Protestants at Thorn, 1724; Stanislaus crowned, 1763 ; the punishment by torture abolished, 1770-2 ; 250,000 people destroyed by a severe pestilence, 177 > the frequent civil wars made the country fall an easy prey to the royal robbers, Catherine of Russia, Joseph II. of Austria, and Frederick the Great of Prussia, and the first partition treaty signed, Feb. 1 7, 1772 ; the public partition treaty agreed to, Aug. 5, 1772 ; a new constitution adopted by Stanislaus I., May 3, 1791 ; war with Russia begun, June 10, 1791 ; the Russians defeated at Zaslow, June 1 7 ; the second partition of, 1 793 ; insurrection, under Kosciusko, proclaimed at Cracow, March 3, 1794 ; defeated the Russians, April 4 ; Warsaw declared independent, April 1 7 ; besieged by the Russian and Prussian armies, July and Aug. ; siege raised ; Kosciusko, wounded and taken, was carried prisoner to Russia, Oct. 10, 1794 ; battle of Warsaw, 30,000 Poles killed, Oct. 12 ; defeated by Suwarroff, who entered Warsaw, Nov. 6 ; Courland added to Russia, 1795 ; King Stanislaus formally resigned his crown final parti- tion of Poland, Nov. 25, 1795 ; Kosciusko liberated, Dec. 25, 1796 ; arrived in London, May 30, 1797 ; Stanislaus, ex -king of Poland, died at St Petersburg, Feb. II, 1798 ; treaty or peace of Tilsit, July 7, 1807 ; the Austrians invaded the country, April 15, 1809 ; occupied Warsaw, April 23 ; defeated at Thorn, May 14 ; Warsaw evacuated, June I ; duchy of Warsaw formed, and general diet held at Warsaw, July, 1812 ; the new kingdom of, formed, and the Emperor Alex- ander I. proclaimed at Warsaw, June 20, 1815 ; new constitution granted, Nov. 27, 1815 ; Cracow declared to be a free city, Nov., 1815 ; the Polish diet held its first meeting, Sept., 1820 ; a revolution broke out at Warsaw, Nov. 29, 1830, provisional government appointed ; the army and people united, Nov. 29, 1830 ; the throne of Poland declared vacant, Jan. 25, 1831 ; battle of Grochow, the Russians defeated with a loss of 6000 men, Feb. 20 ; the Russians again defeated 664 POLAND at the battle of Wawz, with a loss of 10,000 men, March 31 ; the insurrection broke out at Wilna and Volhynia, April 3 ; battle of Zelichow, Russians suffered a severe defeat, their commander narrowly escaping, April 6 ; battle of Ostro- lenka fought, and the Poles again successful, May 26 ; General Diebitsch, com- manding the Russian forces, died very suddenly, June 10 ; battle of Wilna, the Polish army defeated, June 19 ; the death of the Grand Duke Constantine by cholera, July 30 ; Warsaw captured by the Russians after two days' fighting, Sept. 6-8, 1831 ; the kingdom of Poland united to the Russian empire, Feb. 26, 1832 ; Poland again in revolt, Feb. 22, 1846 ; the treaty of 1815, constituting Cracow a free republic, annulled, and Cracow declared united to Austria, Nov. 16, 1846 ; Poland formally incorporated with Russia, June 6, 1847; petition of the Poles for the restoration of their nationality refused, March 9, 1861 ; the constitution modified, a council of state appointed, March 14 ; the kingdom declared in a state of siege, Oct. 14 ; a plot discovered in Warsaw, October and November ; the Grand Duke Constantine appointed Lieutenant- General of, June 8, 1862; attempt to assassinate him failed, July 3 ; attempt upon the life of the Marquis Wielopolski, in August ; the conscription begun, January 14, 1863 ; during the night 2500 young men were carried off ; an invisible power, called the Central Committee, issued a manifesto calling upon the nation to re- sist, Feb., 1863 ; Langiewicz nominated Dictator ; he fought a desperate battle with the Russian forces, March 18 ; gave himself up to the Austrians, March 20 ; the Polish chiefs appealed to Europe for help, March 24 ; the Central Committee declared itself a Provisional Government, May 3 ; the Poles under Lelewel, defeated, Sept. 6 ; Gen. Berg appointed military commander of Warsaw, Sept. 17; an attempt made to assassinate, Sept. 19 ; execution of most of the leaders of the revolution, Aug. 5. 1864 ; the kingdom divided into eight govern- ments, Sept. I ; a ukase issued for the fusion of Poland with Russia, March 29, 1867 ; a ukase issued for suppressing all central administrative institutions in, and assimilating Poland to Russia, Feb. 29, 1868. DUKES AND KINGS OF POLAND. A.D. A.D. 550. Lech. II94- Ladislaus III. 700. Cracus. 1200. Miecislaus IV. 750. Venda. 1203. Ladislaus III. 760. Leschus I. 1206. Leschus V. restored a third 776. Leschus II. time. 804. Leschus III. 1227. Boleslaus V. 810. Popiel I. 1279. Leschus VI. 815. Popiel II. 1295. Premislaus. 830. Piast. 1296. Ladislaus IV. 86l. Ziemovitus. 1300. Wenceslaus, King of Bohemia. 892. Leschus IV. I 34- Ladislaus restored. 913. Ziemovislaus. J 333- Casimir III., killed by a fall 964. Miecislaus I. from his horse. 992. Boleslaus I. 137- Louis, King of Hungary. 1022. Miecislaus II. 1 3%5- Hedwige, daughter of Louis, 1034. Rixa. and her consort, Jagello, 1041. Casimir I. duke of Lithuania, with the 1058. Boleslaus II. title of Ladislaus V. 1081. Ladislaus. X 399- Ladislaus V. , united Lithuania 1 102. Boleslaus III. to Poland. 1138. Ladislaus II. 1434. Ladislaus VI. 1146. Boleslaus IV. 1445- Casimir IV. 1173. Miecislaus III. 1492. John, Albert, I. 1177. Casimir II. 1501. Alexander. POLAR STAR POLYNESIA 665 A.D. A.D. 1506. Sigismund I. 1674. John III., Sobieski. 1548. Sigismund II. 1697. Frederick-Augustus I., elector 1574. Henry III. of Valois. of Saxony. 1575. Stephen Batthori, Prince of 1704. Stanislaus I. Transylvania. 170-- Frederick- Augustus restored. 1587. Sigismund HI. 1734- Frederick-Augustus II. 1632. Ladislaus VII. 1764. Stanislaus II., Augustus Po- 1648. John II ., or Casimir V. niatowski, the last monarch. 1669. Michael - Korybat Wisnio- wizky. POLAR STAR, order of merit instituted by Sweden, April 28, 1748. POLICE of London consisted of different establishments under successive sove- reigns. The London watch instituted, 1253; officers and Bow-street establishment, under statutes 5, II, 32, 54 George III.; twenty-one magistrates appointed to preside over each of the seven divisional offices, Aug. I, 1792 ; Thames police established, 1798; London police remodelled by statute, IO Geo. IV. c. 44, June 19, 1829 ; began duty, Sept. 29 ; amended by 2 & 3 Viet. c. 47, July 4, 1839 ; ex- tended to the city of London, 2 & 3 Viet. c. xciv., Aug. 17, 1839 ; one commis- sioner and two assistant-commissioners appointed, 19 & 20 Viet. c. 2, Feb. 28, 1856 ; ordered to be employed in H. M. dockyards and military stations, 23 & 24 Viet. c. 135, Aug. 28, 1860 ; an attempt made by Sir George Grey to amalga- nvite the city with the metropolitan force ; bill brought into parliament, April 22, 1863 ; subsequently withdrawn; Commissioner Mayne died, Dec. 26, 1868 ; and Col. E. Y. \V. Henderson appointed, Feb. 12, 1869. POLICE, Dublin, commenced, Sept. 29, 1786; remodelled, 1807 and 1824. POLICE, France, established by Louis XIV., March 26, 1667 ; altered and amended, Aug. 24, 1790; remodelled, March, 1800. POLITIQUES, or Liberal Catholics, a party formed by the Marshal de Damville, in France, 1574 ; signed a league with the Huguenots, Feb., 1575 ; treaty be- tween, and Henry III. of France, July 19, 1588. POLL ACT, Ireland, a tyrannical act exercised by the Earl of Desmond in Ireland, putting a price upon the heads of many native Irish of distinction, 1465. POLL TAX, in England, imposed on every lay person of both sexes over 16 years of age, except beggars, a groat a-head, 1377 ; it led to the rebellion under Wat Tyler, 1381 ; raised from 6d. to is., 1448 ; revived, 1518, and by 19 Car. II. c. I, 1667, the amount settled : a duke ^100, an earl 60, a baron ,40, a baronet 30, a knight-bachelor 20, an esquire 10, and persons having an income of .100, .5, June 18, 1641 ; and also by Charles II., when every subject was taxed by the head, 1666-67, 1678, 1689, a duke 100, a marquis 80, a baron ^o, a knight 20, an esquire 10, and every private person u., 1667; levied for the purpose of the war with France by the 3 Will, and Mary, c. 6, 1691 ; abolished soon afterwards. POLOTZK, battle, between the French under Marshal Oudinot and the Russians under General Wittgenstein, July 30 and 31, 1812; the Russians were victors the first day, but subsequently defeated, and the town taken, Oct. 20, 1812. POLYGAMY, practised in almost all the ancient Eastern nations, general among the Jews, but not among the civilized nations of Greece and Rome ; Mark An- tony was the first who took two wives, and many followed his example until it was forbidden by Arcadius, 393 ; punished in England with transportation ; last act against, passed, 24 & 25 Viet. c. loo, s. 57, Aug. 6, 1861. POLYNESIA, Pacific Ocean, first discovered by Magelhaens, March 6, 1521 ; 666 POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTION PONTUS visited by Cavendish, 1588; mission sent by the Spaniards, 1668; visited by Anson, Aug., 1742. POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTION, Regent-street, built from the designs of Mr Thompson, and incorporated, 1838; opened, Aug. 6, 1838 ; enlarged, 1848. POLYTHEISM, the plurality of Gods, taught in the time of Moses, B.C. 1500. POMEGRANATE TREE brought to England from the south in the I5th century, generally supposed from Spain, about 1584. POMERANIA, Prussia, part given to Sweden by the peace of Westphalia, 1648 ; the rest given to Brandenburgh by the peace of Stockholm, 1720 ; ceded to Den- mark by Sweden, 1814 ; by Denmark to Prussia, 1815. POMFRET, or Pontefract, castle, Yorkshire, built, 1080 ; Thomas, Earl of Lancaster, beheaded here, by his nephew, Edward II., 1322 ; chartered by Richard III.; Richard II. confined in, Jan., 1400; Henry IV. desiring his death, hired eight assassins, who entered his room, when Richard, with a poleaxe wrested from one of the number, killed four of them, but was at last struck down himself, 1399 ; here too Earl Rivers, Sir Richard Gray, and Sir T. Vaughan, were executed by Gilbert de Lacy, 1483 ; visited by Henry VII., 1486, and by Henry VIII., 1540; the castle surrendered to the insurgents, under Aske (during the Pilgrimage of Grace), 1536 ; besieged by the Parliamentarians under Sir Thomas Fairfax, and after three days' cannonade, one of its towers was knocked down, and a breach made in its wall, Jan. 19, 1645, but they were unable to take it ; surrendered the following May. It was regained for Charles I. by a clever tratagem of Col. Cotterel, who introduced himself and nine other officers into the town in waggons loaded with provisions for the garrison ; he mastered the protectors of the drawbridge, and so admitted reinforcement, and ultimately cap- tured the town, Jan., 1648 ; besieged by the Roundheads under Gen. Lambert, Oct., 1648, but boldly resisted for six months ; Morris and five of his associates were exempted from pardon ; it was demolished, 1654. POMPEII, Italy, mentioned B.C. 310; nearly destroyed by an earthquake, A.D. 63 ; buried in hot ashes by an eruption of Vesuvius, Aug. 23, 79 ; first discovered, 1689 ; excavated, and the street of the town discovered, 1755; since then most of the buildings have been uncovered ; in 1830 the house of Sallust discovered. PONDICHERRY, Hindustan, first settled by the French, 1674 ; taken from the French, 1693, by the Dutch, who had first settled there (1574), 1697; besieged unsuccessfully by the English, 1748; taken, 1761 ; restored, 1763; taken again, Oct., 1778 ; restored, 1783 ; taken again, Aug. 23, 1793 ; restored to the French by the peace of, 1815. PONIATOWSKI, Prince, drowned in the Elst^r after the battle of Leipsic, Oct. 19, 1813. PONSONBY, Miss, and Miss Eleanor Butler, left their friends early in life clan- destinely, with a female servant, and settled in Llangollen, in North Wales, where they lived in friendship and seclusion, Miss Butler, the survivor, dying, aged 76, 1832. PONT ACHIN, battle. General Pichegru attacked the right wing of the allied armies with 100,000 men ; the battle raged from 5 a.m. to 3 p.m., when the Duke of York brought the second brigade of British Infantry into the field ; the French were totally defeated, May, 22, 1 794. PONTUS, Asia Minor, the ancient province of, under the emperors, and still more ancient kingdom of Mithridates, B.C. 120; annexed to Rome by Pompey, B.C. 65 ; included by Alexis Comnenus, emperor of the East, in a new empire of the Greeks at Trebisonde, 1204 ; this empire continued in existence until the Turks overwhelmed that nation and destroyed it, 1459. PONY EXPRESS POOR LAWS 667 POXY EXPRESS, over the Rocky Mountains to San Francisco, started by Messrs Russell and Mayoi, April 9, 1860, the distance of 1900 miles done in 7 days. POOLE, Hants, fire at, the custom-house, store-house, and a large inn destroyed, April 20, 1813. POOLE, Montgomeryshire, the floor of the Sessions' Hall fell in while the court was sitting, several persons being killed, Aug. II, 1758. POONAH, Hindustan, granted by the Sultan of Ahmednuggur to Mallojee, 1604; confirmed to Shahjee, 1637 ; restored to Savagee, 1667 ; the town taken and sacked by Nizam Ali, 1768; capitulated to the British forces, Nov. 17, 1817; flooded, 1846. POOR KNIGHTS OF WINDSOR, instituted on the foundation of St George's College by Edw. III., Aug. 6, 1348 ; in number 24, increased to 26 same year ; re-established by Elizabeth; dwelling provided for 13 by Henry VIII. in his will, dated 1547-8 ; built at acost of .2747 7-r. 6d., 1558 ; annual allowance increased to .18 5.!-. each by James I. The Naval Knights added to, by Geo. III., June 23, 1798. The named changed by William IV. to Military Knights of Windsor, Sept. 17, 1834; the 7th canonry appropriated to the Naval Knights of, by 24 & 25 Viet. c. 1 1 6, Aug. 6, 1 86 1. POOR LAWS. In every country, and in all states of society, destitution has ex- isted, and the relief of the poor was considered an act of prudence, hence the establishment of a system of relief. By the laws of Athelstan, lordless men were to be found a lord by the Folkmote, 924. Every man to be brought into a hundred, and in burgh, 1017 ; the poor compelled to labour, 23 Edw. III.,i349,and 25 Edw. III., stal. I, 1350-1 ; but the principal statute for the protection of the poor was passed, 12 Rich. II. c. 7, 1388; a sum of money to be provided in every parish for the assistance of, 13 Rich. II. c. 8,1389-90 ; by the 19 Hen. VII. c. 12, the justices are to assign to the impotent poor a limit within which they may beg, 1503-4 ; an act passed for the benefit of, 22 Hen. VIII. c. 12, 1530-1, and if found begging without to be whipped; poor people to be kept in their respective shires and cities, 27 Hen. VIII. c. 25, 1536. The relief of, the first consideration of Edward VI., r Edw. VI. c. 3, 1547, and 5 & 6 Edw. VI. c. 2, 1552 ; alms to be collected in every parish for the relief of, 2 & 3 Philip & Mary, c. 5, 1555 ; renewed, 1557 ; collectors of alms appointed, and licenses given to beggars to beg in certain districts, 5 Eliz. c. 3, 1562-3 ; another enactment for the ease of the poor, 14 Eliz. c. 5, 1572-3 ; amended, 18 Eliz. c. 3, 1575-6 ; overseers appointed, 39 Eliz. c. 3, 1597-8; an act passed for erecting of hospitals, abiding and working-houses for the poor, 21 James I. c. I, 1623 ; Charles I. issued a commission for the relief of, 1630; settle- ment and removal of the poor, first established, 13 & 14 Car. II. c. 12, 1662 ; amended by 3 William & Mary, c. II, 1691 ; persons relieved by the parish to wear a badge, 8 & 9 Will. III. c. 30, 1696-7 ; a book to be kept in each parish to register the names of all persons receiving relief, and workhouses established, 9 Geo. I. c. 7, 1722 ; the laws of settlement amended, 31 Geo. II. c. II, 1758; several schemes propounded for their better relief, 1735 53 ; poor children pro- vided for, by 7 Geo. III. c. 39, 1767 ; Gilbert's act passed for the better relief and employment of, 22 Geo. III. c. 83, 1782 ; an act to prevent the removal of poor persons, until they shall become chargeable, passed, 35 Geo. III. c. 101, June 22, 1795 ; an act passed for the better collection of the poor rates, 41 Geo. HI. c. 23, April 18, 1801 ; badges abolished, 50 Geo. III. c. 52, June 9, 1810 ; committee appointed to consider the laws, Feb. 21, 1817 ; report of, July 2 ; select vestry for the concerns of the poor established, 59 Geo. III. c. 12, March 31, 1819 ; the law of settlement amended, 59 Geo. III. c. 50, July 2, 1819; amended, 6 Geo. IV. c. 57, June 22, 1825 ; commissioners appointed to inquire into the Poor Laws, Feb., 1832 ; report, Feb. 20, 1834 ; Poor Law Amendment Act passed, 4 & 5 Will. IV. c. 76, Aug. 14, 1834 ; Assessment Act, 6 & 7 Will. 668 POOR, AND POOR LAWS POPE IV. c. 96, Aug. 19, 1836 ; Poor Law Commissioners continued, 5 & 6 Viet. c. 57> J u 'y 3O 1842 ; the law of removal amended, 9 & 10 Viet. c. 66, Aug. 26, 1846 ; the Poor Law Commissioners continued by 10 & II Viet. c. 109, Dec. 17, 1847, and since continued again, 33 & 34 Viet. c. 148, Aug. 28, 1860 ; Mr Bod- kin's act for the removal of the poor, 10 & u Viet. c. no, July 23, 1847 ; the care of the pauper lunatics provided for by 16 & 17 Viet. c. 97, Aug. 20, 1853 ; removal of the poor regulated by 25 & 26 Viet. c. 113, Aug. 7, 1862 ; amended, 27 & 28 Viet. c. 105, July 29, 1864 ; for establishing asylums for the sick, insane, and other classes of the poor in the metropolis, 30 & 31 Vict.,c. 6, March 29, 1867 ; an act passed for the relief of the metropolitan houseless, 27 & 28 Viet. c. 1 16, July 29, 1864; made perpetual, 28 & 29 Viet. c. 34, June 2, 1865 ; asylums for the sick and insane poor, and for the relief generally, 30 Viet. c. 6, March 29, 1867 ; the laws for the relief of the poor amended, 30 & 31 Viet. c. 106, Aug. 20, 1867. POOR, and POOR LAWS, Scotland. It was ordered,that the aged and infirm poor be kept by the parishes, 1503 ; a statute was passed for the better protection of, the whole of the inhabitants to be charged with the maintenance, 1579, and again, 1592; workhouses established, 1672; report upon the condition of, 1818; com- mission appointed to inquire into the state of, 1843 5 report of, 1844 ; there were then 13 poor-houses ; an act passed for the amendment and better administration of the laws for the relief of the poor, 8 & 9 Viet. c. 83, Aug. 4, 1845 ; mode of raising the assessment for the poor in, 24 & 25 Viet. c. 37, July 22, 1861. POOR, and POOR LAWS, Ireland. Cosherers and idle wanderers suppressed by 10 & II Car. I., 1634-5. The first step for the relief of the poor was the erection of a workhouse in Dublin, and maintaining the poor, 2 Anne, c. 19, 1703 ; asylums provided for the pauper lunatics, 57 Geo. III. c. 106, 1817 ; commission appointed to inquire into the condition of, 1833 ; reported, 1835-36 ; an act passed for the more effectual relief of the poor, I & 2 Viet. c. 56, July 31, 1838 ; amended, 2 Viet. c. I, March 15, 1839 ; again amended, 6 & 7 Viet. c. 92, Aug. 24, 1843; .temporary relief act during the famine in Ireland, 10 & 1 1 Viet. c. 7, Feb. 26, 1847; the relief of the poor amended by 10 & II Viet. c. 31, June 8, 1847, and c. 90, July 22, 1847 ; another amendment was found necessary, 12 & 13 Viet. c. 104, Aug. i, 1849 ; the total expenditure for the poor in 1850 was ^1,430,108 ; the law of removal amended by 24 & 25 Viet. c. 76, Aug. 6, 1861 ; again amended by 26 & 27 Viet. c. 89, July 28, 1863 ; an amendment to the laws for the relief of, passed, 25 & 26 Viet. c. 83, Aug. 7, 1862. POOR RATES, the equalization of, a parliamentary committee moved for to in- quire into, but defeated, June 16, 1857. Mr Ayrton introduced a bill into Par- liament for the equalization of, March 23 ; read a second time, May 12, and with- drawn. POPE, from Hcnra, father, formerly given to all priests, but since 1073 it has been confined to the Pope. Quarrelled with the King of England about the choice of the archbishop of Canterbury, June 13, 1207; laid England under an interdict, when all the church services ceased, March 23, 1208 ; excommunicated the king and absolved his subjects from their allegiance, Nov., 1209 ; proceeded to depose King John, and to give away his kingdom, 1213; received John's submission, and absolved him, upon his resigning into the papal hands the sovereignty of his entire kingdom, and becoming a tributary to Rome, May 15, 1213 ; excommuni- cation of the barons and the citizens of London removed, Oct. 3, 1213 ; de- manded an annual tribute from every monastery and cathedral in England, which was resisted, 1226 ; collected the tenths of the kingdom with great rigour, 1229; caused great extortion to be practised in this country, 1242, 1244; promised to give the throne of Sicily to Edmund the son of Henry III., but involved England in a debt of 135,541 marks, 1255 ; their courts protected, 1364 ; tribute to, refused by England, 1365 ; sent several presents to the King of England, 1510, 1514; taken POPES 669 prisoner, and his palace pillaged by the Duke of Bourbon, 1527 ; his supremacy abolished in England, 1531 ; power in England entirely abrogated, March 30, 1534; bull issued against Henry VIII., June 18, 1538 ; power and popery re-established, Oct. 28, 1553 ; finally abolished, Feb., 1559 ; re-established, Sept. 30, 1850, by a bull of Pius IX. Pius VII. excommunicated Napoleon, May, 1809 ; Pius IX. driven by the Sardinians from Rome, Nov. 24, 1848. Popes are asserted to have descended from St Peter, who died, A.D. 42 ; St Clement is said to have suc- ceeded him. A.D. 66 St Linus. 78 St Anacletus. 91 St Clement. 100 St Evaristus. 109 St Alexander. 119 St Sixtus. 128 St Telesphorus. 139 St Higinus. 142 St Pius. 157 St Anicetus. 169 St Soter. 177 St Eleutherius. 193 St Victor I. 202 St Zepherinus. 219 St Calixtus. 223 St Urban I. : beheaded. .230 St Pontianus. 235 St Anterus. 236 St Fabian. 251 St Cornelius. 252 St Lucius. St Novatianus : antipope. 253 St Stephen I. 257 St Sixtus II. 259 St Dionysius. 269 St Felix I. : martyred, canon- ized. 275 St Eutichtanus. 283 St Caius. 296 Marcellinus. 308 Marcellus. 310 Eusebius. 311 St Melchiades. 314 St Sylvester I. 336 St Marcus I. 337 St Julius I. 352 St Liberius : banished. 356 Felix II., antipope : placed in the chair by Constans dur- ing the exile of Liberius. 358 St Liberius restored. 358 Felix became legal pope ; but was killed by Liberius. 359 St Liberius again restored. 366 St Damasus I. 384 St Siricius, a Roman. A.n. 398 St Anastasius I. 401 St Innocent I. 417 St Zosimus, a Greek : canon- ized. 418 Boniface I., a Roman. 420 Eulaius : antipope. 422 St Celestin I., a Roman: canonized. 432 St Sixtus HI., a Roman. 440 St Leo I. the Great. 461 St Hilarius : canonized. 467 St Simplicius. 482 St Felix III. : canonized. 492 St Gelasius : canonized. 496 St Anastasius II.: canonized. 498 St Symmachus : canonized. 5 14 Laurentius : antipope. 514 St Hormisdas : canonized. 523 John I. 526 Felix IV.: introduced extreme unction as a sacrament ; canonized. Dioscuros : antipope. 530 Boniface II. of Rome. 532 John II. : opposed the Euty- chians and Nestorians. 535 St Agapetus I. 536 St Sylverius. 540 Vigilius : banished, but re- stored. 555 Pelagius I. 560 St John III., a Roman. 574 St Benedict I., a Roman. 578 St Pelagius II., a Roman. 590 St Gregory I., called the Great, who converted the English nation to Christianity. 604 Sabinianus. 607 Boniface III., a Roman. 608 Boniface IV., an Abruzzian. 615 Deodotus I. 619 Boniface V. 625 Honorius I. 640 Severinus. John IV. 642 Theodoras I. 6;o POPES 649 St Martin I. 891 654 Eugeniusl.: canonized. 891 657 Vitalian. 896 672 Adeodatus II. 896 676 Domnus I. 897 678 Agatho. 682 St Leo II.: instituted holy 898 water. 900 684 Benedict II. 903 685 John V. 904 686 Peter: antipope. 911 Theodore : antipope. 913 Paschal : antipope. 687 Conon. 928 Sergius I. 929 701 John VI. 931 705 John VII. 936 708 Sisinius. 939 Constantinus. 942 715 Gregory II.: canonized. 946 731 Gregory III.: the first pope 956 who sent nuncios to foreign 964 powers. 741 Zacharias, a Greek. 965 753 Stephen II.: with this pope 972 commenced the temporal 974 power of the Church. 975 753 Stephen III. 757 Paul I., a Roman. 983 768 Stephen IV. 985 Theophilactus and Constan- 996 tine II. : antipopes. 998 769 Philip : antipope. 999 772 Adrian I.: sanctioned the use 1003 of images. 795 St Leo III. 1009 816 Stephen V. 1021 817 Paschal I. 1024 824 Eugenius II. 1033 826 Zinzinius : antipope. i44 827 Valentinus. 1046 828 Gregory IV. 1047 844 Sergius II. 1048 845 Leo IV. 1049 Between Leo IV. and the next 1055 pontiff, Benedict III., the 1057 story of ' Pope Joan' is ap- 1058 plied. 1059 857 Benedict III. 1061 858 Nicholas I. 867 Adrian II. 1073 872 John VIII. 882 Martinus II. 1080 884 Adrian III. 1086 885 Stephen VI. 1088 Formosus. Sergius III.: antipope. Boniface VI. Stephen VII. Romanus I. Theodoras II. John IX. of Tibur. Benedict IV. Leo V. Sergius III. Anastasius III. of Rome. Lando, a Sabine. John X. Leo VI. Stephen VIII. of Rome. John XI. Leo VII. Stephen VIII. Marinus III. Agapetus II. John XII. Leo : antipope. Benedict V. John XIII. Benedict VI. Domnus II. Benedict VII. Boniface VII. : John XIV. John XV. Gregory V. : John XVII. Sylvester II. John XVI. John XVII. Sergius IV. Benedict VIII. of Tusculum. John XVIII. Benedict IX. Sylvester III. Gregory VI. : Clement II. Damasus II. St Louis IX. Victor II. Stephen X. Benedict X. : Nicholas II. Alexander II. Honorius II. : antipope. Gregory VII., the celebrated Hildebrand. Clement II. : antipope. Victor III. Urban II. antipope. antipope. antipope. antipope. abdicated. canonized. antipope. POPES 1099 Paschal II. 1316 1100 Albert : antipope. 1102 Theodoric : antipope. 1334 Sylvester : antipope. *334 1118 Gelasius II. Gregory VIII. : antipope. 1342 1119 Calixtus II. 1352 1124 Honorius II. 1362 Theobald : antipope. 1370 1130 Innocent II. Anacletus II. : antipope. 1138 Victor IV. : antipope. 1378 1143 Celestinll. 1389 1144 Lucius II. 1394 1145 Eugenius III. : canonized. 1153 Anastasius IV. 1404 1154 Adrian IV., or Nicholas Brake- 1406 spear, an Englishman. 1409 1159 Alexander III. 1410 1159 Victor IV. : antipope. 1417 1164 Paschal III. : antipope. 1424 1169 Calixtus III. : antipope. 1431 1178 Innocent III. : antipope. 1439 1181 Lucius III. 1447 1185 Urban III. 1455 1187 Gregory VIIL 1458 1188 Clement III. 1464 1191 Celestinus III. 1471 1198 Innocent III. : he excommuni- 1485 cated King John. 1216 Honorius III. 1492 1227 Gregory IX. 1503 1241 Celestinus IV. 1243 Innocent IV. 1513 1254 Alexander IV. 1522 1261 Urban IV. 1523 1265 Clement IV., a Frenchman. 1534 1272 Gregory X. : elected while 1550 with Edward I. of England 1555 in the Holy Land. 1555 1276 Innocent V. 1559 Adrian V. : Legate to Eng- 1566 land in 1254. 1572 1276 John XXI. 1277 Nicholas III. 1281 Martin IV., a Frenchman. 1585 1285 Honorius IV. 1590 1288 Nicholas IV. 1292 Celestinus V. : abdicated. 1591 1294 Boniface VIIL : laid France 1592 and Denmark under inter- 1605 diet. 1303 Benedict XI. 1621 1305 Clement V. : removed the 1623 papal seat to Avignon. 671 John XXII. of France : as- sumed the triple crown. Benedict XII. Nicholas V. of France : anti- pope at Rome. Clement VI. : a Frenchman. Innocent VI. Urban V. Gregory XL, a Frenchman : restored the papal chair to Rome. Urban VI. Boniface IX. of Naples. Benedict, called XIII. : anti- pope at Avignon. Innocent VII. Gregory XII. : abdicated. Alexander V. of Candia. John XXIII. : deposed. Martin V. Clement VIIL : antipope. Eugenius IV. Felix V. : antipope. Nicholas V. of Sarzana. Calixtus III. of Spain. Pius II. Paul II. Sixtus IV. Innocent VIIL : persecuted the Waldenses. Alexander VI. of Spain. Pius III. Julius II. Leo X., John de Medicis. Adrian VI. Clement VII. Paul III. Julius III. Marcellus II. Paul IV. of Naples. Pius IV., cardinal de Medicis. St Pius V. Gregory XIII. : the civilian and canonist, he reformed the calendar. Sixtus V. Urban VII. Gregory XIV. Innocent IX. Clement VIIL Leo XL Paul V. Gregory XV. Urban VIIL: gave the title of Eminence to cardinals. POPE JOAN POPULATION Innocent X. Alexander VII. Clement IX. Clement X. Innocent XL Alexander VIII. Innocent XII. Clement XI. Innocent XIII. Benedict XIII. Clement XII. Benedict XIV. 1644 1655 1667 1670 1676 1689 1691 1700 1721 1724 1730 1740 POPE JOAN, a story, asserted guised in a male habit, entered the death of Leo IV., 855, was 1758 Clement XIII. 1769 Clement XIV. 1775 Pi us VI. 1800 Pius VII., elevated by the interest of Bonaparte : de- posed by Bonaparte in 1809; restored, 1814. 1823 Leo XII. 1829 Pius VIII. 1831 Gregory XVI., elected, June 1 6. 1846 Pius IX., crowned, June 21. on good grounds, that a female named Joan, dis- a monastery, became a learned professor, and on elected pope. POPISH PLOT, denounced by Titus Oates, Sept. 28, 1678 ; Viscount Stafford beheaded, Dec. 29, 1680 ; the author, Titus Oates, convicted of perjury and ordered to be publicly whipped, and to stand in the pillory, May 8, 1685 ; pardoned, June 6, 1689. POPLAR TREE brought to England from Italy in the seventeenth century ; the American poplar introduced, 1 750. POPULATION IN ENGLAND AND WALES: 1066 At the Conquest 2,150,000 1688 The number recorded in Doomsday book is about 283,000 17*4 1381 Richard II. 2,350,000 1760 1415 Henry V. 3,000,000 1509 Henry VII. 4,000,000 1780 1528 Henry VIII. 4,356,000 1603 Elizabeth 5,000,000 1801 1625 James I. 5,500,000 1803 1660 At the Restoration 5,500,000 1851 At the Revolution, above $,$00,000 At death of Anne 5,750,000 At death of George II. 7,000,000 At end of the Ameri- can war 8,000,000 The first Census 9, 1 72, 980 9,210,000 The sixth Census 17,927,609 POPULATION IN IRELAND. In 1 754 it was 2, 376, 634; 1765,2,544,276; 1777,2,690,556; 1785,2,845,932; 1821, 6,801,827; 1831, 7,784,536; 1841, 8,175,124; 1851,6,515,794; and in 1861, 5,792,055. Between 1851 and 1 86 1, 1,230,986 of the inhabitants emigrated to America and the colonies. POPULATION OF THE Algeria 1861 2,966,836 Argentine Republic 1 866 1,465,000 Austria & Hungary 1857 32,573,003 Brazil 1860 Free 8,307,000 Slave 1,707,000 Belgium 1863 4,529,560 Canada and British North America 1867 3,811,000 Cape of Good Hope 1 856 2,671,096 China 1842 414,686,994 Chili 1862 1,676,243 Denmark 1864 1,608,095 Egypt 1866 5,000,000 STATES OF EUROPE. France 1866 Germany 1866 Greece 1861 Great Britain and Wales Scotland Ireland Hong Kong India Italy Japan Java Liberia 1861 1865 1861 1864 1864 1861 1865 38,067,094 36,585,599 20,066,224 3,062,294 5,798,967 125,504 47,909,199 24,149,766 35,000,000 13,019,108 560,000 PORCELAIN PORTER 673 Mexico 1857 7,995.426 Poland 1864 5,336,210 Natal 1863 156,165 Siam 1865 12,000,000 Netherlands 1861 3,372,652 Spain 1864 16,302,625 New South Wales 1865 411,388 Sweden 1865 4,114,141 New Zealand 1864 172,158 Switzerland 1860 2,534,242 Norway 1865 1,700,245 Tasmania 1865 95,201 Papal States 1861 1,692,106 Turkey 1844 35,350,000 Paraguay 1857 1,337,431 Roumania 1860 3,864,848 Peru 1860 2,867,000 Servia 1861 1,098,281 Portugal 1858 3,584,677 United States 1866 34,505,882 Queensland 1864 61,467 Uruguay 1860 240,965 Russia 1864 61,061,801 Victoria 1866 626,639 Finland 1,798,909 Western Australia 1865 20,26C PORCELAIN, first introduced into Europe by the Portuguese, 1518. This art had arrived at great perfection in China and Arabia in the I2th century. This ware first made in Japan, B.C. 27 ; the Alhambra Vase made, 1320 ; a manufactory established by the King at Dresden, and M. Bb'ttcher appointed director, 1710 ; one opened at Vienna, 1720. English porcelain manufactories: Bow, china or porcelain made at Stratford-le-Bow, 1760 ; at Chelsea, circa 1650 ; at Derby by Dewsbury, 1750; Plymouth, by William Cookworthy, 1760 ; he took out a patent for his new materials, 1768; Bristol, by R. Champion, 1772; Rockingliam, 1757 ; improved by Thomas Bingley, 1778 ; Worcester, by Dr Wall and others, 1751; Shropshire, at Coalbrook Dale, 1770; Swansea, 1750. French manu- factories : porcelain first made in France, 1695 ; St Cloud, the first manufactory opened, 1695 ; Sevres, 1756. Italian : Capo di Monte, a manufactory was founded by Charles III., 1736. This king upon his accession to the Spanish throne, established a manufactory near Madrid, 1759; the duty upon, reduced, 1825. PORCUPINE, Order of Knighthood, began in France, 1393. PORT-AU-PRINCE, St Domingo, founded, 1749; nearly destroyed by an earth- quake, 1770 ; 150 houses burned at, June 29, 1784 ; nearly the whole town was burned in a riot again, Dec. 1, 1791 ; insurrection and massacre of the whites at, and destruction of the town, 1801 ; the British took possession of, June, 1794 ; the town destroyed, 1802. PORTC HESTER CASTLE, Hants, one of the earlier works of the Romans in England, seven miles north of Portsmouth, rebuilt by W T illiam I. on the old foundations, the walls from 8 to 12 feet thick ; the Keep 115 long and 65 broad ; used as a receptacle for prisoners of war from 1794 to 1814. PORTCULLIS, a badge derived from the Somersets ; the two offices of Portcullis and Rouge- Dragon were erected by Henry VII. upon the vigil of his coronation, Oct. 19, 1485. PORTEOUS, CAPTAIN, hung by the populace at Edinburgh ; a smuggler was to have been executed ; a fellow-depredator on the revenue kept back the soldiers from seizing his companion, and gave him the opportunity of escape, for which act he was to suffer ; the crowd sympathized with the men and gelled the guard, and Captain Porteous ordered his men to fire on the people, April 14, 1736, when 17 persons were killed or wounded ; the captain was tried and found guilty of murder, but was reprieved, evidently with the intention of saving him ; the people in consequence broke into the prison, took him out and hanged him on a sign-post, in defiance of the military and the authorities ; though large rewards were offered, no individual concerned in the deed was ever discovered, Sept. 7, 1736. 1 >( |RTER, first spoken of as a drink for the poor in Nicholas Amherst's Terra 43 674 PORTERAGE ACT PORTREEVE Filius, May 22, 1721 ; first sold by Ralph Harwood, whose brewhouse was upon the east side of High-street, Shoreditch : he called it entire, 1730. PORTERAGE ACT passed, regulating the tonnage of small parcels, to be taken by innkeepers and others in London and Westminster, 39 Geo. III. c. Iviii., June 21, 1799. PORT GLASGOW, purchased from Sir P. Maxwell by the town of Glasgow, 1668 ; made a parish, 1695 ; a barony, 1775 > a burgh, 1832. PORTLAND, Dorsetshire ; the Danes landed here, 1404 ; the French laid the county waste by fire, May, 1416; a castle built upon this island by Henry VIII., 1520; Adm. Blake defeated the Dutch fleet under Van Tromp off here, Feb. 18 20, 1653; Portland stone first quarried, 1616; a convict prison erected, 1848 ; the Breakwater first suggested by Mr Harvey, 1 794 ; an act passed for the construc- tion of, 10 & II Viet. c. 24, May II, 1847 { nrst stone laid by Prince Albert, July 25, 1849; 1500 tons of stone is deposited every day; the Prince and Princess of Wales visited, July 27, 1865. PORTLAND, Victoria, between Melbourne and Adelaide, only a whaling station, 1833 ; raised to a township, 1842. PORTLAND, naval battle. The English fleet of 80 sail, commanded by Adm. Blake and Gen. Monk, attacked the Dutch fleet of 76 vessels of war and 300 mer- chantmen, off Portland ; the battle lasted for 3 days ; Blake gained the victory, the Dutch losing II ships of war and 200 men, Feb. 18, 19, 20, 1653. PORTLAND ADMINISTRATIONS, the first, the well-known Coalition Min- istry, of which William Henry Cavendish Bentinck, Duke of Portland, was the head, April 5, 1783 ; the second was in March 25, 1807, terminating with the death of the Duke, Oct. 30, 1809. PORTLAND PLACE, built by the brothers Adam, 1777-9. PORTLAND VASE, discovered in the neighbourhood of Rome, in a sepulchral chamber, under the mount called Monte de Grano, in the Pontificate of Urban VIII. (Barberini), between the years 1623 and 1644, purchased by Sir William Ham- ilton, and sold by him to the Duchess of Portland ; purchased by the Duke of Portland, upon the sale of her Ladyship's collection, for ^1000, 1786 ; deposited in the British Museum, 1810 ; wilfully broken by William Lloyd, Feb. 7, 1845; since mended. PORTOBELLO, S. America, found by Columbus in his voyage, Nov. 2, 1502 ; Admiral Vernon captured it from the Spaniards, Nov. 22, 1739 ; again in 1742, and the fortifications of, destroyed ; seized by Sir Gregor M'Gregor in 1819. PORTO-FERRAJO, Isle of Elba, fortified by Cosmo of Florence, 1548, finished only in 1628 ; became the residence of Napoleon Bonaparte, from May, 1814, to Feb., 1815. PORTO NOVO, battle. Hyder Ali attacked the British army under Sir Eyre Coote, but was defeated with great loss, July I, 1781. PORTO-RICO, W. Indies, discovered by Columbus, 1493 ; invaded by the Spaniards, 1509; captured by the British, 1780; revolution in, 1820; de- feated, 1823 ; visited by a hurricane, which destroyed 1000 houses and the crops and cattle, Nov. 15, 1867. PORT PHILLIP, New Zealand, discovered by Lieut. Murray, and named after the governor of the colony, 1802. First convict settlement formed in, 1804, 'a second in 1835. The first public sale of land in, June I, 1837 ; it fetched, on an average, ,"jo per acre ; the same land in 1853 fetched 120. PORTREEVE, the ancient name of the principal magistrate of a town, who ultimately became mayor, in the reign of Richard I., 1189. PORT-ROYAL PORTUGAL 675 PORT-ROYAL, France, founded by the Jansenists, 1644 ; suppressed by Pope Clement XL, 1709 ; destroyed by royal decree, 1710. PORT-ROYAL, Jamaica, destroyed by an earthquake, June 7, 1692 ; by a fire, 1703 ; in 1722 inundated by the sea, and in 1744 ravaged by a hurricane ; after these injuries the principal offices were removed, and no market held here after- wards ; in iSn it was so ruined by a fire that only 200 houses remained, most of the inhabitants had removed to Kingston ; the cholera visited it in 1850. The harbour is fine ; 1000 vessels might ride in it securely. PORTSMOUTH, Hampshire, one of the great naval stations ; charter granted to, by Rich. I. in 1193 ; church erected, 1220 ; tower added, 1693 5 town burnt, 1265 ; made a burgh, 1298. The French sacked and burnt the town, 1377 ; at- tempted again by the French fleet, but failed, 1545 ; Southsea Castle erected, by Hen. VIII., circa 1520; rebuilt, 1814; George Villiers, first Duke of Buckingham, murdered by Felton in the town, Aug. 23, 1628; the dockyard supplied with water, 1741 ; j 1 2,000 voted for an hospital at, 1744-5 ; set fire to, July 3, 1760, and damage done to the extent of ,400,000 ; another fire, July 27, 1770; again, Dec. 7, 1776 ; sham naval engagement at, in presence of King George III., June, 1773 ; the 'Royal George' sunk, 1782 ; twenty men, women, and children blown to pieces at, by an explosion of gunpowder, June 24, 1809 ; at the launch of the 'Queen Charlotte,' a dock-gate burst open, and 60 persons drowned, 1805 ; basin for steam-vessels excavated at, 1848 ; Queen Victoria reviewed the English fleet of 300 vessels of war, carrying 3800 guns and 40,000 men, April 25, 1856 ; Mr Cooke's circus destroyed by fire and 8 of the horses burnt, March 7, 1861 ; the French fleet visited, the officers being entertained by the Corporation, Aug. 29 Sept. 2, 1865. PORTSMOUTH, N. America, founded, 1623 ; incorporated, 1633 ; part of the town destroyed by fire, Dec., 1813. PORTUGAL, Europe, once called Lusitania, made a part of Spain or Iberia under the Roman sway. The Alains and Visigoths settled at, A. D. 472 ; invaded by the Moors, 7'3 several episcopal sees established, 900; Affonsus Henriquez defeated the Moors, and was proclaimed king, 1139 ; Santarem taken and added to the kingdom, 1 145 ; Lisbon captured from the Moors by a fleet of Crusaders on their way to the Holy Land, 1147; Ali-Jacoub, King of Morocco, invaded the kingdom, but was defeated with great loss, 1 184 ; Sancho I. conquered the Moors, and took the kingdom of Algarve, 1189; Dionysius I. ascended the throne, during his sway upwards of 40 towns were added to the country, 1279 ; orders of Christ and St James instituted by the sovereigns, 1279 to 1323 ; John I., the Great, subdued part of Africa, 1414 ; Madeira discovered, 1420, and the Azores, 1432 ; civil war, 1446 ; Don Pedro, Duke of Coimbra, defeated by Alphonso V., 1449 ; passage to the East Indies by the Cape of Good Hope discovered, May 22, 1498 ; Brazils discovered and a settlement formed, 1501 ; the Inquisition established by King John III., 1536; the expedition of Sebastian into Africa, defeat of, and death of the king, Aug. 4, 1578 ; the kingdom seized by Philip II. of Spain, 1580 ; the Portuguese chose John, duke of Braganza, to the throne, 1640; the Spaniards defeated at Montigo, in 1644; and again at Montesclaros, 1665 ; Nova Colonia ceded to Spain, 1750 ; Lisbon destroyed by the great earth- quake, Nov. i, 1755 ; Joseph I. is attacked by assassins, and nearly killed, Sept. 3, 1758; Joseph, having no male heir, applied to the pope for a dispensation to enable his daughter and brother to intermarry, 1 760 ; the country invaded by the troops of France and Spain, but they were prevented from conquering the country, in 1762-63; John, son of Maria, appointed Regent, owing to the Queen's lunacy, 1792 ; peace signed with France, 1797; Spain declared war against, 1801; invaded by the French under Junot, 1807 j the King and the members of the 676 PORTUGAL Court on the French invasion emigrated to the Brazils, Nov. 2, 1807 ; the French under Marshal Junot entered Lisbon, Nov. 29, 1807 ; Convention of Cintra signed, Aug. 30, 1808 ; Oporto besieged and captured by the French under Soult, Mar. 29, 1809 ; Sir Arthur Wellesley landed at Lisbon, April 23, 1809 ; the parliament of Gt Britain granted .100,000 to the sufferers in Portugal, 1811 ; Guiana ceded to France, 1814 ; Brazil united to Portugal, Dec. 28, 1815 ; re- volution in Oporto, Aug. 23, 1820, and in Lisbon, Sept. 15, became general, Aug. 24 ; Constitutional Junta formed, Oct. I ; they abolished the Inquisition, Jan. 26, 1821 ; constitution agreed to, Mar. 9 ; return of the Court, July 4 ; Brazil declared independent, the prince regent made emperor, Oct. 12, 1822 ; the constitution annulled, June 5, 1823 ; insurrection at Lisbon ; Don Miguel leaves, May 1-9, 1824; treaty made with Brazil, Aug. 29, 1825 ; John VI. died, Feb. 18, 1826 ; a constitution decreed by Pedro IV., April 29 ; the throne of Portugal transferred to Donna Maria da Gloria, daughter of Pedro IV., May 2 ; Don Miguel took the oath of fealty, Oct. 4 ; insurrection broke out, headed by the Marquess of Chaves, Oct. 6 ; the betrothal of Don Miguel and Donna Maria, Oct. 29 ; the assistance of Great Britain requested, Dec. 3 ; the first contingent of British troops left for the defence of Portugal, Dec. 17 ; bank of Lisbon stopped payment, Dec. 7, 1827 ; Don Miguel arrived in London, Dec. 30 ; returned to Lisbon, Feb. 22, 1828 ; made Regent, Feb. 26 ; Don Pedro abdicated, Mar. 3 ; the British contingent left the kingdom, April 28 ; withdrawal of the ambassadors, May 3 ; Don Miguel usurped the title of King, June 28, and dissolved the three estates, July 12 ; Madeira captured by the forces of the king, Aug. 24 ; Sir John Doyle permitted to leave the kingdom, Sept. 7 ; the Queen Donna Maria arrived at Falmouth, Sept. 24 ; landed, 25 ; arrived in London, Oct. 6 ; received by the king at Windsor, Dec. 22 ; failure of the expedition against Terceira, Aug. n, 1829 ; Brazil in revolt, April 7, 1831 ; Don Pedro came to England, June 16; the expedition against the Island of St Michael's defeated the Miguelites and captured Ribeira Grande, Aug. 2 ; insurrection in Portugal, more than 300 lives lost, Aug. 21 ; the expedition commanded by Don Pedro sailed from Belleisle, June 27, 1832; he landed at Oporto, July 8 ; Oporto successfully defended against the troops of Miguel, Sept. 29 ; Mount Covello captured, April 9, 1833 ; the squadron off Cape St Vincent captured by Admiral Napier, July 2 ; Lisbon evacuated by the Miguelite army, July 23. Donna Maria II. proclaimed Queen,. July 24 ; Oporto abandoned, July 25 ; the Queen arrived at Lisbon, Sept. 23. Don Miguel surrendered, May 26, 1834 ; allowed to leave the country, June 2 ; serious riots and loss of life at Lisbon, June 9 ; the Queen Maria declared by the Cortes to be of full age, Sept. 15 ; death of Don Pedro, Sept. 21 ; the marriage of Prince Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg with the Queen, Jan. i, 1836 ; Lisbon in revolt, Aug. 9 ; again, Nov. 8 ; the charter given by Don Pedro attempted to be enforced but failed, Aug. 18, 1837 ; General Saldanha and the Duke of Terceira escaped to England, Sept. 18 ; riots at Lisbon, Feb. 13, 1838 ; a new constitution agreed to, Mar. 21 ; insurrection in the northern provinces, April 14, 1846, and in Lis- bon, May 18-21 ; Don Miguel proclaimed King, June 16 ; the National Guards disarmed, Oct. 7 ; the ministry resigned, Oct. 31 ; the Queen's forces defeated the rebellious troops at Evora, Oct. 31 ; British squadron under Admiral Parker anchored in the Tagus, Oct. 31 ; the forces under the Marquess of Saldanha were successful at Torres Vedras, Dec. 22 ; the rebels entered Oporto, Jan. 7, 1847 ; a conference was held in London which advised the joint co-operation of France, England, and Spain to put a stop to the civil war, May 21 ; the leader, Sa da Bandeira, yielded to the Queen, June II ; the Junta, which met at Oporto, sent in their submission, June 26 ; the Conde de Thomar's ministry tendered their resignation to the Queen, in consequence of a military outbreak in Oporto, owing to arrests ordered by the Conde Casal, who was overpowered and quitted the city, when Marshal Saldanha was recalled, April 25, 1851 ; Marshal Saldanha PORTUGAL POSTAGE AND POST-OFFICE 677 entered the city on the 27th of April, and made it his head-quarters ; Marshal Saldanha and 3000 of his soldiers entered Lisbon, and were favourably received by the Queen, the Marshal being placed at the head of the ministry, May 22, 1851 ; constitution amended, July 5, 1852 ; the Queen Donna Maria II. died in childbed, Nov. 15, 1853 ; succeeded by Don Pedro V., his father made regent, Nov. 19 ; Pedro V. visited London and was received by Queen Victoria, June 3, 1854, and by the Corporation of London, June 19, they left London July 3 ; slavery abolished throughout the kingdom, Dec. 30 ; the young King assumed the government, Sept. 16, 1855 ; married the Princess Stephanie of Hohenzollern, April 29, 1857 ; the King made a Knight of the Garter, May 27, 1858; the Queen died, July 17; death of the King from typhus fever in his 25th year, Nov. n, 1861 ; Dom Luis I. proclaimed King, Dec. 23, 1861 ; Macao ceded to Portugal by the treaty of Tien-tsin, Aug. 13, 1862 ; the King married to the daughter of Victor Emanuel, Oct. 2 ; the birth of a prince is celebrated, Sept. 28, 1863 ; the abolition of hereditary peerage, May 27, 1864 ; the opening of the International Exhibition at Oporto, July 31, 1865 ; a royal decree promulgated opening all the ports for the admission of cereals at reduced duties, Aug. II, 1867 ; to remain in force to Dec. 31 ; the King and Queen visited France, July 20, afterwards visited Spain, returned Aug. 23. PORTUGAL, Sovereigns of. HOUSE OF BURGUNDY: Henry of Burgundy, 1095; Affonso I., 1112; Sancho L, 1185; Affonso II., 1212; Sancho II., 1223; Affonso III., 1248 ; Diniz, 1279 ; Affonso IV., 1325 ; Peter the Severe, 1357 ; Ferdinand I., 1367. HOUSE OFCIVIS: John L, 1385 ; Edward, 1433; Affonso V., the African, 1438 ; John II ., the Perfect, 1481 ; Manoel, the Fortunate, 1495 ; John III., 1521 ; Sebastian, 1557, slain in the great battle of Alcazar, in Africa, Aug. 4, 1578 ; Henry, the Cardinal, 1578 ; Philip II. of Spain, who united Por- tugal to his other dominions, 1580 ; Philip III., 1590 ; Philip IV., 1623 ; John IV., Duke of Braganza, dispossessed the Spaniards in a bloodless revolution, and was proclaimed king, Dec. I, 1640 ; Affonso VI., 1656 ; Peter II., Regent, 1667 ; made King, 1683 ; John V., 1706 ; Joseph, 175 > Maria Frances-Isabella and Peter III., 1777 ; Maria, alone, 1786; John, son of the Queen, and afterwards King, declared Regent of the kingdom, 1792 ; John VI., previously Regent, 1816, he had withdrawn in 1807, owing to the French invasion, to his Brazilian dominions ; the discontent of his subjects obliged him to return in 1821, died in 1826; Peter IV., son of John VI., making his election of the empire of Brazil, abdicated the throne of Portugal in favour of his daughter, 1826 ; Maria II., who became Queen at 7 years of age, 1826 ; Dom Miguel, brother to Peter IV., usurped the crown, 1828 ; Maria II. restored, 1833 ; declared in Sept., 1834, to be of age, and assumed the royal power accordingly, died in child-bed, Nov. 15, 1853; Pedro V. succeeded, Nov. 15, 1853; Dom Luis I. proclaimed, Dec. 23, 1861. POSEX, Prussia, formerly a part of the kingdom of Poland, given to Prussia at the partition of, in 1793 ; insurrection in, Feb. 14, 1846 ; and again in, 1848. POSING, in Hungary, 107 houses burned at, Sept. 7, 1784, and in April, 1803, 285 houses. POSTAGE AND POST-OFFICE. There has existed from the earliest times a system of postal service under the name of 'Cursus publicus.' A system was adopted by Alexander at Rome ; Charlemagne organized one in 807 ; the first regular post was instituted by the Hanse Merchants in the 13th century; in Eng- land the posting by stages adopted by Henry IV., 1481. Sir Brian Luke ap- Kinted postmaster, by Henry VIII., circa 1530 ; he was succeeded by Sir W. get and John Mason, in 1545. An act of parliament was passed for the hire of post-horses, and the rate fixed at id. per mile, 2 & 3 Edw. VI., c. 3, 1548. Thomas Randolph appointed postmaster, by Queen Elizabeth, 1581. James I. established a system of special posts, 1603 ; and appointed a Postmaster-general 6;S POSTAGE STAMPS POST-OFFICE for foreign parts, 1619. An Inland Office established by Charles I., and Thomas Witherings appointed postmaster, -July, 1635 ; letters carried at the rate of 20 miles a-day, the postage being at the rate of 4^. and 6d. Mails convey to France, Feb., 1638. The revenue farmed for 5000 in 1644. A postal system establish- ed by the Corporation of London, 1649. Mr Edward Prideaux, Attorney- General for the Commonwealth, instituted a weekly conveyance to all parts of the kingdom, 1649. The Inland and Foreign Posts farmed for 10,000 per annum, in 1653. An act was passed settling the system of postage in England, Scotland, and Ireland. An office established and one Postmaster-gen, and Comptroller, whose business was the regulating of the carrying of letters, by the Cromwellian parliament, 1656 ; confirmed by 12 Car. II., c. 35, 1660. Revenue of the post- officesettled upon the Duke of York by 15 Car. II., c. 14, 1663. The first working penny post established by Robert Murray, an upholsterer, in 1683, who was suc- ceeded by William Dockwra, whose head office was in Lime-street, City, and 6 others in London ; the letters were gathered and delivered by carriers ; it became a great success, and consequently the Government took it from Dockwra, and gave him a pen- sion of "500 a-year, in 1690, and made him postmaster, 1697. A half-penny post established by Mr Povey, in 1708, but abolished by the Government in 1709. An act was passed abolishing the previous act and amalgamating the postage system of England and Scotland, establishing packet boats and other means of carriage the postage for 80 miles 3^., if above, 4*/., and Edinburgh 6d., 9 Anne, c. 10, 1710. The amount of franked letters passing through the post in 1763, reached 170,000. Mr Palmer suggested the establishment of mail coaches to Mr Pitt, who directed the scheme to be tried, the first coach started, Aug. 8, 1 784, and Mr Palmer appointed Controller-General. The revenue under the old system in 1754 was, income 214,300, and net revenue ,97,365; in 1785, the first year of the new system, the net revenue amounted to 250,000. An act was passed in 1799 facilitating the transmission of ship letters. Robert Wallace, M. P. for Greenock assisted by Richard Filkin, M.D , of Richmond, originated the present postal arrangements, 1833-5. Four-penny post adopted, Dec. 5, 1839. The penny postage adopted, Jan. 10, 1840. The duties regulated by 2 & 3 Viet. c. 52, confirmed, and the mails to be conveyed by railways, by 3 & 4 Viet. c. 96, Aug. 10, 1840. The first mail run between Manchester and Liverpool, Nov. n, 1830. SCOTLAND: the post-office reorganized in, Sept., 1662; two-penny post established in, 1695 ; consolidated with England by 9 Anne, c. 10, 1710. IRE- LAND : a post-office established, 1656 ; additional chief letter-offices were estab- lished by 9 Anne, c. 10, 1710, in Edinburgh, Dublin, and New York. In 1784, the Irish post-office was established independent of that of England, by an act of the Irish parliament, 23 & 24600. III. c. 17 (I.), 1783, amended, 59 Geo. III. c. 108, July 12, 1819 ; but the offices of Postmasters-general of England and Ireland were united into one by I Will. IV. c. 8, March n, 1831. By 2 Will. IV. c. 15, March 24, 1832, the Postmaster-general is empowered to establish a penny-post office in any city, town, or village, in Ireland. The new post-office of Dublin was opened, Jan. 6, 1818. AUSTRIA : the penny postage adopted by, Sept. 26, 1849 ; in Belgium, March 8, 1849. The newspaper and book-post reduced to id. under 4 oz., June 4, 1855. The Metropolis divided into ten postal districts, Jan. I, 1858. POSTAGE STAMPS invented by Lieut. Trekenber, a Swedish officer, but re- jected by the Government, March 23, 1823. The Government issued a public invitation for a design, with a prize of 200 and 100 for the two best designs, Aug. 23, 1839. Stamps and envelopes first used, May 6, 1848. Machine for perforating, invented by Mr Henry Archer, in 1847, purchased by the Government for 4000, Aug. 5, 1853 ; France adopted it in 1849, and Germany, 1850. POST-OFFICE : the first in London established in Cloak Lane, Dowgate Hill, POST-OFFICE DIRECTORY POULTRY COMPTER 679 transferred to the Black Swan in Bishopgate-street, and after the fire of 1666 it was removed to Brydges-street, Covent Garden, and afterwards to the mansion of Sir Robt. Viners, in Lombard-street, 1748. Post-office erected in St Martin's le Grand from the designs of Sir R. Smirke, R.A., began, 1825, opened, Sept. 23, 1829. The Street Letter-boxes : the first erected at the corner of Fleet -street and Farringdon-street, March, 1855. POST-OFFICE DIRECTORY. The Little London Directory published by Sam. Lee in 1677 ; the first London Directory suggested by Mr James Brown of Kelso, Scotland ; published by Mr Henry Kent, "Kent's Directory," 1732. The Post- office Directory pure and simple, made its first appearance in 1 800, a duodecimo of 300 pages. POST-OFFICE SAVING-BANKS established, 24 & 25 VicL c. 14, May 17, 1861. POSTING and POST-CHAISES invented in France ; the price was fixed by 2 & 3 Edward VI. c. 3, at one penny per mile, 1548 ; none but the postmaster, or his authority, could furnish post-horses for the traveller, 1 660 ; a tax imposed upon post-chaises, 1779. POTASSIUM, discovered by Sir Humphrey Davy, 1807. POTATO, according to some authorities, brought to England by Sir Walter Ra- leigh, from Virginia, N. America, 1586 ; first grown in Ireland ; Gerard in his ' Herbal,' mentions that he had a plant from Virginia, and seedlings of it in his garden, in 1590; Sir R. Southwell informed the Royal Society that his grand- father first brought potatoes into Ireland, having received them of Sir Walter Raleigh ; esteemed a great delicacy, for it was noticed among the different articles provided for the Queen's household, 1619 ; first became an object of national im- portance to plant, 1662 ; in a report to the Royal Society, Linnasus endeavoured to introduce the use of the root into Sweden more extensively, 1764 ; first intro- duced into Kirkcudbright by William Hyland, 1725 ; a royal act issued to encourage it; first planted in open fields in Scotland, 1728; the cultivation general in England, 1745 ; a disease discovered in this useful vegetable which caused a failure of the crops in Ireland, 1845, producing famine and fever there to a very frightful extent. POTSDAM, Prussia, the cathedral of St Nicholas at, built, 1673-6 ; destroyed by fire, Sept. 4, 1795. POTTERY. The Hebrews made earthenware vessels in the wilderness, Ps. Ixxxi. 6. Majolica or Raffaelle ware made at Majorca in the I2th century ; from thence carried to Italy, 1115. Beauvais in France was the principal seat of the French potters in the I2th century. Enamelled pottery first manufactured in France, 1530; Palissy ware, 1545- Nuremberg had a celebrated manufacture, 1470-2 ; and they were also noted for a certain kind of glaze. Earthen vessels were used among the nobility in England in the I3th and I4th centuries. Wedg- wood ware first made at Burslem, 1759. Several Dutch potters settled in Lam- beth, and opened a manufactory of delft, 1640 ; one established at Fulham the same year ; at Bristol, 1787 ; and at Liverpool, 1674. POULTERERS' COMPANY, incorporated, 19 Hen. VII., Jan. 19, 1504 ; con- firmed, 17 Charles II., June 13, 1665 ; re-incorporated, 4 Will. & Mary, May 6, 1692 ; regulated by act of Common Council, Sept. 22, 1820. POULTRY COMPTER, London, one of the earliest places of detention for debt ; rebuilt after the fire by subscription, and opened, 1670 ; the only prison not attacked in the Gordon riots, 1 780 ; an act passed to enable the sheriffs to remove the debtors and prisoners in, to another place of confinement within the city, 44 Geo. III. c. 84, July 20, 1804 ; the prisoners were removed, Feb., 1813, and part of the prison sold by auction, Feb. 10, 1813 ; the rest taken down, 1817. 6So POUND PRAGUE POUND, in the time of the Saxons was the weight of 240 pence ; it is also said to have been in 671 a pound Troy of silver ; in the time of William Rufus, n oz. 2 dwt. of fine silver, and 18 dwt. of alloy, or the weight of fine silver in 2os. ; in 1087, II oz. 2 dwt., worth ^3 2s. of present money ; the oz. of fine silver was is. <)fyd., twelve times, which was the pound value, and the weight in tale was 12 OZ. POWDERHAM CASTLE, Devonshire, built, temp. William I. ; settled on Sir Philip Courtenay, 1350 ; taken by the Parliamentarians, under Col. Harrison, 1645 ; rebuilt, 1716-18. POWDERING the Hair. The custom is said to have arisen in France before the Revolution, and also in- England ; ladies used different coloured powders, some consisting of gold particles ; taxed first by Pitt, May 5, 1795. POWELL, the pedestrian, walked from London to York and back again in six days, Nov. 27, I773> above 402 miles ; he performed the same feat again, June 2O, /788, when he was 57 years old ; and again in 5 days 18 hours, Aug. 28, 1790. POWER-LOOMS, invented by Dr Cartwright, and patented, April 4, 1785 ; a second patent, Aug. i, 1787; number of, in England, 1835, 113,428; 1850, 288,336. POWHATTAN, an American vessel, lost on the Barnegal shoals, when 250 persons perished, April 15, 1854. POWIS CASTLE, Montgomeryshire, built, mo. POYNING'S LAW, one of those disgraceful statutes which once disfigured the Irish statute-book, so called from having been passed under the deputyship of Sir Edward Poyning, at Drogheda, 10 Hen. VII. c. 22, 1495 ; it gave the power of originating all public acts to the Crown, leaving the Irish parliament upon recog- nition the right of refusal ; repealed, 1782-5, with sundry others. PR^MUNIRE, statute enacting the offence of introducing any foreign power into the country, 35 Edward I. s. I, 1306 ; other statutes to the same end were passed temp. Edward III., but the common statute is that of 16 Rich. II. c. 5, 1392 ; it is by this statute, so utterly useless in modern times, that the pope is prevented from having a proper representative in England, under the invidious pretence that it will endanger the monarchy ; repealed, 19 & 20 Viet. c. 64, July 21, 1856. PRAGMATIC SANCTION, undertaken to limit the power of the pope, and settling the schism in the Church, 1438 ; also for settling the German Empire in the House of Austria, 1439 ; in I7I4> relative to the settlement of the crown in default of male issue ; and in 1722, when Joseph I. settled the crown on Maria Theresa, who succeeded to it, 1 740. PRAGUE, Bohemia, founded by the Emperor Charles II., 1361. In size and beauty it is the third city in Germany, and is strongly surrounded by fortifica- tions. The Hussites under Zisca rebelled, 1419, and defeated the emperor, 1421. The cathedral of St Vitus begun, 1343; finished, 1385. The university founded by Charles IV., 1348. Taken by the Saxons, 1631 ; by the Swedes, 1648; stormed by the French, 1741 ; by the King of Prussia, 1744. Insurrection in, and a provisional government established, June 6, 1848 ; the Princess Windisch- gratz shot, June 12; desperate street fights, June 16 and 17, and the Assembly dissolved. Peace between Austria and Prussia signed here, Aug. 23, 1866. PRAGUE, battles. The Imperialists defeated the Bohemians, Nov. 7, 1620 ; the Prussians, under Prince Henry, defeated the Imperialists, May 5, 1757 ; the Polish army defeated by the Russians, under Suwarrof, when 30,000 Poles were killed and wounded, Oct. 10, 1794 ; again defeated by the Russians, Feb. 24 and 25, 1831 ; the Russians defeated by the Poles, under Skrzynecki, with the loss of 4000 killed and wounded, 6000 prisoners, and 12 pieces of cannon, Mar. 31, 1831. PRAISE GOD BAREBONES PREMONSTRATENSIANS 681 PRAISE GOD BAREBONES, a parliament so called from the peculiar name attached to one of the members, July 4, 1653 ; it consisted of 120 members sum- moned by Cromwell, who sat for 15 months. PR AS LIN, Duke of, cruelly murdered his wife, the daughter of Marshal Sebas- tian!, in Paris, Aug. 17, 1847 ; the duke, to avoid capital punishment, took poison, of which he died. PRAYERS for the dead introduced into the Church, 190 ; to the Virgin Mary and Saints, by Pope Gregory, 593. PREDESTINATION taught by the Stoics and the earlier Christians, the contro- versy began about it in 450, in a belief that God has unchangeably appointed all that comes to pass ; supported by St Augustin, and taught by Lucidus, 470 ; Mahomet introduced the doctrine into the Koran, 614 ; opposed by the Arminians from their leader, 1602. PREMIERS OF ENGLAND, from 1754 to 1868 : Time in Office. Appointed. Years. Days. 1754 ... April '5 ... Duke of Newcastle 8. 52 1762 ... May 29 ... Earl of Bute o 322 1763 ... April 17 ... G. Grenville 2 87 1765 ... July 12 ... Marquis of Rockingham ... I 21 1766 ... Aug. 2 ... Duke of Grafton 3 179 1770 ... Jan. 28 ... Lord North 12 34 1782 ... Mar. 3 ... Marquis of Rockingham ... o 132 1782 ... July 13 ... Earl of Shelburn o 266 1783 ... April 5 ... Duke of Portland o 260 1783 ... Dec. 27 ... William Pitt 17 80 1801 ... Mar. 17 ... Lord Sidmouth 3 561 1804 ... May 12 ... William Pitt I 246' 1806 ... Jan. 8 ... Lord Granville I 64 1807 ... Mar. 13 ... Duke of Portland 3 102 1810 ... June 28 ... Spencer Perceval I 350 1812 ... June 8 ... Earl of Liverpool 14 307 1827 ... April II ... George Canning o 121 1827 ... Aug. 10 ... Lord Goderich o 168 1828 ... Jan. 25 ... Duke of Wellington 2 301 1830 ... Nov. 22 ... Earl Grey 3 231 1834 ... July II ... Lord Melbourne o 128 1834 ... Nov. 16 ... Duke of Wellington o 22 1834 ... Dec. 8 ... Sir Robert Peel o 131 1835 ... April 18 ... Lord Melbourne 6 138 1841 ... Sept. 3 ... Sir Robert Peel 4 87 1845 ... Dec. IO ... Lord John Russell failed to form a cabinet 1845 ... Dec. 20 ... Sir Robert Peel o 180 1846 ... June 26 ... Lord John Russell 5 239 1852 ... Feb. 22 ... Earl of Derby o 300 1852 ... Dec. 19 ... Earl of Aberdeen 2 45 1855 ... Feb. 5 ... Lord Palmerston 3 17 1858 ... Feb. 21 ... Earl of Derby I in 1859 ... June 13 ... Lord Palmerston 6 128 1865 ... Oct. 2O ... Earl Russell o 249 1866 ... June 27 ... Earl of Derby ... i 238 1868 ... Feb. 25 ... Mr Disraeli o 281 1868 ... Dec. 3 ... Mr Gladstone PREMONSTRATENSIANS, a religious order of canons, instituted in England, 682 PREROGATIVE COURT PRESTON 1120 ; approved by Pope Honorius II., 1126 ; a general permission granted to, to eat flesh, by Pius II., 1460. PREROGATIVE COURT for proving wills ; appeals from that court established to the judicial committee of the Privy Council, by statutes of Geo. IV. and Will. IV., 1830 ; closed, 20 & 21 Viet. c. 77, Dec. 9, 1857. PRESBURG, peace of, between France and Austria, in which Venice was ceded to Italy, Austria humbled, and the independence of the Helvetic republic estab- lished, Dec. 26, 1805. PRESBYTERIAN Meeting-House, the first in England is said by some authorities to have been erected at Wandsworth, Surrey, Nov. 20, 1572, but this is doubtful. PRESBYTERIANISM, the creed of Scotland, which repudiates the Episcopal government, and is' ruled, as it maintains, by the New Testament, through presbyters, ministers, or elders ; first General Assembly held, 1560 ; the Kirk restored to its privileges, 1689 and 1690 ; and secured in the Act of the Union with England, 1707; first adopted in France, 1561 ; the first synod held in Paris, r 5S9 J a synod held at Philadelphia, 1716 ; first Presbytery constituted, 1774. PRESCOTT, battle, between the revolted Canadians and the English ; the former were dispersed, with considerable loss on both sides, Nov. 1 7, 1 738. PRESIDENT, steam-vessel, started from New York for England, having onboard Lord Lennox, Power the actor, and many passengers, April, 1841, but never reached England ; her fate is still a mystery. PRESIDENT OF THE COUNCIL, first appointed, 12 Charles II., 1660, in the person of Lord Ashley. PRESNITZ, Bohemia, destroyed by fire, Aug. 14, 1811. PRESS, office of censorship established in France, Oct. 21, 1814 ; last act restrain- ing the liberty of, expired, 1694. The Star Chamber in England appointed a censorship of the press, and the number of letter-founders limited to 4, July n, 1637. Liberty of the press allowed in Denmark, 1770 ; in Tuscany, Dec., 1846 ; in Naples, Jan. 19, 1848; in Prussia, Dec. 5> 1848; in Austria, April 25, 1848; of conscience, published under Queen Mary, 1553; under Charles II., 1672, but soon revoked ; again published under James II., April 4, 1687. PRESS-GANG, first acknowledged by 2 Rich. II. c. 4, 1378; when first made, Read, a London alderman, pressed and sent off for refusing to pay a tax, 1544 ; punishment in temp. Henry VIII. ; any waterman on the Thames hiding himself during the press to be punished, 2 & 3 Phil. & Mary, c. 16, 1555 > no fisherman to be taken before approved of by the Justices, 5 Eliz. c. 5, 1562 ; protection granted to seamen under particular circumstances, 4 & 5 Anne, c. 19, 1705 ; 13 Geo. II. c. 17, 1740. PRESSING TO DEATH. Hugh Calverly, Esq., of Calverly, in Yorkshire, having murdered two of his children, and in a fit of jealousy stabbed his wife, re- fusing to plead, was pressed to death in York castle, 1605 ; this was called, stand- ing mute. PRESTON, Lancashire, taken and partly destroyed by the Scotch, under Robert Bruce, 1307; the Scots defeated by the English under Cromwell and Lambert, Aug. 17, 1648; the Jacobites defended the town for the Pretender, but were defeated, 1715 ; battle between the Scotch rebels, under Forster, and the British, under General Wills, when the latter investing Preston, the rebels laid down their arms the principals were secured, and many shot as deserters ; others were sent to London to be tried for high treason, Nov. 12, 1715 ; 7 were transported, 1716; 7 escaped from the Tower, 1716; 40 were discharged, July, 1716; 30 transported, mastered the ship, and escaped to France, 1716 ; 100 transported, 1717; 200 discharged. Library founded, 1761. The cotton trade introduced, 1791. PRESTON GUILD PRIMER 683 The town lighted with gas, 1818-19. Great strike at, which endured for 37 weeks ; 15,000 persons were out of employment, and involved 40,000 persons and their families in ruin, and inflicted a loss of half a million sterling, April 10, 1854. Great distress in, 25,000 persons out of employment, Nov. 17, 1857. The town- hall built from the design of G. G. Scott ; first stone laid, Sept. 2, 1862 ; opened by the Duke of Cambridge, Oct. 3, 1867, and two People's Parks opened the same day. The Wellington Mill destroyed by fire, the loss estimated at ^10,000, July 20, 1867. PRESTON GUILD, established, 1172. PRESTON, Somersetshire, 14 houses burned down, and many much injured by the fire, Dec., 1792. PRESTON PANS, battle, between the Scotch rebels, led by the Young Pre- tender, Charles Stuart, and the English under General Cope, -when the latter be- haved with great pusillanimity, and were defeated with the loss of 500 men, Sept. 21, 1745. PRETENDER, the, alias the Chevalier St George, alias James III. of England, as acknowledged by Louis XIV. of France, 1701, was the son of James II., the expelled monarch, and born 1688; he asserted his right, Aug. 29, 1714; 1 00,000 offered to apprehend him, Sept. 15, 1714 ; attempted to land in Scotland, Aug. 30, 1715 proclaimed by the Earl of Mar, and his standard set up at Braemar and Castletown, Sept. 6, 1715 ; at Lancaster, Nov. 9, 1715 ; landed at Peterhead, Dec. 26; made a public entry into Dundee, Jan. 5, 1716 ; sent an order to the lord mayor of London to proclaim him, Jan. 10, 1716 ; embarked for France from Montrose,the rebellion being suppressed, Feb. 5; landed at Grave- lines, Feb. 10; deprived Henry Lord Bolingbroke of his secretaryship, Feb. 25, 1716 ; obliged by the French regent to remove from Avignon to Italy, 1716 ; married the princess Sobieski, grand-daughter of the king of Poland, Aug. 21, 1718 ; joined Cardinal Alberoni in his scheme to disturb England, Dec. 29, 1718 ; received at Madrid as king of England, March 28, 1719 ; his son born, Dec. 20, 1720; in vain attempts again a rebellion in England, 1725 ; his princess retired to a convent, 1725 ; the Duke of Parma honoured him as king of England, July, 1728 ; his eldest son quitted Rome foi France, Jan. 9, 1744 ; died at Rome, Jan. 12, 1766. PRETENDER, the Young, or Prince Charles, born Dec. 20, 1720 ; reached France, Jan. 27, 1744 ; ^6000 offered by the city of Dublin for his apprehension, should he land in Ireland, March 7, 1744 ; the same sum by Edinburgh, should he land in Scotland, March 25, 1744 ; .30,000 offered by England for his person, if landed in any part of the British dominions, Aug. I, 1745 ; landed at Erisca, July 18, 1745, and proclaimed his father at Perth, Sept. 4, 1745 ; at Dundee, Sept., 1745 ; proclaimed in Edinburgh, Sept. 21, 1745 ; defeated General Cope at Prestonpans, Sept. 21 ; proclaimed at Ormskirk, Nov. 25 ; entered Derby, Dec. 5 > anc ^ worsted General Hawley at Falkirk, Jan. 17, 1746 ; defeated at Culloden, April 16, losing all his baggage, and becoming a wanderer for six months in the wilds of Scotland, and .30,000 offered for his person ; he escaped, after great hard- ships, from the Isle of Uist to Morlaix ; and died, March 3, 1788 ; his brother (calling himself Henry IX.), Cardinal York, born, March, 1725 ; died at Rome, 1807 ; he had received benefices from the pope, to the annual value of 20,000 crowns, in 1747. PRIDE'S PURGE. Colonel Pride, formerly a drayman, seized the Presbyterian members in the House of Commons, and confined them in a low room called the hdl, Dec. 5, 1648. PRIMER, the first book used in the instruction of children; so called from a book of Catholic devotion printed in English and Latin, circa 1540. 684 PRIMOGENITURE PRINTING PRIMOGENITURE, a usage from feudal times of barbarism, unknown in Eng- land before the reign of William the Conqueror, 1068 ; before that, the more rational mode of gavel-kind prevailed under the Saxons, by which estates were equally divided among the sons. PRIMROSE HILL, Middlesex, Sir Edmondbury Godfrey murdered at, his body discovered, Oct. 17, 1678 ; first lighted with gas, 1867. PRINCE, a steam transport, lost with a cargo valued at a million sterling, consist- ing of warm clothing, &c., for the British army in the Crimea, in the Black Sea, Nov. 14, 1854. PRINCE EDWARD'S ISLAND, N. America, discovered by Cabot, June 24, 1497 ; made a French settlement ; taken possession of by Great Britain, 1 758 ; confirmed to, and annexed to the Government of Nova Scotia, 1763 ; constitution granted, 1773 > named Prince Edward's Island, 1799. PRINCESS' THEATRE, Oxford-street, built, and opened with promenade con- certs, Sept. 30, 1840; sold for ^"16,400, Sept. 8, 1841 ; first opened for dramatic performances, Dec. 26, 1842. PRINT, the earliest known printed from a metal plate by Maso Finiguerra, 1460. PRINTERS accused of libels. Wm. Redmayne, for printing ' The State of Schism in the Church of England truly stated,' written by the Rev. L. Howel, sentenced to pay ^300, to be imprisoned 3 years, or till his fine was paid, to be bound in ;iooo and 4 sureties for good behaviour for life ; to lose his gown by the execu- tioner's hand, and to be twice whipped, 1717 thus did the judges in the reign of George I. emulate those of Charles I. and his Star Chamber ; Dalton, Dec., 1716 ; Mist, July, 1718 ; Matthews hanged, Oct. 30, 1719 ; Mist, Feb. 2O, 1721 ; S. Redmayne, July 2, 1 722 ; Richard Phillips, July 2, 1 723 ; Mist and Payne, July 8, 1724 ; Franklyn, for a libel in the Craftsman, Dec. 28, 1727 ; Knell and Clark stood in the pillory, protected by the mob, for libel in printing off Mist's Journal, one being a pressman, the other a compositor, journeymen, Aug. 24, 1729 ; Franklyn, July 20, 1731 ; Henry Haines, May 13, 1738, for printing the Crafts- man, that being adverse to the Walpole administration ; the libels generally political. These afterwards diminished in number, until the reign of George III., the celebrated prosecution of Wilkes, 1763 ; of W T oodfall for Junius' Letters, 1769, 1770 ; between 1790 and 1801, under the Pitt administration, they became very numerous ; from 1801 to 1807 there were fourteen only ; under the Perceval ad- ministration in three years, 42 ex-officio informations against printers were filed, and 14 carried on to trial ; Hone for his Political Tracts, 1823. PRINTERS, Master : these were limited in number, by the Star Chamber of Charles I., 1638 ; again, under William III., 1693 ; act expired, 1794. Printers to register their presses with the Clerk of the Peace, and to print their name and abode on every book, 39 Geo. III. c. 79, ss. 2333, J u ty I2 > 1799;. penalty for neglect reduced to ^"5, 2 & 3 Viet. c. 12, June 4, 1839. PRINTING. The most important of all mechanical arts, and the most generally useful. The honour of the invention has been claimed by several countries and by different cities, but it appears to rest between Strasburgh, Mentz, and Haarlem. The invention was known to the Chinese, circa 593, long before it came to Europe. The canonical books engraved on wood and printed, circa 982. Movable types in- vented in the nth century. The Emperor Khanghi ordered 250,000 copper types, and printed 600 volumes, 1662; Kienlung, 10,000, 1773. Koster of Haarlem used wooden blocks, 1428 or 1438, and movable type, 1440 ; the leaves when printed on were pasted together, as they were only printed on one side. Faust printed a book at Mentz, 1442. Guttenberg seems to have been the first who used cut metal types, and printed a Bible with them, 1450 55. Faust and Schcefter PRINTING d8 S printed a Psalter, Aug., 1457 ; first used cast-metal types, 1460 ; first printed in Greek types, 1465. Pagination and running titles first introduced at Cologne, by Arnold Therhoernen, 1470. 'The Game and Play of Chesse' was printed by Caxton,at Bruges, >ra 1475- The 'Diets and Sayings of Philosophers' was the first book printed in England, Nov. 18, 1477. Printing encouraged by I Richard III., c. 19, 1483-4. The first book printed with numbered pages, 1484. Italic type invented by Aldus Manutius, 1501. The first edition of Shakespeare's Plays printed, 1623. A decree of the Star Chamber issued for regulating printing and letter-founding, July I, 1637 ; first patent granted, 1691 ; all restraints upon, abandoned, 1695. The first types cast in England by Caslon, 1 720. Next to the types, the press was of great importance ; the construction of, little varied even to the beginning of the present century ; the first press set up in London by Caxton, at Westminster, 1476 ; improved by Blaew of Amsterdam, 1620 ; Nicholson secured a patent for one, 1790 ; the Stanhope press first came into use, 1806 ; Kcenig introduced a new press or printing-machine, 1811, and Applegarth subsequently; Clymer's Columbian press used, 1814. Kcenig applied steam-machinery for printing The Times newspaper ; the first copy of that journal printed by steam appeared, Nov. 29, 1814, after ,20,000 had been expended in bringing it into working condition ; rollers were substituted for balls, 1817 ; Messrs Cowper and Applegarth erected new machines for printing this journal, 1827, since improved by Hoe ; a machine invented by M. Marinoni, which prints 144,000 copies of newspaper an hour, 1867. The British and Foreign Bible Society printed the Bible in 150 languages, 1867. Stereotyping invented by William Ged, 1752 ; the present method in- vented by Mr Tilloch, circa 1799. Printing for the blind invented by Valentine Haiiy, in France, 1784. Printing by electro-blocks, invented by Mr Collins, March 9, 1835. The art of printing introduced into Batavia, 1707 ; Ceylon, 1737; Cape of Good Hope, 1806; Constantinople, 1726; Egypt, 1799; Greece, 1822; Iceland, 1531; Ireland, 1550; Lima, 1586; Libanus, the monks of, were printers, 1610 ; Massachusetts, 1639; Mexico, 1549; Moscow, 1553 ; New England, 1639 ; New York, 1693 ; Pennsylvania, 1686 ; -Sandwich Islands, 1821 ; St Petersburg, 1711. The following list will show the dates of some of the earliest printed works : PRINTING INTRODUCED IN THE I5TH CENTURY, AS FOLLOWS : Date PLACES. First Impressions, with known Date. Names of the First Printers. 1440 Haarlem. Spiegel onser Behouclenisse. Laur. J. Costerus. '457 Mentz. Psalmorum codex, in fol. Joan.Faust.& Petrus Schoef- fer. (Joan. Gutenberg.) 1461 Bamberg. Recueil des fables, germanice, fol. Albert Pfister. 1465 Subbiaco. Lactantii opera, 410. Conradus Sweynheim and Arnoldus Pannartz. I4<'>7 Rome. Ciceronis epistolae familiares, 4to. The same. Elfeld. Vocabularium ex quo, 410. Henry & Nic. Rechtennunt- ze, and Wigandus Spyes. Cologne. S. August, de Singul. clericor., 410. UlricusZell.orZell of Hanau 1468 Augsbourg. Meditationes vitae Christi, folio. Ginther Zainer, of Reutlingen 1469 Venice. Ciceronis epistolae familiares, fol. Joannes de Spira. Milan. Miracoli de la glor. V. Maria, 4to. Philippus de Lavagna. 1470 Nuremberg. Cornestorium vitiorum, fol. Joan. Sensenschmidt (1472). Paris. Epistola: Gasparini Pergamensis, Ulricus Gering,M. Crantz, & 4to. M. Friburger, of Colmar. Foligno. Leon. Aretini de Bello Italico, fol. .Emilien de Orfinis 686 PRINTING Date. PLACES. First Impressions, with known Date. Names of the First Printers. 1470 Treves. Hist, de indulgentia B. Francisci, Joan. Reynardus. 4to. Verona. La Batracomiomachia, 4to. Joan, de Verona (1472). 1471 Strasbourg. Gratiani decretum, folio. Henricus Eggestein (Johan. Mentel.). Spires. Postilla super Apocalypsim, 4to. Petrus Drach (1477). Treviso. Mercurius Trimegister, 410. Gerardus de Lisa, of Flanders Bologna. Ovidii opera, fol. Balthazar Azzoguidi. Ferrara. Martialis epigram., 4to. Andreas Belfortes. Naples. Bartholi de Saxo Ferrato lectura, Sixtus Riessinger, of Stras- fol. bourg. Pavia. Johann. MatthseideGradibus opera Anton, de Carcano, or de medica, fol. Carchano (1477). Florence. Comment. Servii in Virgil, fol. Bernard Cennini and son. 1472 Cremona. Angeli de Perusio lectura, fol. Dion, de Paravisino & Steph. de Merlinis de Leucho. Fivizano. Virgilius, fol. Jacobus, Baptista Sacerdos, and Alexander. Padua. La Fiametta di Boccaccio, 4to. Earth deValdezoohio&Mart. de Septem Arboribus. Mantua. Tractatus Maleficiorum, fol. PetrusAdam de Michaelibus. Montereal. S. Antonini de instruct, confes. Ant. Mathiae de Antuerpia, 4to. and Balthasar Corderius. Jesi. Comedia di Dante, fol. Fridericus Veronensis. Munster. Roderici speculum, fol. Helias Helye, ordeLouffen. Parma. Plutarchus de liberis educandis, Andreas Portilia. 4to. 1473 Brescia. Statuta Brixiae, fol. Thomas Ferrandus. Messina. Vita di S. Hieronimo, 4to. Henricus Aiding. Ulm. Opus de Mysterio missse, 4to. Joan. Zainer, of Reutlingen. Buda. Cronica Hungarorum, fol. Andreas Hess. Mersbourg. S. Aug.de Quaestionibus Orosii,4to. Lucas Brandis. Alost. Speculum conversionis peccator, Theodoricus Martens. 4to. Utrecht. Historia scholastica novi Testam. Nicolus Ketelaer, and Ger. fol. de Leempt. Lyon. Lotharii Diaconi cardinalis com- Bartholomaeus Buyer. pendium breve, 4to. St Ursio. J. Duns Scotus, super tertio sen- Joannes de Rheno. tentiarum, fol. 1474 Vicenza. Dita mundi, fol. Leonardus Achates, of Basle. Coma. Tractatus de appellationibus, fol. Ambrosius de Orcho, and Dionys. de Paravicino. Turin. Breviarum romanum, 8vo. Joh. Fabri and Joanninus de Petro. Genoa. Summa Pisanella, fol. Matthias Moravus and Mich. de Monacho. Savona. Boetius de Consol.philosophias,4to. Johannes Bonus. Eslingen. Th. de Aquino in Job. fol. Conradus Fyner. . Basle. Der Sassen Spiegel, fol. Bernardus Rich el (Berthol- dus Rodt.) PRINTING 687 Date. PLACES. First Impressions, with known Date. Names of the First Printers. 1474 Val. St Marie. Breviarium Moguntin., 4to. Fratres Vita: Communis. Valencia. Trobes de la S. V. Maria, 410. AJonzo Fernandez de Cordo- va and L. Palmar (1478). Louvain. Commoda ruralia, fol. Joannes de Westphalia. Westminster. The Game at Chess, fol. William Caxton. 1475 Lubeck. Rudimentum Novitiorum, fol. Lucas Brandis, of Schass. Blauburren. Ob ein Man sey zu nemem Weib, Conradus Mancz. &c. Cagli. Mafei Vegii de Morte Astianactis, Roberrus de Fano and Ber- 4to. nardinus de Bergamo. Casole. Vitae Sanctorum, 410. Jean Fabri. Modenae. Virgilius, fol. Joan.Vurster, of Campidonia. Perugia. Verulami, de Arte grammatica, Henricus Clayn, of Ulm 4to. (1476). PievediSacco Quatuor ordines, hebraice, fol. R. Mescullam, or Kotzi. Placenza. Biblia Latina, 410. Joan. Petrus de Ferratis. Reggio. R. Salomon Jarchi in Pentateuch- Abraham Garton. um, fol. Barcelona. Valasti de Tarenta, de Epidemia, Nicolaus Spindeler (1478). 4to. Saragossa. Manipulus Curatorum, fol. Matthaeus Flandras. 1476 Antwerp. Thesaurus pauperum, fol. Theodoricus Martins, ofAlost Bruges. Bocace, du Dechiet des nobles, &c. Colard Mansion. fol. Brussels. Gnotosolitos, fol. Fratres Vitse Communis. Rostock. Lactantii opera, fol. Fratres Vitse Communis. Polliano. Petrarca, degli huomini famosi, Innocentius Ziletus, & Felix 410. Antiquarius. Trent. De obitu pueri Simonis, 4to. Hermannus Schindeleyp. 1477 Delft. Biblia, belgice, fol. Jacob Jacobs, and Maurice Yemants. Deventer. Reductorium Bibliae, fol. Richard Paffroet. Gouda. Epistelem en evangelien, fol. Gerard Leu, or Leuw. Angers. Manipulus curatorum, fol. Joan, de Turre, and Joan. Morelli. Palermo. Consuetudines Panormi, 410. Andreas de Warmatia. Ascoli. Cronicade S. Isidore Menore, 4to. Guillelmus de Linis. Lucca. Les triomphes de Petrarque, fol. Barthol. de Civitali. Seville. Sacramentale, 4to. A. M. de la Talla, B. Segura, and Alonso del Puerto. 1478 Cosenza. DelF immortalitd dell' anima, 410. Octavianus Salomonius, of Manfredonia. Colle. Dioscorides, latinfe, fol. Joannes Alemanus, of Me- demblick. Chablis. Des bonnes moeurs, fol. Pierre le Rouge. Geneva. Le livre des Saintes Anges, fol. Adam Steynschawer, of Schuinfordia (1480). Oxford. Expositio in simbolum, 4to. Theodore Rood (1481). Eichstett. Summa hostiensls, fol. Michel Reyser. 479 Wurtzbourg. Breviarium herbipolense, fol. Stephanus Dold, Jeorius Ry- ser and Joan. Bekenhub. 6S8 PRINTING Date. PLACES. First Impressions, with known Date. Names of the First Printers. 1479 Zwoll. Sumulge Petri Hispani, fol. Joannes de Vollehoe. Pignerol. Boetius, de Consol. philosophise, Jacobus de Rubeis. fol. Tusculano. j^Esopi fabulas, 410. Gabriel Petri. Toulouse Tractatus de Jure emphiteotico, Joannes Teutonicus. fol. Poitiers. Breviarium historiale, 4to. Joan. Bouyer,and Guillaume Bouchet (1499). Lerida. Breviarium Illerdense, fol. Henrictts Botel. 1480 Oudenarde. Herm. de Petra Sermones, fol. Arnoldus Caesaris. Nonantola. Breviarium romanum, 410. Georgius and Anselmus de Mischinis. Reggio. Nic. Perotti Rudim. gram., 4to. Barthol. and Laurentius de Bruschis. Friuli. Platina de honesta voluptate, 4tQ. Gerardus de Flandria. Caen. Horatii epistolas, 410. Jac. Durandus, and Egidius Quijoue. 1481 St Albans. Laur. Guil. de Saona, Rhetorica No name. nova, 4to. Salamanca. Nebrixa, introductiones latinse, Leo Alemanus, and Lupus fol. Sanz (1496). Leipsic. Glosa super apocalipsim, 4to. Marcus Brand (1484). Casal. Ovidii Epist. heroides, fol. Guill. de Canepa Nova, de Campanilibus. Urbino. Vienna, Marii Phileiphi Epistolarium, 4to. Nic. de Clemangis de Lapsu Jus- Henricus de Colonia (1493). Pierre Schenck. France. titise, 410. Aurach. Leben der Heiligen, fol. Conradus Fyner. 1482 Zamora. Mendoza, vita Christi, fol. Antonius Centenera. Aquila. Vitas de Plutarcho, fol. Adam de Rotwil. Erfuhrt. Quaestiones in libros Arist. de Paulus Wider de Hornbach. anima, 4to. Memmingen. Fasciculus temporum, fol. Albertus Kunne. Passau. EpistoladeMorteS.Hieronimi,4to. Conradus Stahel, & Bened. Mayr. Reutlingen. Summa Pisani, fol. Johan. Otmar. Vienna, Aust. Manipulus Curatorum, 4to. Joh. Winterburg (1492). Promentour. Doctrinal de Sapience, fol. Louis Guerin. 1483 Magdeburg. Officium Missse, 4to. Albertus Rauenstein and Jo- achimus Westval. Stockholm. Dialogus creaturarum, 4to. Joh. Snell. Ghent. Guil., Rhetorica divina, 4to. Arnoldus Csesaris. Troyes. jBreviarium Trecence, 8vo. Guil. le Rouge (1492). Haarlem. Formulae Novitiorum, 4to. Joh. Andriesson. Culembourg. Speculum human. salv.belgice,4to. Jean Veldener. Leyden. De Cronike Van Holland, &c. 4to. Heynricus Heynrici. Pisa. Franc, de Accoltis consilia, fol. i Laurentius and Angelus Flo- rentini (1484). Gironne. Memorial del pecador, fol. Mathieu Vendrell. 1484 Bois-le-Duc. Tondalus Vysioen, 4to. i Ger. Leempt, of Noviomago. Winterberg. Albertus Magnus de Eucharistia. IJoannes Alacraw. PRINTING 689 Date. PLACES. First Impressions, with known Date. Names of the First Printers. Chamberri. Baudoyn, comte de Flandres, fol. Antonius Neyret. Breand - Lou- Le Songe de la Pucelle, 410. Robin Foucquet. dehac. Rennes. Sienna. Coustumes de Bretagne, I2mo. Paul, de Castro, lectura, fol. Pierre Belleesculee & Josses. Henricus de Colonia. Soncino. Delectus Margaritarum, hebraice, Joshua Salamon & associates. 4to. Novi. Summa Baptistiniana, 4to. Nicol Girardengus. M8S Heidelberg. Hugonis Sermones, fol. Fridericus Misch (1488). Ratisbon. Liber Missalis Ratisbonnensis, fol. Joan. Sensenschmidt and Beckenhaub. Vercelli. Nic. de Auxmosuppl. sum. Pisan., Jacobinus Suigus, of St Ger- 8vo. mano. Peschia. La Confessione de S. Bern, da Si- Franc. Cenni. enna, 410. Udino. Nic.,Perotti Rudim.grammat.,4to. Gerardus de Flandria. Burgos. And. Guterii opus grammatic., fol. Fridericus de Basilea. Iscar (Ixar). Jacobi ben Ascher, liber semitse No name. vitae, hebraice, fol. 1486 Abbeville. La Cite de Dieu de S. Aug., fol. Jean Du Pre & Pierre Gerard. Brunn. Agenda Chori Olomucensis, 4to. Conradus Stahel & Mattheus Preinlein (1491). Munster. Rudolphi Langi Carmina, 4to. Joannes Limburgus. Sleswick. Missale Sleswicence, fol. Stephanus Arndes. Chivasso. Angeli de Clavasio summa, 4to. Jacobinus Suigus. Viqueria. Alex, de Immola postillce, fol- Jacobus de Sancto-Nazario. Toledo. Petri Ximenez confutatorium, 4to. Joannes Vasqui (Vasquez). I 4 S 7 Besanon. Liber de Pestilentia, 4to. Jean Comtel. Gaeta. Formulario epistolare, 4to. A. F. (Andreas Fritag). Murcia. El Valerio de las Hist, de Espana, Lope de Roca. foL Rouen. Croniques de Normandie, fol. Guillaume le Talleur. 1489 Hagenau. Cornutus Joan. Garlandia, 410. Henricus Gran. Kuttenberg. Biblia, bohemice, fol. Martin Van Tischniowa. Lisbon. Rabbi M. Nachmanidis in Pent. Samuel Zorba and Raban fol. Eliezer. 1490 Orleans. Manipulus curatorum, 410. Matthieu Vivan. Ingolstadt. Rosarium celestis curias, fol. Joan. Kachelofen. 1491 Oporto. Statuta commun. Ripperiae, fol. Barthol. Zanni. Dijon. Cisterc. ord. privilegia, 410. Petrus Metlinger. Angouleme. Auctores VIII., Cato, Facetus, No name. &c., 410. Hamburg. Laudes B. M. Virg., fol. Joh. and Thomas Borchard. Nozani. P. Turretini disputatio Juris, fol. Henri de Colonia and Henri d' Harlem. '492 D61e. Joan. Heberling de Epidemia, 410. No name. Leiria. Proverbia Salom., hebraice, fol. Abraham Dortas. Tzenna. Psalterium B. M. V., 4(0. No name. '493 AIlKl. Alex, de Villa doctrinale, fol. No name. Clugni. Missale Cluniacense, fol. Michael Wenszler. Fribourg. S. Bonav. in IV. sentent , fol. Kilianus Piscator. 44 6go PRINTING PRINTS Date. PLACES. First Impressions, with known Date. Names of the First Printers. 1493 Lunebourg. Th. a Kempis, de Imit. Christi,8vo. Joan. Luce. Nantes. Les Lunettes des princes, 8vo. Etienne Larcher. Copenhagen. Regulas de fig. construe, grammat., Gothofricus de Ghemen. 4to. Valladolid. Notas del Relator, fol. Johannes de Fraucour. 1494 Monterey. Missale, fol. Gundilsalvus, Rod. de la Pa- sera, and J. de Porres. Prague. Breviarium, fol. Johannes Gherline. Oppenheim. Wigandi Wirt Dialogus apolog., No name. &c., 4to. H95 Forli. Nic. Ferretti de Eleg. ling. lat. Hieronymus Medesanus. servanda, 4to. Freisingen. Compendiosa mat. pro Juven. in- Joan. Schaeffier, form., 4to. Limoges. Breviarium Lemovicence, 8vo. Joan. Berton. Scandiano. Appianus, fol. Peregrinus de Pasqualibus. Pampeluna. Epdogo en medicina, fol. Arnaldus Guil. de Brocario. Schoenhoven. Breviarium Trajectense, fol. No name. 1496 Bar co. Selicoth, hebraice, fol. Gerson Mentzlan. Offenbourg. Quadragesimale de Litio, 4to. No name. Provins. La Regie des Marchands, 410. Guil. Tavernier. Tours. La Vie de St Martin., fol. Matthieu Lateron. Grenada. Franc. Ximenes de Vita Christ., fol. Menardus Ungut. H97 Avignon. Luciani Palinurus, &c., 4to. Nicol. Lepe. Carmagnole. Facini Tibergffi in Alex, de villa,&c. No name. I 49 8 Tubingen. Pauli lectura in primum Senten., Joan. Ottmar. fol. 1499 Treguier. Le Catholicon, fol. No name. Montserrat Missale Benedictinum, fol. Joan. Luchner Alemannus. Taragona. Missale Tarraconense, fol. Joh. de Rosembach. 1500 Cracovia. Ciceronis rhetor, libri IV., 4to. Joannes Haller.) Munich. Aug. Mundii Oratio., 4to. Joannes Schobser. 1500 Olmutz. Ang. de Olomvoz contra Walden- Conradus Bomgathem. ses, 4to. Pfortzheim. Joan. Altenstaig vocabularius. Thcmas Anselmus Badensis. Perpignan. Breviarium Elnense, 8vo. J. Rosembach de Heidelberg. Jaen. Petri Dagui, tractatus de diffe- No name. rentiis. 1501 Albi. Eneas Sylvii de amoris remedio, 4to. No name. Rhenen. Datleevenvan H.magetS. Kunera. No name. Amsterdam. Dionysius de conversione pecca- D. Pietersoen. toris, 8vo. PRINTING HOUSE, so called, one in Ipswich in Cardinal Wolsey's time, 1538; John Oswen, printer. PRINTS and Books, duties on ; by the 7 & 8 Viet. c. 73, Aug. 6, 1844, entitled ' An Act to Reduce, under certain circumstances, the duties payable upon Books and Engravings,' her Majesty, by order in council, may reduce the duties on foreign books and prints, in cases in which copyright is allowed to the country of export, under 7 & 8 Viet. c. 12, May 10, 1844 ; and may reduce the duties on books and prints, in favour of countries with which her Majesty has PRIORIES PRIVY COUNCIL 691 treaties of reciprocity. Schedule of new duties. Books : Works in the lan- guage or languages of the country of export, originally produced therein, or original works of that country in the dead languages, or other works in the dead languages with original commentaries produced in that country, 15^. per cwt. ; all other works published in the country of export, if printed prior to the year 1801, 2OJ. per cwt.; if printed in or since the year 1801, SOT.; prints or drawings, plain er coloured, %d. each ; prints or drawings, bound or sewn, \ l /td. the dozen. PRIORIES existed in England, 722 ; the alien priories seized upon by Edward I., 1215, when a war broke out between France and England generally seized on the breaking out of war, they were restored at the return of peace ; 1 10 dissolved and their estates vested in the crown by Henry V., 1414. PRISON DISCIPLINE, Society for the Improvement of, instituted, 1815 ; held its first public meeting, 1820. PRISONS. The laws regulating prisons, consolidated, 4 Geo. IV., c. 64, July 10, 1823. An act passed appointing Inspectors to insure uniformity of practice in the government of the several prisons in England and Wales, 5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 38, Aug. 25, 1835 PRISONS in London, with date of building, &c. : Brixton House of Correction, built, 1820. Clerkenwell House of Correction, built, 1616 ; rebuilt in 1826, and in 1846 ; enlarged, 1863. Clink, Southwark, burnt down, 1780. Coldbath Fields House of Correction, built under the 26 Geo. III. c. 55, 1786 ; opened, 1794. Fleet, built, 1780 ; taken down, 1848. Giltspur-street Compter, built, 1791 ; removed, 1854. Holloway, the city prison, built and opened, Oct 6, 1852. Horsemonger Lane, 1791-9. King's Bench, built before the reign of Richard II., partially burnt in 1780; and re-built, 1782-3. Ludgate made a prison for felons, 1218. Marshalsea, broken into, 1377 ; discontinued, 1842. Mil- bank Penitentiary, built, 1812 ; the name changed to the Milbank Prison, 1843 > regulated by 6 & 7 Viet. c. 26, June 27, 1843 ; amended, II & 12 Viet. c. 104, Sept 4, 1848. Newgate, built, 1218; restored after the fire of 1666, in 1672; burnt down, 1780; re-built, 1782; re-modelled, 1858-9. Pentonville model prison, established by 5 & 6 Viet. c. 29, June 18, 1842. Tothill Fields, built, 1618 ; new prison erected in 1834. Whitecross-street, Debtors' prison, built under the 52 Geo. III. c. ccix. July 29, 1812 ; opened, 1815. Wood-street Compter, established, 1555 ; removed, 1791. PRIVILEGED PLACES. White Friars, Savoy, Salisbury Court, Ram Alley, Metre court, Fuller's Rents, Baldwin's Gardens, Montague Close, or the Minories, Mint Clink, or Deadman's Place in Southwark, disenfranchised, 8 & 9 Will. III. c. 27, s. 15, 1697. PRIVY COUNCIL, a council instituted by Alfred the Great, 895 ; limited to 30 in number by Charles II., fifteen being the principal officers of state, the rest of the king's nomination ; only one council to be appointed for Great Britain, 6 Anne, c. 7, 1707 ; judicial committee of, appointed as a court of appeal, 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 41, Aug. 14, 1833 ; the judges are, the president of the privy council, the lord chancellor, such members of the privy council as may hold the office of lord keeper, or first commissioners of the great seal, lord chief-justice of the king's or queen's bench, master of the rolls, vice-chancellor, lord chief- justice of the common pleas, lord chief-baron, judge of the admiralty court, chief- judge of the court of bankruptcy, and others appointed by the king or queen, being privy councillors ; jurisdiction extended, 3 & 4 Viet. c. 65, Aug. 7, 1840 ; and again, 7 & 8 Viet c. 69, Aug. 6, 1844 ; lords justices, if privy councillors, to be on the judicial committee, 14 & 15 Viet. c. 83, s. 15, Aug. 7, 1851 ; duties of the registrar, 16 & 17 Viet. c. 85, Aug. 20, 1853. 692 PRIZE-MONEY PROTESTANTS PRIZE-MONEY is by Government divided into eight equal parts, and distributed in the following proportions : .Captains to have three-eighths, unless under the direc- tion of a flag-officer, who in that case is to have one of the said three-eighths ; Captains of marines and land forces, and lieutenants, &c., one-eighth ; lieutenants of marines, gunners, admiral's secretaries, &c., one-eighth; midshipmen, cap- tain's clerk, &c., one-eighth ; ordinary and able seamen, marines, &c., two- eighths. Given at St James's, April 17, 1793. London Gazette. The payment of, regulated by 54 Geo. III. c. 93, July 18, 1814. An act passed for consolidating and amending the laws relating to the payment of army prize-money, 2 & 3 Will. IV. c. 53, June 23, 1832 ; distribution to be made by the commissioners of the Admiralty, 2 & 3 Will. IV. c. 40, June I, 1832. PROBATE COURT, established under 20 & 21 Viet. c. 77, Aug. 25, 1857 ; amended 21 & 22 Viet. c. 95, Aug. 2, 1858. Power given to make a new court, 22 & 23 Viet. c. 16, Aug. 8, 1859. Sir Creswell Creswell appointed the first judge. Sir J. P. Wilde appointed judge, Aug. 28, 1863. PROBATE COURT, Ireland, established under 20 & 21 Viet. c. 79, Aug. 25, . 1857; amended, 22 & 23 Viet. c. 31, Aug. 13, 1859. PROFESSORS of Modern Languages and of Modern History, established at Cam- bridge by Geo. I., 1724. PROME, BURMAH, captured by the British, April 25, 1825; the Burmese forces defeated before, Dec. I, 1829 ; again taken by the British, Oct. 9, 1852. PROMISSORY NOTES, first allowed to be assignable, 1705 ; to be stamped, 1782 ; tax increased, 1804; again, 1 808 and 1815 ; an act passed to amend the laws relating to, and fixing the duty, 17 & 18 Viet. c. 83, Aug. 10, 1854. PROPAGANDA Fide, a celebrated college of the Roman Church, entitled Con- gregatio de Propaganda Fide, instituted at Rome by Pope Gregory XV., 1622. PROPAGATION of the Gospel in Foreign Parts, the Society incorporated by charter, June 16, 1701 ; its annual expenditure is over ,90,000. PROPERTY and Income Tax, attempt to inflict, lost in parliament, March 18, 1816; made 6^ per cent., 1805; 10 per cent., 1806; produced ^16,548,985, 1807 ; abolished, Mar. 18, 1816; renewed, June 22, 1842. See Income Tax. PROSTRATION at the Elevation of the Mass ordained by the pope, circa 1201. PROTECTIONISTS, a section of the Conservative party opposed to the repeal of the Corn Laws, separated from Sir R. Peel, 1846 ; dissolved, Feb. 7, 1853. PROTECTORATE. The Earl of Pembroke took this office, Oct , 1216 ; ceased with his death the same year. The Duke of Bedford entered upon his duties, 1422; ceased with his death, Sept., 1435. The Duke of Gloucester took the power, April, 1483, and assumed the royal dignity, June 26. The Duke of Somerset began, Jan. 28, 1547 ; resigned, 1549. Oliver Cromwell chosen, April 20, 1653 ; died, Sept. 3, 1658. Richard Cromwell assumed, Sept. 4; resigned, May, 1659. PROTESTANTS, the name first given in Germany to the followers of Luther, 1529 ; in a minority in the 2nd diet of Spires, when they protested against the doctrines of the Church of Rome, April 17, 1530 ; first took refuge in England, 1572; became formidable in France, 1576; they were tolerated in Germany, 1624; in Bohemia, 1707; in Hungary, 1784; in France, 1792; in Portugal, 1801 ; a plot discovered in Ireland for the massacre of, Oct. 23, 1641 ; expelled by George I., 1718 ; persecuted at Thorn, in Poland, Nov., 1724 ; protected by the emperor and king of Prussia, 1731 ; a Protestant minister hanged for assem- bling a congregation in France, 1 732 ; in Bohemia, many persecuted, 1 735 ; leave Bohemia for Georgia, and settle there, 1735 ; the number in Ireland, 96,067 families,' Nov., 1741 ; persecuted again in France, I75 2 > PROTESTANT ASSOCIATION PRUSSIA 693 PROTESTANT ASSOCIATION, connected with Lord Gordon riots, 1780; the present society instituted, 1835. PROTESTANT COLONIZATION SOCIETY, Irish, established in Dublin, Dec., 1829. PROTESTANT CONSERVATIVE SOCIETY of Dublin, an Orange associa- tion, formed, Dec., 1831. PROTESTANT SUCCESSION regulated by 13 & 14 Will. III. c. 6, 1701 ; 4 & 5 Anne, c. 8, 1705 ; 6 Anne, c. 7, 1707. PROVERBS. The author, Solomon, has divided his work into 5 parts : The first 9 chapters is the preface, containing admonitions and directions ; his proverbs occupy the next 15 chapters, circa B.C. 1000 ; the proverbs copied by the men of Hezekiah from chapter 25 to 30 ; the words of Agur occupy the 3Oth chapter ; and the instructions of Solomon's mother, Bathsheba, the last, B.C. 750. PROVISIONS, prices of, temp. Henry I. : wheat, to make bread for 100 men for one day, might be had for is. od. ; a sheep, $d. ; wine, 6d. per quart, for red ; Sd. for white, 1200 ; wheat, is. per quarter, 1286 ; wheat sold for 2Os. the quarter (about 6 sterling now), Oct., 1192 ; provisions so scarce in 1316, that parliament fixed the prices at idr. for an ox, I2s. for a cow, a 2-year old hog, $s. 4*/. ; a sheep unshorn, u. &d., shorn, is. zd. ; a goose, 2y 2 d. ; a capon, 2d. ; a hen, id. ; eggs, 24 for id. ; a quarter of wheat, beans, or pease, 2Os. Henry VIII. enacted that French wine should be sold at 2d. per quart, sack at 3 he abolished all fiefs, 1717; Potsdam founded, 1721; assisted Austria with a force of 10,000 men, 1735 > reign of Frederick II., or the Great, during which the Prussian monarchy was made to rank among the first powers in Europe, May 31, I74j Breslau ceded to Prussia, 1741; Silesia, Glatz, &c., ceded, June II, 1742; Friesland annexed to the country, 1744; Frederick the Great visited England, 1744 > an alliance is made with England, Jan. 16, i"J$6; the Seven Years' War began, Aug. 31 ; a treaty of partition of Prussia between France and Austria signed, May I, 1757 > Frederick II. defeated at Kolin, June 18 ; the Russians invaded the country and several battles were fought, 1757 1759. General Lacy, with the Austrian and Russian forces, marched to Berlin, which they took, and levied a contribution upon the citizens of 800,000 guilders and 1, 900,000 crowns; they destroyed the magazines, arsenals, and foundries, Oct. 9-10, 1760. Treaty of peace of Hubertsberg signed, Feb. 21, 1763; Prussia joins the armed neutrality, May 8, 1 781 ; Frederick the Great died, Aug. 1 7, 1 786; an alliance formed between Prussia and England, 1 790; the order of the Black Eagle founded by Fred- erick I. , Jan. 1 7, 1 791 ; war declared against France, 1791; they invaded that country, 1792 ; Poland invaded and Dantzic captured next year ; treaty of peace signed, 1 795 ; part of Poland added to Prussia, 1 795 ; the Prussians took possession of Han- over, April, 1806 ; joined the allies of England against France, Oct. 6 ; the army Under Prince Louis defeated by Napoleon at Saalfeld, Oct. 10 ; battle of Jena, Oct. 14 ; Berlin decree promulgated, Nov. 20 ; peace of Tilsit, July 9, 1807 ; Con- vention of Berlin, Nov. 5, 1808; Prussia joined the allies, March 17, 1813 ; defeated at Dresden, Aug. 26 ; the Prussians lost 14,000 in killed alone in this campaign ; treaty of Paris signed, April II, 1814 ; the king visited England, and entertained at Guildhall, June 18; union of the Lutheran and Calvinistic Churches, in 1817 ; congress of Carlsbad, held Aug. I, 1819 ; Marshal Blucher died in Silesia, aged 77, Sept. 12 ; formation of the Zollverein, 1823; extended, 1841; the railway from Berlin to Kothen opened, Sept., 1841 ; the Cologne Cathedral opened, Oct. 15 ; first meeting of the estates of the whole kingdom, Oct. 19 ; the censorship of the press abolished, Oct. 10, 1842 ; serious attempt on the life of the king, by an assassin named Tesch, July 26, 1844 ; the king visited England and stood sponsor for the Prince of Wales, 1842; invasion of Schleswig-Holstein, April 6, 1848 ; a new constitution granted, May 22 ; riots in Berlin, June 10; armistice concluded, Aug. 26; Berlin declared in a state of siege, Nov. 12 ; the Assembly dissolved by force, Nov. 13 ; the constituent assembly held their sittings in Brandenburg castle, Nov. 29 ; the Assembly is dissolved, the king issued a new constitution, Dec. 5 > Prussia declined the imperial crown offered to it, Jan. 23, 1849 ; renewal of hos- tilities in the Duchies, in April ; the German National Assembly elect the king of PRUSSIA 695 Prussia 'hereditary emperor of the Germans,' March 28 ; the king declined the imperial crown, April 28 ; royal ordinance, placing the kingdom under martial law, May 10 ; the Prussians entered Carlsruhe, June 23 ; armistice between Prussia and Denmark, July 10 ; Hamburg occupied by a German force, Aug. 14 ; Bavaria declared an imperial constitution, with the king of Prussia at its head, Sept. 8 ; treaty between Prussia and Austria, Sept. 30 ; Austria protested against the alliance of Prussia with the minor states of Germany, Nov. 12 ; constitution granted, Jan. 31, 1850 ; the king took the constitutional oath, Feb. 6 ; Hanover withdrew from the Prussian alliance, Feb. 21 ; treaty signed at Munich, between Austria, Bavaria, Saxony, and Wurtemburg, to maintain the German union, Feb. 27 ; Wurtemburg denounced the insidious ambition of the king of Prussia, a league made with Wur- temburg, Bavaria, and Saxony, March 15 ; attempt to assassinate the king, May 22 ; Hesse-Darmstadt withdrew from the Prussian league, June 20 ; treaty of peace between Prussia and Denmark, July 2 ; a congress of deputies from the states included in the Prussian Zollverein opened at Cassel, July 6 ; Prussia refused to join the diet of Frankfort, Aug. 25 ; the king visited the emperor of Russia, May 1 8, 1851 ; Exhibition opened at Berlin, May 28, 1852; the king visited Vienna, May, 1 85 3; the naval and military department separated, Nov. 14; International Copy- right convention concluded with England, Nov. 9, 1855 ; the constitution amended, May 15, 1857 ; treaty of peace signed with Switzerland, May 26 ; the Crown Prince made regent on account of the illness of the king, Oct. 23 ; treaty between Her Majesty Queen Victoria and the king of, for the marriage of the Princess Royal with the Prince Frederick William of Prussia, Dec. 1 8, 1857 ; marriage celebrated, Jan. 25, 1858; visited by Queen Victoria and Prince Albert, Aug. 10 ; the Crown Prince made regent, Oct. 9 ; the Princess Frederick William gives birth to a son, Jan. 27, 1859 ; to a daughter, July 24, 1860 ; the military re- organized by the Prince Regent, Jan., 1 860 ; Jews admitted to hold offices, April 25 ; the Prussian Chamber declare their intention to aid Schleswig-Holstein against Denmark, May 4; meeting of the German sovereigns with Napoleon III., at Baden-Baden, June 1 6, 17 ; William I. ascended the throne, Jan. 2, 1861 ; attempt made to assassinate the king at Baden, July 14 ; assumed the title of Dei Gratia, in Oct. ; a new Commercial Code passed by the Chamber, June I ; the king crowned at Konigsberg, Oct 18 ; the parliament dissolved, March II, 1862; a new one assembled, May 19 ; they reject the policy of the government, Sept. 23 ; Count Bismarck appointed prime minister, Sept. 28; the Representative Chamber closed by a decree of the king, Oct. 13, and the king declared his intention to act without them ; the Crown Prince remonstrated against the acts of his father, May 31, 1863 ; a decree issued suppressing the journals having a contrary view, June I ; the Crown Prince protested against it, June 3; meeting of the king and the emperor of Austria at Gastein, Aug. 2; the decree against the press withdrawn, Nov. 21 ; the Chamber declared in favour of recognizing the rights of Schleswig-Holstein, Dec. 2 ; an ultimatum is addressed to Denmark, Jan. 16, 1864 ; the united Austrian and Prussian force entered Holstein, Jan. 21 (see Denmark) ; the Chamber refused to vote money for the carrying on of the war, Jan. 22 ; the Chamber closed, Jan. 25 ; conference upon this question held in London, April 25 ; Count Bismarck visited Napoleon III. at Paris, Oct. 21 ; peace concluded with Denmark, Oct. 30 ; Kiel made an Austrian port in March, 1865 ; a commercial treaty signed with England, May 30 ; Kiel made the principal depot of the fleet, June 24 ; the Gastein convention signed, Aug. 14 ; meeting of the king with the emperor of Austria at Salzburg, Aug. 20 ; Count Bismarck visited the Emperor Napoleon at Paris, Nov. 4 ; the Chamber of Deputies closed by the king, Feb. 23, 1866 ; circular despatch sent to the minor states requiring them to decide which power they should side with in the coming struggle, March 24 (see Austrian Prussian War) ; attempt to assassinate Count Bismarck, the prime minister, by Blind, May 7 ; the Germanic confederation dissolved, July 16 ; the 696 PRUSSIA PRUSSIAN AUSTRIAN WAR. order of the Black Eagle conferred on Gen. Von Moltke, July 27 ; the Order of Merit given to Prince Charles and Adelbart, July 31 ; fetes given to the army at Berlin, Sept. 20, 21 ; the territories of Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, Nassau, and the free town of Frankfort annexed to Prussia by vote of the Prussian deputies, Aug. 17 ; and by treaty, Schleswig-Holstein and Lauenburg were united to Prussia* the territory of Prussia was increased from 127,350 square miles to 160,000- her population from 19,000,000 to 23,000,000 ; practically Northern Germany was united by the end of Oct., 1 866 ; the Czar of Russia arrived on a visit to the king at Berlin, May 30, 1867 ; returned to Potsdam, June 16 ; the Sultan conferred the order of Osmanlie upon the king, July 27 ; the first diet of the North German parliament opened by the king, Sept. 10 ; the new flag of the North German confederation hoisted, Oct. I ; circular issued by Count Bismarck with reference to the meeting of the emperors of the French and Austria at Salzburg, Sept. 7 ; meeting of the king of Prussia with the emperor of Austria at Oss, Oct. 21 ; the Prussian Chamber opened by the king, Nov. 15. PRUSSIA, rulers of: AlbrechtL, first elector of Bran- Joachim II. 1535 denburg 1157 John-George 1571 Otho I. ... ... ... 1170 Joachim-Frederick ... ... 1598 Otho II. ... ... ... 1184 John-Sigismund ... ... ... 1603 Albert II 1206 " mnrvc _ . i r-v t T T-T *' ^ "ii'O. John I. and Otho III. ... 1221 T , c . - , , .. Tohnll 1266 John-Sigismund 1616 ffiiv T282 George- William 1619 Waldemar '" lloo Frederick William, his son ; sur- HenrvT ,? named the ' Great Elector ' ... 1640 nenryi ... 1319 Frederick, son of the preceding, Lou!!n I 3 3 5 2 2 3 crowned king, Jan. i P 8,i 7 oi S '. l6 88 Otho V 1365 KINGS. Wenceslas of Luxemburg ... 1373 Frederick I., king ... .. 1701 Sigismund of Luxemburg ... 1378 Frederick William I. ... ... 1713 Jossus, the Bearded ... ... 1388 Frederic II. (styled the Great) ... 1740 Sigismund again ; emperor ... 1411 Frederick William II. ... ... 1786 Frederick I. of Nuremburg ... 1415 Frederick William III. ... ... 1797 Frederick II. ... ... ... 1440 Frederick William IV., son of Albert III. ... ... ... 1470 the last monarch ; succeeded, John III., the Cicero ... ... 1486 June 7 .. ... 1840 Joachim 1 1499 William I., Jan. 2, 1861 PRUSSIAN AUSTRIAN WAR. Treaty of alliance offensive between Prussia and Italy, March, 1866 ; the army placed on a war footing, May ; Prussia in- vaded Holstein, May 7 ; the army mobilized, June 14 ; invaded Saxony, June 16; a war manifesto issued by Austria, June 17 ; the Austrians defeated at Miinchen- gratz, June 28, and at Nachod and Trautenau, June 27 ; the town of Gitschin captured ; the forces under Clam Gallas defeated by the Prussians under Prince Frederick Charles, June 29 ; the Austrians defeated at Koniggratz, July 3 ; Hanover having sided with Austria, the army was placed on a war footing, and marched to join the Austrians ; defeated the Prussians near Merxlelen, June 27, but surren- dered at Langensalza, June 28 ; Frankfort occupied, July 14; Briim occupied, July 12. Italy declared war against Austria, June 20 ; the army, under General del la Marmora, defeated at Custozza, June 23. The Italian fleet, commanded by Admiral Persano, defeated at Lissa by the Austrian fleet, commanded by Ad- miral Tegethoff, July 20. The volunteers, under Garibaldi, assembled at Como in the month of June ; attacked the Austrians at Monte Suello, and were defeated, Garibaldi being wounded, July 3 ; the army, under Gen. Cialdini, took possession of PRUSSIAN-BLUE PULTOWA 697 Padua and Rovigo ; an armistice declared for 5 days, July 22 ; another armistice agreed, Aug. 13 ; treaty of peace signed between Prussia and Austria, Aug. 23 ; triumphal entry of the Prussian army into Berlin, Sept. 20; treaty of peace signed with Italy, Oct. 3. PRUSSIAN-BLUE, discovered or invented by a native of Berlin, 1707. PRUSSIAN COMMERCIAL LEAGUE, called the Zollverein, established 1828 ; first made operative, 1834 ; comprising Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, Wurtemburg, Hesse, Electorate and Duchy of, Thuringia, Baden, Nassau, and Frankfort ; it includes 25,324,668 persons ; dissolved, 1866. PRUSSIC ACID, first described by Scheele, 1782. PRUTH. This river was constituted the boundary between Russia and Turkey by the treaty of Bucharest, May 28, 1812. PRYNNE, WILLIAM, born at Swainswick, near Bath, 1600 ; persecuted in the infamous Star-chamber court for publishing his Histriomastix, reflecting on the ministers for countenancing stage-plays, masquerades, and immoralities; fined ^500, expelled from Oxford and Lincoln s Inn, disabled from practising the law, sentenced to be placed in the pillory, lose both his ears, and to be imprisoned for life, Feb., 1633 ; the Four Inns of Court got up a masque at Whitehall to please the king by showing their contempt for Prynne, who was placed in the pillory, May, 1634 ; again stood in pillory, and branded on both cheeks S. L., June 30, 1637 ; took his seat in the Long Parliament, 1640 ; arrested by the army, Dec. 6 ; died, Oct. 24, 1669. PSALMANAZAR, GEORGE, a noted impostor, who pretended to be a Japan- ese, and actually invented a language after the rules of grammar ; born, 1679 ; died 1 763, aged 84. PSALMS OF DAVID, turned into rhyme by Sternhold and Hopkins, called the Old Version, 1562 ; the New Version, by Tate, published, 1698. PUBLIC BATHS AND WASH-HOUSES. Committee appointed to promote the establishment of, 1844; an act passed for encouraging the establishment of, in England, 9& 10 Viet. c. 74, Aug. 26, 1846 ; amended by io& n Viet. c. 6r, July 2, 1847 ; in Ireland, c. 87, Aug. 26, 1846 ; the first establishment was opened in Liverpool, by Mrs Wilkinson. A list of establishments opened in London : Glasshouse-yard, London Docks, May, 1845; George-street, Euston-square, Aug., 1846; Goulston-street,Whitechapel, July, 1847; Great Smith-street, Westminster, May, 1851; Greenwich, 1851; Lisson Grave, Marylebone, 1849; Orange-street, Leicester-square, Jan., 1849. Several have since been erected, under the acts of parliament before recited, in London and many provincial towns. PUBLIC FUNDS, originated at Florence, 1344. PUBLIC HOUSES. The number of houses licensed in towns fixed: London, 40 ; York, 8 ; Norwich, 4 ; Westminster, 3 ; Bristol, 6 ; Lincoln, 3 ; Oxford, 3 ; Cambridge, 4, &c., 7 Edw. VI. c. 5, 1533. Not allowed to open their houses during the hours of 10 till r, on the Sabbath-day, 1536 ; a power of licensing them conferred on Sir Giles Mompesson and Sir Francis Mitchel, for their own profit, 1621, by James I. ; in 1790, the number in England was 76,000; an act passed regulating the hours of closing in London and other large towns, 27 & 28 Viet. c. 64, July 25, 1864. PUDDINGTON HALL, Cheshire, erected, 1757 ; destroyed by fire, Dec. 12,1867. PULLINGER, GEORGE, the cashier of the Union Bank, arrested for embezzling 263,000, April 26, 1860 ; found guilty, and sentenced to 22 years' penal servitude. PULTOWA, battle, between Charles XII. of Sweden and Peter the Great of 698 PULTUSK PURE LITERATURE Russia, in which Charles was vanquished, and obliged to fly to Bender in Turkey JulyS, 1705. PULTUSK, battle, between the French and the Russians, Dec. 26, 1806, in which the former obtained the victory. PULVIS FULMINANS, said to have been discovered by Roger Bacon, 1290. PUMPS, in general use in England, 1425 ; air pump invented, 1654 ; improved by Boyle, 1657. Mr Appold exhibited his centrifugal pump, 1851. PUNIC WARS. 1st, Rome against Carthage, B.C. 246; concluded, 241. 2nd, Carthage against Rome, 218; concluded, 201. 3rd, after besieging the city of Car- thage for three years, they captured and burnt it ; it was in flames for 17 days, 147. PUNISHMENTS, CAPITAL. The heads of those executed were ordered to be stuck up on Temple Bar or London Bridge ; dozens together were displayed on the Bridge ; after the defeat of Faulconbridge, his head, and the heads of nine others, were stuck upon ten spears on, .1471 ; at a later period the head of Fisher, Bishop of Rochester, was put up here ; the legs of Sir Thomas Wyatt, the son of the poet, were exhibited from the same spot ; Andrew Aubrey, Mayor, ordered seven skinners and fishmongers, whose offence was rioting in the streets, aggravated by personal insult, to be beheaded without trial ; their heads were also exposed on the bridge, 1340 ; Jack Cade, in the fervour of his suc- cesses, set up Lord Saye's head at the same place ; Hentzner, the German traveller, states, that when 'he visited England, in 1598, temp. Eliz., he counted no less than 30 heads upon this bridge. The following is a bill of a hangman for hanging, embowelling, &c., some 34 rebels in the year 1715 : Jan. 1 7, Erecting gallows ; paid for materials, hurdle, fire, cart, &c. ; executing Shuttleworth and 4 more, at Preston, and setting up their heads, &c. &c. ... ... ... 12 o 4 Feb. 9, Dismemberment on executing old Mr Chorly, and set- ting up a head, &c. : ..". ... ... 5 10 6 Feb. 10, Charge at Wigan on executing Blundell, &c 712 Feb. n, Charge at Manchester, executing Syddal , &c. ... 8 10 o Feb. 1 6 ) Charge at Garstang and Lancaster on executing at and 18, \ either place ... ... ... ... ... ... 22 o 8 Feb. 25, Charge for executing Bennet and 2 more, at Liverpool 1030 Payd 2 executions' ... ... ... ... ... 60 o o Payd for horses to carry the executioners to the several places of execution, and travelling charges ... 7 10 o Total 132 15 JT The under-sheriff and jailer's expenses not included. A commission appointed to inquire into, July 28, and Jan. 28, 1864-5 > made their report, recommending the abolition of, Jan. 8, 1866 ; ordered to be carried out inside the prison, 31 & 32 Viet. c. 24, May 29, 1868. PUNJAUB, Hindustan. The Sikhs crossed the Sutlej, Dec. n, 1845 ; defeated by the English, under Lord Gough, at the battle of Moodki, Dec. 18 ; stormed Firuzshahr without success, Dec. 2 1 ; in the battleof Sobraon the Sikhs were defeated with a loss of 5000 killed, and all their guns, Feb. 10, 1846 ; treaty concluded, giving up to the English all the territory south of the Sutlej, March 9, 1846 ; in- surrection in, Mr Van Agnew and Lieut. Anderson murdered, April 18, 1848; Moultan taken by the English, Jan. 2, 1849 ; the battle of Chilianwala fought, Jan. 15 ; the Sikhs totally defeated at Guzerat, Feb. 21, 1849 ; the Punjaub annexed to the English dominions, March 29 ; the canal of Baree dooab completed, 1854. PURE LITERATURE, society instituted in London for the publication of, 1854. PURGATORY PYRAMIDS 699 PURGATORY, doctrine of, invented by the Roman Catholics about 250 ; became a confirmed article of the Church of Rome, by Gregory the Great, in the 6th cen- tury ; positively affirmed as a doctrine, 1 140 ; made an article of faith by the Council of Trent ; it implies a middle place between heaven and hell, where the soul remains purifying by fire before it can enter heaven. PURIFICATION OF THE VIRGIN MARY, feast of, established by the Catholic Church, Feb. 2, 552, in honour of the Virgin going to the temple, in pursuance of the Jewish custom of making an offering after childbirth ; this cere- monial was ordered to be accompanied with wax tapers by Pope Sergius I., whence comes the name of Candlemass. PURITANS. Upon the accession of Queen Mary the penal laws against heretics revived and numbers of the clergy settled abroad. Those settled in Frankfort agreed to conduct their worship without answering aloud after the minister, and without using the surplice, 1554. The circulation of Puritan works forbidden, 1566. They chose a minister and deacons, and established a church at Wands- worth, 1572. The other refugees agreed to conduct the service according to King Edward VI.'s service book, and they were called Conformists by the Act of Uniformity, 1662 ; 2000 intruders were obliged to quit the Established Church, 1662. A considerable number emigrated to America in 1620. The colony of Connecticut founded by, 1636. The name changed at the Restoration to Pro- testant Non-conformist, 1662. An act passed for the toleration of, I Will. & Mary, c. 18, 1688. PURPLE, a colour given in great perfection in ancient Tyre, it is said, through a dye obtained from a peculiar shellfish ; this colour has been used in all ages for the apparel of kings, whence cardinals and bishops adopted it by licence of Pope Paul II., 1465. PUSEYISM, the term given to a recent attempt to follow the example of Laud, temp. Charles I., and approximate the Church of England as closely as possible to the papal superstition ; so called from Dr Pusey, and originated at Oxford, near which an imitation of monastic cells and discipline was set up at Littlemore ; the heads of the University condemned the attempt which was thus made, under the name of Tractarianism, by resolutions, Mar. 15, 1841; Puseyism, and a no- torious sermon preached by Dr Pusey, again condemned, May 30, 1843; many of the clergy who became the disciples of Pusey and Keble have already gone over to the Church of Rome. PUTNEY, Surrey. Bridge built under an act passed 12 Geo. I. c. 36, I7"25 ; finished, 1729. David Hartley built a fire-proof house upon the heath, 1776; obelisk built by the Corporation of London to commemorate, Nov. 22, 1776. Hurricane at, Oct. 15, 1780. PUZZUOLI, or PUTEOLI, Italy, made a fortified town by the Consul Fabius, B.C. 500 ; plundered by Totila in the 6th century ; almost destroyed by an earth- quake, 1456. The ruins of Serapeon discovered by Charles III., 1750. The court was 140 ft. long and 22 wide, supported by 48 columns ; supposed to have been a heathen temple ; subsequently the greater part of the old city has been discovered and exhumed. PYRAMIDS, Egypt. The Great Pyramid of Gizeh supposed to have been erected, according to Sir Gardiner Wilkinson, B.C. 2600; to John Taylor, B.C. 2160. Entered by Caliph Al Mamoun, A.D. 820. Measured by Professor Greaves, 1638 ; visited by Belzoni in 1817 ; by Col. Howard Vyse, 1837 ; measured by French savants in 1 800 ; visited by the Prince of Wales, Mar. 5, 1862. Sir John Herschel has fixed the age of the Great Pyramid of Gizeh at the 22nd century B.C. 7oo PYRAMIDS QU^STOR PYRAMIDS, the battle of : the French under Napoleon defeated the Mamelukes under Mourad Bey, July 21, 1798. PYRENEES, battle, between the English under the Duke of Wellington, and the French under Marshal Soult, when the latter was defeated with considerable loss, July 27-30, 1813 ; Soult was at the time on his retreat into France, in con- sequence of the defeat of his countrymen at Vittoria. PYRENEES Orientales et Basses, taken out of the old French province of Rousillon, and Lower Navarre and Bearne, two of the most southern departments of France, containing together 3760 square miles, formed into two departments by the revo- lutionary government of France in 1 789. PYRENEES, Treaty of Peace signed between the French and Don Haro on the part of Spain, by which the latter resigned Alsace, Rousillon, and Artois, while France gave up her acquisitions in Catalonia and P^truria, Nov. 7, 1659. Spaniards defeated by the French both in Eastern and Western Pyrenees, 1794. PYROMETER, invented by Musschenbroek, circa 1730 ; improved by Troughton, 1794; Wedgwood, 1782-86; Professor Daniell, 1829. Mr Ericsson exhibited one in 1851. PYTHAGOREAN Philosophy, established by Pythagoras, B.C. 532, taught the transmigration of souls. PYTHIAN GAMES, said to have been instituted by Apollo. In their early estab- lishment they were held every 8th year, but after the 48th Olympic every 4th year ; closed A.D. 394. QUACK, from the German Quacksalber or the Dutch Kwaksalver, a goose, applied to pretenders in medicine, in England more especially encouraged. Quack medicines taxed in 1783, and the tax increased, 1803. A notorious quack, named St John Long, was tried for manslaughter of a Miss Cashin, before Mr Justice Park, found guilty, and sentenced to pay a fine of ^"250, Oct. 30, 1830 ; another victim, Mrs Campbell Lloyd, died, Nov. 8 ; the coroner's jury found him guilty of manslaughter, Nov. n, but he was acquitted on his trial at Newgate, Feb. 19, 1831. This quack was supported by persons, who, from their position in life, might be supposed to be better informed. QUADRAGESIMA SUNDAY, the fortieth day before Good Friday. QUADRANT, the'mathematical instrument introduced into scientific usage before the birth of Christ ; the quadrant of Davis produced about 1590 ; Hadley's quad- rant, 1731 ; Graham erected a mural one at Greenwich, 1725 ; Bird erected one of iron, 1750. QUADRATURE, the quadrature of the Parabola described by Archimedes ; Sir Paul Neil and Sir C. Wren made some discoveries in the equality of curvilinear figures to rectilinear spaces, 1657 ; Leibnitz made further discoveries in 1669. QUADRILLE. This dance first introduced from France, circa 1812. QUADRUPLE Alliance, between France, Holland, Germany, and England, agreed to, July 22, 1718; signed in London, Aug. 2; also Jan. 8, 1744-5 '> between Eng- land and France, 1834. QU./ESTOR, the Roman Treasurer ; two appointed from the Patricians, B.C. 421 ; first elected from the Plebeians, B.C. 409 ; increased to eight, B.C. 265 ; one had QUAKERS QUEEN ANNE'S BOUNTY 701 to provide Rome with corn. Sulla raised the number to 20, and Caesar to 40 ; the office abolished, B.C. 49. Smith's Antiquities. QUAKERS, or Friends, founded by Geo. Fox, 1647 ; the names of Penn, Keith, and Barclay were equal to the members of any other sect in piety and worth ; their first meeting-house in London was erected in Aldersgate-street, 1654 ; com- pelled to take lawful oaths, and shall not assemble together more than five at one time, 13 & 14 Chas. II. c. I, 1662 ; an act passed, called the Conventicle Act, 1670 ; 25 died in the jails of London, 1662 ; 52, 1665 ; their meeting-houses ordered to be pulled down by Car. II., 1670 ; Toleration Act passed, I Will. & Mary, c. 18, 1688 ; allowed to make an affirmation instead of an oath by 7 & 8 Will. III. c. 34, 1696 ; affirmation to be sufficient in all cases civil and criminal, 9 Geo. IV. c. 32, June 27, 1828, and I & 2 Viet. c. 15, March 30, 1838 ; marriage of, 23 & 24 Viet. c. 1 8, May 15, 1860 ; admitted to parliament, 1833 ; schism among, first broke out in America, 1827 ; the rules respecting marriage altered, and the Quakers allowed to marry with members of other sects, and the dress not to be maintained, Nov. 2, 1858 ; a catalogue of all books published by or upon this sect, by J. W. (John Whiting), 1708 ; another, more perfect, by Joseph Smith, 1867. QUARANTINE, the act of separating persons supposed to be afflicted with pesti- lential diseases from the rest of society, originally for 40 days, but since for a longer or a shorter time, to prevent the spread of the contagion, first adopted at Venice, 1487 ; enforced in England upon ships coming from places infected, 9 Anne, c. 2, 1710 ; all laws repealed, and new provisions enacted, by 6 Geo. IV. c. 78, June 27, 1825. QUARTER SESSIONS, courts established, 34 Edw. III. c. I, 1360-61 ; regu- lated by 2 Hen. V. c. 4, 1414 ; times of holding, regulated by II Geo. IV. and I Will. IV. c. 70, July 23, 1830 ; amended by 5 & 6 Viet. c. 53, s. 4, et seq., July 30, 1842. QUATRE BRAS, battle, between the allied army and British, under Sir Thomas Picton, and the French, 40,000 strong, under Marshal Ney ; the Duke of Bruns- wick fell in this indecisive action, June 16, 1815. QUEBEC, Canada, founded by M. Champlain, 1608 ; recovered by the English, 1626; restored to France, 1632; the Quebec seminary instituted, 1663; the town fortified, 1690; besieged unsuccessfully by the English, 1711; the French defeated on the heights of Abraham, Sept. 13, 1759, when General Wolfe fell at the moment of success, and the French commander, the Marquis of Mont- calm, at the moment of defeat ; the town taken, Sept. 18, 1759 ; confirmed to the English by the treaty of Paris, Feb. 10, 1 763 ; besieged in vain by the colon- ists in the American war, Dec. 31, 1775 ; suspension of payment by the banks of, May 22, 1837; stores and houses in great numbers destroyed by fire, Sept., 1815, to the extent in value of .260,000 ; again, May 28, 1845, 1632 houses, the dwellings of 12,000 persons, were burned ; another fire broke out, which destroyed 1365 houses, and made 20,000 persons destitute, June 28 ; a fire at the theatre, and 50 lives lost, Jan. 12, 1846 ; cholera broke out at, June 8, 1832 ; the parlia- mentary building totally destroyed by fire, cost ^60,000, and had only just been finished, Feb. I, 1854; a fire broke out at, which destroyed considerable property, Oct. 14, 1866. QUEEN, transport, wrecked at Falmouth, and 369 out of 473 persons on board perished, Jan., 1814. QUEEN, Indiaman, blown up in the Brazils, July 14, 1800. QUEEN ANNE'S BOUNTY, the first-fruits and tenths, formerly part of the re- venue of the crown, devoted by 2 & 3 Anne, c. II, 1703, to the augmentation of 702 QUEEN ANNE'S FARTHINGS QUEENS TOWN poor livings; consolidated by I & 2 Viet. c. 20, April ir, 1838 ; amended by 4 & 5 Viet. c. 39, June 21, 1841 ; the income in 1864 was ^278,102. QUEEN ANNE'S FARTHINGS. There were two issues of this coin during the reign ; the scarcest one is that struck in 1713 ; two pattern farthings in silver (Peace, in a car, with the inscription, ' Pax missa per orbem '), 1713, and on the other, a female figure, standing with an olive branch in her right hand, and a spear in the left, inscription, 'Bello et pace,' 1715. QUEEN CHARLOTTE, man-of-war, 100 guns, burned off Leghorn, March 16, 1800, when out of 850 on board nearly 700 perished. QUEEN CHARLOTTE ISLANDS, British Columbia, discovered by Mandana, 1595- QUEEN ELIZABETH'S COLLEGE, Lewisham, founded by William Lombard, 1576, for 20 poor Protestants ; it was the first institution founded for Protestants. QUEENHITHE, a Saxon landing-place, given by King John to his mother Eleanor, Queen of Hen. II., and was called Ripa Reginse, the Queen's bank, ur Queenhithe ; market for corn and wine, circa 1400. QUEEN OF THE SANDWICH ISLANDS, died in London of smallpox, July 14, 1824. QUEEN'S COLLEGE, Cambridge, founded by Margaret of Anjou, Queen of Hen. VI., March 30, 1446; refounded by Eliz. Woodville, consort of Edw. IV., 1465. QUEEN'S COLLEGE, Ireland. The first stone laid by Sir John Wenlock, April 15, 1448. QUEEN'S COLLEGES, Ireland. Queen's College, Cork, built from the design of Sir Thomas Deane ; opened, 1849. Queen's College, Galway, built from the design of J. B. Keene ; opened, Oct., 1849. Queen's College, Belfast, opened by Dr Henry, 1849. QUEEN'S COLLEGE, Oxford, founded by Robert de Eglesfeld, Jan. 18, 1340 ; the library opened, 1692; the principal quadrangle built, 1710-12; the founda- tion-stone of the present chapel laid, Feb. 6, 1714 ; the west wing destroyed by fire, 1778 ; rebuilt at a cost of .6000. QUEENSLAND, Australia, separated from New South Wales, and made a colony, Dec. 10, 1859. Population increased to 61,467 in 1864. QUEENS OF ENGLAND. See England, Queens of. QUEEN'S PRISON. An act passed for consolidating the Queen's Bench-Fleet, and for regulating the Queen's, formerly the Queen's Bench, 5 & 6 Viet. c. 22, May 31, 1842; amended, II & 12 Viet. c. 7, March 28, 1848; 23 & 24 Viet. c. 60, Aug. 6, 1860. See King's Bench. QUEEN'S THEATRE, Tottenham-street, Tottenham-court Road, was originally built for Pasquali's concerts ; enlarged for the concerts of ancient music ; made a theatre, circa 1800 ; French plays first acted here, 1815 ; name changed to the Prince of Wales', by Miss Marie Wilton, and opened, April 15, 1865. QUEEN'S THEATRE, Long Acre, the New, built from the designs of C. J. Phipps, for Mr Alfred Wigan ; it will seat 1984 persons ; opened, Oct. 24, 1867. QUEENSTOWN, Upper Canada, on the Niagara river, taken in the last Ame- rican war by the United States' army, Oct. 13, 1812, and retaken by the British the same day, with considerable loss to the Americans ; retaken by them, June, QUEENSTOWN QUOITS 703 1814 ; Mr Wills, a settler, his servants, and their families, 19 in number, mas- sacred by the aborigines, Oct. 19, 1861. QUEENSTOWN, Ireland. Pier built, 1805 ; the quay erected, 1848. First called Queenstown in honour of the visit of Queen Victoria, Aug. 3 1849. QUEEN'S WARE invented by Wedgwood, 1760. QUEEN VICTORIA, a passenger steamer, lost on her voyage from Liverpool to Dublin, on the Howth Rocks, 59 persons perished, Feb. 15, 1853. QUENTIN, ST, France, the Augusta Viromanduorum of the Romans. The French defeated by the Spaniards, under the Duke of Savoy, Aug. IO, 1557 ; the town taken, Aug. 27 ; restored to France, 1559 ; the walls of the town taken down, 1820. QUESNE, Fort Du, in N. America, taken by General Forbes, Nov. 24, 1758. QUESNOY, France, battle between the English and French, in which the latter were defeated, Sept. II, 1793 ; taken by the Austrians, 1793 ; retaken by the French, Aug., 1794; surrendered to Prince Frederick of the Netherlands, June 29, 1815. QUIBERON, France, repulse of an English expedition to, 1746 ; Admiral Hawke defeated the French fleet of 21 sail, under Admiral De Conflans, in the bay of, Nov. 20, 1759 ; taken possession of by emigrant regiments in British pay, July 3> *795 surprised and retaken by the republicans, July 21, and many of the emigrants taken were executed; 900 soldiers and 1200 of the inhabitants effected their re-embarkation, but the rest fell into the enemy's hand, with all the stores and ammunition landed ; it is said that the forged assignats made in England for the purpose were introduced with this expedition under the idea of injuring the French finances in place of the innocent holders. QUICKSILVER, a metal in a liquid state except at an exceedingly low temper- ature, when it congeals readily; first used in refining silver, 1540 ; it is found in Spain, Camiola, Ceylon, and one or two other places ; congealed in England artificially, 1787. QUIETISTS, a sect originating with Molinos, an ecclesiastic of Saragossa, in Spain, that made some noise about 1678 ; they imagined that the purity and essence of religion consisted in silent internal meditations upon, and recollections of, the merits of Christ and the mercy of God ; Madame Guion of this sect was imprisoned in the Bastile for her devotion to this doctrine, and released through the intercession of the good Fenelon, archbishop of Cambray, who had a dispute with Bossuet, bishop of Meaux, upon the subject, 1657. QUILLS first used for pens, 635 ; reeds and stili were used previously ; metallic pens superseded these, 1845. QUINCE, the fruit first brought into England, as is reported, from Austria, in the 1 6th century ; a species was introduced from Japan, 1796. QUINQUAGESIMA SUNDAY, the fiftieth day before Easter. QUINTIN, St, battle, between the Spaniards and English, and the French, when the latter were defeated ; this victory, owing to a vow before the engage- ment, caused Philip II. to build the Escurial, Aug. IO, 1557. QUITO, Peru, founded by Sebastian Benalcasar, 1534; incorporated by Charles V., 1541 ; made a bishop's see, 1545 ; swallowed up by an earthquake, April 24, 1755, when 40,000 persons perished; another, which changed the face of the country, Feb. 4, 1797 ; the junta to the number of 300 murdered, June, 1811. QUOITS, the ancient Discus of the Romans ; it was practised in the heroic age, Homer's Iliad, ii. 774 ; Od. viii. 129, 186, 188. It was about 10 or 12 inches in diameter. 704 QUO WARANTO RADCLIFFE LIBRARY QUO WARRANTO, writ against any person or corporation that usurps any fran- chise or liberty against the king; statute of, 18 Edw. I. s. 2 & 3, 1289-90 ; amended course of proceeding in case of usurpation of franchises, 9 Anne, c. 20,' 1710 ; the law amended, 32 Geo. III. c. 58, 1792 ; again amended, 6 & 7 Viet! c. 89, Aug. 24, 1843. E RAAB, Hungary, taken by Turkey, 1594 ; retaken, 1598 ; fortress erected by Na- poleon, June 14, 1809 ; captured by the Austrians, Dec., 1848 ; evacuated by the Austrians, 1849 ; taken by the Hungarians, under Gen. Klapka, Aug. 4, 1849. RAAB, battle. The Austrians defeated by the French, with a loss of 6000 men, June 14, 1809. RABY CASTLE, Durham, built by Gilbert de Nevill, Admiral of William the Conqueror's fleet, 1069 ; one of the towers built by Bertram de Boleines, 1162; John de Neville obtained a license to crenelate it, 1379 ; the castle forfeited by Charles, sixth Earl, 1569; purchased from James I. by Sir Harry Vane, 1611, who entertained his Majesty here on his way to Scotland, 1633 ; taken by sur- prise, by the Royalists, June 29, 1645 ; recaptured by Sir George Vane, Aug. I ; Sir Henry Vane, jun., its owner, was beheaded on Tower Hill, June 14, 1662. RACEHORSE, H.M. ship, wrecked off the Chefoo Cape, coast of Shantung, China, when out of a crew of 100 souls only 9 were saved, Nov. 4, 1864. RACES. Strutt says, in his Sports and Pastimes, ' In the middle ages the no- bility in England indulged themselves in running horses at Easter and Whitsun- tide.' Racehorses were prized in Elizabeth's reign, and in the reign of James I. public races were established in many parts of the kingdom. The Chester races are of great antiquity ; a bell of silver, valued at 3.?. 6d. , was the prize given to the winner, April 23, 1624. In the reign of Charles I. races were held in Hyde Park and Newmarket, and in Charles II. 's reign, at Datchet Mead, Windsor, the bells being converted into cups, 1663 ; the Epsom meeting founded by James I. ; the Oaks stakes founded by Edward Smith Stanley, I2th Earl of Derby, May 14, 1779. RACK, an instrument of torture of great antiquity, said to have been invented by John Holland, Duke of Exeter, Constable of the Tower, in the reign of Hen. VI. , called ' The Duke of Exeter's daughter ' ; it is still seen in the Tower. Though torture to extort confession was declared illegal by law, the officers of the crown had no hesitation at using it on the royal command, and without. In temp. Chancellor Wriothesley, 1546, when the beautiful Anne. Askew, charged with favouring the Reformation, refused to implicate any ladies at court with partici- pating in her creed, she was ordered to be tortured, and when the lieutenant of the Tower refused to rack her more, the chancellor worked the instrument him- self until her joints were dislocated ; she was then condemned to the stake by this miscreant lawyer, and executed in Smithneld, July 16, 1646. In the reign of Charles I., the court wanted it to be applied to Felton, the assassin of Charles's minion, but the judges declared it was unlawful. RACQUETS, or RACKETS, is older than tennis, and is mentioned in the fourth book of Chaucer's ' Troilus and Creseide,' 1598, and in the 'Testament of Love' ; it subsequently fell into disuse, but was revived by Charles II., 1664. RADCLIFFE LIBRARY, Oxford, founded by Dr Radcliffe, physician to Queen Anne, leaving ^"40,000 to the University for that purpose ; built from the designs RADCLIFFE RAILROADS 705 of James Gibbs, F.R.S. ; the foundation-stone laid, May 17, 1737; the edifice opened, April 13, 1749. RADCLIFFE, statue erected to Dr John, at Oxford, Dec. 21, 1723. RADCLIFFE INFIRMARY, Oxford, founded by Dr Radcliffe ; opened, Oct. 18, 1770. RADCLIFFE OBSERVATORY, founded by George, Duke of Marlborough ; built from the designs of Mr Keene and Mr James Wyatt ; the first stone laid, 1772 ; opened, 1795. RADCOT BRIDGE, battle. The Duke of Ireland defeated at this place, in Ox- fordshire, by the forces of Richard II., Dec. 20, 1387. RADSTADT, Baden, Peace of, between France and the Emperor, signed, March 6, 1714 ; congress held, to treat of a general peace, Dec. 9, 1797 > the negotia- tion endured until they were dissolved by the Emperor of Germany, April 7, 1799 ; an atrocious assassination of the French plenipotentiaries was perpetrated here in cold blood by the Austrian regiment Szeltzler, April 21, 1799. RAG COLLECTING BRIGADE, established in London, April, 1862. RAGGED CHURCH AND CHAPEL UNION SOCIETY, founded, 1853. RAGGED SCHOOLS, first established in London, 1837 ; one opened at the Field- lane refuge, 1843 ; the Ragged School Union established, 1844 > the Ragged School Shoeblack Society, founded, 1851 ; the North-west Society founded, 1857. RAGMAN'S ROLL, a deed consisting of four large rolls of parchment, formed by stitching 35 smaller pieces together, on which the nobility of Scotland were com- pelled to subscribe allegiance to Edw. I. of England, 1296. RAGLAN CASTLE, Somersetshire, first built by Gilbert de Clare, 1142 ; re- built and fortified, 1467-9 ; fortified and garrisoned for Charles I. ; besieged by the Parliamentarians, under Sir Thomas Fairfax, June 28, 1646 ; surrendered, Aug. 19. RAGUSA, Austria, made an independent state by the King of Hungary, 1368; besieged by the Russians, July 12, 1806 ; the town taken by the French, May 27, 1806, and annexed to the kingdom of Italy by Napoleon, July 16, 1807 ; taken by the Austrians, Dec. 27, 1813. RAID OF RUTHVEN, at which James I. was seized by the nobles of Scotknd, Aug. 22, 1582. RAILROADS, the first of any moment for the carriage of heavy weights or goods was laid down in Coalbrooke Dale, Shropshire, 1786 ; the first, for the same purpose, laid down by act of parliament, was that in Surrey, from Wands- worth to Croydon, 1801 ; Richard Trevethic made the first experiment with a locomotive steam-engine, at Merthyr Tydvil, 1804 ; Mr Blenkinsop, of Leeds, began running his patent engine at the Middleton collieries, Aug. 12, 1812 ; William Hedley, of Wylam Colliery, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, invented a locomo- tive for drawing the trucks, 1813 ; George Stephenson constructed an improved locomotive for the Killingworth railway, July 25, 1814 ; Mr Wm. James con- structed a railway from Stratford-on-Avon to Moreton-in-the-Marsh, 1814. The first English railway prospectus, the Liverpool and Manchester Railway Com- pany, was dated Oct. 29, 1824. Mr Edward Pease, of Darlington, with the assistance of Stephenson, established the Stockton and Darlington Railway, which was opened for traffic, Sept. 27, 1823 ; this was the first public highway on which locomotive engines were exclusively employed. The Liverpool and Manchester, the first pas- 45 706 RAILWAYS sengers' railway, was begun, Oct. 1826, and finished so as to be opened Sept. 15, 1830. The first railway from Paris to St Cloud opened, Sept. 6, 1838 ; to Versailles, Aug. 2, 1839. The first in Portugal, from Lisbon to Sauteren, opened, Oct. 16, 1856. The Fell Railway over Mont Cenis opened for public traffic, June 15, 1868. The Great Northern Railway applied to parliament for a bill in 1845, but was opposed by the London and North-Western, and after 82 days' contest, it was adjourned ; granted in the following year, June 26. Letter from Queen Victoria to the various companies, calling attention to the increasing number of accidents upon the railways, Jan. i, 1865. An act passed relating to railway companies, 30 & 31 Viet. c. 127, Aug. 20, 1867. The length of lines opened in Gt. Britain in 1866, 13,854 miles ; the number of passengers conveyed upon, 274,403,895 ; receipts, ^38, 164,354. The number of accidents to passenger trains in 1863 was 52. RAILWAYS, Acts relating to. Abandonment and dissolution of companies facili- tated, 13 & 14 Viet. c. 83, Aug. 14, 1850. Arbitration between companies re- gulated, 22 & 23 Viet. c. 59, Aug. 13, 1859. Clearing system established by 13 & 14 Viet. c. 33, June 25, 1850 ; in Ireland, 23 & 24 Viet. c. 29, May 15, 1860. Compensation to the families of persons killed by accident, 9 & IO Viet. c. 93, Aug. 26 ; amended by 27 & 28 Viet. c. 95, July 29, 1864. Construction of, re- gulated, 7 & 8 Viet. c. 85, Aug. 9, 1844 ; the Companies' Clauses Act passed, 8 Viet. c. 1 6, May 8, 1845 ; Land Clauses, c. 18 ; Railway Clauses, c. 20 ; the gauge of, regulated, 9 & 10 Viet. c. 57, Aug. 18, 1846 ; Land Clauses affecting the Irish lines amended, 14 & 15 Viet. c. 70, Aug. 7, 1851 ; made perpetual, 23 & 24 Viet c. 97, Aug. 13, 1860 ; the Consolidation Act, 26 & 27 Viet. c. 92 and 118, July 28, 1863 ; the Irish Acts amended by 27 & 28 Viet. c. 71, July 25, 1864 ; the Improvement of Land Act, 27 & 28 Viet. c. 114, July 29, 1864 ; to - facilitate the acquiring of further powers by companies, 27 & 28 Viet. c. 120, July 29; the construction of railways facilitated, 27 & 28 Viet. c. 121, July 29 ; the law relating to securities issued by railways regulated, 29 & 30 Viet. c. 108, Aug. 10, 1866. Mails ordered to be conveyed by, i & 2 Viet. c. 98, Aug. 14, 1838 ; first placed under the control of the Board of Trade, 3 & 4 Viet. c. 97, Aug. 10, 1840 ; the carriage of the mails facilitated, 10 & n Viet. c. 85, July 22, 1847 ; further regulations for the conveyance, 17. & iSVict. c. 31, July 10, 1854. Telegraphs constnicted and maintained, 26 & 27 Viet. c. 112, July 28, 1863 ; amended, 29 & 30 Viet. c. 3, March 6, 1866. Traffic: the duties payable on goods and passen- gers, and the stamp duties, regulated by 5 & 6 Viet. c. 79, Aug. 5, 1842 ; better regulations made for the traffic on, 17 & 18 Viet. c. 31, July 10, 1854 ; cheap trains for, 23 & 24 Viet. c. 41, July 23, 1860 ; the carriage and deposit of dan- gerous goods regulated, 29 & 30 Viet. c. 69, Aug. 6, 1866. Troops : the con- veyance of, regulated, 5 & 6 Viet. c. 55, July 30, 1842. GENERAL RAILWAYS, WITH THE DATE OF THEIR ESTABLISHMENT AND OPENING : Railways. Established. Opened. Aboyne and Braemar 28 & 29 Viet. c. cclxxix., Jul. 5, 1865 Arbroath and Forfar 6 & 7 Will. IV. c. xxxii., May 19, 1836 Jan. 3, 1839 Alexandria & Suez, via Azazieh Sep. 6, 1868 Aylesbury and Bucking- hamshire ... ... 23 & 24 Viet. c. cxcii., 1860 Basingstoke and Salis- bury... ... ... 9 & 10 Viet. c. ccclxx. Aug. 13, 1846 Belfast and Co. Down 9 & 10 Viet. c. Ixxxvii., Jun. 26, 1846 Apr. 1850 16 & 17 Viet. c. Ixviii., Jun. 28, 1853 ; 23 & 24 Viet. c. xlvi., 1860 RAILWAYS 707 Railways. Birkenhead and Chester Birkenhead, Lancashire and Chester Birmingham and Derby Birmingham and Glou- cester Bishop Auckland and Weardale ... Blackburn and Preston Blyth and Tyne Bodmin and Wade- bridge Bolton and Preston ... Bombay, Baroda, and Central India Bradford and Leeds ... Brandling Junction . . . Brighton and Chiches- ter Brighton and Hastings Bristol and Exeter ... Caledonian Cannon-street Station, London Charing-cross toGreen- wich Cheltenham and Swin- don Chester and Holyhead Cockermouth and Workington Colchester to Ipswich Cork and Bandon Cork and Limerick ... Cork and Waterford Cork and Youghal . . . Coventry and Leaming- ton ... Devon and Cornwall Devon and Somerset Dublin and Drogheda Dublin and Kingston Dundee and Arbroath Dundee and Newtyle Dundee and Perth ... Durham & Sunderland Eastern Counties. See Great Eastern. Edinburgh andGlasgow Established. Opened. 7 WilL iv. and I Viet. c. cvii., Jul. 12, 1837 Feb. 22, 1840 9 & 10 VicL c. xci., Jun. 26, 1846 6 & 7 Will. iv. c. xxxv., May 19, 1836 Feb. ro, 1842 Aug. 10, 1842 6 & 7 Will. iv. c. xiv., Apr. 22, 1836 Sep. 17, 1840 7Will. iv. and I Viet. c. cxxii., Jul. 15, 1837 Nov. 8, 1843 8 & 9 Viet. c. xliv., Jun. 30, 1845 Jun. I, 1846 15 & 16 Viet. c. cxxii., Jun. 3, 1852 2 & 3 WilL iv. c. xlvii., May 23, 1832 1834 7 Will. iv. and I Viet c. cxxi., Jul. 15, 1837 Jun. 22, 1843 l8& 19 Viet c. cxiii., Jul. 2, 1855 ; further regulated, 22 & 23 Viet. c. cii., 1859 7 & 8 Viet. c. lix., Jul. 4, 1844 Jun. 30, 1846 17 & 18 Viet. c. clx., Jul. 10, 1854 ; amal- gamated with the Great Northern, 28 & 29 Viet. c. cccxxxi., Sep. 5, 1865 Jul. 5, 1865 7 & 8 Viet c. Ixvii., Jul. 4, 1844 Jun. 8, 1846 7 &8 Viet. c. xci., Jul, 29, 1844 Jun. 27, 1846 6 & 7 Will. IV. c. xxxvi., May 19, 1836 May I, 1844 8 &9 Viet. c. clxii., Jul. 31, 1845 24 & 25 Viet. c. xciii., 1861 Sep. i, 1866 22 & 23 Viet. c. Ixxxi., 1859 Dec. I, 1863 6 & 7 Will. iv. c. Ixxvii., Jun. 21, 1836 May 12, 1845 7 & 8 Viet. c. Ixv., Jul. 4, 1844; and 8 & 9 Viet. c. xxxiii., Jun. 30, 1845 8 & 9 Viet. c. cxx., Jul. 21, 1845 7 & 8 Viet. c. Ixxxv., Jul. 19, 1844 8 & 9 Viet. c. cxxii., Jul. 21, 1845 23 & 24 Viet. c. c., 1860 9 & 10 Viet c. cccxcvii., Aug. 26, 1846 18 & 19 Viet. c. ci., Jul. 2, 1855 5 & 6 Viet c. Ixxxi., Jun. 18, 1842 25 & 26 Viet. c. clxv., 1862 27 & 28 Viet. c. cccvii., Jul. 29, 1864 6 & 7 Will. iv. c. cxxxii., Aug. 13, 1836 i & 2 Will. iv. c. Ixix., Sep. 6, 1831 6 & 7 Will. IV. c. xxxiL, May 19, 1836 7 Geo. iv. c. ci., May 26, 1826 8 & 9 Viet. c. clvii., Jul. 31, 1845 4 & 5 Will. iv. c. xcvi., Aug. 13, 1834 I & 2 Viet. c. Iviii., Jul. 15, 1837 Part, 1847 Apr. 28, 1847 Jun. 15, 1846 Dec., 1851 Dec. 2, 1844 May 24, 1844 Dec. 17, 1834 Apr. 8, 1841 Dec., 1831 May 22, 1847 Jun. 28, 1839 Feb. 21,1842; toWilsontown and Coltness, Jun. 21, 1845 708 RAILWAYS Railways. Exeter to Plymouth ... East London ... Epsom & Leatherhead Furness Glasgow and Ayr Glasgow and Greenock Great Eastern Great Northern Great North of Scotland Great Western Hammersmith and City Lancaster and Carlisle Lancaster and Preston Leeds and Bradford ... Leeds and Derby Leeds and Selby Leeds Central Railway Station Liverpool and Man- chester Liverpool and Preston London and Blackwall London, Brighton, and South Coast London, Chatham, and Dover London and Greenwich London and North- Westem London and Birming- ham (first called the London and North- Western) London and South- western (incorporat- ed as the London and Southampton) Established. 7 & 8 Viet. c. Ixviii., Jul. 4, 1844 28 & 29 Viet. c. li., May 26, 1865 19 & 20 Viet. c. xcii., July 14, 1856 7 & 8 Viet. c. xxii., May 23, 1844 j 7 Will. IV. and I Viet. c. cxvii., Jul. 15,1837 7 Will. IV. and I Viet. c. cxvi., Jul. 15, 1837 6 & 7 Will. iv. c. cvi., July 4, 1836 ; called the Eastern Counties ; amalgamated with other railways, and called the Gt Eastern, 25 & 26 Viet. c. ccxxiii., 1862 9 & 10 Viet. c. Ixxi., Jun. 26, 1846 9 & 10 Viet. c. ciii., Jun. 26, 1846 Incorporated 5 & 6 Will. iv. c. cvii., Aug. 31, 1835 24 & 25 Viet. c. clxiv., 1861 7 & 8 Viet. c. xxxvii., Jun. 6, 1844 7 Will. IV. and i Viet. c. xxii., May 5, 1837 7 & 8 Viet. c. lix., Jul. 4, 1844 6 & 7 Will. iv. c. cvii., Jul. 4, 1836 II Geo. iv. and I Will. iv. c. lix., May 29, 1830 II & 12 Viet. c. Ixxi., Jul. 22, 1848 7 Geo. iv. c. xlix.. May 5, 1826 7 & 8 Viet. c. xxxiv., Jun. 8, 1844 6 & 7 Will. IV. c. cxxiii., Jul. 28, 1836 7 Will. iv. and i Viet. c. cxix., Jul. 15, 1837 18 & igVict. c. clxxxvii., Jul.3o,i855; pre- sent name, 22 & 23 Viet. c. liv., 1859 Connected with the Metropolitan Railway 3 & 4 Will. iv. c. xlvi., May 17, 1833 3 & 4 Will. iv. c. xxxvi., May 6, 1833 Opened. Partly, May 29, 1846 Jun. 12, 1846 Aug. 12, 1840 Mar. 30, 1841 To Romford, Jun. 1 8, 1839; to Bury St Ed- mund's and Ipswich, Dec. 24, 1846 ToPeterboro', Aug. 6, 1850 To Chippen'm May 31,1841; to Bristol, Jun. 30, 1841 Dec. 1 6, 1846 Jul. i, 1840 Jul. i, 1846 Jul., 1840 Sep., 1834 Sep. 15, 1830 Oct. 31, 1848 Jul., 1840 Sep. 21,1841; to Chichester Jun. 8, 1846 Feb. 6, 1864 Jan. i, 1866 Dec. 26, 1838 ToTring,Oct. 16, 1837 ; to Liverpool, Sep. 17,1838. To Wokint 9 & 10 Viet. c. cciv., Jul. 16, 1846 I May 21, 1838; i to S'hampton. 4 & 5 Will. iv. c. Ixxxvni., Jul. 25, 1834 j MayII> f 840 '. f to Gosport, Nov. 29.1841 RAILWAYS Railways. Established. London and Richmond 8 & 9 Viet. c. cxxi., Jul. 21, 1845 London, Tilbury, and Southend 15 & 16 Viet. c. Ixxxiv., June 17, 1852 Londonderry and En- niskillen 8 &9 Viet. c. xcviii., Jul. 21, 1845 Manchester and Bir- 7 Will. IV. and I Viet. c. Ixix., Jun. 30, mingham ... ... 1837, Aug. IO, 1842 Manchester and Bolton I & 2 Will. iv. c. lx., Aug. 23, 1831 Manchester and Leeds 6 & 7 Will. iv. c. cxi., Jul. 4, 1836 Manchester, Sheffield, and Lincolnshire ... 7 Will. IV. and I Viet. c. xxi., May 5, 1837 Metropolitan, to Battle Bridge Metropolitan District Metropolitan and St John's Wood Mid-Kent Middlesbrough and Guisbrough... Midland Midland Counties Mid- Wales Mont Cents Montreal and Toronto Newcastle and Berwick Newcastle and Carlisle Newcastle and Darling- ton Newmarket to Chester- ford Ncwry and Armagh Moscow and Kursk ... North British North-Eastern North London l6& 17 Viet. c. clxxxvi., Aug. 15, 1853; extended 17 & 18 Vict.c. ccxxi., Aug. 17, 1854 27 & 28 Viet. c. cccxxii., Jul. 29, 1864; ex- tended, 28 & 29, c. xxxi., May 26, 1865 27 & 28 Viet. c. ccciii., Jul. 29, 1864 18 & 19 Viet. c. clxix., Jul. 23, 1855 15 & 16 Viet c. Ixxiii., Jun. 17, 1852 6 & 7 Will. iv. c. cvii., Jul. 4, 1844 6 & 7 Will. IV. c. Ixxviii., Jun. 21, 1836 22 & 23 Viet. c. Ixiii., 1859 The first train passed over this line, Aug. 20, 1867 ; the passengers' traffic opened, Jun. 15, 1868 8 & 9 Viet. c. clxiii., Jul. 31, 1845 10 Geo. iv. c. Ixxii., May 22, 1829 6 & 7 Will. iv. c. cv., Jul. 4, 1836 9 & 10 Viet. c. clxxii., Jul. 16, 1846 Extended 20 & 21 Viet. c. clvi., 1857 Opened for traffic, Sept. 19, 1868 7 & 8 Viet. c. Ixvi., Jul. 4, 1844 6 & 7 Will. iv. c. Ixxxi., Jun. 21, 1836 9& loVict. c cccxcvi.,Aug.26, 1846; name changed to the North London, 16 & 17 Viet. c. xcvii., Jul. 8, 1853; City branch, 24 & 25 Viet. c. cxcvi., 1861 709 Opened. Jul. 27, 1846 1856 Londonderry to Strabane, Apr. 19, 1847 Nov. 24, 1845 (Macclesfield Branch) May 29, 1838 Mar. I, 1841 ; Oldham br'ch Mar. 31, 1842 Jul. 14, 1845 ; Sheffield to Rotherham, Oct. 31, 1838 ToFarring- don-street, Jan. 9,1863 iS,S Jan. I, 1857 Jun. 4, 1856 To Lincoln, Aug. 3, 1846 Jun. 30, 1840 Oct. 27, 1856 Jul., 1847 May, 1835 Jun. 18, 1839 Apr. 15, 1848 Apr. I, 1854 Jun. 1 8, 1846 York to Scar- borough, Jul. 7, 1 845 ^lock- ton to Hartle- pool, Feb. 10, 1841 Broad-street, Dec. 1866 7io RAILWAYS Railways. North and South- West- ern Junction North Staffordshire ... North- Western Nottingham and Gran- tham Oxford, Worcester, and Wolverhampton Richmond Royston and Hitchin Sevenoaks Shrewsbury andChester Somerset and Dorset... South Devon ... South-Eastern South Staffordshire ... Staines and Woking... Stockton to Witton Park Colliery Swansea Vale Taff Vale Tottenham and Hamp- stead Trent Valley Vale of Neath Victoria Station and Pimlico WaterfordandKilkenny Waterford andLimerick West Cornwall West Durham WestEndofLondon, ) or London and the > Crystal Palace ) W'estLondon Extension Westminster Terminus Whitehaven Junction Wimbledon and Croy- don ... York, Newcastle, and Darlington Established. 14 & 15 Viet. c. c., Jul. 24, 1851 9 & 10 Viet. c. Ixxxvi., Jun. 26, 1846 9 & 10 Viet. c. xcii., Jun. 26, 1846 9 & 10 Viet. c. civ., Jul. 16, 1846 8 & 9 Viet. c. clxxxiv., Aug. 4, 1845 8 & 9 Viet. c. cxxi., Jul. 21, 1845 9 & 10 Viet. c. clxx., Jul. 1 6, 1846 22 & 23 Viet. c. xlv., 1859 8 & 9 Viet. c. xlii., Jun. 30, 1845 15 & 16 Viet. c. Ixiii., Jun. 17, 1852 7 & 8 Viet. c. Ixviii., Jul. 4, 18/14 6 & 7 Will. iv. c. Ixxv., Jun. 21, 1836 9 & 10 Viet. c. ccc., Aug. 3, 1846 16 & 17 Viet. c. Ixxxv., Jul. 8, 1853 1 & 2 Geo. iv. c. xliv., April 19, 1821 18 & 19 Viet. c. Ix , Jun. 15, 1855 6& 7 Will. iv. c. Ixxxii., Jun. 21, 1856 25 & 26 Viet. c. cc., 1862 9 & 10 Viet. c. cccxvi., Aug. 3, 1846 9 & 10 Viet. c. cccxli., Aug. 3, 1846 21 & 22 Viet. c. cxviii., 1858 8 & 9 Viet. c. Ixxxvii., Jul. 21, 1845 7 Geo. iv. c. cxxxix., May 31, 1826 9 & 10 Viet. c. cccxxxvi., Aug. 3, 1846 2 & 3 Viet. c. Ixxi., Jul. 4, 1839 16 & 17 Viet. c. cbcxx., Aug. 4, 1853 22 & 23 Viet. c. cxxxiv., 1859 18 & 19 Viet. c. cxcviii., Aug. 14, 1855 7 & 8 Viet. c. Ixiv., Jul. 4, 1844 16 & 17 Viet. c. Ixxxvi., Jul. 8, 1853 5 & 6 Viet. c. Ixxx., Jun. 18, 1842 York and Scarborough 7 & 8 Viet. c. Ixi., Jul. 4, 1844 Opened. Jul. I, 1849 Jul. 27, 1846 Jul. 9, 1856 Partly Nov. 4, 1846 PartlyMay 29, 1846 To Folkstone, Jun. 28, 1843; to Dover, Feb. 7, 1844 ; to Ramsgate, Apr. 13,1846; North Kent line, 1849 Apr. 12, 1841 Jun. 26, 1847 Jun., 1840 To Wands- worth, Dec. I, 1856 Mar. 1 8, 1847 Oct. 22, 1855 Jan. 4, 1841 ; Boro'bridge branch, Jun. 17, 1847 Jul. 7, 1845 RAILWAYS RANELAGH GARDENS 711 RAILWAYS. Wooden rails were introduced, 1646 ; cast-iron rails, 1738 ; iron wheels first used, 1752 ; the carriages first linked together, 1763 ; malleable rails first used, 1805. RAILWAYS, ATMOSPHERIC, first patented by Messrs Clegg and Samuda ; tried at Wormwood Scrubs, June 30, 1840 ; also upon the West London Railway the same year ; the Dublin and Kingston Company adopted it between Kingston, and Dalkey, Sept., 1843 > by the London and Croydon Company, 1843 ; aban- doned generally. RAILWAYS, STREET. Mr Curtis patented carriages for street railways, 1856, and worked a line in the Mersey Docks, March, 1859 ; Mr Train introduced this system first at Birkenhead, July 30, 1860 ; in Victoria-street, Westminster, April 15, 1 86 1 ; others followed. RAINBOW. The true theory of, first given by Antonio, bishop of Spalatro, but unknown to him ; the explanation suggested by Roger Bacon, circa 1280 ; after- wards by Mauroly in 1560 ; and by Fleschier of Breslau in 1571 ; explained by Newton, 1611. RAINE, HENRY, by his will left marriage portions of ^100 each to two young women of good character who were to be brought up in his free school, OcL 17, 1736 ; the same to be given annually, and 10 to keep the marriage feast RAISONABLE, man-of-war, taken from the French, May 2, 1758. RATCLIFF CROSS, Middlesex, about 900 houses destroyed by fire, and several persons injured, July 24, 1794. RALEIGH, SIR WALTER, discovered Virginia, 1584; attacked the Spanish settle- ments in America, and took a galleon, worth ,150,000, 1592; seduced one of the royal attendants, and went out on an expedition to America, 1595 ; tried for treason, being detected in a conspiracy to place Arabella Stuart on the throne ; seized in July, 1603, but reprieved; sailed to America in search of a gold mine, without success, 1617 ; returned in October, and executed by James I., Oct 29, 1618. RAM, the battering, or Aries, is probably the earliest of war engines, mentioned in Ex. iv. 2, xxi. 22. Used by Dionysius at the siege of Rhegium and Moglya, B.C. 370 and 388 ; and at Rhodes by Demetrius Polycretes, 303 ; this siege continued for 12 months, and occupied 30,000 men ; used by Hannibal at Saguntum, 219. RAMILIES, battle, between the Duke of Marlborough and the French under Marshal Villeroi, May 23, 1706 ; the French were defeated with loss of 13,000 men, that of the allies was about 4000 men ; the Duke followed up his success by conquest of the whole of Brabant and the greater part of Flanders. RAMNUGGER, Hindustan, taken by Maha Sing, 1778 ; the repulse of the British army under Lord Go ugh at, Nov. 22, 1848 ; he subsequently defeated the Sikhs with great loss, Dec. 3. RAMSAY ABBEY, Hants, founded by Oswald, 986; consecrated by him, Nov. 19. RAMSGATE, Kent, a fishing village as late as 1690 ; terrible storm which de- stroyed the pier and part of the town, Dec., 1748 ; new harbour built, 1750 1770 ; the new pier built by Smeaton, 1788 ; the harbour constructed by Smeaton and Rennie, 1780-95. RANELAGH GARDENS, London. This fashionable place of amusement was erected in the grounds of Ranelagh House, the residence of Jones, the first Earl of Ranelagh, 1691 ; the rotunda was 185 feet in diameter, and was opened by Lacy, with a public breakfast, April 7, 1742 ; the last entertainment at, Sept. 9, 1803 ; taken down, 1804. 712 RANGOON RAVENS WORTH CASTLE RANGOON, Hindustan, first built by Alompra, founder of the Burmese mon- archy, 1753; 6000 houses destroyed by fire in 1814; captured by the British forces, June, 1824; besieged by the Burmese, Dec. i, 1824; the siege raised, Feb. 13, 1825 ; partially destroyed by fire, Feb. 14, 1852 ; stormed by the British, April 14, 1852 ; and became part of the British dominions in the same year. RAPE, punished with death by the Saxon law, unless the female consented to re- ceive the ravisher as husband ; punished by castration and loss of eyes by Will. T. ; punishment mitigated, 3 Edw. I., 1274; made felony, 12 Edw. III., 1338 ; without benefit of clergy, Eliz., 1575 ; punished by death, 9 Geo. IV. c. 31, June 27, 1828 ; capital punishment abolished, and transportation for life substituted, 4 & 5 Viet. c. 56, June 22, 1841. RAPHAEL D'URBINO, the most perfect of artists in the line of painting, in the modern school, born, 1483 ; died, 1520. RAPHAEL TAPESTRIES exhibited in London, 1825, including two new cartoons. RAPHOE, an Irish bishopric ; St Eunan said to be the first bishop ; united to Derry, 3 & 4 Will. IV., 1833. RAPPAHAN-NOCK, North America, taken by the English under Captain Barrie, Nov. 29, 1814. RASTADT, Baden, the peace of, signed here, 1714; taken by the Austrians from the French in 1734 ; a peace congress held here in 1797-9 ; insurrection in, 1849. RATISBON, Bavaria, the cathedral of St Peter begun, 1275 ; finished, 1633 ; taken by the Elector of Bavaria, Dec. 6, 1 703 ; peace of, signed between France; and the Elector of Germany, Oct. 13, 1630 ; a treaty of peace between France, Spain, and the empire signed at, Aug. 15, 1684 ; congress held at, Aug. 3, 1802 ; diet held at, when the German princes seceded from the empire and placed them- selves under Napoleon, Aug. I, 1806 ; captured by Austrians, March 19, 1809 ; evacuated by them, April 23, 1809 ; taken by the French, July, 1809 ; restored to Bavaria same year ; the Walhalla founded by Lewis of Bavaria, begun, 1830 ; finished, 1842. RATTAN Island, fortified by the Spaniards, 1752. RAUCOUX, battle. The French army under Marshal Saxe defeated the Austrians under Charles of Lorraine at Raucoux on the Meuse, near Liege, and became masters of the whole of Belgium, Oct. II, 1746. RAVAILLAC, Fran9ois, murdered Henry IV. of France, in Paris, May 14, 1610. Horribly tortured for the crime, human ingenuity being racked to increase his torments ; executed, May 27, 1610. RAVENNA, Italy, taken by the Goths under Alaric, and given up to plunder, Aug. 24, 410 ; besieged by Odoacer, and captured, 493 ; conquered by Pepin, and given to the Pope, 774 ; placed under the protection of Venice, 1441 ; re- stored to the Pope, 1509 ; captured by the French, 1790; captured by the allied Russians and Prussians, 1799; occupied by the Papal troops, Jan. 20, 1832; annexed to the kingdom of Italy, 1860. RAVENNA, battle, between the French and the Spanish and Papal forces, April ii, 1512; the allies lost 12,000 men ; the French were commanded by Gaston de Foix, who fell in the moment of victory. RAVENSTONE PRIORY, Bucks, founded by Henry III., 1254. RAVENSWORTH CASTLE, Durham, rebuilt by Sir H. J. Liddell, from the designs of Mr Nash, 1821. RAVENSWORTH CASTLE REBELLIONS 713 RAVENSWORTH CASTLE, Yorkshire, built, 1030. RAYMOND, Count of Toulouse, so renowned in the history of his time, died, 1105. RAY SOCIETY, instituted in London for the publication of works on natural history, 1844 ; the first work published was 'Observations on. Zoology in Europe,' by Charles Lucien Buonaparte. READ, an alderman of London, pressed for a common soldier, for refusing the king an arbitrary benevolence, 1544. READING, Berkshire, taken by the Danes, and made the head-quarters of Ivar the freebooter, 868 ; they evacuated it, 872 ; returned, under Sweyn, and burnt the town, 1006. The abbey founded by Hen. I., 1120, who was buried therein, 1 135. The abbey church consecrated by Thomas a Becket, 1 164. The first par- liament met at, 1171 ; Henry III. granted the town their first charter, 1253. The Barons reconciled to the king, and met in grand council, 1389. The parliament adjourned here from Westminster on account of the plague, 1452 and 1466. Free grammar-school founded, 1556. The town re-incorporated by Charles I., 1639. Held by the Royalists, 1642; taken by the Parliamentarians, under Essex, April 27, 1643. Mechanics' Institute established, 1828. READING, N. America, founded by Richard Penn, 1748; incorporated, 1783 ; made a city, 1847. REAPING MACHINE. The first invented by the Rev. Patrick Bell, and called the Bell Reaper, 1826 ; first used, 1827 ; a trial made with, against the American machines, 1852, when the judges awarded the prize to Bell's reapers ; American reapers first patented at Washington, 1833-34. REASON, the feast of, established in France, after the revolution ; first meeting held at the cathedral of Notre Dame, Nov. 10, 1793. REBECCA RIOTS, a conspiracy organized in South Wales, led by a chief dressed in female attire ; they met at night, and destroyed the toll-gates, 1843. REBELLIONS. The Scots and Danes, in favour of Edgar Atheling, against Will. I., 1069 ; the same, in favour of Robert, brother of Will. II., against that king, 1088 ; suppressed, 1090. The Welsh against the Normans and English ; the Welsh victorious, 1095. In favour of the Empress Maude, 1139; ended, 1153. Richard, son of Hen. II., against his father, 1179. Of the Barons, when they obtained Magna Charta, 1215. The Barons again, 1262 ; ended, 1267. The lords spiritual and temporal, on account of the Gavestons, against Edw. II., 1312. The rudeness of the collectors of the poll-tax, and the increased oppres- sion of the Crown, led to the rising, at Deptford, of the followers of Wat Tyler, who was killed in Smithfield, June 14, 1381. Of Henry, Duke of Lancaster, for the deposition of Rich. II., 1399. Against Roger, Earl of March, viceroy of Ireland, and presumptive heir to the crown, who was killed, 1399. The rising of the Welsh, under Owen Glendower, 1400. Of Owen Glendower, the Earls of Northumberland and Salisbury, and their confederates, 1403. The insurrection of Cade, at Blackheath, June I, 1450 ; the leader killed by the Sheriff of Kent, July II, 1450. The Yorkists, in favour of Edw. IV., against the Lancastrians, 1452. Of the inhabitants of York, against the proposed encroachments upon their municipal rights, 1469. Of Warwick and Clarence, commanding the Lancas- trian party, against Edw. IV., 1470. The Yorkists, under Edw. IV., 1471. Against Rich. III., led by the Earl of Richmond, afterwards Hen. VII., 1485. The followers of Lambert Simnel, the Pretender, 1486. The conspirators, under Perkin Warbeck, who claimed the throne, 1492 ; he was executed, Nov. 16, 1499. Of the people of Cornwall, under Flammock, an attorney, against the increased taxes, Feb. 13, 1497 ; they marched to Blackheath, where they were attacked by Hen. VII., and their leaders hanged, June 22. Against the depreci- ation of the currency, inclosure laws, and the oppression of the landlords in most 714 RECOGNITION BILL RECULVER of the English shires, June and July, 1549. Of the people of Norfolk, against the inclosure laws, led by Robert Kett, June 20, 1 549 ; the leader was hanged, Dec. 7, 1549. The Dukes of Northumberland, Suffolk, and their adherents, in favour of Lady Jane Grey's title to the throne, July, 1553 ; the Earl of North- umberland executed, Aug. 21 ; she suffered with her husband, Feb. 12, 1554. Sir Thomas Wyatt, Croft, Courtenay, and others, against Queen Mary ; discov- ered, Jan. 21, 1554; Wyatt entered Southwark, Feb. 6; taken prisoner, Feb. 8 ; executed, April n ; claims for losses during the riots amounted to ^792,506. Rising of the Romanists, against Queen Elizabeth, June and July, 1559. In the north of England, 1569. The Irish discontents, commanded by Tyrone, 1599; the Earl of Essex refused to march against him, May 21 ; made a truce with him, Sept. 8 ; Tyrone submitted, Jan., 1602. The Earl of Essex, against Elizabeth, Feb. 2, 1600 ; he was taken and executed, Feb. 25. The Irish in Ulster, Dec. 3, 1641. The civil war against the despotism of Chas. I. ; standard raised by the king, Aug. 22, 1642 ; executed, Jan. 30, 1648. Of O'Neil, in Ireland, 1648 ; suppressed by Cromwell, May 10, 1650. Rising in Cheshire, in favour of the Stuarts, Aug. I, 1659. In London, against Chas. II., headed by Venner, Jan. 9, 1661. The Scotch, under the leadership of the Duke of Monmouth, who landed, May 6, 1685 ; arrived at Lyme, in Dorsetshire, June u ; taken, July 8 ; beheaded, July 15 ; the rebels tried by Jeffreys, Sept. and Oct. In Scotland, on behalf of James Edward, the Chevalier de St George, or the Pretender ; the forces commanded by the Earl of Mar defeated, Nov. 13, 1715, and those com- manded by the Earl of Derwentwater the same day ; the Pretender escaped into France, 1716. Of Charles, the Young Pretender, who defeated the Royalists at Prestonpans, Sept. 20, 1745 > defeated at Culloden, April 16, 1746, and escaped to France. Of the American colonists, 1 775 ; their independence recognized, Nov. 30, 1782. The rising in Ireland, which commenced May 24, 1798 ; sup- pressed at the end of the year. In Ireland, under Emmet and others, when Lord Kilwarden was put to death by the insurgents, 1803. Again in Ireland, fer- mented by Smith O'Brien, who was captured, July 29, 1848. In the Indian em- pire ; broke out, April 3, 1857 ; ended, 1858. The United States ; the South against the North, 1861. See also Riots. RECOGNITION BILL, brought in by the Whigs for recognizing their Majesties King William III. and Queen Mary, but not carried, 1690. RECOLETS, Order of, established in France, 1594. RECORDER, the first judicial officer of a municipal corporation ; Jeffery de Nor- ton, Alderman, appointed Recorder of London, 26 Edw. I., 1298 ; salary, 10 per annum. For List of, see London. RECIPROCITY TREATY, between the United States and Canada, signed, June 7, 1 854 ; terminated in accordance with notice given by the former power, March 17, 1866. RECORDS of the Acts of the Crown, regularly kept and preserved from the reign of Henry I., lioo, to the present time ; the earliest written upon paper is in the reign of Edward II. ; the Master of the Rolls appointed keeper by I & 2 Viet. c. 94, Aug. 14, 1838, and one general depository ordered to be erected. The early Scotch records lost on their way from London to Scotland, 1298 ; the Irish, burnt, 1711. An act passed for the safe keeping of, 30 & 31 Viet, c 70, Aug. 12, 1867. The new building, in Fetter Lane, erected from the designs of Mr Penere- thorne ; begun, 1851. RECULVER, Kent, the Regulbium of the Romans ; the castrum built by the Em- peror Severus, circa 205, Kilburri* Kent. Ethelbert built a palace here, 602 ; called Raculfcester in a charter of King Edmund, 784. Augustin established z REDEEMER REFORM 715 monastery here, 597 ; dissolved, 949. Church of, built, circa 1080. The new church built, 1811. REDEEMER, Order of Knighthood, established by King Otho of Greece, in com- memoration of the deliverance of the kingdom, June I, 1833. REDAN, one of the defensive works of Sebastopol, first attacked by the English, under Gen. Brown, but repulsed, June 18, 1855 ; again, under Sir Wm. Cod- rington, Sept. 8 ; evacuated, Sept. 9. RED EAGLE, order of knighthood, reorganized in Prussia by Prince G. F. Charles of Brandenburg, July 13, 1734; regulated by an ordinance of, Jan. 22, 1832. REDHILL Reformatory, established in St George's-in-the-Fields, by Mr Young, 1788 ; removed to Redhill and opened in April, 1849. REDHINA, battle, the French army under Massena and Ney defeated the Eng- lish, commanded by Wellington, Mar. 12, 1812. REDHOUSE, Deptford, burnt down, Feb. 26, 1761. REDPATH, LEOPOLD, convicted and transported for life for defrauding the Gt. Northern Railway company of .150,000, Jan. 15, 1857. REFLECTING TELESCOPES invented, 1657. REFLECTORS, or concave glasses, or plates of metal of that form, to concentrate the sun's rays ; diamonds dissipated by the heat of, 1695. REFORM in Parliament, necessity of, rirst pointed out by Mr Pitt (Earl of Chat- ham) in 1782 ; his son made a motion for a reform in parliament, May 7, 1782, when the House divided, 141 for and 161 against the motion ; Mr Pitt abandoned the cause, and declared all supporters of it seditious, 1794 ; Hardy, Tooke, and Thelwall arrested for belonging to a reform society, May 10, 1794; tried and acquitted, Nov. 5 to Dec. by the act passed, the clergy were compelled to keep a registry, 6 & 7 Will. III. c. 6, 1695 ; the penalty repealed by the 4 Anne, c. 12, s. 10, 1705 ; an act passed for the better preservation and regulation of, 52 Geo. III. c. 146, July 28, 1812 ; amended, 6 Will. IV. c. 85, Aug. 17, 1836 ; and again amended, 7 Will. IV. and I Viet. c. 22, June 30, 1837 ; further amended, 19 & 20 Viet. c. 119, July 29, 1856 ; and by 21 & 22 Viet. c. 25, June 14, 1858. REGISTRATION of Deeds and Wills. A public registry provided for all deeds relating to York, by 6 Anne, c. 35, 1 707 ; extended to the North Riding, by 8 Geo. II. c. 6, 1735. A registry for the county of Middlesex, 7 Anne, c. 20, 1708. Registry of deeds, of arrangements, of trust, and composition deeds by bankrupts, 24 & 25 Viet. c. 134, ss. 187 194, Aug. 6, 1861. Lord Elcho introduced a measure to provide for the better registration in Scotland, 17 & 18 Viet. c. 80, Aug. 7, 1854. In Dr Williams's Library there are several registers of Dissenters kept, the earliest is 1716. Bunhill Fields registers deposited in the College of Arms. REGISTRATION of Shipping begun in the Thames, 1786; became general, 1787; lew act passed for, 8 & 9 Viet. c. 89, Aug. 4, 1845 ; partially repealed by 12 & 13 Viet. c. 29, June 26, 1849. REGISTRATION of Voters established, by 2 Will. IV. c. 45, June 7, 1832; amended by 6 Viet. c. 18, May 31, 1843, an ^ temporary for the year 1868, 31 & 32 Viet. c. 58, July 1 6, 1868. REGIUM DONUM originated in Ireland by Charles II., who gave (xx> to Sir Arthur Forbes to be applied to the use of the Presbyterian ministers in that country, 1672 ; George I., in 1723, lodged annually a sum of money with the heads of the Presbyterians, Independents, and Baptists, to assist the poor ministers ; augmented and new arrangements adopted, 1803, and in 1868 reached .40, 548. REICHSTADT, Duke of, the title conferred on the son of Napoleon, June 22, 1818 ; bom at Paris, March 20, 1811, and died, July 22, 1832. REIGATE, Surrey, overrun by the Danes, in 841. The priory founded, in 1240; the priory destroyed, and the site given to Lord William Howard, in 1541 ; the castle built in the I3th century, and destroyed, 1648 ; the town chartered by Edw. II., 1313; made a parliamentary borough, 1294; by the Reform Act the members reduced from 2 to I, June, 1832 ; disfranchised by 30 & 31 Viet. c. 102, s. 12. REIGN OF TERROR in France, began in July, 1793, ended April I, 1795. RELIGION RELIGIOUS ORDERS 719 RELIGION, Six Articles of, for non-observance of which Protestants and Catholics suffered death alike, 1539 ; the Thirty-nine Articles of the Church established, 1552 j being reduced from 42 to 39, Jan., 1563 ; sanctioned by parliament, 1571. RELIGIOUS CREEDS tolerated among the inhabitants of different States and Countries in the igth century : Austria, Papists. Bavaria, Papists. Bohemia, Papists and Lutherans. Brandenburgh, Lutherans, Calvinists, and Papists. Brunswick, Lutherans. Cologne, an archbishopric, Papists. Courland, Papists and Protestants. Denmark, Lutherans. England, Church of England, and all others. France, Papists ; but Protestants and Jews tolerated. Genoa, Papists ; but the Jews tolerated. Germany, Papists, Lutherans, and Calvinists. Greece, Christians, Mahometans, &c. Hanover, Lutherans, Calvinists, &c. Hesse-Cassel, Lutherans, Calvinists, and Papists. Hungary, Papists and Protestants. Ireland, all religions tolerated. Italy, various states, Papists. Lucca, Papists. Malta, Papists and Protestants. Mantua, Papists. Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Lutherans. -Strelitz, Lutherans. Netherlands, Papists, Calvinists, &c. Norway, Lutherans. Osnaburgh, Catholics and Protestants. Palatine, Papists and Lutherans. Parma and Placentia, Papists. Piedmont, Papists. Portugal, Papists. Prussia, Lutherans, Calvinists, & Papists. Rome, Papists. Russia, Greeks, Calvinists, and Luther- ans. Sardinia, Papists. Savoy, Papists. Saxony, Papists, and Lutherans. Scotland, Presbyterians, Episcopacy tolerated. Siberia, Greeks and Arminians. Sicily, Papists. Spain, Papists and others. Sweden, Lutherans, Popery abolished, 1.544- Switzerland, 13 cantons, a republic, 6 are Protestants, 7 are Papists. Tartary, various states, partly in Europe, Arminians, Mahometans, and Greeks. Turkey, partly in Europe, Mahometans, Jews, and Christians. Tuscany, Papists. Venice, Papists, Greeks, and Jews. United States of North America, Pro- testants, Episcopalians, all creeds. Milan, Papists. Modena, Papists. Naples, Papists. RELIGIOUS HOUSES in England, 1041, suppressed, 1540 ; in France, 4500, in 1790 ; in Germany about 2000, 1785 ; in Italy, 2382, suppressed, 1866. RELIGIOUS ORDERS of the Papal Church : Abstinents 170 Anchorites 1255 Monks 328 Augustines ... ... ... 389 Benedictines ... ... ... 548 Black Friars 1071 Minors ... ... 1099 Carthusians ... ... ... 1084 Cistertians ... ... ... 1094 Carmelites ... 1098 Grey Friars ... 1122 Crossed Friars ... ... ... 1169 Holy Trinity ... 1197 Ursulines ... ... ... 1198 Franciscans ... ... ... 1206 Dominicans 1215 Celestines Bethlehemites . . . Sack de Pcnitentia De Domina Bartholomites White Monks 1255 1257 1258 1288 1307 1349 Minimes ... ... ... ... 1450 Capuchins ... 1525 Barnabites ... ... ... 1533 Begging Friars ... 1587 Theatines ... 1594 Trappists 1815 Ligorists 1820 720 RELIGIOUS SECTS REPEAL OF THE IRISH UNION RELIGIOUS SECTS : Adamites, or Preadamites ..-. 130 Agnacobites, fanatics ... ... 701 Albigenses ... ... ... 1160 Anabaptists ... ... ... 1521 Antinomians ... ... ... 1538 Antonines ... ... ... 329 Arians ... ... ... ... 320 Arminians ... 1591 Bartholomites ... ... ... 1307 Bohemian Brethren, the sect of, began in Bohemia ... ... 1467 Brigantines ... ... ... 1370 Brownists ... ... ... 1 660 Calvinists ... ... ... 1546 Canons, regular ... ... ... 400 Dunkers ... ... ... ... I7 2 4 Episcopalians in Great Britain 1530 Flagellants ... ... ... 1260 Huguenots, French Protestants 1561 Independents ..; ... ... 1593 Jumpers, England ... ... 1760 Jumpers, America ... ... 1810 Latter-day Saints, or Mormons 1830 Lollards 1315 Lutherans ... ... ... 1580 Mahometans 622 Methodists ... ... ... 1729 Moravians, or Unitas Fratium, appeared, in Bohemia, 1457 ; in England ... ... ... 1750 Muggletonians, from L. Muggle- ton, a journeyman tailor ... 1657 Pelagians... ... 382 Predestinarians ... ... ... 371 Presbyterians ... ... ... 1572 Protestants ... ... ... 1529 Puritans ... ... ... ... 1545 Publican sect, came first to Eng- land 1162 Quakers 1550 Quietists 1685 Repentants .. ... ... 1360 Sabbatarians ... ... ... 1633 Sacramentarians ... ... 878 Sandemanians ... 1728 Shakers 1801 Southcotians ... ... ... 1792 Swedenborgians ... 1780 Trinitarians, order of ... ... 1198 Tritheites 560 Ubiquarians ... ... ... 154 Unitarians ... 1553 REMONSTRANCE, The Grand, condemning the acts of Charles I., carried in the House of Commons after a debate of 14 hours, by a majority of 1 1, Nov. 22, 1641 ; presented to his Majesty, Dec. I, 1641. REMONSTRANTS, a religious sect in Holland, Arminians, who were named from a remonstrance, reducing their doctrine to five articles, presented to the States, 1611 ; the Calvinists persecuted them, and at Dort, when a synod was held, it lasted six months, condemned their opinions, 1618-19. RENDSBURG, Denmark, fortified in 1539; rebuilt by Frederick III., 1669-72; taken by the Prussians, 1848 ; the defences destroyed, 1852. RENNES, France, the town destroyed by fire, which lasted for 7 days, it consumed almost all the public buildings and 850 private houses, 1 720 ; the Palais de Justice erected, 1670 ; restored in 1858. RENT, in England, first payable in the coin of the realm in place of kind, 1135 ; no goods to be removed until the rent is paid by the landlord to the sheriff, 8 Anne, c. 14, 1709 ; made recoverable in law, 4 Geo. II. c. 28, 1731 ; the rental of Eng- land, including lands, houses, and mines, in 1600, was supposed to be ,6,000,000, and 12 years' purchase the value ; in 1690 it was estimated at ^"14,000,000 rent and 18 years' purchase ; in 1815, land alone was assessed to the property-tax at ^34,330,463 ; and in 1848, at ^42,347,870 for England and Wales only. Scot- land was assessed in 1851 on land only, .5,075,242 ; and in 1848, .5,634,351, including messuages, tithes, manors, fines, quarries, mines, iron-works, fisheries, canals, railways, gas-works; in England and Scotland, the total was, in 1815, "60,138,330; in 1848, "105,252,895. REPEAL OF THE IRISH UNION, association formed for, in Ireland, 1829 ; meetings for, prohibited, Oct. 18, 1830 ; new association for, established, 1841-42, and one formed by D. O'Connell, 1843 > monster meetings held for, at Trim, REPRISALS REVENUE OF ENGLAND 721 March 16, 1843; a meeting at Clontarf, Oct. 8, was suppressed by the govern- ment ; O'Connell and those concerned with him arrested, and brought to trial, Jan. 15, 1844; convicted, and sentenced to pay a fine of .2000, and one year's imprisonment, May 30; sentence reversed by the House of Peers. The Associa- tion kept a short time after O'Connell's decease, but ultimately died out ; the sum of ,134,379 had been collected in support of the object by the end of 1846. REPRISALS AT SEA first granted, 1295. REPTON PRIORY, Derbyshire, formerly a nunnery, 660 ; refounded by Maud, widow of Ranulph, second Earl of Chester, 1172. REQUEST. See Courts of. RESTORATION of Charles II. and monarchy, May 29, 1660, after the Common- wealth of II years' duration, or from Jan. 30, 1649. RESTORATION of Learning in France, 778. RESTORMEL CASTLE, Cornwall, built, 1100. RETFORD, Nottinghamshire. A charter of privileges granted to the town by Edward I., 1279. A fair granted to, by Henry III., 1259. The church founded, 1208; rebuilt, 1658. The town -incorporated by Edward III., 1336. Henry VI. increased their privileges, 1424. Returned two members to parliament, 9 Edw. II., 1315, but in 1826, on account of repeated acts of bribery, the borough was added to Bassetlaw. RETREAT OF THE TEN THOUSAND Greeks, under Xenophon, B.C. 401. After the army of Cyrus the Younger had been defeated by the Persians on the plain of Cunaxa, Cyrus being killed, the Greeks were left without a leader, and they chose Xenophon, who led them over the high lands to the Mediterranean. REVEL, Russia, founded by Valdemar II., King of Denmark, circa 1218. The church, the Olaikirche, built, 1329 ; partially destroyed, 1820 ; restored, 1840. St Nicholas Church built, 1317. Two ships captured in the port of, by Capt. Wilcox, in the Dragon, May, 1854. REVELATION, written by St John the Divine, in the island of Patmos, circa 97 ; its authenticity has been doubted by some Biblical writers. REVELS. See Master of the. REVENUE OF ENGLAND. William the Con- queror 1066 William Rufus 1087 Henry I. IIOO Stephen "35 Henry II. "54 Richard I. 1189 John "99 Henry III. ... 1216 Edward I. 1272 Edward II. I37 Edward III. ... 1327 Richard II. 1377 Henry IV. 1399 Henry V. HI3 Henry VI. 1422 Edward IV. ... Edward V. Richard III. ... 1460) 1483 1483) Income, from the Conquest : Henry VII. ... H85 ... ^400,000 ,400,000 Henry VI 1 1. ... 1509 800,000 350,000 Edward VI. . . 1547 400,000 300,000 Mary ... 1553 450,000 250,000 Elizabeth 1558 500,000 200,000 James I. 1602 600,000 150,000 Charles I. 1625 ... 895,819 100,000 Commonwealth ) t .O ( 1,517,247 80,000 Charles II. | 1040 \ 1,800,000 150,000 James II. 1685 ... 2,001,155 100,000 William III. ... 1688 ... 3,895.205 154,140 Queen Anne (at 130,000 the Union) ... 1706 ... 5,691,803 100,000 George I. 1714 ... 6,762,643 76,643 George II. 1727 ... 8,522,540 64,976 George II I. (1788) I/6o -15,372,971 Ditto 1800 ...36,728,000 100,000 Ditto ... (war) 1815 ...72,210,512 George IV. ... 1820 ...54,282,958 46 722 REVESBY ABBEY RUE William IV. Victoria 1830 1837 1838 1839 1840 1841 1842 1843 1844 1845 1846 1847 50.056,616 46,475,194 47,333,460 47,844,899 Victoria 1849 1850 1851 1852 1853 54,430,344 1854 56,822,509 1855 63,364,605 1856 68,008,623 1857 66,056,055 1858 61,812,555 1859 68,226,114 1860 73,717,419 1861 73,080,771 1862 72,575,477 1863 70,433,620 1864 70,125,374 1865 69,196,478 1866 68,785,662 1867 69,434,567 1868 69,600,218 48,084,360 ,, 46,965,631 ,, ... 52,582,817 ... 54,003,745 ... 53,060,354 ... 53,790,138 ... 51,546,265 ... 53,388,717 - 5 2 ,95i,749 ,, 52,810,680 ,, 52,233,006 ... 53,210,071 The consolidation of the revenue was effected by 56 Geo. III. c. 98, 1816. Supply : The following sums were voted in Supply during the undermentioned years : 1835, 14,123,255; 1836, 14,652,572; 1837, 15,138,576; 1838, 15, 726,987 ;> 1839, 17,219,692; 1840, 17,622,513 ; 1841, 18,949,740; 1842, 19,585,763; 1843, 19,921, 283; 1844, 17,732,181; 1845, 18,736,591; 1846, 20,198,912; 1847, 22,822,709; 1848, 22,880,658; 1849, 21,072,745; 1850, 20,012,735; 1851, 19,746,941; 1852, 20,981,609; 1853, 22,237,472; 1854, 43,310,665; 1855, 62,307,822; 1856, 50,564,624; 1857, 36,774,300; 1858, 34,260,197; 1859, 39,742,376; 1860, 45,5", I 53; 1861, 42,180,031; 1862, 70,341,552; 1863, 67,749,000; 1864, 66,890,000; 1865, 66,462,206; 1866, 66,474,356; 1867, 68,134,000; 1868, 71, 236,241. REVESBY ABBEY, Lincolnshire, built by Will, de Romare, Earl of Lincoln, 1 142. REVOLT of the Bees, an allegory of society, published, Oct., 1829. REVOLUTIONS : the Eastern empire founded by Constantine the Great, on the final overthrow of the Romans, A.D. 306. The empire of the western Franks began under Charlemagne, 802 ; this empire underwent a new revolution, and became the German empire under Rodolph of Hapsburgh, the head of the house of Austria, 1273. The empire of the East passed into the hands of the Turks, 1293. Revolutions in Portugal, 1640 ; Poland, 1704, 1795, 1830, 1863 ; in Russia, 1730, 1762, 1796; Sweden, 1772, 1809; North America, 1775; France, 1789, 1830, 1848 ; in Holland, 1795, counter-revolution, 1813 ; in Venice, 1797, 1848; Rome, 1798, and 1848; in the Netherlands, 1830; Brazil, 1831 ; Mexico, 1858; Ba- varia, 1848; Sicily, 1848, 1860; Spain, 1868-9; Tuscany, 1859; Parma, 1859; Naples, 1860 ; United States, 1860. REVOLUTIONS in England, 1649 ; 1688, Nov. 5, generally called the 'glorious revolution of 1688.' REVOLVERS. This principle of making fire-arms is of early origin. John the Almain (German) invented an arquebuse that contained ten balls, 1580. They are also mentioned in ' Ward's Animadversions of Warre,' 1639. Samuel Colt of America first introduced his pistol or revolver, 1830 ; and patented it, 1835. REYGATE PRIORY, Surrey, founded by William de Warren, Earl of Surrey, circa 1236-8. RUE, Isle of France, taken by the Huguenots, 1625 ; besieged by the English, under the Duke of Buckingham, July 12, 1627 ; the expedition failed through the want of generalship of its leader, and the siege raised, Oct. 27. RHEIMS RICHMOND 723 RHEIMS or REIMS, France, an ancient Roman city. The four gates were the Porta Martis, Cereris, Veneris, and Bacchi ; Martis alone remains ; it is a splendid triumphal arch. Clovis baptized here, 496. Philip Augustus crowned, 1179. Cathedral begun, 1212 ; finished, 1241. Charles VII. owvned in, Joan of Arc bearing the sacred banner, July, 1429. Insurrection at, and atrocities com- mitted by the mob, Sept. 2 and 3, 1792. Taken by the Russians, under Gen. St Priest, March 12, 1814 ; recaptured by the French, under Napoleon, with 3000 prisoners and II guns, March 13 ; taken by the Prussians, under Blucher, March 18, 1814. RIIEINFELD, battle. The French, under Duke Bernard of Saxe- Weimar, de- feated the Austrians at this place, March 3, 1638. RHINE, passage of, by the French, under Louis XIV., June 12, 1672 ; again, under Massena, and entrance into Switzerland, Feb. 12, 1799 ; the confederation of, July 12, 1806. RHODE ISLAND, N. America, colonized, 1636 ; Providence settled, 1637 ; chartered by Charles II., 1663 ; taken by the English, under Clifton and Parker, Dec. 6, 1776 ; besieged unsuccessfully by the Americans, 1778 ; evacuated by the British, Oct. 25, 1779 > constitution adopted, 1790. RHODES. The city founded, B.C. 400. St Paul landed at this island on his return to Syria, Acts xxi. I. Expedition against, commanded by Demetrius, who, after besieging it for 12 months, was forced to retire, B.C. 301. Plundered by Cas- sius, B.C. 42. Was a Roman possession until A. D. 6 1 6. Granted to the Knights of St John of Malta, 1308 ; fortified by them, 1312. Besieged by Mahomet II., unsuccessfully, 1480. Taken by the Ottomans, after a desperate siege of four months, 1522. Evacuated by the Knights, Jan. I, 1523. RHUBARB. The Society of Arts gave a gold medal to Mr Ball for the cultivation of this esculent, 1790 ; to Mr Thomas Jones of Enfield, 1793, and again in 1797. RHUDDLAN CASTLE, North Wales, built before the Conquest; rebuilt, 1063; repaired, 1231. Edward I. resided at, for some time, 1281-2. RHYNOPLASTIC ART, the revived art of making false or artificial noses, prac- tised by the French anew, 1827. See Noses. RIALS, or ROYALS, a gold coin issued during the reign of Hen. VIII., worth I is. $d. ; half and quarter rials were also coined. RIALTO, the, a noted bridge in Venice, across the great canal, designed by Ant. da Ponte, built, 1588, consisting of a single arch of marble, of 91 feet span, 24^ feet elevation, and 72 feet wide. RIBBONMEN, disorders caused by, in Ireland ; agrarian outbreak, Mar. I, 1820. RICCI, LAWRENCE, the last general of the order of the Jesuits; appointed, May 21, 1758; imprisoned at Rome, Sept. 22, 1773; died, Nov. 24,1776, aged 72. RICE, cultivated in South Carolina, 1702. RICHARD I., II., and III. See England, Kings of. RICHMOND, America. 100 houses destroyed by fire, Dec. 17, 1786; theatre burnt, Dec. 26, 1811. Made the capital of the Confederate Union, 1861 ; the first meeting of the Congress of the States removed from Montgomery, in Alabama, to, July 20 ; Mr Davis elected President of the South for six years, and Mr Stephens, Vice-President, Nov. 30; the Federal army, under Gen. M'Clellan, advanced within six miles of Richmond ; they were defeated, at Fair Oaks, May 31, 1862. President Davis addressed the Congress, which assembled here, Aug. 18. Surrendered to Gen. Grant, April 9, 1865. FCHMOND, Surrey, once called Sheen. A site of one of the royal palaces, where Edward III. died. Destroyed by fire, 1497 ; rebuilt by Henry VII., who 724 RICHMOND RIO SECO died there, I59 ', Elizabeth kept prisoner here when she was a princess, and died in the palace, March 24, 1603 ; the park enclosed by Charles I., 1636 ; sold by order of the Commonwealth ; the public excluded from, by the ranger, 1752 ; opened, Dec. 20, 1752, by order of the judge of assize. RICHMOND, Yorkshire, held by Edwin, brother of Morcar, by presentation, 1070-2. The castle was built by Alan the Red, who was made first Earl of Rich- mond, 1069-72 ; the keep was erected by Conan, the fifth Earl, 1146-1171. The church of, erected, circa 1370 ; since rebuilt by G. G. Scott. The crown estate settled by Charles II. upon his son, Charles Lennox, 1675. Tate's Grammar School erected, 1850. RICHMOND HOUSE, Whitehall, destroyed by fire, Dec. 14, 1791. RIDLEY, bishop of London, burnt at Oxford, Oct. 15, 1555. RIFLE, first patent granted for, June 24, 1635 ; the Minie system of rifling in- vented, 1833 ; the Chassepot invented by M. A. Chassepot, 1866 ; adopted in the French army, Aug. 30, 1866; Needle Gun, 1848; several others since introduced. RIFLE, The National Association. See National. RIFLE VOLUNTEER GROUNDS. An act passed facilitating the acquisition of grounds for rifle practice, 23 & 24 Viet. c. 140, Aug. 28, 1860 ; amended, 25 & 26 Viet. c. 41, July 17, 1862. RIGA, in the Baltic, founded by a colony from Bremen, 1158; town built by Bishop Albert, 1200 ; taken by Gustavus Adolphus, when half the town was burnt, 1710 ; serious fire at, 1812 ; great export of flax-seed from, to Ireland, to the extent of 47,400 barrels, 1845 ; fortification removed, 1858. RIGHT OF SEARCH, settled with America, 1843 ; with France, Russia, Aus- tria, Prussia, and England, by treaty, Dec. 20, 1841 ; confirmed with France, May 29, 1849. RIGHTS, Bill of, extorted by parliament from the king, 3 Chas. I. c. I, after he had endeavoured by all means in his power to avoid consenting to it, June 7, 1628 ; the declaration of rights was made to the Prince and Princess of Orange, on their coming to the throne of England, Feb. 13, 1688-9; an( i recognized by I Will. & Mary, st. ii. c. 2, Nov. 16, 1689. RINGS, the inventors of, are said to be the Egyptians, which seems confirmed by the gift of a ring from Pharaoh to Joseph, Gen. xli. 42; and Josephus in the 3rd Book of Jewish Antiquities, says they (the Israelites) forged the golden calf from their wives' rings. The high-priest Aaron wore a diamond ring. Queen Jezebel to destroy Naboth used the ring of Ahab, I Kings xxi. 8. The signet-ring was worn on the right hand, Jer. xxii. 24. In Rome the bridegroom sent the bride an iron ring before marriage. Alexander the Great used the ring of King Darius after his death. All rings exempted from assay, except mourning rings, 12 Geo. II. c. 26, 1739. RIO DE LA PLATA, S. America, discovered by de Solis, 1515-16 ; surveyed by Sebastian Cabot, 1526 ; reciprocity treaty signed with Gt. Britain, 1823. RIO JANEIRO, Brazil, first discovered by Martin Affonso de Souza, a Portuguese, Jan. 22, 1531 ; taken possession of by the French, 1555, who were expelled and the city of Rio founded, 1567 ; made the capital, 1763 ; made the residence of the Court, 1808 ; made the capital of the Independent Empire of Brazil, Sep. 7, 1822 ; revolution in, Don Pedro abdicated ha favour of his son Pedro II., 1831 ; the yellow fever carried off 14,000 of the inhabitants, July, 1850 ; the Duke of Edinburgh visited the island in the Galatea, July 15, 1867 ; repulse of the Paraguayans at Humaita, in Oct. RIO SECO, battle, the Spaniards under Gen. Blake and Cuesta were defeated by the French under Bessieres, with great loss, July 13, 1808. RIOTS IN ENGLAND 725 RIOTS IN ENGLAND. The convent of Westminster Abbey demolished ; thering- leaders hanged, and others had their hands and feet cut off. 1221. The companies of goldsmiths and tailors fought in the streets of London, several were killed on both sides ; the riot quelled by the sheriffs, and thirteen of the ringleaders hanged, 1262. Riot at Norwich, the cathedral and monastery burnt, the ring- leaders executed, 1271. Riot broke out among several of the city com- panies at the entrance of the Princess Philippa into London, 1328. Wat Tyler in Southwark and London, June 10, 1381. Serious riots in Cheapside ; the Italian merchants' stores plundered, the ringleader hanged at Tyburn, May, 1456. The evil May-day riot, 1517. The apprentices of London and the Tower Warders had a severe engagement with stones, and wounded the city sword-bearer and several officers, June 29, 1595. A riot in London, and Dr Lamb killed by the mob ; another, under pretence of pulling down a brothel, four of the ringleaders hanged, June, 1628. Another at Guildhall, at the election of sheriffs, 1682, where they seized the lord mayor, but the city lieutenancy raised the militia and released him ; the rioters were fined. At Edinburgh and Dumfries, on account of the Union, 1707. In London, on the trial of Dr Sacheverel, 1710; of the Whig and Tory mobs, called the Ormond and Newcastle mobs, 2 Geo. I., 1715. The Mughouse riot in Salisbury-court between the Jacobites, the leader shot by the master of the house, quelled by the Guards, 1716. The Shawfield riots at Glasgow, 1725. Riots at Westminster and London upon the excise bill ; resolutions against, passed by the Commons, April 12,1733. Rioters in Here- fordshire demolished the turnpikes, quelled after a smart engagement with the posse comilatus, 1735. At Edinburgh the mob rose, set fire to the prison door, took out Captain Porteous (who had been reprieved for letting his soldiers fire and kill one of the mob at a former riot), hanged him upon a sign-post, and then dispersed, 1736. Of the Cornish tin-miners, on account of the dearness of corn, 1737. Of the nailers in Worcestershire, who marched to Birmingham, and obliged all the ironmongers to sign a paper allowing them an advanced price on nails, 1737. Of the Spitalfield weavers, 1765. Of the people in all parts of England, on account of the dearness of provisions, 1766 and 1767. A mob in St George's Fields, to see Mr Wilkes in the King's Bench prison ; the military fired upon the mob, killing young Allen and several others, 1768. ^200, ooo damage done to the public prisons and private buildings in London, June (the Gordon riots), 1 780. At Glasgow, amongst the cotton manufacturers, wlien several were killed by the soldiers, Sept. 4, 1787. At Birmingham, on account of com- memorating the French revolution, when several houses were destroyed, July 14, 1791. In various parts of Scotland, onaccount of the militia act, several persons were killed, Aug. and Sept., 1797. At Maidstorie, at the trial of Arthur O'Connor, and others, May 22, 1798; the Earl of Thanet, Mr Ferguson, and others, were active in endeavouring to rescue O'Connor, for which they were tried and convicted, April 25, 1799. Of weavers, near Manchester, May 24, 1808. At Liverpool, occasioned by a quarrel between a party of dragoons and a pressgang, June 27, 1809. O. P. at Govent-garden theatre, Sept. 17, 1809; terminated Dec. 15, 1809. In Piccadilly, hi consequence of the House of Commons committing Sir F. Burdett to the Tower, April 6 and 9, 1810. O. P. riot at the Liverpool theatre, July, 1810. Of weavers, under the name of Luddites, Nov., 1811. At Sheffield, during which 800 muskets belonging to the local militia were destroyed, April 14, 1812. Among the sailors at Lynn, quelled without bloodshed, Dec. 9, 1814. At St Ives, Huntingdonshire, on account of a proposed increased assessment of the property tax, which was appeased by the commissioners relinquishing their pur- pose, Dec. 13, 1814. In Westminster, on account of the com bill, which lasted several days, Mar. 6, 1815. At Bishopwearmouth, near Durham, by the keel- men, who destroyed an expensive waggon road, and set fire to an immense pile of coals, March 20, 1815. At the depot at Dartmoor among the prisoners, in quell- 726 RIOTS IN ENGLAND ing which seven Americans were killed, and 35 others wounded, April 8, 1815. By the seamen of Newcastle, Sunderland, and Shields, which, after continuing several weeks, terminated without bloodshed, Oct. 21, 1815. By the miners and men employed in the iron works at Wolverhampton, on account of wages, quelled by the military without bloodshed, Nov. 14, 1815. By the tanners in Bermondsey, during which several persons were wounded by Mr Timbrel, whose house they attacked, April 7, 1816. At Bridport, on account of the price of bread, May 6, 1816. On the same account and in the same month, at Brandon, near Bury in Suffolk, and the city of Norwich. At Bideford, to prevent the exportation of a cargo of potatoes, May 20, 1816. At Bury, to destroy a spinning-jenny, May 20. At Littleport and Ely, by a body of insurgent fenmen, on the same day, which was quelled by the military, after some bloodshed, May 20. At Newcastle-upon- Tyne, by the pitmen and others, May 28. At Halstead, Essex, to liberate four persons who had been taken up for destroying machinery, May 28, 1816. At the village of Great Barnfield, Essex, to destroy threshing machines, in which they were defeated by the spirited exertions of Mr Spicer and his neighbours, whose house they attacked, May 31, 1816. At the Calton, one of the suburbs of Glas- gow, on account of the soup kitchens, which was quelled after several had been wounded by the military, Aug. 2, 1816. At Preston on account of the diminu- tion of wages, Aug. 17, 1810 ; at the same place, by the unemployed and dis- tressed workmen, Sept., 1816. Among the convicts in Newgate, which was quelled by threatening to withhold their allowance of food, Aug. 26, 1816. At Nottingham, by the Luddites, who destroyed more than thirty frames, Oct. 12, 1816. At Merthyr-Tydvil, in Glamorganshire, by the workmen in the iron works on account of a reduction of wages, Oct. 18, 1816. By the colliers at Calder iron-works, near Glasgow, on account of a suspension of wages, in consequence of arrests for debt, which continued for several days, Oct. 19, 1816. In the town of Birmingham, Oct. 28, 1816. In the town of Walsall, during which the win- dows of several bakers were broken, and the house and mills of Mr Jones com- pletely gutted, Oct. 30, 1816. In London, in consequence of a popular meeting in Spafields, for the purpose of presenting a petition to the Prince Regent, from the distressed manufacturers and mechanics, the shops of several gunsmiths were attacked for arms, and in that of Mr Beckwith on Snowhill, a Mr Platt was shot in the body by one of the rioters, Dec. 2, 1816 ; several of the rioters were appre- hended, and one of the name of Watson was tried for high treason and acquitted, June 1 6, 1817. At Dundee, on account of the sudden rise in the price of meal ; upwards of 100 shops of various descriptions were plundered, and the house of Mr Lindsay, an extensive corn-dealer, was set on fire, Dec. 7, 1816. In the Park, on the Prince Regent going to the House, in which an air-gun was fired at his Royal Highness, Jan. 28, 1817. At Radstock and Poulton, near Bath, by the colliers, who assembled to the number of 3000, threatening destruction to the pits and buildings, but dispersed without doing mischief at the appearance of the military, Feb. 28, 1817. At Manchester, in consequence of a popular meeting, March 3, 1817. At Alfreton, in Derbyshire, being part of an intended general insurrection ; it was, however, easily quelled, June 9, 1817, and Jeremiah Brandreth and others concerned in it were convicted in the following Oct. At the Westminster election, in which Sir Murray Maxwell was severely hurt, June 18, 19, and 20, 1818. In Covent -garden, on the chairing of Mr Lamb, who had been returned for West- minster, Feb. 13, 1819. At Liverpool, by the Irish, in an attempt to rescue one of their countrymen, July I, 1819. At Manchester (Peterloo), in which the military killed and wounded many unarmed, people, Aug. 16, 1819. . At Paisley and Glasgow, Sept. 14, 1819. Among the keelmen at North Shields, Oct. 14, 1819. At Dewsbury and its neighbourhood, by the members of the clothiers' union society, Feb. 21, 1820. At Culrain, in Scotland, in consequence of the expulsion of several tenants from an estate, March I, 1820. At Grange RIOTS IN ENGLAND 727 Moor, in Yorkshire, April 8, 1820. At Edinburgh, on the acquittal of Queen Caroline, Nov. 19, 1820 ; at the funeral of the Queen, in consequence of the military opposing the body being carried through the city, Aug. 14, 1821. At Knightsbridge, between the military and the populace, on the funeral of Honey and Francis, Aug. 26, 1821. In the Isle of Man, on the high price of corn, Oct. 5, 1821. In various parts of the south of Ireland, for several months in 1821 and 1822. In Norfolk and Suffolk, to destroy threshing machines, March and April, 1822. At Chippenham, between the inhabitants and those of a neighbouring village, Sept., 1822. Among the keelmen on the river Tyne, Oct. and Nov., 1822. At the Dublin theatre, called the bottle conspiracy, from a bottle having been thrown at Lord Wellesley by some Orangemen, Dec. 14, 1822. At Norwich 13,000 weavers and others took possession of the town, Jan. 24, 1826. In Lanca- shire several mills and looms destroyed, April 24 28. At Manchester, May 3. At Oldham, Oct. 12. At Norwich the weavers destroyed the frames. At Wymondham, June, 1827. At Gloucester, the toll house destroyed, Sept. 20. The weavers of Macclesfield, April 27 29, 1829. At Bethnal Green, May 27. At Fermanagh several Romanists killed, July 12. At Ballybay the Orange party committed excesses, Oct. 9, 1828. At Limerick, the plunder of provisions by a mob, June 15, 1830. At Castlepollard, between the peasantry and police, at the fair, thirteen killed and above twice that number wounded, May 23, 1831. At Merthr-Tydvil, South Wales, among the iron-workers, who were fired upon, and several killed and wounded, June 3, 1831- At the forest of Dean, June 8, 1831, when the fences and plantations were torn down. At Bristol, when great injury was done, on the recorder, Sir Charles Wetherell, opposing the reform bill, the Bishop's palace, the Mansion house, and several houses in Queen's Square, burnt, and two persons killed, and 60 wounded, Oct. 29, 1831. In Kilkenny, where a number of the police were attacked by the people and killed with their inspector, Dec. 14, 1831. At Sheffield the medical school destroyed, Jan. 26, 1835. Election riot at Wolverhampton, May 27. At Liverpool, Romanists' riots, July 12. At Bedford, Poor I AW riots, July 20. At Boytton, near Canterbury, where a man named Thorns, an insane fanatic, was killed, May 31, 1838. AttheGarrick theatre, riots caused by the Chartists, suppressed by proclamation, Dec. 12, 1838. Riots by the Chartists at Birmingham, July 15, 1839. At Newport, also by the Chartists, led by Frost, an ex-magistrate, several persons killed, Nov. 4, 1839. At Staleybridge, a mob of Chartists, 5000 strong, held a meeting, Aug. 4, 1842; Stockport plundered, Aug. 7; 4 persons wounded at Preston. Glasgow, riots at, II; at Blackburn the military fired upon the mob ; the court of requests at Stoke- upon-Trent destroyed, 15. Special commissions for the trial at Salford, Sept. 13; Stafford, Oct. 3; Cheshire, Oct. 5 ; Lancashire, Oct. n. At Cork, called 'food riots,' June 10, 1842. The 'Rebecca riots' in Wales, 1843. At Sid- well, Exeter, on account of the innovations in the church service, Jan. 19, 1845. At Edinburgh and Glasgow, March 7, 1848. The 'Chartists proposed riots' meeting, at Kennington common, April 10, 1848. 'Orange riots ' at Dolly's Brae in Ireland, July, 1849. Free-trade riots at Tamworth, May 28, 1851. Orange riots at Liverpool, July 14, 1851. At Stockport 'Roman Catholic' riots, June 29, 1852. At Belfast, July 14. At Six Mile bridge election riot, July 22. At Liverpool, bread riots, Feb. 19, 1853. At London, in Stepney, Bethnal Green, and other places, Feb. 21, 22. At Quebec, at Father Gavazzi's lectures, June 9, 1853. Bread riots in Devonshire, at Exeter, Jan. 9, 1854. At Hyde Park, Sunday Trading bill, June 24, 1855; and again, July I 8; Bread riots, Oct. 14 and 28, 1855. At Kelso during St James' fair, Aug. 5, 1856. At Bel- fast, Roman Catholic riots, Sept. 16, 1857. At Galway during the lecture given by Father Gavazzi, March 29, 1859. At Limerick election, May 4. Between the military and militia at Aldershot, Dec. 25. High Church riots at St George's- in-the-East, Jan. 29, 1860. Orange riot at Lurgan, July 8. At Chatham 728 RIOT ACT ROAD MURDER amongst the convicts, Feb. ri, 1861. The Garibaldians attacked by the Roman Catholics in Hyde Park, Oct. 5, 1862. At Birkenhead the Roman Catholics attacked the Protestants, many on both sides being wounded, the military were called out, Oct. 15. The operatives at Staleybridge, Ashton-under-Lyne, broke open the stores, March, 1863. The O'Donoghue riots at Dublin, at a meeting for considering the propriety of erecting a statue to Prince Albert, Feb. 23, 1864. At Belfast, at the inauguration of the statue to the late Daniel O'Connell, Aug. 8 10, and again on the 23rd, 7 persons killed and upwards of 200 wounded. At Hyde Park, Reform League riots, the park wall thrown down, and several police- men wounded, July 23, 1866. Food riots at Greenwich and Deptford, Jan. 24, 1867. Anti-Popery riots at Birmingham, June 16. Bread riots at Exeter, Cre- diton, and Teignmouth, the military called out, Nov. 4, 5. Bread riots in Belfast, Nov. 23. Religious riots at Rochdale, March 6, 1868. Serious riots of the miners at Charleroi, Belgium, March 28 to April 4. Colliers created serious disturbances at Wigan, April 20. Religious riots at Ashton-under-Lyne, May 8, 9. Potato riot at Cork, 3000 persons were engaged, Sept. 3. No-Popery or Murphy riots in Manchester, Sept. 5, 6. RIOT ACT, passed for preventing tumults and riotous assemblies, and for the more speedy and effectual punishing the rioters, I Geo. L, st. 2, c. 5, 1714; capital punishment for not dispersing after the proclamation abolished, and transporta- tion, &c., substituted, 7 Will. IV. & I Viet. c. 91, July 17, 1837. RIPON, Yorkshire. The monastery founded by Eata, abbot of Melrose; St Wilfrid appointed abbot, 664 ; rebuilt by him, 690 ; Ripon honours his name still by an annual feast ; made a bishop's see, for a short period ; Athelstan made the church a sanctuary, 924 ; the town and monastery burned by the Danes, 950 ; made a borough by Alfred the Great ; in 1069 ravaged by William the Conqueror, and laid waste 16 years ; it revived till 1319, when the Scotch barbarians burnt it in one of their forays ; in 1604 James I. gave a new charter to the town ; visited by James I., 1617; the town taken and plundered, and the Minster sacked by the Parliamentarians, 1643 ; the hospital founded by Thurston, archbishop of York, 1140; and one by the Nevils. The Minster began, 1154; completed, 1494; it is 260 feet in length, breadth of nave and aisles, 87 feet ; central tower rebuilt, 1454; the chapter-house erected, uoo; town hall built, 1801 ; the Minster made a Cathedral in 1836, Dr C. T. Longley the first Bishop. RITUALISTIC DOCTRINES in the English Church, commission appointed to inquire into the differences of practice, and the varying interpretations put upon the rubrics, orders, and directions for regulating the conduct of public worship, June 3, 1867 ; the MS. copy of the Prayer-book attached to the Act of Uniformity discovered, July 30 ; first report presented for regulating the vestments worn by the ministers of the United Church, Aug. 19. RIVAULX ABBEY, Yorkshire, built by Walter Espec, 1132. RIVOLI, Sardinia, the French under Massena defeated the Austrians, 1797; cap- tured by the Sardinians, June 16, 1848 ; the Austrians repulsed at, July 22. RIZZIO, David, an Italian musician, assassinated, March 9, 1566, by Lord Darnley, the husband of Mary, Queen of Scots, in her presence. ROAD MURDER. A village near Trowbridge ; William Saville Kent, vhe son of Mr S. S. Kent, sub-inspector of factories, was murdered under mysterious circum- stances, June 29, 1860. The nursemaid, Elizabeth Gough, was charged with the crime but acquitted ; his sister, Constance, was also suspected, but discharged ; she subsequently made a voluntary confession to the Rev. Arthur D. Wagner, of St Paul's, Brighton, and gave herself up at Bow-street, April 25, 1865; committed for trial by the magistrates at Trowbridge, April 26 ; tried at Salisbury, and sentenced to be hanged, July 20 ; commuted to transportation. ROADS ROCHESTER 729 ROADS. The highways becoming in a dangerous state a statute was passed for the repair and widening of, 13 Edw. I., st. 2, c. 5, 1285. A toll upon all sorts of carriages granted to the master of the Hospital of St Giles-in-the- Fields for the repair of, Edw. III., 1346; regulations for the better management of, and surveyors appointed by 2 & 3 Phil. & Mary, c. 8, 1555; the first turnpike act passed, 15 Chas. II. c. I, 1663 ; all cart-ways leading to market towns to be made 8 feet wide at least, 3 Will. & Mary, c. 12, 1691 ; the weight of loads to be carried fixed, March 25, 1720; wooden blocks used in Oxford-street and Holborn, 1839-40. Made in the Highlands of Scotland by Gen. Wade, 1746 ; and by MacAdam, a com- missioner of roads, 1783-98 ; generally adopted in England, 1829 ; an act passed for their better management, 25 & 26 Viet. c. 6r, July 29, 1862 ; several toll- gates abolished by 26 & 27 Viet. c. 78, July 28, 1863 ; a steam roller used, 1867. ROASTING ALIVE Sir John Oldcastle, Lord Cobham charged with being a favourer of Wickliffe, and a heretic, condemned by Thomas Arundel, arch- bishop of Canterbury ; but, escaping into W'ales, where a miserable wretch (Powis) betrayed him, his old sentence was carried out. He was hanged by the middle in chains over a fire, before his own residence in Smithfield, and slowly roasted, 5 Henry V., 1418 ; Sevetus burnt at Geneva for heresy, being condemned at the instigation of Calvin, Oct. 27, 1553. ROBBERS, first punished with death by the laws of Edw. I. ; robbing from the person made felony and punished with death, 7 & 8 Geo. IV., c. 29, s. 6, June 21, 1827 ; repealed, 7 Will. IV. & I Viet. c. 87, s. I, July 17, 1837 ; altered 24 & 25 Viet. c. 96, s. 40, Aug. 6, 1 86 1. ROBESPIERRE, MAXIMILIAN, a leader in the atrocities committed during the French revolution, guillotined, July 24, 1 794. ROCHE ABBEY, Yorkshire, founded, 1147. ROCHEFORT-SUR-MER, France, made a naval station, by Louis XIV., 1666. Here Napoleon gave himself up to Cap. Maitland of the Bellerophon, July 15, 1815. ROCHELLE, France, besieged by the duke of Anjou, before which he lost 24,000 men, July 15, 1573 ; again besieged with an army of 25,000 men ; Cardinal Richelieu erected a stone dyke across the mouth of the harbour to prevent the relief of, by a foreign fleet, after an heroic defence of 15 months, and when more than half of the population had perished it was taken, and only 5000 out of 15,000 remained alive, Oct. 28, 1628. ROCHESTER, Kent. The Durobriva of the Romans. Captured by Ethelred, King of Mercia, 676 ; plundered by the Danes, 839 and 885 ; Athelstan established 3 mints here, 930 ; re-invaded by the Danes, 999 ; the castle erected by William the Conqueror, 1077; taken by King John from the Barons, 1215; Henry III. held a tournament at, 1251 ; the city nearly destroyed by fire, 1137; rebuilt and walled round, 1225; repaired, 1290; chartered by Edw. IV., 1460; confirmed by Chas. I., 1630. The castle taken by the Barons, 1215. Grand tournament, 1251 ; besieged by the Barons under Simon de Montfort, 1254; again assaulted by Wat Tyler. Edw. IV. repaired the castle ; the town hall erected, 1687 ; the clock tower by Sir Cloudesley Shovel, 1706; fort Pitt erected, 1803; fort Clarence, 1812 ; 14 persons drowned passing under the bridge, Sept. 13, 1816. Atter- bury, bishop, tried, May 27, 1723; quitted England, June 8, 1723; died, Feb. 22, 1731. The old bridge taken down, Jan. 13, 1857 ; made a bishopric by Ethelbert, 604 ; Justus was elected the first bishop. The Cathedral destroyed by the Danes ; rebuilt by Bishop Gundulf, begun, 1077; finished and dedicated, May u, 1130; injured by fire, 1138; and again, 1177; partially destroyed when the city was besieged by the Barons, 1264 ; tower taken down, 1763 ; length of the Cathedral, 306 feet, 68 broad. The palace of the bishop rebuilt, 1459 ; and 730 ROCKETS ROLLS again in the I7th century; the foundation stone of a Jewish synagogue laid, Oct. 5, 1868. ROCKETS, for war purposes, first used by the Venetians, 1380 ; by the French, 1449. One invented by Sir William Congreve, 1803; used at Boulogne, Oct. 8, 1806 ; Sir W. Congreve's manufactory at West Ham, Essex, exploded, killing two men, and injuring several others, June 12, 1824. Mr Dennet of Newport invented rockets, to be projected over wrecked vessels, or from the vessel to the shore, where it would fix itself in the ground, 1828. ROCKINGHAM ADMINISTRATIONS ; the first formed by the Marquis of, July, 1765; resigned, July, 1766; the second, March, 1782; dissolved, July, 1782. ROCKINGHAM CASTLE, Northamptonshire, built by William I., 1070-80 ; a council held in, to settle the disputes between William Rums and Archb. Anselm, as to Episcopal investiture, 1094 ; Thomas Lord Burleigh appointed warden, by Queen Elizabeth, 1598 ; taken by the Parliamentarians, 1646. ROCKINGHAM HOUSE, Roscommon, Ireland, the seat of Lord Lorton, de- stroyed by fire, April 18, 1863. ROCKING STONE, discovered in North America, in Savoy, Massachusetts, 1825, 26 feet long and 18 broad. ROCROI, battle, the Spaniards under Francisco de Mello, invested this fortress with an army of 26,000 men ; the place was relieved by the French army under the Prince de Conde, who entirely defeated the Spaniards with a loss of 15,000 men, May 19, 1643. RODNEY, Lord, great naval victory of, near Cape St Vincent, over the Spanish admiral Langara, whom he made prisoner, destroying several sail and taking five, Jan. 16, 1780 ; he also defeated the French, under the Count de Grasse, when he took or destroyed five sail-of-the-line, and captured the commander-in-chief ; Rodney's own ship fired 80 broadsides, April 12, 1782. ROLICA, battle, the British forces, commanded by Wellesley, defeated a French division of 5000, commanded by Delaborde, Aug. 9, 1808. ROLLS. A list of the Masters of, with the dates of their appointments : Alcock, John, April 29, 1471 Colepeper, John Lord, June r, 1660 Arden, Sir Richard, June 4, 1788 Copley, Sir John Singleton, Sept. 14, 1826 Ayremynne, William de, Aug. 19, 1316 Cordell, Sir William, Nov. 5, 1557 Richard de, May 26, 1324 Cromwell, Thomas, Oct. 8, 1534 Bainbrigge, Christopher, Nov. 13, 1504 Digges, Sir Dudley, April 12, 1636 Baron, William, Feb. I, 1502 Egerton, Sir Thomas, April 10, 1594 Barrow, Thomas, Sept. 29, 1483 Evesham, Thomas de, Jan. 10, 1341 Beaumont, John de, Dec. 13, 1550 Fortescue, William, Nov. 5, 1741 Bickersteth, RtHon. Hen., Jan. 19,1836 Franuke, John, Oct. 28, 1423 Blyth, John, May 14, 1492 Gauntstede, Simon de, June 3, 1415 Bruce, Edward, May 18, 1603 Gerrard, Gilbert, May 30, 1581 Bubbewyth, Nich. de, Sept. 24, 1402 Gifford, Robt. Lord, April 5, 1824 Burstall, William, March 28, 1371 Grant, Sir William, May 27, 1801 Burton, John de, Oct. 24, 1386 Grimstone, Sir Harbottle, Nov. 3, 1660 Caesar, Sir Julius, Oct. I, 1614 Hales, Christopher, July 10, 1536 Caesar, Sir Charles, March 18, 1639 Hannibal, Thomas, Oct. 9, 1523 Churchhill, Sir John, Oct. 20, Jan. 12, Hare, Sir Nicholas, Sept. 18, 1553 1685 Jekyll, Sir Joseph, July 13, 1717 Clarke, John, Oct. 20, 1522 Johnson, George, Aug. 15, 1667 Clarke, Sir Thomas, May 29, 1754 Kenyon, Sir Lloyd, March 30, 1784 Clyff, Henry de, July 4, 1326 Kirkeby, Thomas de, March 29, 1447 Colepeper, Sir John, Jan. 28, 1643 Kirkeham, Robert de, Dec. 23, 1461 ROLLS CHAPEL ROMAN CATHOLICS 731 Langton, John cle, 1286 June 18, 1552 Leach, Sir John, May 3, 1827 Stanley, Thomas, Sept. II, 1397 Lenthall, William, Nov. 8, 1643 Stopynden, John, Nov. 13, 1438 May, Sir Humphrey, April 10, 1629 Strange, Sir John, Jan. II, 1750 Morland, William, Feb. 22, 1471 Taylour, John, June 26, 1527 Morton, John, March 16, 1472 Thoresby, John de, Feb. 21, 1341 Morton, Robert, May 30, 1477 Trevor, Sir John, Oct 20, 1685 ; Jan. Morton, Robert, Nov. 13, 1485 18, 1693 Osgodeby, Adam de, Oct. I, 1295 Tunstall, Cuthbert, May 12, 1516 Paul, John de St, April 28, 1337 Verney, John, Oct 9, 1738 Pepys,Sir Chas Christop.Sept. 29,1834 Wakering, John de, March 2, 1405 Phillips, Sir Edward, Jan. 14, 1610 Wallore, David de, July 2, 1346 Plumer, Sir Thomas, Jan. 6, 1818 Waltham, John de, Sept 8, 1381 Powle, Henry, March 13, 1689 Warham, William, Feb. 13, 1494 Romilly, Sir John, March 28, 1851 Wath, Michael de, Jan. 20, 1334 Scarle, John de, July 22, 1394 Williams, David, Nov. 26, 1487 Sewell, Sir Thomas, Dec. 4, 1764 Yonge, John, Jan. 22, 1508 ; June II, Southwell, Sir Robert, July I, 1541; 1509 ROLLS CHAPEL, Chancery-lane, founded by Henry III., 1233, for the main- taining and ordaining of converted Jews. The records first deposited here in the I4th century. Rolls House, Chancery-lane, erected, Sept. 18, 1717. ROMAN CATHOLIC ASSOCIATION, a society established in Ireland, to re- move the disabilities to which the Roman Catholics were subjected in regard to their civil rights, founded by Daniel O'Connell, 1824. An act of parliament was passed to suppress it, March 5, 1829, after the disabilities which it was its object to remove were no more : the society had previously voted its own dissolution, Feb. 12, 1829. ROMAN CATHOLIC FAITH. The precise date of the foundation of this creed is uncertain. Some give it to the time when Constantine made such an adroit use of the Christians to aid in his conquests, or A. D. 323. Others date it from Boniface III., 606, when he assumed the title of universal bishop; this, how- ever, only applies to the title of its head. ROMAN CATHOLICS. Henry VIII. destroyed the power of the Pope in Eng- land, 1534 ; several members of that faith executed, 1535 ; Henry styled Defender of the Faith, 1539; the priests forbidden to make proselytes by 23 Eliz. c. I, 1581 ; not to be relieved by Protestants, 1593 ; not permitted to hold Government offices, 1672 ; forbidden to appear at court, 1673 ; excluded from Parliament, 1677 ; in 1685 they were restored to their privileges ; they were dis- abled from holding offices of trust, 1689 ; obliged to register their names and estates, 1717 ; some relaxations of these hard conditions took place, 1778, and they were permitted to purchase land and take it by descent, 1 780 ; yet these trivial concessions caused a riot, headed by Lord George Gordon, 1780, and dreadful excesses followed. An act passed relieving them, upon conditions and under restrictions, from certain penalties and disabilities, 31 Geo. III. c. 32, 1791. A bill introduced into the House of Commons for the relief of, March 6, 1829 ; majority for going into Committee, 188 ; March 18, majority for second reading, 180 ; March 30, majority for third reading, 170 : in the House of Lords, March 31, no division ; April 4, second reading, for, 217 ; against, 112 ; April 10, third reading, for, 213 ; against, 109 ; receives the royal sanction, April 13, 10 Geo. IV. c. 7. Mr O'Connell, the first Catholic member, took his seat for Clare, July 5, 1829 ; the first English Catholic member was the Earl of Sur- rey, for Horsham, May 4, 1829. The double land tax charged upon the property of, reduced, i&2 Will. IV. c. 21, Sept. 22, 1831. The charity bequests of, places 732 ROMANS ROME of worship, and education, regulated by 2 & 3 Will. IV. c. 115, Aug. 15, 1832. Abolishing the Roman Catholic oath at elections, 6 & 7 Viet. c. 28, T'lly 4, 1843. Several penal statutes repealed by 7 & 8 Viet, c 102, Aug. 9, 1844. An act passed relieving them of penalties and disabilities, 9 & 10 Viet. c. 59, Aug. 18, 1846. The Ecclesiastical Titles Bill passed, 14 & 15 Viet. c. 60, Aug. I, 1851. The Roman Catholic Charities regulated by 23 & 24 Viet. c. 134, Aug. 28, 1860. In 1868, the number of priests in the united kingdom was 1489 ; churches and chapels, 1122 ; monasteries, 67 ; convents, 214; colleges, 18. ROMANS, Epistle to the, written from Corinth, by St Paul, A.D. 58. ROME, Ancient: Founded by Romulus (according to Varro), B.C. 753; he is succeeded by Numa Pompilius, 715 ; the Capitol founded, 615 ; the first census taken, 566 ; the second, 508. The dictatorship instituted, 501 ; secession of the Plebeians to the Mons Sacer, 494; tribunes instituted, 494; Coriolanus banished, 491. First war with Veil begun, 483 ; ended, 474. The Volscian war begun, 459; Decemvirs instituted, 452; secession (second) of the Plebeians to the Mons Sacer, 449 ; second war with Veii, 406 ; Veii captured by Camillus, 396 ; the Gauls take Rome, 390 ; the first war with the Samnites, 343. The first war with the Latins, 340. Second war with the Samnites begun, 326 ; ended, 304 ; third war with the Samnites begun, 298; ended, 290. Aqua Appia built, 311 ; Pyrrhus invaded Italy, 281. First Punic war, begun, 264; ended, 241 ; second begun, 218; ended, 201; third begun, 149; ended, 146. The Empire first mentioned in the Bible, 161 ; Carthage destroyed, 146; Numantine war, 143. The Jugurthine war begun, in; ended, 106. Social war begun, 90; ended, 88. First Mithridatic war with, 88 ; second, 74. The Temple of Jupiter burnt, 83. Cateline's con- spiracy, first, 65 ; second, 63. First Triumvirate established (Julius Caesar, Pom- pey, and Crassus), 63 ; civil war between Caesar and Pompey, 49 ; battle of Phar- salia, 44 ; Julius Csesar assassinated, 44 ; second Triumvirate (Octavian, Antony, and Lepidus), 43 ; battle of Philippi, 42 ; Herod the Great was made king, 40 ; and confirmed in his government by Augustus, 30. Aqua Julia, built by Augustus, 34; battle of Actium, 31; the Pantheon erected by Agrippa, 27; Public Baths erected by Agrippa, 24 ; peace declared with all the world, 5. ROME, Modern : The principal events which have taken place in Rome since the commencement of the Christian era are as follows : Ovid banished to Tomi, A. D. 9; Cappadocia added to Rome, 17; Tiberius retired to his debaucheries at Caprese, 26; Caractacus brought in chains to, 5; Agrippina put to death by her son Nero, 59 ; St Paul brought prisoner to, 62 ; the city burnt by Nero, 64; Seneca, Lucan, and the apostles Peter and Paul put to death, 65 ; Jerusalem taken, and levelled by Titus, Sept. 8, 70 ; the Colosseum begun by Vespasian, 72 ; revolt of the Parthians, 77 ; the theatre of Pompey, the library of Augustus, and the Capitol, destroyed by fire, 80 ; the Dacian war begun, 86 ; Pliny, Junior, proconsul in Bithynia, sent Trajan his celebrated account of the Christians, 102 ; Trajan's expedition into the East against the Parthians, 106 ; Trajan's column erected at Rome, 114; the Mausoleum of Hadrian erected, 130. The Jewish war begun, 131 ; ended, 135. The Capitol destroyed by lightning, 188. Byzan- tium taken ; its walls razed, 196. Severus erected a triumphal arch, 202 ; the Goths received tribute, 222 ; Pompey's amphitheatre burnt, 241 ; the Goths invaded, 250; pestilence throughout the empire, 252 ; Claudius obtains a great victory over the Goths, at Naissus, 300,000 slain, 269 ; the Emperor Aurelian erected a new wall round the city, 270-1 ; Longinus put to death, 273 ; the barbarians obtain Dacia, 274; the era of the martyrs, 284; the Franks settled in Gaul, 287; Constantius died at York, 306 ; four emperors reigned at one time, 308 ; Maxi- mius strangled, 310. Constantine the Great, in consequence of a vision, placed the cross on his banners, and arrived at Rome, 312; began to favour the Christians, 319; tolerated the Christian faith, 323; convoked the first general ROME 733 council of Christians at Nice, 325. The seat of empire removed from Rome to Byzantium, 328 ; Constantine ordered the destruction of the heathen temples, 331; revolt of 300,000 Sarmatian slaves from their masters, suppressed with difficulty, 334. Death of Constantine ; succeeded by his three sons, Constans, Constantius II., and Constantine It., 337. The army proclaimed Julian emperor at Paris, 360 ; Julian abjured Christianity, and opened all the heathen temples, 361 ; Julian killed in battle, in Persia, 363. Jovian restored Christianity, 363 ; found dead, supposed to be poisoned, 364. The Roman empire divided between Eastern and Western, by Valentinian and Valens, brothers ; the former had the West, 364. The Goths permitted to settle in Thrace, 376; they entered the Roman territories, 382. Valentinian deposed by Maximus, who restored Paganism, 387. Arcadius and Honorius, emperors, 395 ; the walls repaired by Honorius, 404 ; 200,000 Goths defeated, 405 ; the Vandals, Alani, and Suevi permitted to settle in France and Spain, by Honorius, 406 ; the city taken and pillaged, then burned, by the Goths under Alaric, Aug. 24, 410 ; the kingdom of Thoulouse begun, 411 ; the Vandals began their empire in Spain, 412 ; the city restored, 417 ; Pharamond commenced the empire of the Franks, 420; the Vandals retired into Africa, 427; Genseric captured Carthage, 439 ; Attila the Hun ravaged Europe, 447 ; the Vandals entered and ravaged Sicily, 454. Valentinian dishonoured the wife of Maximus, 454; he was killed by the soldiers on the side of Maximus, who married his widow, Eudoxia, 455; Eudoxia, to avenge Valentinian and punish Maximus, invited Genseric and the Vandals into Italy, 455 ; the city taken and sacked by the Vandals under Genseric, the pillage lasting for 14 days, June 15 29,455; Max- imus stoned to death, and Eudoxia and her family, with thousands more, sent cap- tive to Africa, 455 ; the Emperor Majorianus fixed his residence at Ravenna, 455 ; the Vandals expelled from Sicily, 464 ; the Goths defeated in Gaul, 466 ; the city pillaged, 472 ; great eruption of Mount Vesuvius, 472 ; Odoacer entered Italy, took Rome and the title of King of Italy, terminating the Western Roman empire, 476 ; besieged by a Gothic army of 150,000 men, and successfully defended by Belisarius for 12 months, when the siege was raised, 538 ; retaken by the Goths under Totila and sacked, Dec. 1 7, 546 ; retaken by Belisarius, Feb. , 547 ; again taken by Totila, 549 ; recovered by Narses, July, 552. The papal usurpation established, 606 ; Rome revolted from the Greek emperors, 726 ; the Greek emperors extinguished and a republic established, 732; Pope Stephen II. got temporal rule ; Charlemagne became Emperor of the West, 800 ; crowned, Dec. 25, 800. The suburbs plundered by the Arabs, 846 ; besieged by Henri IV., 1081 ; partially burnt by the Saracens, under Robert Guiscard, 1084 ; the Pope removed his government to Avignon, 1309 ; the last gladia- torial combat held in the Colosseum, 1332 ; Petrarch crowned at the Capitol, April 8, 1341. Rienzi made Dictator, May 20, 1347 ; abdicated, Dec. 15 ; restored, 1354 ; murdered by the Plebs, Sept. 8, 1354. The populace re- volted against the Pope's authority, May 29, 1434 ; the library of the Vatican founded, 1447 ; St Peter's begun, 1450. The Duke Charles of Bourbon, with a force of 14,000 German lansquenets, attacked Rome, but he was killed whilst placing the first ladder with his own hands ; his infuriated followers stormed the city, and slaughtered the garrison, May 6, 1527 ; the city was given up to pillage for seven months, and the Pope imprisoned in the castle of St Angelo. Porta del Popolo erected, 1561. The obelisk of the Vatican erected by Sixtus V., 1586 ; the obelisk of St Maria Maggiore, 1587. The Fontana Paolina on the Janiculum erected by Paul V., 1612 ; St Peter's dedicated by Urban VIII., 1626 ; Benedict XIV. restored the walls, 1749 ; the Jesuits expelled from, Aug. 1773 M. Basseville, the French ambassador, shot in the streets of, Jan. 14,1793; Bona- parte took the city, and plundered the Vatican and other celebrated galleries of their treasures, which he sent to France, 1797 ; invaded by the French, under Berthier, Feb. 16, 1798 ; the Pope sent from the city, and a republic established, 734 ROME March 20 ; captured by the Neapolitans, and the King of Naples made his triumphal entry into, Nov. 29, 1798 ; reoccupied by the French, Dec. 8, 1798 ; the Pope restored to his kingdom, July 3, 1800 ; the French again entered, Feb. 2, 1808 ; annexed by Napoleon to Italy, May 21, 1808 ; made a free city by, May 17, 1809 ; the Pope taken prisoner by the French, July 5. The French under- took the restoration of the city, 1809 ; the city incorporated with France, Dec. 12, 1809. Murat entered the city at the head of 20,000 men, Jan. 19, 1813; Pope Pius VII. returned to the city, May 24, 1814. Pope Pius IX. elected, June 16, 1846 ; crowned, June 21. The Pope declared war against Austria, May i, 1848; Count Rossi formed a new ministry, Sept. 14; assassinated, Nov. 15. The people demanded a democratic ministry ; a conflict ensued between the papal and civic guard ; the troops invested the Quirinal, and placed cannon against the en- trance ; the Pope was forced to accept a popular ministry, Nov. 16, 1848 ; Car- dinal Palma, the Pope's secretary, was shot in the conflict, Nov. 16; the Pope escaped in disguise from Rome to Gaeta, Nov. 24 ; M. de Corcelles left Paris for Rome, a French armed expedition having preceded him, to afford protection to the Pope, Nov. 27 ; protest of the Pope against the acts of the provisional gov- ernment, Nov. 28, 1848. A constituent assembly met at Rome, Feb. 5, 1849 ; the Roman National Assembly declared the Pope divested of all temporal power, and adopted the republican form of government, Feb. 8 ; the republican flag hoisted on the tower of the Capitol ; the Pope protested against the decree for his dethronement, Feb. 14; his Holiness appealed to the great Roman Catholic powers for an armed intervention in his behalf, Feb. 18 ; Civita Vecchia occupied by the French forces, under Marshal Oudinot, April 26 ; a small French force repulsed from Rome by Garibaldi, April 29 ; in this action the French were driven back from the city with the loss of about 7o men. Engagement between the Romans and Neapolitans ; the former captured 60 prisoners and 400 muskets, May 5 > the French, under Marshal Oudinot, commenced an attack, June 3 ; they made a breach in the walls, June 14 ; the French sent storming parties through the breaches in the walls, June 21 ; a deputation sent to Marshal Oudinot, to treat for a surrender, and they eventually capitulated to the French army, July 3 ; the Roman Assembly dissolved, July 4 ; an officer from Ouclinot's camp arrived at Gaeta, to present the Pope with the keys of the two gates of Rome by which the French army had entered the city, July 4 ; the re-establishment of the Pope's authority proclaimed at Rome, July 15 ; Oudinot issued a general order, stating that the Pope (or his representative) now repossessed the administra- tion of affairs, but that public security in the Pontifical dominions still remained under the special guarantee of the French army, Aug. 3 ; his Holiness arrived at Portici on a visit to the king of Naples, Sept. 4 ; he issued from Portici a motu proprio to his subjects, Sept. 12. The Pope left Portici for Rome, where he ar- rived, April 13, 1850 ; he issued the bull, establishing a Roman Catholic hier- archy in England, Sept. 24. A concordat was agreed to with Tuscany, April 25, 1851 ; with Austria, Aug. 18, 1855 ; with Spain, Aug. 26, 1859. The National Assembly opened, Sept. I, 1859 ; vote in favour of the separation of the tem- poral power of the Pope, Sept. 7 ; all their acts annulled by the Pope, Sept. 26; the Sardinian minister left Rome, Oct. 9 ; the surrender of the legations de- manded, Dec. 31 ; The Pope refused, Jan. 8, 1860; disturbance amongst the students at, Feb. I ; popular outbreak put down with great barbarity, March 19 ; sentence of excommunication issued against the kings of Italy and France, March 29 ; the Sardinian forces invaded the Roman States, Sept. 1 1 ; Pesaro captured, Sept. 12 ; Sinigaglia, Sept. 13 ; Perugia, Sept. 14 ; Ancona bombarded ; the Papal army, with their commander, Gen. Lamoriciere, surrendered, Sept. 29 ; evacuated, Oct. 6. Treaty between the Emperor Napoleon III. 2nd the King of Italy for the evacuation of Rome, Sept. 15, 1864. The inhabitants petition for the withdrawal of the French army of occupation, May, 1861 ; withdrawn, Dec. ROME 735 n, 1866, after an occupation of 17 years ; cost France, 61,524,000 francs. The Antibes legion for the service of the Pope left France, Sept. 13, 1866. Meeting at St Peter's held for the canonization of the Japanese martyrs, June 29, 1867. A literary copyright convention concluded between France and Rome, July 21. Societies formed in Italy for the conquest of Rome, 1866-7. Garibaldi taken by the Italians whilst on his way to take command of the volunteers at ; several engagements on the frontier between the volunteers and the troops, Oct. 5 ; the invaders, under Menotti Garibaldi, defeated at Nerola, Oct. 18; Garibaldi left Caprera secretly, and arrived at Florence, Oct. 21 ; the attempt of the brothers Cairoli defeated, and 70 of their followers killed, and one of their leaders, Oct. 22 ; the volunteers, under Garibaldi, defeated the Papal forces at Monte Rondo, Oct 26, but they were defeated at Viterbo, Oct. 24 ; the French army arrived at Civita Vecchia, Oct. 29 ; the Italian army entered the Roman States, Oct. 29 ; the French army entered Rome, Oct. 30 ; Garibaldi defeated at Montana by the combined forces, Nov. 2, and surrendered to the Italians, Nov. 3 ; the Italian troops evacuated the States, Nov. 5 ; the French officers received by the Pope, and thanked foi their services, Nov. 13 ; returned to France, and the French flag lowered, Dec. 3. The population in 1867 was 215,573. KINGS. Romulus ... ... .. B.C. 753 Numa Pompilius ... ... 715 Tullus Hostilius 673 Ancus Martins ... ... 641 Tarquinius Priscus ... ... 616 Servius Tullius ... ... 57& Tarquinius S uperbus ... ... 5 34 EMPERORS. Augustus Caesar ... ... B.C. 27 Tiberius Claudius Nero ... A. D. 14 Caligula 37 Claudius ... ... ... 41 Claudius Nero ... ... 54 Galba Sulpicius 69 Otho ... 69 Vitellius 69 Vespasianus ... ... ... 7 Vespasianus, his son ... ... 70 Titus Flavins Domitian, brother of Titus, last of the Twelve Caesars, assassinated ... 8l Nerva 96 Trajanus ... 98 Hadrianus ... Ii8 Antoninus ... ... ... 138 Marcus Aurelius, and Lucius Verus, his son-in law ; the latter died, 169 161 Commodius (L. Aurelius Anto- ninus)... ... 180 Pertinax Publius Helvius ... 193 Didius Julianus 193 Pescennius Niger ... ... 193 Severus Lucius Septimius; died at York, in Britain, 211; suc- ceeded by his sons ... 193 Caracalla M. Aurelius, and Sep- timius Geta; Geta murdered the same year by his brother, who reigned alone until 2 1 7, when he was slain by his suc- cessor ... ... ... 211 Macrinus M. Opilius ... ... 217 Elagabalus, M. Aurelius ... 218 Severus Alexander; assassinated by some soldiers corrupted by Maximinus ... ... ... 222 Maxim inus Pius 235 Gordianus M. Antonius ... 238 Balbinus and Pupienus ; put to death 238 Gordian, junior,grandson of the elder Gordian ... ... 238 Philippus ... 244 Decius Metius '... ... 249 Callus Hostilius, and his son Volusianus, both slain by the soldiers ... ... ... 251 ^Emilianus Volusianus ... 252 Valerianus and his son Galli- enus ... ... ... ... 253 Gallienus reigned alone ... 260 Claudius Gothicus II. ... 268 Aurelianus L. Domitius ... 270 Tacitus, elected, Oct. 25 ; died at Tarsus, in Cilicia, April 13 275 Florianus, his brother ... 276 Probus M. Aurelius ... ... 276 Cams M. Aurelius ... ... 282 Carinus and Numerianus ; both assassinated ... ... ... 283 736 ROMFORD RONCESVALLES Diocletianus ... ... ... 284 Maximilianus Hercules: the two emperors resign in favour of 286 Constantius and Galerius Max- imianus : the first died at York, in Britain, 306 ... 305 Constantinus, afterwards styled the Great 306 Maxentius, the son of Maximi- auus Hercules. Besides these, were ... ... ... ... 306 Maximianus Hercules, who en- deavoured to recover his powei 306 Severus Flavius Valerius ... 306 Flavius Valerianus Licinius, the brother-in-law of Constantine 307 Constantine the Great reigned alone ; died on Whitsunday, May 22, 337 324 Constantinus II., Constans, and Constantius II., sons of Con- stantine; divided the empire between them : the first was slain, 340, and the second murdered, 350, when the third became sole emperor ... 337 Julian, the Apostate, so called for abjuring Christianity, having been educated for the priesthood : mortallywounded in a battle with the Persians 361 Jovianus, reigned eight months 363 Valentinian I. ... ... ... 364 The Roman empire terminated here as a single dominion. Valentinian, the son of Gra- tian, took the Western, and his brother Valens the East- ern, Empire. DIVISION OF THE EMPIRE. Western. Valentinianus and Gratianus Gratianus and Valentinianus II. 364 375 Valentinianus II. Honorius Valentinianus III. Petronius Maximus Avitus Flavius Csecilius Marjoranus Julius Severus Libius Anthenius Procopius ... Olybius Anicius Glycerius Flavius Nepos Julius Romulus Augustulus Fall of the Western Empire. Eastern. Valens ... ... Theodosius the Great ... Arcadius Theodosius II. Pulcheria and Marcianus Leo I Leo II Zeno Anastasius I. ... Justinus I. Justinus II. ... Tiberius II. Mauritius Phocas Heraclius Heraclius, Constantinus, and Heracleonas Constans II. Constantinus III. Justinianus II. Philippus Bardanes Anastasius II. Theodosius III. Leo III Constantinus IV. Leo IV Constantinus V. Irene 383 395 425 455 455 457 461 467 472 473 474 475 364 379 383 408 45 457 474 474 491 5i8 565 578 582 602 610 641 641 668 685 711 713 716 718 74i 775 780 797 802 Nicephorus For Popes of, see List under Popes. ROMFORD, Essex, the Roman Durolitum. The name first appeared in the Red-book of the Exchequer ; the manor held by Roger Bigod, Earl of Norfolk, 1166 ; Giddea Hall begun by Sir Thomas Cooke, aid. of London, 1467; Town- hall rebuilt, 1768. ROMFORD BARRACKS destroyed by fire, May 27, 1745 ; rebuilt, 1795. RONCESVALLES, Spain, invaded by Charlemagne, who was defeated here, 778 ; the pillar erected to commemorate that event destroyed, 1794; the French cap- tured the passes of, June 3, 1794; and defeated the Spaniards, Oct. 16 ; the English under Stewart and Hill, defeated by the French under Soult, July 25, 1813 ; Don Carlos proclaimed king, Oct. 12, 1833. ROPEMAKING ROSETTA 737. ROPEMAKING, Mr Sylvester invented a machine for, 1783, and substituted horse for hand power, 1784 ; Mr John Belfour obtained a patent for, March 16, 1793 ; improved by Richard Fothergill, April 12 ; and by Joseph Huddart, April 25 ; further improved by William Chapman, 1797 ; still further improved by William Hoard, 1801. Messrs Chapman patented a method for making flat mining ropes, Oct. 30, 1807 ; the method of spinning much improved and simplified by Mr Lang, 1832 ; since improved upon by Mr Stewart, 1838, and subsequently. ROSAMOND the Fair, and Rosamond's Bower ; the lady was the favourite of Henry II. of England, the daughter of Lord Clifford, and the mother of William Longsword, Earl of Salisbury, and Geoffrey, Bishop of Lincoln, against whom the queen and others conspired for her destruction ; Queen Eleanor, it is said, poisoned her ; her remains were buried at Godstow church, afterwards removed by Hough, Bishop of Lincoln, under circumstances of great indignity, 1191. ROSARY, an office of the Roman Church, made up of beads, to a certain number of which a pater-noster must be said on counting them ; the invention ascribed to Dominic de Guzman, 1 202, according to some writers, 1093 ; the festival of, is held the first Sunday in October. ROSAS, Spain, besieged by the French, Nov., 1794; Isquierdo embarked with the garrison, Feb. 3, 1795 ; taken by the French, Feb. 4 ; Gen. Reille attempted to carry the fortress by a coup-de-main, July II, 1 808 ; the town besieged, Nov. 4, l8oa ; surrendered to the French under Gen. St Cyr, Dec. 5 ; surrendered at the peace of 1814. ROSCOMMON, Ireland. The abbey founded, 1148; castle built, 1269; the gallery of a chapel gave way, killing 14 persons, April 17, 1804 ; the English defeated the forces of O'Conor, 1815. ROSE. The damask rose introduced from the south of France, in the 1 6th century; the Provence rose from the same country about 1596 ; the moss rose from N. America, circa 1724 ; the thornless rose from N. America in the beginning of the sixteenth century ; the China rose from China, circa 1789 ; the sweet-scented Guelder from China, 1821. ROSE, order of Knighthood, instituted in Brazil by Don Pedro upon his second marriage, Oct. 17, 1829. ROSEBECQUE, battle ; the French army under the Constable Olivier de Clisson was attacked by Philip van Artevelde with 50,000 Flemings ; the French were victorious, the Flemings losing 25,000 men, Artevelde was among the number, Nov. 29, 1382. ROSE CASTLE, Cumberland, the residence of the Bishops of Carlisle ; Edward I. lodged at, 1299 ; fortified by John de Kirtly, 1336 ; Bishop Markland built the tower, 1416 ; destroyed by fire, 1652 ; rebuilt by Bishop Stem, 1660-64 > two towers added by Bishops Rainbow and Smith, 1664 1702. ROSEMARY BRANCH Theatre destroyed by fire, July 27, 1853. ROSES, the Wars of the White and Red, which were the symbols of the houses of York and Lancaster ; the Yorkists carried the white and the Lancastrians the red : the first battle in that sanguinary contest was fought May 22, 1455, at St Albans: the union of the roses took place by the marriage of Henry VII. with the Princess Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV., Jan. 18, 1486; she died, Feb ", 1503- ROSETTA, Egypt, taken by the French, 1791 ; fortified, 1798; captured by the English and Turks, April 19, 1801; the English repulsed here by the Turks, 47 738 ROSETTA STONE ROUEN March, 1807; this place stands near where Nelson defeated the French in the battle of the Nile, 1791. ROSETTA STONE, the, found near this town, by a French officer, 1799, in the ruins of the Fort St Julien. Claimed by the English upon the surrender of the French army, 1802; brought to England by Major-Gen. Turner; deposited in the British Museum, 1802. It is inscribed in three different kinds of character; it was erected to the memory of Ptolemy Epiphanes. ROSICRUCIAN Philosophers, first founded by Christian Rosencreutz, 1484 ; in Germany, 1302, and in the 1 7th century, they laid claim to the possession of divers secrets, among which was the Philosopher's Stone ; they wrote in hierogly- phics, and swore fidelity to each other, declaring that the ancient Magi and Egyptian philosophers taught the same doctrine as they professed. The Illuminati of Spain was a branch of this sect, 1612-13. ROSS, battle, in Ireland, when the rebels were defeated, and left 2600 men on the field of battle, June 4, 1 798. ROSS, bishopric of, Ireland, founded in the 7th century, united to Cork, 1340, and Cloyne added to the others by the act 4 Will. IV., 1833 ; John Gregg, the present bishop, appointed, 1862. ROSSBACH, battle, between the French and the Flemings, under the Duke of Burgundy ; the king of France, Charles IV., fell in this battle, Nov. 17, 1352 ; a battle so named between the Austrians and French, and the Prussians under Frederick the Great, in which the former were signally defeated, Nov. 3, 1757 ; town of, totally disappeared, supposed by an earthquake, Oct. 1 7, 1 792. ROTA CLUB, a political society that met at the Turks -head in New Palace Yard, established by the republicans. Mr James Harrington was one of the leaders ; Henry Nevil proposed that the Members of Parliament should go out by rotation. ROTHERHAM, Yorkshire, a Saxon town, a charter granted to, by Edward I., 1307 ; a college founded by the archbishop of, 1482 ; suppressed in the reign of Edward VI. ; free grammar-school founded, 1584 ; a public library established, 1775 ; new building erected, 1828. ROTHERHITHE, Surrey, part of the Royal Manor of Bermondsey, 1068; Henry IV. lodged here, 1412; the church of St Mary's rebuilt, 1736-39; Prince Le Boo buried here, Jan., 1785; 206 houses destroyed by fire, June i, 1765 ; a tunnel beneath the Thames begun by Thevethick, 1804, and failed ; the commercial docks opened, 1809 ; granaries, valued at ^50,000, destroyed at, Sept. i, 1868. ROTHESAY, Scotland, the castle built in the nth century; besieged unsuccessfully, 1263; taken by Bruce, 1311; burned, 1685; the town made a royal burgh, 1400. ROTHESAY CASTLE, steamer, from Liverpool to Beaumaris, wrecked near the latter place, when 180 persons perished, Aug. 17, 1831. ROUNDHEADS and CAVALIERS. The king, Charles I., being insulted, Dec, 1641, several gentlemen offered their services to protect him, and hence rose the term. Rushworth, vol. I, p. 463, gives the origin from David Hide, an officer in the Scots army, who remarked, upon being appointed to some command in Ireland, he would cut the throats of those round-headed dogs that bawled against the Bishops. ROUEN, France, the Rotomagus of the Romans. The first treaty made between England and France signed here, March I, 991 ; the first bridge over the Seine built, 1167; a stone bridge superseded it, 1829; Prince Arthur murdered by his uncle John, in this town, 1203; it was taken by Henry V. of England, Jan. 19, 1419; Joan of Arc burnt at, May 30, 1431. The city besieged by the King of Navarre, with 18,000 men; after a severe struggle the city was taken by storm, ROUGEMONT CASTLE ROYAL EXCHANGE 739 Oct. 26, 1562 ; the pillage lasted for eight days ; retaken by the Duke of Guise the same year ; besieged by Henri IV., Nov. 26, 1593. 500 Huguenots massa- cred at, on St Bartholomew's Eve, Aug. 24, 1572. The Cathedral begun in the I3th century; damaged by lightning, Aug. 5, 1822. The Museum founded, 1833-4. The first Railway in France open to, 1839. Exhibition of Industrial Pro- ducts at, opened, June 15, 1859. ROUGEMONT CASTLE, Exeter, built, 750. ROUMANIA. See Danubian Principalities. ROUPELL, WILLIAM, late M.P. for Lambeth, sentenced to penal servitude for life for forgery, Sept. 24, 1862. ROVEREDO, battle. The French attacked the Austrian army near this town and defeated them, Sept. 4, 1796; the French under Gen. Landon defeated at, 1801 ; evacuated by the French, 1809, and occupied by the Austrians. ROXBURG, Scotland. The castle supposed to have been built by the Romans; ceded to England, 117$ ; sold by Richard I., for 10,000 marks, 1189; captured by Bruce, 1313; besieged, Aug., 1436; James II. killed at the siege of, July, 1460; the first plough used in Scotland, drawn by horses, introduced here by Mr Dawson, 1760. ROXBURGHE CLUB, founded by the Rev. T. Frognall Dibden, at St Alban's Tavern, St James's, June 17, 1812; first limited to 31 members, but subsequently increased to 40 ; the first work published (Certaine Bokes of Vergiles Aenaeis turned into English meter, by the Earle of Surrey, 60 copies printed), 1814. ROYAL ACADEMY OF ART, charter granted to, Jan. 26, 1765, as the Incor- porated Society of British Artists ; afterwards, and in consequence of some dispute and a separation of parties, the title was changed, Dec. 10, 1768; first exhibi- tion held, April 26, 1769 ; apartments granted to them in old Somerset House by Geo. III., 1771 ; first exhibition in their apartments in new Somerset House, held May, 1780 ; removed to the National Gallery, and first exhibition opened, May I, 1838. ROYAL ACADEMY OF MUSIC, established, to support the Italian Opera, ^50,000 raised by subscription, 1719 ; opened, April 2, 1720. ROYAL ASSENT, the consent of the Crown that Bills or Measures which have passed both Houses of Parliament may become legal ; statute 33 Henry VIII. c. 21, ss. 3 and 4, 1541-2, permits the royal assent to be given by letters patent The date of assent to be inserted upon all acts passed after April 8, 1793, 33 Geo, III. c. 13, 1793. ROYAL ASYLUM OF ST ANN'S,for the education of orphans, established, 1709. ROYAL CHARTER, steamer, from Australia, wrecked off the coast of Anglesey, 450 passengers, and bullion valued at ,600,000, lost, Oct. 25, 1859. ROYAL CIRCUS, St George's Fields, burned, Aug. 12, 1805; rebuilt, and called the Surrey Theatre, April 23, 1810. See Theatres. ROYAL EXCHANGE. See Exchange. ROYAL EXCHANGE ASSURANCE OFFICE, incorporated 6 Geo. I., June 22, 1720. ROYAL EXCHANGE, Dublin, began 1769, and completed in ten years, the expenses defrayed by a lottery scheme ; accident at, by which nine persons were killed, owing to the parapet giving way, through pressure of the crowd, April 24,1815. 740 ROYAL FAMILY RUGBY ROYAL FAMILY, marriages of, restrained through the dislike of George III. to the marriage of his brother the Duke of Gloucester with Lady Waldegrave, 12 Gea. III. c. n, 1772. ROYAL GENERAL THEATRICAL FUND, established to assist actors and actresses in distress, 1839 ; incorporated, 1853. ROYAL GEORGE, of 100 guns, lost by heeling her too far over at Spithead, when Admiral Kempenfeldt and several hundred persons perished, Aug. 29, 1782. ROYAL INSTITUTION, Albemarle- street, founded, 1799; incorporated, Jan. 13, 1800 ; Humphrey Davy gave his first lecture at, April 25, 1801 ; a professorship created at, 1833; rebuilt from the design of Vulliamy, 1839. ROYAL LITERARY FUND, instituted to assist authors in distress, 1790; in- corporated, 1818. ROYAL MILITARY ASYLUM, ordered to be erected out of the forfeited and unclaimed Army Prize Fund, n & 12 Viet. c. 103, Sept. 4, 1848. ROYAL MILITARY COLLEGE, Chelsea, first stone laid, June 19, 1801, ROYAL MINERS' COMPANY, incorporated, 1564. ROYAL NAVY HOSPITAL SCHOOLS, Greenwich, instituted, 1801 ; incor- porated with the Hospital, 1821. ROYAL NAVAL BENEVOLENT SOCIETY, for assisting officers who are members of the society, instituted, 1 739. ROYAL NAVAL COAST VOLUNTEERS. See Navy. ROYAL NAVAL RESERVE. See Navy. ROYAL OBSERVATORY, Greenwich Park, foundation laid, Aug. 10, 1675 ; finished, July, 1676. ROYAL SCOTTISH CORPORATION, established in London ; a second charter of incorporation granted by Char. II., 1676; re-incorporated by Geo. III., 1775- ROYAL SOCIETY for the Protection of Life from Fire. See Fire Engines. ROYAL SOCIETY, instituted in 1645; divided, part meeting at Oxford, 1649, and part at Gresham College; incorporated by Charles II., April 22, 1662; the Philosophical Transactions first published, 1663 ; apartments in Chelsea Hospital granted to, 1667; their meetings held at Gresham College, 1674; Sir Isaac Newton elected president, 1703 ; apartments granted to, at Somerset House, 1782 ; removed to Burlington House, 1857. ROYAL SOCIETY CLUB, formed, 1743; first held at the Mitre Tavern, Fleet-street; removed to the Crown and Anchor, Strand, 1760 ; and subsequently to the Free-masons' Tavern. ROYAL SOCIETY OF ARTS, instituted, 1754; removed to the Adelphi, 1774. ROYAL SOCIETY OF MUSICIANS, founded, 1738. ROYALTY THEATRE, in Well-street, Rosemary-lane, opened, April 20, 1787; burned down, April II, 1826. RUE CROWN, order of merit, instituted in Saxony, when raised to a kingdom by Napoleon I., July 20, 1807. RUFFO, CARDINAL, at the head of the Russians and Calabrian banditti, com- mitted great cruelties on the French in Naples, June 20, 1 799. RUFFS first worn, temp. Edward VI., 1551. RUGBY, Warwickshire, the school founded by Lawrence Sheriff, 1567 ; an act RUGEN RUSSIA 741 of parliament passed for the better regulation of, 1777 ; Dr Arnold, head-master of, 1827 1842. RUGEN, on the Baltic, taken by Waldemar I. of Denmark, in 1169; ceded to Sweden, 1648; taken by the Russians, Nov. 17, 1715 ; restored to Sweden, Aug. 30, 1721 ; capitulated to the French, Sept. 7, 1807 ; ceded by Sweden to Denmark, Jan. 14, 1814, and by Denmark to Prussia, June 4, 1815. RULE BRITANNIA. This political hymn was composed by Dr Arne for his Masque of Alfred, and first performed at Cliefden House, near Maidenhead, to commemorate the accession of Geo, I., Aug. I, 1740 ; first performed in public at Drury Lane Theatre, March 20, 1745. RULING MACHINES invented, 1782 ; improved, 1803. RUM, first made in Jamaica, 1530; became general, 1544. 3,300,000 gallons im- ported, 1789; in 1796, 4,196,198 gallons; in 1848, 5,653,840 gallons imperial were imported, or 6,784,608 old gallons. Importation of, prohibited in casks of less than 20 gallons, 16 & 17 Viet. c. 107, s. 144, Aug. 20, 1853; the duties charged upon, fixed at 8j. 2d. per gallon, 21 Viet., c. 16, May II, 1858. RUMP PARLIAMENT, 47 members seized and 96 excluded by Colonel Pride, Dec. 6, 1648 ; voted the late treaty with the king, dishonourable and dangerous, Dec. 13 ; passed the ordinance for the trial of Charles I., Jan. 8, 1649; abolished the House of Lords, Feb. 6, 1649, an ^ the office of king, Feb. 7 ; expelled by Cromwell, April 20, 1653. RUXNYMEDE, Surrey. Here King John accepted Magna Charta in the presence of the Barons, June 15, 1215. RUPERT, ST, order of knighthood, began in Germany, 1702. RUREMONDE, Belgium, taken by Marlborough, Oct. 6, 1702 ; the Austrians defeated by the French under Jourdan, Oct. 5, 1794. RUSHEN ABBEY, Isle of Man, founded by King Guttred, 947 ; ordered to be dissolved by Sir John Stanley, 1543, but not finally closed until 1553. RUSSELL INSTITUTION, established in 1808 ; Haydon's picture of the Ten Thousand presented by the Duke of Bedford, 1836 ; opened in June. Library opened, March 23, 1814. RUSSELL'S, LORD JOHN, administrations. First entered upon office, July, 1846, upon the resignation of Sir Robert Peel, and resigned Feb. 21, 1851. Second, on the failure of Lord Stanley to form an administration, March 3,1851; remained in office until Feb. 23, 1852 ; succeeded by the ministry of the Earl of Derby. Third ministry formed, Nov., 1865; resigned, June 26, 1866. RUSSELL, LORD WILLIAM, tried for high treason at the Old Bailey, July 13, 1683, found guilty and beheaded in Lincoln's-Inn-Fields, July 21, for pretended participation in the Rye-house plot ; his attainder reversed, I Will. III., 1689. RUSSIA. The early records of this kingdom are very obscure. Vladimir founded and made the capital of the nation, by the Emperor Yury, 1157-8 ; invaded by the Tartars, 1224-38 ; the Swedes defeated at the battle of Neva by Newski, 1241 ; Moscow made the seat of government by Dimitri Ivanovitch, 1362, and the Tartars defeated, 1378 ; Moscow burned by the Tartars, 1383 ; invaded and conquered by Tamerlane, 1395 ; Ivan Basilowitz defeated the Tartars, 1470, and is called Czar, 1472 ; the city of Novgorod besieged for several years, and captured in 1485 ; the Tartars totally defeated by Ivan Vasiliivitch, 1552 ; Siberia discovered, 1554 ; England discovered the navigation to Russia, through Robert Chancellor, '554 5 war declared against Poland, 1562 ; the Tartars take Moscow by surprise, massacre 100,000 of its inhabitants, and burn the city, 1571 ; the city almost depopulated by famine, 1598 ; Ladislas of Poland seized the throne, 742 RUSSIA 1610; Michael Feodorowitz, of the house of Romanof, ascended the throne, 1613; Finland ceded to Sweden, 1617 ; peace concluded with Poland, June 15, 1634 ; peace concluded with Sweden, July I, 1661 ; Peter I. and Ivan V. crowned, May 6, 1682 ; Ivan V. resigns his share of the government, 1688 ; Archangel made the seat of the navy, 1692; Peter I. visited England, and worked in Deptford dock- yard, 1697 ; order of St Andrew instituted, Dec. 20, 1698 ; the new year appointed to begin Jan. I, 1700; the Russian army totally defeated by Charles XII. of Sweden at Narva, 30,000 were slain, and the Swedes captured 150 pieces of artillery and all their baggage, Nov. 30; Peter I. founded the navy, 1701 ; St Petersburg founded, 1703 ; the Cossacks under Mazeppa revolted, 1708 ; Charles XII. of Sweden defeated by the Russians in the battle of Pultowa, July 8, 1709; order of St Catherine, established, Dec. 7, 1714; Russian youths sent to England to learn the English arts, Jan. 27, 1718 ; Livonia and all the islands in the Baltic ceded to Russia, by the treaty of Nystadt, Aug. 30, 1721 ; the title of Emperor of all the Russias adopted by Peter the Great, 1722-3 ; the order of Newskoi established by the Empress Catherine, April 8, 1725 ; Peter II. deposed, and the crown given to Anne of Courland, 1730 ; the lake of Ladoga made navigable to the Volga, 1730; Poland invaded, 1733 ; Azof and Moldavia restored to the Porte, 1739 ; Elizabeth, daughter of Peter I., raised to the throne, and Ivan VI., an infant, deposed, 1742 ; Peter III. dethroned and murdered, and succeeded by his Empress Catherine, July, 1 762 ; Ivan VI. murdered by order of the Empress, 1764 ; Catherine II. promulgated a new code of laws, 1 768 ; the dismemberment of Poland commenced by Cathe- rine, 1st partition, 1772 ; the Crimea added to Russia, Jan. 13, 1775 ; the king- dom divided into viceroyalties, 1779; the first public school instituted at St Petersburg, April 5, 1781 ; the order of St Vladimir instituted, Nov. 22, 1782 ; a school of surgery established, Nov. 18, 1783 ; Georgia annexed to the Russian empire, 1784; a treaty of commerce with France concluded, Dec. 31, 1786; war declared against Sweden, 1788; defeated at Memel, April 24, 1790; peace concluded with, Aug. 14, and with the Turks, 1791 ; the Crimea ceded to, by the treaty of Jassy, Jan. 9, 1 792 ; war declared against Poland, 1 792 ; the 2nd partition of Poland, 1793 ; war declared against France, 1793 ; the Poles defeat- ed, and the kingdom divided between Russia, Prussia, and Austria, 1795 ', cocked hats and bags for the hair ordered to be worn, Jan. 3, 1797 ; the government prohibited the freedom of the press, July 12,1798; the Emperor attacked the French in Italy, 1798 ; treaty of alliance offensive and defensive with Great Britain and Austria, against France, Dec. 29, 1798 ; treaty with Great Britain for the inva- sion of Holland, June 22, 1 799 ; the treaty with Great Britain broken, and a coalition formed with France against, 1799; British vessels seized in Russian ports, Nov., 1800; Paul I. assassinated, March 23, 1801 ; the union of Georgia proclaimed, Sept. 12 ; a university established in Lithuania, 1804 ; the treaty renewed with Great Britain against France, April II, 1805 ; Moldavia and Wallachia invaded, Nov. 23, 1806; Warsaw occupied by the French, Nov. 28 ; war declared against Turkey, Dec. 30 ; the battle of Eylau, the Russians re- mained masters of the field, Feb. 7, 1807 ; interview of Alexander and Napoleon on a raft at Niemen, when a treaty of peace was discussed, June 25 ; the treaty signed (Tilsit), July 7 ; war declared against Sweden, Oct. 6, and against Great Britain, Oct. 26 ; an embargo laid on English vessels and goods, Nov. 10 ; war declared against Austria, May 5, 1809 ; peace restored with Sweden, and Finland ceded to Russia, Sept. 17 ; the Russians seized Hamburg, March 19, 1810, and Dres- den, March 21 ; Moldavia and Wallachia annexed to Russia, 1810 ; peace re- stored with Great Britain, Aug. 17, 1812. The French invaded Russia, July 18, and defeated the Russians and captured Smolensko, Aug. 17 ; and again at Borodino, Sept. 7 ; entered Moscow, Sept. 14 ; Moscow burnt, Sept. 15 19 ; retreat of the French from, Oct. 19 ; the French lost 24 generals, 2000 staff RUSSIA 743 and other officers, and 2O4,4Qp men, and 43 generals, 3441 staff and other officers, and 233,222 men, prisoners. Bessarabia annexed to Russia, 1812 ; the Emperor Alexander at Paris with the allies, March 31, 1814; visited England, June 6; entertained by the Corporation of London at Guildhall, June 18, 1814; the Emperor took the title of King of Poland, June 20, 1815; the Jesuits expelled from the country, 1820 ; the Freemasons and other secret societies suppressed, Oct. 15, 1823 ; inundation at St Petersburg, Nov. 19, 1824; treaty with the United States settling the boundaries of North America 54 north latitude, April 27 ; the Empe- ror Alexander dies at Taganrog, Nov. 26, 1825 ; revolt of the troops at St Peters- burg, Dec. 26; the revolt suppressed in Poland, Jan. 12, 1826 ; the leader hanged at St Petersburg, July 25 ; the Emperor Nicholas I. and Empress crowned at Moscow, Sept. 3 ; war declared against Persia, Sept. 28 ; the Emperor visited England and was invested with the Order of the Garter, July 9, 1827 ; peace con- cluded with Persia, Feb. 22, 1828. War declared against the Ottoman Porte, and the Russian army crossed the Pruth, May 7; captured the fortress of Silistria, June 30 ; a new code of laws composed, 1828-30 ; the Emperor crowned King of Po- land at Warsaw, May 24, 1829 ; the war concluded with Turkey, and Circassia annexed to Russia by the treaty of Adrianople, Sept. 14 ; the War of Independence in Poland broke out, Nov. 29, 1830 ; the Poles defeated, and Warsaw taken, Sept. 8, 1831 ; Cracow, which had been erected into a republic, and its inde- pendence guaranteed by the Congress of Vienna in 1815, was occupied by a Rus- sian and Austrian army, and the other powers made no reclamation of the breach of treaty, Feb. 13, 1836 ; the Winter Palace at St Petersburg burnt, Dec. 29, 1837; failure of the Russian expedition against Khiva in Central Asia, Jan. 3, 1840; treaty of London, July 15 ; war against Circassia commenced, 1841 ; the Em- peror Nicholas visited England, June I, 1844 ; the Grand Duke Constantine arrived at Portsmouth in the Ingermanland, of 74 guns, June 9, 1846. The expul- sion of the Hungarian refugees from Turkey demanded by Russia, Nov. 5, 1849 : this demand, which had interrupted the diplomatic relations between Russia and the Porte, induced the latter to send the Hungarian and Polish refugees to Ko- niah, in Asia Minor, Jan., 1850. Conspiracy against the Emperor's life and policy detected, Jan. 6 ; the Porte declared war against, Sept. 27, 1853 ; the Turks, under Omar Pacha, crossed the Danube and defeated the Russians at Oltenitza, Nov. 2 4 ; the Turkish fleet destroyed in the harbour of Sinope, Nov. 30 ; the Russian ambassador (Baron Brunow) left London, Feb. 4, 1854 ; England and France declared war against, March 27 and 28 (see Russian War) ; the campaign on the Danube opened, the Russians defeated at Citale, Jan. 6 (see Russian War) ; the Emperor Nicholas I. died at St Petersburg, March 2, 1855 ; Alexander II. succeeded to the throne, March 2 ; a levy of 10 men in every 1000 ordered, Oct. 15 ; the Emperor Alexander II. visited the army before Sebastopol, Nov. to ; treaty of peace signed at Paris, March 30, 1856 ; the Emperor visited Warsaw and granted an amnesty to the Poles, May 27 ; the Emperor crown- ed at Moscow, Sept. 7 ; a committee appointed to consider the condition of the serfs, Jan. 15, 1858; the royal serfs made free in Dec.; commercial treaty signed with Great Britain, Dec. 31 ; expedition against the Circas- sians, 1859 ; defeated in several engagements, and Schamyl their leader captured, Aug. 26 ; a manifesto freeing the serfs, issued by the Emperor, March 3, 1861, to come into operation, March 3, 1863 ; the Russians seized in Poland and carried off from Warsaw 2500 young men for military service, Jan. 14, 1863 ; insurrection in consequence ; the Secret Committee issues a manifesto, Jan. 22 ; Langrewicz ap- pointed Dictator and defeated the Russian forces, March 18 ; appealed to Europe for help, March 24 ; a manifesto offering pardon, issued by the Emperor, March 31 ; despatches of Lord John Russell upon Polish affairs, March 2 and April 24 ; answer to, May 2; General Berg appointed commander of Warsaw, attempt upon his life, failed, Sept. 19 ; the Circassians defeated, March 31, 1864 ; the territory 744 RUSSIA added to the Russian empire, June 2 ; death of the Czarowitzat Nice, aged 21, April 24, 1865 ; his body brought to Russia and buried at St Petersburg, June 6 ; the provinces of Russian Turkestan incorporated, March i, 1866 ; an attempt made to assassinate the Emperor whilst passing out of the Summer Garden by Karakarow, April 1 6, 1866 ; the assassin executed, Sept. 15 ; marriage of the Czarowitz with the Princess Dagmar of Denmark, celebrated, Nov. 1 7 ; attempt to assassinate the Emperor by Berezowski, a Pole, in the Bois de Boulogne, June 6, 1867 ; Russian America sold to the United States for 7,200,000 dollars in gold, by treaty, June 20 ; peace concluded with Bokhara, July 1 1 ; the Moscow and St Petersburg railway sold to Messrs Wyman of America, July 15 ; the Em- peror invested with the Order of the Garter at the palace of Tsarskol Selo, St Petersburg, July 28 ; rules for regulating the Russim and Polish clergy with the Holy See, Aug. 2 ; marriage of the King of Greece with the Grand Duchess Olga, eldest daughter of the Grand Duke Constantine, at St Petersburg, Oct. 27 ; Archbishop Philarete died at Moscow, aged 83, Dec. 67. THE DUKES OF KIEF : Ivan (Basilowitz) or John III. Rurick 862 BasilIV " Olega, Regent for his son Sviattoslaw 955 1462 1505 Waldimir I., styled the Great 976 Jaraslaw, or Jaroslaf I. ... 1015 Isjidlaw I. ' 1054 Wsewolod 1 1078 Swiatopalk 1093 Vladimir II 1114 Michael I "25 Jaropalkll H3 2 Wiatschelaw 1138 Wsewolod II H39 Isjidlaw II 1146 Rotislaw "54 GRAND DUKES OF WLADIMIR. George I. 1156 Andrew I. 1175 Michael 1 1157 Wsewolod III 1177 George II 1213 Jaraslaw II 1238 Alexander Newsky ... ... 1245 Jaraslaw III 1263 Basil 1 1270 Demetrius 1 1277 Daniel 1294 George III., deposed ... ... 1302 Michael II 1305 George III. restored ... .. 1325 GRAND DUKES OF MOSCOW. Ivan, or John I. ... ... 1328 Ivan, or John II. 1353 Demetrius II. deposed ... ... 1362 Demetrius III 1362 Basil II 1389 Basil III. 1425 CZARS OF MUSCOVY. Ivan (Basilowitz) IV., first czar, in 1547 1533 Theodore Ivanowitz I. ... 1584 Boris-Godunow usurped the throne 1598 Demetrius the impostor, crowned at Moscow, 1605 ; put to death 1606 Basil Ivanovitz Zuinskoi, elected, 1606 ; deposed ... ... 1610 Ladislaus elected, 1610 ; abdi- cated 1613 Michael-Theodorowitz, of the house of Romanof ... ... 1613 Alexius Michaelowitz ... ... 1645 Theodore II : ... 1676 Ivan IV., and Peter I., brothers of Theodore ... ... ... 1682 Peter I., the Great, alone : who took the title of Emperor, 1721, and founded St Petersburg ... 1689 Catherine 1 1725 Peter II., son of Alexis-Petrovitz, and grandson of Peter the Great : elected, 1725 ; deposed 1727 Anne, duchess of Courland, daughter of the Czar Ivan ... 1 730 Ivan III., an infant grand-nephew to Peter the Great, 1741 ; im- mured in a dungeon for 1 8 years; murdered ... ... 1764 Elizabeth, daughter of Peter the Great, reigned during Ivan's captivity ... ... ... 1741 Peter III., son of Anne and of Charles-Frederick, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, 1762 ; de- posed, and murdered by the RUSSIA 745 connivance of her paramour, Alexander I. ... ... ... 1801 Orloff, July 9 1762 Nicholas, brother to Alexander : Catharine II., his consort ... 1762 succeeded to the throne, Dec. I 1825 Paul, her son, 1 796 ; found dead Alexander II., succeeded his in his chamber ; murdered by father, March 2 1855 Pahlen 1801 RUSSIA MERCHANTS' COMPANY, incorporated and arms granted to, Feb. i, 1555 ; charter confirmed and powers enlarged, 1614. RUSSIAN AMBASSADOR'S celebrated entertainment, given at Somerset House, Feb. 5, 1755. RUSSIAN WAR. The British fleet, under Admiral Dundas, entered the Bos- phorus, Oct. 30, 1853 ; the Russians defeated with great loss at Oltenitza, Nov. 4 ; the combined fleets of England and France entered the Black Sea, Jan. 4, 1854 ; the Russian forces defeated by the Turks under Omar Pasha, at Citale, Jan. 5 ; the first division of the British army embarked for Turkey, Feb. 23 ; the Baltic fleet, under Admiral Sir Charles Napier, sailed from Spithead, March II; the first division of the French army embarked for Turkey, March 19 ; the French fleet sailed for the Baltic, March 20 ; England signed a declaration of war, March 28 ; a joint convention signed between England, France, and Turkey, April 14. Silistria besieged by the Russians, April 15 ; the Turks under Omar Pasha defeated the Russians under Gen. Liiders, near Rassava, April 1 8 ; the Furious, steamer, under a flag of truce, fired upon by the Russians oft" Odessa ; Odessa bombarded by the combined fleets, April 22 ; the Tiger, steam vessel of war, 1 6 guns, run aground off Odessa in a fog, and lost the crew; captured by the Russians, May 12 ; the siege of Silistria raised by the Russians, June 23 ; Bomarsund captured by the allied fleets, Aug. 19 ; the town of Kola in the White Sea, bombarded and destroyed by the Miranda, Aug. 24; Petropavlovski, Kamschatka, attacked unsuccessfully by the land and sea forces, Aug. 31, Sept 4 ; the landing of the allied armies at Old Ford, Sept. 14 ; Eupatoria taken, Sept. 15; Moldavia evacuated by the Russians, Sept. 15 ; the Russians defeated at the Alma, Sept. 20 ; the Russian fleet sunk in the harbour of Sebastopol, Sept 23 ; the English arrived at Balaclava, Sept. 26 ; the allied army encamped before Sebastopol, Oct. 2 ; Eupatoria attacked unsuccessfully by the Russians, Oct. 1 1 ; first bombardment of Sebastopol commenced by the land and sea forces, Oct. 17 ; the battle of Balaclava and charge of the Light Brigade under Lord Cardigan, Oct. 25 ; the battle of Inkerman, called the "soldiers' battle," the Russians defeated, Nov. 5 ; fearful storm on the Crimean coast, the Prince, with stores for the army, totally lost at Balaclava, and several other vessels lost, Nov. 14 ; Admiral Lyons succeeded Admiral Dundas in command of the fleet, Dec. 22 ; railway from Balaclava begun, Feb., 1855 ; the Russians defeated at Eupatoria by the Turks under Omar Pasha, Feb. 18 ; reconnaissance made to the Tchernaya under Sir Colin Campbell ; but compelled to return by a heavy snow-storm, Feb. 19 ; the Mamelon fortified by the Russians, Feb. 22 ; the French attacked unsuccessfully these works, Feb. 24 ; conference of Vienna commenced, March 15 ; second bombardment of Sebastopol opened, April 9 17; the Sardinian army, 15,000 strong, embarked at Genoa, April 23; the Vienna conference closed, April 24 ; the French captured the rifle pits in front of the flagstaff" battery, May I ; Gen. Pelissier took the command of the French army, May 19 ; the central bastion taken by the French, May 26, 27 ; Kertch and Yenikale captured, May 25 ; above 100 vessels destroyed in the Sea of Azof, by the fleet under Admiral Lyons, May 27, 28 ; the town of Taganrog taken, June 3 ; the boat's crew of the Cossack massacred under a flag of truce, while engaged landing some prisoners, only one man escaping, June 5 ; the third bombardment of Sebastopol commenced, June 6, 7 ; the quarries, Mamelon, and 746 RUTH RYSWICK white works captured, the former by the English and the latter by the French, June 8 ; the fourth bombardment commenced, June 1 7 ; the French repulsed at the Malakoff, and the English at the Redan, with great loss, June 18; the British under Gen. Eyre captured and held the cemetery and that quarter of the town for 18 hours, June 18; Lord Raglan died, June 28, Gen. Simpson succeeded him; Sweaborg attacked by the allied fleet and partially destroyed, Aug. 9, 10, and ir; the Russians, 60,000 strong, under Gen Liprancli, attacked the allied French and Sardinians, on the Tchernaya, but were defeated with a loss of 300 killed and 5000 wounded, August 16 ; the fifth and final bombardment commenced, Sept. 5, 6, 7 ; the English repulsed at the Redan ; the French carried the Malakoff, Sept. 8 ; the Russians evacuate the town, blowing up the forts, after a siege un- paralleled, lasting 49 weeks, 70 miles of trenches being constructed, and upwards of 1,500,000 shots and shells had been fired into the town, Sept. 9, the allies occupied the town ; the Russian cavalry defeated at Eupatoria by the French and Turks, Sept. 29 ; Kars assaulted by the Russians under Gen. Mouravieff, repulsed by the Turkish forces under Gen. Williams and Kmeti, with a loss of 2,500 men, Sept. 29 ; the three forts at Kinburn captured by the allied fleets, under Admiral Lyons and Bruat, Oct. 17 ; the Russians, 16,000 strong, defeated on the Ingour in Georgia, by the Turks commanded by Omar Pasha, Nov. 6 ; Kars surrendered to Gen. Mouravieff, Nov. 25 ; an armistice agreed to by the Plenipotentiaries of Gt Britain, France, Austria, Russia, Sardinia, and Turkey, Feb. 25, 1856; hostilities suspended in the Crimea, Feb. 29 ; Treaty of Peace agreed to and signed, March 30 ; the blockade raised, April 16 ; treaty ratified, April 27 ; the Crimea evacuated, the clocks being previously de- stroyed, in July ; visited by the Prince and Princess of Wales, April 13, 1869. RUTH, the Book of, contains the history of David's ancestors, and is said by some writers to be a part of the Book of Samuel, circa B.C. 1322. RUTHVEN, Raid of, which overthrew the power of Lords Lennox and Arran in Scotland, James IV. being taken prisoner, Aug. 23, 1582. RUTI, battle, in which General Pepe was repulsed by the Austrians, and his army dispersed, March 7, 1821. RYE, Sussex, one of the Cinque Ports, taken by the Danes, 893 ; the fort called Ypres Tower, built by William de Ypre, Earl of Kent, 1143-6 ; the town forti- fied, 1196 ; burned by the French, 1377 ; the free grammar school founded by Thomas Peacock, 1638; the old harbour restored, 1778-81. RYECAUT, Oxfordshire, the seat of Lord Abingdon, burnt to the ground, Nov. 12, 1745 ; Lord Norrey, his son, killed. RYE-HOUSE PLOT, a pretended conspiracy to assassinate Charles II. and his brother James, afterwards king, at a place called the Rye-house, between London and Newmarket, March, 1683 ; the plot, said to have been discovered, June 12, aftenvards : the probability is that it was a scheme to get rid of persons obnoxious to the Stuarts ; for among those who, it was pretended, were directly involved, Lord William Russell was executed, July 21, in Lincoln's-Inn-Fields, and Alger- non Sydney, Dec. 7. RYSWICK, Holland, a congress opened by William III., at his chateau of Neu- berg, May 9, 1697 ; peace of, signed between England, France, Spain, Holland, and the Emperor of Germany, Sept. n, 1697; and signed by Germany, Oct. 30. SAALFELD SADDLE-HORSE 747 SAALFELD, Germany. The church of St John, built, 1212 ; the French defeated the Prussian forces at, Oct. 10, 1806 ; the town nearly destroyed by fire, with the whole produce of its harvests, July 28, 1811. SABBATARIANS, or 7th-day Baptists, are distinguished by religiously observ- ing the 7th day of the week. I. That God hath required the 7th or last day of the week to be observed. 2. That this command is binding. 3. That this com- mand has never been changed by Divine authority. They rose into existence about 1628, when Brabourne, a clergyman, published his declaration that the 7th day was the only Sabbath. By another authority, Saturday is said to have been first called Dies Sabbati, IS54- There are two congregations in London, Mill- yard, Goodman's-Fields, and Eldon-street, Finsbury. SABBATH, appointed by God himself in the beginning, Gen. ii. 2, 3 ; by some it is maintained that it is an institution of Moses, observed, in commemoration of the creation of the world, by the Jews. Christians observe the first day of the week, because it was that of the resurrection, and it was ordered to be kept holy in England from Saturday at 3 p.m. to Monday at day-break, 4 Canon, Edgar, 960. 3 James I., c. 4, s. 27, 1606, levied a shilling on every one absent from church on Sunday. An act was passed restraining amusements on Sundays, I Charles I., 1625 ; an act passed for the better observation of the Lord's day, and penalties of 5-r. to 4OJ. inflicted for breaking it, 29 Charles II., c. 7, 1676. SABBATICAL YEAR of the Jews, the first A.C. 1451 ; it was every seventh year; the commandment is, to sow and reap for six years, and to let the land rest on the seventh, Ex. xxiii. 10, II. SACHEVERELL, DR, impeached for treason, Dec. 15, 1709; tried, and sentenced not to preach for 3 years, and his sermons to be burned by the common hangman at the Royal Exchange, March 23, 1710. SACKBUT, an early musical wind instrument, mentioned in Dan. iii. 5 15. SACRAMENT, the ordinance of the Lord's Supper, administered in the modes in which the supper actually occurred in the first year of the church, but since altered according to the taste of the popes ; the table changed to an altar, and the wine laid aside to the laity, from the time of Pope Urban II., 1096. An act passed in- flicting a penalty for speaking irreverently of the, I Edw. VI., c. I. 1547. SACRAMENTARIANS, a sect that appeared in 1048, and opposed the doctrine of the real presence ; they afterwards were accused of teaching that their women were to be held in common. SACRAMENTO, California, founded, 1849; the rising town of Marysville totally consumed by fire, Dec. 16, 1852 ; made the capital of California, 1854. ' SACRED HARMONIC SOCIETY. The first meeting held, Nov. 20, 1832 ; first meeting held in Exeter Hall, June 24, 1834; first amateur musical festival held, Oct., 1834 ; the 5ooth concert held, Friday, Dec. 13, 1867. SACRILEGE. By the civil law it is punished with greater severity than other thefts ; and the common law denies the benefit of the clergy to the offender. The old statutes are repealed, and the offence is now made felony, and punishable with penal servitude for life or not less than three years, or imprisonment not exceeding two years, 24 & 25 Viet., c. 96, s. 50, Aug. 6, 1861. SADDLE-HORSE, duty levied, 1784; increased, 1808. 748 SADDLERS' COMPANY SAILORS' HOME SADDLERS' COMPANY, founded by I Edw. I., 1272 ; serious riots between this craft and the men of the craft of joiners, painters, and lorimers, in Chepe and Cripplegate, 1327; incorporated 3 Edw. III., Dec. i, 1364; confirmed by 18 Rich. II., March 20, 1394; the serving men of the trade forbidden to form fraternities, 1396 ; re-incorporated, 36 Charles II., Dec. 24, 1684. SADDLES, first used of leather, 304 ; in England, 600 ; side-saddles for ladies introduced by the Saxons ; the seal of Joanna de Stuteville gives a lady sitting on a side-saddle, 1227. SADDUCEES, an ancient Jewish sect, arose circa B.C. 260 ; they denied the im- mortality of the soul and the resurrection of the body ; they denied also that the oral law was a revelation of God to the Israelites, and deemed the written law alone to be obligatory on the nation, as of Divine authority, Matt. iii. 7, et seq. SADLER'S WELLS, celebrated for its mineral waters, close to the theatre on land belonging to Mr Sadler, discovered 1683; it was visited by Evelyn, June 11,1686. SADLER'S WELLS THEATRE, first opened as a music hall, for tumblers and rope-dancers, June 3, 1683 ; the theatre rebuilt, 1765 ; Grimaldi, the father of the celebrated Joe, first appeared, 1763; the interior of the building remodeled, 1778; Joe Grimaldi first appeared, 1782 ; water first introduced into the performances, April 2, 1804; 18 persons trodden to death upon an alarm of fire, Oct. 15, 1807; the use of water discontinued, 1823; Grimaldi took his farewell benefit, March 17, 1828 ; Mr Phelps introduced the Plays of Shakespeare, 1844 ; he retired from the theatre, March, 1862. SAFETY LAMP, for the use of miners, called the ' Davy Lamp,' invented by Sir H. Davy, 1815 ; the ' Geordy Lamp,' by G. Stephenson, 1815. Accord- ing to Smiles 's Life, Stephenson was the prior inventor. SAFFRON PLANT, first brought into England by a pilgrim, 1389 ; cultivated first at Saffron Walden, Essex, 1582. SAFFRON WALDEN, Essex, received its first charter from Edward VI., 1550; the best saffron is grown near this place. The free Grammar School founded, 1522 ; Natural History Society constituted, November, 1832 ; Museum opened to the public, May 12, 1835. SAGAN, Prussia, sold by Ferdinand II. to Wallenstein, 1628, after whose death it passed to Lobkowitz, who sold it to Duke Peter of Courland, 1785, he abdicated his sovereignty in 1795 ; his second daughter created duchess of, 1845. SAGE, an herb of early date in England ; the Mexican sage introduced, 1724 ; the two African varieties from the Cape of Good Hope, 1731- SAGUNTUM, Spain, a Greek colony, founded B.C. 1384 ; besieged by Hannibal, 219, and taken, all the adult males being put to the sword ; recovered by the Romans, 210, and made a Roman colony. SAGUNTUM, battle, the Spaniards, under Gen. Blake, defeated by the French, commanded by Gen. Suchet, with a loss of 3000 men and 12 guns, Oct. 25, 1811. SAILCLOTH, first made in England, 1590 ; encouraged by Queen Anne, and the manufacture supported by bounties, 1713. SAILORS, first registered in France, 1670 ; in England, 1548 ; Greenwich Hos- pital made an asylum for the aged and maimed, 1694 ; the British and Foreign Sailors' Society for the social elevation of, established at Shadwell, 1818. SAILORS' HOME t founded near the London Docks, 1829 ; new building erected by Mr Green, May, 1835 ; one opened by the Prince of Wales, in Commercial- street, Whitechapel, May, 1865. . SAINTES SALT 749 SAIXTES, battle, the French defeated the English, under Henry III., and their allies, with severe loss, July 22, 1242. SALADINE, the name of a tax imposed in' England and France to raise a fund for carrying on the crusades against Salad in, 1188. SALAMANCA, Spain, taken by Hannibal, B.C. 532; ravaged several times by the Moors, but finally reconquered by the Spaniards, A.D. 1095 ; the University founded, 1200; joined to Valencia, 1239 ; new statutes granted to, 1243 ; Cathe- dral begun, 1513 ; taken by the Spaniards, 1809 ; by the French, who destroyed most of the public buildings ; besieged by Wellington, and captured, June 26, 1812. SALAMANCA, battle, between Wellington and Marmont, 7141 prisoners, with 1 1 pieces of cannon, were taken, and 8000 killed on the side of the French ; the English lost 6000 men killed and wounded ; this victory laid open the road to Madrid, where 2500 prisoners, and a large quantity of military stores, fell into the hands of the English, July 22, 1812. SALAMIS, Greece, captured by the Megarians, B.C. 620, but was retaken by the Athenians the same year; captured by the Macedonians, B.C. 318; purchased by Athens, A. D. 232 ; visited by Paul and Barnabas, on their first missionary journey, Acts xiii. 15. SALAMIS, naval battle, the Greek fleet, under Themistocles, defeated the Persian fleet, under Xerxes, B.C. 480. SALDANHA BAY, Cape of Good Hope ; here three Dutch line-of-battle ships and nine frigates surrendered to Admiral Elphinstone, Aug. 17, 1796. SALEM, New England, United States, settled, 1626; fitted out 158 privateers in the war, from 1776-1783. SALERNO, Italy, colonized by the Romans, B.C. 194 ; taken by the Saracens, A.D. 905; besieged by Robert Guiscard for 8 months, captured, 1076; the kingdom of Naples founded by the election of Roger II. to the crown, 1127 ; the town destroyed by the Emperor Henry VI., 1 193 ; the port of, commenced by Manfred, 1260 ; completed by King Robert, 1318. SALIQUE LAW, excluding females from inheriting the throne. Confirmed in France, 424; also by Clovis, $11 ; abolished in Spain, March 29, 1830. SALISBURY PLAIN, 300 English nobles massacred on, by Hengist, May I, 474. SALISBURY, or New Sarum, Wiltshire. The Cathedral founded, the comer-stone laid by Henry III., April 20, 1220 ; finished, 1258, at a cost of 40,000 marks ; built in the Gothic style, 474 feet long, 99 broad ; length of great transept, 230 feet, nave, 229 ; the. spire, 404 feet high. The ancient Cathedral of Old Sarum built by Bishop Herman, 1045-50 ; the town rose quickly in importance ; made a free city by Henry IH. ; Edward I. held a Parliament here in 1296, and Edw. III. in 1328 and 1384 ; a Library established, 1819 ; the Blackmore Museum, founded by Mr Wm. Blackmore, opened, Sept. 4, 1867. SALISBURY, See of, established, and St Aldhelm appointed the first Bishop, 705 ; it was removed to Old Sarum by Bishop Herman, 1072. SALT, the Romans worked the salt mines at Ostia, on the river Tiber, 500 B.C. The famous mines of Wielitska, Poland, ten miles from Cracow, were discover- ed by a shepherd (Wielitz), 1250; came into the possession of Austria, 1772 ; now produce a revenue annually of ; 600,000. There is a subterranean village of about looo inhabitants. A stream of water broke into the mine, threatening its destruction, Nov. 19, 1868. The Droitwich mines were discovered, A.D. 950; those of Staffordshire and Worcestershire, 1650 ; the rock-salt mines of Cheshire discovered by John Jackson, 1670 ; the Church Lawton mines discovered, 1779; 750 SALTERO, DON SAMARIA Dr Brownrigg published his Art of Making Common Salt, 1748; the duty fixed upon rock-salt, 10 & n Will. III., c. 22, 1699; reduced from 2Os. to 15^-. per bushel, fixed at tor. a bushel, 1798; increased to 15-r , 1805 ; reduced to 2s. by 5 Geo. IV., c. 65, June 17, 1824 ; the duty ordered to cease, Jan. 5, 1825. The Gabelle, or salt tax, established in France, 1344. SALTERO, DON, Coffee House, Cheyne-walk, Chelsea, opened, 1695. S ALTERS' COMPANY, London, founded, circa 1483; incorporated by 22 Hen. VIII., 1530 ; confirmed by I Eliz., July 20; reincorporated by 5 James I., May 15, 1607; arms granted to, 153 j crest and supporters, 29 Eliz., 1587; con- firmed, 1634; their first hall was in Bread-street ; rebuilt in Cannon-street, 1641; destroyed in the fire of 1666, and rebuilt, 1668; the present hall built from the designs of Henry Carr, 1823-27. SALT LAKE CITY, N. America, founded by the Mormons, 1847. SALT, SITTING BELOW, an ancient custom, the salt-vat being placed about the centre of the table, to mark the place where the servitors and tenants should sit in the presence of their lord ; the salt-cellar of Archbishop Fox, dated 1517, is pre- served at Corpus Christi College, Oxford. SALTPETRE, mentioned in the writings of Roger Bacon, circa 1290 ; first made in England, 1625. SALTWOOD CASTLE, Kent, built by Henry de Essex, standard-bearer to Henry II., circa 1158 ; rebuilt by William Courtney, Archbishop of Canterbury, I385- SALUTE AT SEA. Generally by firing a certain number of guns, the ship that returns firing the fewest ; merchantmen lower the mainyard ; men-of-war strike their topsails. The English claim the right of being first saluted in all places as sovereigns of the seas ; the Venetians, in the Gulf of Venice ; the honour yielded by the Dutch to the English, 1673. SALVADOR, SAN, Central America, revolted from Spain, 1821 ; united to Mexico, 1823; joined the 4 confederate states of Central America, 1824; declared their independence, 1840 ; destroyed by an earthquake, with upwards of too of its inhabitants, April 16, 1854; treaty of navigation, Oct. 24, 1862; the town besieged and taken by the Nicaraguarians, Oct. 26, 1863. SALVAGE. In war times when British merchantmen were recaptured by British ships-of-war from the enemy, they were allowed one-eighth part of the value, by 43 Geo. III., c. 160, Aug. 12, 1803 ; regulated by 16 & 17 Viet , c. 131, Aug. 20, 1853. SALZBURG, Austria. Archbishopric founded, 798 ; St Margaret's church built, 1485; the University founded, 1620; the Cathedral built, 1614-60; ceded to Austria, Oct. 18, 1797 ; defeat of the French by the Austrians, at, Dec. 13, 1800; 10,000 acres of forest land burnt, Aug.; captured by the French, Dec. 14; ceded to the Duke of Tuscany, Feb. 25, 1803 ; occupied by the French, 1805 ; again ceded to Austria, Dec. 27 ; annexed to Austria, 1806 ; the Austrians de- feated at, under Jellachich, April 24, 1809 ; ceded to Bavaria, Oct. 14 ; restored to Austria, 1815 ; a meeting of the Emperor and Empress of the French with the Emperor and Empress of Austria, held here, Aug. 18, 1867. SAMARA, European Russia, founded, 1591 ; fortifications destroyed, I73- SAMARIA, Palestine, at first included all the cities on the east or west of the river Jordan, I Kings xiii. 32 ; the territory became contracted, B.C. 77 1 746 ; besieged and taken by Shalmaneser after 3 years, circa 720 ; taken by Alex- ander, 329. The city and temple destroyed by the Jews, 109 ; rebuilt by Herod, 25. SAMOA SAN FRANCISCO 751 SAMOA, naval battle. The Turkish fleet of 40 sail attacked and defeated by the Greeks under Canaris, losing 3 vessels, 100 guns, and 1200 men, Aug. 17, 1824. SAMOS, Asia Minor, battle between the Greeks and Persians, B.C. 479 ; massacre of the Turks at, May 19, 1821 ; ceded to Turkey by treaty, March 22, 1829. SAMUEL, the 1st and 2nd Books of, formerly one ; supposed to have been partially written by that prophet, B.C. 1171 ; divided into two books in the Septuagint. SANCTUARIES, places privileged for the refuge of criminals; the first law regulat- ing the privileges of, was established by Theodosius, 392 ; received the sanction of Pope Boniface I., 620 ; by the laws of King Alfred, criminals were allowed 3 days and nights' refuge, 887 ; Canute confirmed the right, 1017. St John's of Beverley, Yorkshire, was one from the time of the Saxons ; St Burian in Corn- wall so privileged by Athelstan, 935 ; Westminster, by Edward the Confessor ; and St Martin's-le-Grand, London, 1529. The right of, limited by Pope Alexander VI., 1503 ; regulated by 22 Hen. VIII. c. 14, 1531 ; abridged by 27 Hen. VIII. c. 19, 1535-6 ; and further abridged by 32 Hen. VIII. c. 12, 1540 ; totally abolished by 21 James I. c. 28, 1623-4. SANDAL CASTLE, Yorkshire, built by John Plantagenet, the last Earl of War- renne, 1317; fortified by the Royalists, 1644-5; taken and demolished by the Parliamentarians, 1646. SANDEMANIANS, founded by Robert Sandeman, 1755 ; he was born 1723, at Perth ; died in New England, 1771. He asserted that justifying faith meant no more than a simple assent to the divine mission of Christ ; he administered the Lord's Supper weekly, and his followers washed each other's feet. SANDFORD CASTLE, Dorset, built, 1540. SAXDGATE CASTLE, Kent, re-built by Henry VIII., 1539-40; Queen Eliza- beth lived here, 1588. SANDHURST, Berkshire. Military college founded at High Wycombe, 1799; removed to Great Marlow, 1802, and to Sandhurst, 1812 ; it will accommodate 400 cadets and 30 students in the senior department, which last prepare them- selves for the staff. Fire at, doing considerable damage, Jan. 21, 1868. SANDOWN CASTLE, Deal, erected by Henry VIII., 1539. SANDWICH, Kent, one of the Cinque Ports, built, 957 ; the Danes landed here and destroyed the fortifications, 101 1 ; re-fortified by Richard II. ; plundered by the French, 1435 ; and again, 1456 ; and in the following year, a force of 5000 Frenchmen, under Marshal de Breze, plundered the town, 1457; re-fortified, 1493 ; a number of Flemish artisans settled in the town, 1572-4 ; the port destroyed by an earthquake, 1580; bridge at, built, 1756. SANDWICH ISLANDS, discovered by Captain Cook, 1778 ; eleven in number; the capacity of the natives was found not to be beneath the common standard of man. At one of the islands Cook was killed, Feb. 14, 1779. King and Queen of, died in London of the small-pox the former, July 8 ; the latter, July 14, 1824 ; a convention of friendship and commerce, signed July 27; a treaty between France and King Kamehameha III., signed, July 17, 1839; Kamehameha IV., the Good, ascended the throne, Dec. 15, 1854 ; he married Emma Young, June 19, 1856 ; commercial treaty with England, signed at Honololu, March 26, 1846 ; King Kamehameha V. succeeded to the throne, Nov. 30, 1863 ; eruption of vol- canoes in, April 7, 1868. SAN FRANCISCO, California, founded by the Spaniards, 1776; the new city founded, 1839 ; gold discovered at, 1847 ; ceded to the United States, 1848 ; a great part of the town destroyed by fire, May 4, 1850 ; another conflagration, which nearly consumed the whole city, May 3, 1851 ; another one, which caused considerable suffering to the inhabitants, June 22 ; mint established, 1853. 752 SANHEDRIM SARACENS SANHEDRIM, a Jewish council of the highest order, of seventy members. The origin of this assembly is traced in the Mishna to the seventy elders whom Moses was directed to associate with him in the government of the Israelites, Num. xi. 16,17, B - c - I 49- A Sanhedrim was summoned by the Emperor Napoleon to meet at Paris, July 23, 1806 ; it assembled there accordingly, Jan. 20, 1807. SANITORY ACTS : Alkaline Works, an act passed for the effectual condensation of muriatic gas in, 26 & 27 Viet. c. 124, July 28, 1863. Building, an act passed for amending the laws relating to the construction of buildings in the Metropolis, 18 & 19 Viet. c. 122, Aug. 14, 1855. Cattle Infectious Diseases Pre- vention act, ii & 12 Viet. c. 107, Sept. 41, 1848. City of London Sewers act, II & 12 Viet. c. clxiii., Sept. 5, 1848; 14 & 15 Viet. c. xci., July 24, 1851. Common Lodging Houses, 14 & 15 Viet. c. 28, July 24, 1851 ; 1 6 & 17 Viet. c. 41, Aug. 4, 1853. Diseases Prevention act, 18 & 19 Viet. c. 116, Aug. 14, 1855. Health, an act passed for promoting, ii & 12 Viet. c. 63, Aug. 31, 1848 ; 21 & 22 Viet. c. 97, Aug. 2, 1858. Local Towns, ibid., c. 98, Aug. 2, 1858 ; 24 & 25 Viet. c. 61, Aug. i, 1861. Metropolis Improvement act, 57 Geo. III. c. xxix., June 16, 1817. Town Improvements, io& n Viet. c. 34, June 21, 1847. Me- tropolis Local Management act, 18 & 19 Viet. c. 120, Aug. 14, 1855; amended, 25 & 26 Viet. c. 102, Aug. 7, 1862. Nuisances Removal act, 18 & 19 Viet. c. 121, Aug. 14, 1855 ; 23 & 24 Viet. c. 77, Aug. 6, 1860; 26 & 27 Viet. c. 117, July 28, 1863. Slaiighter- Houses Licensing act, 26 Geo. III. c. 71, 1786. Smoke Nuisance acts, 16 & 17 Viet. c. 128, Aug. 20, 1853; 19 & 20 Viet. c. 107, July 29, 1856. Thames Purification act, 21 & 22 Viet. c. 104, Aug. 2, 1858. Vaccination acts, 16 & 17 Viet. c. 100, Aug. 20, 1853; amended and con- solidated, Aug. 12, 1867. Water Supply to the Metropolis, 15 & 16 Viet., c. 84, July I, 1852. SANTA CASA, the holy house of our Lady of Loretto, which it is pretended was brought from Palestine into Illyria, 1291, and thence to Loretto ; the French plundered the image of its decorations, and carried the idol to Paris, Feb. 12, 1797 ; it was afterwards sent back, bereft of its ornaments. SANTA CRUZ, Isle of Teneriffe. Admiral Blake destroyed 16 Spanish ships that were protected by the forts, April 20, 1657 ; Lord Nelson repulsed in an attack on, losing his right arm, and 141 men, July 24, 1797. SANTA LUCIA, battle. The Piedmontese, 45,000 strong, attacked the Austrians and captured the town, May 6, 1848. SANTIAGO, Spain. The first cathedral built, 874 ; consecrated, May 17, 899; de- stroyed by Almansur, Aug. IO, 997; rebuilt, 1082. An hospital for pilgrims built by Ferdinand and Isabella, 1504. University founded by Archbp. Fonseca, 1532. The college erected, 1777. The French took several holy vessels away, 1809. SAPPERS AND MINERS. The Corps of Royal, was instituted at Gibraltar, and employed upon the works, and were then called military artificers, March 6, 1772; and added materially to the defence of that fortress, 1781 1783. The strength of the regiment increased, Aug. 31, 1782 ; and their title changed to the royal military artificers, Oct. 10, 1787 ; and to their present designation, March 5, 1813. A company of 62 formed for making the trigonometrical survey of Eng- land, Dec. I, 1824. SAPPHIRE is mentioned as one of the precious stones used in the breast-plate of the high priest, in the second row, Ex. xxviii. 18, B.C. 1491 ; Thomas Kouli Khan possessed one valued at .300,000, 1733. SARACENS, an Eastern people of Arabian descent, professing Mahometanism ; they conquered Spain, 713 ; were defeated with the loss of 70,000 men, by Ramirus, king of Spain, 844 ; their power terminated by the capture of Bagdad by the Tartars, 1258. SARAGOSSA SARDINIA 753 SARAGOSSA, Spain, colonized by the Romans under Augustus, B.C. 25 ; taken by the Goths, circa A.D. 470 ; by the Moors, 712 ; taken after a siege of 5 years by Alonzo el Batallador, 1118 ; taken by the English under Gen. Stanhope from the French, Aug. 20, 1710; 400 of the inhabitants perished in a fire in the theatre, Dec., 1778 ; besieged by the French, June 15, 1808. raised, Aug. 15 again be- sieged by the French under Junot, Jan. 2, 1809 ; capitulated to Marshal Lannes, Feb. 20 ; 54,000 persons perished by a plague during the siege; evacuated by the French, 1813; insurrection at, Feb. 24, 1820 ; constitution proclaimed, Mar. 9. SARAH SANDS, screw transport ship, partially destroyed by fire and afterwards narrowly escaped shipwreck in a gale, but arrived safe at the Mauritius without loss of life, Nov. 1113, l8 57- SARATOGA, N. America. Surrender of General Burgoyne and the British army at, in the American war, when nearly 6000 men laid down their arms to General Gates, Oct. 17, 1777. SARAWAK, Borneo, discovered by the Portuguese, 1526; Mr Brooke visited the island, Aug., 1839 ; the Rajah of, solicited his assistance to quell the disturb- ances among his subjects, and made him governor, Sept. 24, 1841; confirmed by the Sultan, Aug. I, 1842 ; made governor of Labuan, by Her Majesty Victoria, Oct. 2, 1848. SARDINIA, Mediterranean, supposed to have been anciently subject to the Etru- rians, and afterward to the Gauls, having subsequently had many masters ; the Romans held possession of it before the Christian era ; taken by the Moors, circa A.D. 728 ; and by the Genoese, 1115 ; Sardinia granted by the pope to the Pi- sanese, who were unable to expel the Saracens, 1132 ; Alphonsus IV. of Arra- gon made himself master of Sardinia, 1324 ; the French invaded Piedmont and an- nexed it to that country, Feb., 1537 ; treaty with the Vaudois Protestants, Oct. 20, 1690, and Aug. 4, 1704 ; all the possessions surrendered to Austria by the treaty of Turin, March 13, 1707 ; captured by the English naval forces, from the Spaniards, 1708 ; ceded to the king of Sicily in 1714 ; retaken by the Spaniards, 1717 ; they lost possession of it, 1719 ; ceded to the Duke of Savoy, for Sicily, 1720 ; Victor Amadeus, the King, abdicated in favour of his son, 1730 ; died in prison, 1 732 ; invaded by France, 1 795 ; the court was kept at Turin till 1 796, the dominions overrun by the French arms, and annexed to the French empire ; recovered by England, March 3, 1 799 ; the King resigned his crown to his brother, Duke of Aoust, June 4, 1802; Sardinia annexed to Italy, and Bonaparte crowned king, Dec. 26, 1805 ; restored to Victor -Emmanuel, Feb. 17, 1806; Genoa added to it, Dec., 1814; commercial treaty with England, May 20, 1815 ; revolution in, March. 1821 ; the Spanish constitution proclaimed in, March 12 ; abdication of the king, March 13 ; termination of the revolt, April 19 ; treaty with Austria, July 26 ; the king, Charles-Albert, defended the cause of the Italians against Austria, March 23, 1848 ; the Austrians defeated by the Sardinian army at Goito, May 29 ; and the fortress of Pescheira surrendered to the Sardinian troops, May 31 ; who were defeated at Custoza, July 23, and at Valeggio, July 25 ; the Sardinian army, which had fought with the greatest bravery for many weeks, forced to retreat to- wards Milan, July 27 ; the Sardinians, who had retreated to Milan, capitulated to the Austrian field-marshal Radetsky, Aug. 5 ; armistice between Sardinia and Austria, Sept. 21 ; the Sardinians resumed hostilities against Austria, March 12, 1849 ; Radetsky defeated a division of the Sardinian army, and occupied Mortara, March 21 ; the Sardinian army routed by the Austrians at Novara, March 23 ; Charles- Albert abdicated in favour of his son, the Duke of Savoy, March 23 ; the Austriaus occupied Novara and other places, March 25 ; another armistice be- tween Austria and Sardinia, March 26 ; the Duke of Savoy proclaimed King of Sardinia, by the title of Victor Emmanuel II., March 20 ; death of Charles- Albert, the ex-king, at Oporto, July 28 ; treaty of Milan, between Austria 48 754 SARDINIAN AMBASSADOR'S CHAPEL SATELLITES and Sardinia, signed, Aug. 6 ; invaded by Austria, April, 1859. See Italy. The sovereigns of this island date as kings from 1730 only; before which it was only a dukedom. Victor-Amadeus I., king (II. as duke), 1718 ; resigned in 1730, in favour of his son ; died in 1732 ; Charles-Emmanuel I., his' son, 1730; Victor-Amadeus II., his son, 1773; Charles-Emmanuel II., son of the preceding, resigned his crown in favour of his brother, 1796 ; Victor- Emman- uel I., 1802 ; Sardinia merged in the kingdom of Italy, of which the Emperor Napoleon was crowned king, May 26, 1805 ; Victor-Emmanuel restored, 1814 ; resigned in March, 1821, and died in 1824; Charles-Felix, 1821 ; succeeded by his nephew, Charles-Albert, 1831, who abdicated, March 23, 1849 ; Carlo-Al- berto died at Oporto, July 28, 1849. Victor-Emmanuel, the present king, March 24, 1849 ; treaty of navigation between the King and Great Britain, signed, Feb. 27, 1851 ; death of the Queen-dowager of, Jan. 12, 1855 ; death of the Queen of, Jan. 20 ; suppression of convents in, March 2 ; Victor-Emmanuel, King of, arrived at Windsor Castle on a visit to the Queen, Nov. 30 ; address of the Corporation of London to, at Guildhall, Dec. 4 ; made a Knight of the Garter, Dec. 5 ; departure of, from Windsor, Dec. 6 ; general treaty of peace with Russia, March 30, 1856 ; Prince Napoleon married to the Princess Clotilde, eldest daughter of the king, Jan. 30, 1859. See Italy. SARDINIAN AMBASSADOR'S CHAPEL, burned by accident, Nov. 4, 1759; again, in Lord George Gordon's riots, June 2, 1780. SARDIUS, or SARDINE STONE, which occupied the first place in the first row of the high-priest's breastplate, Ex. xxviii. 17, B.C. 1491. SARK, one of the Channel Islands, dependent upon Guernsey, six miles in com- pass ; it has the benefit of a commodious haven, which the French observed in . 1557 ; it was without men to defend it but a few hermits, whom the privacy of the place had invited. The island begirt with rocks, lying aloft above the sea, hav- ing only one straight passage or ascent up to it, scarcely capable of receiving two abreast. Of this island the French easily possessed themselves, dislodged the hermits, fortified the upper part of the ascent, and settled a small garrison in it. They had not nestled there long, when by a gentleman of the Netherlands, one of the subjects of King Philip, it was regained. The Flemish gentleman in a small bark came to anchor in the road, and pretending the death of his merchant, be- sought the French that they might bury him in the chapel of that island, offering a present to them of such commodities as they had on board. To this request the French were easily entreated, upon condition that they should not come on shore with any weapon. The Flemings rowed on shore with a coffin in their skiff filled with swords and arquebusses. They were permitted to draw the coffin up the rocks ; some of the French, rowing back to the ship to fetch the present, were soon made fast enough. The Flemings in the mean time who were on the land had carried their coffin into the chapel, and having taken thence their weapons, gave an alarm. The French, caught upon the sudden, and seeing no hope of succour from their fellows, yielded. Taken by the English, as part of their old Norman dominion, 1589. SARUM, OLD, Wiltshire, the Roman Sorbeodunum, fortified by King Alfred ; a great council convoked by King Edgar, 960 ; the castle pillaged and burnt by Sweyn, king of Denmark, 1003 ; rebuilt, and William the Conqueror held a council in, 1086 ; William Rufus held a council here in 1095 ; Henry I. kept his court in, 1100-1106 ; held a council at, 1116 ; restored by Henry II., 1154; the cathedral removed to Salisbury, 1220 ; the town rapidly declined, and it was disenfranchised in 1832 for bribery and corruption. See Salisbury. SATELLITES of Saturn discovered : his ring, 1634, by Huygens, and his sixth satellite, 1655 ; his first and second satellites by Herschel, 1789 ; the others, be- SATTARA SAVOY 755 tween the time of Huygens and Herschel ; Jupiter has four satellites, discovered by Galileo ; Uranus six, all, with the planet, discovered by HerscheL SATTARA, India, founded by the Mahratta confederation, 1644 ; captured by the British, 1817 ; incorporated into the British dominions, July I, 1856. SAUGOR, Hindostan, annexed to the empire of Delhi, by the Emperor Akbar, 1599; ceded to England, 1818; confirmed by treaty, 1826. SAUMUR, France. The edict of Nantes annihilated the prosperity of this town. Captured by the Vendean army, June 10, 1793, from the republican army ; defend- ed by loo guns, they took 11,000 prisoners, with 60 cannon and 10,000 muskets. SAVANNAH, N. America, a city of Georgia on a sandy plain, founded, 1733, by General Oglethorpe ; taken by the English, 1778 ; given up, 1782 ; no less than 463 buildings burnt, valued at ; 700,000, June IO, 1820 ; taken by the Federals under Gen. Sherman, in conjunction with the fleet under Admiral Dahlgren, with 150 pieces of cannon and 25,000 bales of cotton. The Confederate Gen. Hardee abandoned the town after destroying two iron-clads and spiking the guns, Dec. 21, 1864. SAVIGNY, order of Grey Friars founded by Vitalis of Tierceville near Bayeux, 1105 ; came to England, 1120 ; united to the Cistercian order, 1148. SAVILLE HOUSE, Leicester-square, attacked by the rioters in 1780 and stripped of its furniture, &c. ; rebuilt from the designs of S. Page in the beginning of this century. Miss Linwood's exhibition of needlework at, opened, 1 800 ; closed, 1845 > destroyed by fire, Feb. 23, 1865. SAVINGS' BANKS : the first established at Hamburg in 1 778 ; the first in England by Priscilla Wakefield ; at Tottenham, for children, 1798 ; for adults, 1804 ; the first established in Scotland, by the Rev. John Muckersy, Oct., 1807 ; Dr Henry Duncanplaced them upon a permanent basis, 1810; the provident institution for this purpose founded at Bath, Jan., 1815 ; the first established in Ireland, March, 1815; legally organized in England by the labours of Mr Geo. Rose, by the 57 Geo. III. c. 130, July 12, 1817 ; amended by the 58 Geo. III. c. 48, May 30, 1818 ; again amended by i Geo. IV. c. 83, July 24, 1820 ; consolidated by the 9 Geo. IV. c. 92, July 28, 1828 ; the responsibility of trustees fixed by 7 & 8 Viet. c. 83, s. 6, Aug. 9, 1844 ; the laws consolidated by 16 & 17 Viet. c. 45, Aug. 4, 1853 ; and again consolidated by 26 & 27 Viet. c. 87, July 28, 1863. The Post-office Saving? Banks established, 24 & 25 Viet. c. 14, May 17, 1861. An act passed for estab- lishing a Military Savings' Bank, 5 & 6 Viet. c. 71, July 30, 1842 ; this and all subsequent measures consolidated by 22 & 23 Viet. c. 30, Aug. 13, 1859. A bank for Seamen established, 17 & 18 Viet. c. 104, s. 140, Aug. 10, 1854 ; amended, 19 & 20 Viet. c. 41, July 7, 1856. SAVIOUR, ST, a Spanish order of knights, instituted by Alphonso I., king of Arragon, circa II2O. SAVONA, Italy. Cathedral built in 1604 ; the Austrians and Piedmontese defeat- ed by the French, 1794 ; occupied by them, 1795 ; captured by the Austrians, 1800 ; ceded to France, June, 1800. SAVOY, Europe, part of Gallia Narbonensis, which submitted to the Romans, B.C. 118 ; seized by the Alemans, A.U. 395 ; the Franks, 496. It shared the revolu- tions of Switzerland till 1040, when Conrad, Emperor of Germany, gave it to Hubert, with the title of Earl. Amadeus VIII., Earl of Savoy, solicited Sigis- mund, Emperor of Germany, to erect his dominions into a duchy, which he did at Cambray, Feb. 19, 1417. The last duke, having taken Sicily in 1713 by the assistance of the English, was made king of that country, but by the peace of Utrecht changed for Sardinia, 1718 ; incorporated with France, Nov. 27, 1798. 756 SAVOY PALACE SAXONY The dukedom of Savoy is now possessed by the King of Italy; but a great part of the country ceded to France in 1796; seized by the French, Dec., 1798, who were repulsed, 1799 ; but subjugated it again the year following. Restored to Sardinia, by the treaty of Paris, 1814. See Sardinia. SAVOY PALACE, Strand, London, built by Peter, Earl of Savoy, uncle to Queen Eleanor, wife of Henry III., 1245 ; rebuilt by Henry, Earl of Lancaster, in a style of the most sumptuous magnificence, and cost 52,000 marks, 1328 ; totally destroy- ed by Wat Tyler and the Kentish rebels, 1381 ; it lay waste till the year 1509, when Hen. VII. commenced its rebuilding ; Hen. VIII. completed it in pur- suance of his father's will, and converted it into an hospital for the reception of loo distressed pilgrims, endowing it with lands to the amount of 500 marks yearly, July 5, 1518 ; but, being perverted into a refuge for the idle and profligate, he re- scinded the charter, 1553, its yearly value being ^"529 15.?. gd. ; by his will he directed it to be granted to the mayor and citizens of London ; refounded by Queen Mary ; dissolved by Queen Anne, July 31, 1702 ; its revenues sequestered to the crown; burnt, March 2, 1776. Savoy Chapel, Strand, built, 1505, upon a part of the site of the palace of Peter de Savoy. King John of France died here, April 8, 1384 ; the memorable conference between the Episcopalian and Presby- terian divines on the Book of Common Prayer was held in, 1661 ; Wilson, bishop of Sodor and Man, was consecrated by Archbishop Sharpe in, 1698 ; the chapel possessed the privilege of sanctuary ; many persons of distinction were buried in the chapel ; used as a barracks and a prison for deserters until 1819. Repaired by George I. in 1721, and by Queen Victoria in 1843 ; destroyed by fire, July 7, 1864 ; restored by the Queen, and opened, April 21, 1867. SAWLEY ABBEY, Yorkshire, built, 1 147. SAWMILLS erected at Augsburg, 1322; Breslau, 1427; in Norway, 1530; in Italy, 1556; in England their introduction violently opposed, one erected near London, in 1663, by a Dutchman, was abandoned on account of the determined opposition of the sawyers. Mr Houghton erected a mill at Limehouse, 1 767-8, but the building and machinery were entirely destroyed by a mob. Considerably improved by Mr Brunei, 1812-13, an d steam mills erected bv, for the government, at Chatham, 1812-13. SAWS. A circular saw invented by Mr Trotter, 1804 ; Mr Brunei took out a patent for sawing timber in an easy and expeditious manner, 1805 ; for cutting veneers, 1808 ; and for circular saws, 1808. SAXO-GRAMMATICUS, Danish history, written, 1170. SAXON GREEN, in dyeing, invented, 1174. SAXONS, the ancient, first mentioned by Ptolemy, who placed them near the mouth of the Elbe, and on the Baltic shores; first appearance of at Kent, in England, A.D. 450 ; they made a second settlement at Chichester, 477 ; a third body landed at Southampton, 495 ; and' a fourth landed in Sussex, 572. Their literature began, 570 ; the Heptarchy established, 582 ; the Anglo-Saxon king- doms united by Egbert into one kingdom, 827. SAXONY, made an electorate of Germany, 1422 ; formed into a kingdom, Dec. 1 1, 1806 ; consisting of the marquisates of Lusatia and Misnia, the larger part of Thuringia, and parts of Monspied and Houneberg, with other cessions from Prussia ; in 1815, the congress of Vienna reduced these territories to a population of no more than 1,237,000 ; Frederick Augustus was the first king, 1807 ; he was succeeded by his brother Anthony, May 5, 1827 ; then Frederick Augustus II., who ascended the throne, June 6, 1836. Upper Saxony was ceded to Prussia, 1815 ; insurrection in, April 17 and Aug. 30, 1830; reciprocity treaty with Hol- land, 1839 ; king of, visited England, June I, 1844 ; joined the Zollverein, 1834 ; SCANDALUM MAGNATUM SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN 757 constitution decreed, Sept. 4, 1831 ; altered, March 31, 1849, and Oct. 19, 1861 ; insurrection in, May 5, 1849 ; federal constitution adopted, May 30 ; Johann I. succeeded to the throne, Aug. 9, 1854 ; the king of, killed hya kick from one of the horses in his carriage which was overturned whilst travelling, Aug. 10 ; occu- pied by the Prussian army under Prince Frederick Charles, June 1 6, 1 866 ; a treaty agreed to, by King John, who engaged to pay a large sum of money and to give up the fortress of Konigstein, Oct 21 ; the village of Johanngeargerstad de- stroyed by fire, consisting of 350 houses, Aug. 22, 1867. SCANDALUM MAGNATUM, an act to punish all who gave out any reports, false or true, to the disadvantage of peers and public functionaries, by act 2 Rich. II. c. 5, 1378. SCARBOROUGH, Yorkshire, a Saxon town, the castle built by William le Gros, Earl of Albemarle, 1140; rebuilt, 1190 ; cliff at, sunk and spa removed, Dec. 1 8, 1237 ; made a royal burgh by 23 Edw. I., 1295 ; the castle besieged unsuc- cessfully in 1536 ; a mineral spa first discovered, 1620 ; taken by the Parlia- mentarians after a siege of 12 months, July 22, 1645 ; and the fortifications de- stroyed, 1648 ; George Fox, the founder of the Society of Friends, confined in it, 1665. SCARCITY ROOT, a species of parsnips, introduced into England by Dr Lett- som, 1787. SCARLET, the colour extracted from the kermes insect, called cochineal, 1518; the first dye-house for this colour in England established at Bow, by one Kepler, 1643. SCHAMYL, the famed leader of the Circassians, betrayed to the Russians, Aug. 28, 1859. SCHELDT, Netherlands. The navigation opened, May 19, 1833. The Toll: the estimated sum required to defray the first moiety of the charge payable by Great Britain for the redemption of the Scheldt toll, under the treaty of July 1 6, 1863, SCHISM, an act passed to prevent the growth of, and for the further security of the Churches of England and Ireland, as by law established, 12 Anne, c. 7, 1713 ; repealed, 5 Geo. I. c. 4, 1718. SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN, the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, part of the possessions of the Danish crown, the right sold by Waldemar, king of Denmark, to Count Gerhard, Count of Holstein, 1326 ; their right to choose their own duke acknowledged by Christian I., Mar. 6, 1540; the right became obsolete in 1588; ceded by Christian IV., 1658 ; taken possession of by Denmark, 1714 ; guaran- teed to Denmark perpetually, 1715 ; the Gottorp portion ceded by Russia to, 1773 ; constitution granted to, Jan. 28, 1848 ; insurrection in, March 24 ; invad- ed by Prussia, April 6 ; the insurgents defeated by the Danes, April 7 ; the Dane- wirke taken by the Prussian army, 30,000 strong, under Gen. von Wrangle, April 23 ; the Prussians defeated at Duppeln, June 5 ; an armistice agreed to, Aug. 26 ; hostilities renewed, April 3, 1849; Jutland invaded, April 20 ; the Prussians defeat- ed at Frederica, May 3 and July 6 ; peace concluded, July 2 ; war renewed, July 15 ; the Prussians defeated with great loss at Idstedt, July 25 ; Friederickstadt bombarded, from Sept. 30 to Oct. 5 ; peace concluded, Oct. 30 ; the Danish army defeated the Schleswig-Holstein army, and occupied the town, July 25, 1850 ; Friederickstadt stormed by the Holstein army, the Danes repulsed them with great loss, Oct. 6 ; the Austrian army advanced and occupied Hesse-Cassel, Nov. 9 ; federal execution in, and entry of Prince Augustenburg, Dec. 24, 1863 ; granted to the Emperor of Austria and the King of Prussia, Oct. 30, 1864; convention signed, Aug. 15, 1865 ; any Schleswiger signing the address in favour of the Duke of Augustenburg liable to five years' imprisonment, March, 1866. 758 SCHONBRUNN SCONE ABBEY SCHONBRUNN, Vienna. Treaty of peace between France and Austria, signed at the camp, Oct. 15, 1809. SCHOOLS, CHARITY, established in London to prevent the poor children from entering Catholic seminaries, 3 James II., 1687 ; became general in England, 16985 Dr Bell's system adopted, 1796; Mr Lancaster's, 1798. Infant schools first established in London by Lord Lansdowne, 1818. Charity schools estab- lished in Ireland, 1733. The British and Foreign School Society, founded, 1805 ; the National Society, 1811. Every child in Saxony compelled to attend school, June 6, 1855. Increased facilities given for the endowment and conveyance of sites for building schools, 4 & 5 Viet. c. 38, June 21, 1841. In 1860 there were 10,403 daily schools under government inspection, having 962,932 scholars , 38 separate training colleges, having 8, 826 students ; 426 pauper schools, containing 27, 728 children; and 72 Reformatory schools, containing 6, 1 72 children ; the parlia- mentary grants amounted to, with a balance from the preceding grant, .1,035,693. The Secretary of the Home Department substituted for the Committee of Council on Education, to exercise all the powers vested in him by the Industrial School act 20 & 21 Viet. c. 48, 1857. In 1858 therewerein England and Wales 58,975 day schools public and private, 33,872 Sunday schools, and 2,036 evening schools. SCHUMLA, Turkey, taken by the Turks, 1389 ; besieged unsuccessfully by the Russians, 1810 ; blockaded by the Russians, July, 1828 ; defeated by the Turks, Aug. 25. SCHWEIDNITZ, Prussia, the church erected in 1330 ; the town and castle forti- fied by Frederick the Great, 1747 ; taken by the Austrians, Nov. 12, 1757 ; re- taken by Prussia, April 16, 1758, and by the Austrians, Oct. I, 1761; they were subsequently defeated by the Prussians under Frederick II., May 16, 1762; cap- tured by the French and the fortifications destroyed, 1 806. SCILLY ISLES, Cornwall, the ancient Cassiterides that traded with the Phoeni- cians in tin ; conquered by King Athelstan, circa 938 ; taken by Admiral Blake in 1651 ; shipwreck of Sir Cloudesley Shovel, with his two sons, and four men- of-war lost, with their crews, here, Oct. 22, 1707 ; the Prince of Wales visited the islands, July 25, 1865. SCINDE, Hindostan, taken by Nadir Shah, a Persian prince, 1739; upon his death it reverted to the Imperial power at Delhi ; a rebellion in, 1779 '> fi rs t treaty made with the English government, 1820; a commercial one, 1832, 1836, and in April 1838, giving the British power to have a resident at the Court ; rebellion in, the Residency attacked, theBelooches defeated, Feb. 17, 1843. SCIO, JEgezn. Sea, the ancient Chios, is mentioned by Herodotus as among the in- sular statesof the Ionian confederation; they joined thelonians, against the Persians, B. C. 499 ; after the defeat of the Confederates the Persians landed and carried off all the most beautiful girls ; besieged and taken by the Athenians subsequently, and captured again, 357; taken by King Philip, 201 ; used as a depot by the Romans in their war with Antiochus, 190. Mithridates took the town and ban- ished most of its inhabitants, 86 ; released by Sulla, 84. It was taken by the Turks in the I4th century, A.D.,and sold to the Genoese, 1346; retaken by the Turks under Solyman the Magnificent, 1566. The inhabitants joined in the insurrection against their rulers ; the Turkish fleet burnt the town, and massacred upwards of 30,000 of its inhabitants, April, 1 1 June 18, 1822. SCONE ABBEY, near Perth, Scotland, founded, 1114 ; the Scotch Parliament as- sembled here in Feb. 9, 1292. Edward I. of England brought the old corona- tion stone on which the Scottish kings used to be crowned, to England, and deposited it in Westminster Abbey, 1296; Robert Bruce gave the Abbey a new charter in 1325 ; burnt by the populace at the period of the Reformation, I559J SCOTCH GOLD AND SILVER SCOTLAND 759 but afterwards rebuilt; Charles II. the last king crowned here, Jan. I, 1651; made the residence of the notorious Count d'Artois, 1798. SCOTCH GOLD AND SILVER prohibited from passing current in England, 1393- SCOTCH CORPORATION, founded, 1655. SCOTCHMEN, upon an inquisition taken by Queen Elizabeth, only 58 were found in London, 1562. SCOTLAND. The Romans under Agrir.ola invaded the country, A.1). 80 85, and Hadrian made an expedition into this country, A.D. 121 ; again invaded by the Romans under Severus, when 50,000 Romans perished, 207. Inhabited by the Picts, 446. The Scots from Ireland settled in Kintire, 503. The capital of the Picts taken by Kenneth II., and every living creature put to death, 843; in- vaded by the Danes, 866 and 970; defeated by Malcolm, 1010; treaty made with Sweyn, 1014. Feudal system established by Malcolm II., 1004. Lothian added to, 1017. Invaded by the Danes under Canute, 1031; divided into baronies, 1032; Danes driven out of, 1040; Duncan I. murdered by Macbeth, by whom the crown was seized, 1039; Malcolm III., assisted by Edward the Confessor, defeated the usurper at Dunsinane, Macbeth being killed by Macduff, 1057, and Malcolm crowned at Scone, Apr. 29 ; invaded by William the Conqueror, 1073 ; the Saxon- English language introduced into Scotland by fugitives from England, 1080 ; William Rufus invaded the country and received the submission of Malcolm I., 1191 2 ; Alnwick besieged, and Malcolm III. killed, 1093 ; David I. compiled a code of laws, 1124; Turgot appointed by Alexander I. to the bishopric of St Andrews, 1 107 ; Malcolm IV. held a convention of Prelates and Earls at Perth, 1160; William crowned at Scone, Jan. 3, 1165 ; peace concluded with, 1221 ; William the Lion defeated by Henry II., and taken prisoner at Alnwick ; treaty of peace signed between, Dec. 8, 1174; Alexander III. crowned, July 13, 1249; the Scottish Church declared independent, 1188. S cotland' invaded by Hacho, king of Norway, with 160 ships and 20,000 men ; the invaders defeated by Alex- ander III., at the battle of Largs, Oct. 2, 1263 ; Alexander III. died, March 16, 1287, and six Regents were chosen to govern the kingdom ; determined to remain separated from England, July 18, 1290 ; Margaret of Norway, Queen of Scot- land, died, Oct. 7 ; John Baliol and Robert Bruce asserted their right for the throne, 1290 ; Edward I. of England decided in favour of John, 1292 ; the first Parliament summoned to meet at Scone by Baliol, Feb. 10, 1293 ; John Baliol, King of Scotland, appeared and defended his own cause in Westminster- hall against the Earl of Fife, June 14, 1293 ; Edward dethroned John, ravaged the country, and defeated the Scots at Dunbar, April 27 ; occupied Holyrood, destroyed the monuments of Scottish history, and seized the coronation stone, 1296 ; Edward I. defeated the Scots at Falkirk, July 22, 1298 ; captured Stirling Castle, Feb. 13, 1303, but was defeated at Roslin by the Regent Comyn, Feb. 24. The English captured Brechin, Aug. 9, and burnt Dunfermline, Aug. 9 ; Comyn concluded a treaty, Feb. 4, 1304 ; Stirling surrendered to Edward I, July 20 ; W r illiam Wallace taken by the English, and executed on Tower-hill as a traitor, Aug. 23, 1305 ; Bruce killed Comyn in the Minorite convent at Dumfries, Jan. 29, or Feb. 10, 1306 ; crowned at Scone, March 25 ; defeated the English army at Loudon Hill, May, 1307; Perth captured by Robert Bruce, Jan. 8, 1312 ; Bruce re-takes Berwick, April 2, 1318: the English army defeated at Bannock- burn, June 24, 1314 ; acknowledged King of Scotland by the English Par- liament assembled at York, Mar. I, 1328 ; David II. crowned at Scone, Nov. 23, 1328 ; Bruce held his famous Parliament at Cambus Kenneth, July 15, 1326; Edward Baliol invaded Scotland, landing at Kinghorn, Fifeshire, Aug. 7, 1332, and defeated the Scots near Perth, Aug. n, 12 ; Baliolcrowned at Scone, Sept. 27; David II. taken prisoner at the battle of Durham by Queen Phil- 760 SCOTLAND ippa of England, and detained in captivity n years, Oct. 17, 1346 ; David II. died Feb. 22, 1371, and was succeeded by his nephew Robert. Battle of Chevy Chase between Hotspur, Percy, and the Earl Douglas, Aug. 19, 1388; battle of the Clans at Perth, Oct. 23, 1396 ; St Andrew's university founded, 1412 ; James I. captured by the English, on his passage to France, Mar., 1405 ; detained 19 years a prisoner in England, married Jane Beaufort, daughter of the Earl of Somerset, released and crowned at Scone, May 21, 1424 ; assassinated at the Monastery of Blackfriars, at Perth, by Sir R. Graham, Earl of Athole, and others, Feb. 20, 1437 ; James II. commenced his reign, aged seven years, 1436 ; the university of Glasgow founded by Bishop Turnbull, 1453 ; James II. murdered the Earl of Douglas in Stirling castle, 1451 ; James II. killed at the siege of Roxburgh, Aug. 3, 1460 ; St Andrews made an archbishopric, 1471 ; conspiracy against James III., and imprisonment of, 1482. Usurpation of the Duke of Albany, 1482; rebellion and defeat of, at Lochmalen, June 22, 1485 ; James III. caused the mur- der of his brother John ; killed in an insurrection of his- people at Sanchy, Ban- nockburn, June II, 1488. Glasgow made an archbishopric, Jan. 9. 1492. University of Aberdeen founded by Bishop Elphinstone, 1494. James IV. married Margaret, daughter of Henry VII. of England, Aug 8, 1502 ; the Northern re- bellion suppressed, 1506 ; battle of Flodden Field, where James IV. was slain, and the flower of the Scotch nobility was cut to pieces, Sept. 9, 1513 ; the Scots banished from England, 7 Hen. VII., c. 6, 1491 ; war declared against, by Henry VIII., 1522 ; the Court of Session established by James V., 1532; commercial treaty with the Netherlands, 1532 ; peace concluded with England, 1533 ; reformation in 1532 34 ; the reformers persecuted, 1539 ; Order of St Andrew, or the Thistle, revived, 1540. War between Henry VIII. and James V., 1542, the latter defeated at Caerlaverock ; Mary, afterwards Queen of Scots, born, Dec. 7, 1542; succeeded her father, James V., Dec. 7, 1542; treaty signed with England for the marriage of Prince Edward with the Queen of Scots, July I, 1543 ; Cardinal Beaton assassinated, May 28, 1545 ; the Scottish army, under Arran, defeated by the Protector, Somerset, at the battle of Pinkey, 14,000 were slain, Sep. 10, 1547 ; married the Dauphin of France, afterwards Francis II., April 24, 1558; a Parliament assembled at Edinburgh, July 10, 1560; Francis II. died, leaving the young Mary a widow, Dec. 15, 1560 ; the reformation in Scotland began between 1550 and Dec. 3, 1557, consummated by John Knox, 1560. Mary returned, landing at Leith, after an absence of 13 years, arrived, Aug. 19, 1561 ; in Queen Elizabeth's reign only 58 Scotsmen were found in London, 1562 ; Mary married her cousin, Lord Darnley, July 29, 1565 ; revolt of Murray and defeat of, 1565, David Rizzio, her secretary, murdered by Darnley in her presence, March 9, 1566; Darnley killed, the house being blown up with gunpow- der, Feb. 10, 1567; James Hepburn, Earl of Bothwell, carried off the Queen, who married him, May 15, 1567 ; Mary imprisoned by her nobles in Lochleven castle, and abdicated her throne, 1567; her infant son crowned as James VI., the Earl of Murray being appointed Regent, July 23, 1567 ; Mary escaped from prison, and collected a large force, but was defeated by the Regent Murray at the battle of Langside, May 15, 1568 ; the Regent Murray assassinated, 157 > the Earl of Lennox chosen Regent, July 12, 1570 ; the Earl of Mar, Sept. 6, 1571 ; death of John Knox, Nov. 24, 1572 ; university of Edinburgh founded, 1582 ; the Earl of Morton chosen Regent, Nov. 9, 1573 ; Mary having sought refuge in England, was thrown into prison by Queen Elizabeth, and after 18 years' cap- tivity, was beheaded at Fotheringay castle, Feb. 8, 1587 ; James VI. married Princess Anne of Denmark, 1589 ; Gowrie's conspiracy, 1600 ; union of the crown of Scotland with that of England, by the accession of James VI. to the throne of the latter kingdom, Mar. 24, 1603 ; commissioners appointed to treat with the com- missioners of Scotland respecting the union of the two countries, I James I. c. 2, 1603-4 ; disturbances in, owing to the attempt made by Charles I . to introduce the SCOTLAND 761 Liturgy of the Church of England, 1636 1639 ; treaty with the Scots, 1640 ; Charles I. of England betrayed by the Scottish army, 1647 ; Marquis of Montrose killed in Edinburgh, 1650 ; Stirling castle surrendered to Gen. Monk, Aug., 1651 ; Scotland united to the English commonwealth by Oliver Cromwell, 1651 ; royalty restored by Charles II., 1660; assassination of Archbishop Sharpe, by a party headed by John Balfour of Burley, May 3, 1679 ; revolution in favour of William III., and presbytery established, 1 688; the Macdonalds' massacre at Glencoe, 1691 ; James II. of England, died in exile, Sept. 1 6, 1701 ; union of Scotland with England, May I, 1707 ; an act passed to make the union more com- plete, 6 Anne, c. 6, 1707 ; rebellion in Scotland in favour of the son of King James II., called the Pretender, 1715 ; the partisans of the Pretender defeated at the battle of Sheriffmuir, 1715 ; again defeated at the battle of Preston, Nov. 12, 1715 ; Captain Porteous hanged by the mob, on a dyer's pole in the Grassmarket of Edinburgh, Sept. 7, 1736; the Stuarts endeavour to recover possession of their ancient kingdom ; the Young Pretender gained the battle of Prestonpans, Sept 21, 1745, and Falkirk, Jan. 18, 1746 ; defeated at Culloden, April 1 6, 1746 ; Lords Kilmarnock and Balmerino executed on Tower-hill, Aug. 1 8, 1746. An act passed for securing the peace of Scotland, I Geo. I. st. 2, c. 54, 1715 ; amended II Geo. I. c. 26, 1724; again amended by 19 Geo. II. c. 39, 1746, and 20 Geo. II. c. 43, 1747 ; the Highland dress prohibited by act of parliament, the act was afterwards repealed, 1746 ; Simon Fraser, Lord Lovat, executed, aged So, April 9, 1747 ; the Old Pretender, the 'Chevalier de St George,' died at Rome, aged 88, Dec. 30, 1765 ; great canal uniting the Friths of Forth and Clyde, begun in 1768, completed in 1790; Charles Edward, the Young Pretender, died at Rome, Mar. 3, 1788; Cardinal York, the last of the Stuart race, died, Aug. 19, 1807 ; the Court of Session divided, 1807 ; the first railway formed between Kilmarnock and Troon, act passed in 1808, opened in 1810; the establishment of a Jury court under a chief commissioner, 1815 ; George IV. visited Scotland, Aug., 1822 ; a duty of one halfpenny per mile for every 4 persons conveyed by railway imposed, 1832 ; altered to 5 per cent., 1842. Seven ministers of Strathbogie deposed by the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland, for obeying the civil before the ecclesiastical law, May 28, 1841 ; this deposition protested against by the minority of ministers. The General Assembly by a great majority condemned church patronage as a griev- ance to religion, May 23, 1842. Queen Victoria and her consort visited Scotland, Sept. I, 1842 ; the Queen embarked for Woolwich, Sept. 13, 1842 ; secession of the non-intrusion ministers of the Church of Scotland, about one-third of the whole, at the General Assembly, May 18, 1843 ; Prince Albert purchased the reversion of the lease of the castle of Balmoral in 1848, and the fee simple in 1852, and the present building was erected from the designs of Mr. Smith, 1854, now visited annually by the Royal Family. The Public Library act passed, 1854 ; consolidated by 30 & 31 Viet. c. 37, July 15, 1867 ; the recovery of debts in the sheriff courts of, facilitated by 30 & 31 Viet. c. 96, Aug. 12; the laws re- lating to the public health amended, 30 & 31 Viet. c. 101, Aug. 15 ; Mr Hill Burton appointed Historiographer, Aug., 1867. A LIST OF SOVEREIGNS OF SCOTLAND. Fergus : killed fighting against Goran, brother of Congal : mur- the Romans ... ... ... 404 dered ... ... 501 Eugenius II., son of Fergus ... 419 Eugenius III. ... ... ... 535 Dongard, brother of Eugenius : Congal II. ... 558 drowned ... 452 Kinathal ... 568 Constantine I. ... 457 Aidan ... 570 Congal II., nephew of Constan- Kenneth I. ... 604 tine ... 479 Eugenius IV. ... 605 7 62 SCOTLAND SCREW PROPELLER Ferchard 1 622 Donald IV. : drowned in Loch Tay 636 Ferchard II. : died from the bite of a mad wolf 650 Malduin 668 Eugenius V 688 Eugenius VI. ... ... ... 692 Amberkeleth ... ... ... 702 Eugenius VII. ... ... ... 704 Mordach ... ... ... 721 Etfinius ... ... ... 730 Eugenius VIII 761 Fergus III. ... ... ... 764 Solvathius ... ... ..-. 767 Achaius ... ... ... 787 Congallll 819 Dongal : drowned in the Spey 824 Alpin ... ... ... ... 831 Kenneth II., son of Alpinus, and surnamed MacAlpine : de- feated the Picts and slew their king ; united the Picts and Scots under one sceptre, and became the first sole monarch of all Scotland, 843 ... 834 Donald V. : dethroned ... 854 Constantine II. ... ... 862 Ethus, surnamed Lightfoot ... 874 Gregory, called the Great ... 880 Donald VI 892 Constantine III. 903 Malcolm I. 943 Indulf 958 Duff 967 Cullen : assassinated 972 Kenneth III 976 Constantine IV. 994 Grimus ... ... ... ... 995 Malcolm II 1003 Duncan I.: assassinated by his cousin Macbeth, who ascend- ed the throne ... ... 1033 Macbeth, usurper and tyrant, slain by Macduff, the thane of ceeded ... ... ... 1040 Malcolm III 1055 Donald VII. ... ... ... 1093 Duncan II. ... ... ... 1093 Edgar 1098 Alexander I. ... ... ... 1107 David I. ... ... ... ... 1124 Malcolm IV. ... ... ... 1153 William I., the Lion ... ... 1165 Alexander II. ... ... ... 1214 Alexander III. ... ... ... 1249 Margaret, the maid of Norway; grand-daughter of Alexander III., died at Orkney on her passage to Scotland, 1285 '> thence arose the dispute about the succession, which was de- cided by Edward I. of Eng- land in favour of John Baliol, 1 292 ; after an interregnum, Robert (Brace) I. mounted the throne, 1306 ; David (Bruce) II., son of Robert, with whom Edward Baliol disputed the crown ... 1329 Edward Baliol: resigned ... 1332 David II. again: a prisoner in England eleven years ; suc- ceeded by his nephew ... 1342 Robert II. (Stuart): succeeded byhisson ... ... ... 1370 Robert III. ... 1390 James I. ... ... ... 1424 James II. ... 1437 James III. ... ... ... 1460 James IV 1488 James V. 1513 Mary, beheaded at Fotheringay Castle, Feb. 1 8, 1587 ... 1542 James VI., son of Mary : 1603, on the death of Queen Eliza- beth, he succeeded to the throne of England as James I. and the kingdoms became united. Lavoisne's Atlas. 1567 Fife, and the rightful heir suc- SCOTT, the American diver, accidentally hung himself whilst performing a trick to imitate hanging at Waterloo bridge, Jan. II, 1841. SCREW PROPELLER for steam-vessels. Shown by Robert Hooke, 1680, and by Du Quet, 1731 ; Paucton, 1768; James Watts suggested the trial of one, Sept. 30, 1770. Bramah first patented a rotary engine for this purpose in 1785. Ramsey put the screw between two hulls in 1 792 ; many alterations and improve- ments have since been made. First used for steering vessels, 1800 1816. Mr Francis Pettitt Smith invented a screw for propulsion of steam-boats in 1835, he SCRIVENERS' COMPANY SEAMEN 763 obtained a patent, May 31, 1836, and in this year several experiments were tried with it on the Paddington canal ; he visited Dover in this vessel in 1837. The Archimedes, a vessel of 237 tons burden, and 90 horse power, fitted with a screw, was launched at Mill wall by the Admiralty, Oct. 18, 1838; this vessel subsequent- ly crossed the Bay of Biscay to Oporto in 1840 ; and in 1850 upwards of a hundred vessels were fitted with this screw. Woodcroft improved the method in 1851. Mr R. Roberts exhibited his spiral vane propeller in 1853. Mr Robert Grif- fiths patented his improvements in the screw propeller in 1849. SCRIVENERS' COMPANY incorporated, 14 Jac. L, Jan. 28, 1616 ; grant of arms, Nov. n, 1634. SCULLABOGUE, Ireland. Massacre of Protestants, in Ireland, during the rebellion : 230 men, women, and children having sought refuge in a barn, it was set on fire, and attempting to escape, they were shot, or killed with pikes, June 4, 1798. SCULPTURE. This art is first mentioned in the Bible, Gen. xxxi. v. 19 and 34, where Rachel stole her father's gods, which are called Teraphim or Images. It has since been cultivated in every nation ; and even among savage nations the art is found, although in a rude form. The Greek nation was famed for the per- fection attained in this art. Copyright act for protecting works of this kind from piracy, 13 & 14 Viet. c. 104, Aug. 14, 1850. SCUT AGE, a tax or contribution, raised by those who held lands by Knight's service, in England, to pay the first army, by Henry II., 1159 ; subsequently by Hen. II., Richard I., John, and by Henry III., for raising a fund for carrying on the crusades ; not to be taken without the consent of Parliament, 25 Edw. I. c. 6, 1297. SCUTARI, near Constantinople, 3000 houses at, wholly destroyed by fire, Aug. 12, 1797 ; made a sanatorium by the English, Miss Nightingale and 38 nurses arrived, Nov. 6, 1854 ; a monument erected to the memory of the soldiers who fell in the Crimean war, 1865. SEA, the Sovereignty of England over the, supported by Selden, and measures taken in consequence, 8 Charles I., 1633 ; Russia and the Northern powers armed to avoid search, 1780 ; again, 1 800. SEALS to official documents, of ancient date. The King Ahab's seal affixed to the orders for Naboth's execution, by Jezebel, I Kings xxi. 8, B.C. 899 ; not greatly in use in Saxon times, they signing parchment documents with a cross, and im- pressions upon lead being affixed ; sealing deeds and writs practised in England, 1048 ; arms introduced upon private seals, circa noo ; the great seals of England exist from the time of Edward the Confessor ; the most ancient seal with arms on it is that of Richard I. Wax was first used, suspended at the bottom of the deed, about 1213 ; sealing-wax for letters came into use about 1563 ; an act for mak- ing a new seal for the Commonwealth, passed, Jan. 22, 1651 ; great seal of Eng- land stolen, 1 784. The office of Controller of the Seal of the Court of King^s Bench and Common Pleas granted by Charles II. to the Earl of Euston, after- wards the Duke of Grafton, and his heirs; the right purchased by the crown by 8 & 9 Viet c. 34, July 21, 1845. SEAMEN. The number of, in England, was 14,295, in 1582. An act passed for the encouragement and increase of, 7& 8 Will. III. c. 21, 1695-6 ; wages advanced by Parliament, May 9, 1797, in consequence of the mutiny at Spithead ; the Mercan- tile Marine Act passed, Aug. 14, 1850, 13 & 14 Viet. c. 93 ; amended, 14 & 15 Viet. c. 96, Aug. 7, 1851 ; the Foreign Seamen Deserters' act, 15 & 16 Viet. c. 26, June 17, 1852 ; savings' bank for, established, pursuant to the 19 & 20 Viet c. 41, July 7, 1856. 764 SEBASTOPOL SEMPER EADEM SEAMEN'S WIDOWS' CORPORATION, founded, Oct. 13, 1732. SEBASTOPOL, Russia, made a naval station, by Catherine II., 1780 ; the town visited by that Queen, 1787 ; a series of docks upon an extensive scale, built by Nicholas I. The first bombardment by the English fleet, under Adm. Dundas, and the French fleet, under Adm. Hamelin, and the allied armies, commenced, Oct. 17, 1854 ; the second bombardment by the land forces, April 9, 1855 ; sus- pended on the 28th ; the third bombardment, the Memalon taken by the French, and the quarries by the English, June 7, 8 ; the English repulsed at the Redan, and the French at the Malakoff tower, June 18 ; the final bombardment opened bythe French, Sept. 5, by the English on the 6th, and continued until the 8th, when the final assault was made ; the French carried the Malakoff tower, the English failed to carry the Redan, but the town was found evacuated the next morning ; the docks blown up by the English, Jan. 2, 1856 ; the city rebuilt, 1856-7 ; the Cathedral restored, and consecrated by the Archbishop of Cherson and Taurida, July, 1856. SECESSIONVILLE, battle, the Federals defeated with great loss, b/ th: Con- federates, June 16, 1862. SEBASTIAN, ST, Spain, capitulated to the French without firing a shot, Aug. 4, 1794 ; besieged by the English, under Gen. Graham, June 29, 1813 ; St Bartholomew stormed and taken, July 13 ; the town assaulted unsuccessfully, July 24, siege raised, July 27 : taken by storm by the British, under Wellington, Aug. 31, 1813 ; the fortress capitulated, Sept. 9. SECRETARIES OF STATE first appointed in England in the reign of Henry III. ; two appointed in the reign of Henry VIII., Lord Cromwell and Cardinal Wolsey, 1529-30. SECURITY of the King's Person, act passed for, 1703 ; amended, 1785. SEDAN CHAIRS, so named from Sedan in France, where they were first made ; seen first in England 1581 ; one used in the reign of James I. by his profligate favourite, Buckingham ; first in fashion in London, 1634 ; in general use, 1649 ; Sir Francis Duncomb had a patent to let out, sell, or hire any number for his sole profit, for 14 years. SEDGMOOR, battle, between the Royal army and the Insurgents under the Duke of Monmouth, when the latter were totally defeated, with a loss of $00 men, July 6, 1685 ; the Duke was captured, July 8, and executed, July 15 ; this was the last battle fought in England. SEDITION, some kinds of, come within the statute, 25 Edward III., c. 2, 1352 ; the law against, regulated by the Riot Act, I Geo. I. c. 5, 1714 ; seditious meet- ings and societies suppressed, 36 Geo. III. c. 8, Dec. 18, 1795 ; again, 57 Geo. III. c. 19, March 31, 1817; in Ireland, proclamations against seditious meetings published at different times down to 1848. SELBY, battle, the Royalists, commanded by the governor of York, John Bellasis, defeated by the Parliamentarians, April II, 1644. SELBY ABBEY, Yorkshire, built, founded by William I., 1069. SELBY AND LEEDS RAILWAY, opened, Sept. 22, 1834. SEMINCAS, battle of, between the Moors and Romirez, King of Leon and the Asturias : it is said by Spanish historians that 80,000 of the infidels were slain, 938. SEMPACH, battle, between the Swiss and Leopold, Duke of Austria, in which the Swiss obtained a great and glorious victory over the Duke, who fell in the battle, July 9, 1386. SEMPER EADEM, used as the motto for the arms of England, Dec. 13, 1720. SENATE SERGEANTS AT LAW 765 SENATE. In all ancient republics the government was divided between the King and the Senate ; the Roman Senate was the most celebrated of all, during the splendour of the Republic ; the number of Senators was according to the number of tribes. In the earliest times the number was 100, taken from the Patricians ; the number subsequently increased. The first Plebeian Senator (Spurius Maelius) admitted B.C. 439 ; one of the qualifications necessary was an income of 80,000 sesterces, or about ^ooo English money, and they were entitled to wear a par- ticular robe, but they were prohibited from carrying on any commercial pursuit The election of magistrates transferred to, by Tiberius. SEXEFFE, battle, the French, under Conde, defeated the Dutch troops, under William of Orange ; the loss on both sides amounted to 20,000 men, Aug. II, 1674. SENESCHAL, an officer of the royal household in France, esteemed a place of high honour and trust, 1059. SENGENNETH CASTLE, Glamorganshire, built by Edward I., 1296. SEPOYS, the native soldiers of India, first raised by the French, at Madras, 1746; by the English, 1 748 ; formed into regiments, commanded by European officers, 1766 ; before the mutiny, the force consisted of 240,000 men. The whole force transferred to the Crown, 1858. SEPTEMBER. This was formerly the seventh month. Julius Caesar increased the number of days to 31, B.C. 46. The Grecian year of the world commenced on the 1st of this month, B.C. 5598. SEPTEMBRIENS, the name given to the assassins among the Parisian mob on Sept. 2, 1 792, who broke open the prisons, and slaughtered their inmates indis- criminately. SEPTENNIAL PARLIAMENTS. The sitting of parliaments was once in two years, in the reign of Edward I.; the sitting was annual, 4 Edward III. to 16 Chas. I., c. I, Feb. 16, 1640, when three years was to be the duration; the triennial act was confirmed by 6 & 7 William & Mary, c. 2, Dec. 22, 1694 > a nd continued, the invasion of the Pretender being made an excuse for extending them to seven years, which rendered the management of them more easy, I Geo. I. s. 2, c. 38, May 7, 1716. SEPTUAGESIMA SUNDAY, the day appointed by the Council of Toledo, 643. SEPTUAGINT VERSION OF THE BIBLE, reported by Justin Martyr to have been executed by 72 translators, shut up in 36 cells, and that, on comparison, none of the 36 copies varied a word or letter. St Jerome states that those trans- lators translated the Pentateuch, or Law of Moses, only. The translation is said to have been finished in 72 days ; Archbishop Ussher places the date of this version B.C. 277. SEPULCHRE, Knights of the Holy Order of, instituted in Palestine, circa 1114 ; Philip II., King of Spain, elected master, 1558 ; Louis XVIII., of France, promised his protection to this order, Aug. 19, 1814. SEQUANI, a Celtic nation inhabiting Gaul ; in the time of the Roman invasion they sent a contingent to attack Caesar before Alesia, B.C. 52. SERAMPORE, Hindustan, purchased by England, from Denmark, 1845. SERAPHIM, order of knighthood, instituted in Sweden, by Magnus II., 1334. SKRAPIS and ISIS, Temple of, restored after the death of Caesar; demolished by the Goths, A.D. 455. SERGEANTS AT LAW, Sergeant's Countour, appointed in the reign of Henry I. Their coif introduced, it is said, to conceal the tonsure of such among them 766 SERGEANTS' INN SETTLEMENT OF THE CROWN as were renegade clergymen, about 1259; the privilege of, extended to all Barristers practising in the Court of Common Pleas, 9 & 10 Viet. c. 54, Aug. 1 8, 1846. SERGEANTS' INN, Chancery-lane, first occupied by the Judges, 1415. The Sergeants united with the Judges in the occupancy of, 1440-1 ; sold by the Dean and Chapter of York, June 20, 1523. The Inn, in Fleet-street, leased to the Sergeants, burnt in the fire of 1666 ; rebuilt and opened, 1681 ; the chapel consecrated, 1676. SERINGAPATAM, battle, between the English andTippoo Sahib, May 15, 1791, the former being defeated. SERINGAPATAM, Hindustan, founded 1454; governed by Raj Wadegar, 1610; besieged unsuccessfully by the Mahrattas, 1697 ; and again, 1772, when the assailants were bought off for a sum of ,150,000 ; redoubts of the city stormed by Lord Cornwallis, Feb. 6, 1792 ; preliminaries of peace signed, Tippoo surrendering half Mysore, and paying .3,500,000, with his two sons as hostages. Besieged by the British, under Gen. Harris, April 5, 1 799 ; stormed by Gen. Baird, and taken, Tippoo being killed, May 4. SERPENTINE RIVER, Hyde Park, formerly Tyburn brook, made at a cost of ;6ooo, by command of Queen Caroline, 1 730. SERVANTS, MENIAL or DOMESTIC. A tax first laid upon male servants, 1777; subsequently increased ; Pitt imposed one upon female servants, 1785 ; this was repealed, 1792. Not to be put away or permitted to depart without a quarter's warning in the time of Elizabeth. Any one personating a master, and giving false characters to servants, or persons offering themselves to be hired making false representations, punished by 32 Geo. III. c. 56, 1792 ; an act passed for their better protection, 14 & 15 Viet. c. n, May 20, 1851; amended, 24 &25 Viet. c. 100, ss. 26 and 73, Aug. 6, 1861. SERVETUS, REVES MICHAEL, burned at Geneva, at the instigation of Calvin, for heresy, Oct. 27, 1553. SERVIA, Europe, made an independent kingdom by Pope Honorius, 1217 ; Ste- phan Duschan elected Emperor and crowned, 1333 ; La/arus, the last Emperor, defeated and killed by the Turks, 1389 ; subdued by the Turks, 1689 ; rebelled against that power, 1801 ; defeated the Turkish army, under Czerny, 1806 ; cap- tured Belgrade, 1807 ; Czerny elected King of, 1811 ; the Servians defeated by the Turks, 1812 ; a treaty concluded with that power, 1815 ; Alexander George- witch elected Prince of, 1842 ; made an independent state and placed under the protection of the great powers, by the treaty of Paris, March 30, 1856 ; Michael III. succeeded to power, Sept. 26, 1860 ; shot, June 10, 1868. SERVICE BOOK. The Act of Uniformity, 2 & 3 Edw. VI. c. I, 1549, ordained that the order of divine worship contained in the book drawn up by the Com- missioners with the aid of the Holy Ghost should be the only one used after Whitsuntide, May 20; revised, 1551; suppressed by Queen Mary, Dec. 20, 1553; re-established, I Eliz. c. 2, 1559. SESSION, LORDS OF, in Scotland, appointed by James I., 1425; abolished, 1469; re-constituted, 1532-37 ; Court of Session reinstated in Edinburgh, 1746 ; the sittings regulated by 48 Geo. III. c. 151. SESSION COURTS, appointed to be held quarterly in England, 2 Henry V., 1413 ; times for, regulated by I Will. IV. c. 70, s. 35, 1831, and the 4 & 5 Will. IV. c. 47, Aug. 13, 1834. SETHI ANS, a sect which contended that Seth was the true Christ, 190. SETTLEMENT OF THE CROWN, excluding Roman Catholics, passed, I Wil- SEVENTH-DAY BAPTISTS SEWING MACHINES 767 liam & Mary, 1689 ; also the act so called, by which the crown was confirmed to the existing family, June 12, 1701 ; Irish act of settlement passed, 1662; re- pealed, 1689. SEVENTH-DAY BAPTISTS. See Sabbatarians. SEVEN PINES, battle. The Federal army commanded by Gen. Me Clellan, defeated by the Confederates under Generals Stuart and Longstreet, with severe loss, May 31, 1862. SEVEN YEARS' WAR, began after the treaty of Versailles, May i, 1756, and ended with the peace of Paris, Feb. 10, 1763. SEVERN, the river, turned from its old channel by a landslip, crossing the current near Buildwas, Shropshire, 1681. SEVERUS, WALL of, built across the island, from the river Tyne to Bowness, on the Solway Frith, 74 miles, to exclude the northern barbarians ; completed, 209. SEVILLE, Spain, the capital of Andalusia, captured by the Romans under Pom- pey, Aug. 9, B.C. 45 ; became a Moorish city; besieged by St Ferdinand, Aug. 20, 1247; surrendered, Nov. 23, 1248; this king died here, May 31, 1252, and was canonized by Clement IX., 1668 ; seriously damaged by an earthquake, 1395 ; the Cathedral built and opened for service, 1519 ; the capital of Spain until Charles V. removed the court to Valladolid ; peace concluded at, between France and Spain, Nov. 9, 1729 ; custom-house destroyed by fire, May 7, 1792; taken by the French army under Soult, Feb. 2, 1810; he ordered all Spaniards taken with arms in their hands to be shot, May 9, 1810; the town plundered; abandoned, Aug. 27, 1813 ; besieged by Espartero, July 21, 1843; raised, July 25, upon the termination of the Regency. SEVRES WARE. The oldest of porcelain manufactories in France was founded, 1695 ; Louis XIV. patronized and granted exclusive privileges to, 1702 ; first established at Vincennes, 1 740 ; a company formed under the direction of Charles Adam, a sculptor, 1745 ; it became a royal establishment, 1753 ; removed _from Vincennes to Sevres, 1756; Louis XV. became sole proprietor, Oct. I, 1760; the secret of making hard porcelain purchased of Peter Anthony Haniing, for 3000 livres, 1761 ; M. Brougniart appointed sole director, 1800, and was suc- ceeded by M. Regnault, 1847. SEWDLEY CASTLE, Gloucestershire, built, 1442. SEWERS, commission of, first granted by 6 Hen. VI. c. 5, 1427 ; a law passed in England for the government and making of, 23 Hen. VIII. c. 5, 1531-2 ; made perpetual by 4 Edw. VI. c. 8, 1 549 ; confirmed and commission appointed for 10 years, 13 Eliz, c. 9, 1570, and commissions appointed from time to time; the Metropolitan commissioners appointed, 12 & 13 Viet. c. 50, July 28, 1849 ; superseded by the Metropolitan Board of Works, 18 & 19 Viet. c. 120, Aug. 14, 1855 ; the main drainage intrusted to them, by 21 & 22 Viet. c. 104, Aug. 2, 1858 ; the City of London commissioners regulated by II & 12 Viet. c. 163, Sept. 5, 1848 ; amended by 14 & 15 Viet. c. 91, July 24, 1851. SEWING MACHINES. M. Thimonnier patented a machine in Paris in 1831 ; one for embroidering patented by Heilman, 1834 ; Walter Hind of New York, invented the mail-bag stitch, circa 1840 ; and Mr Gibbons of Nottingham improved one for embroidering, Dec., 1844. A patent granted to M. J. Sone, for making cloths by machinery in Paris, Feb., 1805 ; the first attempt at stitching by machinery was patented by Mr Ellis Howe, of Boston, United States, Sept. 10, 1846; he granted his first licence, 1853 ; C. T. Judkins patented a stitching machine, 1853; in the year 1866 more than 170,000 machines were made in the United States. 768 SEWIN'S LAND SHAVING OF PRIESTS SEWIN'S LAND, New Holland, discovered by the Dutch, 1622. SEXTANT, revived by Tycho Brahe, at Uraniberg, Isle of Huen, where he had his observatory, 1550 ; one belonging to the Arab astronomers in 995, who are said to have had another of more than 50 feet radius ; improved by Newton, 1699. SEYCHELLES ISLANDS, Indian Ocean, discovered by Vasco di Gama, 1502; explored by Capt. Picault, and made a French colony, 1742 ; captured by the British, 1794 ; ceded to that power by the treaty of 1815. SHADWELL WATER-WORKS, destroyed by fire in i# hour, Dec., 1797; they raised 907 gallons per minute. SHAFTESBURY ABBEY, Dorsetshire, founded by Alfred the Great, 888; incor- porated by Elizabeth. SHAKERS, or SHAKING QUAKERS, a religious sect, which was first formed in Lancashire, 1747 ; formed by Ann Lee, a noted Quaker, 1758 ; the property of each family was held in common, and celibacy was enjoined. SHAKESPEARE, WILLIAM, born at Stratford-on-Avon, April 23, 1564; died on the anniversary of his birth, 1616 ; monument to, erected in Westminster Abbey, 1741 ', jubilee in honour of, Sept. 6, 1769 ; his theatre in London, the Globe, consumed, 1663 ; a festival in honour of the poet held at Stratford, April 23, 1836. The House of, at Stratford-upon-Avon, sold at the Auction Mart for ^"3000, to the Stratford committee, Sept. 16, 1847. The Tercentenary held at Stratford and London, April 23, 1864 ; and in London an oak tree was planted by Mr Phelps at the foot of Primrose Hill, and in the evening a fete was given at the Agricultural Hall ; at Liverpool a fancy dress-ball in the costumes of the Elizabethan period. The French Government forbad the celebration in Paris. Autographs of: The deeds of purchase of a house in Blackfriars from Henry Walker, March 10, 1612-13, for a sum of ^140, was purchased by the Corpor- ation of London, June, 1843 ; a mortgage of the same, March II, sold to the British Museum for ^"315. Works of: The first edition of his Sonnets pub- lished in 1609 ; the first edition of his Dramatic Works published by Heminge and Condell, in 1623 ; a second edition, in 1632 ; a third, in 1664 ; and a fourth, in 1685. Rowe's annotated edition published, 1709 ; Johnson and Steevens' edition, 1778 ; Malone's supplement to, 1780; S. Johnson, Steevens, and Reed's edition in 21 volumes, 1813; Knight's Pictorial edition, 1838-43; J. O. Halliwell's edition, 1853-65 ; Cambridge edition, 1866. The earliest edition known of his Venus and Adonis found in the library of Sir Charles Isham, at Lamport, Northamptonshire, by Mr C. Edmonds, Oct. 3, 1867. Shakespeare Society, for the publication of Plays of Shakespeare and his contemporaries, established, 1841. SHAMROCK, the Irish name for three-leaved clover or trefoil, said to have been adopted by St Patrick as an emblem of the Trinity, 432, whose festival is kept on March 17. SHANGHAI, China, taken by the British fleet under Admiral Parker, Oct. 10, 1842 ; restored, 1843 I captured by the rebels, Sept. 7, 1853 ; retaken by the Imperialists. SHANNON, an English frigate of 38 guns, commanded by Capt. Broke, defeated the American frigate Chesapeake, commanded by Capt. Lawrence, off Boston, in 15 minutes, 1813. SHANNON, river, Ireland. Act to improve its navigation passed, Sept. 9, 1835; made navigable from Limerick to Lough Allen, 143 miles, so that steam-boats may navigate 190 miles upon its waters, 1849 ; cost ^500, ooo. SHAVING OF PRIESTS first introduced, 169. At a parliament held at Trim SHEEP SHERBORNE CASTLE 769 by John Talbot, Earl of Shrewsbury, then Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland, it was enacted "That every Irishman must keep his upper lip shaved, or else be used as an Irish enemy," 1447 ; repealed by II Charles I., 1613. SHEEP were an important part of the possessions of the ancient Hebrews and of Eastern nations generally. They are first mentioned in Gen. iv. 2. Said to have been first imported into Spain from England, improving the southern breed, 1467 ; forbidden to be exported from England, 1424, previously. An act passed prohibiting any one from keeping a larger number than 2000, under penalty of 3^. 4*/. for every one kept above that number, 25 Hen. VIII. c. 13, 1533-4. Not to be imported into Scotland or elsewhere, 1662. Sheep-stealing punishable by death, without benefit of clergy, 14 Geo. II. c. 6, 1741. The importation of, pro- hibited on account of the infection, Sept. 4, 1848. SHEEPSHANKS, JOHN, presented his valuable collection of pictures and drawings to the nation, valued at .60,000, Feb. 6, 1857 ; since deposited in the South Kensington Museum. SHEERNESS, Kent, fortifications began by Charles II., in the early part of 1667; these were destroyed by the Dutch fleet before they were finished, July IO, 1667 ; ordered to be fortified by government, 1782, and the dockyard began ; enlarged, 1809 and 1822, could hold 12 ships-of-war. Fifty houses destroyed by fire in Blue Town, Jan. 8, 1830. SHEFFIELD, Yorkshire, a charter granted by Edw. I. to, for holding a weekly market, 1296 ; Mary Queen of Scots confined in the castle, 1570 1584 ; the Royalists defeated by the Parliamentary forces, Aug. 10, 1644, and the castle ordered to be demolished ; Shrewsbury hospital built, 1673 ; library established, 1771; a cotton manufactory destroyed by fire, Feb. 16, 1792 ; the Cutlers' Com- pany incorporated by 21 James I., 1624; its restrictive powers repealed, 1814; Hall built, 1726; Collegiate Proprietary School founded, 1835 ; the town in- corporated, Aug. 24, 1843. The Sheffield and Rotherham Railway opened, 1838; to Manchester, 1845 ; the Grimsby line opened, 1849. A free library established, 1856 ; a serious catastrophe at the Surrey music-hall through a cry of fire, several persons trampled to death, Sept. 19, 1858; the Bradfield reservoirs burst, caus- ing immense destruction of property and 270 persons killed, March u, 1864; a fund raised for their relief. The Surrey Theatre burnt, March 25, 1865. A com- mission appointed, May 23, 1867, to inquire into the acts of intimidation, outrage, or wrongs, promoted or connived at, by the Trades Unions, held their first meeting at the Council-hall, June 3, closed July 7; report presented, Aug. 2 ; rattening renewed at, Oct. 23. SHEXAXDOAH, vessel of war belonging to the Confederate States of America,sur- rendered to the British government, Nov. 9, 1865, and handed over to the United States. SHENANDOAH VALLEY, the Federal army defeated with great loss by the Confederates, under Gen. Ewell and Jackson, June, 1862 ; the Federals, under Gen. Sheridan, defeated the Confederates, under Gen. Early, with a loss of 5000 men, Sept. 18, 1864 ; and again at Fisher's Hill, Sept. 21. SHEPHERD, the notorious John, executed, Nov. 16, 1724. SHERBORNE, town of, made a bishop's see from Winchester, Jan., 705 ; united to Wilton, 1071 ; both translated to Old Sarum, and then to Salisbury, 1218 ; church rebuilt between 1459 and 1504. SHERBORNE CASTLE, Dorsetshire, built by Roger, Bishop of Salisbury, 1135 ; tne present castle built by Sir Walter Raleigh. Taken by the Parlia- mentarians, under Fairfax, 1645 ; and pulled down by order of parliament. 49 770 SHERIFFMUIR SHIPBUILDING SHERIFFMUIR, battle between the Duke of Argyle and the Scotch rebels, in favour of the Pretender, under the Earl of Mar, Nov. 13, 1715, the latter were defeated. SHERIFFS' COURT, city of London, an act passed for the more easy recovery of small debts and demands within the city of London and the liberties thereof, 15 & 16 Viet. c. clxxvii. June 17, 1852 ; a limited power in equity, granted, July 5, 1865 ; to be called the City of London Court, and assimilated with other county courts, 30 &3i Viet. c. 142, s. 32, Aug. 20, 1867. SHERIFFS' HUTTON CASTLE, Yorkshire, built by Bertran de Bulmer, 1160- 4 ; repaired by Ralph Nevill, first Earl of Westmoreland, 1401 ; captured by Edward IV-, 1471, and given to Richard Duke of York, who kept the Princess Elizabeth, afterwards Queen of Henry VII. , prisoner in. SHERIFFS OF COUNTIES, first nominated by William the Conqueror, 1079 ; the mode of annual election by the shire folk confirmed by 28 Edw. I. c. 8, 1300; but this was found to lead to tumultuous elections -; it was put an end to by 9 Edw. II. st. 2, 131 1, and the election to be by the chancellor, treasurer, and judges. The custom now is to submit the names of 3 persons and the sovereign appoints one. First appointed in London, 1189; confirmed by King John, July 5, 1199; the present mode of election adopted, 1461 ; regulated by act of Common Council, 1748. The office was formerly hereditary in Scotland, but abolished by 20 Geo. II. c. 43, 1747 ; first styled Bailiffs in Dublin ; appointed, 1308 ; named Sheriffs by Edw. VI., 1548. SHETLAND ISLES, first inhabited by a Saxon tribe who were expelled by Theo- dosius, A.D. 368 ; subsequently inhabited by the Scandinavians ; subjugated by Harold Harfager, 875 ; James III. of Scotland purchased these islands and annex- ed them to the Crown, 1470 ; the ancient constitution abolished by Charles II. The wealth of the islands is in the fisheries, 4000 persons being employed in this trade ; 19 fishing-boats lost, with their crews, Oct. 13, 1832. SHIELDS, SOUTH, Durham, noted for its salt-works, established by Lionel Bell, 1489. Glass-works were erected by Sir R. Mansel, which were con- ducted by fugitives from Lorraine, 1619; the Town-hall erected, 1768; the Theatre, 1791; St Hilda colliery began to be worked, 1810 ; 59 persons killed by an explosion at, 1839 ; a lifeboat, invented by Mr Greathead, first used, Jan. 30, 1790. SHILLINGS, first coined in England, 1504, temp. Henry VII. ; the value of the ancient Saxon coin of that name was ^d. After the Conquest the French solidus, of 12 pence, from Normandy, got that name. The shilling, on account of the clipping process, reduced by proclamation to 6d., 1550. Shilling, the Irish, value ninepence, coined 1560, current at I2d. ; a base coinage in England for the serv- ice of Ireland. See Teston. SHIP, Order of Knighthood, established, 1252. SHIP AND DOUBLE CRESCENT, Order of Knighthood, began in France, 1269. SHIPBUILDING. The first vessel we have any description of is the ark, built by Noah ; it is supposed to have been 450 feet in length, 75 feet in breadth, depth 45 feet. The Egyptians were the first to whom shipbuilding can be traced. The Hebrews had stately ships with which they made voyages to bring materials for building Solomon's temple. The Phoenicians were also skilled in shipbuilding, and we are informed by Herodotus that they made voyages round the Cape of Good Hope. The Romans were noted for the size and strength of their galleys ; their ships were divided into three classes, the Naves lofigce, or war vessels, the Naves Oneraria, or merchant vessels, and the Naves liburna, or despatch vessels. SHIP-MONEY SHODDY 771 The Daneswere also skilled in this art. Alfred was the first English monarch who established a fleet of war vessels, to resist the invasions of the Danes. Hardi- canute raised a sum of 11,000 for the purposes of shipbuilding in the second year of his reign ; William the Conqueror had a fleet of 500 vessels, 1065 ; nine ships of extraordinary size were built by Richard I., for his expedition to the Holy Land. The dockyard at Portsmouth established by King John, 1212 ; the royal fleet, in the reign of Edward I., consisted of 710 vessels, carrying 14,151 mariners, 1344. The bowsprit added to vessels of war by Edward III. The first navigation act passed in the 4th year of the reign ol Richard II., 1381. Port-holes first intro- duced by French ship-builders, 1500. Henry VII. built the Great Harry, subse- quently called the Regent, which was destroyed in an engagement with the French, 1512. This art was greatly improved in the reign of Henry VIII.; the Great Harry, so named from the former, laid down, 1512, 1000 tons burden ; launched, 1514; burnt at Woolwich, 1553 ; this king also improved the dock- yards. Edward VI. had a fleet of 58 ships of various tonnage, The fleet which defended England against the Spanish Armada consisted of 197 vessels of various descriptions and sizes, 29, 744 tons, with 15,785 men; the Triumph was lioo tons burden ; the White-Bear looo tons ; the Spaniards first introduced three- deckers, 1591 ; merchant vessels were also increased in size in this reign. James I. built 10 new ships in the last 5 years of his reign, and expended .50,000 annu- ally, 1621 25. The Sovereign of the Seas, the first three-decker built in England, from the design of Peter Pett, length, 232 feet ; length of keel, 128 feet ; tonnage, 1640 tons, 1637. Anthony Deane greatly improved the build of ships, 1666 ; the French had a fleet of 151 line-of-battle ships, manned by 36,440 men, with 179 smaller vessels, 1681 ; improved by James II., 1685. An act passed to encourage the building of, and it enacts that any person who shall within the next 10 years after the I May, 1694, build any three-deck vessel, with not less than IO ports of a side, armed with 32 pieces of ordnance, shall receive for the first three voyages one-tenth of the custom duties, 5 & 6 Will, and Mary, c. 24, 1694. The Victory, of loo guns, built in 1735, lost in the Channel, 1744 ; her successor, afterwards Nelson's flag-ship, launched, 1 765. Ships of a larger class were laid down in our dockyards, 1 744 ; the Royal George was launched, 1 756 ; length, 1 70 feet, breadth, 5 1 feet, and 2047 tons burden. A society for improving the build of ships instituted by Colonel Beaufoy, 1791 ; a naval school for the study of naval architecture, established, 1811 ; the navy board abolished, and a surveyor of the navy appointed in 1833 ; Sir William Symonds was appointed to this office, and he greatly im- proved the build of vessels of war. Steam first introduced into the navy and the screw adopted, 1840; first applied to the Rattler, 1843. SHIP-MONEY, extorted by Charles I., 1626; Mr John Hampden refused pay- ment, 1636, cited in the Court of Exchequer, June 12, 1637 ; declared illegal, and the sentence against Hampden reversed, 16 Car. I. c. 14, 1641. Charles de- manded of London 7 ships and 4000 men ; of Yorkshire, 2 ships of 600 tons, or 12,000 men ; and a similar rate at other places. SHIPPING first registered in the Thames, 1788 ; a new act passed for the regis- tration of British vessels, 8 & 9 Viet. c. 89, Aug. 4, 1845 ; transfer and registra- tion of, 17 & 18 Viet. c. 104, Aug. 10, 1854, and 18 & 19 Viet. c. 91, Aug. 14, 1855; the local dues altered by 30 Viet. c. 15, April 12, 1867. Captain Manby's rockets tried, 1785 ; the establishment of life boats upon a safer principle subsequently. SHIPWRIGHTS' COMPANY, incorporated, 3 Jac. I., April 22, 1605. SHODDY, the produce of woollen rags, carpets, flannels, &c., worked up into felt, carpets, blankets, &c. ; first brought into use at Batley near Dewsbury, 1813 ; 7 or oo million pounds weight used yearly. 772 SHOEBLACKS SHREWSBURY SHOEBLACKS. Seventy or eighty years ago the old shoeblacks were at the corner of every street. The last of this race sat at the corner of Red Lion Court, Fleet- street, 1821. They have given place to various regular organized brigades, under the auspices of the Ragged-School Shoeblack Society, established 1851 (red uni- form) ; East London (blue), 1854; South London (yellow), 1854; North-west London (red and black), 1857 ; West London (purple) ; Islington (brown) ; Notting Hill (blue, red facings) ; Union Jack, Limehouse (red, blue facings), 1858. To be licensed by the Commissioners of Police in the city of London, 30 & 31 Viet. c. 134, s. 19, Aug. 20, 1867. SHOEING HORSES first introduced into England, 481. SHOES. The Romans were remarkable for their shoes. In the gth and roth centu- ries the greatest princes of Europe wore wooden shoes, or the upper part of leather and the sole of wood. Fancy shoes and scarlet and green stockings forbidden to be worn by clergymen by a council held in London, 1342 ; and the council held at Exeter commanded them to wear only black shoes, 1287. In the reign of William Rufus, a great beau, named Robert, surnamed the Horned, used shoes with long sharp points, stuffed with tow, and twisted like a ram's horn. The points continued to increase, till in the reign of Richard II. they were of so enor- mous a length that they were tied to the knees with chains, sometimes of gold, sometimes of silver. The upper parts of these shoes in Chaucer's time were cut in imitation of a church window. The high pointed shoes continued in fashion for three centuries, in spite of the bulls of the Popes, the decrees of councils, and the declamations of the clergy. At length the parliament of England interposed by an act, 3 Edw. IV. c. 5, 1463, prohibiting the use of shoes or boots with peaks exceeding two inches in length, and prohibiting all shoemakers from making them with longer peaks, under severe penalties. But even this was not sufficient ; it was necessary to pronounce the dreadful sentence of excommunication against all who wore shoes or boots with points longer than two inches : they were to be cursed by the clergy, 1467. The present fashion of shoes was introduced in 1620, but the buckle was not used till 1670. Machine for making shoes invented by Mr Brunei, 1810 ; patented, Feb., 1811 ; 400 shoes made per day for the troops by order of the Government, 1812. SHOP TAX. An act, promoted by Pitt, passed imposing a duty on all shops within Great Britain, 25 Geo. III. c. 30, June 13, 1785 ; amended, 26 Geo. III. c. 9, March 24, 1786 ; both acts repealed by 29 Geo. III. c. 9, May 19, 1789. .SHORE, JANE, mistress of Edward IV., persecuted by the clergy, and made to do penance, June, 1483 ; she was imprisoned, but restored to freedom by Richard III., 1484, when she married Thomas Highmore. SHOREDITCH, London. The Benedictine Priory of Holywell founded circa noo ; confirmed by charter of Richard I., 1189 ; suppressed, 1559. Sir John de Shordych was lord of the Manor in 1381. The ancient church of St Leon- ards, having 4 aisles, taken down, May 31, 1736. The first stone of the present building, designed by G. Dance, laid by Mr Denny, Nov. 15, 1736 ; finished and opened, Aug. 24, 1740. Holywell Mount or fortification thrown up, 1642; levelled, 1787 ; the Curtain Theatre erected, 1566-7 ; the theatre built, 1575; Charity Schools established, Sept. 25, 1705; the Artillery Garden, leased to the Fraternity of Artillery (or gunners of the Tower), Jan. 3, 1530 ; an act passed for making a new street from, through Spitalfields, 9 & 10 Viet. c. 34, July 27, 1846 ; extended, 13 & 14 Viet. c. 109, Aug. 15, 1850. SHOT. The present method of making, invented by Mr Watts of Bristol, circa 1783. SHOULDER-KNOTS first worn in the reign of Charles II. SHREWSBURY, Salop. A Saxon town. In the reign of Alfred a Mint was established here, and it was one of the principal towns in Britain. Conferred by SHREWSBURY SICILIAN VESPERS 773 William I. upon Roger de Montgomery. The Castle besieged and taken by Stephen, 1138; the town taken by the Welsh, 1215 ; Edward I. resided here, 1277, and held a Parliament in 1283 ; Edward II. celebrated a tournament here in 1322 ; Richard II. held a Parliament in the city, 1397. A free Grammar School founded by Edward VI., Feb. IO, 1551. The Royalists defeated by the Parliamentarians, and the town taken, 1644. The church of St Chad destroyed by the tower falling, July II, 1788; 50 houses destroyed by fire, April I, 1774. SHREWSBURY, battle, between Hotspur and Henry IV. Hotspur was slain and Henry wounded, 2300 gentlemen and 6000 private men fell, July 23, 1403. SHREWSBURY SCHOOL. The corporation endeavoured to found a Free School in 1549, but were unsuccessful ; they renewed their benevolent exertions, and Edward VI. granted their request, 1551 ; it remained in abeyance during the reign of Queen Mary, but Queen Elizabeth revived it. The chapel was con- secrated, 1617 ; library erected, 1595 ; restored, 1815 ; its government vested in trustees, 1798 ; modified, 1853. SHROVE TUESDAY, the day before the Lenten fast, the shriven people not being permitted to eat meat (hence pancakes). This period became noted for cock- fighting and cock-throwing, and hence the carnival ; the festival is recognized as early as 1440. A reward of i appears in the privy purse expenses of Henry VIII. for this sport, 1493. This sport was not entirely suppressed till 1769. SIAM, Asia, visited by the Portuguese, 1511 ; ambassadors from, visited France and England, 1684; the country over-run by the Burmese, 1766-7; an English mission visited the country in 1822 ; treaty of commerce concluded with Great Britain, June 20, 1826, and with the United States, 1833. Sir John Bowring went on a mission to this kingdom in 1855, and concluded a commercial treaty with its kings, April 18, 1855 ; supplement to, signed, May 13, 1856. Ambas- sadors from, received by the Queen at Windsor, Nov. 18, 1857 ; Admiral King, C.B., received by the King, June 13, 1865; Bangkok, the eldest son of the king, died, July 25, 1867. SIAMESE TWINS. Chang and Eng, born in Siam, May, 1811 ; exhibited first in America, 1831 ; subsequently in England ; and again in England, 1 868. SIBERIA, Russia, first became known in Europe about 1582. The Russians built the town of Tomsk, 1604 ; destroyed by the natives, 1614. The town of Irkutsk built, circa 1660. The boundaries with China fixed, 1689 ; treaty made with the Emperor of China relating to, 1727. It has now become a powerful country from the numerous prisoners exiled to, for political offences. SIBYLS or SIBYLLA, women who delivered oracular prophetical speeches, and were frequently consulted by the ancients before the Christian era, 531 ; the Sibylline Books burnt in the temple of Jupiter, B.C. 83. Sibyls were consulted by the senate of Rome, A.D. 270 ; their books again burnt in 363, and again, by order of Honorius, 399. Subsequently some of the Christians committed forgeries in theii own favour, and attributed them to the Sibyls, in order to draw toward them the attention of the Pagan world. SICILIAN VESPERS, the term given to a massacre of the French, on March 30, 1282, which began at Palermo ; the inhabitants had conceived a bitter hatred against Charles of Anjou, and there was a conspiracy against him, which sudden- ly came to a head by the accident of a Frenchman insulting a young maiden named Drouet, and the insultor was at once stabbed ; the populace rose to arms, and 200 of the French were instantly assassinated ; the flame of vengeance was kindled, and 8000 were put to death before they could stand on their defence, the sanctuary of the altar affording them no security. From Palermo the massa- cre spread throughout the island, except Spcrlinga. 774 SICILY SICILY, the Island of, first peopled from Italy, 1292 years before the Christian era ; the Sicani and the Etruscans were supposed to be its first inhabitants ; the Carthaginians once possessed it, and the Gauls had colonies there ; it was held by a prince of Arragon, who formed a kingdom of it. Separated from Italy about 1286; Syracuse founded, 732-3; Gela founded by the Rhodians, 694 ; the Messenians occupied this place, 668 ; Phalaris, tyrant of Agrigentum, punished by death, 552 ; Hippocrates made himself tyrant of Gela, 496 ; Petal- ism, the law of, instituted, 466 ; Dionysius began to reign, 405 ; offended with the freedom of the philosopher Plato, the tyrant sold him for a slave, 386 ; Plato ransomed by his friends, 386 ; Damon and Pythias flourished, 386 ; the sway of Timoleon began, 346; Agathocles usurped the throne, 317 ; Hamilcar defeated, 309 ; temples of Lipari taken and destroyed, 304 ; arrival of the Romans in Sicily, 264 ; Agrigentum taken by them, 262 ; they subsequently besieged Palermo, 254 ; Archimedes flourished, 236 ; the Romans took Syracuse, and reduced Sicily to a province, 212 ; the beginning of the Servile war, 135. Taken by the Saracens, A.D. 821, who made Palermo their capital. Conquered by the Normans, under Rainulf, 1030 ; the army of Leo IX. defeated by them at Civitate, June 18, 1053 ; Roger, a younger son of Tancred, made the first Count of, 1127; Roger II. united Sicily with Naples, and was crowned King of the Two Sicilies, in Sept., 1130; Charles of Anjou, brother to St Louis, King of France, made himself King, Jan. I, 1266 ; defeated the followers of Manfred, Feb. 26, and took the kingdom ; defeated Conrad at the battle of Tagliacozzo, Aug. 22, 1268 ; Conrad executed, Oct. 29. The Sicilians massacred the invaders, one Frenchman only escaping, March 30, 1282 ; a republic proclaimed, and the King's party defeated at Messina. The crown offered to Peter of Arragon, who landed at Trapani, Aug. 30, 1382. The fleet of Charles almost destroyed by the Spaniards, 1382. Jane, the sovereign, left her crown to Louis, Duke of Anjou, but his pretensions were resisted by Charles Durazzo, cousin of Jane, who ascended the throne, 1386. Alphonsus, King of Arragon, captured Naples, 1458 ; the kingdom divid- ed between France and Spain by the treaty of Granada, Nov. 1 1, 1500 ; kingdom of Naples and Sicily united to the Spanish throne, 1504; hostilities broke out between the two countries, and an insurrection broke out in Naples, excited by a fisherman (Masaniello) ; in fifteen days, were raised two hundred thousand men, July 7, 8, 1647 ; Henry, Duke of Guise, proclaimed king, but was, in a few days, delivered up to the Spaniards by his adherents, 1647 ; ceded to Victor Amadeus, Duke of Savoy, by the treaty of Utrecht, April, 1713; ceded by him to the Emperor Charles VI., Sardinia being given to him in return, with the title of King of Sardinia, 1720 ; the Spaniards made themselves masters of both kingdoms, and Don Carlos, son of Philip V. of Spain, ascended the throne, with the ancient title of King of the Two Sicilies, June 3, 1735 > King Charles insti- tuted the order of St Januarius, 1738; concordat for the better government of the ecclesiastical hierarchy agreed to, 1741 ; the throne of Spain becoming vacant, Charles, the heir, vacated the throne of the Two Sicilies in favour of his brother Ferdinand, 1759 ; the Jesuits expelled the kingdom, 1767 ; an earthquake at Messina, 40,00x3 persons destroyed, 1783 ; the Papal States invaded and Rome cap- tured, Nov. 29,1798; the French retook the Holy City, and invaded Naples, and captured that city, Jan. 23, 1 799 ; Naples preserved Sicily from the power of the French, through the British forces commanded by Admiral Nelson, 1 799 ; Sicily occupied by a British force under Lord William Bentinck, 1803-4 ; the French invaded Naples, deposed King Ferdinand IV., and made Joseph Bona- parte, brother to the Emperor of the French, king of the Two Sicilies, 1806 ; the monastic orders suppressed in 1 807 ; commercial treaty with England signed, Sept. 26, 1816 ; Joachim Murat proclaimed King of Naples, July 15, 1808 ; Ferdinand restored, Sept. 7, 1814 ; concordat agreed to between Ferdi- nand and Pius VII., 1818 ; ineffectual attempt of the Sicilians to limit the royal SIDNEY SIEGES, MEMORABLE 775 prerogative, caused much bloodshed at Palermo and other towns, July 15, 1820 ; suppressed, Oct. 15 ; revolution in, Jan. 12, 1848; constitution granted, Jan. 28 ; the parliament met, June, 1848 ; prorogued in Sept.; met again Feb., 1849 ; the King of Naples dethroned, and the Duke of Genoa elected king, April 13. Catania taken, April 2, 1849 ; peace restored, May 15 ; treaty of commerce with Gt Britain signed, April 29, 1845 ; the town of Castellamare partially destroyed by a water-spout with 500 of its inhabitants, Dec. 8, 1851 ; an insurrection sup- pressed, Nov. 22, 1856 ; a revolution broke out at Messina and Palermo, April 4, 1860 ; Gen. Garibaldi landed at Marsala, May 10, and took command of the forces in the name of the King of Italy, May 14 ; the Royalists defeated at Cala- tafami the next, day ; Palermo taken, May 27 ; Gen. Cialdini captured Messina, March 13, 1861. SOVEREIGNS OF THIS ISLAND. Victor Amadeus, Duke of Savoy, shot, Oct. 13, 1815 1713; resigned in favour of Ferdinand I.; formerly Ferdi- Charles VI. Emperor 1718 nand IV. of Naples, united the Charles, second son to the King kingdom of the Two Sicilies... 1816 of Spain, resigned in 1759 ... 1734 Francis I. 1825 Ferdinand III., third son of the Ferdinand II., Nov. 8, ... 1830 former king 1759 Francis II., May 22, 1852 Joseph Napoleon Bonaparte, Victor Emmanuel, as King of Jan. 14, 1806 Italy, succeeded, March, ... . 1861 Joachim Murat, July 15, ... 1808 SIDNEY, ALGERNON, the celebrated patriot, was beheaded by Charles II., on Tower-hill, Dec. 7, 1683, under pretence of being concerned in the plot for which Lord William Russell also suffered. SIDNEY, SIR PHILIP, wounded at Zutphen, Sept. 22, 1586; died, Oct. 7. SIDNEY, Maroon Negroes conveyed there from Jamaica, 1792; the governor, Sir Charles M'Carthy, embarked for Cape Coast Castle, owing to a war with the Ashantees, and was killed in battle with them, Jan. 21, 1824 ; revenue of the colony, 1832, ^9697 from colonial duties ; ^7050 granted from England; popu- lation, 1833, 29,764 ; between 1819 and 1833, the number of emancipated slaves was 27,697 ; the captured slaves in 8 years, between 1819 and 1826, were 9502 in number. SIDNEY SUSSEX COLLEGE, Cambridge, founded by Frances Sidney, widow of the Earl of Sussex, by will, Dec. 6, 1588; the first stone laid, May 20, 1596; Cromwell admitted, April 26, 1616. SIDON, Syria, founded by Canaan's son Joseph, Gen. x. 15 19 ; captured by the King of Ascalon, the twelfth century B.C. ; captured by Shalmanezer, B.C. 728 ; revolted against the Persian power, 352 B.C.; taken by the Romans, 323 B.C.; besieged by the Crusaders, A.D. 1108 ; captured by the army of Baldwin, 1 1 12 ; the Crusaders occupied the city, 1197 ; abandoned by them, 1291 ; taken by the Druze prince, Fakhr-ed-Din, circa 1650. The French carried on a success- ful trade with, until they were driven from the city by Jezzar Pasha in 1791 2. Taken from the Egyptians by the Turks, assisted by Admiral Stopford, Sept. 27, 1840. SIEGES, MEMORABLE: Acre, by the Crusaders under Richard I., 1799 ; by Ibrahim Pasha, July 2, after a siege of 2 years, taken, July 1832 ; by the British under Admiral 12,1191; by Bonaparte, who had no Stopford and Sir Charles Napier, artillery, it being taken at sea, was Nov. 3, 4, 1840 baffled by Sir Sidney Smith, May 20, Algiers reduced by Blake, April, 1654 ; 77 6 SIEGES, MEMORABLE bombarded by the French under Du Quesne, 1682-3; by tne British under Lord Exmouth, Aug. 26, 27, 1816 ; surrendered to the French, July 4, 1830 Almeida, Portugal, Aug. 27, 1810 Ancona taken by the Russians, Nov. 13, 1799 Antwerp, by the Spaniards, 1576; by the Prince of Parma, July, 1584; Aug., 1585; by the French, Nov., Dec. .23, 1832 Arras, by the Spaniards, Aug. 16 25, 1654 Avignon, Sept. 12, 1226 Badajoz, by the French, Jan. 15 March 10, 1811; by the British under Wellington, March 1 6 ; taken, April 6, 1812 Bagdad, Feb., 1258 Banbury, Oct. 27, 1642, and in 1646 Bangalore, March 6 and 21, 1791 Barcelona, 1471-72 ; by the English, Oct. 9, 1705 Sept. 13, 1706; by the French, Sept. 12, 1714 Bastia, May 22, 1794 Bayonne, 1451 Beauvais, 1472 Belgrade, Aug. 9, 1521 ; July, 1717 ; and Oct. 8, 1789 Bellegarde, 1456; 1793; 1794 Belle Isle, June 7, 1761 Bergen-op-zoom, 1588; 1622 ; Sept., 1747 ; March 8, 1814 Berwick, 1291; 1296 Besanjon, 1668; 1674 Bethune, 1710 Bois-le-Duc, Sept. 14, 1794 Bologna, June, 1796 Bonifacio, 1553 Bonn, Oct., 1673; Oct. 7, 1687; 1703 Bordeaux, 1451 Bouchain, 1676; Sept. 14, 1711 Boulogne, Sept. 13, 1544 Breda, March 3, 1590; Feb. 25, 1793 Brescia, 1509 ; March 30, 1849 Breslau, Jan. 5, 1807 Brisach, Dec. 19, 1638 Brussels, 1695 ; Feb. 16, 1746 Buda, 1526 ; July, 1541 ; 1686 Burgos, Nov. 10, 1808 ; Sept. 19 Oct. 22, 1812 ; the French blew up the fortifications, June 12, 1813 Cadiz, by the French, 1812 ; taken by them, Oct. 3, 1823 Caen, 1346 ; 1417 ; 1448 Calais, taken after a siege of n months, A "g- 4, 1347; Jan. 8io, 1558; 1596 Calvi, June 12, 1784 Campo Major, Mar. 23, 1811 Capua, July 24, 1501 ; July 23, 1799 Carthagena, March, 1741 Cawnpore, June 3 27, July 16, 1857 Charleroi, 1672 ; 1677 Charleston, 1693; 1736; 1 794; July 10, Sept. 6, 1863 Chaves, March 25, 1809 Cherbourg, 1418 ; 1450 Chichester, 1643 Ciudad Rodrigo, June 5> I76 > by the French, June I ; July II, 1810; by the English, Jan. 9, 1812 Colberg, 1630; 1758; 1760; Dec. 16, 1761; 1807 Colchester, June 13, Aug. 27, 1647 Compiegne (by Joan of Arc), May 23, H30 Comoru, Sept. 28, 1849 Conde, 1676; 1792; 1794 Constantinople, May 29, 1453 Copenhagen, 1700; April 2, 1801 ; Sept. 58, 1807 Corfu, July 16, Aug. 20, 1716 Coutray, July, 1302 ; 1744 Cracow, 1702; June 15, 1794 Cremona, 1499 Cyprus, Aug., 1571 Damascus, 634 ; 665 ; 1148 ; 1401 Dantzic, 1734; March 8, 1793; Feb. 22, March 26, 1807 ; Dec., 1813, to Jan. 12, 1814 Delhi, 1804 ; Jan. 9, Sept. 2O, 1857 Dole, 1636; 1668; 1674 Douai, April 23, June 26, 1710 Dover, Aug. I, 1642 Dresden, July 13, 1760 ; Nov. 6, 1813 Drogheda, Aug. 14, 1649 Dublin, 1649 Dunkirk, Oct., 1646 ; June 23, 1658 ; Sept. 9, 1793 Edinburgh, June, 1291 ; Aug. 3, 1573 Figueras, Nov. 24, 1794; Aug. 19,1811 Flushing, Aug. 16, 1809 Frederickshald, Charles XII. killed, Dec. n, 1718 Frederickstein, Aug. 13, 1814 Gaeta, 1433; Aug. 7, 1734; Oct. 31, 1799; July 18, 1806, for 3 months; taken, Feb. 14, 1 86 1 SIEGES, MEMORABLE 777 Genoa, Sept. 30, 1746; Aug. 17, 1747; taken after 60 days, June 4, 1800 Gerona, taken after 7mqnths, Dec. 12, 1809 Ghent, Nov. n, 1576; March 8, 1708 Gibraltar, July 24, Aug. 4, 1704; 1727; from July, 1779, to Feb. 2, 1783 Glatz, March, 1742 Gloucester, Aug. 5, raised Sept. II, 1643 Gottingen, Aug. 25, 1760 Gravelines, 1644 Grenada, besieged, 1491; captured, Jan. 2, 1492 Groningen, 1590 Guastella, 1734 Haarlem, Dec., 1572; capitulated, July, 1573 Harfleur, Sept. 22, 1415 ; 1431 ; 1450 Heidelberg, 1688 ; 1693 Herat, besieged, Nov. 22, 1837; raised, Sept 9, 1838 Ismael, Suwart of, butchered the garri- son of 30,000 men and 6000 women in cold blood, for which he got the appellation of the butcher of Ismael, Dec. 22, 1790 Jaffa, taken, March 13, 1797, and March 7, 1799 Jerusalem, besieged for four months by the Saracens, 637 ; besieged for 40 days, taken, July 15, 1099 Kars, 1735 ; by the Russians, July 7, Aug. 27, 1828 ; June 9 to Nov. 28, 1855 Kehl, June 23, 1 796 ; taken after a siege of 50 days, Jan. 9, 1797 Landau, 1702 ; 1713 j 1792 ; taken, Nov. 14, 1793 Languedoc, July 22, 1209 Laon, 1411 ; 1419 ; 1594 Leipsic, 1637; Nov. 18, 1745 ; Oct. 19. 1813 Lerida, May, 1647; Oct. 12, 1707; July 27, 1710; May 14, 1810 Leyden, 1573 1 5 74 Liege, Oct. 30, 1468 ; Oct. 14, 1702 ; June 15, 1705 Lille, 1297; 1667; 1708; Oct. 8, 1792 Limerick, 1651 ; 1691 Lincoln, June, 1692 Lisle, Aug. 12, Dec. 8, 1708 Londonderry, besieged for 4 months, 1649 ; for 105 days, raised, July 28, 1689 Louisburgh, besieged for 49 days, June 15, 1745 ; for two months, June 22 Lucknow, July 2, Nov. 17, 1857 ; March 9 12, 1858 Lyons, Oct. 7, 1793 Maestricht, 1579 ; 1673 ; 1679 ; (here Vauban first distinguished himself as an engineer), April, 1748 ; and from Feb., 1790, to March 3, 1793 Magdeburg, May 10 14, 1631 ; Oct. 19 to Nov. 8, 1806 Malaga, Feb. 5, 1810 Malta, May 24 to Aug., 1565 ; July 12, 1798; Sept. 5, 1800 Mantua, April 8 to July 18, 1630; 1734; June 14, 1796; Feb. 2, 1797; July 30, 1799 Marlborough, OcL 27, 1642 Marseilles, 1524 Mentz, 1552; 1689; 1792; 1798 Melun, 1420 ; 1559 Mequinenza, June 8, 1810 Messina, 1282; OcL 19, 1719; Jan. 12, 1848 Metz, 1414; Oct., 1552 ; Jan. n, 1553 Milan, besieged by Frederick I. for 7 months, 1161 ; June 9, 1796 Missolonghi, April 25, 1825, to April 22, 1826 Mqns, 1691; 1790; 1792; 1794 Montauban, 1621 Montevideo, Feb. 13, 1807 Mooltan, Dec. 21, 1848; Jan. 2, 1849 Mothe (the French first practised the art of throwing shells), 1634 Murviedeo, Oct. 25, 1811 Namur, May 25 June 5, 1691 ; besieg- ed for 10 months, taken Sept. 5, 1695 Naples, Feb. 22, 1495; Dec. 23, 1798; Feb. 15, 1806 ; March 7 to May 2, 1848 Nice, May n, 1800 Olivenza, Jan. 22, 1811 Olmutz, 1758 Orleans, 1422 ; May, 1429 ; 1563 Ost end, from July, 1601, to Sept., 1604; 1701 ; 1706 ; 1745 Oudenarde, 1708; 1745 Pampeluna, Oct 31, 1813 Paris, 885,886 ; 1429 ; 1485 ; May 7, Aug. 30, 1590 ; 1594 Pa via, 1525 ; 1655 ; 1796 Perpignan, 1542 ; 1642 Petersburgh, America, 1864 Philipville, 1578 778 SIENNA Philipsburgh, 1644 ; 1675 ; 1688 ; first experiment made of artillery a rico- chet, 1734; 1795 Plattsburg, Sept. II, 1814 Pondicherry, Jan. 15, 1761 ; besieged for two months, taken, Oct. 1 1, 1778; 1793. Prague, 1741 ; 1743 ; 1 744 Quebec, Sept. 13, 1759 Quesnoy, Aug., 1794 Rheims, 1359 Rhodes, Dec. 22, 1522 Riga, 1700; 1710 Rochelle, 1573; Oct. 28, 1628 Rome, May 6, 1527 ; Jan. 23 July 3, 1849 Rosas, 1645 ; 1795 ; 1808 Rouen, Oct. 26, 1562 ; 1591 Roxburgh, 1460 St Sebastian, Aug. 31, 1813 Salamanca, June 16, 28, 1812 Salisbury, 1349 Saragossa, 1710; July Aug. 1808; Dec. 20 ; Feb. 21, 1809 Schweidnitz, first use of globes of com- pression, besieged for 60 days, capi- tulated, Oct. 10, 1762 ; 1807 Scarborough Castle, 1643 Scio, 1822 Sebastopol, Oct. 17, 1854, to Sept. 8, 1855 Seringapatam, Feb., 1792; May 4, 1799 Seville, 1096 ; 1248 SIGN BOARDS June 30, 1829 ; May June, 1854 Smolenski, Aug., 1812 Stenay, Aug. 25, 1655 Stralsund, 1713; 1807 Tarifa, Dec. 20, 1811 Tarragona, May, 1813 Temeswar, 1716 Thionville, 1643 > 1 79 2 Thorn, 1703 Thonars, 1372 ; 1793 Torbosa, Jan. 2, 1811 Toulon, 1707; Dec. 18, 1793 Toulouse, 1217 Tournay, 1600; June 27, Sept. 5, 1709 (this was the best defence ever drawn from countermines) Treves, 1675 Tunis, 1270; 1535 Turin, 1640; June Sept. 1706; 1799 Valencia, Dec. 25, 1811 Valenciennes, 1677; 1794 Varna, Sept 3 Oct. 10, 1828 Venice, March Aug. 24, 1849 Vicksburg, May 1 6, July 4, 1863 Vienna, Sept., Oct., 1529 ; Sept. 12, 1613 ; 1848-1849 Warsaw, Sept. 8, 1831 Xativa, 1707 Xeres, 1262 York Town, Oct. 1 8, 1781 Ypres, 1648; 1744; 1794 Zurich, 1544 Zutphen, 1572 ; 1586 Silistria, besieged for 9 months, taken, SIENNA, Italy, a Roman colony founded by Caesar. Took part in the memor- able struggle between the Guelphs and Ghibelines ; many fell at Monte Aperto, Sept. 4, 1260. The cathedral consecrated, 1179 ; one of the bells is dated 1140. Hospital founded by Francis Sorone, 832 ; the university founded, 1203 ; the Palazzo Pubblico, begun in 1295 ; finished, 1327. Conquered by Spain, 1555 ; restored to the Duke of Cosmo, 1557- Nearly destroyed by an earthquake, May, 1798. SIERRA LEONE, coast of Africa, established by a society of philanthropists as a colony of blacks, for the purpose of the civilization o'f that race, Dec. 9, 1786 ; the settlement burned by the natives and scarcely a colonist escaped, 1 789 ; re- colonized by the endeavours of Sharp and others, I79 1 - Bishop Crowther taken prisoner by the natives of Ida, and kept for lodays, Oct., 1867; the Vice-Consul, Mr Fell, and party going to his rescue, the former was killed. Freetown plun- dered by the French, Sept., 1794. Made a British colony, 1808. SIGN BOARDS are of the highest antiquity. Several in terra-cotta have been recovered from Herculaneum and Pompeii. Florence North, a brewer of Chelsea, punished for not having a sign, 1393 ; at the stews in Southwark each occupier was compelled to hang out her sign, 1545- I* 1 London they were prohibited by the Mayor from being put too far over the pavement. Liber Albus, 1419. Taverners in France were compelled to place the sign of their house in the most SIGN MANUAL SILK 779 conspicuous place, March, 1577 ; and Louis XIV. renewed this ordinance, 1693. In London, after the fire, many in stone were substituted ; signs ordered to be fixed to the houses, not to hang over the street, in the reign of Charles II., 1667 ; and forbidden to be hung over the street by proclamation, 1669 ; but this not being carried out, another statute was passed to effect this object, 2 Geo. III. c. 2.1, June 2, 1762. They were ordered in Paris to be fixed against the wall, Sept. 17, 1761. SIGN MANUAL, a stamp used on account of the sovereign being too unwell to write: in the reign of Hen. VIII., 1547, by Jam. I., 1628, and Geo. IV., May 29, 1830. SIGNALS AT SEA, first used systematically by the Duke of York, afterwards James II., 1665. SIKHS, a sect founded by Nanac Shah, 1469 ; they afterwards became a formid- able body and conquered the greater part of Hindustan ; they first came in contact with the British, 1805 ; they were defeated by Lord Gough, at Moodkee, Dec. 18, 1845, an d at Sobraon, Feb. 10, 1846 ; they barbarously murdered Lieut. Anderson and Mr Agnew, at Mooltan, April 18, 1848, which led to a renewal of hostilities; they were defeated at Goojerat with great loss, Feb. 21, 1849 ; and the Punjaub annexed to the British possessions, March 29. SILESIA, Prussia, became a part of the Austrian possessions, 1526 ; ceded to Prussia, 1763; Jerome Bonaparte became governor of, 1806; restored to Prussia, July 7, 1807. SILISTRIA, Turkey, captured by the Russians, 1810; the fortifications destroyed, 1812 ; besieged by the Russians under Gen. Koth, 1828 ; abandoned, Oct. II ; again besieged, May, 1829 ; surrendered, with 238 pieces of cannon, June 30; evacuated by treaty, March, Aug. 15, 1836 ; besieged, May II, 1854, by a Rus- sian army, 45,000 strong, for 39 days, unsuccessfully; they raised the siege, June 26, 1854. SILK. The only undoubted notice of this material in the Bible occurs in Rev. xviiL 12. Wrought, brought to Greece from Persia, B.C. 323; from India, A.D. 274 ; Tiberius passed a law in Rome prohibiting the use of plate of gold, and prohibiting men from wearing silk. Heliogabalus first wore a silk garment, 220 ; silk-worms brought to Europe 300 years later. Silk of the same value as gold, weight for weight, 220. The Emperor Aurelian, who died in 275, denied his empress a robe of silk, on account of its dearness. Silk introduced into Europe, by some monks, 550 ; some monks who had been in India, brought to Constantinople a great quantity of silk-worms' eggs, 555, where raw silk was in time produced in abundance, and worked up into manufactures at Athens, Thebes, Corinth, &c. The first record of silk in Britain is of a present by Charlemagne to Offa, King of Mercia, in 780, consisting of a belt and two silken vests. Roger II., King of Sicily, established a manufactory at Palermo, 1130, and taught the Sicilians not only to breed the silk-worms, but to spin and to weave silk, which art was carried afterwards to Italy and Spain, and also to the south of France, a little before the time of Francis I., who brought it to Touraine. Venice inveigled silk-weavers from Greece and Palermo in Sicily, 1207. Silk is mentioned in a chronicle of the date 1286, as being worn at a festival at Kenilworth. A company of silk-women established in England, 1455. No wrought silk to be brought to England, 1455 ; an act passed to regulate the importation of, 1504 ; by other records, we find that silk was worn by the English clergy, 1534. Henry VIII. had the first pair of silk stockings that was ever seen in England, sent to him from Spain ; and Edward VI. had a pair of long silk hose from the same country, presented to him by Sir Thomas Gresham (who built the Royal Exchange), a present which was thought 78o SILKMEN SIMLA COURT MARTIAL much of. After the fall of Antwerp in 1585, a large number of silk merchants and artisans fled to England, who introduced the manufacture into this country ; silk more extensively manufactured in England, 1604; raw silk not produced there fora long time afterwards ; silk-worms first brought to England, 1609 ; broad silk manufacture from raw silk, introduced into England, 1620 ; a board of trade was established to introduce the growth of, in England, 1622; an act passed to regulate the trade of silk-throwing, 19 & 20 Chas. II. c. n, 1667-8. Lombe's famous silk-throwing machine erected at Derby, 1719 ; it contained 26, 586 wheels ; one water-wheel moved the whole, and in a day and a night it worked 318,504,960 yards of organzine silk. The exportation of, encouraged, 1716; permission was given to the Russian Company to import the raw silk of Persia, 1741 ; silk first imported from Virginia, 1730 ; from Georgia, 1735 ; from Persia through Russia, 1742. The wages of the Spitalfields Weavers fixed by the Aldermen of London, 1773. Silk imported into England for three years past, exceeds 12,000 pounds annually. Attempts have been made to introduce the silk-worms into India, Jamaica, and the United States, with varying success ; the eggs of some silk-worms brought from China, hatched in Paris, 1855. SILKMEN, Company of, incorporated by Car. I.; grant of arms to, 1631. SILK-THROWERS' COMPANY, incorporated by Car. I., April 23, 1629; grant of arms to, Oct. 20, 1644. SILLERY, battle. The French, 18,000 strong, under the command of M. de Levis, at Quebec, attacked the English, under Col. Murray, but were driven off with great loss, April 28, 1759. SILVER. In patriarchal times this metal was used for ornaments, Gen. xxiv. 53; images for idolatrous worship were made of silver or overlaid with it, Ex. xx. 23 ; this metal was brought to Solomon from Arabia, 2 Chr. ix. 14, and from Tarshish, 2 Chr. ix. 21. SILVER MINE, discovered in Brittany, Nov., 1730 ; also in Cornwall, pure ; at Huel, Mexico, I797> an( i m numerous combinations with other ores ; in the lead of Cumberland and in Devon, 1294 ; mines of South America, in Peru and Chili, discovered in abundance, as well as in Mexico ; in Potosi, 1545 > a t Konigsberg, 1623; at Cusco, 1712; in 1 749 a mass of native silver, 370 Ibs weight, sent to Spain ; a piece of silver dug up in Norway weighed 560 Ibs ; and several pieces found at Almagrera, Spain, 1840. SILVER MONEY, first coined at Greece, B.C. 550 ; at Rome, 269 ; in Britain by Cunobeline, circa 50 ; the silver penny, circa A. D. 700 ; silver pennies the largest coin in England, 1302. The York Parliament passed an act allowing good silver money to be imported, but not exported, 9 Edw. III., stat. 2, 1336 ; no gold or silver money to be carried out of the kingdom except for the payment of the soldiers of the king engaged in the wars, 2 Hen. VI. c. 6, 1423 ; the English pound was formerly a pound weight of silver coined into 20 shillings. See table : s. d. s. d. William the Conqueror ... 20 10 13 Henry IV. ... 1411 ... 30 o 28 Edward I. ... 1299 ... 20 3 4 Edward IV. 1474 ... 37 6 18 Edward III. 1344 ... 22 o 18 Henry VIII. 1526 ... 45 o 20 ,, ... 1346 ... 22 6 2 Elizabeth ... 1559 ... 60 o 27 ,, ... 1353 ... 25 o 56 George III. 1815 ... 66 o SILVER PLATE, first used in England by Wilfred, a Northumbrian bishop, a lofty and ambitious churchman, 709 ; silver cups and spoons esteemed great luxuries, 1300; silver plate allowed to be imported, 1336. SIMLA COURT MARTIAL, held to try several charges brought by Gen. Mans- field against Captain Jervis, commenced June 25, 1866 ; despatch from the Field- Marshal Commander-in-Chief the Duke of Cambridge, relating to, Jan. 17, 1867. SIMLA SIGN COLLEGE 781 SIMLA, Hindustan. The travellers, the Brothers Gerard, visited this village whilst they were employed in surveying the Sutlej valley, Aug. 20, 1817; the political agent, Lieut. Ross, visited it, 1819 ; and Capt. Kennedy erected a re- sidence here, 1822 ; it was selected as a sanatorium for the servants of the East India Company, 1823 ; Lord Amherst received the Rajas of Gurhwah and Bussahir here, 1827; Lord W. Bentinck built Bentinck Castle, 1831-2, now the Simla Bank ; in 1841 the number of houses were 100 ; the gardens of Armandale were laid out by Colonel McMurdo, 1852; the town has since become a fashion- able place. SIMNEL, LAMBERT, set up for the crown against Henry VII. ; crowned king in Ireland, May 2, 1487 ; defeated at Warwick and made prisoner, June 16 ; pardoned, and made a scullion, and afterward a falconer. SIMONIANS, a sect of Christians, so called from Simon Magus or the magician, who was denominated the first heretic ; great numbers followed him, A.D. 57 ; the St Simbnians appeared in France, and were lectured upon in this country together, Jan., 1834 ; but their leaders had not sufficient extravagance, nor were their doctrines attractive enough, to secure multitudinous ignorance. SIMON, ST, and St Jude's festivals, instituted, 1090. SIMONY, the buying or selling of holy orders, or any ecclesiastical office with cure of souls, forbidden in England, 740 and 1075 ; any one found guilty was prohibited from promotion to any dignity, 1127 ; an act was passed to prevent the commission of this crime, 31 Eliz. c. 6, 1589 ; modified by J & 8 Geo. IV. c. 25, June 14, 1827, and 9 Geo. IV. c. 94, July 28, 1828. SIMPLON, Switzerland, anciently called Mons Capionis, is one of the loftiest of the Italian Alps. The French troops crossed it, in 1800 ; the new military road was planned by Napoleon, in 1801 ; began, 1802 ; finished, 1807 ; it extends from Geneva to Milan, a distance of 47% posts, or 245 miles, and is carried over 600 bridges, after 5 years' incessant labour, upwards of 30,000 men being con- stantly employed in the undertaking, at the joint expense of the kingdoms of France and Italy. SIMPSON'S HOSPITAL, Dublin, for the blind and gouty, founded, 1780. SINCERITY, order of knighthood, founded in Saxony, 1690. SINGAPORE, East Indies, purchased by the East India Company, from the Sultan of Johore, 1819. SINKING FUND, this is said to have been first projected by Sir Robert Wai- pole ; it was carried out by Pitt, who having a surplus of .900,000 increased to ;i. 000,000, it was to be devoted inviolably to the reduction of the national debt ; resolutions proposed to the House of Commons, March 29, 1 786 ; made a public act, May 26, 26 Geo. III. c. 6l ; abandoned 1836. SINOPE, an ancient Greek city, colonized from Miletus, B.C. 612. The town taken by the Cimmerians, 632 ; captured by Mithridates IV., King of Pontus, B.C. 183, and made their capital ; made a Roman colony by Julius Csesar, 60. The French landed and erected some fortifications here, A.D. 1808. The Turkish fleet destroyed by the Russian fleet, and the town burnt, Nov. 30, 1853. STNTZHEIM, battle. The French army commanded by Turenne, defeated the Imperialists, with a loss of 2000 men, June 16, 1674. SIGN COLLEGE, London Wall, founded by Dr Thomas White, on the site of an old nunnery, 1623 ; his executors obtained a charter of incorporation from Charles I., 1630, and Charles II., 1664. The library partially burnt in the fire of 1666 ; by the Copyright Act this library received a gratuitous copy, 8 Anne, c. 19 ; this privilege commuted for a grant of .363 yearly from the crown, 1836. It is a college for the city clergy, and almshouses for 20 poor persons. 782 SION HOUSE SLAVES AND SLAVE TRADE SIGN HOUSE or ABBEY, Middlesex, built, 1414. SIX ARTICLES, statute of, passed for abolishing diversity of opinions in certain articles concerning the Christian religion, 31 Hen. VIII. c. 14, 1539. SIX CLERKS' OFFICE, Chancery-lane, built, 1770; they were once forbidden to marry,, but in the reign of Henry VIII. permission was given without forfeiture of their places, 1533; they were once called Clerici ; their offices were discon- . tinued in 1842. SIX-MILE BRIDGE, Clare, a serious riot during an election for a member of parliament ; the military attacked by the mob, 5 persons were killed and several wounded, July 22, 1852 ; the indictment against the soldiers ignored, Feb. 24, I853- SKINNERS' COMPANY, London, incorporated, I Edw. III., March I, 1327; confirmed by 16 Rich. II., April 20, 1393, and by 16 Hen. VI., Feb. 22, 1438; by 4 & 5 Philip and Mary, June 8, 1558 ; by 2 Elizabeth, March 2, 1560. No person permitted to work at this trade without first serving an apprenticeship of 7 years, by 3 James I. c. 9, 1605. Reincorporated by 4 James I., 1606, and confirmed by 19 Charles II., Jane 28, 1667. Arms granted to, Oct. 5> I55 X > an< i crest and supporters, 1561. Their ancient hall destroyed in the great fire ; subsequently rebuilt, and again enlarged by Jupp, 1791. SKIPTON, Yorkshire, castle built, 1069; it stood a siege of 3 years from the Par- liamentarians, surrendered, Dec. 20, 1645 ; ordered to be destroyed by the Parliament, 1649 ; subsequently restored by the Countess of Pembroke. SLAUGHTER'S COFFEE-HOUSE, in St Martin's-lane, opened by Thomas Slaughter, 1692. SLAVES and SLAVE TRADE. Slavery prevailed in the days of the patriarchs. Abraham had a large number of slaves or bondsmen. This custom prevailed at Rome, and in almost every other country. Julius Caesar and the Emperor Augus- tus held large numbers. The English peasantry were sold at Rome as slaves, A.D. 50. Slaves imported from Nubia to Egypt, circa 660. The Saxons regulated this trade by law, 622. The laws relating to the Villein were harshly administered in this country even down to the 1 5th century. The Portuguese began the trade of importing Africans, 1481. All idle vagabonds in England who would not work had an iron ring fixed round their neck, arms, or legs, and were made slaves, I Edw. VI. c. 3, 1547 ; but it proved so abhorrent to the English taste, that it was repealed, 3 & 4 Edw. VI. c. 16, 1549. In the Stanley Papers published by the Chetham Society, slaves are mentioned as belonging to the 4th Earl of Derby, 1558 ; a negro slave advertised for sale in England, in the Public Ledger, Dec. 31, 1761 ; and in the Dublin Mercury, Aug. 16, 1768. Sir John Hawkins embarked in a venture for procuring negroes on the coast of Africa, and selling them in the West Indies, Oct., 1563 ; the English possessed the Assiento or contract for sup- plying slaves to the Spanish colonies from the treaty of Utrecht to 1748 ; England employed 130 ships in this trade, 1786. A society for the suppression of slavery established under the auspices of Granville Sharpe, Clarkson, and others in England, May 22, 1787: Mr Wilberforce joined the society. The number of slaves imported into America from Africa was 50,000 in 1789. Mr Wilberforce moved for leave to bring in a bill to abolish this trade, but it was defeated, I79 1 > a resolution for abolishing the trade carried in the Commons, but was defeated in the Lords, 1796 ; the question in a new light was brought before Parliament by Lord Grenvilleand Mr Fox, March 31, 1806 ; carried by a majority of 114 to 15, June 10 ; and in the Lords, 41 to 2O. A bill for the abolition of the African slave trade brought into the Lords by Lord Grenville, Jan. 2, 1807 ; carried on the 5th by a majority of 100 to 36 ; carried in the Commons and received the Royal assent, March 25 (47 Geo. III. c. 36). A treaty made between Spain and SLAVES OF VIRTUE SMITHFIELD 783 Great Britain, in which the latter power agrees to give an indemnity of ^"400,000 upon the abolition of traffic in slaves, Sept. 23, 1817. An act passed abolishing slavery throughout the British Colonies, Aug. i, 1834; by virtue of this act nearly 800,000 negroes were made nominally free at an expense of twenty millions ster- ling, 3 & 4 Will IV. c. 73, Aug. 28, 1833. The number of slaves imported to Cuba in 1835 exceeded 55,000. An act was passed to amend the abolition act of 1833, its object being the total extinction of this traffic, I & 2 Viet. c. 19, April II, 1838 ; this led to the colonists giving the negroes their freedom, Aug. i, 1838. Pope Gregory XVI. issued a bull abolishing this trade, Dec. 3, 1839 ; speech of Prince Albert in favour of abolition, June I, 1840 ; treaty made with France giving the right of search for slaves, May 24, 1845 > made free in America, by proclamation issued by President Lincoln, Sept. 22, 1862 ; to come into opera- ation, Jan. I, 1863. The Serfs in Russia made free, March 3, 1863. SLAVES OF VIRTUE, order of knighthood, so called in Germany, began, 1662. SLAVONIA, Austria, ceded to the Hungarians, 1165 ; taken by the Turks, 1526; ceded to Hungary, 1699 ; separated from Hungary and annexed to Austria, 1848. SLEDGES, for travelling over ice and snow, invented by Samuel Bentham, in Russia, 1781. SLIDING SCALE, an act of parliament promoted by Mr Fitzgerald, fixing a sliding scale in the price of corn, 9 Geo. IV. c. 60, July 15, 1828; repealed by 5 & 6 Viet. c. 14, and a new scale fixed, passed, April 29, 1842 ; subsequently amended by 9 & IO Viet. c. 22, June 26, 1846. SLIGO, Ireland, a castle erected for the defence of the town by the Earl of Kildare, 1242 ; the Abbey founded by Maurice Fitzgerald, 1252 ; burnt,i4i4 ; destroyed by O'Donough, 1270 ; made a county by Queen Elizabeth, 1569 ; and incorporated, 1613 ; taken by the Parliamentarians under Sir Charles Coote, 1641 ; declared in favour of King James, 1688. SLINGSBY, SIR HENRY, governor of Hull, and Dr Hewett, beheaded on Tower Hill, June 8, 1658. SLIPPERS, first came into use in England, 1570. SLOANE MUSEUM, collected by Sir Hans Sloane, at his residence, at Chelsea, sold to the nation by act passed in June, 1753, for ,20,000, and formed the nucleus of the British Museum. SLUYS, naval battle, in which Edward III. vanquished the French ; 230 French vessels were taken, and 25,000 killed, with 2 admirals ; the English loss was very small, June 24, 1340. SMALL-POX, first known at the siege of Mecca, A.D. 569 ; raged at Alexandria, 640 ; known in England, 900. Inoculation for, introduced into England, April, 1721 ; Dr Maitland inoculated a young daughter of Lady Mary Montagu, and the younger branches of the Royal Family practised upon with success, 1 722 ; before this time it was practised in Wales with great success ; introduced into Scot- land, 1726 ; Ireland, 1723 ; Hanover, 1724 ; it declined in England, 1750. Upon vaccination being established an act was passed making inoculation a punishable offence, 3 & 4 Viet. c. 29, s. 8, July 23, 1840. Hospital for, established at King's Cross, 1746; removed to Highgate, 1850. -See Vaccination. SMITHFIELD. The Campus Planus of Fitzstephen. Horses and cattle were sold here as early as 1150. William Wallace was executed here on the evening of St Bartholomew's day, 1305. Royal Jousts held here by Edward III., three kings being present, 1357 ; a second was held by this monarch in honour of his mistress, Alice Perrers, 1374 ; the lists at this meeting were kept open for seven days. These sports were continued by Rich. II. in 1390, 1396, and by Hen. IV., 1405. A toll fixed for the sale of all cattle : upon every horse id. ; ox or cow, l /td. \ 784 SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION SMYRNA 8 sheep, \d. ; and 4 swine, id., July 20, 1372. In 1266 the tolls for every cow or ox was id., for every 12 sheep id. ; all free drovers may sell their oxen, cows, and steers, between Long-lane and the lane coming from Aldersgate, and their swine from the west corner of the lane coming from Aldersgate as far as the hospital, 1379. A proclamation issued for all cattle to be sold between 7 and II o'clock in the morning, 1468 ; the market days Wednesday and Friday, altered by proclamation to every Monday, Dec. 17, 1613 ; no other market to be erected within 7 miles, by charter of Edward III., March 6, 1327 ; this was confirmed by Charles I., Oct. 14, 1638. Walter Tyler killed by Sir W. Walworth, Saturday, June 15, 1381. The Gallmvs, standing near the Elms, removed, 1413 ; the cele- brated fight between the armourer and his man, 1447 ; subsequently dramatized by Shakespeare. Jack Cade assembled his fellow-rebels here, 1450. Martyrs and heretics : the first martyr burned here was William Sautre, in the reign of Hen. IV., 1401-2 ; the last was Bartholomew Legat, March II, 1612 ; the site of the stake discovered opposite the patients' entrance to St Bartholomew's hos- pital, near Duke-street, 1849 ; a pillar box placed here by order of the Postmas- ter, 1867. A woman was burnt for the murder of her husband, May 10, 1652. Boiling to death was also inflicted here. Bartholomew Fair, established by char- ter of King Hen. II., proclaimed for the last time in the Mayoralty of Mr Alder- man Challis, Sept. 5> I ^53- The Market paved and railed, 1615 ; enlarged, 1834. An act passed for providing a metropolitan market instead of Smithfield, 14 & 15 Viet. c. 61, Aug. I, 1851 ; closed as a cattle market, June n, 1855 ; an act passed for erecting upon the site a dead-meat and poultry market, 23 & 24 Viet. c. cxciii. 1860 ; design approved of, and the first stone laid, June 5, 1867 ; opened, Dec., 1868. Smithfield Club, for promoting the breeding of cattle, es- tablished, 1798; the show removed to Baker-street Bazaar, 1840, and to the new Agricultural Hall, Islington, Dec. 8, 1862. SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, Washington, U.S., founded by the will of James Smithson, Oct. 23, 1826 ; he died in 1829, leaving ,100,000 to carry out his intentions ; the institution organized by act of Congress, April, 1846. SMOKE COMMISSIONS were appointed who recommended the use of an appa- ratus to prevent smoke, the first in 1819 ; the second in 1843 ; this committee recommended a bill to be brought in, but the measure was not passed until 16 & 17 Viet. c. 128, Aug. 20, 1853 ; amended by 19 & 20 Viet. c. 107, July 29, 1856. SMOLENSKO, Russia, first annexed to the Russian dominions, 1654; the town burnt by the Russians, Aug. 17, 1812 ; entry of the French army, Aug. 18 ; the French retreated to, Nov. 13. SMOLENSKO, battle, between the French and Russians ; the former three times repulsed, at length drove the Russians before them, and entered the smoking ruins of Smolensko, which had been bombarded ; the Russians were commanded by Barclay de Tolly, Aug. 16, 17, 1812. SMOL1ANTZY, battle, the French army defeated by the Russians, after the vil- lage had been taken and retaken 6 times, Nov. 14, 1812. SMUGGLERS' ACT, passed, 19 Geo. II. c. 34, 1736; mitigated, 1781 ; new provisions, 1784. An act passed for the prevention of, 3 &4 Will. IV. c. 53, Aug. 28, 1833 ; amended by 8 & 9 Viet. c. 87, Aug. 4, 1845. SMYRNA, Turkey, inhabited by the yEolians, B.C. 500 ; destroyed by Sadyattes, circa B.C. 630 ; the new city, began by the Emperor Alexander and completed by Lysimachus, destroyed by an earthquake, A.D. 178 ; afterwards rebuilt by the Emperor Marcus Aurelius, destroyed by the Greeks and rebuilt by Comnenus, 1 220 ; captured by the Turks under Tamerlane, 1402 ; nearly destroyed by an earthquake, April, 1 730, and by a fire, June 20, 1 742 ; suffered by the plague, 1 743, 1752 ; the Armenian quarter burnt, May 14, 1753 ; had the plague, 1758, 1760 ; SNIDER RIFLE SOCINIANS 785 dreadful fires in, 1763 and 1772 ; and earthquakes and fire, 1778 ; and in March, 1796, when 4000 shops, 2 large mosques, 2 public baths, and all the maga- zines and provisions, to the value of 10,000,000 crowns, were destroyed ; a riot there by the Sclavonians occasioned the janissaries to destroy the theatre and property of the Christians, to the amount of ,100,000, when between 1200 and 1300 persons lost their lives, May, 1797 ; another dreadful fire, June IO, 1811 ; massacre of the Christians at, by the Mahomedans, June 15, 1821 ; above IOOO Christians massacred, Nov. 5, 1821 ; the jewellers' bazaar and upwards of 9000 houses destroyed by fire, 30,000 persons are said to have perished, July 28, 1841 ; 700 houses destroyed by fire, Aug. 27, 1860. S^NIDER RIFLE, invented by Jacob Snider, June 21, 1862 ; a patent granted for, ' Jan. 29, 1866 ; adopted by the English Government, 1866 ; a premium of .15,000 in all granted to the inventor by the Government, who died, Oct. 25, 1866. SNOW HILL, formerly Snore Hill, act of parliament passed for the improvement of, June 26, 1795. A viaduct erected over the valley between this Hill and Holborn. See Holborn. SNUFF-TAKING, originated with Catharine de' Medicis it was called Herbe and by Tartini in Italy, 1754. Sound flies at the rate of 1 107 feet in a second, by experiments with cannon at Paris, 1738; the fire of the British cannon on the landing of the army in Egypt was heard 130 miles at sea. SOUND, a narrow strait between Sweden and Denmark, forced by Nelson and Sir Hyde Parker, commanding the English fleet, April 2, 1801, and by Admiral Gambier, June, 1807. SOUND DUES, a toll exacted from all vessels passing into the Baltic by the Government of Denmark, since 1348 ; abolished by treaty between England, France, &c. The compensation for the Sound Dues thus surrendered by Den- mark is fixed at the total sum of 30,476,325 rigs-dollars, of which Great Britain is to pay 10,126,855; France, 1,219,003; Holland, 1,408,060; Prussia, 4,440,027 ; Russia, 9,739,993 ; Sweden, i,59>53 > an d other States smaller sums. The said sums may be paid in 20 years by 40 equal half-yearly payments, which shall cover both capital and the interest on instalments not due, March 14, 1857- SOUNDINGS AT SEA. 900 miles west of St Helena, the depth was found to be 5000 fathoms ; 300 miles in another direction from the Cape, 2266 fathoms found bottom with a weight of 450 Ibs. in 1840 ; another sounding in the South Atlantic gave eight miles ; and a second in a part of the sea supposed ' out of soundings,' in other words, having a depth of 400 or 500, was found to have only from 70 to 80 fathoms, and the ship came to an anchor over the spot, to the won- der of passing vessels, 1850. Lieut. Maury, U.S.N., empowered by the United States to take the deep-sea soundings, Nov. 15, 1849; the greatest depth was reached in lat. 31,, 59' N., and longitude 58 43' W., the line broke at 5700 fathoms. The United States' expedition to the Caribbean Sea started, May, 1850. The sounding in the Atlantic renewed, 1851, when the bottom was reached in lat. 32 6' N., and long. 44 47' W., at 5500 fathoms. A new instru- ment invented for, by Carnielo Bonnici, a blacksmith of H.M. S. Spitfire, in 1851 ; since improved upon by Mr Skead, R.N., in 1857. SOUTHAMPTON, Hampshire. A Saxon town, attacked by the Danes, A.D. 873, who after committing severe injury upon the town were driven off. Canute built a castle here. The first charter granted to the town by King John, who is said to have had a marine residence or palace in the town ; the charter confirmed and extended by Hen. III., who rebuilt the quay, 1222; Richard I. assembled his fleet here previous to starting for the Crusades, 1190; the Domus Dei, or hospital, founded in the 1 2th century. The town plundered by the French, 1338; forti- SOUTHAMPTON CASTLE SOUTH SEA BUBBLE 7X9 fied, 1339-40 ; the town furnished 21 ships to the fleet of Edw. III., 1345 ; a flourishing trade was carried on at this port with Venice in the I4th and I5th centuries. The Coopers' Company enrolled, 1486. Philip of Spain landed here, July 19, 1554 ; Charles I. re-incorporated the town. The pier erected, 1832 ; the South-Western Railway commenced, 1834, opened, May n, 1840; the Docks opened, 1842 ; the Ordnance Office erected, 1857. It is the principal station of the East and West India fleet of steam vessels. SOUTHAMPTON CASTLE, Southampton, built by William the Conqueror, circa noo. Adolphede Porte made Governor of, 1214 ; rebuilt by Richard II., 1377 ; the Lords Cambridge and Scroop, and Sir Thomas Grey, detected in a conspiracy against the life of Henry V. , they were executed at, and buried in the chapel called God's House, 1415. SOUTH AUSTRALIA. The settlement of Adelaide founded, 1836 ; Port Philip, 1838 ; the Legislative Council instituted in 1851. See also the Principal Towns (alphabetical). SOUTHCOT, JOANNA, the founder of a religious sect, born 1753. She had upwards of 100,000 followers. Among the uneducated and credulous believers in her revelations, were one or two from whose positions in life it might have been expected were better informed. She announced to her followers that she was to be delivered of a second Shiloh on Oct. 19, 1814 ; that interesting event, however, failed to come off, and she died of dropsy, Dec. 27, 1814. SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM, first established, 1838 ; enlarged, 1843, and 1851 ; the Museum of Ornamental Art removed to, June 22, 1857. See Kensington. SOUTH SAXON KINGDOM, began 391, ended 754. SOUTH-SEA BURBLE. This company began, 9 Anne, c. 15, May 6, 1710; in- corporated by statute, 3 Geo. I. c. 9, May 6, 1716; Aug. 17, 1720, the stock fell to 830 from looo, and soon after to 820 ; Aug. 22, the bubbles on foot at this time amounted to .300,000,000 sterling ; on the 26th the stock fell to 800 ; it was agreed by the directors that 30 per cent, should be the half-year's dividend at Christmas, 1720, and that for 12 years afterwards 50 per cent, should be the annual dividend ; still the stock sank by Sept. 8, to 640, and by Sept. 19, to 400 ; Sept. 30, the stock fell to 150 ; thousands were ruined, and public credit shaken. The act for the confiscation of their estates was founded upon the fol- lowing resolution of the Lords and Commons : ' Feb. 2, 1720, resolved by the House of Peers, that the South-Sea Directors declaring 30 per cent, dividend for the half-year ending at Christmas, and 50 per cent, per annum for twelve years, was a villanous artifice to defraud and delude his Majesty's good sub- jects.' From the table it appears that the Directors were compelled to disgorge in fines no less a sum than 1,659,514 i6s. 6%d. of their ill-gotten booty. The secret committee of the House of Commons made their report, Feb. 16, 1720 ; the following portions of South-Sea stock were taken by distinguished persons : For the Earl of Sunderland, first Lord of the Treasury, .50,000 ; for the Duchess of Kendal, .10,000 ; for the Countess of P., .10,000; for the two nieces of the Duchess of Kendal, ^"10,000 ; for Mr Craggs, sen., .30,000 ; for Chas. Stanhope, Esq., .10,000 ; for the ' Sword Blade ' Company, ^20,000. The officials of the Company were restrained by act of parliament from quitting England, ^ Geo. I. c. I, 1720 ; and another act was passed for the benefit of the public, c. 5 . Those connected with the crown were removed ; .2000 was offered for the apprehension of the cashier, Knight, who had left the kingdom ; Messrs Aislabie and Sir George Caswell were expelled from the House of Commons, March 8, 1721. Shares of .100 rose in value to .1000 during the mania. The estates of all the managers were seized and forfeited : 790 SOUTH SEA HOUSE : SOUTHWARK Directors. Value of their Estates. Allowance for subsistence. The Fines taken from each Director. s. d. s. d. Sir J. Fellowes 243,099 o 6 10,000 2 33,099 o 6 Mrjoye 40, IO5 2 O 5,000 35,105 2 3 A MrAstell 27,750 19 8^ 10,000 i7,75o 19 8 Sir L. Blackwell 83,529 17 ii 15,000 68,529 17 ii Sir J. Blunt 183,349 10 8^ 5,000 178,349 10 8% Sir R. Chaplin 45,875 14 5 10,000 35,875 H 5 Mr Chester ... 140,372 15 6 10,000 130,372 15 6 Sir W. Chapman ... 39,161 6 8'/ 2 10,000 29,161 6 8% Mr Child 52,437 19 i 10,000 42,437 19 i Mr Delapart ... 17,151 4 6 10,000 7,i5i 4 6 Mr Edmonson 53 6 5 o 3,000 2,365 o o Mr Eyles 34,326 1 6 7 20,000 14,326 1 6 7 Mr Gibbon 106,543 5 6 10,000 96,543 5 6 Mr Gore 38,936 15 5 20,000 18,936 15 5 Sir W. Hammond ... 22, 707 4 2 IO,OOO 12,707 4 2 Mr Hawes ... 40,031 o o^ 5,000 35,031 o o l /z Mr Houlditch 39,527 10 4 5,000 34,527 10 4 Mr Horsey ... 19,962 5 3 10,000 9,962 5 3 Sir J. Jacobson 11,481 4 o 11,000 481 4 o Sir T. Janson 243,244 3 ii 50,000 193,244 3 " Mr Ingram ... 16,795 o 12,000 4,795 o o Sir J. Lambert 72,508 i 5 5,000 67,508 i 5 Sir H. Masters 11,814 12 3^ 5,000 6,814 12 3^ Mr Morley 1,869 10 3 i, 800 69 10 3 Mr Page 34,817 12 3% 10,000 24,817 12 3# Mr Raymond 64,373 6 3 30,000 34,373 6 3 Mr Read 117,297 16 o 10,000 107,297 16 o Mr Snawbridge 77,254 i 8 5,000 72,254 i 8 Mr Reynolds 18,368 12 2% 14,000 4,368 12 2>2 MrTillard 19,175 14 4 15,000 4,175 H 4 Mr Turner ... 881 17 6 800 81 17 6 Mr Surnam 112,321 10 o 5,000 107,321 10 o Mr Grigsby ... 131,687 6 o 2,000 29,687 6 o SOUTH-SEA HOUSE built, 1711 ; attempt made to fire it, April ii, 1826; taken down, 1853-4.1 SOUTHWARK, first mentioned, 1052 ; the public stews first licensed, 1162 ; the priory of, destroyed by fire, 1212; the town of, granted to the citizens of London, by charter, I Edw. III., March 6, 1327 ; confirmed by 2 Edw. IV., Nov. 9, 1462 ; further grant of land in, to the citizens, 4 Edw. VI., April 23, 1550 ; made the 26th ward of the city, and an alderman appointed to, by act of common council, July 31, 1550 ; Sir John Ayliffe, Knight, chosen the first alderman ; a steward appointed by the city, 1552 ; Jack Cade arrived in Southwark, July I, 1450 (the White Hart Inn was his head-quarters), and Sir Thomas Wyat, Feb. 3, 1554; the stews abolished by Hen. VIII., 1545 ; a fair established by Edw. VI., 1550; suppressed, 1763. The Globe Theatre erected, circa 1570; the Bear Gardens, shortly afterwards Winchester House, built, 1607; the Tabard Inn built in the I4th century, and destroyed in the great fire, which destroyed the greater part of the Borough, 1666. The Town Hall rebuilt by the cor- poration of London, 1686; repaired by them, 1767; rebuilt, 1793; taken down, 1862. The Queen's Bench Prison built, 1758. The Market, held in the SOUTH WARK BRIDGE SPAIN 791 High-street until 1756 ; discontinued by 28 Geo. II. c. 9, 1755, and removed to the present site. St Saviour's Church erected in the nth century; St Olave's Church founded in the I2th century; rebuilt, 1739 ; St Thomas's Church rebuilt, 1702 ; St George's Church begun, 1734; and opened, 1736. A tremendous conflagration, without parallel since the fire of Ix>ndon, Mr Braidwood killed, and property valued at 2,000,000 destroyed, it began June 22, 1861, and burnt for 14 clays. The New-street from Blackfriar's-road to the High-street opened, Jan. I, 1864. SOUTH WARK BRIDGE, erected under the provisions of the 51 Geo. III. c. clxvi., June 15, 1811, from the design of J. Rennie, F.R.S.; first stone laid by Admiral Lord Keith, May 23, 1815 ; finished, March 24, 1819 ; cost ,800,000. It consists of 3 arches, the centre 240 feet span, -and the 2 side arches 2IO feet. Opened free of toll for six months, the Corporation of London paying 1834, Nov. 8, 1864; powers given to the Company to sell and transfer it, 28 & 29 Viet, c. cxcvi., June 27, 1865 ; the Corporation agreed to purchase it for .200,000, Dec. 6, 1 866 ; an act of parliament passed giving them power to raise .350,000 for the purchase, &c., 30 & 31 Viet. c. iii., April 5, 1867. SOUTHWELL MINSTER, Nottingham, founded, 630. SOUTHWELL PALACE, Newark, Nottinghamshire, built, 1518. SOUTHWOLD BAY, Suffolk, a naval battle, of great moment at the time, was fought here between the combined Dutch and French fleets and the British, May 28, 1672. SOVEREIGN, a gold coin worth 22J. 6d. in the first year of the reign of Henry VIII., 1509; reduced to 2or., 34 of Henry VIII., 1543 ; in temp. Ed%vard VI. made to pass for 24?. and 3OJ. ; the present sovereign issued by George III., 1817, made current at zos. SPA FIELDS. The spa discovered 1206, and called the London Spa ; the Pantheon opened for the sale of tea, coffee, &c., 1770 ; converted into a lay chapel by the Countess of Huntingdon, 1780. SPA FIELDS MEETING: 30,000 persons assembled to address the Prince Regent, on behalf of the distressed manufacturers, Nov. 15, 1816; a second meeting, Dec. 2, terminated in a riot, the shops of several gunsmiths were attacked, and in Mr Beckwith's shop on Snowhill, a Mr Platt was killed; the rioters proceeded into the city, where the Lord Mayor captured some of the ringleaders, much mischief being done before peace was restored. SPADE GUINEAS, first coined by George III., 1787. SPAIN, NEW, in America, discovered, 1518; settled, 1520. SPAIN, OLD, colonized by the Phoenicians and Carthaginians ; the Romans first invaded the country under Scipio, B.C. 218 ; but it was not wholly subdued until the reign of Augustus, 19 ; erected into provinces, 198 ; ancient Bcetica being the modem Andalusia and Grenada, the remainder going under the denomina- tion of Tarragona ; the present provinces were once independent kingdoms. The country became one kingdom about 414. The Vandals and Suevi wrested the country from the Romans, A.D. 409 ; the Visigoths entered Spain under the command of Euric, and overturned the Roman power entirely, 479 ; the Moors invaded the country and conquered it, defeating the army of King Roderick, at Xeres, in a battle which lasted 3 days, 711 ; Pelagius, of the royal family of Visigoths, proclaimed King of Asturias, 718 ; Alphonsus II., re- fusing to pay the Saracens the annual tribute of loo virgins, declared war, de- feating the Saracens with great slaughter, and obtained the appellation of "the Chaste," 791 ; Inigo crowned first King of Navarre, 830 ; the sceptre taken by Ferdinand I., 1020; Navarre and Castile united, 1031; the kingdom of Arra- 792 SPAIN gon founded by Ramiro I., 1035 ; Leon and Asturias joined to Castile, 1037 ; Henry of Bourbon took Portugal from the Saracens, 1087 ; the Saracens, being nearly conquered, called in the aid of the Moors from Africa, who seized the dominions, defeating the Spaniards and the Saracens, 1091 ; the Moors defeated by Alphonsus I. of Navarre, 1118; he was defeated by the Moors, and killed, 1134 ; twelve Moorish kings defeated in one battle, 1135; University of Salamanca founded, 1200; the Moorish army defeated at Tolosa, July 16, 1212 ; Leon and Castile re-united, 1226 ; Cordova, the residence of the first Moorish kings, taken by Ferdinand of Castile and Leon, 1236 ; the kingdom of Granada begun by the Moors, under Mohammed, 1238 ; Alphonsus the Wise began to reign, 1252 ; the crown of Navarre passed to the royal family of France, 1276; Gibraltar cap- tured by Ferdinand IV., King of Castile and Leon, 1303 ; a Moorish army of 200,000 men invaded Spain, 1327 ; defeated by Alphonsus XL, 1340; Edward the Black Prince with an English army invaded Castile, to restore Pedro the Cruel to the throne, he defeated the army of Henry Count of Trastamara, and restored Pedro to the throne, April 3, 1367 ; Ferdinand V. of Arragon married Isabella of Castile, 1474 ; the country again invaded by the Moors, 1484 ; Granada taken, and the power of the Moors finally extirpated by Ferdinand, 1492; Columbus set out from Spain to explore the western world under the aus- pices of Isabella, 1492 ; Naples added to the Spanish kingdom, 1503 ; Isabella I. died, Nov. 26, 1504 ; Ferdinand conquered the greater part of Navarre, 1512; accession of the house of Austria, Charles I. of Spain the V. of Germany, to the throne of Spain, upon the death of Ferdinand V., Jan. 23, 1516; Philip of Spain married to Queen Mary of England at Winchester Cathedral, July 25, 1554; Charles V. of Spain and Germany retired from the world, and resigned the throne to his son Philip II., Jan. 16, 1556; Philip II. began his persecution against the Protestants, 1561 ; the Escurial began, 1563; Spain united to Portu- gal, 1580; the Spanish Armada destroyed, 1588 ; the Moors and their descend- ants banished by Philip III. from Spain, Sept., 1609 ; England declared war against, 1625 ; Philip IV. lost Portugal, 1640; treaty of peace and friendship with England, May 23, 1667; England declared war against, 1702, and captured Gibraltar, 1704 ; by the treaty .of Utrecht, Spain lost half her European pos- sessions, 1713; Philip V. invaded Naples, 1714; his fleet defeated off the coast of Sicily by the British fleet under Admiral Byng, 1718; the Duchies of Tuscany, Parma, and Placentia ceded to Spain by the treaty of Seville, 1729 ; the Palace of Madrid burnt, 1 733 ; hostilities renewed between Spain and Eng- land, Oct., 1739, on behalf of the Young Pretender; Charles III., King of the Two Sicilies, succeeded to the crown, 1759 ; the Bourbon family compact concluded at Versailles, 1761 ; England declared war against, 1762 ; the Jesuits expelled from, 1767 ; definitive treaty signed with England, Sept. 3, 1783 ; Eng- land declared war against, 1796 ; battle of Cape St Vincent, the Spanish fleet defeated, Feb. 14, 1797; Spanish treasury, valued at 3,000,000 dollars, captured by the English fleet, Oct. 29, 1804 ; Spain and France declared war against England, Dec. 12 ; battle of Trafalgar, the combined fleets of France and Spain were totally defeated, Oct. 21, 1805; Godoy, Prince of Peace, the court favourite, 1807; the French entered Spain, 1807; the Prince of Asturias conspired against his father, July 25; treaty of Fontainebleau, Oct. 27; the French took Madrid, March, 1808 ; dismissal of the Prince of Peace by the King, March 18 ; abdi- cation of Charles IV. in favour of Ferdinand, March 19 ; and at Bayonne, in favour of Napoleon, May I ; the French massacred at Madrid, May 2 ; Napo- leon assembled the principal men at Bayonne, May 25 ; Joseph Bonaparte made his entry into Madrid as King of Spain, July 12 ; driven from the capital, July 29 ; Supreme Junta installed, Sept. 8 ; Madrid retaken by the French, and Joseph restored, Dec. 2, who imprisoned the royal family of Spain in the palace of Chambery, in Savoy, Dec. 5 ; the Cortes assembled, Sept. 24, 1810 ; Joseph SPAIN 793 Bonaparte formally restored, July 15, 1811 ; constitution of the Cortes settled, March 14, 1812 ; Ferdinand VII. restored, May 14, 1814 ; the Inquisition re- imposed, July 21 ; the Jesuits brought back again, July 25, 1816 ; Florida sold to the Americans, Feb. 22, 1819 ; death of Queen Maria Isabella, Dec. 26 ; a revolution began, Jan. I, 1820 ; Ferdinand swore to observe the constitution of the Cortes, March 7 ; suppression of the Jesuits, Sept. 21 ; the King removed to Seville, and afterwards to Cadiz, March 20, 1823 ; the French entered Spain, April 7 ; Ferdinand declared war against France, April 23 ; the French entered Madrid, May 24, and invested Cadiz, June 25; battle of the Trocadero fought, Aug. 31 ; the Cortes dissolved, Oct. 4 ; Cadiz taken by the French, Oct. 4 ; Riego executed, Nov. 7 ; triumphal entry of the King and Queen into Madrid, Nov. 13 ; the French evacuated Cadiz, Sept. 21, 1828 ; Cadiz made a free port, Feb. 24, 1829 ; Salique law abolished, March 29, 1830 ; Queen of Spain appointed Regent during the King's indisposition, Oct. 25, 1832 ; Don Carlos declared him- self legitimate successor to his brother, April 29, 1833 ; death of Ferdinand VII.; his Queen assumed the title of Queen, until Isabella II., her infant daughter, should attain her majority, Sept. 29 ; the Royalist volunteers disarmed at Madrid, Oct. 27 ; Don Carlos escaped and landed at Portsmouth with his family, June 18, 1834 ; he suddenly appeared among his adherents in Spain, July 10 ; the Chambers voted his exclusion from the throne, Aug. 30 ; military revo- lution at Malaga, July 25, 1836 ; Bilboa besieged for 2 months by the Carlists, defeated by Espartero with the loss of their guns and materiel, Dec. 25 ; Gene- ral Evans gave up the command of the auxiliary legion, June 20, 1837 ; Madrid besieged, Aug. 11 ; again besieged, Oct. 30 ; the Spanish Cortes dissolved, June !> !839 ; the Ca'rlists, commanded by Marota, deserted Don Carlos, Aug. 25 ; a treaty of peace concluded between Marota and Espartero, Aug. 29 ; Don Carlos fled to France, Sept. 14 ; Madrid declared in a state of siege, Feb. 23, 1840 ; Gen. Morello surrendered, May 28 ; the Carlists' general, Cabrera, unable to hold his ground, entered France with a body of his troops, July 7 ; the British auxiliaries evacuated St Sebastian, and retired, Aug. 25 ; revolutionary move- ment at Madrid defeated the authorities, Sept. i; the ministry dismissed, and the Cortes dissolved, Sept. 9 ; Espartero enters Madrid in triumph, Oct. 5 ; a new ministry appointed by the Queen, and Espartero made Prime Minister, Oct. 5 ; the abdication of the Regent of Spain, Oct. 12; the Papal Nuncio ex- pelled Espartero, Dec. 29 ; Espartero declared Regent during the minority of the young Queen, by the Cortes, April 12, 1841; Queen Christina gives a pro- test to the nation, July 19 ; insurrection in her favour at Pampeluna by the army commanded by Gen. O'Donnell, Oct. 2 ; Don Diego Leon repulsed in his attack on the palace at Madrid, and numbers of his followers slain by the Queen's guards, Oct. 7 ; he was captured and shot at Madrid, Oct. 15 ; Bilboa captured by Gen. Zurbano, Oct. 21 ; the constitutional general Rodil entered Vittoria, Oct. 21 ; Monies de Oca shot, Oct. 21 ; General O'Donnell escaped into the French territory, Oct. 21 ; the pension of Queen Christina suspended, Oct 26 ; thefueros of the Basque provinces abolished, Oct. 29 ; Borio and Gobernado executed at Madrid, Nov. 9 ; Espartero entered Madrid, Nov. 23 ; the strength of the army fixed at 130,000 men, June 28, 1842. At Barcelona an insurrection broke out, the national guard joined the populace, Nov. 13, who had a severe engagement in the streets ; the soldiers retreated to the citadel, losing 500 in killed and wounded, Nov. 15 ; the troops evacuated the citadel, and retired to Montjuich, Nov. 17 ; the port of Barcelona blockaded, Nov. 26 ; Barcelona be- sieged by Gen. Espartero, and its unconditional surrender demanded, Nov. 29, and capitulated, Dec. 3, 4 ; Madrid surrendered to General Narvaez, July 15 ; Seville bombarded by Espartero, July 21 ; the battle of Torrejou and defeat of the army of the Regents, July 22 ; the siege of Seville raised, July 27 ] Espartero and liis friends escaped to London, Aug. 23 ; dissatisfaction expressed against 794 SPAIN the new government at Madrid, Aug. 29 ; the Queen Isabella II., when only thirteen years old, declared by the Cortes of age, Oct. 10 ; took the oath to the constitution, Nov. IO ; Christina, her mother, returned to Spain, March 23, 1844 ; Zurbano promoted an insurrection, Nov. 12 ; taken and shot, Jan. 21, 1845 ; Don Carlos relinquished his right to the crown, in behalf of his son, May 18 ; constitution settled, May 23 ; Narvaez and his ministry resign, Feb. 12 ; they re- turn to power, March 17, and again resign, March 28, 1846. The Queen pub- licly affianced to her cousin, Don Francisco d'Assiz, Duke of Cadiz, Aug. 27 ; Don Carlos escaped from France, Sept. 14 ; marriage of the Queen, and at the same time, the infanta Louisa to the Duke of Montpensier, Oct. 10 ; amnesty granted to political offenders, Oct. 18 ; La Riva fired at the Queen, May 4, 1847 ; sentenced to death, June 23 ; Gen. Espartero restored to office, Sept. 3 ; the British envoy extraordinary ordered to quit Spain in forty-eight hours, May 19, 1848 ; diplomatic relations between the two countries not restored until Aug. 1 8, 1850 ; the Queen gave birth to a male child, which lived only ten minutes, July 12 ; she was delivered of a daughter, Dec. 20, 1851 ; attempt made to assassinate the Queen by a priest (Merino), Feb. 2, 1852, he was exe- cuted, Feb. 7; revolt of the Cordova regiments at Saragossa, Feb. 20, 1854; the kingdom declared in a state of siege, Feb. 22 ; a military insurrection broke out at Madrid, the kingdom declared in a state of siege, June 27 ; Barcelona and several other towns declared against the government, July 17 ; insurrection at Madrid, the streets barricaded, a junta established, July 17 ; Espartero appointed prime minister, July 27 ; the Queen's mother left Madrid escorted by royal troops for Portugal, Aug. 28 ; Fuentes shot at Queen Isabella, May 28, 1856 ; Coup d'Etat at Madrid and resignation of Espartero, July 14, 1856 ; the Queen gave birth to a son, heir to the throne, Prince of the Asturias, Nov. 28, 1857 ; hostilities commenced between Spain and Morocco, Oct. 20, 1859 ; protest against the treatment of Morocco, Oct. 25 ; the fleet blew up the forts at Tetuan, Dec. 30 ; battle between the Spanish forces and the Moroc- cans, in which the former lost 55 men, Jan. 5, 1860; the Moroccans defeat- ed, Jan. 10 ; and again at Tetuan, March 23, and treaty of peace agreed to ; attempted insurrection, headed by Comte de Montemolin, frustrated, and he signed a renunciation of his pretensions to the throne, April 23 ; which he recalled as soon as he was set at liberty, June 15 ; the Chincha Island seized, 1864 ; military revolt in, headed by General Prim, Jan. 3, 1866 ; attempted rising at Madrid in favour of a republic, June 22 ; address of the Liberal deputies to the Queen, Dec. 28; Lord Stanley demanded the surrender of the steamship Victoria, March 30, 1867 ; the King and Queen of Portugal visited Madrid, Aug. 13 ; insurrection in, suppressed, Aug. 27 ; insurrection in, martial law declared, Aug. 17 ; siege raised, Nov. 16 ; death of Marshal O'Donnell, Nov. 5 ; public funeral, Nov. n ; the Cortes opened by the Queen, Dec. 27 ; a British schooner seized by the Span- ish authorities for alleged piracy, Aug. I, 1868 ; revolution against the Govern- ment commenced with the fleet at Cadiz, Sept. 18 ; Queen Isabella deposed, Sept. 29, and fled to Biarritz, Sept. 30 ; the Provisional Government established, Oct. 20 ; Marshal Serrano entered Madrid at the head of the revolutionary troops, Oct. 3 ; the constitution altered by the Cortes, June I, 1869 ; promulgated, June 6 ; a regency determined by the Cortes, June 15 ; Marshal Serrano in- stalled in that office at Madrid, June 1 8. SOVEREIGNS OF SPAIN. Walia 4 2 Theodoredo I. ... ... ... 45 * Alarico, the Goth 406 Thurismundo : assassinated ... 454 Ataulfo ... ... ... ... 411 Theodoredo II.: assassinated ... 467 Sigerico : reigned only a few Eurico ... ... ... ... 43 weeks 41$ Alarico II. 56 Gesalric Amalarico Theudio Theudisilo Agila Atanagildo Levua I. Leovigildo Viterico Recaredo I. Levua II. Gundemaro Sisebuto Recaredo II. Suintila Sisenanto Chintila Tulya Cindasuindo Recesvinto Wamba Ervigio Egica \Vitiza SPAIN 510 Bermudo III , KINGS OF NAVARRE. 795 1037 Kings of Leon i Favila ... Alfonso I. Fruela I. : murdered his brother and was himself murdered ... Aurelio Silo Mauregato ... Bermudo I. Alfonso II., the Chaste : refused the annual tribute of 100 vir- gins to the Saracens, who de- clared war: they were defeated by Alfonso, for which he was called the Chaste and Vic- torious Ramiro I., destroyed 70,000 Sara- cens by the sword in battle . . . Ordono I. Alfonso III., the Great Garcia Ordono II. Fruela II Alfonso IV., an Ecclesiastic ... Ramiro II. Ordono III Sancho I., the Fat Ramiro III Bermudo II. ... Alfonso V. 549 554 567 572 586 600 601 603 612 621 621 631 635 638 640 650 672 687 687 701 711 7H 737 739 757 768 774 IOOO 1034 1050 Sancho III. Garcias III. Sancho IV Garcias Ramirez, king of Arra- gon 1134 Sancho VI. ... ... ... 1150 Sancho VII. ... ... ... 1194 Thibault I., Count of Champagne 1234 Thibault II 1253 Henry Crassus ... ... ... 1270 Juana : married to Philip the Fair of France, 1284 Louis Hutin of France ... Philip V. of France Charles I., the IV. of France ... Juana II., and Philip, Count d' Evereux Juana alone Charles II Charles III Blanche, 1425 ; John II. King of Arragon was her husband Eleanora Francis Phoebus Catherine and John d'Albret ... Henrique II Juana Henrique III 1274 I3<>5 1316 1322 1328 1343 J349 1386 1425 1479 1479 1483 1516 1555 1572 'og SOVEREIGNS OF CASTILE AND LEON. 795 Ferdinando I., the Great ... 1067 Sancho II. 1073 Alfonso VI .-. 1108 Uraca 1126 Alfonso VII 1157 Sancho III 1158 Alfonso VIII 1214 843 Henrique 1 1217 Ferdinando II 1188 850 Alfonso X. 1284 862 Dona Berenguela ... ... 1244 910 Ferdinando III. ... ... 1252 913 Alfonso XI 1284 923 Sancho IV 1295 924 Ferdinando IV. 1312 930 Alfonso XII 1350 950 Pedro the Cruel ; deposed by his 955 subjects. Restored by Edward 967 the Black Prince of England ; 982 subsequently slain 1369 999 Henrique II 1379 1028 Juan I. : united Biscay to Castile 1390 79 6 SPAIN Henrique III. ... Juan II. Henrique VI. Ferdhiando V., united the king- doms of Castile and Arragon by his marriage with Isabella, the Queen of Castile Donaguana or Joan, daughter of the above, married ... Philip I. of Austria. On her mother's death Joan succeed- ed, with her husbandj Philip dying and Joan becoming an her father Ferdinando continued the reign over the united countries KINGS OF ARRAGON. Ramirez I. Sancho Ramirez Pedro I. Alfonso the Warrior, king of Navarre ... Ramirez II. Petronilla, and Raymond, Count of Barcelona ... Alfonso II. Pedro II James I. Pedro III. This prince ordered the massacre known as the Sicilian Vespers in 1282 Alfonso III James II., the Just Alfonso IV Pedro IV. John I. Martin I. Interregnum Ferdinand I. , King of Sicily . . . Alfonso V., the Wise John II., King of Navarre, died H79 SPANISH LAWS 1407 Ferdinand II., by his marriage 1454 with Isabella of Castile united 1474 the kingdoms ... ... 1479 Jane, resigned in favour of her son 1504 1516 SPAIN - Ferdinando V. This prince con- X 555 quered Granada and Navarre, became king of all Spain ... 1516 Charles I., son of Joan of Cas- tile and Philip of Austria, 1516; became Emperor of Ger- many, as Charles V., 1519; resigned both crowns, and re- 1560 tired to a monastery ... ... 1556 Philip II., his son, King of Na- plesand Sicily ; married Mary, IO 35 Queen of England ... ... 1556 1063 Philip III. 1598 1094 Philip IV. 1621 Charles II., son of Philip IV., 1104 the last prince of the Austrian 1134 line ... ... ... ... 1665 Philip V., Duke of Anjou, grand- 1137 son of Louis XIV. of France 1700 1162 Louis I.: reigned only a few 1196 months 1724 1213 Philip V.: restored ... ... 1724 Ferdinando VI. ... ... 1746 Charles III., king of the Two 1276 Sicilies, brother of Ferdinando 1285 VI. : ascended the Spanish 1291 throne and gave the Sicilies 1327 to his third son, Ferdinand ... 1759 1336 Charles IV., son of Charles III. 1788 1387 Ferdinando VII 1808 1395 Joseph Bonaparte, deposed ... 1808 1410 Ferdinando VII. restored, suc- 1412 ceeded by his daughter ... 1814 1416 Isabella II., 1833 : deposed, Sept. 29, 1868 1458 SPALDING LITERARY CLUB, for printing Historical, Ecclesiastical, Genea- logical, and Topographical remains of the North Eastern counties of Scotland, instituted at Aberdeen, 1839. SPANISH ARMADA. See Armada. SPANISH yERA, commenced Jan. I, A.U.C., 715, or B.C. 38 ; abolished in Cata- lonia, 1180; in Arragon, 1350; Valencia, 1358; Castile, 1393 ; Portugal, 1415. SPANISH LAWS, the Fuero Juzgo code of laws, collected by Ciudasvindus, 612 ; that called Les Usages, amended by the Count of Barcelona, 1060 ; Fuero de Cas- tillo, by Alphonso IX., 1212 ; Fuero Real, by Alphonso X., 1254 ; Siete Par- tidas, by Alphonso XL, 1347 ; Recopilacion altered by Philip II., 1567 ; Neuva amended by Philip IV., 1665 ; partially renewed by Philip V., 1723- SPANISH SUCCESSION SPINNING 797 SPANISH SUCCESSION, first treaty in relation to, signed, Oct. II, 1698 ; second treaty, March 25, 1700 ; the triple alliance treaty, Sept. 7, 1701 ; war declared, May 4, 1702; peace restored by the treaty of Utrecht, April II, 1713. SPARTA, Greece, anciently inhabited by the Achaeans, who were subjected by the Dorians. Lycurgus issued a code of regulations for the better government of, B.C. 884. The first Messenian war begun, 743 ; ended, 723. The second Messe- nian war broke out, 685 ; again defeated by the Spartans, 668 ; defeated the Persians at the pass of Thermopylae, 480 ; invaded by Persians, 479 ; defeated by the Greeks, 478. The third Messenian war begun, 464 ; ended in their defeat, 455. The breaking out of the Peloponnesian war, 431, which continued for 27 years. The invasion of Persia, 399 ; peace concluded with, 387 ; defeated by the Greeks at the battle of Leuctra, 371 ; after suffering several defeats they were reduced to a Roman province, 146, from which it never recovered. SPEAKER OF THE HOUSE OF COMMONS. The first is said to have been Peter de Montfort, who was killed at the battle of Evesham, 1260 ; the first chosen by the House was Sir Thomas Hungerford, 1377 ; others supposed Sir Peter de la Mare was the first ; the King refused his assent to Sir Edward Sey- mour as speaker, March 6, 1678 ; Sir J. Trevor expelled the chair as speaker, for taking a gratuity after the act for the benefit of orphans had passed, March 16, 1694 ; John Smith was elected the first speaker by the united Parliament of Great Britain, Oct. 23, 1707; resigned, Nov. I, 1708 ; and Mr Henry Addington elected by the first Parliament of the United Kingdom, Jan. 22, 1801 . He ranks next to the Peers of Great Britain by I Will. & Mary, c. 21, 1688. SPEAKING TRUMPET, one constructed from Kircher's description by Saland, 1652 ; brought to notice by Moreland, 1671. SPECTACLE-MAKERS' COMPANY, London, incorporated, 5 Car. I., May 16, 1629. A livery granted to, Oct. I, 1809 ; increased, Sept. 24, 1822. SPECTACLES are said to be of Asiatic origin. They are of great antiquity in China. An eye-glass or spectacle was discovered in the Stabian-street at Pompeii, in 1854. The invention by some is awarded to Alexander Spina, a monk of Pisa, 1299 ; by others, to SalvinodegF Armati, a Florentine, 1310. The earliest representation of what are now called nose spectacles, occurs in a fresco in the church of S. Trinitk at Florence, executed at the close of the isth century. The first engraved representation is in Schedel's Chronicle, printed at Nuremberg, 1493. They are mentioned in ' London Lykpenny,' by John Lydgate, temp. Henry VI. SPECTATOR, The. The publication of this series of Essays by Steele and Addison published in folio numbers, 1711-12 ; first collected edition, 8 volumes, 1712. SPEKE, the Rev. B., rector of Dowlish Wake, Somersetshire, left for London, Jan. 8, 1868 : not heard of from that time until Feb. 21, when he was arrested at Padstow, in the dress of a drover. SPENSER SOCIETY, established in London for reprinting the Early-English Poets, 1867. SPINET. This musical instrument in use among the ladies of the French court, 1515-20 ; in Italy soon afterwards. -Charles Hitchcock and Hayward of London were noted makers of the Spinet, 1620 1670. SPINNING. The notices of, in the Bible are confined to Ex. xxxv. 25, 26 ; Matt. vi. 28. Spinning with the distaff early practised in England. The spinning- wheel invented in England, 1533. The Spinning Jenny : invention of, the cause of England's prosperity ; suggested by Lewis Paul, 1 738, who invented and pa- tented a machine roller, for spinning cotton, 1738; Hargreave invented the Jenny, 1767; Arkwright's improvements patented, 1769; worked by horses, 798 SPIRES SPITZBERGEN 1771 ; worked his machinery by water at Cromford ; Sam Crompton combined the Jenny and the roller spinning in one machine, 1779 ; now worked by steam. The number of spindles now employed in Great Britain exceeds 36,000,000. SPIRES, Bavaria. The foundation-stone of the Cathedral laid by Conrad II., Aug.- 12, 1030 ; he was buried in the choir, July 1 1, 1039 ; the building consecrated by Bishop Ginhard II., 1061 ; destroyed by fire, June 2, 1689 ; restored, 1770-3 ; pillaged by the French, 1 794 ; it was saved from destruction by order of Napoleon I. Divine service began again to be held in, May 19, 1822 ; restored, 1854-58. The town built by Conrad II., 1029-35 > the Rhine overflowed, doing consider- able damage to the town, 1070 ; almost destroyed by fire, 1127 ; Conrad IV. held a congress here, 1146 ; a diet held at, by Charles V., which condemned the Re- formation, 1529, the reformers being called Protestants. The town taken by the French, 1689 ; the walls destroyed, and the town burnt, June 2 ; again captured by the French, Sept. 29, 1792 ; and also on Jan. 19, 1794. SPIRITS and SPIRITUOUS LIQUORS, taxed as strong water and aqua vit^, 1660, one penny per gallon ; every gallon of spirits made of wine or cider import- ed, 2d. ; every gallon of strong water imported from beyond sea, 4^.; in 1660, additional duty, varying from time to time. Consumption increased in 1 736 ; the gin act passed to restrain spirit drinking, 9 Geo. II. c. 23, May 5. In 1738, no less than 12,000 persons convicted under the gin act within two years ; 5000 paid a penalty of ^500, and 3000 paid 10 each, to prevent going to jail. In 1789, the duty on brandy was only 6j. a gallon. In Ireland, an annual stock of 15,547 gallons of brandy, and 1,744 gallons of geneva, was required, the rates of duty being the same, 1 2s. lod. In March, 1844, the duty reduced to 15^. per gal- lon, in place of i 2s. lod. ; the various acts reduced into one, passed to amend the Excise regulations relating to distilling, rectifying, and dealing in, 23 & 24 Viet. c. 114, Aug. 28, 1860. SPIRITUALISM, of the present century, first developed at Plough Keepsie, America, by Messrs Livingston and Davis, 1845, who delivered 57 lectures be- tween Nov. 28, 1845, and Jan. 25, 1846. The rapping of spirits first said to be discovered by Michael Weekman, at Acadia, N. Y., March, 1848 ; this has been followed by the Davenport Brothers, and still later by Mr Home. The Dialec- tical Society appointed a committee to inquire into the question, which held several meetings in 1869. SPITALFIELDS, London. The Priory and hospital of St Mary's founded by Walter le Brune, first stone laid, July 18, 1235 ; sold to Ralph Warren at the Reformation, for ,1733 6s. 8 suppressed, 1802. STADT-TOLLS, a duty levied upon all vessels carrying merchandise by the Hanoverian Government, settled by treaty, 1691 ; British vessels allowed to pro- STAFFORD STANDARD 801 ceed up to Hamburg before paying the dues, Dec. I, 1736; the toll revised, April 13, 1844 ; a treaty for the redemption of, signed between Great Britain and other powers with Hanover, each of the countries named paying a portion of the redemption, June 22, 1861 ; ratified, June 30. STAFFORD, Staffordshire, castle built by Princess Ethelfleda, 913 ; Edward the Elder, her brother, built a tower to, 914 ; rebuilt by William I., 1080 ; and by the Earl of Stafford, 1372 ; town incorporated by King John ; the battle of Hop- ton Heath fought, March 19, 1643 > the castle taken by the Parliamentary army under Sir William Brereton, 1643 ; canal began, July, 1776. STAGE COACHES. Carriages travelling less than 4 miles within the hour not to be considered stage carriages, 6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 65, s. 7 ; first introduced into England, circa 1570. Hackney Carriages first plied for hire in the city of London, 1625 ; licenses granted to 50 in 1637 ; increased to 2oo in 1652 ; 300 in 1654 ; the first coach stand established in the Strand, 1634. Cabriolets introduced from Paris, 8 being licensed in 1823 ; these were followed by the present cabs, regu- lated by 6 & 7 Viet. c. 86, Aug. 27, 1843. The office of registrar of public carriages consolidated with the office of commissioners of police, 13 & 14 Viet; c. 7, March 25, 1850 ; another act passed for regulating stage and hackney car- riages, 1 6 & 17 Viet. c. 33, June 28, 1853 ; the laws of licensing altered and amended, and the fares fixed, 16 & 17 Viet. c. 127, Aug. 20 ; and 23 & 24 Viet, c. 113, s. 38, Aug. 28, 1860. Diligences and Posts established in France, 1464. See Strikes. STAMFORD, Lincolnshire. The Picts and Scots defeated by the Britons at this town, 450 ; taken by the Danes, circa 902 ; defeated by Edmund I. , 942. The castle built, 922. The Monastery of Blackfriars founded, 1441 ; the Augustine Priory, 1340. A lepers' hospital founded, 1493. The Ratcliffe free-school founded, 1530. All Saints' church built, 1465 ; St George's, 1450. Incorporated by Edw. IV., and by Charles II., 1663. An earthquake felt at, Feb. 27, 1792. The custom of bull running still kept up annually on St Brice's day, Nov. 13. STAMP ACT, 5 Geo. III. c. 12, for levying a tax upon America, passed, March 22, 1765 ; repealed, 6 Geo. III. c. II, March 18, 1766. STAMP DUTIES, first imposed in England by 22 & 23 Charles II. c. 9, 1671 ; revised by 5 & 6 Will, and Mary, c. 21, June 28, 1694, subsequently increased ; first imposed in Ireland, March 25, 1 774 ; these duties altered and amended by 55 Geo. III. c. 184, July 17, 1815. An act was passed to assimilate the duties in Gt Britain and Ireland, 5 & 6 Viet. c. 82, Aug. 5, 1842 ; the duties altered and amended by 13 & 14 Vict c. 97, Aug. 14, 1850 ; and again amended by 16 & 17 Viet. c. 59, Aug. 4, 1853. The duty on Newspapers and Advertisements, i6& 17 Viet. c. 63, Aug. 4, 1853. Stamps levied on cheques, 21 & 22 Viet. c. 20, May 21, 1858. The duties on passports reduced, 21 & 22 Viet. c. 24, June 14, 1858. The collection of duties on probates, administrations, inventories, legacies, &c., amended, 24 & 25 Viet. c. 92, Aug. 6, 1861. STANDARD, in Cornhill, made to supply the neighbourhood with water from the Thames, the pipe carried over St Magnus's Church, designed by Peter Morris, a German, and built, 1582 ; ceased to be used, 1598. The Standard, in Cheap, rebuilt by John Wells, Lord Mayor of London, 1442. STANDARD, the Metallic, of the United Kingdom, first fixed by kw, 1300 ; that for gold being 22 out of 24 parts pure, and the other 2 of silver or copper ; the standard of silver is II oz. 2 dwts of pure metal, with 1 8 dwts of copper, or 40 parts silver, and 3 parts copper ; in 1300, such 12 oz. troy were coined into 2or.; in 1412, into 30?.; in 1527, into 45-f.; in 1545, 6 oz. of silver and 6 of alloy were coined intO48j.; and in the following year the reigning king coined 4oz. of silver and 8 oz. of alloy into 48j. ; Elizabeth in 1560 restored the old standard at 6or, Si So2 STANDARD STATIONERS' COMPANY and in 1601 into 62s., now 66s. ; the common proportions of silver to gold in the mint are as 15,% to I. STANDARD, or ENSIGN, borne by military bodies, but in the singular under- stood as the flag of the chief. In early ages the cross was used as the standard of Christian armies, as Constantine warily bore it to attach the Christians to him, 312. Mahomet's standard was green, and preserved by the Porte with great care ; carried in a procession in 1 768 ; the Turks butchered all the infidels who dared to look at it. The imperial standard of England, after the union with Ireland, was first hoisted on the Tower in London and the Castle in Dublin, Jan. I, 1801. See Flags. STANDARD THEATRE, Shoreditch, built in 1845 ; destroyed by fire, Oct. 22, 1866; rebuilt, length 167 feet, width 90 feet, height 184 feet; first stone laid, July 3, 1867, and opened, Dec. 14. STANDARD, battle. The English Barons fought around the sacred banner at Northallerton, but were defeated by the Scots, Aug. 22, 1138. STANDING while the Gospel is read, ordained, 406. STANISLAUS, ST, a Polish order of knighthood, instituted by King Stanislaus- Augustus Poniatowski, May 7, 1765; reinstituted by Alexander I., Dec. I, 1815. STANNARY LAWS, for the regulation of the Stannaries or Tin Mines. Courts of law, &c., appointed by Edward I., 1304, and Edw. III., 1376 ; confirmed, and relief granted against divers encroachments and oppressions of these courts, 16 Charles I. c. 15, 1640 ; an act passed for the better administration of justice, 6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 1 06, Aug. 20, 1836 ; further provisions made by 2 & 3 Viet. c. 58, Aug. 17, 1839 ; the jurisdiction extended, i8& 19 Viet. c. 32, June 15, 1855. STAPLES' INN, made an Inn of Chancery in the reign of Henry V.; granted to the society of Gray's Inn by Hen. VIII., 1528 ; the hall was built, circa 1460. STARCHING OF LINEN, first brought into England by Mrs Dingham of Flan- ders, 1554 ; starch was heavily taxed by Pitt, but the act was subsequently re- pealed ; the starch-makers' company incorporated, 1622. Yellow starch invented by Mrs Turner, who was executed for poisoning Sir Thomas Overbury, Nov. 15, 1615 ; Mr Jones patented his process for making rice starch, 1840. STARCH-MAKERS' COMPANY, incorporated, 20 James I., May 13, 1622. STAR CHAMBER, Court of the, named from the ceiling being ornamented with stars. This court was reinstituted by 3 Henry VII. c. I, 1487, and 21 Hen. VIII. c. 20, as a place to try causes before the privy council. This court was abolished, 16 Charles I. c. 10, n, 1641 STAR CASTLE, Scilly Islands, built, 1593. STAR, order of knighthood in France, disused, 1465. STAR OF INDIA, order of, founded by Queen Victoria, Feb. 23, 1861. STATE PAPER OFFICE, St James's Park. First public depository in England, erected, 1578, and Dr Wilson appointed the first keeper ; re-erected, 1833; re- moved to Chancery Lane. STATES-GENERAL of France, an ancient assembly of that country, last con- vened before the revolution of 1 789 ; it consisted of three orders the nobility, clergy, and commons; they met last May 5, 1789, when they differed about meeting in three bodies or collectively ; they finally met in one hall, and thence the national assembly of that eventful era. STATIONERS' COMPANY, London, incorporated, 3 & 4 Philip and Mary, May STATISTICAL SOCIETY STATUES 803 4, 1556; second, May 4, 1557; again, 1667 and 1684; their first charter confirmed, 1689 ; arms granted to, Sept. 6, 1557 ; they had a patent for the sole printing of almanacks, 1615, in aid of their poor members. The first Hall was erected in Milk-street, but before their incorporation they removed to St Peter's College, St Paul's, 1553 ; they purchased Abergaveny House, 1611 ; it was de- stroyed in the fire of 1666; and the present Hall built, 1670; newly fronted, 1800 ; School established by, in Bolt Court, Fleet-street, opened April 8, 1861. STATISTICAL SOCIETY, London, established, March 15, 1834. STATUES. The public statues placed under the control of the commissioners of works and public buildings, 17 & 18 Viet. c. 33, July IO, 1854. Statues. Achilles Albert, Prince > Alfred, King Anne, Queen of James I. Anne, Queen Aske, Robert Bedford, Duke of Beckford, William Bentinck, Lord George Canning, George Cartwright, Major Charles I. Charles II. Clayton, Sir Robert Sites. Hyde Park Royal Exchange Licensed Victuallers' Asylum Trinity Square, Newington Temple Bar Queen Square, Bloomsbury ,, ,, Westminster St Paul's Churchyard Aske Hospital, Pitfield St., Hoxton Russell Square Guildhall Cavendish Square Westminster Burton Crescent Charing Cross Temple Bar Stocks' Market Temple Bar Royal Exchange Chelsea Hospital St Thomas's Hospital (now removed) Carlton Gardens Foundling Hospital Crosby Hall Front Cavendish Square Sculptors. Date. Westmacott June 1 8, 1822 Lough Earl Bushnell F. Bird Sir R. Westmacott Moore Campbell Chantrey Clarke Le Sceur 1850 1672 I7II 1809 1770 1832 Bushnell Bushnell Gibbons cast 1633 erected 1671 1672 1675 1672 1714 Clyde, Lord Coram, Captain Crosby, Sir John Cumberland, Duke of erected by Lieut. -Gen. William Strode, taken down to be recast, Sept. 14, 1868. Elizabeth, Queen St Dunstan's, Fleet Street 1586 Marochetti Calder Marshall Nov., 1856 Nixon Chew Nov. 19, 1770 Edward VI. Fox, C. J. Franklin, Sir John George I. George II. St Dunstan's, Fleet Street Royal Exchange Christ's Hospital St Bartholomew's Hospital St Thomas's Hospital (now removed) Bloomsbury Square Carlton Gardens Grosvenor Square Leicester Square (from the Cannons, near Edgware) Golden Square (from Can- nons, Edgware) M. S. Watson Scheemakers Sir R. Westmacott Noble Vancost Buchard 1682 1737 1816 1866 1726 1747 804 STATUES Statues. George III. George IV. Gresham, Sir T. Guards' Memorial Guy, Thomas Handel, G. F. Henry VIII. Herbert, Lord Havelock, Sir Henry Hunter, John Huskisson, William James I. James II. Jenner, Dr Kent, Duke of Moore, Sir John McGregor, Sir J. Myddleton, Sir Hugh Nelson, Lord Napier, Si'r'c. J. Peabody, George Peel, Sir Robert Pitt, William Pitt, William, Earl of Chatham Pitt, the Right Hon. W. Richard Cceur de Lion Shakespeare, William Sloane. Sir Hans Victoria, Queen Sites. Berkeley Square Somerset House Cockspur Street Guildhall Trafalgar Square Royal Exchange Waterloo Place Guy's Hospital Sacred Harmonic Society St Bartholomew's Hospital War Office, Pall Mall Trafalgar Square College of Surgeons Lloyds, Royal Exchange Temple Bar Whitehall Gardens Soho Square Kensington Gardens, W. Portland Place Christ's Hospital Chelsea Hospital Islington Green Royal Exchange Trafalgar Square Guildhall Trafalgar Square Royal Exchange Cheapside Palace Yard Hanover Square Sculptors. Beaupre Bacon Wyatt Chantrey Chantrey Behnes Bell Scheemakers Roubiliac Foley Behnes Weekes Lough Bushnell Gibbons Date. 1788 1836 1815 1845 1861 1867 1861 1672 1686 1858 Calder Marshall Gahagan 1694 1865 1862 Nov. 4, 1843 Noble Thomas Carew Baily 1852; Lions fixed, 1867 Watts, Dr Isaac Wellington, Duke of Guildhall Guildhall Palace Yard, Westminster Drury Lane Theatre Chelsea Royal Exchange New Record Office Abney Park Cemetery Green Park Woolwich ,, ,, Royal Exchange Guildhall Westminster, OldScholarsWestminster Broadway William III. St James's Square ,, ,, Bank of England William IV. King William Street York, Duke of York Column STATUTE MILE, first ascertained in England, 1593. STATUTES, first promulgated, 1215 ; written copies were sent to the sheriffs of all counties to be cried, and to the cathedrals and monasteries to be preserved ; this practice was discontinued, 1484, when they were first printed in English, 1484 ; and printed copies circulated, and titles prefixed to them, 1487. The more Smyth 1810 Adams 1856 Story July 23, 1869 Behnes 1855 Marochetti Chantrey 1831 Bacon 1782 Bubb 1813 Marochetti 1861 Scheemakers Rysbraeck Lough Oct. 28, 1845 Durham Baily Wyatt 1846 Milnes Chantrey June 1 8, 1844 Bell 1857 Scott Bacon, Jun. 1808 Nixon 1845 Westmacott April 8, 1834 STEAM-ENGINES STEAM-VESSELS 805 celebrated were those of Clarendon to restrain the clergy, written in French,iz67 ; Marlborough, 1269; Gloucester, the earliest of which any record exists, 1277; of Mortmain, 1279 ; Quo Warranto, Oct., 1280 ; of Winchester, Oct., 1284; for- bidding the levy of taxes without consent of parliament, 1297; of Premunire, 1306; the statutes at large printed by Mr Barker, 1587 ; since the Union, 5500 copies of every act are circulated. The statutes compiled from the original MSS. and re- cords by commissioners appointed, 1801 ; the first volume appeared, 1811 ; the second, 1816 ; and the whole completed in 1824 ; revision of, by Lord Chancellor Westbury, 1863. Scotch statutes first collected by a commission appointed in 1566 ; printed by Royal command, 1844 ; an act passed for the revision of the statute law, 30 & 31 Viet. c. 60, July 15, 1867 ; size altered, 1869. STEAM-ENGINES. Several machines, more elegant than useful, were promul- gated and shown prior to that of Branca, who resided at Rome in the beginning of the 1 7th century, 1628, 1629. The Marquis of Worcester constructed the first steam-engine ; see his 'Century of Inventions,' published in 1663. Papin's di- gester invented, 1681, being his first project ; his idea of a steam-engine promul- gated, 1690 ; Savary the first who raised water by fire, 1698 ; Papin's engine shown to the Royal Society, 1699 ; Savary published an account of his engine, 1696, and his answer to objections in his 'Miner's Friend,' 1702; Amonton's fire-wheel invented, 1699; Papin's new engine, 1707; Cawley and New- comen's engine in conjunction with Savary, 1705 ; Newcomen's engine erect- ed at Wolverhampton, 1712; Beighton's engine, 1718; Savary dredged rivers by steam, 1718 ; Leupold's engine, the first high-pressure, 1720 ; Hull's patent for moving ships by steam, 1736; Blakeley's engine, 1756; Fitzgerald's attempted improvements, 1758; the atmospheric engine intro- duced into the United States of America between 1750 and 1760; Watt's invention of condensing in a separate vessel, 1765 ; his first patent, April, 1769 ; his patent renewed, 1775 ; engine to give a rotatory motion, 1774 ; Smeaton's portable atmospheric engine, 1765; Watt's expansion engine, 1778; double-acting engines proposed by Dr Falck, on Newcomen's principles, 1 779 ; Mr Wasbrough invented the ratchet-wheel engine, 1779; Watt's double engine, and his first patent for it granted, 1781 ; the Marquess Jouffroy constructed an engine on the Saone, 1781 ; Homblower^s engine, 1782; Cook's rotatory engine, 1787; Mr Beighton improved upon Newcomen's engine, 1788 ; W, Symington made a passage on the Forth and Clyde Canal, 1 789 ; first steam-engine erected in Dublin by Henry Jackson, 1791 ; Sadler's rotatory engine, 1791 ; Cartwright's engine, 1797; Hornblower's rotative engine, 1798; Nancarrow's engine, 1799; Tre- vethick's high-pressure engine, 1802 ; Trevethick and Vivian, 1804 ; Hornblower's steam-wheel, 1805 ; Woolfe, London, double cylinder, 1805 ; Miller, London, 1805 ; Maudsley, 1807 ; portable engine, 1807 ; Mead, Hull, steam-wheel, 1 808 ; Noble, new steam-engine, 1809 ; Clegg, steam-wheel, 1809 ; James, steam -boat, 1811 ; Blenkinsop first attempted to convey coals by steam power on tramways, 1811 ; Fox and Dean, 1812 ; Noble's improved engine, 1814; Dodd, carriages, and Stephenson, carriages, 1814 ; Trevethick, rotative engine, 1815 ; Oldham, steam-boats, 1817 ; Congreve, steam-wheel, 1818; Rider, rotatory engine, 1820; Perkins, 1822; Stephenson, 1822, 1823, &c. &c.; locomotive steam -carriages on railway at Liverpool, Oct., 1829. STEAM-HAMMER, Mr Nasmyth invented and patented, June 9, 1842. STEAM-VESSELS, a vessel having paddle-wheels turned by 40 men in Spain, 1343. The Marquis of Worcester patented a paddle-wheel vessel, 1661 ; Denis Papin first proposed to use steam to work the paddle-wheels, 1690, and in 1707 propelled a vessel by these means ; Jonathan Hull first patented a paddle-wheel steam-boat, 1736 ; John Fitch invented a small steam-skiff in America, 1786 ; it moved at the rate of 7 miles an hour ; he invented one in 1789, which conveyed 806 STEEL STENOGRAPHY passengers from Philadelphia to Burlington at the rate of 8 miles an hour, 1789 ; in Scotland by Patrick Miller, 1787 ; a paddle-wheel steam-boat built by Samuel Moray, and tried on the Delaware, 1798 ; the Charlotte Dundas ran on the Clyde canal, 1801 ; Fulton used a steamer on the Seine, and the Clermont, 1803 ; another, in America, 1807 ; Fulton's first steam -frigate launched at New York, 1809 ; the Comet built by Bell at Glasgow, 1811 ; Dr Dodd steamed from Glas- gow by Dublin to London in the Thames, in 121 hours, 1815 ; the first steam- boat established on the Mersey, 1815. Steam navigation introduced into France, 1815. Napier's steam-packets ran regularly between Greenock and Belfast, 1818; the first steam-boat between Birkenhead and Liverpool run by Mr George La French, 1821 ; the Atlantic steam- vessel, the St Patrick, between Liverpool and Dublin, made her first trip, May, 1822 ; the Comet first carried the Admiralty pendant, 1822; the Enterprise steamed from England to Calcutta in 113 days, Captain John- son obtained the prize of .10,000 for making the first voyage to India, 1825 ; the Salamander was the first steam vessel-of- war, 1832; the first screw-steamer was tried by Stevens in America, 1804 ; by Brown on the Thames, 1825 ; Cap- tain Ericsson introduced his screw propeller, May 25, 1837 ; the Bee carried both screws and paddles, 1842 ; two screws employed, one under each quarter, 1852. STEEL. Iron refined and hardened, first made, circa 1 770 ; the process of making, improved, 1798. Cast steel invented by Benjamin Huntsman of Doncaster, 1740 50 ; first described by M. Breant, 1824 ; Puddled steel first made at Frant- schach in Carinthia, 1835 5 ^e English manufacture of, greatly improved by Mr Heath, 1839 ; made by Mr Bishop in the Harz, 1846 ; Mr Ewald Riepe pa- tented his method, 1850 ; this process first practised at the Mersey Works, Liver- pool, 1857 ; M. Bessemer's process patented, 1856 ; Parry's process in the same year. STEEL PENS, known to the Dutch, circa 1809 ; 2 pens and a holder fetched one shilling in Ireland, 1824. In 1849 there were 12 factories in Birmingham, giving employment to 300 men and boys and 500 women and girls, making 65,000 gross a week; in 1869 increased to 100,000 gross. STEEL- YARD, an ancient Roman balance, B.C. 315 ; the vulgar in some places call them Stilliers. STEELYARD MERCHANTS, or EASTERLINGS, settled in England in the I2th century, and permitted by Hen. III. to erect a Guildhall, called Teutonicorum, 1250 ; for which privilege they were obliged to keep Bishopsgate in repair, and, if necessary, defend it against invaders ; compelled to repair the gate, 1282 ; fined a sum of A 13, and several other privileges taken away for neglect of duty, 1469 ; their ancient rights restored, 1475 ; their hall assailed by the London apprentices for a fortnight, 1493 ; to be placed on the same footing as other Merchant Strangers, Feb. 23, 1551 ; the trade closed by order of Queen Elizabeth, Jan. 28, 1598 ; the hall used for Her Majesty's navy, Jan. 30, 1599 ; burnt in the fire of London, but immediately rebuilt, removed, 1863, for the Charing Cross Railway Station. STEINKIRK, battle, the English, under William III., attacked the French under Luxembourg, but were unsuccessful, 5000 men were killed on either side, July 24, 1692. STENOGRAPHY, or short-hand writing. The inventor is unknown; it was how- ever known to the Romans. The oldest system now known was printed, 1412 ; Bales, the penman, also wrote upon stenography, 1590. ' A Chronological and Comparative View of twenty-two original Alphabets,' of short-hand, ' selected from about a hundred, which have appeared in England since the year 1588 :' they consist of the several alphabets of Dr Bright, 1588 ; J. Willis, 1602 ; E. Willis, 1618 ; Cartwright, 1642 ; Shelton, 1672 ; Bridger, 1659 ; Mason, 1682 ; Sloane STEPHEN STOCKHOLM 807 MS., 1700; Tanner, 1712; Gibbs, 1756; Macaulay, 1746; Annet, 1761; Jeake, 1748; Lyle, 1762; Anonym., 1763; Holdsworth, 1761; Byrom, 1767; Graves, 1775 ; Mavor, 1780; Taylor, 1786 ; Blanchard, 1787 ; Roe, 1802. STEPHEN, King of England. See England, the Kings of. STEPHEN, ST, order of knighthood of, instituted by Cosmos de' Medicis, first Grand Duke of Tuscany, 1562 ; re-established by the Grand Duke Ferdinand III., Dec. 22, 1817 ; an Austrian order of the same name, instituted by the Em- press Maria Theresa, May 5, 1764. STEPHEN'S CHAPEL, Westminster, built by King Stephen, 1141 ; repaired by St Thomas-a-Becket, 1163 ; greatly adorned by Henry III., 1236 ; and by Edw. I., begun, March 28, 1292 ; the chapel destroyed by fire, March 29, 1298 ; the work of rebuilding begun by Edward III., May 27, 1330, and was finished in 1347 ; it was 86 feet long, 38 wide, and 44 in height ; re-beautified, 1350-60. Ceased as a place of worship at the dissolution, and made crown property by I Edw. VI. c. 14, 1547, and appropriated as a residence for the auditors and tellers of the Exchequer, shortly afterwards. The House of Commons commenced their sittings here, and with two exceptions (the Oxford Parliament, 1625 ; and the plague year, Oct., 1665), continued to hold their sessions here until it was destroyed by fire, Oct. 1 6, 1834. STEREOMETER, an instrument to measure the liquid contents of any vessel, in- vented, 1350. STEREOSCOPE. Professor Elliott made one in 1839 ; Mr Maynard read a paper describing this instrument before the Royal Society, June, 1838 ; Mr Wheat- stone, the inventor, read a paper before the Royal Society, June 21 ; the Lenti- cular stereoscope, the one now in use, invented by Sir David Brewster, 1849. STEREOTYPE. The Bible printed from cast plates at Leyden, by J. Vander Mey, at the end of the i6th century; SchaaPs Syriac New Testament printed by this process, 1 709. Mr Ged, a Scotchman, invented a scheme of block printing, 1 725, but it did not find favour ; ' Sallust' printed by his process, 1736 ; it fell into disuse until M. Didot, of Paris, re-invented this art, 1779; Mr Wilson first brought it into use in London, 1804. STETTIN, Prussia, surrendered to the French, 1806 ; constituted a department, 1806 ; captured by the allies after a blockade of 8 months, Nov. 21, 1813. STEWS in Southwark suppressed, 1546, until then licensed by the Bishop. STIRLING, Scotland, Alexander I. died in the castle of, 1124 ; it defied the whole of Edward I.'s army for three months, 1304. Cambuskenneth Abbey founded by David I., 1147; the Greyfriars' church erected by James IV., 1494; Cowan hospital founded by John Cowan, 1639. ST JAMES'S THEATRE, opened by Braham, with the opera called ' Agnes Lovel,' Dec. 14, 1835. STOCK-BROKERS. Stock -jobbing or broking was contemporaneous with the creation of the National Debt in the reign of William III., 1695 ; they had the exclusive entree to the Royal Exchange ; jobbing in the English funds and East India stocks, forbidden by 7 Geo. II. c. 8, March 28, 1734; regulated, 10 Geo. II. c. 8, 1737. The Stock Exchange founded, 1700. See Brokers. STOCK EXCHANGE, in Capel Court, designed by James Peacock ; foundation laid, May 18, 1800; opened, March, 1802 ; rebuilt from the design of Thomas Allason, and opened, March 2, 1854. STOCKHOLM, Sweden, founded by Berger Jarl, father of Valdemar I., circa 1260 ; besieged for six months, from Oct. 7, 1501, to March 27, 1502 ; and again for four months, by Christian II. of Denmark, 1520, when it surrendered, and 8o3 STOCKINGS STOCKS MARKET most of the town with its defenders were destroyed ; the palace begun in 1697, and completed in 1753 ; 1000 houses burnt at, 1751 ; and again 250 destroyed, Aug. 31, 1759. Library founded, 1699; peace signed between England and Sweden, Nov. 20, 1719; with Russia, March 24, 1724; Gustavus III. shot by Ankerstrom at a mask ball at the Royal Theatre, March 15, 1792, and the King died on the 29th ; a treaty agreed to with England, March 3,1813; explosion of a nitro- glycerine factory, 15 persons being killed, June 16, 1868. STOCKINGS. Great attention was paid by the Roman clergy to this article of ornament. Bishop Riculfus Helenensis leaves his highly ornamented stockings to the church for the use of all future bishops, 915; Bishop Wayneflete's stockings of cloth of silver, embroidered with birds in gold, and with flowers in coloured silks, are still to be seen at Oxford, made in 1222. Silk, first worn by Henry II. of France, 1547- Howell says, that in 1601 Queen Elizabeth was presented with a pair of black knit silk stockings by her silk-woman, Mrs Montague, and she never wore cloth ones after. He adds that Henry VIII., that magnificent and unprin- cipled monarch, wore ordinarily cloth hose, except there came from Spain, by great chance, a pair of silk stockings ; for Spain very early abounded with silk. His son, Edward VI., was presented with a pair of Spanish silk stockings by his merchant ; Sir Thomas Gresham wrote to Sir William Cecil, telling him that he had written to Spain for silk hose to present to him and his Lady Eliza- beth, April 30, 1560. Others relate that William Rider, a London apprentice, seeing at the house of an Italian merchant a pair of knitted worsted stockings from Mantua, thence made a pair like them, which he presented to the Earl of Pembroke, the first of the kind made in England, 1 564. Stocking-frame weaving was invented by the Rev. Mr Lee, of Cambridge, 1589 ; the first 8 frames erect- ed, 1595 ; he went to France in 1603, and there died of neglect. Strutt's patent for ' Derby rib ' hosiery first made, 1758 ; Crane of Edmonton, applying a warp frame to the stocking-loom, made a Vandyke looped stocking-web, 1 768 ; Else and Harvey invented the ' knotted,' ' twilled,' ' stump wire,' and ' mesh ' machines, 1770 ; Robert Frost adapted the ' tickler' to the machine, 1780 ; Mr Brunei pa- tented a machine for knitting, Sept., 1816. STOCKPORT, Cheshire, the castle of, held by Geoffrey de Costentyn against Hen. II., 1173 ; a free Grammar School founded by Sir Edmund Shaa, gold- smith of London, 1482 ; declared for the Royalists but defeated by the Parlia- mentarians, 1648 ; made a borough, 1832 ; riots between the Protestants and Roman Catholics, June 28, 1852. STOCKS, the public funds so called, which originated in Venice, and were intro- duced into Florence, 1340 ; the Stock Exchange hoax of Baron deBerenger and others, Feb. 22, 1814 ; stockholders in 1840, 337,481. STOCKS. This mode of punishment for drunkenness inflicted in several towns in England in the I2th century. The stocks on Cornhill erected in the I3th cen- tury. Every village and town compelled to have a pair of, 7 Hen. IV. c. 17, 1405. The punishment for this crime increased by fining each offender 5 shillings besides being kept 6 hours in the stocks, 4 James I. c. 5, 1606 ; confirmed by 21 James I. c. 7, 1623. Some of the civic companies in London had stocks set up in their hall for the punishment of their refractory members ; the Vintners had a new pair erected, Oct. 12, 1609. STOCKS MARKET. The site now occupied by the Mansion House is mentioned as shambles, 1319. The statue of Charles II., erected by Sir Robert Viner, 1675, is said to have been cut for John Sobieski, King of Poland, his horse trampling on a prostrate Turk ; this was converted into an exceedingly bad likeness of Charles II., and the Mussulman into Oliver Cromwell. The Mansion House erected on the site, 1735. The corporation presented the statue to a de- scendant of Sir Robert, who took it away to decorate his country-seat. STOCKTON-ON-TEES CASTLE STRASBURG 809 STOCKTON-ON-TEES CASTLE, Durham, built by Bishop Pudsey, 1160 ; King John entertained in, by Bishop Philip de Poictou, 1214; repaired by Bishop Barnes, 1578 ; taken for the Parliament, 1644; demolished, 1650. STOCKWELL ORPHANAGE, London, the first stone laid by C. H. Spurgeon, Sept. 9, 1867. STOICS. The Stoics and Epicureans, who are mentioned together in Acts xvii. 18, represent the two opposite schools of practical philosophy which survived the fall of higher speculation in Greece. The Stoic school was founded by Zeno of Citium, B.C. 260. STOKE, battle, the last contest in the Wars of the Roses, the Tudor rose being suc- cessful ; the Yorkists were commanded by the Earl Lincoln, Lord Thomas Fitz- gerald, and the Lancastrians by Henry VII., six thousand were killed, June 16, 1487. STONE, buildings of, first erected in England, 674 ; bridge of, at Bow, 1087 ; at Crowland, 960 ; bullets of, used as late as 1514 ; church of, the first built in London, 1087; artificial, for statues, discovered by a Neapolitan, 1776; intro- duced here by Mrs Coade ; stone paper made, 1796. STONE, OPERATION FOR, called lithotomy, said to have been first performed at Alexandria, A.D. 17 ; first successfully performed on a criminal at Paris, 1475 ; a Mrs Stevens rewarded by parliament for a nostrum to cure, 1739. See Lithotomy. STONEHENGE, near Salisbury, Wiltshire. One of the uprights and a top stone or trilithon fell during .a thaw, Jan. 3, 1797. Origin of, not known ; attributed by some to Ambrosius, in memory of 460 Britons murdered by Hengist ; by others, as a monument to Ambrosius, 5 > by some, a Roman circus ; by others, to the worship of the sun, which is most probable. STOPS IN PRINTING, introduced, 1520; colon, 1580; semicolon, 1599. ST QUENTIN, battle, the Spaniards defeated the French forces at, Aug. 10, 1557. STRALSUND, Prussia, founded, 1209 ; besieged by Wallenstein, who, after a loss of 10,000 men, was compelled to raise the siege, 1628 ; taken by the Ger- mans, under Frederick William, 1678 ; surrendered, 1679 ; taken by the Prus- sians, 1715 ; restored to Sweden, 1720; besieged and captured by the French, 1807, who destroyed the fortifications ; captured by Gen. Schill, 1809 ; retaken by the French, and Gen. Schill killed, May 31, 1809 ; ceded to Denmark, 1810, and by that power to Prussia, 1815. STRAND, London, mentioned in a Saxon charter of Westminster; the footway is described as interrupted by thickets and bushes, 1315. Tolls granted for paving the, 1383 ; several houses for the nobility built, 1 5th century ; riot in, three houses stripped anddemolished by the mob, July 1, 1 749 ; the road improved and extended to Charing Cross by 7 Geo. IV. c. 77, May 31, 1826 ; the Music Hall opened, Oct. 19, 1864 ; Charing Cross theatre opened, June 19, 1869. STRAND BRIDGE, first stone of, laid, Oct. u, 1811 ; opened, June 18, 1817, hence called Waterloo Bridge. STRAND THEATRE, opened as 'Rayner's Subscription Theatre,' Jan 25, 1832. STRASBURG, France, built upon the site of the Roman town, Argentoratum. Cathedral, one of the finest Gothic buildings known; its spire is the highest in the world, 468 ft. above the pavement, 64 ft. higher than St Paul's; begun in the 1 2th cent. The tower begun, 1277 ; completed, 1439. The earliest attempt at printing was made in this town, circa 1436 ; the university founded, 1621 ; the town ceded by Austria to France, 1681 ; fortified by Vauban, 1682-4; conspiracy 8io STRATFORD-UPON-AVON ST SAVIOUR'S at, Louis Napoleon entered the fortress in disguise, Oct. 28, 1836; revolt attempt- ed, Oct. 30; the Prince banished to America ; visited as President, Aug., 1850. STRATFORD-UPON-AVON, Warwickshire, a monastery founded by Ethelred. The town incorporated by Edward VI.; partially burnt, 1574; another serious fire at, Aug. I, 1614 ; the stone bridge over the Avon built by Sir Hugh Clopton, in the reign of Henry VII. New Place, the residence of Sir Hugh Clopton, was left to his cousin by his will, Sept. 14, 1496 ; purchased by Shakespeare, May 4, 1597 ; the mulberry-tree planted by him, 1609 ; jubilee instituted by Garrick, in honour of, held Sept. 6, 1769; Shakespeare's house sold for ^3000, Sept. 16, 1847 ; the garden and site of the mansion of New Place purchased for the nation by subscriptions, raised by J. O. Halliwell, Esq., F.S.A., for ^3579, Oct. 22, 1861. The tercentenary of, commemorated by a series of entertainments, lasting a week, April 23, 1864. STRATHMORE, Countess of, once Miss Bowes of Durham, with immense pro- perty, married the Earl of Strathmore, Feb. 25, 1766; after the earl's death she was married to Mr Stoney Robinson, and afterwards forcibly carried off by him assisted by armed men, Nov. 10, 1 786 ; she was brought up to the King's Bench by habeas corpus, and released, and Mr Robinson committed to prison, Nov. 23, when she recovered her estates, which she had assigned to him under the influence of fear, in May, 1 788. STRATTON, Cornwall, battle, between the royal troops, led by Ralph Hopton, and the Earl of Stamford, in which the former was victorious, and took General Chudleigh and 1700 men prisoners, for which he was made Baron Hopton of Stratton, May 16, 1643. STRAWBERRY HILL, the cottage originally built, 1698; purchased by Horace Walpole, May, 1747-8; rebuilt and decorated, 1753-76; curiosities collected by, sold by auction, which extended over 24 days, by George Robins, April 25 to May 21, 1842. STREATHAM, Surrey, mineral spring discovered at, 1639. STREATHAM CASTLE, Durham, built by Sir William Bowes, 1450 ; almost destroyed, 1569; rebuilt and modernized by another Sir William Bowes, 1708-10. STREET MUSIC, an act passed for the better regulation of, 27 & 28 Viet. c. 55, July, 1864. STRIKES, a list of the principal, in the present century : Birmingham, the nail-makers, April 25, 5th to the loth Sept., 1868. 1842. London engineers, 1852. Bury, the factory operatives of, out on London, the drivers and firemen of the strike for 13 weeks, 1853-4. London Brighton, and South coast Coventry ribbon-weavers, the, 1860. railway, March 26, 1867; settled, Glasgow cotton-spinners, the, 1837- April 30. Lancashire spinners, numbering 250,000, London tailors, April 22, 1867; ended, out on strike for 15 weeks, 1810. Oct. 9. Leeds, the weavers of, numbering 2000, Preston, the artisans of, 1836,1854. 1834. Staffordshire potters, 1835. London, the builders and masons, call- Staffordshire North and South, iron- ed the 9 hours' movement, July and workers, March 18, 1865 ; the lock- Aug., 1859. out in the South withdrawn, April 5. London cabmen, July 27-30, 1858 ; and Stockport operatives and factory hands Tuesday, Dec. 3, 1867; also from the on strike for increased wages, 1854. ST SAVIOUR'S GRAMMAR SCHOOL, Southwark, was founded by the parishioners, 1562, and chartered by Queen Elizabeth ; burnt, 1676 ; taken STUART SUEZ 8n down, and rebuilt in Summer-street, 1830-9; regulated by the Court of Chancery, 1850. STUART, Cardinal of York, son of the Pretender, ordained by the pope, Sept. I, 1748. STUARTS, fatality attending the King James of Scotland, eighteen years im- prisoned in England, and, with his queen, assassinated, 1405 ; James II., 29 years of age, killed in fighting against England, 1437 ; James III. was first im- prisoned, and subsequently killed in battle by his rebellious subjects, 1460 ; James IV. perished in the battle which he lost, 1513; James V. supposed murdered, 1542; Mary Stuart, his daughter, Queen of Scotland, after 18 years' imprisonment, was beheaded, 1586; Charles I. beheaded, 1649 ; James II. driven from his three kingdoms ; his son attempted to mount the throne, and their friends and grandsons executed for the attempt, 1715, 1745. STUCCO-WORK, an invention of the ancients, said to have been revived by D'Udine, 1550. STUTTGARD, Wiirtemberg, the capital of the house of Wiirtemberg since 1482; the hospital church erected, 1471 ; tower added, 1738 ; the old palace begun, 1553, and finished, 1570 ; the state house, 1580 ; the new palace begun, 1746 ; completed, 1806. STYLE, Alteration of. See Calendar. SUBSIDIES. Under the lavish system of Pitt, in his ambition to be a distinguished war minister, England was fleeced by every miserable continental power ; the aggregate of the sums given on all sorts of pretexts was, from 1793 to 1814, ,46,289,459. SUCCESSION ACT, passed to exclude Roman Catholics from the throne, i Will. & Mary, s. 2, c. 2, 1689; by an act of 13 & 14 Will. III., c. 6, passed June 12, 1701, the crown of England was settled upon the present Royal family. SUCCESSION DUTY, an act passed for granting to Her Majesty duties on suc- cession to property, and for altering certain provisions of the acts charging duties on legacies and shares of personal estates, i6& 17 Viet. c. 51, Aug. 4, 1853. SUDBURY, Suffolk, the Flemings introduced the manufacture of woollen cloth, in the reign of Edward III. The town was incorporated by Queen Mary, 1554; confirmed by Elizabeth, 1559; the Free Grammar School founded by William Wood, 1491. SUDLEY CASTLE, Gloucestershire, built by Ralph Boteler, Lord Sudley, 1442 ; Queen Elizabeth entertained at, by Lord Chandos, 1592 ; destroyed by the Parliamentarians, 1647. SUEVI, said to have been the inhabitants of Lusace in Upper Saxony, invaded Gaul, B.C. 71 ; defeated and crossed the Rhine, 53 ; styling themselves Visi- goths on settling in Spain, A.u. 409, to distinguish themselves from the Ostro- goths, established in Italy, 419. SUEZ, Egypt, a map of, given in the travels of Sinschooten, A.D. 1576; 2 canals connect the Red Sea with the Mediterranean Sea ; attempt to cut one through the Isthmus failed, 1497 ; Selim, the Emperor of Turkey, projected a ship canal, 1566-74 ; a canal attempted by Napoleon I., 1798 ; the Viceroy of Egypt author- izes M. De Lesseps to form a company for making a canal across the Isthmus of, Nov. 30, 1854 ; a charter granted to carry out the scheme, Jan. 5, 1856 ; a com- pany formed in France, 1859 ; partially opened, a collier passing through, Aug. 15, 1865. The Railway between Suez and Ismailia opened, Aug. 15, 1 868 ; the canal publicly opened in the presence of the Viceroy, March 1 8, 1869. 8i2 SUFFOLK SUN AND LION SUFFOLK, England ; at the Roman invasion this county was inhabited by the Iceni ; erected by Uffa into the kingdom of Plast Anglia, 575. Archdeaconry of, erected, circa 1127. SUFFRAGAN BISHOPS appointed to the following places under the 26 Henry VIII. c. 14, 1534. The Bishop presents two names to the crown, who selects one. Bedford, 1537-60. Berwick, 1536-70. Bristol, 1538. Colchester, 1536. Dover, 1537. Hull, 1552. Ipswich, 1536. London again, 1592- 1607. Marlborough, 1537. Nottingham, 1567-70. Penrith, 1537-9. Shaftes- bury, 1537. Shrewsbury, 1537. Taunton, 1538. Thetford, 1536-70. SUGAR, first mentioned by Paul Eginetta, a physician, A.D. 625 ; brought originally from China and the East ; grown in Cyprus, 1148; in Madeira, 1419 ; in the Canary Islands, I53> attempted to be cultivated in Italy, but did not succeed, 1659 ; carried to the West Indies by the Portuguese and Spaniards, 1506; cultivated at Barbadoes, 1641 ; sugar-refining first discovered by a Vene- tian, 1503; first practised in England, 1544; first taxed in England by James II., 1685 ; imported into England, 1 7^9' Beet-root, sugar extracted from, 1747. The duty upon sugar reduced to 24!-. a ton, in 1831. The differential duty upon, abolished, July 5, 1854. The drawback upon, amended by 30 Viet. c. 10, April 5, 1867. Made from the maple tree, at Auersburg, 1810. Extracted from chestnuts by M. Guerazzi of Florence, Oct. 22, 1811. 64 acres of land ordered by Napoleon I. to be put under cultivation, for growing beet-root for making sugar, May 25, 1811. Attempts made in England to extract sugar from beetroot, 1842-5. SULPHUR. The principal mines are in Sicily. The duty upon, reduced from .15 to ioj. per ton, 1825. SULTAN, a title of the head of an empire, first given in 1055 to the Turkish princes. SUMATRA, East India Archipelago, discovered by the Portuguese, 1509 ; visited by the Spaniards, 1521 ; the Portuguese shipping in the harbour of Acheen de- stroyed by the Malays, 1575; the Dutch obtained a footing on the island, 1600 ; the English established a colony at Bencoolen, 1685; the Dutch settlements taken by the British, 1811 ; restored, 1816 ; they exchanged the settlement of Malacca for Bencoolen, 1824. SUMPTER, the Fort surrendered to the Confederates, Jan. 13, 1861. SUMPTUARY LAW, passed to restrain luxury in dress, 10 Edw. III., stat. 3, Oct. 15, 1336 ; 37 Edw. III., 1363, and 3 Edw. IV. c. 5, 1463 ; 22 Edw. IV. c. I, 1482 ; revived by Hen. VIII. in 1515 and 1533 ; modified by Mary, 1554-5 ; and Elizabeth passed an act for prohibiting any person from impoverishing them- selves by the use of foreign finery in dress, 5 Eliz. c. 6, 1562-3 ; abolished, 19 & 20 Viet. c. 64, July 21, 1856. SUN, the centre of the system advanced by Copernicus, 1530; Galileo and Newton imagined the sun to be an igneous body, but the phenomena of electricity and the galvanic and magnetic discoveries were not known in their time ; the maculae on its surface first noticed in 1611 ; Halley discovered the sun's motion on its own axis, 1676; his discovery of the sun's parallax, 1702; Herschel measured spots on the sun, which covered together 50,000 square miles. Dates of some of the remarkable eclipses : annular, May 15, 1836 ; total, July 8, 1842 ; annular, Oct. 9, 1847 ; total, July 28, 1851 ; annular, March 15, 1868. Photographs of the total eclipse taken by Mr De la Rue j nearly total, July 18, 1860; again, March 6, 1867. SUN AND LION, a Persian civil order, instituted by Feth Aly Chah, 1 808. SUNDAY SURGEONS 813 SUNDAY, or the Lord's-day. Called Sunday because on that day adoration was paid to the sun by the northern Pagan nations ; called the Lord's-day on account of the appearance of Christ after the resurrection. It was established as an imita- tion of the Jewish sabbath ; its observance enforced with other Church festivals, by Constantine the Emperor, March 7, 321. Labour in the country was not pro- hibited on that day until the council of Orleans, 538 ; it was thus an institution of the Church, as Dr Paley has remarked. King Athelstan forbad all merchandising on this day. Fairs and markets forbidden, 27 Hen. VI. c. 5, 1448-9. Ordinances for the observation of, 3 Chas. I. c. 3, 1627 ; 29 Chas. II. c. 7, 1676. The earlier Christians met in the morning of that day for prayer and singing hymns in commemoration of Christ's resurrection, and then went about their usual duties ; the Book of Sunday Sports, published 15 James I., 1618, was violently opposed ; the Sunday act for preventing abuses, passed 21 Geo. III. c. 49, 1781. Sunday abolished in France, Sept. 12, 1793 ; restored by Napoleon, April n, 1802. SUNDAY SCHOOLS, first established in England, in 1781, by Robert Raikes, a printer of Gloucester, and the Rev. Thomas Stock ; a society for the support and encouragement of, established, 1785 ; one for Ireland, 1809. The Sunday-school Union established, 1802, and the Institute, 1843. SUNDAY TRADING. A bill was introduced by Lord Robert Grosvenor to prevent trading on the Lord's-day. This measure met with great opposition in the Commons, and serious riots followed ; the mob met in Hyde Park, on Sunday, June 24, 1855, July I, and upon the 8th they sallied forth into Gros- venor- place and Belgrave-square, smashing the windows and inflicting severe injuries upon several persons. An act passed for regulating the sale of beer, &c., on the Lord's-day, 17 & 18 Viet. c. 79, Aug. 7, 1854 ; further regulations made, 18 & 19 Viet. c. 118, Aug. 14, 1855. SUNDERLAND, Durham, a charter granted by Bishop Pudsey, in the I2th century, to the town of. A patent granted by Charles II. for the erection of a pier and lighthouse, 1669; not completed until 1787; lighthouse, Oct. 4, 1841. A mechanics' institute established, 1825 ; the first stone of the iron bridge laid, Sept. 24, 1793 ; completed, 1796 ; cost .33,400. The foundation of the South Docks laid, Feb. 4, 1848 ; completed at a cost of ,700,000 in 1851. SUN-DIALS, discovered in remote antiquity, see 2 Kings xx. n, and Isaiah xxxviiL 8 (the sun-dial of Ahaz). L. Papirius Cursor the Younger set up a sun-dial at Rome, B.C. 293. The oldest in this country is the one in the churchyard of Bew- castle, Cumberland, made A. D. 664 ; the one over the porch of Kirkdale Church, Yorkshire, was erected circa 1060. SURAT, Hindustan, taken by the Portuguese, 1530 ; the English established a factory here, 1612; the seat of Council of the East India Company and the resid- ence of the Governor removed to Bombay, in 1692 ; became a British possession, 1759- SURGEONS. An act for regulating the barbers and surgeons of London, 32 Hen. VIII. c. 40, 1540; the surgeons incorporated, 18 Geo. II. c. 15, 1745; privileges confirmed by charter of Geo. III., 1840 ; powers given to the College of, to ex- amine candidates for this profession, 21 & 22 Viet. c. 90, s. 48, Aug. 2, 1858. Sergeant-surgeon to the sovereign appointed to attend the king in battle, in '349 J John Ardern accompanied Edward III. to the battle of Crecy ; William Hobbys appointed, 1451, at an annual salary of 40 marks, with 12 pence daily for his living ; the office revived by Queen Victoria, 1867, and conferred on Sir William Fergusson. SURGEONS, THE COLLEG OF, built from the design of Mr Dance, R.A., in Lincolns-Inn-Fiekls, 1800; rebuilt by Mr Barry, R.A., 1835-37; the museum established in, 1836. 814 SURNAMES SUTTEES SURNAMES first used in England, 1 102; became common, 1199. Under the Nor- mans, Fitz was used by them as a prefix for son, whence the French fils ; the Irish used O, and the Scotch Mac; the Saxons added the word son, as Will's-son, John's-son ; some were borrowed from continental countries ; others from trades, as Arrowsmith, Goldsmith, Sawyer ; some from places, as Bromgrove, Leicester, Preston. The expense of obtaining a royal license to change a name was 44. iy., exclusive of the stamp duty, which is 10 when voluntarily made, and ,50 when conditionally under a will or settlement. By the 30 Viet. c. 17, a certificate for changing the surname can be granted by Lyon King-of-Arms, and the fee is fixed at I5J., May 3, 1867. SURPLICES, adopted from the white linen ephod of the Jewish priests into our churches, 316 ; generally ordered by Pope Adrian, 786 ; worn on week days in England at low mass, 1322 ; Richard II. was received when he came to London by the bishop and clergy and a choir of 5 singers dressed in surplices, 1392 ; pre- scribed also by 2 Edward VI., 1547 ; ordered to be provided by each parish, I Eliz. c. 2, 1558, and by 13 & 14 Charles II., 1662. SURREY CANAL DOCK opened at Rotherhithe, 1807. SURREY FENCIBLE CAVALRY, first raised, April 30, 1794; disbanded, March 27, 1800. SURREY MUSIC HALL, built from the designs of Mr Horace Jones, and opened, July 15, 1856. Eight persons killed and 30 injured through a false alarm of fire, during a religious service held by the Rev. C. H. Spurgeon, Oct. 19. Totally destroyed by fire, June II, 1861. SURREY THEATRE, originally opened by Messrs Hughes and Dibden, then called the Royal Circus, Nov. 7, 1782 ; burnt, Aug. 12, 1805 ; rebuilt and opened on Easter Monday, 1806; its present name taken, 1810 ; totally destroyed by fire, Monday, Jan. 30, 1865 ; rebuilt from the designs of Mr J. Ellis, and opened, Dec. 25, 1865. SURREY ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS, first opened, 1831 ; M. Jullien's band performed in, for the first time, Aug. 15, 1850 ; sold and closed, 1856. SURTEES SOCIETY, established to perpetuate the memory of Robert Surtees, the Durham historian, and for the publication of unpublished MSS. relating to Durham, May 27, 1834. SURVEY of England first made by Alfred, 900; by William the Conqueror, 1080; by Charles II., 1668. Surveyors of highways ordered to be appointed by every parish to keep the roads in repair, 1557-8. SUSPENSION BRIDGES, introduced into use in England early in the ioth century. The famous bridge at Friburg, Switzerland, which crosses the Sarine, has a span of 876 feet, opened in 1834. The Menai Straits bridge, erected from the design of Telford, opened, Jan. 30, 1826; Hammersmith bridge, built from the design of W. T. Clarke, 1827-9 5 Hungerford bridge, built from the design of Brunei, opened, May I, 1845 ; Clifton bridge, built from the design of Thomas Airey, opened, 1864. The Pesth bridge over the Danube, built from the design of W. T. Clarke, began, 1839; finished, 1849; cost .600,000. One fell at Broughton, Lancashire, April II, 1831. SUSSEX, kingdom of, founded by Ella, a Saxon, 419 ; ended, 754. SUTTEES, or the Hindoo burning of widows : these immolations to the manes of their departed husbands were abolished by the government, May 10, 1829. SWAN SWEDEN 815 SWAX, Prussian order of knighthood, founded by Frederick I., Sept. 29, 1449 ; ceased to exist, 1539 ; revived by Frederick II., Dec. 24, 1843. SWAN RIVER, W. Australia, discovered by Vlaming, in 1696 ; settlement pro- jected, 1828 ; a lieutenant-governor appointed, and the first town founded, Aug., 1829 ; the same year, Perth, Freemantle, and Guildford, three towns, were founded; the Freemantle Gazette published, March, 1831. SWANSEA, Glamorganshire, castle erected, 1099 ; the town made a borough, 1832 ; a free school endowed, 1684 ; the harbour improved, 1 800-6. SWAN-UPPING, or Hopping, the privilege of having a swan mark only allowed to the king's sons, by 22 Edw. IV. c. 6, 1482-3. The dyers' company and the vintners' company of London and the town of Windsor had the right of keeping swans on the Thames. The swan being considered a royal bird, no subject was allowed to keep them without royal permission. In the time of Queen Elizabeth it was possessed by 900 corporations and individuals, and it was usual the first Monday in August every year to proceed up the river to remark the birds. SWEABORG, Finland, the town was founded by Gustavus I. of Sweden ; burnt by the Russians, 1728 ; taken from Sweden by the Russians, 1808 ; ceded to them by that power, with the whole of Finland, 1809 ; bombarded by the com- bined fleets of England and France, Aug. 9 to 1 1, 1855, the town, dockyard, and arsenal being partially destroyed. SWEARING ON THE GOSPELS, first introduced, 528 ; with judicial proceed- ings, 600 ; a fine for swearing introduced, 6 William III., 1695 ; a labourer or servant to pay I s. per oath ; others, 2s. ; for a second offence, 4^. ; and a third, 6s. SWEATING-SICKNESS, first appeared among the followers of Henry VII. after the battle of Bosworth Field ; the soldiers entered London, Aug. 28, 1485 ; it disappeared about the end of 1486 ; it broke out in London a second time, 1506; and the third time in 1517, when six aldermen of London died of it in a week, and many thousands of the inhabitants ; it destroyed one half of the inhabitants in many English towns : it appeared again 1528, 1529, and it broke out at Shrewsbury, April 16, 1551 ; it then finally disappeared. SWEDEN, Suithead, and more recently Sweircke, first inhabited by the Cimbri and the Lombards, who were supplanted by the Goths or Scandinavians. Christianity preached by St Ansgar in the ninth century. Olaf Skot-Konung embraced Christianity, and established three Bishoprics, 1021. Gothland and Finland, celebrated for their warlike people, were annexed to Sweden by Erick II., 1150-54. Waldemar I. of Denmark captured Rugen, and de- molished the pagan temples, 1168. Stockholm founded, and fortified by Berger Jarl, 1250. Magnus Ladelus the Great established a regular form of govern- ment, 1279 The crown of Sweden made elective; and Steenchel Magnus crowned, 1318. W r aldemar invaded Gothland, 1361. Albert of Mecklenburg elected, 1365. Margaret I. united the crown of Denmark and Norway to Sweden, 1397. University of Upsal founded, 1477. Stockholm besieged for six months by Steno Sture, and captured, March 27, 1502. Christian of Denmark invaded the country, 1518-19 ; he took Gustavus Vasa as a prisoner to Denmark, 1519. Christian II. acknowledged King of Sweden by the States-General ; after his coronation he ordered 94 senators to be beheaded, 1520. Gustavus Vasa escaped from Denmark, and having raised a force defeated the Danes at Stock- holm, and was chosen king, 1523 ; introduced Lutheranism, 1528; and formally declared the Romish faith abolished, 1529 ; made the crown hereditary, 1544. St Malmo taken by Christian III., 1535. The titles of count and baron intro- duced by Erick XIV., 1561. Gustavus Adolphus elected to the throne, 1611 ; he defeated the Danes, 1613 ; he defeated the Poles in several battles, 1627-35. War declared against Germany, 1630. Denmark ceded Rugen to Sweden, 8i6 SWEDEN 1648. Abdication of Christina, 1654. Commercial treaty with England signed, July 17, 1656. Charles X. invaded Poland, 1657 ; killed at the battle of Liitzen,Nov. 6, 1632. The university of Lund founded, 1668. The Swedes defeated by the Danes both by sea and land, 1676. Charles XII. began his reign, 1697. Battle of Pultowa, where Charles was defeated by the Czar of Russia, 1 709 ; he escaped to Bender, where after residing three years the Turks took him prisoner, Feb. 12, 1713 ; he was restored, Oct. 14, 1714; after commanding in several battles, he was at length killed at the siege of Frederickshall, Dec. n, 1718. Queen Ulrica Eleanor abolished despotic government, 1719; she concluded a treaty with England, 1 720 ; resigned the throne to her husband, April 4, 1 720. Royal Academy founded by Linnaeus, 1741. This was the first country in Europe which had a regular census taken, 1748. Order of the Sword instituted, April 28, 1748. Con- spiracy of Counts Brahe and Home detected, and the authors beheaded, 1756. Gustavus III. introduced despotism, Aug. 19, 1772. The island of St Bartholo- mew in the West Indies ceded to, by France, 1784. Conspiracy formed against the king, March, 1792 ; assassination of, by Count Ankerstrom, at a ball, March 1 6 ; he expired the 29th ; the regicide was dreadfully mutilated ; his right hand was cut off, then his head, and his body impaled, May 1 7. Gustavus IV. de- throned, and the government assumed by the Duke of Sudermania, March 13, 1809 ; Finland ceded by Sweden to Russia, Sept. 17. Peace made with France, and Pomerania restored, Jan. 6, 1810. Marshal Bernadotte, the Prince of Ponte Corvo, was chosen the Crown Prince of Sweden, July 21. Gustavus IV. arrived in London, Nov. 12. Swedish Pomerania seized by Napoleon Bona- parte, Jan. 9, 1812 ; alliance with England, July 12. Sweden joined the alliance against Napoleon, March 13, 1813. Norway ceded to Sweden by the treaty of Kiel, Jan. 4, 1814 ; confirmed by the Norwegian Parliament, Nov. 4. 1814. Bernadotte ascended the throne of Sweden as Charles John XIV., Feb. 5, 1818. Treaty of commerce signed between Great Britain and Sweden, March 18, 1826 ; death of Bernadotte, whose son, Oscar, ascended the throne, March 8, 1844. Slavery abolished in the island of St Bartholomew, by King Oscar I., 1848. A postage convention concluded with Great Britain, Aug. 24, 1850. Treaty of, with England and France, guaranteeing the integrity of Sweden and Norway, Nov. 21, 1855. The first railway opened in Sweden between Nova and Orebro, March 5, 1856. Charles XV. ascended the throne, July 8, 1859 ; crowned at Stockholm, May 3, 1860. Regulations for the formation of the Diet adopted, Dec. 8, 1865. The King visited the Emperor and Empress of the French in Paris, Aug. 4, 1867. SOVEREIGNS, AND DATES OF THEIR REIGNS. Erick IX 1150 and Erick XIII 1397 Erick X ... 1155 Erick XIII. governed alone ... 1415 Charles VII 1162 Christopher III. 1440 Canute 1168 Charles VIII. (Canuteson) ... 1448 Swerker II 1192 John II. (I. of Denmark) ... 1483 Erick XI. 1210 Christian II 1520 John I ... 1220 Gustavus Vasa ... 1523 Erick XII 1223 Erick XIV 1560 Waldemar 1251 John III. 1568 Magnus I. ... ... ... 1279 Sigismund, King of Poland, son Berger II. ... 1290 of John III ... 1590 Magnus II 1320 Charles IX. ... 1604 Albert of Mecklenburgh ... 1363 Gustavus (Adolphus) II., the Margaret ... ... ... 1389 Great ... ... 1611 Margaret, Queen of Sweden and Christina, daughter of Gustavus Norway, now also Denmark, Adolphus. Resigned the crown SWEDENBORGIANS SWITZERLAND 817 to her cousin : died at Rome Gottorp ... 1751 in 1689 1633 Gustavus III 1771 Charles X 1654 Gustavus IV 1792 Charles XI 1660 Charles XIII. 1809 Charles XII 1697 Charles XIV. Bernadotte, the Ulrica Eleanora, his sister, and French prince of Ponte Corvo 1818 her consort, Frederick I. ... 1719 Oscar, King of Sweden and Nor- Frederick reigned alone ... 1741 way, March 8, ... ... 1844 Adolphus-Frederick, of Holstein Charles XV., July 8, 1859 SWEDENBORGIANS, the followers of Emmanuel Swedenborg, who was born at Stockholm, Jan. 29, 1689 : he considered the new Jerusalem of the Apocalypse to be on the point of establishment, and that then the true nature of God and of man, and the true meaning of the words heaven and hell, is to be fully explained, and the Church will bear its true fruits of love to God and to our neighbour, and purifier of life ; his first work on theology was published in 1743. This sect began abroad in 1 760, but did not make much way in England until 1783; they have since greatly increased. SWEET BAY, brought into England from Italy, prior to 1548 ; the Royal came from Madeira, 1675 J trie Glaucous from China, 1806 ; there are several other species of this tree in England. SWITHIN, or ST S_ WITHIN, a monk of Winchester of noble parentage. He passed his youth in the study of grammar, philosophy, and the Scriptures. S within was promoted to holy orders by Helmstan, bishop of Winchester, at whose death, in 852, King Ethelwolf granted him the see. In this he continued eleven years, and died in 862 ; canonized, July 15, 971. S within desired that he might be buried in the open churchyard, and not in the chancel of the minster, as was usual with other bishops, and his request was complied with : but the monks on his being canonized, considering it disgraceful for the saint to lie in a public cemetery, resolved to remove his body into the choir, which was to have been attempted with solemn procession, on the 1 5th July. It rained, however, so violently for forty days succeeding, that the design was abandoned as heretical and blasphem- ous, and they honoured his memory by erecting a chapel over his grave, at which many miraculous cures of all kinds are said to have been wrought. To the above circumstance may be traced the origin of the old saying, ' That if it rains on St Swithin's it will rain forty days following ! ' but unfortunately for the Legend the relics were removed in 971 ; and again to Winchester, 1094, SWITZERLAND, once a part of Gaul, afterwards conquered by the Allemanni ; the house of Hapsburg assumed the sovereignty, from whose power it was fortun- ately recovered in the I4th century ; the original population is thought to be Celtic by some, but this is doubtful : the name is derived from the canton of Schwytz, to which canton at present it is confined, the people being denominated Swiss. The Helvetians converted to Christianity, A.D. 612 ; the Huns ravaged Helvetia, 909 ; Berthold IV. built Fribourg, 1179 ; Rudolph of Hapsburg exercised sovereignty, 1273 ; Gesler's tyranny to the people occasioned the memorable revolt under William Tell, 1306. Swiss independence declared, Nov. 7, 1307; the Austrians defeated, Nov. 15, 1315; Uri, Unterwalden, and Schwytz declared their independence, Dec. 8 ; form of government made peq*etual ; Lucerne annexed to the confederacy, 1335 ; the canton of Zurich subsequently became head of the league, 1350; Berne, Claris, and Zug joined the league, 1351. Duke Leo- pold III. of Austria defeated, July 9, 1386 ; again defeated at Mont Route, April 9-1 1, 1388. The Grisons league announced, 1400; second league of the Grisons, 1424, and the third league proclaimed, 1436. Duke Charles of Burgundy invaded the country, but was defeated near Grandson with a loss of 1200 men and 52 8i8 SWORDS SYDNEY the whole of his camp, March 3, 1476 ; again defeated at Morat, June 22, and at Nancy, where the Duke himself was killed, Jan 5, 1477. Louis XI. of France formed a body of Swiss soldiers into a legion in the pay of France, 1480 ; Fribourgand Soleure admitted into the confederation, 1481. Maximilian I. Emperor, after suffering several defeats, acknowledged Swiss independence, Sept., 1499; Schaffhausen and Basle joined the union, 1501; the Swiss confederacy acknowledged by France and the great powers, 11516. The reformation began at Basle, 1519. The Grison leagues joined the Swiss con- federacy, 1544; Appenzel joined the other canons, 1597. Independence of Switzerland recognized by the treaty of Westphalia, Oct. 24, 1648. Made an alliance with France, May 25, 1777; domestic strife in Geneva broke out be- tween the aristocratic and democratic factions : France interfered, 1781 ; looo fugitive Genevans sought an asylum in Ireland, 1782 ; Swiss guards ordered to leave the pay of France, 1792. The French attacked the canton of Unterwalden, Sept. 3, 1798 ; and after a gallant resistance of six days took the place, Sept. 9. Helvetic republic established by France, 1779. The Austrian army expelled the French from the Valley of Reuss, June, 1799 ; they were in turn expelled by the French, Aug. 14. The cantons increased to 19, and the federal government re- stored, May 12, 1802 ; Uri, Schwytz, and Unterwalden separated from the re- public, July 13, 1802. The Helvetic government dissolved and a new constitution promulgated, Feb. 19, 1803. Switzerland joined France with 7000 soldiers, Aug. 24, 1811 ; the allies overrun Switzerland, 1814. The number of cantons increased to 22, and the independence of Switzerland acknowledged by the treaty of Vienna, 1815 ; steam-boats first used on the lakes, 1823 ; new constitution agreed to, Aug. 7 ; revolution at Geneva, Oct. 7, 1846 ; the Catholic cantons established a separate league, called the Sonderbund, 1846; Jesuits expelled, Nov., 1847 ; the new constitution promulgated, Sept. 12, 1848 ; commercial treaty with Great Britain, Sept. 6, 1855 ; the railway between Zurich and Baden opened, 1850 ; ac- cepts the proposition of France and England in reference to the Neufchatel difficulty, Jan. 15, 1857; in the town of Claris 500 houses were destroyed by fire, April, 1 86 1. SWORDS were among the earliest weapons. The flaming sword of the cherubim is mentioned in Gen. iii. 24, and mentioned as a weapon of defence, when ' Simeon and Levi took each man his sword, and came upon the city boldly, and slew all the males,' 2 Sam. xii. 10. Bronze swords were used by the Romans ; in the will of Prince ^Ethelstan (son of Ethelred II. ) ten swords are demised to different persons, 1015 ; in Saxon times a gilt sword was the distinguishing em- blem of a thane. The sword of Archibald Douglas was two ells long, 1378 ; the length restricted to a yard and a quarter, 1562. Sword of State, carried at the English coronations by a king of Scotland, 1 194. Forbidden to be worn in Edin- burgh, 1724; 15,000 made in Birmingham for the Parliamentary army, 1642-3. The pope on Christmas eve at midnight mass blesses the swords which he intends to send to favoured kings, as Edward IV., 1478; Henry VII., 1505 ; Henry VIII., 1517 ; the last being sent by Leo III. to the Due d'Angouleme, 1825. SWORD OF SWEDEN, order of knighthood, instituted by Gustavus Vasa, 1525 ; re-instituted by Frederick I., April 28, 1748 ; the present statutes of the order made, Nov. 28, 1798 ; and by-laws, July 9, 1814. SYDNEY, New South Wales, founded by Governor Philip in a cove of Port Jack- son harbour, and named after the secretary for the colonies, Viscount Sydney, Jan. 26, 1788 ; St Philip's church built, 1798. A settlement for convicts origin- ally intended to be made at Botany Bay, but Port Jackson was found better situ- ated ; since arisen to a large town of considerable extent, with a legislative coun- cil, first held July 13, 1829. The Bishopric was established, 1836 ; the town SYDNEY SUSSEX COLLEGE SYRIA 819 formed into a municipality, 1843 ; the museum founded, 1838 ; incorporated, 1853; a university founded, 1850; opened, Oct. II, 1852 ; a mint established by the 18 & 19 Viet. c. 54, July 16, 1855 ; a new constitution proclaimed in the month of Nov., 1855. SYDNEY SUSSEX COLLEGE, Cambridge, founded by Lady Frances Sidney, Dec. 6, 1588 ; the building begun, May 20, 1596 ; finished, 1598. SYNODS, first called by the emperors of the East, and subsequently by Chris- tian princes, but the pope afterwards usurped the power, and one of his legates presided. The first held in England was at Hertford, A.D. 673; the last held by Cardinal Pole, 1555 ; it was made unlawful to hold synods without royal authority, 1533, by the 25 Henry VIII. c. 21. The celebrated synod of Dort began, Nov. 13, 1618 ; ended, May 25, 1619 ; the delegates met from all the re- formed churches to settle the points of doctrine, but principally those of justifi- cation and free grace ; the Arminians were excluded from the assembly and con- demned, but in 1625 were restored to their former position. The synod of Thurles, in Ireland, was one of Roman Catholic prelates and inferior clergy, under Archbishop Cullen, the primate, Aug. 22, 1850 ; it condemned the Queen's colleges, and recommended the founding a Catholic university, Sept. 10. SYRACUSE, Sicily, one of the early Greek colonies, founded by the Corinthians, B.C. 734 ; made a free government, 468 ; besieged by the Athenians, 414, who were defeated ; Hiero elected the first king of, 274 ; the town taken by Marcellus, 212 ; destroyed by an earthquake, with many thousand persons, A.D. Jan., 1693 ; again greatly injured, Aug. 6, 1757 ; surrendered to the Neapolitan troops, April 8, 1849. SYRIA, Asia, first mentioned in the time of King David, B.C. 1040; captured by the king of Assyria, 749 ; and again captured by Nebuchadnezzar, 004 ; con- quered by Alexander, 333 ; Seleucus, surnamed Nicator, or Conqueror, took Babylon, called the aera of the Seleucidae, 312. The city of Antioch founded, circa 300. Battle of Cyropsedion fought, 281 ; Seleucus assassinated byCeraunus, 280. Antiochus defeated the Gauls, and in honour of this victory was called Soter, or Saviour, 275. Antiochus II., surnamed by the Milesians Theos, or God, ascended the throne, 261 ; a treaty of alliance with Smyrna and Magnesia made by Seleucus II., 243 ; Seleucus III. began to reign, 226. Antiochus III. defeated at the battle of Raphia, 217; he conquered Judea, 204. War broke out with the Romans, 129. Antiochus IV. upon his ascension took the title of Theos-Epi- phanes, 175 ; Apollonius ordered to invade Judea. Jerusalem taken ; the temple pillaged ; 40,000 inhabitants destroyed, and as many more sold as slaves, 170. Queen Cleopatra murdered her son Seleucus, 124; her son, Antiochus Grypus, began to reign ; she attempted to poison him, but he compelled her to swallow the poisoned draught, 123. Cyzicenus reigned at Damascus, and Grypus at Antioch, 1 1 1 . Pompey defeated Tigranes ; he invaded Syria and dethroned Antiochus Asiaticus, circa 65 ; the country suffered severely from famine, A.D. 44 47 ; the Arabs invaded the empire, 633. The dynasty of Abassides founded, 750. The territory conquered by the Fatimite caliphs, 970. The Emirs of Damascus revolted, 1067 ; and the Emirs of Aleppo, 1068. The crusades from Europe began, 1095, which ultimately conquered that part of Syria called the Holy Land, 1099 ; Noureddin retook it, 1166. Saladin destroys the power of the Fatimite dynasty, 1171. The Tartars overran the country, 1259; the sultans of Egypt expelled the Crusaders and recovered their possession, 1291. Tamerlane overran Syria, 1401 ; the Turks under Selim, took possession, 1517 ; it continued in pos- session of the Turks till the invasion of Egypt by the French, July I, 1789. Napoleon I. defeated the Mamelukes with great loss, Aug. 6, 1798, and overran the country, doing considerable mischief; he captured Gaza and Jaffa, 1798. Siege of Acre began, March 6 ; taken, May 27, 1799. The French em- 820 SZEGEDIN TAE-PING REBELLION peror returned to France, Aug. 23, 1799; the army, Sept. 10, 1801 ; Mehemet Ali attacked and captured Acre, and marched over the whole of Syria, 1831-32 ; Ibrahim Pacha, his son, conquered the army of the grand signior, July 30, 1832 ; the country ceded to Mehemet Ali by the Porte, May 6, 1833. Ibrahim Pacha defeated the Turkish army, taking 10,000 prisoners, June 25, 1839. The Turkish fleet arrived at Alexandria, July 14. Lady Hester Stanhope died, June 23, 1840. The Five Powers proposed to the Porte to open negotiations with Mehemet Ali, July 15. Treaty of London signed, July 15. Sidon captured, Sept. 26 ; Beyrout, Oct. 1 1 ; Acre, Nov. 3 ; the government made hereditary in the family of Mehemet Ali, Feb. 13, and March 13, 1841. Ibrahim Pacha, the elder son of Mehemet Ali, visited England, June 8, 1 846 ; he left Portsmouth for Alexandria, on his return, July 15. Mehemet Ali died in his 8oth year, July 2, 1849, and was succeeded by his son Ibrahim, and Ibrahim by Abbas Pacha, 1850. The Druses massacred most of the Christians in Lebanon, May 28, 1860 ; they captured the town of Zaleh, June 19, and Serai, June 21 ; they burnt the town of Deir-el-Kammar, when 1200 persons perished, June 23 ; 2000 Christians slain at Damascus, July 9, 10 ; an expedition sent to, by England and France, to protect the lives of Europeans, July 21 ; Lord Dufferin sent out, July, 1860. Convention between Her Majesty Victoria, the Emperor of Austria, the Emperor of the French, the Prince Regent of Prussia, and the Emperor of Russia, for the pacification of, Sept. 5. Fuad Pasha appointed by the Sultan to quell the disturbance ; 167 persons executed, Aug. 20 ; the total number of persons said to have been massacred is about 12,000 ; 163 villages, 220 churches, and 7 convents were destroyed. SZEGEDIN, battle, the Austrians defeated the Hungarians, under Dembmski, with great loss, Aug. 4, 1849. TABERNACLE, constructed by Bezaleel and Aholiab, the first day of the first month in the second year after leaving Egypt, described in Exodus xxv. to xxvii. and xxxv. to xxxvii. TABLE BAY, Africa, discovered by Bartholomew Diaz, 1486. TABLE TURNING, mentioned in "Del'Ancre, 1'Incredulite et Mescreance du Sortilege," 4to, Paris, 1622, as being practised by two magicians in the reign of the Emperor Valens, circa 373 ; lately re-introduced into Europe from America. TABOR, Bohemia, castle built, 774 ; destroyed, 1268 ; restored, 1420 ; captured by the Hussites, 1421. TABORITES, or Hussites, named from the town captured by them and in which they settled, under the leadership of Ziski, 1420. They were expelled from New Prague, May 28, 1434. TAE-PING REBELLION. The followers of Tien Wang, or Heavenly Prince, who formally proclaimed his title in May, 1850 ; they established themselves in Nankin, 1853 ; Soochow captured, May 24, 1860 ; Ward, an American, with a mixed force of Europeans, was hired to relieve Sangkiang, in July ; he was de- feated at Singpoo, Aug. 2. The rebels attempted to capture Shanghai, Aug. 16; they were defeated on the 1 8th ; again defeated at Wong Kadza, April 4, 1862, but were defeated by the rebels, and Singpoo captured, June 10 ; retaken by Ward with an army of 3000 men, Aug. 6 ; Ward received a wound from which he died, at Tseki, Sept. 21. Henry Burgeoine, an American, succeeded to the TAFFETA TALMUD 821 command. Ningpo retaken by Captain Dew, in the Encounter, and 6 other vessels, May 10, 1862 ; and Yuyow, Aug. 3 ; Tseki captured, Sept. 20 ; Fung- ' wha, Oct. 9; the city of Shushing besieged by Capt. Dew, Feb. 17, 1863; evacuated by the rebels, March 18. Capt. Gordon appointed to command the ever victorious army, consisting of 5000 men, March 24, and captured the towns of Fushan and Taitsan, May 2 ; Quinsan, May 30 ; Soochow taken, Dec. 6, and the Wangs executed ; Gordon resigned the command in consequence ; retook the command, March I, 1864 ; Chanchu stormed and captured, May n ; the ever victorious army disbanded, June I ; Nankin invested by the Imperialists, June I ; taken, July 19; and the Faithful King executed, Aug. 7. TAFFETA, a species of silk manufacture, formerly made in England by John Tyce of Shoreditch, London, 41 Elizabeth, 1598. Watered taffeta invented by Oc- tavius May at Lyons, in the 1 7th century. TAGANROG, Russia, founded by Peter the Great, 1697, but little used ; rebuilt, 1769; the Emperor Alexander died here, 1825; bombarded by the allied fleet, and the public buildings destroyed, June 3, 1855. TAGLIAMENTO, battle. The French commanded by Napoleon, defeated the Austrians commanded by Archduke Charles, March 16, 1797. TAIL, creating estates in, act passed for, 1279. TAILORS, an act passed regulating the hours of work and the wages of, 7 Geo. I. c. 13, 1720. The truck system prohibited, 1720. This class of artisans again engaged the attention of the legislature, and their wages increased and hours 1 fixed, 3 Geo. III. c. 17, 1768. Strike of tailors in London commenced, April 28, 1867; ended by the men having to return upon the old system; trial of Druit and others, Aug. 21. It would appear, from several entries in the Civic Records of London, that as early as 1415 this craft had a desire to form an especial fraternity, but were forbidden. TALAVERA, battle between the allied English and Spanish armies, 22,000 strong, and the French, under Gen. Victor, 45,000 strong; the latter were defeated with a loss of 8794 men, the English lost 6268 men. The grass taking fire from the excessive heat, most of the wounded were burnt, July 27 and 28, 1809. The town evacuated by Wellington, Aug. 3 ; by the French, Aug 15, 1812. TALENT, the Euboic or Phoenician, about ^400 sterling ; the Egyptian, 20 ; the Jewish, used A.c. 1400. TALLIES. A notched stick, 25 notches representing ^100; it was then split down the middle, and acted as vouchers for money paid into the Exchequer Court; one half was retained by the officer of the court. They were negotiable, and in 1696 they were at 40 & 50 per cent, discount. " By water to Westminster to the Exchequer, and there did strike my tallys for .17,500." Pepyf Diary, May 12, 1665. Abolished by 23 Geo. III. c. 82, s. 2, 1783 ; ordered to be destroyed by 4 & 5Will. IV. c. 15, May 22, 1834. iLLOW CHANDLERS' COMPANY, incorporated, 2 Edw. IV., March 8, 1462; confirmed by various kings, ending with James II., June 27, 1685. Arms granted, Sept. 24, 1456 ; confirmed by William Camden Clarencieux, Jan. 29, 1602. The hall built by Sir C. Wren, after the fire of London, 1666. TALMUD, books of the religion, philosophy, medicine, history, &c., of the Jews ; reduced to writing by Rabbi Hakkadosh, A.D. 190 220 ; this is called the Mishna, or text. A series of commentaries appended to, subsequently called the Babylonian and Jerusalem commentaries, the former begun by R. Asche, 420 ; completed after his death, 500 ; the latter chiefly by the learned Jochanan, circa 370; first published, 1520-30. 822 TAMERLANE TARANTO TAMERLANE, an Eastern tyrant who overran Persia, India, and Egypt ; he took Bajazet, Sultan of the Turks, prisoner, 1402 ; and exposed him in his own iron cage which the Sultan had brought to put him in. Tamerlane died, 1405. TAMWORTH CASTLE, built by Lord Marmion, 914. TANDY, JAMES, an Irishman, who proposed a plan of reform in 1791, and became obnoxious to the government in consequence ; he joined in the re- bellion of 1798, acting with the French in their expedition; it failed, and he fled to Hamburgh, where, on the solicitation of the agents of the English minister, the city delivered him over to their custody, for which act Bonaparte declared war upon Hamburgh, Oct. I5> 1799- He was tried and condemned to death for high treason, but was liberated after the treaty of Amiens, and died at Bordeaux, 1803. TANGANYIKA, Africa, this lake discovered by Capt. Burton, Feb. 13, 1858. TANGIERS, Morocco. Taken by the Portuguese, 1471 ; captured by Lord Sandwich from that power, Jan. 30, 1662 ; restored, and given by Portugal to Charles II. as a dowry to the Infanta, May 20; abandoned as being too expensive to maintain as a nursery for the popish army, Oct., 1683 ; nearly destroyed by an earthquake, April 12, 1773 ; visited by a plague, which almost depopulated the town, Sept., 1818; bombarded by three French ships-of-war, commanded by Prince Joinville, the town and fortifications destroyed, Aug. 6, 1844. TANNING LEATHER, an act was passed for regulating the trade, I James I. c. 22, 1603-4; a new and expeditious method for, discovered, 1795; the trade thrown open, II Geo. IV. c. 1 6, May 29, 1830. TAPESTRY, this ancient method of ornamentation described in the Book of Exodus, made in France from the earliest times; first made by the loom at Flanders. The celebrated manufacture of Fontainebleau established by Francis I., in the i6th century ; Louis XIV. established the Gobelines manufacture. The oldest known is the Bayeux tapestry. The art known in England in Saxon times ; the loom introduced into England by William Sheldon, and the first manufactory estab- lished by Sir Francis Crane, at Mortlake, 1619, towards which James I. gave j2OOO. TAR. Coal Tar first discovered by Becher, a German chemist, circa 1680. TAR WATER, one of those medical nostrums that has a run for a time in public esteem, and then is forgotten ; it was strongly recommended by Bishop Berkley, in 1744. MINERAL TAR, discovered at Colebrook Dale, in Shropshire, 1779 ; and in Scotland, Oct. 10, 1792. TAR OF THE PINE, extracted from the wood by fire, of essential use for nautical and shipbuilding purposes ; patent coal tar, 1781. TARA, Ireland, the hill of, was for ages the centre of the kingdom ; the palace and the burial-place of the kings ; Cormac held his court here ; the last meeting of the bards held here, 554 ; a reform meeting, 250,000 persons being present, was held here by Mr O'Connell, Aug. 15, 1843. TARA, battle, in Ireland, one of the earliest in the rebellion, in which the Irish were defeated, and lost 500 killed, May 26, 1 798. TARANTO, or TARENTUM, Italy. A Spartan colony, founded circa B.C. 708 ; concluded a treaty with Rome, 303 ; surrendered to the Roman Consul Papirius, 272 ; surrendered to Hannibal, '212 ; taken and the city sacked, the paintings and works of art being removed to Rome, by Fabius Maximus, 209 ; taken by the Goths under Totila, A.D. 549 ; they were driven out by Narses, 553 ; taken by the Lombards, 66 1 ; captured by Robert Guiscard and added to the kingdom of Naples, 1063. TARBES TAVERNS 823 TARBES, battle, in France, between Marshal Soult and the Duke of Wellington, March 21, 1814. TARGUM, Chaldaic paraphrases of the books of the Old Testament, the oldest by OnMos, B.C. 50. TARIFA, Spain, taken from the Moors by the Spaniards under Sancho el Bravo, 1 292 ; attacked by the French, but successfully defended by a small English arid Spanish force under Col. Gough, Dec. 2730, 1811 ; the walls repaired by the British, 1812 ; taken by the French under the Due d'Angouleme, 1823 ; the Windsor Castle, an English man-of-war, fired upon from the castle, Nov., 1830. TARRAGONA, Spain, made the capital by Augustus, B.C. 26; the cathedral built, A.D. 1129-30; the facade finished, 1280; captured by the English, 1705 ; the mole built to protect the harbour, and carried out 1300 yards, begun 1790 ; oc- cupied as a naval station by the English before the capture of Gibraltar ; besieged by the French under Suchet, May, 1811 ; the lower town taken, June 21 ; the upper, June 28, the inhabitants massacred and the town sacked ; besieged by the English under Gen. Murray, who embarked under a panic, 1813 ; evacuated by the French, the fortifications being destroyed, Aug. 18, 1813; again besieged and taken by the French, June, 1823. TARSET CASTLE, Northumberland, built by the Red Cummin before 1300 ; burnt by the Freebooters of North Tynedale, 1516. TARTARIC ACID, discovered by Scheele, 1770. TARTARY, Asia, the country of ancient Scythia ; in 1206 it was ruled by Jenghis Khan ; Tamerlane, or Timour the Tartar, conquered Persia, and routed the Turks in 1402 ; and the successors to those rulers became a powerful dynasty down to a late period. TASMANIA, Australia, discovered by Tasman, Nov. 24, 1642 ; and called Van Diemen's Land after the governor of the Dutch East India Settlements ; made a penal settlement by Great Britain, Aug. 10, 1803 ; Hobart Town founded by Collins and a party of convicts, Feb. 19, 1804; made a distinct colony, 1825 ; constitution altered, Nov. I, 1854; transportation to, abolished, 1856; Parliament opened Aug. 20, 1867. TATTERSHALL CASTLE, Lincolnshire, built by Sir Ralph Cromwell, 1453 ; destroyed by the Parliamentarians, 1650-1. TATTERSALL'S, Hyde Park Corner. This well-known betting, &c., establish- ment founded by Richard Tattershall, 1 766 ; removed to their new premises near Albert Gate, designed by Mr Freeman, and built by Messrs Holland at a cost of 30,000; opened, April 10, 1865. TAUNTON, Somersetshire. Ina, king of the West Saxons, built a castle here, 700 ; demolished by his Queen subsequently; castle erected by Henry I. ; taken by Per- kin Warbeck, 1497 ; 30 houses burned down, June 29, 1532 ; besieged by the Royalists, 10,000 strong, but successfully defended by Colonel Blake, 1645 ; in- corporated by Charles I., 1627 ; reincorporated by Charles II. ; James, Duke of Monmouth, proclaimed king here, June 21, 1685 ; Judge Jeffreys held his bloody assize, Sept., 1685. TAVERNS in London. The Lord Mayor appointed the localities in London where taverns might be erected. They were closed at curfew, in temp. Edw. I. ; the length of the ale stakes projecting from taverns, restricted, 137$ regulated in the city of London, by an ordinance passed, 1370 ; in the reign of Edward III. only three were allowed, one in Chepe, one in Wallbrooke, and one in Lombard-street : the Boar's Head in East Chepe is celebrated by Shakespeare ; the White Hart, Bishopsgate, was another noted tavern, established in 1480 ; rebuilt, 1829; the Horn in Fleet-street and the King's Head, circa 1569 ; St Dunstan, 1606. The 824 TAVISTOCK ABBEY TEA number was generally restrained, 7 Edward VI. c. 5, 1553 ; to forty in London, eight in York, four in Norwich, three in Westminster, six in Bristol, three in Lincoln, four in Hull, three in Shrewsbury, four in Exeter, three in Salisbury, four in Gloucester, four in Chester, three in Hereford, three in Worcester, three in Southampton, four in Canterbury, three in Ipswich, three in Winchester, three in Oxford, four in Cambridge, three in Colchester, four in Newcastle-upon-Tyne. TAVISTOCK ABBEY, Devonshire, founded, 961 ; rebuilt, subsequently given to the Duke of Bedford, 1539. TAXATIO ECCLESIASTICA ANGLIC ET WALL^, a record of the value of ecclesiastical benefices, the tenths of which were granted by Pope Nicholas IV. to Edward I. for carrying on the Crusades in the Holy Land, A.D. 1291. This valuation remained in force until 1534, when it was superseded by the Valor Ecclesiasticus compiled by commissioners appointed by 26 Henry VIII. c. 3. TAXATION and TAXES. Taxes in specie were first introduced into England by William I., 1067 ; by act of parliament no tallage or aid was to be levied by the king without the consent of the peers and commonalty of the Realm, 34 Edw. I. s. 4, c. I, 1306 ; yet the taxes paid in kind were not abrogated until the reign of Richard II., 1387 ; wool, corn, leather, stock, were all subjected to tax in kind, to the king, and tithe in kind to the Church. Hearth Tax, the earliest tax known sanctioned by parliament, 13 & 14 Charles II. c. 10, 1662 ; repealed, I Will. & Mary, c. 10, 1688. Income Tax, first imposed by Mr Pitt, 1798 ; revived, 1803 ; the present tax proposed by Sir Robert Peel, 5 & 6 Viet. c. 35, June 22, 1842 ; ex- tended, 8 & 9, c. 4, April 5, 1845. Land Tax, first imposed on Ireland, 16 & 17 Viet. c. 34, 1693 ; made perpetual, 1798. Stamp Tax, first imposed, 5 Will. & Mary, c. 21, 1694. Window Tax, first inflicted by 6 & 7 Will. III. c. 18, 1695 ; repealed in 1851. TCHERNAYA, battle, the French, under Marshal Pelissier, and the Sardinians, commanded by Gen. Delia Marmora, defeated the Russian army of 50,000 men with 1 60 guns, under Gen. Liprandi, Aug. 1 6, 1855. TCHESME, naval battle, the Turkish fleet defeated and almost destroyed by the Russians, July 7, 8, 9, 1770. TEA. Cultivated by the Chinese before A.D. 733 ; introduced into Japan, 1206 ; spoken of by Mr Wickham, an agent of the East India Company, June 27, 1615 ; known in Europe previous to 1657 ; retailed at 6 to ,10 per pound ; sold by Thomas Garway, at 15^. to 50^. per pound ; he first sold Tea made into drink. Pepys, in his Diary, Sept. 25, 1660, says, ' I did send for a cup of tea (a China drink), which I had never drunk before.'. The trade monopolized by the East India Company, 1677-78 ; a surreptitious trade carried on in 1680 ; price of tea advertised in Read's Weekly Journal, or British Gazetteer, Sat, April 27, 1734: Green Tea, gs. to 12s. per Ib. Pekoe, 14?. to i6s. per Ib. Congou, lor. to 12s. ,, ,, Imperial, gs. to 12s. ,, ,, Bohea, IDJ. to I2J. ,, ,, Hyson, 2OJ. to 25^. ,, ,, Tea-dealers obliged to fix a sign-board noticing their sale of tea, 1779 ; the trade thrown open by 4 Will. IV. c. 85, April 22, 1834. Tea discovered at Assam, 1823 ; introduced into the Himalayas, 1857. A tax of &d. a gallon levied upon all in- fusion of, 12 Car. II. c. 23, 1660 ; no person permitted to sell tea without a license, 15 Car. II. c. n, 1663 ; a duty imposed upon tea in America, 1767 ; tea destroyed at New York and Boston, which led to the American war, Nov., 1773. The duty increased to 5-r. per pound, I Will. & Mary c. 6, 1689 ; reduced 50 per cent., 1745 ; doubled, 1795 ; the duty fixed at is. 6d. per pound on Bohea, 2s. 2d. on Congou and Hyson, 3.?. on other teas, 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 101 ; reduced to 2s. id. on all teas, 1836 ; and to is., 1856 ; further reduced to 6 re ^ C 6 2 x I O g Bra o |S _c H "*" "u X o u. 0. o o ".2 iti'o o g "~ g ** " C3 Hi a r2' bp _M C ^ S * jaa I* u K 8 Tc Q U ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in. Her Majesty's 69 5 56 o 39 7 36 o 62 4 53 4 94 10 Covent Garden 81 o 63 o 50 o 43 o 65 o 60 o 90 o Drury Lane 62 o 5 1 6 37 8 38 6 54 o 80 o 78 o Lyceum 38 5 32 o 35 o Haymarket 46 o 35 o 32 o 28 o 48 o 58 o Hoiborn 41 o 32 29 o 28 o 42 o 36 o 52 o Olympic 33 o 27 o 29 o Princess's 26 o 3 o 62 o Britannia S2 52 o 34 o 37 o 48 o 53 o 77 o Adelphi 1 *40 o ( t46 o 31 o 44 35 o 38 o 44 9 55 o 67 o New Surrey 68 o 62 o 60 o 70 o The Queen's, Long Acre (*44 6 t47 6 I 4-.- ** 38 o 43 o n 30 o 29 6 50 o 50 o 55 o (+5 48 o Gaiety 43 o 41 o 30 o 28 6 65 o 40 o 64 o Globe Prince of Wales 62 o Si 6. 378 38 6 54 o 80 o 78 o Standard IU67 90 184 See alphabetical arrangement for further particulars. THEATRICAL FUNDS. A fund for the relief of decayed actors and actresses was promoted at Covent Garden by Thomas Hull and Air Mattocks, 1762 ; and an act of parliament was passed legalizing it, 16 Geo. III. c. 31, 1776 ; David Garrick and Mr Lacy, at Drury Lane Theatre, established one for the same pur- pose, 1766 ; confirmed by 16 Geo. III. c. 13, 1776. THEBES. The most celebrated city of ancient Greece, said by Homer to have had a hundred gates ; founded by Cadmus, a Phoenician, B.C. 1500; expelled by the Boeotians, 1124 ; took part with the Persians against the Athenians, 480 ; taken by the Spartans, 387 ; recovered by the Thebans, 375; peace proclaimed, 371 ; engaged in the Phocian war, 357 ; taken by Philip, 336 ; destroyed, 335 ; restored 20 years afterwards, but never became independent. It now consists of a few miserable dwellings. Belzoni opened the tomb of the kings, A.D. 1819. THEISTS, a class of Deists in France, who rejected public worship and exterior forms, but would unite themselves with all who believed in God alone ; they appeared 1660. THELUSSON'S WILL, a remarkable document; he left ,100,000 to his family, and .600,000 to trustees, to accumulate until the eldest male heir of his three sons' sons should be of age ; the money to accumulate, and to be laid out in the purchase of estates. The will was contested, but confirmed in an appeal to the lords, June 25, 1805. Thelusson died, July 21,1 797, and the stock might possibly * To grand tire box-front. Opened, Nov. 28, t To upper box-front. t Gallery tier. U Whole length, width and height. THELWALL THIRTY YEARS' WAR 833 accumulate for 120 years, and reach .140,000,000 sterling ; should there be no heir the property was to go to lessen the national debt. It got, however, into chancery management, and report stated that it had not doubled its principal more than thirty years afterwards, as might be expected. The testator's last grand- son died in 1856 ; a dispute then began as to whether his great-grandson, or the grandson of his eldest son, should inherit the property. The House of Lords declared in favour of the latter, 1859. An act passed for prescribing the accumu- lation of property, 39 & 40 Geo. III. c. 98, July 28, 1800. THELWALL, Tooke, and Hardy, tried for high treason, for having belonged to a society for promoting parliamentary reform ; they were honourably acquitted in Nov. and Dec., 1794. Afterwards committed to the Tower, May 20, 1794, but subsequently released through the great abilities and exertions of their counsel, Messrs Erskine and Gibbs. Lord Eldon was opposed to the proceedings, being then of the administration, and only wished to prosecute them for a misdemeanour ; but Pitt insisted upon the prosecution. THEODOLITE, first used by Mr Bugge, 1763 ; Ramsey's great Theodolite finished, 1787. THEODOSIAN CODE. A commission appointed by Theodosius II. under the direction of Antiochus, A.D. 429. Second commission appointed, 435 ; completed, 438 ; adopted and promulgated, 448. THERESA. The female order for unmarried ladies of all sects founded by Theresa, Queen of Bavaria, Dec. 12, 1827. THERMOMETER, known in the I7th century. Air-thermometer invented by Amontons, 1702; his treatise upon it appeared, 1724; that of Fahrenheit invented about 1720; Reaumur's, 1730, since abandoned; and the Centigrade, 1780. Differential thermometer invented by M. Sturmius, 1676; revived by Professor Leslie, 1804 ; Professor Wheatstone invented his telegraphic thermometer, 1843. THERMOPYL/E, Greece. The defence of the Pass of, by 300 Spartans under Leonidas, against the army of Xerxes for 3 days, B.C. Aug. 7, 480; the Gauls, under Brennus, defeated the Greeks here, 279 ; taken by Philip V. of Macedon, 207 ; the Romans again defeated here, 181; the Turks, 5000 strong, defeated by the Greeks under Odysseus, with a loss of 1200 slain, 7 guns, and 17 standards, Sept. 6, A.D. 1821 ; the Turks again defeated, Nov., 1822. TIIESSALONIANS, First Epistle written to the, by the Apostle Paul at Corinth, A. D. 52-3 ; the second written from the same place the following year. THESSALONICA, Macedonia, rebuilt by Philip of Macedon, and named after his daughter, B.C. 315. The first Christian Church established by St Paul, A.D. 55. Riot and massacre in the city, 390. Taken by the Saracens, 904 ; by Tancred, 1185 ; and by the Turks, 1430. THIRTY-NINE ARTICLES. A committee appointed to reform the Ecclesias- tical laws. 1549. Cranmer directed to frame the Articles, 1551 ; he submitted them to Sir W. Cecil and Sir J. Cheke, Sept., 1552. 42 articles first published, 1553 ; revised by Archbishop Parker, 1562. 38 published by convocation, Feb. 5, 1563. Clergymen compelled to subscribe tothe, 13 Eliz. c. 12, 1570. The 39 articles agreed to by convocation, May II, 1604. Short's History of the Church of England. THIRTY TYRANTS. In Roman history a fanciful designation given to a number of adventurers, who, after the defeat of Valerian and during the reign of his suc- cessor, Gallinius, aspired to the throne, A.D. 260267. The Thirty Tyrants of Athens, who, after the conquest of the city by Lysander, assumed the sway over the city, Critias and Theramenes, B.C. 404. THIRTY YEARS' WAR, a series of wars between the Protestants and Roman 53 834 THISTLE THREE GOLDEN FLEECES Catholics in Germany; it began with an insurrection of the Bohemians,in 1618 ; the House of Austria was at the head of the Roman Catholic party, and Gustavus Adol- phus was the chief support of the Protestants ; it ended with the peace of West- phalia, signed at Munster, Oct. 24, 1648. THISTLE, Order of the, in Scotland, founded, 1540; some pretend it is much more ancient ; revived, May 29, 1687, by Tames II. of England. The Duke of Gordon, the Marquis of Athol, the Earl of Arran, afterwards Duke of Hamilton, the Earls of Moray, Perth, Seaforth, Dumbarton, and Melford, were the first knights. Again revived by Queen Anne, Dec. 31, 1703 ; confirmed by Geo. I., Feb. 17, 1714. Thistle of Bourbon, order of, begun, 1370. THISTLEWOOD, Brunt, Ings, Davidson, and Tidd, arrested for the Cato-street conspiracy, Feb. 23, 1820 ; condemned to death, April 20; executed at the Old Bailey, May i. THOMAS, ST, Festival of, instituted, 1130. THOMAS'S, ST, Hospital, founded by the Prior of Bermondsey, 1213; remodeled by Peter de Rupibus, bishop of Winchester, 1215 ; surrendered to Henry VIII., 1539 ; purchased by the city for .2461 2s. 6d., July 5, 1551 ; charter of in- corporation granted by Edw. VI., Aug. 12 ; opened for patients, Nov., 1552 ; rebuilt, 1701-6; enlarged, 1732 and 1736; the south wing added, 1842 ; removed temporarily to the Surrey Gardens ; sold to the* South Eastern Railway for ^296,000. The first stone of the new building laid by Her Majesty Victoria, upon the new embankment, at Stangate, May 12, 1868. THOMAS'S, ST, one of the Virgin Islands, West Indies, discovered by Colum- bus, 1494 ; colonized by the Danes subsequently, circa 1666 ; taken by the Eng- lish, 1801, restored the same year ; surrendered to them, 1807, and again restored, 1815. Visited by a fearful hurricane, which destroyed 80 vessels, many the mail steamers belonging to the Royal Mail Steampacket Company ; some were blown ashore ; many houses were destroyed, and upwards of 100 persons perished ; this was followed by three shocks of an earthquake, Oct. 29, 1867. THOMITES, the name of a party of the poorer class, whose ignorance led them to fol- low an impostor named Thorn, pretending to particular revelations, and calling him- self King of Jerusalem : he declared himself invulnerable, and shot a constable ordered to apprehend him ; and afterwards the officer in command of a party of military, sent to Canterbury after him ; he was himself shot by one of the soldiers; his devotees then ^attacked the military, who were compelled to fire on them, May 31, 1838. THORN, Prussia, founded by 'the Teutonic knights, 1232 ; became one of the Hanseatic League in the I4th century; captured by Charles XII. of Sweden, 1703; captured by Prussia, 1793; taken by the French under Marshal Ney, 1806; garrisoned by the French, 1813 ; blockaded by the Russians, July, 1813 ; sur- rendered to them, July 22 ; ceded to Prussia, 1815. THORNBURY CASTLE, Gloucestershire, built by Edward Stafford, Duke of Buckingham, 1511-20; Henry VIII. and Anne Boleyn entertained in, for ten days, 1539. THREAD, first made at Paisley, in Scotland, 1722. THREATENING LETTERS sent to various persons demanding money became such a nuisance in the reign of Henry VI., that an act was passed for their punish- ment, 8 Hen. VI. c. 6, 1429 ; amended by I Eliz. c. 6, 1558 ; better provisions made for the punishment of offenders, 4 Geo. IV. c. 54, July 8, 1823 ; repealed by 24 & 25 Viet. c. 95 and 101, Aug. 6, 1861 ; and new provisions made by 24 & 25 Viet. c. 96, Aug. 6, 1 86 1. THREE GOLDEN FLEECES, order of, instituted by Napoleon I., Aug. 15, 1809. THREE KINGS OF COLOGNE TIGER 835 THREE KINGS OF COLOGNE, or the Eastern Magi, who came to do homage to Our Saviour at his birth ; their bones were removed by the Empress Helena to Constantinople, and from thence to Cologne, 1164; their Lives were printed in Paris by Tresyrel, 1498 ; and by Wynkyn de Worde, 1516. THRESHING MACHINES, invented by Michael Menzies of Edinburgh, 1732. THUMBSCREW, an instrument of torture used in the Inquisition, and also in England when ordered by the privy council, though torture was declared by the judges contrary to the law of the land; at the revolution of 1688, it was abolished. Carstairs, accused of having a guilty knowledge of the Ryehouse plot, was the last put to the torture, in the reign of Charles II., about 1682 ; the privy council of King 'William made him a present of the instrument, 1 688. THUNDERING LEGION, a name given to a Roman Legion, A.D. 179, from their thirst being relieved by a thunder-storm, which also tended to discomfit the invading force of Marcomanni. THU ROT'S invasion of Carrickfergus, Ireland, which he plundered, but was over- taken by Captain Elliot, who took his squadron, he being killed, Feb. 28, 1 760. THYNNE, THOMAS, shot in his carriage in Pali-Mall, by assassins hired by Count Konigsmark, who was himself assassinated by order of George I., Feb. 12, 1682. TIARA, tha ecclesiastical crown with which the pope was crowned for the first time in 1053 : John XIX. had it encircled with a crown, 1276 ; Boniface VIII. added a second, 1295 ; and Benedict XII. a third. TIBERIAS, Palestine, the capital of Galilee, built by Herod Antipas, and named after the Emperor Tiberias; first mentioned in the Gospel of John. The Mishna was compiled here by the Great Rabbi, Judah Hakkodesh, A.D. 190; almost de- stroyed by the earthquake of 1837. TICHFIELD ABBEY, Hants, built, 1232. TICKET OF LEAVE, a licence given to convicts for good conduct, 16 & 17 Viet, c. 99, Aug. 20, 1853 ; amended, 20 & 21 Viet. c. 3, s. 5, June 26, 1857 ; further amended by 27 & 28 Viet. c. 47, s. 4, July 25, 1864. TICKHILL CASTLE, Yorkshire, erected by Roger de Bresli, temp. William I., 1080-7 5 John of Gaunt resided at, 1383-4; garrisoned for Charles I., 1645 ; cap- tured by the Parliamentarians, and destroyed, 1651. TICONDEROGA, N. America. The fortress built by the French, 1756 ; assailed unsuccessfully by Abercrombie with a loss of 2000 men, 1758 ; surrendered to Gen. Amherst, July, 1759 ; captured by surprise by the Americans under Gen. Allen, May 10, 1775 ; evacuated, July, 1777, and taken by the English. TIDE ebbed and flowed three times in an hour at Lyme, in Dorset, May 31, 1682, and four times in an hour at Whitby, July 17, 1761 ; three times in two hours on the Kentish coast, Oct. 31, 1827. See Thames. TIDES, their theory first elucidated by Kepler, 1591 ; but Sir Isaac Newton gave proof of the correctness of the theory by gravitation, between 1680 and 1690. TIEN-TSIN, China. The fleet having forced the entrance to the Peiho river, April 14, 1858, the ambassadors of France and England, Baron Gros and Lord Elgin, proceeded to this city. The Chinese commissioners met them on June 4 ; treaty signed, June 26; the town occupied by the British, Aug. 23, 1860; the treaty of, ratified, Oct. 24, and the troops evacuated Pekin, and returned to this town, Nov. 5. TIGER, steam frigate-of-war, wrecked on a shoal off Odessa, and destroyed by the fire of the Russian guns, May 12, 1854. 836 TILBURY FORT TINTAGEL CASTLE TILBURY FORT, Essex, erected by Henry VIII. ; camp formed here by Queen Elizabeth to resist the Armada, 1588 ; fortified, 1667. TILERS AND BRICKLAYERS' COMPANY, incorporated, 10 Eliz., Aug. 3, 1568 ; confirmed, 2 James I., April 30, 1604 ; reincorporated, i James II., Feb. 18, 1685. TILES were made by the Greeks and Romans, and were used in England during the occupation of the latter. The finest specimens have been found at Chertsey, circa 1270. The price of tiles in London fixed at $s. a thousand at the highest, 1350. Taxed, 1784; and again, 1830; abolished, 3 Will. IV. c. n, May 17, 1833. TILSIT, Prussia. Castle built, 1289; made a city, 1552; captured by the French under Murat, June 20, 1807 ; meeting of the Emperor Alexander of Russia and Napoleon at, June 25 ; treaty of, signed between France and Russia, July 7, and between France and Prussia, July 9. TIMBUCTOO, Africa, said to have been built by Mousa Suleiman, 1214 ; taken by the Moors, 1396; became independent, 1500; retaken by the Moors, 1672. Visited by Dr Earth, Sept. 7, 1853, who remained there till July 8, 1854. TIME. The Romans reckoned from the building of the city, A.u.c. The calendar was altered by the Caesars, B.C. 47, or A.u.c. 707. The Greeks reckoned by Olympiads; each measured 4 years ; they begun B.C. 776. The Christian era dates from the birth of Christ: according to the Greek chronology that event happened in the 4th year of the I94th Olympiad, according to Rome A.u.c. 753. The Mohammedan era dates from Mohammed's flight to Medina, July 15, A.D. 622. First computed from the Christian era, 516 ; in history, 748 ; in Spain, 1358 ; in Arragon and Castile, 1383 ; in Portugal, 1415. TIME-MEASURE. Barometer introduced by Scipio Nasica, B.C. 159. King Alfred measured the time with six large wax tapers, each twelve inches long ; as they burnt unequally, owing to the wind, he invented a lantern made of wood and thin- scraped plates of ox-horns, glass being a great rarity, A. D. 887. Hour-glasses were subsequently invented. TIMOTHY, the First Epistle of Paul to, written from Rome, circa A.D. 64. The Second Epistle, from the same place, written circa A.D. 65 or 66. TIN found in Cornwall since the trading times of the Phoenicians, 1200 years be- fore the Christian era ; found among the spoils taken from the Midianites, Num. xxxi. 22. The trade carried on by the Greeks in the time of Homer ; Agamem- non's cuirass was made of 20 layers of tin, and 20 bosses were upon his shield, //. xi. The markets of Tyre supplied by the ships from Tarshish, Ezek. xxvii. 12, circa B.C. 590 ; and of Solomon is said by Ecclesiasticus, xlvii. 18, "Thou didst gather gold as tin, and didst multiply silver as lead." Herodotus speaks of the Tin Islands, iii. 15. Strabo describes them as 10 islands situated in the open sea, to the north of the country of the Artabri, iii. 147. Small quantities have been found in Spain and Brittany. Tin is found in considerable quantities in Banca, an island of the Indian Ocean ; it was also found in New Spain, 1782. Banca tin imported, 1787; exportation of tin from England, 1789. The quantity of tin in Cornwall raised for so many ages is surprising: in 1750, 2876 tons, and in 1834, 4180 tons, were raised. The duchy of Cornwall arid the tin dues were bestowed by Edward III. on the Black Prince, 1335. TIN-PLATE WORKERS' COMPANY, incorporated, 22 Car. II., Dec. 29, 1670; livery granted, 6 Geo. III., Dec. 9, 1766. TINCHEBRAI, battle, Robert of Normandy defeated the Saracens in Syria, Sept. 27, 1106. TINTAGEL CASTLE, Cornwall, built by William I., 1080-5. Richard, Earl of Cornwall, entertained David, Prince of Wales here, 1245. TINTERN ABBEY TITLES 837 TINTERN ABBEY, Monmouthshire, founded by Walter de Clare, 1131 ; con- firmed by charter to the Cistercian monks, March 22, 1223 ; the building com- pleted and the first service held, July 28, 1287; given to Henry, Earl of Worcester, at the dissolution. The length of the abbey is 228 ft, transepts 150 ft., height 70 ft. The Hospitium discovered, 1847. TIPPERARY, Ireland. The abbey of the Holy Cross founded, 1182 ; formed into a county by King John, 1210; made a county palatine by Edw. III., 1328; granted to the Duke of Ormond. Insurrection at, 1798; the militia of, mutinied, three of the mutineers were killed and many wounded, July 7, 1856. TITHES or tenths, are mentioned in sacred history. 1st, Abraham presenting a tenth of the spoils of his victory to Melchizedek, Gen. xiv. 20 ; 2nd, Jacob, after his vision at Luz, Gen. xxviii. 22. Established by Charlemagne in France ; first enjoined by the English law, A. D. 786, by King Alfred ; confirmed by the laws of Athelstan, 930. Tithes in London fixed at the rate of 2s. <)d. in the i, by 37 Hen. VIII. c. 12, 1545. Levied on all kinds of produce, nothing escaping, even in some cases the fish from the sea were claimed ; to obviate this incon- venient and vexatious mode the composition act was passed for Ireland, 2 & 3 Geo. IV. c. 119, Aug. 16, 1832. An act was passed appointing a board of commissioners for converting in England the tithes into a rent charge payable in money, 6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 71, Aug. 13, 1836 ; explained and amended by 3 & 4 Viet. c. 15, June 4, 1840 ; amended, 10 & II Viet. c. 104, July 22, 1847 ; consolidated by 14 & 15 Viet. c. 53, Aug. I, 1851 ; amendment act, 31 & 32 Viet. c. 89, July 31, 1868. Made a rent charge in Ireland, I & 2 Viet. c. 56, July 31, 1838 ; amended by 1 1 & 12 Viet. c. 80, Aug. 31, 1848. The payments settled averages of every seven years in the following mode : Tithe rent charge per cent, for seven- teen years, to Christmas, 1852, being the result of the corn averages ; Wheat, dr. o l /2d.; Barley, 31-. 9 l /zd- ; and Oats, 2s. 6%d. the imperial bushel. * d. 1837 ............... 98 13 9% 1838 ............... 97 7 " 1839 ............... 95 7 9,. 1840 ............... 98 15 9% 1841 ............... 102 12 $/i 1842 ...... ......... 105 8 2% 1843 ............... 105 12 2 1 4 1844 ............... 104 3 5% 1845 ............... 103 17 iiX 1846 ............... 102 17 8# 1847 ............... 99 18 io# 1848 ............... 102 I O 1849 ............... loo 3 ?H 1850 ............... 98 16 10 1851 ............... 96 ii 4# 1852 ............... 93 16 "# 1853 ............... 91 13 SH 1697 19 4^ Average 17 years ... 99 17 7% TITIAN'S masterpiece, " Peter Martyr," burnt in the Venetian church of SS. Giovanni e Paolo, Aug. 15, 1867. TITLES, Royal : the following are some of the titles privileged to be held by royalty. The title of " Grace" conferred on Henry IV., circa 1398 ; Henry VI. 83? TITUS TOKENS that of "Excellent Grace ; " Edward IV. was called " High and Mighty Prince," 1461; Henry VII. "Highness;" Henry VIII. "Majesty," 1520; (James I. was the last that was styled " Dread Sovereign ; ") and Charles I. that of " Sacred." That of " Majesty" was first given to Louis XL of France ; be- fore, it was the title only of emperors. The kings of Arragon, Castile, and Portugal, had the title only of " Highness;" those of England, " Your Grace ;" those of France, " Your Despotism." Titles of families first created by patent, 1344; abolished in France, 1790 ; re-established, March, 1808. TITUS, St Paul's Epistle to, written from Macedonia; the date has been much con- troverted, but the best authorities fix the period between A.D. 57 and 64. TIVERTON, Devonshire. The castle built, 1 106, the residence of the Earls of Devon; occupied by Charles I., 1644 ; carried by storm, by the Parliamentarians under Fairfax, Oct., 1645. The church of St Peter's partially rebuilt, 1853. The grammar-school founded by Peter Blundell, 1604. 298 houses burned down at, June 5, 1731 ; and 200 on June 30, 1794. The lace trade established here, 1816. The town hall opened by Lord Palmerston, 1864. TOBACCO, discovered in Cuba by Columbus the first week in Nov., 1492 ; used at St Domingo, 1496, and by the Spaniards at Yucatan, 1520. Francis Lopez de Gomera, chaplain to Cortez, in Mexico, speaks of it being in general use, 1519. Introduced into France, by M. Nicot, 1561. Cultivated in Virginia, 1586. Brought to England by Sir John Hawkins, 1565. Gerard's Herbal describes tobacco found in Trinidad, 1597- Paul Hentzner, who visited England in 1598, notes the custom of smoking in England. Cultivated at Winchcombe, Gloucester- shire, 1583 ; a proclamation against the use of it issued, 1584 ; a duty of 6s. \od. a pound fixed by the Star Chamber, 1614. " The Counter-blast to," written by James I. of England in 1607- The growing of, prohibited in England and Ire- land, by the 12 Charles II. c. 34, 1660. Pope Urban published a decree of excommunication against those who smoked tobacco in church, 1624 ; and Innocent XII. excommunicated all who took snuff or tobacco in St Peter's, 1690. Regulations made as to the cultivation of, 1684. Cultivation allowed in Ireland by igGeo. III., 1779. Tax increased, 1789. Cultivation prohibited in Great Britain, I & 2 Will. IV. c. 13, Aug. 23, 1831. The duty fixed at 3^. a pound by 5 & 6 Viet. c. 47, July 9, 1842. Duty upon, altered, March 27, 1863. TOBACCO-PIPE 'MAKERS, Company of, incorporated, Oct. 5, 1619; con- firmed by Charles I., and by 15 Charles II., April 29, 1663. TOBACCO PIPES. Paul Hentzner, who visited England in 1 598, was surprised to find the people "draw the smoke into their mouths through pipes made of clay, which they puff out again through their nostrils like funnels. " The earliest engraving of, is in De Bry, Historia Brasiliana, 1590. Le Sieur Baillard, in his Discours du Tabac, published in 1668, says of the English, " ces derniers ont in- vente les pipes de terre cuite, qui ont cours aujourd'huy par tout le monde." TOBAGO, West India Island, discovered by Columbus, A.D. 1496 ; colonized by the Dutch, 1632 ; taken by the English, 1672 ; again, 1674 ; declared a neutral island, 1748 ; ceded to the English, Feb. 10, 1763 ; taken by the French under de Grasse, 1781 ; confirmed to them, 1783 ; taken by the English, April 14, 1793 ; restored, 1802, at the peace of Amiens, Oct. 6 ; taken by the English, July I, 1804 ; and confirmed to them, 1814, at the general peace. Seriously damaged by a severe hurricane ; relief granted to, by a loan, II & 12 Viet. c. 22, June 9, 1848. TOKENS, issued amongst small traders on account of the want of inferior coins. They were made in lead, tin, and leather, in the early part of Henry VHIth's reign ; abolished, 1613 ; reissued in the reign of Charles I., 1648 ; proclama- tion issued by Charles II. prohibiting their use, Aug. 16, 1672. Silver tokens issued by the Bank of England, passed for 5-f., Jan. I, 1798 ; raised to the value TOLEDO TORPEDOES 839 of 5-f. 6 1808 Bessarabia, the Isle of Serpents and the Delta of the Danube, treaty, settling the frontier, June 19, 1857 Borneo, commercial treaty with Gt Britain, May 27, 1847 Brazil, treaty for the suppression of the slave trade, July 28, 1817 Breda, peace of, July 25, 1667 Bretigny, peace of, May 8, 1360 Bucharest, treaty of, May 28, 1812 Cambray, league of, Dec. 10, 1508 ; peace of, Aug. 5, 1529 Campo Formio, treaty of, Oct. 17, 1797 Carlowitz, peace of, Jan. 26, 1699 Carlsbad, congress of, Aug. i, 1819 Chamount, treaty of, March i, 1814 Chateau Cambresis, peace of, April 2, 3,. 1559 Chili, commercial treaty with Gt Britain, Oct. 4, 1856 Chunar, India, 1781 Cintra, convention of, Aug. 30, 1808 Clayton Bulwer treaty, April 19, 1850 Closterseven, convention of, Sept. 10, 1757 Coalition, first against France, June 26, 1792 ; second, June 22, 1799; third, Sept. 8, 1805 ; fourth, Oct. 6, 1806; fifth, April 9, 1809; sixth, March I, 1813 Concordat, July 15, 1801 ; Jan. 25, 1813 Conflans, treaty of, 1465 Constantinople, treaty of, and peace of, April 1 6, 1712; peace of, July 8, 1833 Copenhagen, peace of, May "27, 1660 ; treaty for the abolition of the Sound dues," March 14, 1857 Cressy, treaty of, 1544 Danish succession, treaty for settling, May 8, 1852 Denmark, treaty for the cession of the Danish possessions on the coast of Africa to Gt Britain, Aug. 17, 1850; treaty for the surrender of criminals, April 15, 1862 Domingo, St, commercial treaty of, March 6, 1850 Dresden, Dec. 25, 1745 England and Scotland, Union of, July 27, 1706 England and America, acknowledging TREATIES 847 the independence of the latter, Sept. 3, 1783 v England, France, and Spain, peace of, SepL 3, 1783 England and the United States copy- Tight, Feb. 1 8, 1853 England and Austria, commercial, Dec. 1 6, 1865 Equator, treaty of commerce between, and Gt Britain, Nov. 2, 1853 Family compact, Aug. 15, 1761 Fontainebleau, peace of, Sept. 2, 1679; treaty of, Nov. 8, 1 785 ; concordat, Jan. 25, 1813 France with America, Feb. 6, 1778 France and Sardinia, treaty for the cession of Savoy and Nice, March 24, 1860 France, treaty of commerce with Gt Britain, Jan. 23, 1860 France, relative to joint stock companies, April 30, 1862 Frankfort, commercial treaty with England, May 13, 1832 ; and Dec. 29, 1835 Frieldwald, treaty of, Oct. 5, 1551 Fuesren, treaty of, April 23, 1745 Galatz, treaty of, between Russia and Turkey, Aug. II, 1791 Ghent, pacification of, Nov. 8, 1576 ; peace of (America), Dec. 24, 1814 Golden Bull, 1356 Grand Alliance, May 12, 1689 Greece, London, treaty of, July 6, 1829 Greece, treaty relative to the succession to the crown of, Feb. I, 1853 Greece, succession to the throne of, July 13, 1863 Hague, treaty of the, May 21, 1659; May 7, 1669 Halle, treaty of, 1610 Hamburg, peace of, May 22, 1762 Hanover, treaty, Sept. 3, 1725 ; com- mercial, with England, July 22, 1844; redemption of Stadt toll, June 22, 1861 Holland, peace with England, May 20, 1784 Holy Alliance, Sept. 26, 1815 Honduras, commercial treaty, Aug. 27, 1856; boundary of, British .treaty for, April 30, 1859 Hubertsberg, peace of, Feb. 15, 1763 Interim, May 15, 1548 Ionian Islands, protectorate of, Nov. 5, 1815 ; union with Greece, Nov. 14, 1863 Ireland, union of, with Gt Britain, July 2, 1800 Italy, commercial, Aug. 6, 1863 Japan, commercial treaty with Gt Britain, Oct. 14, 1854, and Aug. 26, 1858 Kiel, treaty of, Jan. 14, 1814 Kutchuk, peace of, July 21, 1774 Labuan, Borneo, treaty of, Dec. 1 8, 1846 Laybach, congress of, Jan., May, 1821 League against the Protestants in France, Feb. 15, 1577 Leipsic, alliance of, April, 1631 Leoben, peace of, April 18, 1797 Liberia, commercial treaty with Great Britain, Nov. 21, 1848 Lisbon, peace of, Feb. 13, 1668 London, treaty of (Greece), July 6, 1829 London, treaty of, Spain and Portugal, April 22, 1834 London, convention of (Turkey), July 15, 1840 Lubeck, peace of, May 22, 1629 Luneville, peace of, Feb. 9, 1801 Madagascar, slave trade suppression, Oct. 23, 1817 ; and May 31, 1823 Madrid, treaty of, 1526 Methuen, treaty, May 6, 1703 Mexico, commercial, with England, Dec. 26, 1826 ; slave trade suppression, Feb. 24, 1841 ; convention for inter- vention between England, France, and Spain, Oct. 31, 1861 Milan, decree, Dec. 17, 1807 Modena, navigation of the river Po, July 3, 1849 Morocco, commercial, with England, Jan. 23, 1721 ; July 10, 1729 ; and April 8, 1791 ; peace and commerce, Dec. 9, 1856. Munster, peace of, Jan. 30, 1648 Muscat, for the suppression of the slave trade, Sept. 10, 1822 ; commercial, May 31, 1839 Nankin, treaty, cession of Hongkong, Aug. 29, 1842 Nantes, edict of, April 15, 1598 Naumberg, treaty of, 1554 Netherlands, suppression of the slave trade, May 4, 1818 ; commercial, with the East Indies, March 17, 1824 ; separation of Belgium, April 19, 1839 TREATIES New Granada, commercial, April 18, 1825 ; slave trade, April 2, 1851 New Zealand, cession of sovereignty, Feb. 5, 1840 Neuchatel, treaty of, May 26, 1857 Nicaragua, commercial treaty with Great Britain, Feb. II, 1860 Nice, treaty of, 1518 Nimeguen, peace of, Aug. n, 1678 Nipchoo, treaty of, Oct. 21, 1727 Noyon, treaty of, Aug. 16, 1516 Nuremberg, treaty of, Aug. 2, 1532 Oldenburg, commercial, April 4, 1844 Oliva, peace of, May 3, 1660 Paraguay, treaty of commerce between Great Britain and, March 4, 1853 Paris, peace of, Feb. 10, 1763 ; treaty of, May 15, 1796; peace of (Sweden), Jan. 6, 1810 ; convention, April 23, 1814; capitulation of, May 30, 1814; peace of, Nov. 20, 1815 ; treaty of, June 10, 1817 ; convention for the withdrawal of the allied armies, Oct. 9, 1818; communication by post, June 14, 1833, and Sept. 24, 1856 ; general treaty of peace with Russia, March 30, 1856 ; relating to Mol- davia, Aug. 19, 1858 ; commercial treaty, Jan. 23, additional article add- ed, Feb. 25, 1860 Parma, navigation of the river Po, July 3, 1849 Partition, first treaty, Oct. n, 1698; second treaty, Mar. 13, 1700 Passarowitz, peace of, July 21, 1718 Passau, treaty of, Aug. 15, I55 2 Pekin, peace and friendship, Oct. 24, 1860 Persia, commercial, with Great Britain, Nov. 25, 1814, and Oct. 28, 1841 ; treaty of peace with Great Britain, March 4, 1857 Peru, treaty of commerce bet ween Great Britain and, April 10, 1850 Petersburg, peace of, May 5, 1762 ; treaty of, Aug. 5, 1772 ; treaty of, April 8 and Sept. 8, 1805 ; treaty of, 1810 Peterswalden, convention of, July 8, 1813 Pilnitz, convention of, July 2O, 1791 Poland, partition of, Nov. 25, 1795 Portugal, commercial, with Gt Britain, Jan. 29, 1642 ; July 10, 1654 ; al- liance, May 16, 1703 ; commercial, Dec. 27, 1703 ; Feb. 19, 1810 ; abolition of slave trade, Jan. 22, 1815 ; general treaty, June 9, 1815 ; slave trade, July 3, 1842 Pragmatic Sanction, 1439, and April 13, 1713 Prague, peace of, 1653 Presburg, peace of, Dec. 26, 1805 Protestants of France, league against, Feb. 15, 1577 Prussia, treaty with Sweden, June 7, 1815 ; general ireaty, June 9, 1815 ; slave trade, with Belgium, Feb. 24, 1848 Prussia, Gt Britain, copyright, Nov. 9, 1855 Public Good, league for the, 1464 Pyrenees, treaty of the, Nov. 7, 1659 Quadruple Alliance, Aug. 2, 1718 Radstadt, peace of, March 6, 1714; congress of, Dec. 9, 1797 Ratisbon, peace of, Oct. 13, 1630; treaty of, Aug. I, 1806 Rhine, confederation of the, July 12, 1806 Russia, peace and union with Great Bri- tain, Aug. I, 1812 ; alliance with Sweden, March 3, 1813; Austria, and Prussia, treaty of alliance, Sept. 9, 1813 ; treaty of peace between Great Britain, France, and Turkey, March 30, 1856 Ryswick, peace of, Sept. 20, 1697 Sardinia, Vaudois Protestants, Oct. 20, 1690, Aug. 4, 1704; slave trade, Aug. 8, 1834; commercial, Feb. 27, 1851 Scheldt toll, July 16, 1863 Schmalcald, league of, Dec. 31, 1530 Seville, peace of, Nov. 9, 1 729 Siain, commercial treaty, June 20, 1826; April 1 8, 1855 Slave Trade, treaty for the suppression of, between England and Brazil, Oct. 1 8, 1825 ; between England and France, May 29, 1845 ; England and the United States, April 7, 1862 Sleswick and Holstein, treaty between Prussia and Denmark, July 2, 1850 Spain, peace and friendship, May 23, 1667 ; with America, July 18, 1670; friendship and alliance, July 5, 1814; treaty of congress, June 9, 1815 ; slave trade, Sept. 23, 1817; June 28, 1835 ; pacification of, London, April 22, 1834. TREATIES St Germains, peace of, 1570 St Germain-en-Laye, June 29, 1679 St Ildefonso, alliance of Spain with France, July 22, 1795 Stadestoll, June 22, 1861 Stettin, peace of, Dec. 13, 1570 Stockholm, 1630; peace of, Nov. 21, 1719; treaty of, March 24, 1724; treaty of, March 3, 1813 Sweden and Norway, peace and com- merce, May 9, 1654; renewed, July 18, 1812 ; slave trade, Nov. 6, 1824 Switzerland, commercial treaty, Sept. 6, 1855. Temesvar, truce of, Sept 7, 1664 Teschen, peace of, May 13, 1779 Texas, commercial treaty with Great Britain, Nov. 13, 1840 ; slave trade, Nov. 1 6, 1840 Tientsin, treaty for opening the ports of China, June 26, 1858? Tilsit, peace of, July 7, 1807 Tolentino, treaty of, 1 793 Toplitz, treaty of, Oct. 3, 1813 Triple Alliance, Jan. 4, 1717 Triple Alliance of the Hague, Jan. 28, 1668 Tripoli, peace and commerce, Oct. 18, 1662 ; renewed lastly, May 10, 1812 Troppau, congress of, Oct. 20, 1820 Troyes, treaty of, May 21, 1420 Tunis, peace and commerce, Oct. 5 1662 ; renewed, June 22, 1762 ; set- tlement of complaints, May 2, 1812 Turin, commercial, Aug. 6, 1863 Turkey, peace and friendship, Jan. 5, 1809 ; treaty of alliance between Great Britain and France, for the defence of, TRENT 849 March 12, 1854; peace with Russia, March 30, 1856 ; general treaty, June 19, 1857 ; commercial treaty with Great Britain, April 29, 1861 Turkmanchay, peace of, Feb. 22, 1828 Ulm, peace of, July 3, 1620 United States. See America. Uruguay, commerce and navigation, Aug. 26, 1842 Utrecht, union of, Jan. 22, 1579 ; peace of, April II, 1713 Valen9ay, treaty of, Dec. 8, 1813 Venezuela, of commerce, April 18, 1825 ; against the slave trade, March Verona, congress of, Aug. 25, 1822 Vervins, peace of, May 2, 1598 Versailles, treaty between France and Austria, May I, 1756 ; peace of, Sept. 3, 1783 Vienna, treaty of, April 30, 1725 ; treaty of alliance, March 16, 1731; defini- tive peace, Nov. 1 8, 1738; peace of, Oct. 14, 1809 ; treaty of, March 23, 1815; treaty of, May 31, 1815, June 9, 1815 ; treaty, Oct. 30, 1864 Villafranca, treaty of, July II, 1859 Vossem, peace of, June 16, 1673 Warsaw, treaty of, Feb. 24, 1 768 ; al- liance of, March 31, 1683 Westminster, peace of, Feb. 19, 1674; (with Holland), 1716 Westphalia, peace of, Oct. 24, 1648 Wilna, treaty of, Aug. 31, 1559 Worms, edict of, 1521 Wurtzburg, treaty of, 1610 Zurich, ratification of the treaty of Villa- franca, Nov. IO, 1859 TREBBIA, Italy, battles, between Hannibal and the Romans under Sempronius, when the latter were defeated, B.C. 218 ; the French and Spanish army defeated by the Austro-Piedmontese, 1746 ; the Russians under Suwarroff defeated the French after three days' fighting, the latter lost 12,000 men, June 20, 1799. TRENT, Austria, the Council of Trent held its sittings here from 1545 to 1563 ; cap- tured by the French, 1801 ; the bishopric ceded to Austria, Dec., 1802 ; evacu- ated by the French, 1809 ; by the Bavarians, Oct., 1809 ; by the Austrians, 1813. TRENT, Council ofj the i8th in the Roman Catholic Church, met, Dec. 13, 1545 ; ,its decisions are considered orthodox by the Romanists ; the sittings of the council were continued under Pope Paul III., Julius III., and Pius IV., to 1563, when the last council sat, Dec. 3. TRENT, mail steamer, with the Confederate commissioners, Messrs Slidell and Mason, stopped by the United States' war steamer, the San Jacinto, com- mand2d by Captain Wilkes, and those gentlemen taken out "and carried prisoners 54 850 TREUGA DEI TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY to the United States, Nov. 8, 1861 ; they were demanded by England, Nov. 30; given up by the United States, Dec. 26; released, Jan. 8, 1862. TREUGA DEI, or TRUCE OF GOD, to prevent the frequency of private wars. Odilo, Bishop of Aquitaine, first published a revelation he pretended he had re- ceived from Heaven, enjoining men to cease from hostilities and to be reconciled to each other, A.D. 1032 ; it was at first enforced during the celebrating of the great festivals of the Church. Extended to the festivals of the Virgin and the Apostles by the Council of Clermont, 1095. TREVES, Prussia, the capital of the Treviri in the time of Caesar, B'. c. 58 ; taken by Gen. Marlborough, 1 704 ; captured by the French, Aug. 9, 1 794 ; ceded to them by the treaty of Luneville, Feb. 9, 1801 ; ceded to Prussia by the treaty of Vienna, 1815 ; the holy coat belonging to the cathedral exhibited the last time, 1844. TREVISO, Italy, the ancient Trevisium, a free Roman town, put itself under the protection of Venice, 1344 ; invested by the Austrians, June 10, 1848 ; capitu- lated, June 13. TRIA JUNCTA IN UNO, the motto of the Order of the Bath, first used, it is said, by Richard II., and also by Henry IV., 1399, and on the revival of the order by George I., May 18, 1725. TRIAL BY BATTLE. The last appeal to this ancient custom was in the case of Ashford v. Thornton. The defendant was tried for the murder of a female. He was acquitted, there not being sufficient evidence to establish his guilt. The brother and next heir of the murdered woman appealed, in order to bring the matter again before a jury. The accused man asserted his right to prove his innocence by battle. The judges acknowledged his right to do so ; and the legal antiquaries would have been gratified with the rare spectacle of a judicial duel, but for a voluntary abandonment of the prosecution, April n, 1818. The custom abolished by 59 Geo. III. c. 46, June 22, 1819 ; counsel first allowed to address the jury, 6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 114, Aug. 20, 1836. TRICHINOPOLY, Hindustan. Part of the town blown up by the firing of a pow- der magazine, 300 of the inhabitants killed, 3 10,000 musket cartridges destroyed, and the whole place shaken to its foundation, 1772 ; Chunda Sahib forcibly took possession of, April 26, 1736; besieged and taken by the Mahrattas, 1741 ; the English besieged by the French at, July 28, 1751 ; attempt of the French to take it by surprise, failed, Dec. 9, 1753 ; besieged by the French, May 14, 1757, and relieved by the British by an extraordinary march under Capt. Calliaud, May 25, 1757- TRICOLOR FLAG of France, first adopted by the Parisian militia in the revolu- tion of 1 789, red and blue ribbon the colours of the city of Paris, and white for the Union ; abandoned, 1814 ; changed, Feb. 25, 1848. TRIENNIAL PARLIAMENTS, established by 16 Charles II., April 6, 1664; regulated by 6 & 7 Will, and Mary, c. 2, Dec. 22, 1694 ; repealed, and septen- nial parliaments voted, 1715- TRIESTE, Illyria. Fouche murdered here, 1768 ; captured by the French, 1797 ; again taken by them, 1809 ; ceded to Italy by the treaty of Vienna, Oct. 14, 1809 ; captured by the allied forces of England and Austria, Oct. 31, 1813. The remains of the Emperor Maximilian of Mexico landed, Jan. 16, 1868. TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY. The first commenced in the highlands of Scotland, 1747; the general survey of the United Kingdom begun under Gen. Roy, 1783; the first preliminary operations finished, 1784. The triangulation of Ireland completed, 1838 ; an act passed to facilitate the completion of the survey of Gl Britain, 4 & 5 Viet. c. 30, June 21, 1841 ; England completed, 1857. Commis- TRIMMERS TRINITY SUNDAY 851 sion appointed to inquire into, Dec. 24, 1857 ; reported, May 20, 1858, recom- mending the one-inch map of the United Kingdom to be completed and published immediately ; further reports, Dec. 31, 1858, and Dec. 31, 1859. TRIMMERS, a contemptible set of politicians so called by the two great parties in England in the reign of Charles II., Halifax was at their head, 1682. TRINCOMALEE, Ceylon, the noblest harbour in India, taken by the Dutch, 1639 ; captured by the French, 1672, but re-captured immediately by the Dutch ; captured by the English under Sir Hector Munro, 1782 ; re-captured by the French fleet ; restored to the Dutch, 1783 ; taken again by the English, 1795 ; ceded to that power by the treaty of Amiens, March 25, 1802. TRINIDAD, West India Islands, discovered by Columbus, 1498 ; a settlement made by the Spaniards, 1588; taken by Sir Walter Raleigh, 1595 ; by the French, 1676 ; restored to Spain ; retaken by the English, Feb. 13, 1797 > ceded to them by the peace of Amiens, March 25, 1802. The negroes rose in insurrec- tion, committing great excesses, Jan. 4, 1832. TRINITARIANS. The term Trinity first used by Theophilus, Bishop of Antioch, in the second century ; order of, founded, 1594, in Spain ; an order also founded as early as 1198, by Felix de Valois and others ; St Philip de Noir founded an order of fifteen persons in Rome, 1 548, under the same name. TRINITY ACT, passed to exempt persons from penalties who denied the doctrine, 53 Geo. III. c. 160, July 21, 1813. TRINITY COLLEGE, Cambridge, founded by charter of Henry VIII., Dec. 19, 1546 ; it includes St MichaeFs House, founded, 1324 ; and King's //a//, founded by Edw. III., 1337 ; the library projected by Dr Barrow, and built by Sir Chris- pher Wren. Trinity Hall, founded by Bishop Bateman, Jan. 15, 1350; char- tered by Edw. III., Nov. 20, 1350. TRINITY COLLEGE, Oxford, founded by Sir Thomas Pope, May 4, 1554; building begun, March 28, 1555 ; the statute bears the date May I, 1556 ; the first president and fellows admitted, May 30, 1556 ; he visited the College, July 15 ; the Hall built, 1618-20 ; the chapel rebuilt by Dr Bathurst and consecrated. 1694. TRINITY COLLEGE, Dublin, founded upon the site of the Augustine monastery of All Saints, by Queen Elizabeth, Dec. 29, 1591 ; first stone laid, Jan. I, 1593; received anew charter from James I., May 12, 1613 ; and from Charles I., 1637 ; made a barracks, 1689; west front erected, 1759; a Royal commission appoint- ed to inquire into the affairs of, 1851 ; report of the commissioners, 1853 ; consti- tution of the college altered by charter, Jan. 31, 1855 ; the library founded, 1601. TRINITY HOUSE, Tower Hill, founded by Thomas Spert, comptroller of the navy to Henry VIII., and commander of the Harry Grace de Dieu, for regulat- ing the pilot service and erecting lighthouses, &c., 1511 ; incorporated by Henry VIII., 1512 ; re-incorporated by James II., 1685 ; its jurisdiction extended to Ireland, 52 Geo. III. c. 39, April 20, 1812. There were formerly three establish- ments, at Deptford, Hull, and Newcastle: the one at Hull established, 1369; incorporated, March 20, 1529; their records destroyed by fire, 1714. Their second hall built in Water Lane, Tower-street, 1671. The one at Deptford pulled down, 1 787. The present building erected from the designs of Samuel Wyatt ; the first stone laid by the Right Hon. Wm. Pitt, first Lord of the Treasury, and master, Sept. 12, 1793 ; the corporation consists of a master, four wardens, eight assist- ants, and 31 elder brethren. Prince Alfred installed as master, March 21, 1866. TRINITY SUNDAY, first introduced into the calendar by Pope Gregory IV., the Sunday after Whitsuntide, 834 ; this date is disputed by some authorities, who fix it 1 150 ; kept by the Roman and Reformed Churches alike. 852 TRINK-HALLES TROVES TRINK-HALLES, for the sale of summer drinks, as Eau de Seltz, and syrups, first established at Leipzic, 1860 ; they have since become general in Germany, and Capt. Foutrobert introduced them into Paris, 1866. TRIPLE ALLIANCE, formed between the States-general and England against France, for the protection of the Spanish Netherlands, Jan. 13, 1668 ; Sweden afterwards joined the league, April 25 : the second alliance formed between Eng- land, France, and Holland; the first two powers signed, Nov. 28, 1716; and Holland, Jan. 4, 1717 : a third signed between England, Russia, and Austria, Sept. 28, 1795. TRIPOLI, Africa, captured by the Saracens, 638; taken by the Sicilians, 1146, but retaken by the Saracens, 1184, from whom it was taken by the Spaniards, I 5 I 5 given to the knights of St John by Charles V., 1530 ; taken by the Turks, 1551 ; the Moors succeeded in defeating the garrison, 1703 ; recaptured by the Turks, 1835. Slavery abolished, 1816 ; and piracy, 1817. TRIPOLI, Asia Minor, the government invested in Mehemet Ali by treaty, May 6, 1833 ; captured by the British fleet, Sept. 22, 1840 ; revolt of the Arabs at, and repulse of the Turkish troops with a loss of 2000 men and all their guns, July 12, 1855. TRIPOLITZA, Greece, besieged by the Greeks under Demetrius Ipsilanti, Aug., 1821 ; carried by storm, and 9000 of the inhabitants massacred, Oct. 5 ; recap- tured by the Turks under Ibrahim Pacha, June 23, 1825. TRISTAN D'ACUNHA, island of, discovered, 1651. In the year 1811, Jonathan Lambert, an American sailor, took possession of the desolate island of Tristan d'Acunha, and issued a manifesto, drawn up in a strictly diplomatic form, which was signed by his chief minister, another American sailor, whose name was An- drew Millet. He declares that, on Feb. 4, 1811, he took entire possession for himself, and his descendants for ever, of the island of Tristan d'Acunha, as well as of two neighbouring islands, the Inaccessible Island, and the island called Nightingale, of which he thereby declares himself the lord and prince. When Napoleon was a prisoner at St Helena, this island was occupied by the English, and after the Emperor's death, when the party occupying was withdrawn, an English seaman remained, and, joined by one or two others, became sole inhabit- ants and occupiers of the island, 1825. TRIUMVIRATES. Triumviri Capitales were regular magistrates appointed circa B.C. 292. Triumviri Nocturni appointed to protect the city from nocturnal fires, circa B. C. 304. Triumviri Reipublica Constituencies appointed for five years, B. C. 43 ; the last at Rome, 1849, Mazzini being one of them. TROPPAU, congress, the Emperor of Austria and King of Prussia met here, Oct. 20, 1820, to consider the affairs of Naples, and afterwards adjourned to Laybach, Dec. 20, 1820. TROUBADOURS, or French poets of the ilth and I2th centuries. The earliest songs known were written by William, Duke of Guienne, in the Romance lan- guage, circa 1096. Hallam. TROY, Asia Minor ; the ancient Ilium. Supposed to have withstood a siege of 10 years before it was taken ; the site of the town discovered by M. Lechevalier, in 1785. TROYES, France. Taken by Joan of Arc, 1429. The parliament of Paris banished to, 1787. The mayor of, M. Huez, murdered by the insurrectionists, 1789. Occupied by the French under Napoleon, 1814; entrance of the allied sovereigns into, Feb. 7 ; retaken by Napoleon, Feb. 23, and by the allies a few days afterwards. TROY WEIGHT TURIN 853 TROY WEIGHT, from Troyes in France, where it was first used ; the oz. troy is said to have been brought originally from Egypt, in the time of the Crusaders, 1095 ; the Scotch troy weight was introduced by James I. of England, 1618. TRUELLAS, battle. The French attacked the Spanish army, but were defeated with a loss of 5000 men and IO cannon, Sept. 22, 1793. TRUMPET, the invention of, ascribed to the Etruscans ; first sounded in England before the sovereign, in the time of Offa, King of Mercia, 790. TRUMPET-FLOWERS, brought from North America, 1640 ; the large- flowered from China, 1800 ; there are other varieties from the Cape and America. TRUMPETS for speaking, known to the Greeks before 1596 ; made by Talland, 1654 ; the subject of inquiry before the Royal Society in 1670. TRUXILLO, order of knighthood, instituted in Spain, 1227. .TRUXILLO, Peru, founded by Pizarro, 1535 ; ruined by an earthquake, Dec., 1759- TUAM, Archbishopric of, founded, 501; the see of Mayo annexed to Tuam, 1559; it ceased to be archiepiscopa), 1839, and is now a bishopric, to which Killala, Enachdune, and Achonry were annexed, 1573. TUBULAR BRIDGE, for the Chester and Holyhead Railway, over the Menai Straits, the construction of which is no less novel than gigantic ; it consists of two lines of tubes, each of great length, lifted above a hundred feet over the level of the water ; the engineers were Stephenson, Foster, and Fairbaim, March 5, 1850. See Bridges. TUDELA, battle. The Spaniards under Gen. Palafox defeated by the French under Marshal Ney ; 5000 Spaniards were killed, Sept. 22, 1808. TUILLERIES, Paris, one of the royal palaces, begun by Catharine de Medicis, 15)64 ; Louis XVI. brought here a prisoner, Oct. 6, 1789 ; invaded by the mob, June 20, 1792 ; attacked and taken by the insurgents, after 300 of the Swiss Guards had been slain, Aug. 10, 1792 ; the National Convention held their first sittings, May 10, 1793 ; captured by the insurgents, July 29, 1830; taken and sacked by the mob for nine days, the building saved, Feb. 25 March 6, 1848 ; the present Emperor took up his residence here, 1851. TULIPS, came first to England, 1578; were objects of commerce in the i6th century : in 1639, the sum of 90,000 florins was given in Holland for 120 tulips, with the offsets ; one called the Viceroy sold for 4203 guilders ; the tulip-tree came to England from America, 1663. TUNBRIDGE, Kent. The priory built, 1094 ; grammar-school established by Sir Andrew Judde, 1553 ; wells became noted as curative through Dudley, Lord North, 1606 ; Henrietta Maria, wife of Charles L, resided here, 1630; Charles II. and Catherine of Portugal visited this town, 1664 ; the wells were covered in at the cost of .400, 1847 ; visited by the Queen and Prince Albert, 1849. See Tonbridge Castle. TUNIS, city of, Africa, stands near the site of ancient Carthage. Besieged by Louis IX. of France, 1270 ; taken by Barbarossa he was expelled by Charles V., but recovered by the Turks under Selim II. ; 10,000 Christian slaves there set at liberty, 1535 ; the Bey of Tunis first appointed, 1570 ; taken by the Turks, 1574 ; reduced by Admiral Blake on the Bey refusing to give up the English cap- tives, 1655 ; piracy suppressed, 1818 ; a new constitution granted, 1860 ; an insur- rection, which lasted for several months, broke out, AprU, 1864. TURIN, Italy, the Augusta Taurinorum of the ancients. The cathedral founded, A.D. 602 ; the present building began in 1498, and consecrated in 1505. Philip I. of Savoy resided at, 1280-1 ; made the capital of Sardinia, by Amadeus VI II., 854 TURKEY 1418 ; the university founded, 1412 ; Francis I. ravaged and almost demolished the city, 1536 ; besieged by the French and taken after a gallant defence of four ^onths, Sept. 22, 1640. It was invested by the allies, commanded by Prince Eugene, the French were defeated with great loss, Sept. 7, 1706; the victors captured 153 pieces of cannon. The Basilica erected by Juvara, 1717-31 ; taken from the French, 1799 ; reoccupied by them, June 24, 1800 ; the French driven out by the Austrians and Russians, May 30, 1814, and given up to the King of Sardinia; museum established, 1820; revolution in, 1821 ; a political riot among the students of the university, detected and the university closed, April 27, 1864 ; the seat of Government removed to Florence by treaty with France, Sept. 15 ; riots in consequence broke out, Sept. 21 23, and again, Jan. 30, 1865 ; the last sittings of Parliament held in, May 16. TURKEY trade commenced in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, 1550 ; the Levant company instituted by charter, 1579 ; it is now a most extensive and open trade. TURKEY, Empire of, consisting of mixed Asiatic races, the greater number of whom were originally of Tartar blood, combined under the influence of the Mahometan creed and conquests. The empire founded by Constantine, A.D. 330 ; Constan- tinople besieged by Chosroes, 616. Birth of Mahomet, the prophet, at Mecca, 571 ; his imposture commenced, 604 ; the Koran written, 610 ; flight to Medina, 622 ; death of Mahomet, 631. Holy wars began, 1095; the Turkish empire first formed under Othman at Bithynia, 1298 ; the Turks took Thrace and Adrianople, 1360 ; Janissaries, a guard composed of the descendants of Christian slaves, in- stituted by Amurath I., 1362 ; the provinces of the Eastern empire conquered by Bajazet L, 1389 ; defeated Sigismund, King of Hungary, with an army of 100,000 men, at Nicopolis, 1396; he besieged Constantinople, but was captured by Tamer- lane, 1402; the Turks made a raid upon Hungary, but were repelled by the Huniades, 1450 ; Constantinople taken by Mahomet II., May 29, 1453 ; the Mahometans attacked Greece, 1458 ; subdued the whole of the country, 1460 ; they penetrated into Italy, and took Otranto, 1480 ; the Janissaries cause Selim I. to be raised to the throne ; he murdered his father, brothers, and their families, 1512; he took the islands of the Archipelago, 1514; overran Syria, 1515 ; Egypt added to his empire, 1516; Soliman II. took Belgrade, 1521 ; Rhodes wrested from the knights of St John, 1522 ; the Hungarians defeated at Mohatz, Aug. 29, 1526 ; Soliman II. besieged Vienna with 250,000 men, but was repulsed, 1529; peace concluded with Hungary, 15335 the Venetians defeated, and Cyprus taken, 1571 ; great battle of Lepanto, the whole Turkish fleet destroyed, Oct. 7, 1571 ; Amurath III. ascended the throne, and strangled his five brothers, 1574 ; commerce with England first began, 1583 ; the Turks driven out of Persia by Schah Abbas, 1585 ; Mahomet III. ascended the throne, 1595 ; Ahmet I. succeeded him, 1603 ; great fire in Constantinople, 1606 ; Amurath IV. began to reign, he caused his father and four brothers to be strangled, 1624 ; the Persians defeated by the Turks, who took the city of Bagdad, 1639 ; the island of Candia taken after a long siege, 1669 ; Vienna besieged by Mahomet IV., re- lieved by John Sobieski, of Poland, Sept. 12, 1683 ; the Austrians retake Buda, 1686; Mahomet IV. deposed by Soliman II., his brother, 1687; the ^ Turks recover Belgrade, 1690, but they were totally defeated at Salankemen by the Austrians, 1691, and at Zeuta, 1697 ; peace restored by the treaty of Carlowitz, Jan. 26, 1699; Mustapha II. deposed by the Janissaries, 1703; war declared against Russia, 1710; the Morea conquered by the Turks, I7!5 > Russia relinquished Azof by treaty, July IO, 1711 ; peace made with Austria, July 21, 1718; war declared against Persia, 1726; Mohammed V. began to reign, Sept., 1730 ; the Austrians defeated at Krotzka, July 22, 1739 ; the entire Turkish fleet destroyed in the Bay of Tchesme in the Scio Channel, 1770. A declaration of war proclaimed against France, 1798 ; the Crimea ceded to Russia TURKEY 855 by treaty, Jan. 8, 1784; war again breaks out against Russia, 1787, and with Austria, 1788 ; 20,000 Turks slain at Oczakow, Dec. 17, 1788 ; Ismail stormed by the Russians and 45,000 Turks killed, Dec. 22, 1790; peace concluded with Russia, Aug. n, 1791 ; war against Russia, Jan. 7, 1807 ; the passage of the Dardanelles forced by the British fleet, Feb. 19, 1807 ; Hali Aga murdered, May 25 ; the Sultan Selim deposed and cut to pieces by the Janissaries, who called Mustapha IV. to the throne, May 29; treaty of Bucharest, May 28, 1812, restoring peace to Russia ; a caravan of 2000 pilgrims returning from Mecca, deci- mated by a pestilential wind in the desert only 20 being saved, Aug. 9 ; Waha- bees brought to subjection, 1818 ; Ali Pacha of Albania, in Greece, declared his independence, 1820; Moldavia and Wallachia rose in rebellion, March, 1821 ; the Greek patriarch hanged at Constantinople by a mob, April 23 ; the Turks take Scio and slay the inhabitants, April n, 1822; dreadful fire at Constanti- nople, March I, 1823 ; revolution at, Nov. 3 ; the Turkish fleet defeated near Mitylene, Oct. 7, 1824 ; statute passed reforming the Janissaries, May 28, 1826 ; a new army organized, May 29 ; insurrection of the Janissaries at Constantinople, June 14, 15 ; abolished by the Sultan, June 16 ; fire at Constantinople, 6000 nouses destroyed, Aug. 30 ; the Turkish fleet destroyed by the fleets of England and France, at Navarino, Oct 20, 1827 ; 132 French, 120 English, and 85 Russian residents banished from the Turkish empire, Jan. 5, 1828 ; war declared against Russia, April 26 ; the Turks defeated at Brailow, June 18 ; Anapa sur- rendered, June 23 ; Varna besieged, Aug. 5 ; the Turks defeated at | the battle of Akhalzikh, Aug. 24 ; fortress of Bajazet taken, Sept. 9 ; the Sultan joined his army with the sacred standard, Sept. 26 ; the Dardanelles blockaded, Oct. I ; Varna surrendered, Oct. 1 1 ; Russians retreated from before Schumla, Oct. 15 ; the castle of the Morea surrendered to the French, Oct. 30 ; the Russians raised the siege of Silistria, Nov. 10 ; the Russians defeated the Turks at Kolawtscha, near Schumla, June n, 1829 ; Silistria captured, June 30; battle of Kainly near Erzeroum, July 2 ; Erzeroum captured by the Russians, July 20 ; the Russian troops enter Adrianople, Aug. 20 ; peace concluded at Adrianople, Sept. 14; fire at Constantinople, the crew of H.B. M.S. Blonde as- sisted in saving the city, Jan. 22, 1830 ; the independence of Greece recognized, April 23 ; treaty signed with America, May 7 ; Ibrahim Pacha, son of Mehemet Ali, captured St Jean d'Acre, May 27, 1832 ; the Turks defeated at Horns, July 6 ; the Egyptians captured Aleppo, July 8 ; the Turks again defeated at Beylau, July 29 ; Ibrahim Pacha defeated the army of the Sultan in Syria, with considerable loss, July 30 ; the Egyptians defeated the Turks at Konieh, Dec. 21 ; the army of Ibrahim Pacha comes within 80 leagues of Constantinople, and the Sultan requests the assistance of Russia, Jan., 1833 ; a Russian fleet arrived at the capital, April 3 ; treaty concluded with Mehemet Ali, May 6 ; treaty with Russia concluded, July 8 ; office of Grand Vizier abolished by the Sultan, March 30, 1838 ; treaty of commerce with England ratified, Aug. 16 ; hostilities re- newed with Mehemet Ali, June 17, 1839 ; the Turks defeated at Nezib, June 24 ; Sultan Mahmoud died, June 30 ; the Turkish fleet given up to the Egyptians, July 14 ; revolution in Servia against, May ; a treaty of protection, July 15, 1840 ; St Jean d'Acre captured, Nov. 3. Treaty with the four powers, for clos- ing the passage of the Dardanelles, March 13, 1841 ; the Hungarian leaders, Bern and Kossuth, escaped into Turkey, Aug. 21, 1849 ; the government refused to surrender them on the joint demand of Russia and Austria, Sept. 1 6, 1849 ; Russia again demanded the expulsion of the Hungarian refugees, and suspended all intercourse with the Porte, Nov. 12 ; the Porte (countenanced by England) firmly resisted this demand ; the British fleet, under Sir W. Parker, anchored in Besika bay, Nov. 13 ; diplomatic relations with the Porte resumed by Russia ; the refugees were sent to Konieh, in Asia Minor, Dec. 30, 31 ; friendly relations resumed with Austria, April 6, 1850; insurrection breaks out in Samos, Jan., 856 TURKEY 1851 ; in Turkish Croatia, March 4, suppressed in the same month ; a treaty re- ferring to the Holy Temple in Palestine agreed to with France, Feb. 14, 1852 ; the concession made to the Christians led to a misunderstanding with Russia, Feb., 1853 ; Menshikoff presented his Russian ultimatum, May 5 ; the Porte declared war against Russia, Oct. 5, 1853 ; the allied fleet entered the Bosphorus, Oct. 22 ; the Turkish army crossed the Danube and occupied Kalefat, Oct. 27 ; de- feated the Russian army at Oltenitza. See Russian War. The Greek provinces revolted, Jan. 27, 1854 ; the Sultan makes several demands upon Greece, but his ultimatum was rejected, March 21 ; the Greek rebels defeated in their strong- hold at Damoko, April 22 ; peace made with Russia treaty signed, March 30, 1857; Charter of liberties granted in a " Hatti Humayoun," Feb. 18, 1856; massacre of Christians at Jedda, July 25, 1858 ; several reforms made in the government in Aug. ; a plot against the life of the Sultan discovered, Sept. 17 ; a decree of the Sultan limiting the luxury of the Turkish ladies and ordering certain changes in their costume, Nov. 12, 1859 ; Russia complained of the treatment the Christians received in Turkey, May 5, 1860 ; satisfactory reply given, June 3 ; a treaty of commerce made with France, April 29, 1861, and with Gt Britain the same day ; Abdul Medjid died, June 25 ; reconciliation of the Sultan with the Hospodar of Moldo-Wallachia, 1864. The Sultan left Constantinople to visit Europe, and arrived at Paris, June 30, 1867 ; received at Dover by the Prince of Wales, July 12 ; arrived at Buckingham Palace the same day ; visited the Queen at Windsor Castle, July 13 ; state visit to the Royal Italian Opera, July 15 ; Woolwich dockyards, and the Crystal Palace, July 16 ; review at Spithead, July 17; the Sultan invested with the Order of the Garter by Her Majesty, July 17 ; His Majesty entertained by the Corporation of London, at the Guildhall, July 18 ; banquet in honour of, given by the Duke of Cambridge, at Cambridge House, July 19 ; and a state ball at the new India Office, July 19 ; present at the volunteer review at Wimbledon, July 20 ; entertained by the Duke of Sutherland, at Stafford House, July 22, and visited the Horticultural Gardens ; left London, July 23 ; entered the Bosphorus upon his return, received with great rejoicing, 60 vessels went to meet him, Aug. 7 j held a grand reception at Constantinople, Aug. 12 ; a new council of state composed of 10 Mussulmans and 10 Christians formed, Aug. 19. Insurrection in Crete ; the Turkish am- bassador applied to the King of Greece to assist in putting a stop to their pro- gress, but he refused and assisted the insurgents ; the Turkish ultimatum presented to him, Dec. 10. TURKISH SOVEREIGNS. Othman I. ... ... ... 1299 Mustapha I. (again) ... ... 1622 Orchan, son of Othman ... 1326 Amurath IV 1623 Amurath 1 1360 Ibrahim 1640 Bajazet I. ... 1389 Mohammed IV., son of Ibrahim 1649 Solyman I. ... ... ... 1402 Solyman III., his brother ... 1687 Musa-Chelebi ... 1410 Ahmed II. ... 1691 Mohammed I., son of Bajazet ... 1413 Mustapha II., eldest son of Mo- Amurath II. ... 1421 hammed IV 1605 Mohammed II 1451 Ahmed III 1703 Bajazet II. ... 1481 Mohammed V. succeeded his uncle 1 703 Selim I. 1512 Osman III 1754 Solyman II., the Magnificent, his Mustapha III 1757 son 1520 Abdul-Ahmed 1774 Selim II., son of Solyman ... 1566 Selim III 1788 Amurath III 1574 Mustapha IV 1807 Mohammed III., son of Amurath 1595 Mohammed VI. 1808 Ahmed 1 1603 AbduI-Mejid 1839 Mustapha I. ... ... ... 1617 Abdul-Aziz, brother of the former Osman I. 1618 Emperor June 25, 1861 TURKEYS TUSCANY 857 TURKEYS first brought to England, 1523, and to France, 1570. TURKISH BATHS. Mr Urquhart attempted for several years to introduce them into this country ; he constructed one at Lytham, 1857 ; the first public one opened in London, 1860. TURNERS' COMPANY, incorporated, 2 Jac. I., June 12, 1604 ; grant of arms to, Dec. 17, 1634. TURNPIKES, or TOLLBARS, originated in England, 1267 ; the lord of the manor being allowed to collect a id. from every waggon passing through his manor ; an act passed for erecting, 1663 ; the first erected at St Giles', London, in this year. Riots in various places in England, and the turnpikes destroyed, 1728, 1729; Reynolds hanged at Tyburn for encouraging, 1736; the turnpike near Bedminster destroyed, 1749 ; Rebecca riots in Wales for the abolition of, 1842-3 ; 27 removed, by 7 & 8 Geo. IV. c. 24, 1827 ; tolls to be levied on locomotives, and on waggons and carriages drawn by steam, 24 & 25 Viet c. 70, Aug. I, 1861 ; abolished in certain places near London, by 26 & 27 Viet. c. 78, July 28, i 63, to take effect on June 30, 1864. TURPENTINE, the produce of a species of fir-tree, imported from Barbary prior to 1656 ; there are two kinds, the Venice or Venetian, and the common. The manufacture of, in London and its neighbourhood regulated by 7& 8 Viet. c. 84, ss. 54 63, Aug. 9, 1844, and 18 & 19 Viet. c. 122, Aug. 14, 1855. TURTLES, first brought to England from the West Indies, between 1740 and 1750. TUSCALOOSA, ship-of-war, formerly the Conrad, a trading vessel, captured by the Alabama, Capt. Semmes of the Confederate navy, June 21, 1863 ; taken in- to Simon's Bay, South Africa, and acknowledged a lawful prize by the authorities, Aug. 8 ; a protest being made' by the United States Consul, the case being referred to the law officers, their decision was unfavourable, and she was ordered to be detained, Dec. 26 ; her commander protested against this act, Dec. 28 ; the whole case being communicated to the Home authorities, Jan. II, 1864, the ship was ordered to be delivered up by the Duke of Newcastle, Foreign Secretary, March 10, and Capt Semmes warned not to bring any prizes into English ports. TUSCANY, Italy, called by the ancients Etruria ; annexed to the Lombard king- dom of Alboin, A.D. 568 ; incorporated by Charlemagne into his empire, 773-4 ; ravaged by Henry IV., 1081 ; erected into a dukedom, by the bull of Pius V., Cosmo de Medici being made Grand-Duke, Aug. 27, 1569 ; upon the extinction of this family, Francis of Lorraine elected to the throne, 1737 ; seized by the French, March 24, 1 799 ; recovered its independence, July 17, 1 799, but was again taken by France the following year ; given to Louis, son of the King of Spain, as King of Etruria, Feb. 26, 1801 ; he died, June 30, 1803 ; united to France, May 24, 1808 ; restored to Austria, 1814; Leopold II. ascended the ducal seat, June 18, 1824; insurrection in, Feb., 1831 ; a treaty made with Great Britain and France for suppressing the slave trade, Nov. 30, 1831, and March 22, 1833 ; ordered to be carried into effect, by I &2 Viet. c. 83, Aug. 10, 1838 ; treaty for the suppression of the slave trade with England, Dec. 20, 1841 ; Lucca annexed to Tuscany, Aug. 3 1, 1847; a representative government proclaimed, Feb. II, 1848; Leopold fled from Sienna' in consequence of the civil war, Feb. 7, 1849 ; arrived at Gaeta, Feb. 23 ; the town restored, Aug. 6; recovered by an Austrian army, May 5, 1850 ; Leopold returned, July 23 ; outrage committed upon Mr Erskine Mather in the streets of Florence, Jan. 29, 1851 ; agreed and signed a concordat with the Pope, April 25, 1858 ; the abolition of the constitu- tion of 1848, May 6, 1852 ; revolution in, and Victor Emmanuel made Dictator, April 28, 1859, but refused ; the French landed an army at Leghorn, May 20; the Grand-Duke Leopold abdicated, Sept. 3 ; the Pope's concordat annulled, 858 TUTBURY CASTLE TYROL Jan. 27, 1860 ; voted for annexation to Sardinia, March 22 ; Florence declared the capital of Italy, April 26, 1865. TUTBURY CASTLE, Staffordshire, built by Henry de Ferrers, circa 1066 ; re- built by John of Gaunt, 1350; Mary Queen of Scots confined in, 1569; taken and destroyed by the Parliamentarians, 1645. TWELFTH-DAY, or Old Christmas, custom of drawing king and queen on, was borrowed from the Greeks and Romans, who, on the tabernacle or Christmas festivals, drew lots for kings, by putting a piece of money in the middle of a cake, which whoever found was saluted as king of the festival of the Epiphany ; instituted, 813. TYBURN, London, the ancient place for the execution of malefactors. Nicholas Brembre, Lord Mayor of London, executed at, Feb. 20, 1388 ; the exact spot is situated at the junction of the Edgeware and Bayswater roads, where No. 49, Connaught Square, stands. A German writer in 1778 speaks of it as distant two miles from London. John Austin the last person executed here, Nov. 7, 1 783 ; the gate removed, 1829. Water was conveyed from the springs here to supply the city of London in the I3th century. TYCHFIELD ABBEY, Hants, built, 1232. TYNEMOUTH CASTLE, Northumberland, built by Waltheof, Earl of North- umberland, who married William the Conqueror's niece, 1070 ; held by the Earl of Albemarle against William Rufus, 1093; captured by the Scots, 1644, and by the Roundheads, 1648- TYPE-FOUNDING, invented at Mentz, circa 1457 ; separated from printing by a decree of Charles I., July II, 1637 ; 4 founders appointed, revived by Charles II., 1662-3 ; and again for 7 years by James II., 1685 ; not since renewed. Composing-machine invented by Mr Hattersley, 1859. TYRCONNEL, Earl of. The Roman Catholics in Ireland, headed by, with a French force, attacked Ulster, Londonderry, and Ennskillen, 1690, but were defeated by the forces, but this rebellion in favour of James II. was not finally crushed until Oct., 1691. TYRE, Phoenicia, said to have been founded B.C. 1250 ; besieged unsuccessfully by Shalmanaser, King of Assyria, 722 ; and again by Nebuchadnezzar, King of Babylon, 690 ; captured by Alexander, 332-4 ; taken by the Crusaders, June 27, A. D. 1124; again in the possession of the Saracens, May 19, 1291. TYRE, era of, began Oct. 19, 125 B.C.; to reduce this era to our own, subtract 124, and if the given year be less than 125, deduct it from 125, and the remainder will be the era before Christ. TYROL, Austria, made a part of the Austrian empire, 1665 ; ceded to Bavaria by the treaty of Presburg, Dec. 26, 1805 ; an insurrection, under the leadership of Andrew Hofer, against this power broke out in the early part of 1809, and their rulers expelled. The French invaded the country, but were defeated in several engagements, and finally expelled after the battle of Iselberg, Aug. 13, 1809 ; and the treaty of Schonbrunn concluded, Oct. 14, by which Bavaria was restored ; the Tyrolese refused to assent to it, and continued the struggle ; the patriot Hofer captured by the French, Jan. 20, 1810, and shot at Mantua, Feb. 20 ; the Aus- trians regained possession of the country, 1814. UBIQUITARIANS UNCTION, EXTREME 859 u UBIQUITARIANS, a Lutheran sect, which at one time spread over Germany and through other countries ; they believed the natural body of Christ to be everywhere present : the sect arose circa 1560. UCLES, battle, the Spanish army was defeated by the French, under Marshal Victor, with a loss of 1500 men killed and 9000 prisoners, their whole artillery and baggage, Jan. 13, 1809. UKRAINE, or the Frontier, as the term imports. Russia and Poland divided the Ukraine by treaty, 1693 ; the west side of the Dneiper being taken by Poland, and the east by Russia ; the borders of Poland, Russia, and Little Tartary were ap- propriated by Russia, 1795, according to the iniquitous treaty of partition, Nov. 25. The Emperor, Alexander I., visited here, April, 1818 j insurrection broke out, April 25, 1831 ; suppressed, May 26. ULEABORG, Finland, founded, 1610 ; taken by the Russians from the Swedes, 1809 ; formally ceded, Sept. 17; destroyed by fire, 1822 ; rebuilt, 1823-4. The English fleet destroyed 23 vessels, and the governmental stores, June I, 2, 1854. ULM, Wurtemberg, peace of, by which Frederic V. was deprived of Bohemia, signed July 3, 1620; taken by the French, 1796 ; fortified by the Grand-Duke, 1800; ceded to Bavaria, July 17, 1802; the battle of, between the French, commanded by Marshal Ney.and the Austrians, by Gen. Mack, the latter were defeated, Oct. 17 20, 1805, and the fortifications of the town were destroyed ; restored, 1842. ULSTER, Ireland, divided between the O'Neills and O'Dohertys in the reign of Elizabeth. Insurrection, 1598 ; commissioners appointed to inquire into the for- feited lands, 1602 1609 ; a settlement founded and a grant made to Nicholas Bacon, May 22, 1611. The Irish Society of London founded by James I., March 29, 1613. The Chemico-Agricultural Society instituted at Belfast, 1845 ; report upon the potato disease, 1845. Statistical Society founded at Londonderry, 1838. ULVERSCROFT PRIORY, Leicestershire, founded by Robert Bossu, circa 1134. ULVERSTONE, Lancashire, the gunpowder mills of Messrs Dickson and Co. exploded at, killing 3 men and seriously wounding 3 others, one man was found with his clothes burnt off 100 yards from the mill, and the horse and van were carried into a wood 50 yards away, the shock was felt for miles, Dec. 7, 1867. Another explosion at these mills, which resulted in their total destruction, and the loss of 9 workmen, happened, July 25, 1868. UMBRELLA, mentioned by Ben Jonson, in a comedy, 1616 ; used by the ladies in the reign of Queen Anne, 1710; Mr John Jameson used one in Glasgow, 1782 ; the first person who used the umbrella in the streets of London was Jonas Han way, who died, 1786 ; alpaca first used as a covering in lieu of silk by Sangster, 1851. UNCTION, EXTREME, a ceremony originally of the Tews, who anointed them- selves with oil upon particular occasions, and hence the imitation of the cere- mony ; it was in common use about 550 ; the first who received extreme unction from the pope is said to have been St Asaph, 590. 86o UNIFORMITY UNITED PROVINCES UNIFORMITY, first Act of, passed, i Elizabeth, c. 2, 1558. Second, obliging all the clergy to subscribe the same 39 Articles and to use the same form of worship ; upwards of 2000 ministers quitted the Church of England upon that occasion, joined the Dissenters, and ranked among the fathers of the Dissenting interest, 13 & 14 Car. II., c. 4 ; received the royal assent, May 19, to come into force, Aug. 24, 1662. UNION of the Three Crowns : England and Scotland became united at the ac- cession of James VI. of Scotland, as James I. of England, March 24, 1603; the union of the two kingdoms was attempted, but failed, 1670 ; commis- sioners appointed to agree as to the terms of the settlement, i Anne, c. 8 ; the terms agreed to, July 22, 1 706 ; the Tories opposed the union, 1 706, in the House of Commons, but it became a law, 6 Anne, c. n, June 6, 1706, and was ratified by a large majority in the Scotch parliament, Jan. 16, 1707 ; the union to commence from the ist of May, 1707. Union with Ireland proposed in the Irish parliament by a royal message, Jan. 22, 1799 ; resolutions passed by the city of Cork in favour of, Jan. 12 ; the plan of the union detailed, Feb. 5, 1800 ; the act of union passed the British parliament, 39 & 40 Geo. III. c. 47, July 2, 1800 ; the Irish parliament agreed to the union by 40 Geo. III. c. 38, June 13, 1800. The united standard of England and Ireland first displayed on Dublin castle, Jan. I, 1801 ; the realm thence became the united kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, the title to France being dropped. UNION FIRE-OFFICE established, 1715. UNION JACK, the National Flag of Gt Britain (the cross of St George, with the Saltire of St Andrew), adopted by proclamation of James I., April 12, 1606 ; the Saltire of St Patrick added, Jan. I, 1801. UNION PACKET, of Dover, lost off Calais, Jan. 28, 1792, the first accident of the kind for 105 years. UNITARIANS, who worship only one self-existent Deity, in place of three equal Deities in one, arose under Servetus, 1553 ; on his passing through Geneva, pro- ceeding to Naples, in that year, Calvin incited the magistrates to arrest him on charges of blasphemy and heresy, and on his refusing to retract his opinions con- demned him to be burned ; this murder took place, Oct. 27, 1553 ; the act passed, to relieve them from their disabilities, 53 Geo. III. c. 160, July 21, 1813 ; ex- tended to Ireland, 57 Geo. III. c. 70, July 7, 1817; their meeting-house pro- tected by 7 & 8 Viet. c. 45, July 19, 1844 ; a national convention of, held in New York, April 5, 1865. UNITED BRETHREN, called by some Moravians, existed at a very early period; they were joined by the Waldenses, 1176, and by the followers of John Huss, 1417 ; after the Reformation they obtained an edict for the exercise of their worship in public, 1575, which was confirmed, 1609; they were afterwards dis- persed, 1 612-2 1 ; revived in Moravia and Bohemia, 1 720, where Count Zinzendorf supported them, 1722 ; made one of their bishops, 1737 ; first mission to Green- land, 1733; to America, 1734; an act passed removing some of the disabilities under which they suffered with other Dissenters, 20 Geo. II., c. 44, June 17, 1 747 ; and an act passed to encourage their settlement in America, 22 Geo. II. , c. 30, May 26, 1749. UNITED IRISHMEN, a conspiracy established, and a society formed to invade England, 1791 ; the leaders concluded a treaty with France, June, 1796 ; their leader, Theobald Tone, was convicted, Nov. 10, 1 798 ; he committed suicide shortly afterwards, see the report of the House of Commons, March 15, 1799. UNITED PROVINCES, once subjected to Spain ; became a republic, 1579 ; deputies appointed by the provinces of Holland, Zealand, Utrecht, Friesland, UNITED SERVICE CLUB UNITED STATES 861 Groningen, Overyssel, and Guelderland, met at Utrecht, Jan. 23, 1579 ; they agreed to and signed a treaty of mutual defence, appointing the Prince of Orange stadtholder, thus forming the union of Utrecht, or the foundation of the Seven United Provinces. In 1609 their independence was acknowledged ; Holland was united to France, 1796 ; Louis Bonaparte crowned king of, Tune $, 1806 ; he abdicated, July I, 1810 ; Holland restored to the house of Orange, with Belgium annexed, Nov. 18, 1813 ; separated from Belgium, and Leopold of Saxe-Coburg elected king, July 12, 1831 ; died, Dec., 1865 ; Leopold II. elected king, Dec. 10, 1865. UNITED SERVICE CLUB, formed in London, 1816 ; their Club House built, 1828. UXITED SERVICE INSTITUTION (Royal), established in London, 1831. UNITED SERVICE MUSEUM, established at Whitehall, 1830 ; robbery of coins from, 1869. UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. Jamestown, Virginia, settled by the English, May 13, 1607 ; the Pilgrim Fathers settled at Plymouth, Dec. 20, 1620 ; New York settled by the Dutch, 1664-74; Maryland first settlement made, 1634; North Carolina, 1665 ; South Carolina, 1660 ; New Jersey, 1665 ; Pennsylvania, 1681; Savannah founded, 1733; revolted from the sway of England, though English colonists, originally established by voluntary exile to avoid persecution for opinion's sake, and secure civil and religious liberty to themselves and their posterity. The English parliament passed a measure increasing the duty upon all imported goods, 4 Geo. III. c. 15, Aprils, 1764; the Stamp Act, which caused great discontent, passed, 5 Geo. III. c. 12, March 22, 1765 ; to take effect from, Nov. I. First American Congress met, Oct. 7, 1765. The Stamp Act repealed, 6 Geo. III. c. n, March 18, 1766. An act levying duties on paper, tea, and other imports, 7 Geo. III. c. 46, passed, June 29, 1767; they petition against the measure, Jan. 20, 1768; an English expedition arrived at Boston, Oct. I ; 342 chests of tea thrown into the sea by the people at Boston, and 17 at New York, Dec. 16, 1773. deputies of the several States met in congress at Philadelphia, Sept. 5, 1774 ; first battle fought between the English and Americans at Lexington, April 19, 1775 ; Bunkers Hill battle, June 17 ; Act of perpetual State Union passed, May 20; Washington appointed commander-in-chief, June 15 ; America declared 'inde- pendent' at Philadelphia, July 4, 1776 ; New York occupied by the English, Sept. 15 ; the battle of Brandywine, an affluent of the Delaware, fought, Sept. n, 1777 ; Philadelphia taken, Sept. 26; the battle of Germantown, Oct. 4 ; the English army, commanded by Gen. Burgoyne, surrendered at Saratoga, Oct. 17 ; the independ- ence of America acknowledged by France, Dec. 16 ; a treaty of commerce and alliance signed with France, Feb. 6, 1778 ; the English forces captured Charles- ton, May 12, 1780; the battle of Camden, Aug. 16 ; Major Andre arrested, Sept 23 ; shot as a spy, Oct. 2; Eutaw Springs battle fought, Sept 8, 1781 ; Lord Cornwallis surrendered with 7000 men to Washington, at Yorktown, Oct. 19, 1781 ; their independence recognized by Holland, April 19, 1782 ; Sir Guy Carleton arrived to treat for peace, May 5, 1782 ; the treaty of peace signed at Paris, Sept. 3, 1 783 ; New York evacuated by the English forces, Nov. 25 ; the treaty ratified by congress, Jan. 4, 1 784. John Adams, the first American am- bassador, received by George III. of England, June I, 1785 ; new constitution proposed to congress, Sept. 17, 1787; the slaves in Philadelphia emancipated, Jan. I, 1788; the new government organized at New York, March 4, 1789; General Washington elected the president, April 14 ; the management of the navy committed to the war department, Aug. 7 ; the loth amendment made in the constitution, Dec. 15, 1791 ; National Bank instituted, with a capital of 10,000,000 of dollars, June 7 ; the city of Washington chosen for the capital, July 8, 1792 ; General Washington re-elected as president, March 4, 1 793 ; he resigned office, 862 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA Sept. 17, 1796 ; Mr A Jams elected, March 4, 1797; a separate department of the navy formed, April 30, 1798; the constitution amended, Jan. 8, 1798; General Washington died, Dec. 14, 1799; the seat of government removed to Washington in Dec., 1799; Louisiana purchased of France, for ,3, 200,000, April 30, 1803 ; the I2th amendment made in the constitution, Sept. 25, 1804 ; an embargo laid on all English vessels, Dec. 9, 1807 ; repealed, March i, iScg ; French vessels prohibited from entering American ports by Napoleon, March 23, 1810, and American vessels ordered to be seized in French waters ; re- pealed, Nov. 2. Declaration of war issued against England, June 18, 1812 ; the American ship Constitution, captured the British frigate Guerriere, Aug. 19 ; Fort Detroit captured, Aug. 21 ; the American ship Wasp took the English ship the Frolic, Oct. 1 8 ; re-captured by the Poictiers the ship United States, of 54 guns, captured the British frigate Macedonian, Oct. 25 ; the Java, 46 guns, captured by the ConstittUion, 28 guns, of the United States, Dec. 29 ; battle of Frenchtown fought, Jan. 24, 1813 ; the Hornet sunk the British sloop-of-war Peacock, Feb. 25 ; Forts Erie and George abandoned by the English forces, May 27 ; the American frigate Chesapeake captured by the frigate Shannon, June I ; the Americans defeated at the battle of Burlington Heights, June 6 ; H.M. sloop Pelican took the American sloop Argus, Aug. 14 ; the English took Buffalotown and burnt it, Dec. 30 ; the P/uebe and Cherub took the American frigate Essex , March 28, 1814; the ports declared blockaded by Adm. Cochrane, April 25 ; the British defeat the Americans in a severe conflict, at Fort Oswego, May 6 ; Fort Erie captured by the Americans, July 3 ; attempt to recapture it by the English forces, failed, Aug. 15 ; the city of Washington taken by the British forces, and the public edifices, records, and libraries burned, Aug. 24 ; Alex- andria taken by the British, Aug. 29 ; the American ship Wasp attacked and sunk the British ship-of-war Avon, Sept. 8 ; the English squadron on Lake Champlain captured, Sept. n; Baltimore taken by the English, General Ross killed, Sept. 12 ; treaty of peace with Great Britain signed at Ghent, Dec. 24 ; the English vessel Endymion captured the ship President, Jan. 14, 1815 ; the treaty of Ghent ratified,Feb. 17. The foundation of the capitol of Washington laid, Aug. 24, 1818; Florida ceded by Spain to the United States, Oct. 24, 1820 ; the independence of South America acknowledged, March 19, 1822 ; treaty made with Colombia, May 28, 1825 ; the two ex-presidents, Adams and Jefferson, died on the $oth an- niversary of the independence of the American States, July 4, 1826 ; indemnity convention made with Great Britain, for indemnifying those who suffered in the war, Nov. 3 ; American tariff bill passed, May 13, 1828 ; treaty between the United States and Turkey signed, May 7, 1830; the ports re-opened to British commerce, Oct. 5 ; new laws of tariff made, July 14, 1832 ; 647 houses and many public edifices burnt in New York, Dec. 15, ^35 > the American steam-boat Caroline attacked and burnt by the English near Schlosser, on the territory of the United States, Dec. 29, 1837; the president issued a proclamation against American citizens aiding the Canadians in their rebellion against England, Jan. 5, 1838 ; the Great Western steam-ship first arrived at New York, June 1 7 ; cash payments suspended by the American banks, Oct. 9, 1839 ; Mr M'Leod charged with aid- ing in the destruction of the ship Caroline, when a true bill was found against him for murder and arson, Feb. 6, 1841 ; the United States bank again suspended payment, Feb. 7 ; Mr Fox, the English minister, demanded the release of Mr M'Leod, March 12. General Harrison died a month after his inauguration, April 4 ; the presidency devolved on the vice-president, John Tyler, April 5. The case of M'Leod removed to the supreme court at New York by habeas corpus, May 6 ; a number of Canadian volunteers crossed the frontier and carried off Colonel Grogan into Canada, Sept. 9 ; all the ministers, with the exception of Mr Webster, resigned, Sept. n ; the president issued a proclamation against lawless attempts of American citizens to invade British possessions, and to suppress secret UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 863 lodges and clubs, Sept. 25 ; trial of Mr M'Leod commenced in the supreme court, Oct. 4 ; Col. Grogan restored to the United States' government, Oct. 4 ; M'Leod acquitted after a trial of eight days, Oct. 12; colossal statue of Washington erected in the capitol at Washington, Dec. I ; the Creole, an American vessel on her voyage to New Orleans with a cargo of slaves, Nov. 7, mutinied and murdered the owner, Mr Hewell, wounded the captain, and compelled the crew to navigate the ship to Nassau, New Providence; the governor, considering them as passengers, allowed all to go at liberty, with the exception of those engaged in the actual murder, Nov. 9. Arrest of Hogan, implicated in the Caroline affair, Feb. 2, 1842 ; Lord Ashburton arrived at New York on a special mission, April I ; negotiated and signed the Washington treaty, denning the boundaries between the United States and the British American possessions, for suppressing the slave trade, and giving up fugitive criminals, Aug. 9 ; a new measure passed amending the tariff act, Aug. 30. Joe Smith, the Mormon prophet, shot, June 27, 1844. Mexico declared war against the United States, June 4, 1845 ; resolution of the senate and house of representatives for terminat- ing the joint occupancy of Oregon passed, April 23, 1846 ; New Mexico annexed to the United States, after a disastrous war, Aug. 22 ; the north-west boundary of the United States fixed at the 49th parallel of latitude ; the British possession of Vancouver's Island and the free navigation of the Columbia river settled by treaty, June 12. The Mexicans defeated by the forces commanded by General Taylor at Bueno Vista, Feb. 23 ; Vera Cruz taken by storm, and the Mexicans defeated in the battle of Sierra Gorda, April 18 ; treaty between the United States and Mexico ratified, May 19, 1848. Park Theatre burnt, Dec. 16 ; a serious riot at the New York Theatre, occasioned by a dispute between two actors, May 10, 1849 ; proclamation forbidding the expedition to Cuba, issued, Aug. II; the French ambassador ordered to leave Washington, Sept. 15; convention made with Gt Britain for the establishment of a Ship Canal between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, April 19, 1850 ; destructive fire in Philadelphia, July 9; California admitted into the Union, Aug. 15 ; the President issued a proclamation against the expedition to Cuba, April 25, 1851 ; Gen. Lopez landed at Cuba, Aug. 12 ; executed for treason at Havanna, Sept. I ; the Library of Congress at Washington burnt, Dec. 24 ; the New York Exhibition opened by the President, July 14, 1853 ; a treaty of commerce signed with Japan, March 8, 1854 ; riots at Boston in consequence of the seizure of a fugitive slave, June 24 ; proclamation issued against the Cuban expedition, May 31 ; Preston Brooks assaulted Senator Sumner in the Senate House, May 2, 1856 ; the English am- bassador ordered to quit Washington, May 28 ; succeeded by Lord Napier, March 18, 1857 ; the salary of a Senator fixed at 6000 dollars for each session, Aug. 16, 1856. The ship Resolute recovered in the Arctic Regions ; presented to the Queen of England, Dec. 16 ; riots at Washington, June I, and at New York, June 16, 1857 ; the banks of New York stopped payment in Oct.; an expedition defeated the Mormons, Feb., 1858; Governor Cummings sent to replace Brigham Young as President of Utah, May 2 ; enters the capital of Utah, June 26 ; the Atlantic Telegraph completed, Aug. 5. Negro insurrection headed by John Brown at Harper's Ferry, Oct. 17, 1859 ; Washington Irving died, Nov. 28 ; the Pemberton Mills fell down, burying 400 workpeople in its ruins, Jan. 10, 1860 ; a committee appointed to inquire into the conduct of the election of President Buchanan, March 5 ; he protested against it, March 28 ; the Prince of Wales received at Washington by the President, Oct. 3 ; Abraham Lincoln elected President, Nov. 6. A General Fast ordered to be observed on account of the rising in the Southern States, Jan. 4, 1861 ; New Mexico admitted into the Union, March 2 ; Abraham Lincoln inaugurated as President, March 4 ; he called for 75,000 volunteers for three months, April 1 5, and 42,000 for three years, May 3; the Congress passed an act, authorizing the President to accept the services of 500,000 volunteers, July 25; 864 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA the postal service with the Southern States ceased, May 31 ; six ballet girls burnt at the Philadelphia Theatre in Sept. ; Messrs Slidell and Mason taken from the Trentma.il steam vessel, by Capt. Wilks, Nov. 8, andWilks thanked by Congress. The surrender of Messrs Slidell and Mason demanded by the English ambassador, Lord Lyons, Dec. 23 ; they are given up, Dec. 27. The New York bankers stopped cash payment, Dec. 30. Capt. Gordon executed for piracy at New York, Jan. 19, 1862 ; treaty with Gt Britain for the suppression of the African slave trade, April 7. The Congress decrees the abolition of slavery in the Union, June 9 ; the slaves of the South declared confiscated, June 19 ; the President declares the emancipation of the slaves of all rebels, July 17. Fire at St Louis, property valued at 20,000 dollars destroyed, May 18. The Treasury determine to give a postage stamp currency, Aug. i. The slaves in the revolted States declared free by proclamation, to come in force, Jan. I, 1863 ; confirmed, Jan. I, 1863 ; the restoration of peace suggested, Jan. 9 ; Gen. Grant appointed Commander-in- chief in March ; 500,000 volunteers called for by the President, July 16, 1864. Franz Muller arrested in New York for the murder of Mr Briggs in London, Aug. 24, 1864, Abraham Lincoln elected a second time as President, Dec. 6; Abraham Lincoln, President, shot byWilkes Booth in Ford's Theatre, Washington, April 14, 1865, died April 15. The life of secretary Seward and his son attempted by Payne, April 14 ; the assassin shot, attempting to escape, April 26. Vice-presid- ent Johnson takes the office of President, April 15 ; he had been elected to the office of Vice-president, Nov. 8, 1864. Mrs Surratt and three other accomplices hanged for being implicated in the murder of the President, July 7, 1865. The Habeas Corpus restored in the Northern States, Dec. I. President Johnson de- livered his message to Congress, Dec. 4 ; the I3th amendment made in the consti- tution abolishing slavery throughout the States, Dec. 18; the Southern States re- admitted into the Union, by Congress, April 2, 1866 ; all natives of the United States except Indians declared citizens in Feb. ; President Johnson vetoed the freeman's bureau bill as unconstitutional, Feb. 19, 1866 ; and the civil rights bill, March 27 ; passed by the Senate over the veto, April 7. The bill for ad- mitting Colorado into the Union vetoed by the President, May 16. The Fenians made a raid into Canada, May 31, and again June 7 ; a proclamation against, issued ; riot in New Orleans, martial law proclaimed in July. The President in his message to Congress recommended conciliation to, and re-admission into the Union of, the Southern States, Dec. 3. Great distress in Mississippi, Dec. 20. The President vetoed the bill for the admission of Colorado as a State into the Union, Jan. 28, 1867 ; passed over the veto by Congress, Feb. 9 ; the 46th Congress opened, March 4, and passed a vote of thanks to Mr Peabody for his gifts to the people. Russian America sold to America for 7,000,000 dollars in gold, April 10; treaty signed, June 30. The Court of Richmond released Mr Davis, the late President of the Southern States, on bail, May 13 ; the first Turkish minister, M. Blacque, received by the President, May 23 ; postal treaty with Gt Britain ap- proved by the President, July 1 1 ; the President vetoed the bill enlarging the powers of the Southern district commanders, July 19 ; the Congress passed it over the veto ; the supplementary reconstruction act vetoed by the President, July 20, but passed by Congress. Secretary Stanton suspended by the President, and Gen. Grant appointed Secretary of war, Aug. 12. Surratt' s trial, verdict given, Aug. 10. The President issued a proclamation setting forth his determin- ation to protect and defend the constitution of the States, &c., Sept. 3. Gen. Sheridan removed from the command of the 5th district, Sept. 8 ; a general amnesty granted to the Confederates, Sept. 9. Sir Frederick Bruce, the English ambassador at Washington, died of diphtheria, Sept. 17 ; the new constitution adopted in Maryland, Sept. 19; the rate of postage upon newspapers and books fixed, Oct. I ; a day of prayer and thanksgiving appointed, Nov. 28 ; a resolution to impeach the President defeated in the House of Representatives by 108 votes to 57, Dec. 8 ; UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 865 41 persons burned and many injured by an accident on the Lake Erie Railway, D^c. 1 8 ; Gen. Pope removed from the command of the 3rd district, Dec. 28. Congress agrees to impeach the President by 126 votes to 41, Feb. 24, 1868, he having removed Mr Stanton, Secretary of War, Feb. 21, 1868 ; tried by the Senate, Chief Justice Chase being appointed president, March 18 May 16 ; ac- quitted upon all the charges, May 26. A serious riot broke out at Ward's Island, New York, March 5 ; a republican convention held at Chicago, May 20 ; the President issued a proclamation granting a free pardon to all persons who partici- pated in the rebellion, July I ; the I4th amendment made in the constitution, July 28 ; the revolution in Spain recognized, Oct. 5 ; General Grant elected President, Nov. 3 ; the meeting of Congress held, Dec. 7 ; the President's message read, Dec. 9. Sa the War of Succession. CONFEDERATE STATES : South Carolina seceded, Dec 20, 1860 ; Mississippi, Jan. 9, 1861 ; Alabama, Jan. II ; Florida, Jan. 12 ; Georgia, Jan. 19 ; Louisiana, Jan. 26 ; Texas, Feb. I ; Virginia, April 17 ; Arkansas, May 6 ; Tennessee, May 8 ; North Carolina, May 20. The first shot fired at Fort Sump- ter, Jan. 9, 1861 ; at a meeting of the seceding States at Montgomery, Mr Howard Cobb was selected President of the Congress, Feb. 4 ; Mr Jefferson Davis appointed President of the Confederate States, Feb. 18. Confederate colours : the flag of these States was a red field with a white space extending hori- zontally through the centre, and equal in width to one-third the width of the flag ; the red spaces above and below to be the same width as the white ; the Union blue extending down through the white space and stopping at the lower red space ; in the centre of the Union a circle of white stars : first unfurled at Montgomery, March 4. Congress met at Richmond, July 20 ; President Davis sent his message to the Confederate Congress, congratulating them upon the victory of Bethel, Bull's Run, &c., Nov. 18 ; Mr Jefferson Davis elected President, and Mr Stevens Vice-president for six years, Nov. 30, 1861. The conscription act extended to all citizens from 35 to 45 years of age, Aug. 18, 1862 ; extended to the ages of 18 & 45, July 21, 1863 ; the Confederate Congress convened, March 15, 1865. WAR OF SUCCESSION, 1860 : message of the President to Mr Buchanan deprecating the threatened secession of the South, Dec. 4, South Carolina takes the lead in seceding from the Union, Dec. 20; 10 other States subsequentlyfollowed. Major Anderson removed the troops from fort Moultrie to fort Sumpter, Dec. 26 ; com nHsioriers from South Carolina request the President to withdraw the troops from the forts in Charleston harbour, Jan. 3, 1861 ; a fast held in the Northern States on account of the threatened secession, Jan. 4. Mr Abraham Lincoln en- tered upon his duties as President of the United States, March 4 ; fort Sumpter captured by the Confederates, April 15 ; proclamation issued calling out 75,000 militia, April 15 , the Armoury, Arsenal, and other buildings destroyed by the Federals at Harper's Ferry, April 18; the Confederate ports declared in a state of blockade, April 19 ; the navy yard at Norfolk dismantled by the Federals, and four steam vessels of war sunk, April 20. Proclamation issued, calling out 42,000 volunteers, and increasing the regular army to 23,000 soldiers, and the navy to 18,000 seamen, May 3. Mr Seward, the Federal Secretary of State, accepted the ci-vil war as inevitable, May 4 ; the Federal troops repulsed at Great Bethel, June 10 ; the queen of England issued a proclamation of neutrality, May 13 ; Harper's Ferry evacuated by the Confederates, June 16 ; President Lincoln, in his message to Congress, asked for 400,000 men, and 400,000,000 dollars to carry on the war, July 5 ; the Senate authorized the raising of 500,000 men and a loan of 500,000,000 dollars, July 22 ; the Federals defeated at Bull's Run, near Manassas junction, leaving all their dead and wounded, artillery and stores, in their flight, July 21 ; a bill to provide iron-clad ships and floating batteries, passed by the Federal Congress, July 22 ; the President again authorized to call out 500,000 volunteers, July 25; the Federals again defeated and Gen. Lyonskilled, 55 856 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA Aug. 10 ; fort Hatteras taken by the Federals, Aug. 29 ; Lexington captured by the Confederates after 3 days' fighting, Sept. 20 ; the Federals, under Gen. Sherman, captured the forts at Hilton's Head and Philips' Island with 40 guns, Oct. 21. Messrs Mason and Slidell, Confederate commissioners, taken from the British mail packet, Trent, by Commodore Wilkes of the San Jacinto, Nov. 8 ; claimed by the British government, and given up to Lord Lyons at Washington, Dec. 28 ; arrived in England, Jan. 29, 1862 ; the President's mes- sage to Congress stated the number of the army to be 660,971 men ; the Federals attempted to blockade the harbour of Charleston by the sinking of 18 vessels laden with large blocks of stone, Dec. 28 ; cash payments suspended in the Federal States, Dec. 31; the Confederates defeated at Mill Springs, Kentucky, Jan. 19, 1862 ; the island of Roanoke, N. Carolina, captured by the Federals under Gen. Burnside in Feb ; fort Donnelson and fort Henry in Tennessee captured by the Federals under Gen. Grant, with 13,500 prisoners and all their war material, Feb. 16 ; Nashville evacuated by the Confederates, Feb. 23 ; the Confederate iron-clad Virginia, late the Federal steam vessel Merrimac, attacked the Federal fleet in Hampton roads ; she sunk the Cumberland, captured and burnt the Con- fress, disabled the Minnesota, and defeated the St Lawrence and Roanoke, March ; attacked by the Monitor next day, and after a gallant struggle, retired for repairs, March 9. The army of the Potomac under Gen. McClellan em- barked for the York river, March 22. Slavery abolished in the district of Colum- bia, April 4; island No. 10 captured by the Federals under Gen. Pope, after a de- fence of 17 days, April 7. The Confederates under Gen. Johnston attacked the Federals, 40,000 strong, at Pittsburg, landing on the Tennessee river, and drove him back and captured part of his camp, April 6; the Federals, receiving reinforcements, renewed the battle the next day, defeating the Confederates, Gen. Johnston was killed, April 7. New Orleans captured by the fleet under commander Farragut, April 24 ; the city surrendered, April 26 ; York town evacuated by the Con- federates, May 3. The battle of Williamsburg fought, May 5 ; the Federals occu- pied the city of Norfolk, the Confederates retired after destroying the docks, navy yard, and the vessels in the harbour, the Mdrrimac being blown up, May 10-11. The Federal gun boats defeated on the James river ; the Federals, com- manded by Gen. Banks, defeated at Winchester, May 18 ; Gen. Beauregard, with the Confederate army, evacuated Corinth, May 29. The Federals under Gen. Casey defeated, with the loss of 19 guns and all their baggage, at Fair Oaks, May 31 ; the Federals defeated in the Shenandoah valley, by Gens. Ewell and Jackson, May 25 ; the Federal fleet attacked and defeated 8 Confederate gun boats at Memphis, and captured the town, June 6 ; the Federals defeated at Secessionville, 4 miles from Charleston, June 16 ; and under Gen. McClellan, again de- feated on the Chicahominy in several battles, June 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, and July I ; their loss amounted to 20,000 killed and wounded, 53 pieces of artillery, and immense stores ; the Federals, under Gen. Banks, defeated at Cedar mountain, Aug. 9 ; again defeated at Bull's Run, Aug. 29-30, and at Centreville, Sept. I ; the Confederates, under Gen. Lee, invaded Maryland and Pennsylvania, Sept. 5, and occupied Hagerstown ; attacked at South Mountain by the Federals, Sept. 14. Harper's Ferry invested by the Confederates, under Gen. Jackson, Sept. 12 ; surrendered with 8000 prisoners ; the Confederates cap- tured 10,000 small arms, 40 cannon, and a large quantity of ammunition and stores, Sept. 15. The battle of Antietam fought, the Federals lost 14,700 men, and the Confederates evacuated Maryland, Sept. 17. The Confederates, under Gen. Price, defeated at Corinth, in Western Tennessee, Oct. 4 ; and under Gen. Bragg, defeated at Perryville, Oct. 9 ; Gen. McClellan superseded by Gen. Burnside, Nov. 7 ; the Federals, under that General, crossed the river at Fredericksburgh, Dec. 12 ; attacked the Confederates under Gens. Jackson and Longstreet, and were repulsed, Dec. 13 ; they lost 14,000 men, and re- UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 867 treated in the midst of a tremendous thunder storm in the night, Dec. 14 ; Vicksburg attacked by Federal gun-boats, when they were repulsed with great loss, Dec. 27, 28, 29. The Monitor iron-clad sunk off Cape Hatteras in a storm, Dec. 30 ; the Federals, under Gen. Rosecrans, 45,000 strong, with 100 pieces of artillery, defeated by the Confederates, under Gen. Bragg, Dec. 31 ; the Federals, under Gen. Rosecrans, defeated the Confederates at Murfreesborough, each army lost 10,000 men, Jan. 2, 1863. Gen. Hooker succeeded Gen. Burnside in the command of the army of the Potomac, Jan. 27. The North passed the con- scription act, all persons between 18 and 45 years of age, but persons to be ex- empted by paying 300 dollars, in Feb. ; Charleston attacked by the Federal fleet of iron-clads, the Keokuk sunk the next morning, five of the ironsides much damaged, April 7 ; the battle of Chancellorsville, the Confederates, under Gen. Jackson, attacked the Federals 70,000 strong, and drove them back with great loss, Gen. Jackson was wounded, May 2, he died, May 9 ; Gen. Lee renewed the battle the next day, and compelled them to retreat, May 3 ; the Federals, under Gen. Sedg- wick, captured the heights of Fredericksburg, May 3 ; they were defeated and driven across the river with great loss, May 4 ; Vicksburg attacked by the fleet of loo armed vessels, under Admirals Farragut and Porter, and the army under Gen. Grant ; the Confederates defeated under Gen. Pemherton, with a loss of 60 guns, May 16 ; the city assaulted on the igth and 22nd, the army defeated with great loss and the city surrendered, July 4, with 30,000 men and 200 pieces 01 artillery. The Confederates again invaded Maryland, June 3 ; Gen. Ewell cap- tured Winchester with the whole army of Federals, June 14 ; 4000 prisoners, 29 pieces of artillery, and 270 waggons and ambulances were taken, they obtained large quantities of stores, horses, and cattle, June 27 ; Gen. Meade superseded Gen. Hooker, June 29. The battles of Gettysburg, the Federals were defeated by Gens. Ewell and Hill, July I ; the battle was renewed on the 2nd and 3rd, but the Confederates failed to carry the position, they retired on the 4th, and recrossed the Potomac with the whole of their trains on the I4th ; the loss of both armies amounted to little short of 30,000 men ; Port Hudson surrendered to the Federals under Gen. Banks, July 8 ; Charleston besieged by Admiral Dahlgren and Gen. Gilmore, they occupied Morris island, July 10 ; failed in an attempt to take Fort Wagner, with a loss of 2000 killed and wounded, the Confederates lost 150, July 1 8 ; fort Sumpter attacked without success, Aug. 17-22; Greek fire thrown into the city, Aug. 24 ; forts Wagner and Gregg taken, Sept. 6 ; Chatt- anooga taken, Sept. 10 ; the Confederates, under Gens. Bragg and Longstreet, at- tacked the Federals, under Gens. Rosecrans and Thomas, and defeated them at Chicamauga, Sept. 19 ; and again on the 2Oth, they captured 7000 prisoners, 36 pieces of artillery, and 15,000 small arms. The Manassas railroad destroyed by Gen. Lee's forces, Oct. 8. Two Steam Rams supposed to be built for the Coo- federate service, seized at Liverpool by the English Government, Oct. 12. The President called out by proclamation 300,000 Volunteers, Oct. 17. The battle of Missonary Ridge, Tennessee, the Confederates retired, after a severe fight of 2 days, Nov. 25 & 26 ; the Federals, under Gen. Meade, defeated at Germania Ford, Nov. 27 ; the Confederates, under Gen. Longstreet, stormed Knoxville unsuccess- fully, Nov. 29 ; Gen. Joseph E. Johnston appointed commander-in-chief of the Confederate army of Georgia, Dec. 27 ; Gen. Sedgwick defeated on the Rapidan, Feb. 6, 7, 1864 ; the Federal cavalry, under Gens. Kilpatrick and Dahlgren, attacked Richmond, but were defeated, March I ; the Federals defeated at Mansfield, by Kirk Smith, April 8. Fort Pillow captured by the Confederates under Gen. Forrest, April 12; Plymouth, N. Carolina, taken by the Confederates, under Gen. Hoke, April 28 ; Gen. Grant superseded Gen. Meade, in the com- mand of the army of the Potomac, May. The battle of Chancellorsville, the Federals attacked by Gen. Lee, May 5, 6, Gen. Longstreet wounded ; again attacked by Gen. Lee, at Spottsylvania Court House, May 12 ; the Confederates, 868 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA under Gen. Breckenridge, defeated the Federals, under Gen. Sigel, in the Shenandoah valley, May 15; the Federals made an unsuccessful attempt to turn the Confederates' left wing near Coal Harbour, June I ; again attacked them on the Chickahominy, June 6 ; Gen. Grant transferred his army to the south side of the James River ; Gen. Baldy Smith attacked Petersburg with 15,000 men, and carried the outer defences, defeated in attempting the inner with great loss, June 15. The naval engagement between the Kearsage and Alabama, the latter vessel sunk, June 19. Maryland invaded by the Con- federates in July ; President Lincoln called for 500,000 volunteers ; the Con- federates, under Gen. Hood, attacked the Federals, under Gen. Sherman, before Atlanta, unsuccessfully, July 20. A general assault upon St Petersburg, by the Federals, under Gen. Grant, the Confederates defeated them with great slaughter, July 31 ; Mobile attacked by the fleet, under Admiral Farragut ; fort Gaimis surrendered, the iron-clad Tecumseh blown up by a torpedo, Aug. 5. Atlanta captured by Gen. Sherman, Sept. 4. The Confederates, under Gen. Early, defeated by the Federals, under Gen. Sheridan, Sept. 18 ; the Federal steamer captured the Florida in the neutral port of Bahia, Oct. 7 ; again defeated at Cedar Creek, Oct. 19, and at Fisher's Hill, Oct. 21; Gen. Sherman abandoned Atlanta, and commenced his march through Georgia, Nov. 13 ; and captured Savannah with 153 cannon and 25,000 bales of cotton, Dec. 20; the fleet, under Admiral Porter, arrived at Wilmington, attacked fort Fisher, Dec. 24 and 25, but withdrew after Gen. Butler had reported the place impracticable ; the attack renewed, Jan. 13, 1865; captured, I5th ; President Davis proclaimed a feneral fast, Jan. 25 ; Gen Lee made an urgent call for arms, Jan. 25 ; Gen. herman began his march to Charleston, Jan. 19 ; reached Columbia, Feb. 16 ; Charleston abandoned, Feb. 17; Wilmington captured, Feb. 22; Fayetteville captured, March II ; Goldsboro, March 21; President Davis convened the Con- federate Congress, March 15 ; Gen. Grant broke through the defences of Peters- burg, April 3 ; Richmond surrendered, April 3 ; the Confederate army, under Gen. Lee, surrendered, April 9 ; that under Gen. Joseph E. Johnston surrendered to Gen. Sherman, in North Carolina, April 18 ; President Davis captured in Georgia, May to ; the close of the civil war recognized by England, June 2. PRESIDENTS. Millard Fillmore, Vice-pre- General George Washington, first sident, sworn into office President, elected ... April 6 1789 next day July 10 1850 General Washington again Mar. 4 1793 Gen. Franklin Pierce March4 1853 John Adams i?97 James Buchanan ... 1857 Thomas Jefferson ... 1801 Abraham Lincoln ... 1861 re-elected - - 1805 Abraham Lincoln re-elected James Madison ... 1809 (shot April 14, 1865, and re-elected 1813 died the next day) ... 1864 James Monroe ... 1817 Andrew Johnson, Vice-pre- re-elected 1821 sident, sworn into the John Quincy Adams 1825 office April 15 1865 Gen. Andrew Jackson 1829 Gen. Ulysses S. Grant March 4 1869 re-elected 1833 VICE-PRESIDENTS. Martin Van Buren ... 1837 John Adams 1789 Gen. William H. Harrison Thomas Jefferson 1797 (died April 4, following) 1841 Aaron Burr 1801 John Tyler (the Vice-presi- George Clinton 1805 dent) assumed the office April 4 1841 Elbridge Gerry 1813 James Knox Polk ... March 4 1845 Daniel T. Tompkins 1817 Gen. Zachary Taylor (died John C. Calhoun 1825 July 9, 1850) ... 1849 Martin Van Buren ... ... 1833 UNITED STATES UNIVERSITIES Richard M. Johnson John Tyler George M. Dallas Millard Fillmore ... William R. King 1837 John C. Breckinridge 1841 Hannibal 1 1 anil in 1 845 A nd rew Johnson . . . 1849 Lafayette S. Foster 1853 Schuyler Colfax ... 869 1857 1861 1865 1865 1869 UNITED STATES, REBELLIONS IN. Since the organization of the Federal government there have been 10 attempts made to resist its authority. The first was in 1 782, and was a conspiracy of some of the officers of the Federal army to consolidate the 13 States into one, and confer the supreme power on Washington. The second was in 1787, called 'Shay's Insurrection,' in Massachusetts. The third was in 1794, popularly called 'The Whisky Insurrection of Pennsylvania.' The fourth instance was in 1814, by the Hartford Convention Federalists. The fifth, on which occasion the different sections of the Union came into collision, was in 1820, under the administration of President Monroe, and occurred on the question of the admission of Missouri into the Union. The sixth was a collision between the Legislature of Georgia and the Federal government in regard to certain lands given by the latter to the Creek Indians. The seventh was in 1830 with the Cherokees in Georgia. The eighth was the memorable nullifying ordinance of South Carolina in 1832. The ninth was in 1842, and occurred in Rhode Island, between the ' Suffrage Association ' and the State authorities. The tenth was in 1856, on the part of the Mormons, who resisted the Federal authority. And the eleventh by the Southern States, 1860. UNIVERSITIES, when founded. The following are some of the chief : Aberdeen, 1494 Abo, Finland, 1690 Aix, 1413 ; re-established, 1642 Alba Julia, 1629 Alcala de Henares, 1508 Almagro, 1553 Altorf, 1622 Andrew's, 1411 Angers, 1246 Anjou, 1349 ; enlarged, 1364 Athens, 1837 Avignon, France, 1305 Avila, 1482 Bamburg, 1585 Barcelona, 1430 Basle, Switzerland, 1459 Berlin, 1809 Berne, 1834 Besan9on, Burgundy, 1676 Bologna, Italy, 433 ; enlarged, 1119 Bonn, 1818 Bordeaux, 1441 Bourges, 1463 Breslau, 1702 Bruges, Austrian Flanders, 1665 Brussels, 1834 Caen, 1436 Cahor, France, 1320 Cambridge, began, 636 ; revived, 1 1 IO Cambridge, New England, Harvard, projected, 1630; opened, 1638 Catania, 1445 Cervera, 1714 Christiania, 1811 Coimbra, 1290 ; enlarged, 1573 Cologne, Germany, refounded, 1389 Compostella, 1517 Copenhagen, 1479 ; enlarged, 1593 and 1569 Cordova, Spain, 968 Corfu, 1824 Cracow, Poland, 700; enlarged, 1364 Dijon, France, 1722 Dillingen, Suabia, 1545 Dole, Burgundy, 1426 Dorpat, 1632 Douai, 1562 Dresden, Saxony, 1694 Dublin Trinity College, 1591 Durham, 1831 Edinburgh, 1582 Elbing, 1542 Erfurt, 1390-2 Erlangen, Franconia, 1743 Evora, Portugal, 1578 Ferrara, Italy, 1391 Florence, Italy, 1438 Franeker, Friesland, 1585 Frankfort on the Oder, 1506 Freiberg, Germany, 1457 Geneva, 1368 Genoa, 1812 UNIVERSITIES' CORPORATION ACT Ghent, 1816 Giessen, 1607 ; united to Marburg, 1626 Glasgow, 1451 Gottingen, 1734 Granada, 1531 Gratz, 1586 Greifswald, 1456 Grenoble, 1339 Groningen, 1614 Halle, 1694 Heidelburgh, 1387 Helmstadt, 1570 Helsingfors, 1828 Ingolstadt, 1572 Inspruck, 1672 Jena, 1547-8 Kiel, 1665 Konigsberg, 1544 Leipsic, 1409 Lemberg, 1784 Lerida, 1300 Leyden, 1575 Liege, 1816 Lima, 1614 Lisbon, 1290 London, 1836 Louvain, 1423-6 Lund, 1668 Lyons, France, 830 Madrid, 1836 Marburg, Hesse, 1527 Mechlin, 1440 Mentz, 1482 Montpelier, 1284 Moscow, 1755 Munich, 1826 Munster, 1491 Nantes, 1464 Naples, 1216-20 Orleans, 1305 Oviedo, 1604 Oxford, 879 Paderborn, 1623 Padua, Italy, 1228 Palencia, 1209-12 ; removed to Sala- manca, 1249 Paris, 1169 Parma, 1422 Pau, 1722 Pavia, 774 ; enlarged, 1361 Perpignan, 1349 Perugia, Italy, 1390 Petersburg, Russia, 1747 Pisa, Italy, 1338 ; enlarged 1487 and 1542 Poictiers, 1430 Prague, 1348 Queen's, Ireland, Aug. 1849 Quito, 1586 Rheims, 1145 ; enlarged, 1548 Rinteln, Schaumberg, 1621 Rome, 1303 Rostock, 1419 Salamanca, 1240 Salerno, 1233 Saltzburgh, 1623 Santiago, 1532 Saragossa, 1474 Sassari, 1766 Siena, 1203 Siguenza, Spain, 1470 Seville, Spain, 1502 Strasburg, 1538 Stutgard, 1775 Toledo, 1518-20 Toulouse, 1223 Treves, 1454 Tubingen, Wurtemburg, 1477 Turin, 1412 Valladolid, 1346 Valencia, 1410 Venice, 1592 Vienna, 1365 Upsala, Sweden, 1477 Urbino, 1671 Utrecht, Holland, 1634 Warsaw, 1816 Wittenberg, 1502 Wurzburg, 1403 Zurich, 1834 UNIVERSITIES' CORPORATION ACT, 13 Eliz. c. 29, 1570; amended, 22 & 23 Viet. c. 19, Aug. 13, 1859. UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, London, created by William IV., by charter, Nov. 28, 1836 ; reformed by Queen Victoria, Dec. 5, 1837 ; a supplementary charter granted, July 7, 1849. UNIVERSITY COLLEGE HOSPITAL, London, founded, 1833. UNIVERSITY COLLEGE URSULINES 871 UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, Oxford, founded, 1249; the hall began, 1640; library of, completed, 1669. UNIVERSITY. Local examinations, or middle-class examinations, authorized by a decree passed in the Convocation of Oxford, June 18, 1857 ; the first held at Oxford, June 21, 1858 ; adopted by Cambridge, Nov. 24, 1857 ; the first examin- ation held, Dec. 14, 1858. UNKIAR SKELESSI, treaty of, between Russia and Turkey, July 8, 1833. UNKNOWN TONGUES. Under a pretended inspiration, sundry disciples of the late Edward Irving suddenly held forth and harangued in a gibberish no one could understand, Oct. 16, 1831 ; the fact being overlooked, that the gift of tongues to the apostles was the gift of the living languages of their times, to en- able them to preach to the Gentiles. UNTERWALDEN, Switzerland, rejected the constitution of 1798 ; defeated and massacred by the French, 1798. UPNOR CASTLE, Kent, built by Queen Elizabeth, for the defence of the Medway, 1560 ; attacked by the Dutch fleet unsuccessfully, 1667. UPSALA, Sweden, the cathedral erected, 1258 1435 5 length, 330 ft, width, 140 ft, height, 105 ft. The University founded, June, 1477 ; Gustavus Vasa crowned here, Feb. 12, 1528 ; the luxury of dress forbidden at a State meeting, 1546 ; the palace of Gustavus Vasa burned, 1702 ; the Royal Society established, 1720. URANUS, the name now given by astronomers to the planet discovered by Herschel, March 13, 1781 ; named by him the 'Georgium Sidus," in honour of the king ; he reported the discovery to the Royal Society, April 19 ; the distance of Uranus from the sun is twice that of Saturn. URBINO, Italy, St Evandus was made the ist Bishop of, A.D. 313 ; created an Archbishopric by Pius IV., 1563 ; the Dukedom was acquired by Federigo di Montefeltro in the I2th century ; given up by Frances Maria II. to the Church, and annexed to the Papal States, 1631 ; Raphael born at, on Good Friday, April 6, 1483 ; a manufactory of Majolica established here, 1475 ; captured by Napoleon, with sixty pieces of artillery, June 30, 1796 ; annexed to France, May 17, 1809. URGEL, Spain, made a Bishopric, A.D. 820 ; the city taken and sacked by the French army, 1794 ; captured by the Royalists, June 15, 1822 ; Regency estab- lished, Sept. 14 ; the Constitutionalists defeated, Aug. 10; flight of the Regency, Nov. 10 ; captured by Mina, Nov. 20, 1822 ; a regency established at, Sept., 1822 ; Conde murdered by his aide-de-camp, Oct. 26, 1839. U RG H U ND A UB, battle, Gen. Nott defeated the Affghan forces at, Jan. 12, 1842. URICONIUM, Wroxeter, Salop, spoken of by Ptolemy, A.D. 120; destroyed in the great campaign of Cathwin and Ceawlin, A.D. 577 ; the ruins of, discovered, 1701 ; excavation since made under the directions of a committee, which led to the discovery of the ancient city, Feb. 3, 1859. URIM and THUMMIM, light and perfection, the name given to an ornament worn by the Jewish high-priest, by virtue of which he gave oracular answers to the people after having consulted the Most High and receiving the answer by the Urim and Thummim, Exodus xxviii. 30 ; Lev. viii. 8 ; Num. xxvii. 21 ; Deut xxxiii. 8. URINE employed in the manufacture of gunpowder and in the woollen manufac- ture : a statute for its preservation to manufacture saltpetre, 1626. Uric or lithic acid obtained from, by Scheel, 1 776. URSULINES, an order of nuns, established, 1198. 8;2 URUGUAY VACCINE INOCULATION URUGUAY, S. America, part of Buenos Ayres declared its independence, Aug. 25, 1825 ; their independence recognized by the treaty of Montevideo, Aug. 27, 1828 ; constitution of the Republic proclaimed, July 18, 1831 ; war with Brazil, Monterido blockaded by the English and French, 1848 ; peace with, 1849 ; Gen. Aribe defeated at, 1851 ; Gen. Florez elected President, March I, 1864; Dr Francisco Antonio Vidal, March I, 1866. USHANT, battle of, between the English and French fleets, when the latter with- drew into Brest harbour, July 27, 1778. The English were commanded by Admiral Keppel, who was tried for his failure in obtaining a more complete result, and honourably acquitted, Feb. n, 1779. The French fleet defeated by Admiral Howe off here, June i, 1794. USK CASTLE, Monmouthshire, built by Fitz-Baderon, of Monmouth, circa 1080-6 ; demolished by the Parliamentarians, 1645. USURY, forbidden by law, 1341 ; 2s. per week fixed as the interest for 2os. , 1260 ; this limit restrained, 1275 ; fixed at xoper cent, by 37 Hen. VIII., c. 9, 1545 ; and by 13 Eliz. c. 8, 1570 ; reduced to 8 per cent., 21 James I., c. 17, 1623, when the word 'interest' was used in place of 'usury ;' reduced to 6 per cent., by 12 Char. II., c. 13, 1660 ; and to 5 per cent., by 12 Anne, st. 2, c. 16, 1713 ; all acts repealed by 17 & 18 Viet. c. 90, Aug. 10, 1854. UTAH, N. America, ceded to Mexico, 1848 ; made a Territory, Sept. 9, 1850. The Mormons formed a settlement in the Great Salt Lake Valley, July 23-4, 1847 ; a bill organizing the State passed the Senate, Sept. 9, 1849 ; first meet- ing of the assembly, April 5, 1850 ; Brigham Young appointed President, Sept. 9, 1850; the city incorporated, Jan. 9, 1851 ; Young sworn as governor, Feb. 3 ; legislature opened, Sept. 22 ; met, Dec. 13, 1852 ; Cummings sent to re- place Brigham Young, April 5, 1858; the United States' forces left this State, 1861 ; there are over 38,000 Mormons in the State. UTRECHT, Holland, the Cathedral of St Martin built, 1382 ; the first confedera- tion of the Dutch provinces formed, 1579; the University founded, 1636; the town of, surrendered to the Prussians, May 9, 1787 ; taken by the French, Jan. 1 8, 1795; Town Hall built, 1830. UTRECHT, treaty of, terminating Queen Anne's wars, signed April n, 1713; the Emperor of Germany signed the treaty, June i ; signed by Spain, July 13. UXBRIDGE, Middlesex, the Market House erected, 1561 ; removed by act of parliament, 1785, and the present erected ; meeting of commissioners to en- deavour to reconcile the King and the Parliament, held in the town, June 30, 1645, was the head-quarters of the parliamentary army, 1647. VACCINE INOCULATION established on the discovery of Dr Jenner, May 14, 1796 ; made public, 1 799 ; he received 10. ooo for the discovery from parliament, June 3, 1802 ; royal Jennerian institution founded, Jan. 19, 1803; introduced into Persia, June 4, 1804; practised throughout Europe, 1816; act respecting the adoption of, 3 & 4 Viet c. 29, passed July 23, 1840 ; amended by 4 & 5 Viet. c. 24, June 21, 1841 ; an act passed to consolidate and amend the laws relating to, 30 & 31 Viet. c. 84, Aug. 12, 1867 ; to take effect from Jan. I, 1868. VAGABONDAGE VALENTINIANS 873 VAGABONDAGE, ordered to be repressed by 12 Rich. II. c. 7, 1388, and n Hen VII. c. 2, 1495, and 19 Hen. VII. c. 12, 1503-4 ; strolling vagrants ordered by Edward III. to be imprisoned, 1359. A vast number of poor were employed or maintained in and about the monasteries, and when they were seized upon by Henry VIII., the humbler dependents were turned loose to beg, starve, or thieve- they were then mercilessly punished : this accounts for 75,000 persons having been put to death in the reign of the royal plunderer. He passed an act that a vagrant, after being whipped, was to take an oath to return to the place where he was born, or had last dwelt for three years, 22 Henry VIII. c. 12, 1530-31 a second time convicted, he was to lose the upper part of the gristle of his right ear, 27 Henry VIII. c. 25, 1535-6 ; and a third time convicted to be punished with death. On account of the great increase of, an act was passed, every one refusing to labour to be branded with the letter V, and to be adjudged a slave for two years ; and if he ran away during that time, to be branded with the letter S., and to be a slave for life ; and if he then ran away, to suffer death, I Edw. VI. c! 3, 1547- Vagrants were punished by whipping, jailing, boring the ears, and death for a second offence, 14 Ehz. c. 5, 1572-3 ; repealed and the House of Cor- rection established, 39 Eliz. c. 4, 1597-8. The milder statutes were those of 17 Geo. II. c. 5, 1744, 32, 35, and 59 Geo. III. ; new act passed, 5 Geo. IV. c. 83, 1829. The number of vagrants in England in 1866, was 35,191 ; the vagrant act amended, 31 & 32 Viet. c. 52, July 13 , 1868. VALAIS, Switzerland, annexed to the German nation, 1032; insurrection in, 1798; made a republic, 1802 ; incorporated with France, Nov. 12, 1810 ; united to Switzerland, March 15, 1815 ; constitution settled, May 27, 1815; amended, Sept 12, 1848 ; serious flood in, Sept. 16 18, 1852. VALE ROYAL ABBEY, Cheshire, founded by Edward I. , 1277. VALEGGIO, battle, the Piedmontese defeated by the Austrians, July 25, 1848. VALENC AY, treaty of, between Napoleon and Ferdinand VII. of Spain, by which that graceless monarch was put in full possession of his throne, Dec. n, 1813. VALENCIA, Spain. This ancient Roman town taken by the Goths from the Moors, 714 ; taken by the Cid after a siege of 20 months, 1094-5 > retaken by the Moors, Oct. 25, 1101. Captured by James I. of Arragon, Sept. 29, 1239^ fortified by Pedro IV., 1356 ; cathedral begun, 1381. This town with Arragon united to Spain, 1492 ; university founded, 1410; revived, 1470; museum erected, 1586 1605 ; the city taken by the English under the Earl of Peterborough, 1705 ; sub- mitted to the Bourbons, 1707 ; insurrection and massacre of the French, June 5, 1808 ; besieged by the French under Moncey unsuccessfully, June 28, 1808 ; taken by the French under Marshal Suchet, with 16,000 men and immense munitions of war, Jan. 9, 1812 ; evacuated, July 5, 1813 ; King Ferdinand returned to, March 20, 1814 ; decree of annulling the whole acts of the Cortes, May 4, 1814 ; insur- rection in, Jan. 17, 1817; suppressed, March 2 ; revolution in, Jan. 21, 1819. Queen Christina abdicated here in 1838. VALENCIENNES, France, taken by the French from the Spaniards, March 17, 1677 ; besieged and taken by the allied armies under the Duke of York, after a siege of 84 days, June 14, and taken July 25, 1793; retaken, together with Conde, by the French, together with noo emigrants arrayed against their country, 2OO pieces of cannon, a million pounds' weight of powder, 8,000,000 florins in money, looo head of cattle, and large stores of provisions, Aug. 30, 1794. VALENTINE'S DAY. Valentine, a Roman bishop, or, according to others, only presbyter of the church, was beheaded under Valerianus, A.D. 278, Feb. 14. It is said that on this day the birds choose their mates, whence, probably, came the custom of young people choosing valentines, or particular friends, on this day. VALENTINIANS, the followers of a priest called Valentinus, who, losing a bishop- 874 VALENTIO, FATHER VALTELINA ric. felt so disappointed that he founded a specious idolatrous system of faith of his own, A.D. 200. He published a gospel and psalms. Some of his followers de- clared for, others against, baptism. VALENTIO, FATHER, so styled, was an English friar, a native of Yorkshire, whose name was Matthew Atkinson, called in religion Father Paul of St Francis. Under the penal statute, II & 12 William III., he was condemned to perpetual imprisonment, in the latter end of the I7th century, for having exercised the functions of an ecclesiastic of the Church of Rome, on the information of his maid- servant, who received the reward, stipulated by the statute, of ^100, for betraying her master. Pursuant to his sentence he was conveyed to Hurst Castle, and there confined for life. This statute was passed in the reign of a monarch who is said to have established civil and religious liberty in England. The prisoner for wor- shipping God according to the custom of his fathers, had, as a great indulgence, the privilege of walking on the adjoining strand, by the warden of the place, by whom he was much respected, and to whom he rendered himself useful, by teach- ing his children Latin ; but certain strangers who happened to visit the castle took offence at this indulgence, which was the occasion of Mr Atkinson's voluntarily confining himself ever afterwards to his own miserable apartment. Here he was so resigned and contented, as to persist in refusing the offers made by powerful friends to procure his enlargement. He was buried in the Roman Catholic bury- ing-ground contiguous to Winchester. The epitaph on Mr Atkinson, inscribed on his head-stone in St James's churchyard, Winchester, is as follows : H. S. E. R. P. Paulus Atkinson, Fran- ciscanus, qui I5th Oct., 1729, setat. 74, in castro de Hurst, vitam finivit, postquam ibidem 30 peregerat annos. It is said and, it must be hoped, truly that he was the last sufferer under the infamous statutes of William and Mary against religious liberty, no matter what creed applied against. VALLADOLID, Spain, a Roman town ; the modern town founded by Conde Pedro Ansurey, 1090-1 ; the university founded, 1346; college of Santa Cruz founded, 1494. Columbus died here, May 20, 1506. The cathedral begun, 1585 ; raised to a city, 1596 ; taken and sacked by the French, Dec. 26, 1808 ; Napoleon resided here from Jan. 6 to I/, 1809 ; occupied by the British, June 4, 1813. VALLE CRUCIS ABBEY, Denbighshire, built, 1200. VALLS, Spain. The old town was founded in 1151 ; the modern in 1750. The town sacked by the French, under St Cyr, Feb. 25, 1809 ; the French defeated by Gen. Sarsfield, near the town, Jan. 16, 1811. VALMY, battle, the French, commanded by Gen. Kellermann, defeated the Prussian forces, under the Duke of Brunswick, Sept. 20, 1792. VALPARAISO, S. America, almost destroyed by an earthquake, 1822 ; consti- tution proclaimed, May 25, 1833 ; a naval school established, 1845 ; great part of the town destroyed by fire, Nov. 13, 1858 ; bombarded by a Spanish fleet, March 3 1, 1866. VALTELINA, battle, the French, under Ney, engaged the Russians, under Toucz Koff ; the French lost 8000 men, and the Russians 6000, both sides occupied the same ground the next day, Aug. 19, 1812. VALTELINE VAUXHALL GARDENS 87$ VALTELINE, Italy, massacre of the Valteline, or of the Protestants, by the Catholics, July 20, 1620 ; for three days neither man, woman, nor child was spared. VALTEZZA, battle, the Greeks defeated the Turkish army, after two days' fight- ing, May 27, 1821. VANCOUVER'S ISLAND, N. America, visited by Captain Vancouver, 1792 ; ceded to Gt Britain by treaty, June 17, 1846 ; granted to the Hudson Bay Com- pany, 1848. Gold first discovered, 1856. The Island of St Juan taken posses- sion of by Gen. Herney, in the name of the United States, July I, 1859 ; united with British Columbia by 29 & 30 Viet c. 67, Aug. 6, 1866. VANDALS, a Teutonic tribe, they crossed the Danube and laid waste the Roman provinces, A.D. 271 ; under Godegesilus, their first king, they invaded Gaul, 405, and overran Spain, 409 ; expelled, 427, and under their king, Genseric, sailed with their wives and families for Africa, where they arrived, 429 ; made peace with the Romans, 435 ; took Carthage, Oct. 24, 439, and captured and sacked Rome, 455. They held possession of the city for 14 days, June 15 29, and carried off the golden candlesticks and the table of the Holy of Holies taken from Jerusalem by Titus ; captured Sardinia, 461. Peace concluded with Zeno, 475 ; defeated by the Romans under Belisarius, June, 533, and Carthage retaken. VAN DIEMEN'S LAND, discovered by Tasman, Nov. 24, 1642. See Tasmania. VARENNES, France, Louis XVI. was arrested here the 2ist of June, 1791, and taken back to Paris, while endeavouring to pass the frontiers of France and join the Austrians and Prussians. VARNA, European Turkey. The Hungarians defeated by the Turks, 1444 ; be- sieged by the Russians, 21,000 strong with 96 guns, Aug. 5, 1828 ; capitulated, Oct. II, 162 pieces of cannon taken. The British and French troops encamped here previous to invading the Crimea, 1854 ; great destruction of the magazine and stores of the allied army, supposed to have been done by a Russian agent, Aug. 10 ; the army sailed from, Sept. 7, 1854. VASA, a Swedish order of knighthood, instituted by Gustavus III., May 26, 1776. VASSALAGE, or VILLANAGE, the slavery that existed under the Saxons and Normans. Of those under the Normans, there were the free and the vassal serfs the last sold with the land, the former free to labour for whom they pleased. Abolished in England, temp. Elizabeth ; in Hungary, 1785 ; in Holstein, 1789; in Courland, Sept., 1818, and in Russia, 1861. See Villain. VATICAN, Rome, built by Charlemagne ; rebuilt by Innocent III., 11981216; enlarged by Nicolas III., 1277-81 ; became the residence of the popes, 1378 ; the Sistine chapel built, 1474 ; the Belvedere Villa constructed by Innocent VIII. , 1484-92 ; Julius II. connected it with the Vatican, 1503-12. Library founded in the I5th century by Nicholas V. ; the present building erected by Sixtus V., 1588 ; plundered by the French army, 1798. VAUCHAMPS, battle, The Russian and Prussian troops under Blucher, attacked by the French and defeated with a loss of 6000 men and 15 guns, Feb. 13, 1814. VAUDRY, or DE VALLE DEI ABBEY, Lincolnshire, founded by William, Earl of Albemarle, 1147. VAUXHALL BRIDGE, designed by Rennie and Walker, first stone laid, May 9, 1811 ; the works suspended for a time, but again resumed, the Duke of Bruns- wick laying the first stone, Aug. 21, 1813 ; opened, June 4, 1816 ; it has 9 arches of 78 feet span, and cost .300,000. VAUXHALL GARDENS, first called New Spring Gardens. Evelyn records his visit to them, July 2, 1661, and Pepys records a visit to, July 27, 1668, and Ad- dison writes of them, May 20, 1712; leased to Jonathan Tyers, 1728; first 876 VEDAS VENEZUELA opened in the presence of Frederick Prince of Wales, June 7> !73 2 - First balloon ascent took place, 1802, price of admission was one guinea ; it was sub- sequently reduced to is. ; 20, 137 visitors paid for admission in one night, Aug. 2, 1833 ; the estate sold for ,20,200, Sept. 9, 1841 ; finally closed as a place of amusement, July 25, 1859 ; the properties sold by auction, Aug. 22, 1852 ; sold for building purposes, Aug. 20, 1859. VEDAS, or HINDOO SCRIPTURES, said by Sir Wm. Jones to be more than 3000 years old ; the Institutes were composed, circa B. c. 700. VEGETABLES originally imported from the Netherlands, 1509. There were then no kitchen-gardens in England ; sugar was eaten with meat, to correct its pu- trescency, before they were introduced. Cauliflowers brought from Egypt, 1588 ; turnip cabbage, i6th century ; turnips well known, 1597 ; small turnips grown at Hackney, celebrated, 1597 ; the edible roots, carrots, turnips, and the like, were imported from Flanders down to the commencement of the reign of Henry VIII. ; the potato brought by Sir Walter Raleigh's colonists, 1584; in 1619 the potato was sold at is. per pound. VEINS, the lacteal, discovered by Asellius, 1640. VELLETRI, Italy. The Velitrse of the Romans, surrounded with a foss and Vallum by Coriolanus ; its walls destroyed, B.C. 338 ; Augustus born here, B.C. Sept. 22, 63 ; the city almost depopulated by a plague, A.D. 1348; the cathedral of Santa Maria built, 1353 ; St Clement Church erected, 1660 ; Charles III. of Naples defeated the Austrian army under Prince Lobkowitz, 1 744. VELOCIPEDE, a species of carriage, impelled by the rider. An account of the machine invented by M.M. Blanchard and Magurier, appeared in the Journal de Paris, July 27, 1799; exhibited to Louis XVI., 1808 ; a machine of a like nature introduced by W. Drais, at Mannheim, 1817; one patenteed, called the Ac- celerator, 1819. The use of Bicycles and Tricycles introduced into Paris, 1867, and from thence to America the same year ; into England, 1868. VELLORE, Hindustan, built by Raja Narsingh, A.D. 1500 ; taken by Sivaji, 1677 ; revolt and massacre of 113 Europeans by the Sepoys at, June 10, 1806 ; 350 of the insurgents put to the sword by Colonel Gillespie. VENEREAL DISEASE, of uncertain origin ; reported to have first broken out in the French army, before Naples, 1494, whence the term Mai de Naples ; in England and the Netherlands called \heMal de France ; yet in the latter country it is said to have been known so early as the I2th century ; about the same pe- riod, too, at Florence, one of the Medici family died of it. Some imagine it was brought by Columbus from the new world, in 1493 ; there are grounds for be- lieving it was known to the Jews, Greeks, and Romans, long before America was discovered. VENETIAN HORSES, five in number, said to have been executed by Lysippus ; they were first on the Temple of the Sun at Corinth, and, in the first year of the Christian era, Augustus Cassar paid the weight of them in gold, the price he offered for every statue of this sculptor ; Nero placed them on a triumphal arch, and 300 years afterwards Constantine placed them in the Hippodrome ; in the I2th century the Venetians took Constantinople and these horses, and placed them on the fajade of the church of St Mark, where they remained for 600 years, until Napoleon, in 1805, brought them to Paris, and placed them on the triumphal arc in the Place Carrousel ; from thence they were taken by the allied forces and returned to Venice, 1814. VENETIANO, DOM., artist of Venice, who introduced the use of oil colours, assassinated there, 1476. VENEZUELA, S. America, discovered by Columbus, 1498 ; settled by the VENICE VERDE ISLANDS 877 Spaniards, 1499 ; the town of Tucuyo established, 1545 ; Valencia, 1555. The Dutch took possession of Cura9ao, 1634. The exclusive right of commerce was granted to the Guipuzcoa, 1700 ; dissolved, 1778; governed by Spain to 1808; declared their independence, 1810; restored to Spain, 1812; insurrection in, under Gen. Bolivar, 1813 ; the sovereignty of the people declared, July, 1814 ; treaty of commerce with Gt Britain signed, April 18, 1825 ; declared their in- dependence, 1830 ; slave trade abolished, 1840 ; recognized by Spain, March 30, 1845 ; Gen. Paez elected President, Sept. 8, 1861. Gold first discovered, June, 1857. The negroes at Puerto Cabello revolted, but were defeated after a severe struggle, June 15, 1859 ; Gen. Falcon elected as President, June 17, 1863. The city of Cumana, with 800 inhabitants, destroyed by an earthquake, July 15, 1865. VENICE, Italy, inhabited by the Veneti, taken by the Romans, under Marcellus, B.C. 221 ; the Italian city founded, A.D. 413 ; the island soon after began to be inhabited by the people of Aquileia and Padua, 421 ; the two cities of Rivoalto and Melamocco incorporated under a Doge, 697 ; the cities are connected by canals, crossed by 306 bridges ; St Mark's church founded, 829-30 ; the Bell Tower begun, 902 ; destroyed by fire, 976 ; the first stone of the new Cathedral laid, 977 ; finished, 1155 ; repaired. 1510 ; made a Cathedral, 1807. The Ducal government restored, 742; the city nearly destroyed by fire, 1 106; the Bank founded, 1 157 ; the Arsenal built, 1307 1320 ; the Library founded by a donation of MSS. of Petrarch, 1362; building erected, 1536; the government nearly destroyed by the league of Cambray between the Pope and the Emperor of France, Dec. 10, 1508 ; the Mint built, 1536 ; the public buildings on the Kialto destroyed by fire, Jan. 10, 1513 ; again partially destroyed by an explosion at the Arsenal ; ceded to Austria by the treaty negotiated at Leoben, April 18, 1797; afterwards confirmed at Campo Formio, Oct. 17, 1797 ; captured by the French, May 16, 1797, and surrendered to Austria. Annexed to France, Dec. 26, 1805 ; surrendered to Austria, 1814 ; insurrection, March, 1848 ; besieged and captured by the Austrians, Aug. 22, 1849 ; ceded to the Emperor of the French, July 4, 1 866 ; added to Italy, and the iron crown restored, Nov. 4 ; visit of Garibaldi to, Feb. 28, 1867. The destruction by fire of Titian's Peter Martyr in the church of San Giovanni San Paolo, Aug., 1867 j Victor Emanuel entered the city, Nov. 7. VENTILATION. Ventilators invented by the Rev. Dr Hales, 1740 ; various im- provements by Triewald, Chabonne, Amott, Perkins, Davy, Reid, and others, 1741 1850 ; a commission appointed by parliament to inquire into this subject, 1856 ; reported, Aug. 25, 1857 ; Mr Lesure introduced a new method, 1857, and Mr Wemyss, 18.59. VENUS, Galileo discovered the phases of, 1611 ; transit of, over the sun, observed at St Helena by Maskelyne, June 2, 1761 ; Cook's first voyage to Otaheite to ob- serve that of, 1769; the diurnal motion of Venus discovered by Casini, 1712 ; this planet will re-appear, Dec. 8, 1874 ; and again, Dec. 6, 1882. VENUS, a steam packet sailing between Dublin and Wateiford, lost with 7 pas- sengers on board, March 18, 1828. VERA CRUZ, Mexico, founded, 1518 ; incorporated, 1615 ; attacked by Nelson unsuccessfully, he lost his arm in this action, July 15, 1797. The castle of San Juan de Ulloa held by the Spaniards until Nov., 1825 ; captured by the French, under the Prince de Joinville, Nov. 27, 1838 ; and by the Americans, March 19, 1847 ; bombarded by, under Muramon, March 13, 1860 ; taken by the French, Dec, 8, 1861 ; occupied by the allies, Jan. 7, 1862. The Emperor Maximilian landed here, May 29, 1864. VERDE ISLANDS, N. Atlantic Ocean, discovered by Dom Henrique of Portu- gal, 1446 ; a settlement made, 1500. 878 VERDIGRIS VESTAL VERDIGRIS, an act passed to encourage the manufacture of, in Gt Britain, and all foreign imported to be taxed, 21 Geo. III. c. 32, 1781. VERDUN, France, the treaty of, Aug., 843 ; united to France at the peace of Munster, Oct. 24, 1648 ; captured by the allied Austrians and British, Sept. 2, 1792 ; recaptured by the French next month, when 14 young women under the age of 15 were guillotined for presenting the King of Prussia with bouquets when he entered the town, May 28, 1 794. VERGENNER, America, first settled, 1766; incorporated, 1788; made a naval station, 1812. VERMONT, N. America, the French settled here, 1731 ; ceded by the French to the English, 1763 ; claimed by Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and New York, 1764 ; decided to belong to the latter, 1764 ; declared independent, 1777 ; ac- knowledged, 1790; admitted into the Union, 1791 ; constitution settled, 1793. VERNON GALLERY, a collection of paintings presented to the nation by Robert Vernon, Dec. 22, 1847 ; first exhibited at the Royal Academy, 1848 ; removed to Maryborough House, 1850 ; and from thence to the South Kensington Museum, 1859 ; where they are now exhibited. VERONA, Italy, the Cathedral built by Charlemagne ; a new sacristy built, 1160; the building reconsecrated by Pope Urban III., 1187 ; the roof finished, 1574; the church of St Zenone began in the gth century, almost destroyed by the Hun- garians, 924 ; rebuilt, 1178; the Ponte del Castel Vecchio, built, 1 354 ; the palace Canossa built by Sanmicheli, began, 1527, completed, 1560; the city walls restored, 1520-24; the city almost destroyed by a flood, 1757; occupied by the French, 1796 ; ceded to Austria by the treaty of Venice, Oct. 18, 1797 ; sur- rendered to the French, who destroyed the ancient palace of Theodoric, 1801 ; taken by the Austrians, Feb. 14, 1814; refortified, 1815 ; the Sardinians, com- manded by Charles Albert, defeated the Austrians, May 6, 1848 ; ceded to the Italian kingdom, Oct. 3, 1866. VERSAILLES, France, palace of, built as a hunting-seat by Louis XIII., 1637 ; in 1687, enlarged by Louis XIV., and made into a magnificent palace, finished 1 708 ; becoming the principal residence of the French monarchs, the States-General held their first sittings at, May 5, 1789 ; Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette removed by the Insurgents, and the palace sacked, Oct. 5 & 6, 1789 ; Napoleon expelled the council of five hundred with his soldiers, Nov. II, 1799 ; it was refurnished by Louis Philippe at his own expense. VERSAILLES, peace of, between France and Austria for the portion of Prussia signed, May I, 1756 ; preliminary treaty between England and North America agreed to, Jan. 20, 1783; definite treaty between England and North America signed, Sept. 3, 1783 ; and the same day a treaty of peace between England, France, and Spain, Sept. 3, 1783. VERVINS TREATY, between Henry IV. of France, and Philip of Spain, settling the war between the two countries, May 2, 1598. VESPERS, the Sicilian (see Sicilian Vespers), 1282, Easter-day, when all the French in the city were massacred, March 29. VESPERS, the Fatal, during the service of, held at Blackfriars, Oct. 16, 1623, no less than 100 persons were killed by the falling of the house of the French am- bassador, whilst a Roman Catholic priest was officiating. VESTA, the planet, discovered by Dr Olbers of Bremen, March 28, 1807. VESTAL VIRGINS, the priestesses of Vesta, who took care of the celestial fire which burned night and day in her temple ; if incontinent, they were punished by being buried alive ; the first four were appointed by Numa, B.C. 710 ; the vestal Cornelia Maximiliana was buried alive, 92 ; only 18 have suffered VESTRY ACT VICTORIA 879 punishment since that time ; the office abolished by Theodosius the Great, circa A. D. 390. VESTRY ACT, 58 Geo. III., c. 69, June 3, 1818 ; amended, 59 Geo. III., c. 85, July 7, 1819 ; 16 & 17 Viet. c. 65, Aug. 15, 1853 ; select vestry act, 59 Geo. III., c. 12, March 31, 1819. VESUVIUS, Naples, this dangerous volcano made its first eruption destroying the cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii, with 250,000 inhabitants, A.D. 79 ; other eruptions followed in 203 272 ; a more extensive outbreak, which destroyed the whole country of Campania, occurred, 472 ; a violent outbreak happened, 1136 ; and then the mountain remained auiet. Monte Nuovo forced up in two days to the height of 413 feet, in 1538. Other eruptions with more or less violence happened in the following years : 512, 685, 993, 1036, 1049, 1136, 1306, 1506, 1538 ; an eruption at Puzzoli, which destroyed 4000 persons and swallowed up a large tract of land, Dec., 1631-32 ; eruptions again, Aug. 12, 1682 ; March 12, 1694 ; July 2, 1701 ; May 20, 1707 ; Feb. 18, 1712 ; June 7, 1717 ; March 14, 1730; May 20, 1737; Oct. 25, 1751 ; Dec. 3, 1754; Dec. 24, 1760; March 28, 1766 ; Oct. 19, 1767 ; March 14, 1770. In the great eruption of Aug. 8, 1779, a flame of fire rose two miles high, a block of lava, 108 feet in circumference and 17 feet high, was thrown up. Eruptions Oct. 12,1784; Oct. 31,1786 ; July,i787; March 14, 1794; the tower of Tolle de Greco destroyed June, 1794; Aug. 12, 1804; Sept. 4, 1809 ; Dec. 24, 1813 ; Dec. 22, 1817 ; a violent eruption caused a gulf or chasm of three miles round and 2000 feet deep, Oct. 22, 1822 ; March 6, 1838 ; April 22, 1845 5 Nov. 13, 1847; Feb 6, 1850. In a state of eruption for three weeks, doing considerable damage, eleven cones being in operation, began May 3, 1855 ; the town of Resina considerably damaged by an eruption, May 21, 858 ; another happened, Aug., 1859 ; the town of Torre del Greco destroyed, Dec. 8, 1861 ; Nov. 12, 1867 ; a number of houses and shops buried, Jan. 27, 1868 ; and a land-blip buried the street of Santa Lucia, Jan. 28 ; another eruption broke out, Nov. 13. VETERINARY COLLEGE, London, founded, 1792 ; received a Royal charter, 1844 ; medical association instituted, 1835 ; schools for the study first established at Lyons, 1761 ; and at Alfort, 1766. VICARAGES. Perpetual curacies elevated to the rank of vicarages by the District Church Titles Amendment Act, 31 & 32 Viet. c. 117, July 31, 1868. VICE-CHANCELLOR OF ENGLAND, a new equity judge appointed by 53 Geo. III. c. 24, March 23, 1813 ; took his seat, May 5, 1813 ; a similar officer was appointed in Ireland as early as 1232 ; two additional vice-chancellors were appointed by 5 Viet. c. 5, s. 19, Oct. 5, 1841 ; the term, vice-chancellor of England, ceased Aug. 1850 ; salaries to be paid out of the Consolidated Fund, 15 & 16 Viet. c. 87, s. 16, July I, 1852. VICENZA, Italy, taken by the Venetians, 1405 ; Cathedral built, 1467 ; stormed and taken by the Austrians, who captured 44 cannon, 18 powder waggons, and 681 muskets, June n, 1848 ; the Tcatro Olimpico, designed by Palladio, first stone laid, May 23, 1850. VICKSBURG, U. States, attacked by the Federal fleet, but repulsed with great loss, Dec. 28 & 29, 1862 ; attacked by Gen. Sherman with 40,000 men unsuc- cessfully, April, 1863 ; attacked by the fleet, under Admiral Porter, May 18. The Confederates, under Gen. Pemberton, capitulated, after a brave defence of 48 days, July 4, 1863. VICTORIA, Australia, the coast first discovered by Capt. Cook, April 19, 1770 ; Lieut. Bass discovered the Straits which bears his name, Jan. 4, 1798 ; visited by Lieut. James Grant, Dec., 1800 ; Port Phillip discovered by Lieut. Murray, Feb. 15, 1802 ; the first convict settlement formed under the direction of Lieut. 88o VICTORIA CROSS VICTORY Governor Collins, Oct. 7-9, 1803 ; abandoned, 1804 ; Messrs Hume and Hovel travelled overland from Sydney, Oct. 17, and arrived here in Dec., 1824 Portland Bay settled by Messrs Heuty, 1834; first colonized by John Batman and J. D. Fawkner, and party, May, and Aug., 1835, called Van Diemen's Land, explored by Mr Mitchell, 1836 ; visited by Governor Bourke, in March 1837. The towns of Melbourne, Williamstown, and Hobson's Bay, gazetted at Sydney, April 10, 1837 ; Mr La Trobe appointed superintendent of Port Phillip, Sept. 29, 1839; proclaimed the boundary of New South Wales, 1843; first separated from the latter, and erected into the colony of Victoria, July j,' 1851. Gold first discovered, Sept. and Oct., 1851 ; meeting of the first legis- lature, Nov. n, 1851 ; the Victoria Nugget found at Bencligo, Jan., 1852 ; rail- way opened from Melbourne to Hobson's Bay, Sept. 12, 1854; Exhibition opened, Oct., 1854; act of the legislature to amend the constitution confirmed by 18 & 19 Viet. c. 55, July 16, 1855 > new constitution proclaimed, Nov. 23, the Parliament assembled, Nov. 26, 1856 ; Ballot, Oct. 1856 ; Nichol- son's land act passed, 1860 ; amended, 1862 ; the Lower House of the legislature came into collision with the Upper House upon the tariff bill, July 25, 1865 ; the House dissolved, Dec. 3. Proposed grant to Lady Darling of .20,000, recom- mended by the Select Committee of the Legislative Assembly, May 4 ; Governor Darling recalled by the Home Government, Feb. 26, 1866 ; petition to the Queen, to be heard before a commission as to his act of government, May 16, 1866 ; the assembly dissolved, Oct. 22 ; the Secretary of State refused permission for the acceptance by Lady Darling of the proposed grant, Dec. 8. GOVERNORS. Mr La Trobe ... Sept. 29, 1839 Sir Charles R. Darling Sept. 9, 1863 Sir Charles Hotham June 21, 1854 Hon. John H. T. Sutton May 19, 1866 Sir Henry Barkly... Sept. 24, 1856 VICTORIA, Queen of England. See England. VICTORIA CROSS, order of, established by her Majesty Queen Victoria, as a reward for distinguished gallantry in the army and navy, Jan. 29, 1856 ; first grand distribution after the Crimean war in the presence of 6000 troops and many thousand spectators in Hyde Park, by her Majesty, June 26, 1857. VICTORIA DOCKS. See Docks. VICTORIA INSTITUTE, or Philosophical Society of Gt Britain, first meeting of, May 24, 1866 ; inaugural address delivered by the Rev. Walter Mitchell. VICTORIA PARK, London, an act passed, by which the Duke of Sutherland paid 72,000 for York House, and this sum was devoted to the purchase of this park, 4 & 5 Viet. c. 27, June 21, 1841 ; amended, 5 & 6 Viet. c. 20, May 13, 1842 ; opened, 1845. The public Drinking Fountain given by Miss Coutts, and designed by H. A. Darbishire, cost ^5000, opened, June 28, 1862. VICTORIA, QUEEN, STEAM SHIP, on a voyage from Liverpool to Dublin, wrecked off the Cliffs of Howth, when 59 passengers were drowned, Feb. 15, 1853. VICTORIA THEATRE, formerly the Coburg, the first stone laid, Sept. 14, 1816 ; opened, May 13, 1818 ; opened as the Victoria, under the management of Abbott and Egerton, July i, 1833 ; 16 persons killed through a false alarm of fire, Dec. 27, 1858. VICTORY, man of war of 100 guns, lost in the Race of Alderney, and Admiral Belcher, with the crew of 1000 men, perished, Oct. 8, 1744 ; also the name of Nelson's flagship in the battle of Trafalgar, Oct. 21, 1805, in which he fell just before the close of the contest. VICTUALLERS VIENNA 88 1 VICTUALLERS' LICENSED ASYLUM, Old Kent-road, built from the design of Henry Rose ; the Duke of Sussex laid the first stone, May 29, 1828 ; incor- porated by charter, Dec. 15, 1842 ; the first stone of the ladies' wing being laid by Prince Albert, June 2, 1849 ; additional building, of which Prince Albert laid the first stone, June 23, 1858. The statue of the late Prince Consort unveiled by the Prince of Wales, Aug. 9, 1864 ; the first stone of the Smalley wing laid by the Duke of Edinburgh, Nov. 30, 1866. VICTUALLERS' LICENSED SCHOOL, Kennington Lane, founded, 1794; incorporated, May 3, 1836. VICTUALLERS. No time can be assigned when the name of licensed victualler was first given ; they were licensed by the justices in the reign of Edward IV. ; they were ordered to charge for a quart of the best beer id. t and 2 quarts of small beer id., 1603 ; a duty of 20 imposed upon their license* by the 2 Geo. II. c. 17, 1729, and to be licensed at a general meeting of justices ; ordered to close their house at n o'clock at night, Feb. 14, 1826 ; regulated by 2 & 3 Viet. c. 47 (the Police Act), Aug. 17, 1839. VICTUALLING OFFICE, instituted, Dec. 10, 1663 ; some departments removed to Deptford, Aug. , 1 785, and the office to Somerset House, 1 783. That at Plymouth burnt, July 22, 1779. VIENNA, Austria, the ancient town of, annexed by Charlemagne to his kingdom, 791 ; made an imperial city by Frederick II., 1136 ; subjected to the house of Austria, 1140; taken by Rudolph, 1297; the modern town founded by Henry I., Duke of Austria, 1142, with the ransom of Richard I., King of England. The Cathedral of St Stephen's begun, 1359 ; completed, 1480 ; the Imperial Library founded, 1440-93 ; insurrection of the citizens, 1465 ; besieged unsuc- cessfully by the Hungarians, 1477 ; besieged and taken by Matthias, King of Hungary, 1484 ; besieged unsuccessfully by the Turks, under Solyman the Mag- nificent, with an army of 300,000 men, Sept. 26 Oct. 14, 1529, and in 1532 ; and again by Kara Mustapha, the Grand Vizier, with 150,000 men, from July 24 to Sept. 12, 1683, when they were totally defeated by Sobieski ; treaty of, with Spain, April 30, 1725 ; treaty of alliance between the Emperor Charles VI., Great Britain, and Holland, by which the Pragmatic Sanction was guaranteed, March 16, 1731 ; treaty of, with France, between Charles VI. of Germany and Louis XV., Nov. 18, 1738 ; the Deaf and Dumb Institution founded by Joseph H-> '779> Napoleon entered this city, Nov. 13, 1805 ; entered a second time, May 13, 1809 ; treaty between Napoleon and Francis I. of Austria, by which the latter power ceded the Tyrol, Dalmatia, and other territories toFranceas the Illyrian provinces, Oct. 14, 1809; the Congress of, held their meetings here from Nov. 3, 1814, to June 9, 1815. Treaty signed between Gt Britain, Russia, Austria, and Prussia, March 23, 1815 ; that confirming the enlargement of Holland and vest- ing the sovereignty in the House of Orange, May 31, 1815 ; the treaty ceding Swedish Pomerania and Rugen to Prussia in exchange for Lauenberg, June 4, 1815 ; the federative constitution of Vienna signed, June 8, 1815. Insurrection in, March 14, 1848 ; return of the Emperor to, A,ug. 12 ; fresh insurrection in, Oct. 4 ; bombarded, Oct. 28 ; capitulated, Oct. 31 ; conference of the allied powers to restore peace between Russia and Turkey, and her protectors' first meeting held, March 15, 1855 ; the negotiations broken off, April 26. The Emperor visited by the Prince of Wales, Feb. 12, 1862. Treaty signed at, by which the King of Denmark surrendered all his rights to the Elbe Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, and the Duchy of Lauenburg, in favour of the Emperor of Austria and the King of Prussia, Oct. 30, 1864. The Emperor invested with the order of the Garter, July 25, 1867 ; the Sultan of Turkey arrived on a visit to the Emperor, July 27 ; left, proceeding by steam-boat across the Danube, 56 882 VIGO VINEGAR HILL July 31 ; public reception of the Emperor Francis Joseph, upon his return from Paris, Nov. 8 ; arrival of the King and Queen of Greece on a visit, Nov. 12. VIGO, Spain, visited by Adm. Drake, 1585 and 1589 ; attacked by Sir George Rook, in company with the Dutch, the French and Spanish fleets being in that port ; several sail of the line of galleons were taken, and a great spoil fell into the hands of the victors, Oct. 22, 1702 ; taken by Lord Cobham, Oct. II, 1719, but relinquished soon after ; it was taken by the French, Feb. 1809, and again taken by the English, March 27, 1809. VILLAFRANCA, battle, between the English cavalry and the French, under Mar- shal Soult, which terminated in the defeat of the latter commander, April IO, 1812. Meeting of Napoleon III. and the Emperor of Austria after the battle of Solferino, July II, 1859 ; peace concluded, and Lombardy ceded to Sardinia. VILLAIN, the name of a vassal under the Normans ; of two classes, regardant, that is, annexed to the manor or land, or else in gross, that is, annexed to the person of their lord, and transferable from one person to another by deed ; Queen Elizabeth struck the first blow at this feudal bondage, by ordering that her bondsmen of the western counties should be made free at easy rates, 1574 ; but there were still some existing as late as 1617. VILLIERS, Duke of Buckingham, a favourite of Charles I., 1625; impeached by the Commons, 1626; stabbed by Felton at Portsmouth, Aug. 23, 1628. VIMIERA, battle, between the English, under Sir Arthur Wellesley, and the French forces in Portugal, under Marshal Junot, when the latter was defeated, Aug. 21, 1808 ; the command of the British army, owing to bad management at home, had three commanders-in-chief in three days, two superseding the con- queror at Vimiera. VINCENNES, France, a royal residence from 1164 ; Henry V. of England died here, 1422 ; chapel finished, 1552 ; fortress repaired by Louis Philippe, 1832 1844 ; refortified, 1852. Due D'Enghein shot in the moat by order of Napoleon, March 20, 1804. VINCENT, ST, West Indies, discovered by Columbus, 1498 ; made a French settlement, 1714; ceded to the English, 1763 ; captured by the French, 1779 ; restored at the general peace of 1783. The French incited the Indians to revolt, 1796 ; subdued, 1797. The volcano Scouffriere was in a state of eruption in 1812. VINCENT, ST, naval battle. The English fleet, under Adm. Rodney, totally defeated the Spanish fleet, Jan. 16, 1780. VINE, a tree known from the earliest times. A colony from Ionia settled at Marseilles, and instructed the inhabitants of the south of France in its culture, according to some authorities, B.C. 600 ; others are of opinion that the vine is aboriginal in the south of France and Italy, as well as on the shores of the Medi- terranean generally. The Romans introduced the cultivation of the vine into every country they subdued ; there are still many traces of Roman vineyards remaining in England ; the planting of them was encouraged by an edict of the Emperor Probus in the 3rd century ; they are frequently mentioned in Domesday Book. Vines were first planted in Germany and the north of France, 276 ; planted in Madeira, 1420. The vine was taken to America by the Spaniards, although there is a wild indigenous vine in the northern part of that continent, but its fruit is unfit for wine. VINEGAR HILL, battle, in Ireland, between the English and the rebellious Irish, June 21, 1798 ; the combat was obstinate and sanguinary, and the king's troops, under Gen. Lake, suffered severely, as well as the Irish. VINTNERS' COMPANY VITTORIA 883 VINTNERS' COMPANY, incorporated 37 Edw. Ill, July 15, 1363, for the exclusive importation of wines ; confirmed by 15 Hen. VI., 1437, and by 9 Jam. I., 1611. The kings of England, France, Scotland, and Cyprus entertained by the Mayor, Henry Picard, a member of this company, 1356 ; Arms granted to, in 1442. The Hall in Thames Street partially destroyed in the fire of 1666 ; restored in 1668. VIOLIN, invented about 1200, according to some authorities. In the Privy Purse expenses of Hen. VIII. there is an account of .3 7*. 6d. paid to three performers on, Sept., 1532, and .40 ordered to be paid by his Majesty's treasurer, the Earl of Manchester, for two Cremona violins, Oct. 24, 1662. VIRGIN, festival of the Assumption instituted in 1372, by Pope Gregory XI. VIRGIN, The, instrument of torture, was an image of a woman magnificently dressed, and so formed, that upon being set in motion it pressed the victim to death in its arms. Hamptons Polybius attributes the invention to Nabis of Sparta, who died B.C. 192; it was subsequently made one of the implements of torture used by the Inquisition in Spain, in the I5th century; one was constructed at Nuremburg, 1533- VIRGINAL. A musical instrument like a small pianoforte with one string to each note, known on the continent in the early part of the i6th century. First music printed for, 1611 ; Queen Elizabeth was a great player upon this instrument ; a pair was shipped from England for the Seraglio of the Grand Seignior, according to an announcement in the London Post, July 20, 1701. VIRGINIA, N. America, first discovered by M. J. Cabot about 1497; taken possession of and named by Raleigh, after Queen Elizabeth, July 1 3, 1 584 ; first attempts to settle, 1585 ; colonies formed in, by grant from James I., April 10, 1606 ; the first arrival of colonists in, May, 1607 ; many of the inhabitants mur- dered by the Indians, March 22, 1622 ; in 1626 it reverted to the crown, and afterwards becoming permanent, was the first British settlement in North America. Negroes first brought here by the Dutch, 1620; it submitted to Cromwell, 1651 ; raw silk and copper ore imported from, Oct., 1630. University chartered, Jan. 25, 1819 ; opened, March 25, 1825 ; made the seat of the Confederate govern- ment, July 20, 1 86 1. VIRGIN ISLANDS, Atlantic, discovered by Columbus, 1494 ; made an English settlement, 1666. The Danish islands of St Thomas and St John captured by them, 1 80 1, but restored, 1802 ; surrendered to the English, 1807, but restored, 1815. Serious hurricane which almost destroyed the town, 1868. VIRGIN MARY, order of knighthood, begun 1233 ; at Rome, 1618. VIRGIN OF MOUNT CARMEL, order begun in France, 1607. VISCOUNTS. The first John Lord Beaumont created by Hen. VI., Feb. 12, 1439. VISIGOTHS, made the kingdom of Thoulouse their capital, 418. VISITATION of the abbeys and monasteries ordered by Hen. VIII., 1535 ; of the churches, by Ed. VI. VITERBO, Italy, the Etruscan Fanum Voltumnce, raised to the rank of a city by Celestine III., 1194; a conclave met here and elected Urban IV., 1261 ; Clement IV., 1264 ; Gregory X., 1271 ; John XXL, 1276; Nicholas III., 1277; and Martin IV., 1281. Palayzo Pubblico erected, 1264. VITTORIA, battle, in Spain, between Wellington and the French ; the former obtained a brilliant victory over Joseph Bonaparte and Marshal Jourdan ; the French lost 150 pieces of cannon, 415 waggons of ammunition, 40,000 pounds of gunpowder, all their baggage, cattle, treasure, and provisions, with Marshal Jourdan's baton as a marshal of France, and took 1000 prisoners, June 21, 1813. 884 V1ZAGAPATAM VOLUNTEERS VIZAGAPATAM, East Indies. The English garrison, 130 strong, with 200 Se- poys, surrendered, after a long defence, this town to the French, June 26, 1758. VIZIER, the Grand, an officer of the Ottoman empire, first appointed, circa 1370. VLADIMIR, the capital of Russia from 1157 to 1328. VOLCANOES. Ferro, one broke out in the island of, and emitted a large quantity of red-coloured water, Sept. 13, 1777. Mount Ilecla, in a state of eruption in 1004 and 1783 ; three new craters opened, from which pillars of fire rose to the height of 14,000 ft, April 15, 1846. Izalco, Central America, broke out, Feb. 23, 1770, and has remained in a state of activity since, jomllo, Mexico, attained an elevation of 1600 ft, 1759. Monte Nuovo, 440 ft high, formed in two days, Sept., 1538- Saugay, Quito, 17,000 ft high, has been in a state of eruption since 1 728. VOLT A' S Galvanic discoveries, made known in England, 1793 ; the voltaic pile discovered by him, 1800 ; the electric spark first obtained from a soft-iron magnet, by Dr Faraday, Nov., 1831 ; and by Professor Forbes, March, 1832. A magneto-electric machine invented by Mr Saxton, 1833. VOLTURNO, battle. Gen. Garibaldi defeated the army of the King of Naples, Oct. i, 1860. VOLUNTEERS. The oldest corps raised in England, is the Honourable Artillery Company, established, 1585; the number raised, in 1794, was 341, 600. The Lon- don and Westminster Light Horse, were formed, March I, 1780. The Irish Vol- unteers formed in Dublin, Oct. 12, 1779 > they were armed to the extent of 20,000, and were thanked by the Irish legislature for their patriotism and spirit. The Fencible Light Dragoons raised, 1794, and disbanded, 1800. The Clerk enwell Volunteers embodied, 1798-9. Geo. III. reviewed 12,000 Volunteers, June 4, 1800 ; an act passed to enable His Majesty to raise an additional military force, July 6, 1803 ; the number raised in the city of London alone was 35,000 ; a grand review held in Hyde Park, 27,000 men were under arms, Oct. 23, 1803. Permission given by the government to raise a force of, for the protec- tion of England, May 12, 1859 ; established generally throughout England, Nov. 14, 1859 ; an act passed for facilitating the acquisition of grounds for rifle practice, 23 & 24 Viet. c. 140, Aug. 28, 1860 ; exempt from the payment of tolls, by 24 & 25 Viet. c. 126, Aug. 6, 1861 ; the Queen held a levee specially for receiving the officers of, March 7, 1860 ; the Duke of Cambridge presided at a banquet at St James's Hall, given by the officers, March 7 ; ball at the Floral Hall, Covent Garden. A force of 18,000 reviewed by the Queen in Hyde Park, June 23. The first meeting of the National Rifle Association at Wimbledon com- mon, Mr Edward Ross gained the Queen's prize, July 2 9 ; 20,000 reviewed in the Queen's Park, Edinburgh, Aug. 7 ; 11,000 reviewed by the Earl Derby at Knowsley Park, Sept. i; reviewed at Brighton by Major-General Scarlett, and at Wimbledon by Colonel McMurdo, April i, 1861 ; by Lord Clyde at Brighton, April 21, 1862 ; by Gen. Lord William Paulet, April 6, 1863 ; by the Duke of Cambridge at Wimbledon, July 18, 1863; an act passed to amend the acts relating to, 26 & 27 Viet. c. 65, July 21, 1863. Review held at Blackheath, Guild- ford, Surrey, 17,000 under arms, March 28, 1864; a force of 21,743 reviewed in Hyde Park by the Prince of Wales, May 28 ; reviewed by Sir R. W. Walpole, at Brighton, 24,000 being present, April 17, 1865 ; the Wimbledon meeting held, July 10 ; reviewed at Brighton in the presence of the Prince and Princess of Wales, by Lieut. -Gen. Sir H. Garrett, April 2, 1866 ; and in Hyde Park by the Duke of Cambridge, June 23. The annual meeting held at Wimbledon, July 8 ; reception of, by the Belgians, Oct. II. Annual review held at Dover, by Major Gen. M'Cleverty, April 22, 1867 ; at Windsor, June 10. The Wimbledon meeting began, July 8 ; the Volunteers reviewed by the Sultan, July 20. The VORTIGERN WAGER, COMMODORE 88$ county forces inspected by the Duke of Cambridge, at New Sefton Park, Oct. 5. The Easter Monday review held at Portsmouth under Lieut. -Gen. Sir G. Buller, April 13, 1868. The members of the Inns of Court reviewed at Wimbledon, April 14; 27,000 Volunteers reviewed by the Queen in Windsor Park,June 20. Themeet- ing at Wimbledon began, July 13 ; review held, Lord Napier of Magdala being pre- sent, July 25; an attempt was made in Parliament to increase the Capitation Grant. The BELGIAN VOLUNTEERS visited London, embarking on board II.M. Serapis at Antwerp, July 10, and were brought up the river Thames in steamers provided by the reception committee, July 1 1 ; entertained by the Corporation of London in their Guildhall, July 12; visited Wimbledon, and were received by the Prince of Wales, July 13 ; entertained at Windsor Castle by order of the Queen, July 16 ; visited the Crystal Palace, July 17 ; ball in honour of, held at the Agricultural Hall, July 18 ; entertained by Miss Burdett Coutts at High- gate, July 19 ; visited Wimbledon to see the review of the English Volunteers by the Sultan, July 20 ; the officers entertained at the Mansion House by the Lord Mayor, July 20 ; departure of, from London, July 22 ; arrived in the Serapis at Antwerp, July 23. Volunteer force of seamen : an act passed for the establishment of, and for the government of the same, 22 & 23 Viet c. 40, Aug. *3, 1859. VORTIGERN elected sole monarch of the Britons, 447 ; invited Saxon assistance, 448 ; married Rowena, the daughter of Hengist, 450 ; burned in a castle in W 7 ales by the Britons, 485. VOSSEM, Peace of, between France and Brandenburgh, June 16, 1673. VOTING PAPERS allowed to be used in universities elections, by 24 & 25 Viet, c. 53, Aug. I, 1861 ; first used at the general election at Oxford university, July 17, 1865. VULGATE edition of the Bible ( Vetus Latino) made in Africa in the 2nd century ; this was revised by Jerome at the request of Pope Damasus, 383 ; completed, 404 ; revised by Alcuin, by command of Charlemagne, 802 ; subsequently revised by many eminent scholars ; the first edition published under the superintendence of Pope Sixtus V., 1590 ; the second edition, with a preface written by Bellarmin, 1592 ; declared authentic by the Council of Trent, April 8, 1546 ; the first Eng- lish edition printed at Rouen, 1635. w WADHAM COLLEGE, Oxford, founded, Dec. 20, 1611, by Nicholas Wadham of Merefield, Somerset; confirmed by parliament, Aug. 16, 1612; the Hall, the largest in the university, first stone laid, July 31, 1610; the chapel was conse- crated, April 29, 1613. The Royal Society was first organized here, and held its meetings over the gateway from 1652 to 1659. WADRINGTON, Oxfordshire, much injured by fire, 1742. WAFERS, made in Venice in the i6th century. A reprieve from the council of, sealed with, 1 599. Notes and Queries. WAGER, COMMODORE, destroyed the Spanish galleons at Cartagena, May 28, 1798. 886 WAGER OF BATTLE WAGES IN ENGLAND WAGER OF BATTLE, first known in the 5th century. Introduced into England by William I. The last case in which this right was asserted and allowed, was that of Ashfordz'. Thornton, in the Court of King's Bench, 1817-18; abolished, 59 Geo. III., c. 46, June 22, 1819. Wager of Law abolished, 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 42, s. 13, Aug. 14, 1833. WAGES. The earliest mention is not in money, but in kind, Jacob to Laban, Gen. xxix. 15, 20; xxx. 28; xxxi. 7, 8, 41. The only mention of the rate of wages in the Scripture, is in the parable of the householder and the vineyard, one denarius per diem, Matt. xx. 2. Agricultural, in 1833, in France : at Calais, loos 1 , to i6or., with board and dwelling ; shepherds, 250.?., with board; day-labourers, 7/^ tne exterior is quite plain. There were churches preceding the present near this spot, to the west, the first built, 1135 ; a second, 1423. WALCHEREN EXPEDITION. One of those unfortunate military attacks upon an active enemy, then too frequently displaying ministerial incapacity ; being nearly 40,000 men, with 39 sail-of-the-line, the force was fully adequate to the object in view, had it been commanded by an officer of the least ability or expe- rience. The Earl of Chatham, known only for his gambling propensities, was appointed to the command ; the French knew its destination was the Scheldt. Instead of masking Walcheren, and pushing on to the destruction of the naval docks and basins at Antwerp, the army was set down in the pestilential marches of Walcheren, before Flushing, in the autumn season, when they were most fatal. Though the fever of the place was well known, and that wine and bark were the only remedies, the army was unprovided with either. They left England, July 28, 1809 ; and the force came before Flushing, and after an able and protracted resistance the town was captured, Aug. 15, and the fortifications destroyed, and on the 25th of December was abandoned, but not before one half of the army had succumbed to the fever, or become invalided for life. WALDENSES, a religious sect that early showed a true sense of the impositions in doctrine of the Papal Church, and in consequence became the objects of its vindictive malignity ; the Holy Office, the Inquisition, was established to convince, by the stake and fagot, those unfortunate people of the fidelity of the Roman Church to the professions it made, of being the only teachers of the divine prin- ciple, "Do as you would be done unto ;" Innocent III. first ordered the new doctrine to be preached against, 1204 ; the Inquisition was established under Chateauneuf ; Simon de Montfort led the executioners, and the Waldenses and Albigenses were pursued with fire and sword until their country was made a desert. The first inquisitor-general was Dominic de Guzman, 1208. The Bishop of Turin had permission of Otho to persecute, 1210 ; the Pope ordered the serpents to be crushed, 1400 ; the inhabitants of the valleys of Italy successfully defended themselves against the armies brought against them, in the i6th and 1 7th centuries, protected by England, returned to their homes, 1689 ; treaty passed in their favour between Gt Britain and Sardinia, 1832 ; made free to worship in their own way, 1860. WALES, the country to which the remnant of tne ancient Britons principally retired after the Romans left England, for some took refuge in Cornwall, from WALES 889 whence a part crossed over into Brittany; in 447 the Britons, among the mountains of Wales, were able to resist their Saxon invaders, nor was the country brought under the English crown until the reign of Hen. II., 1157, when that monarch subdued South Wales; in 1282 Ed. I. conquered the entire country, then ruled by its last Prince, Llewellyn ; in 1284, Queen Eleanor, wife of Edward I., confined of a Prince at Carnarvon Castle, who was styled Prince of Wales. The ROMANS intrusted the supreme authority to Suetonius Paulinus, who con- quered most of the country, A.D. 58 ; Agricola defeated the Silures and Ordovices, 78 ; Caswallon began to reign in 443 ; the Saxons made a severe attack upon the ancient Britons, 447 ; the barbarians from the North defeated by the Britons, 448 ; Arthur elected king, 517 ; Mordred ap Llewap Cynfarch appointed deputy by Arthur in 530 ; Cardigan inundated, 537 ; Chester taken, and the Welsh army defeated by Ethelfred, king of Northumberland, 599 ; Edwin, king of Deira, con- quered best part of Wales and obliged Cadwallon to flee to Ireland, 613 ; again defeated by Ethelbald, King of Mercia, 733 ; reign of Roderick the Great, 843 ; Burhred, a Mercian Prince, invaded the country, 846 ; invaded by Ethelwolf, 871 ; death of Roderick the Great, 877; Wales divided, 877 ; the Danes defeated in Anglesey, 900 ; Athelstan attempted to invade the country, 933 ; the chiefs Jevaf and Jago ravaged North Wales, 949 ; fatal feud between the sons of Howel Dha and the sons of Edwall Voel, the latter proved victorious, 952 ; another batch of Irish marauders landed on Anglesey, 966 ; Jevaf deposed by his brother Jago, 967 ; again invaded by the Danes, 969 ; who took Anglesey, 972, and laid it waste ; Alfred made an incursion into, 982 ; Meredith ap Owen reigned over the whole country, 986, paying an annual tribute to the Danes, 988 ; Edwin the son of Eineon took several towns of repute, 989 ; another in- vasion of the Danes, 998 ; Aedan, prince of North Wales, became very powerful, 1000 ; slain in battle by Llewellyn, 1015 ; the joint forces of the Irish and Scots defeated with great slaughter, 1021 ; Harold invaded the country in 1055 ; Rhys defeated and killed, 1056, and Rhys Ap Owen slain, 1074 ; the Earl of Chester invaded the country, 1079 ; incursion of the Irish and Scots, 1080 ; battle of Llechryd fought and Rhys ap Tewdwr slain, 1087 ; Payne and Tuberville led some chartered forces against this to%vn, 1094 ; the English, under the Earls of Chester and Shrewsbury, invaded the country, 1096 ; Nest, the wife of Gerald de Windsor, captured by Owen, son of Cadwgan ap Bleddyn, 1107; Owen as- sassinated, I no ; a number of Flemings settled here, mo ; Grufydd ap Rhys claimed the sovereignty, 1116 ; the Welsh on the death of Henry I. endeavoured to bring about a revolution, 1135 ; Ovvain Gwynedd and Cadwaladr attempted to bring into subjection South Wales, 1135; Strongbow, Earl of Pembroke, in- vested with the powers of a count-palatine in Pembroke, 1138 ; Henry II. sub- dued Wales, 1157; the English fleet defeated off Anglesey, 1157 ; the princes of Wales coalesce for the recovery of their rights and independence, 1164; Henry II. invaded the country, 1165; captured the Castle of Basingwerk, 1166; in Wales, Baldwin, Archbishop of Canterbury, preached the crusades, 1187; an unsuccessful attempt made on Powys Castle, 1191 ; the Earl of Chester marched into North Wales, 1210 ; North Wales invaded by King John of England, 1210; again, laying waste a great part of the Principality, 1215; the Flemings revolted, 1220 ; Powys castle taken by Llewellyn ap lorwerth's forces, 1233 ; William, Earl of Pembroke, killed, 1234 ; the country invaded by Henry III., 1257 ; Anglesey overrun again, 1245 ; the English army defeated by the Welsh, 1254 ; convention made of the Welsh nobility against the English, 1258 ; Hay and Brecknock castles captured by Prince Edward, 1265 ; insurrection against Edward, Prince of Wales, 1272 ; the country invaded by Edw. I., 1277 ; the English army under Edward encamped on Saltney marsh, 1277 ; the sons of Grufydd drowned in the river Dee by order of the Earl Warren and Roger Mor- timer, 1281 ; Hawarden castle surprised by Llewellyn, 1282 ; Llewellyn ap Gruf- 890 WALES, PRINCE OF WALLINGFORD ydd, the last native Prince, defeated by the English ; Llewellyn killed, 1282 ; entirely subdued by Edw. I., 1283, and annexed to England, 1284; code of laws for the regulation of, passed, 12 Edw. I. cc. i 14, 1284; the first English Prince of Wales, son of Edward, born at Carnarvon castle, April 25, 1284 ; the Welsh under Sir Rhys ap Meredydd, defeated by the Earl .of Cornwall, 1289 , the Madoc insurrection suppressed by Edw. I., 1294 ; rebellion of Owen Glen- dower, began, 1400 ; Ruthyn burned, Sept. 20, 1400 ; Radnor and other places taken, 1401 ; Carnarvon besieged, 1402 ; Harlech castle seized, 1404 ; retaken by the English army, 1408 ; Owen Glendower died, Sept. 2O, 1415 ; Margaret of Anjou resided in Harlech castle, 1459 ; Denbigh burned, 1460 ; Earl of Rich- mond landed at Pembroke, Aug., 1485 ; Palatine jurisdiction in Wales abolished, 1535 ; Monmouth made an English county, 1535 ; Brecknock, Denbigh, and Radnor made counties, 1535 ; 'The dominions of Wales for ever united to the kingdom of England, and the laws to be administered in Wales in same form as in England,' 27 Hen. VIII. c. 26, 1535 ; confirmed by 34 & 35 Hen. VIII. c. 26, 1542 ; Dr Ferrars, Bishop of St David's, burnt for heresy, 1555 ; Vavasour Powel, a dissenting minister, apprehended while preaching, 1620 ; Beaumaris castle garrisoned for King Chas. I., 1642 ; Powys castle taken by Sir Thomas Myddelton, Oct., 1644; Hawarden castle surrendered to the Parliamentarians, 1645 ; Chas. I. sought refuge in Denbigh, 1645 ; Rhuddler and Harlech castles surrendered to the forces of Parliament, 1647 ; the Welsh defeated by the parlia- mentary forces at the battle of St Fagan's, May 8, 1648 ; Beaumaris surrendered to Cromwell, since which time the interest of the kingdom have been identical with England, 1648 ; courts of the Marches abolished, I Will, and Mary, c. 27, 1688. WALES, PRINCE OF. The first prince of England which received that title, was Edward the Black Prince, son of Edw. I., born in Carnarvon castle, April 25, 1284. The title borne by the eldest son of the reigning sovereign ever since. WALLACE, Sir William, the Scottish patriot, defeated the English army, 1297 ; and again when under the command of the Earls of Surrey and Cressingham, Sept. II, 1297 ; Edward invaded the country with an army of 100,000 foot and 8000 horse, and defeated Wallace, July, 1298 ; captured, and tried in West- minster Hall, Aug. 23, 1305 ; executed the same day. WALLACHIA, Europe, claimed the protection of Turkey, 1526 ; Nicholas Mavrocordatus appointed Hospodar, 1716; invaded by Russia, 1807; ceded to that Power by the treaty of Tilsit, July 7, 1807 ; annexed to Russia, Jan. 21, 1810 ; restored to Turkey, May 28, 1812 ; insurrection in, the forces being com- manded by Theodore Wladinursko, Feb., 1821 ; suppression of, April II, 1821 ; Gregory Ghika appointed by the Sultan as Hospodar, 1822 ; these provinces taken by Russia, 1828, and a Government established by Russia ; the principalities evacuated by Russia, by the treaty of Adrianople, but to retain the protectorate of, Sept. 14, 1829; the Hospodar elected by the inhabitants for life, 1830; united with Moldavia, Aug. 19, 1858; Alexander Couza elected, confirmed, Sept., 1859 ; Wallachia and Moldavia united and called Roumania, Dec. 23, 1861. WALLENSTEIN, Duke of Friedland, assassinated, 1634. WALLER'S PLOT, formed to seize the leading members of the House of Com- mons, the conscript fathers, and to deliver up the city to the King and the Cavaliers, discovered, May 31, 1643. Tomkins and Chaloner hanged, others im- prisoned ; Waller fined ^"10,000, and confined in the Tower for 12 months, and then banished the kingdom. WALLINGFORD, Berkshire, the principal stronghold of the Saxons ; taken and burnt by the Danes, 1006 ; incoqwrated by James I. ; confirmed by Chas. I. A free school founded by Mr Aid. Bigg, 1659 ; church built, 1769. WALLINGFORD CASTLE WARBECK, PERKIN 891 WALLINGFORD CASTLE, Berkshire, built by William the Confessor, 1048-60. Stigancl, Archbishop of Canterbury, and the Barons paid homage to William the Conqueror here, 1066 ; King John met his Barons here, 1192 ; given by Hen. VIII. to Cardinal Wolsey ; demolished by order of Parliament, 1653. WALLIS, Captain, set sail round the world in the Dolphin, July 26, 1766; returned, May 20, 1768 ; he discovered Otaheite, June 19, 1767. WALLOONS fled to England from the persecution of the savage Duke of Alva, the governor, for Philip II. of Spain, of the Low Countries, which they in- habited, 1566 ; some settled in Kent and Sussex, 1767. WALMER CASTLE, Kent, the official residence of the Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports, built, 1537; the Duke of Wellington died here, Sept. 14, 1852. WALNUT-TREE, introduced into England at a very early period. The black walnut brought from North America, 1628, or before ; one felled, 1627, which covered 76 square poles, or 2299 square yards, of ground, at Welwyn, Herts. WALPOLE, SIR ROBERT, appointed secretary at war, 1707 ; treasurer of the navy, 1709 ; expelled from the House of Commons for corruption, 1711 ; com- mitted to the Tower, 1712 ; re-elected for Lynn, 1714 ; became first lord of the treasury and chancellor of the exchequer, 1715 ; resigned on a disagreement in the cabinet, April 10, 1717; resumed the head of the ministry, April 4, 1721 ; was minister until Feb. 3, 1742 ; took his seat in the House of Peers, Feb. n, 1741, as Earl of Orford ; died, 1745. WALSINGHAM, LORD, his house in Harley-street took fire, April 27, 1831, when his Lordship perished, and Lady Walsingham died of the injuries she had received. WALSINGHAM PRIORY, Norfolk, built, 1070. WALTIIAM, Essex. The Abbey founded by Harold, 1062; consecrated, 1050-60; confirmed by charter, 1062 ; the cross erected to the memory of Queen Eleanor, 1292 ; repaired, 1757. The forest of, formerly called the forest of Essex, partly disafforested by King John ; the boundaries settled by a commission appointed by C has. I., 1640; Inquisition returned, Sept. 8, 1640. The Government powder- mills exploded, April 27, 1861. WALTON BRIDGE, built from the designs of Mr Dicker, 1750 ; destroyed by a high tide, Aug. n, 1859. WALWORTH, JOHN, elected Alderman of Bridge ward, Nov. II, 1368 ; sheriff, Sept. 21, 1370; Lord Mayor of London, 1374 ; admitted the Kentish insurgents into the city, June 13, 1381 ; killed Wat Tyler, their leader, in Smithfield, June 15. I38i. WANDEWASH, battle. The French, under Gen. Lally Tollendal, defeated by the English, commanded by Sir Eyre Coote, Jan. 22, 1760. WANDSWORTH, Surrey. The first Presbyterian congregation established at, Nov. 20, 1572 ; the parish church rebuilt, 1780 ; railway to Mersham, opened, 1805. The Royal Victoria Patriotic Asylum for the reception of 300 orphan daughters of soldiers, the first stone laid, July, 1857 ; railway to the Crystal Palace, opened, June 10, 1854. WARBECK, PERKIN, he landed at Cork and assumed the name of Richard Plantagenet, 1492 ; invited by Charles VIII. of France to repair to Paris, 1493 ; the attempt made by him to land at Deal in Kent, with 600 men, failed, 169 were taken, July 3, 1495. and executed ; Warbeck retired to Flanders, and subse- quently to Scotland, James IV. gave him the hand of Lady Gordon. The King invaded England in his behalf without success, 1496 ; landed in Cornwall, where ho was joined by 3000 men, and he took the title of Richard IV. ; appeared before the city of Exeter, with a force of 10,000 men, Sept. 17, 1497 ; surren- 892 WARDEN MONASTERY WARK CASTLE dered himself a prisoner to Hen. VII., 1498 ; he was set in the stocks in West- minster and Cheapside, then sent to the Tower, 1499 ; for plotting with the Earl of Warwick to escape, he was tried at Westminster Hall, Nov. 16, 1499, and hanged at Tyburn, Nov. 23, 1499. WARDEN MONASTERY, Bedfordshire, built, 1136. WARD, JOHN, of Hackney, expelled the House of Commons for forgery, 1726. WARDOUR CASTLE, Wiltshire, built by John Lord Lovell, 1392; successfully defended by Lady Arundel for Chas. I., with a garrison of 25 men, against a force of 1300 men, at last honourably capitulated, 1643 ; retaken by the king's forces, 1644. WARDROBE, Doctors' Commons. The mansion built by Sir John Beauchamp; on his death, 1356, it was sold to Edw. III., who made it his wardrobe. One established at Great Scotland Yard, 1485. WARDS AND LIVERIES. This court was erected in London by 32 Hen. VIII. c. 46, 1540, and 33 Hen. VIII. c. 22, 1541-2 ; abolished by 12 Chas. II. c. 24, 1660. WAREHAM, Dorset. The castle and town taken by Robert de Lincoln for the Empress Maud, 1138 ; fortified by King John, 1216 ; burnt, 1731 ; again, 1742; 130 houses destroyed, 1762. WAREHOUSING SYSTEM, originally proposed by Sir Robert Walpole, 1733, but met with so much opposition, it was abandoned ; the same measure proposed by Dean Tucker, 1750, without effect; the first warehousing act passed, 43 Geo. III. c. 132, Aug. II, 1803 ; amended by 6 Geo. IV. c. 112, July 5, 1825, and by 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 57, Aug. 28, 1833 ; the privilege extended to Ireland, 1824 ; now regulated by 16 & 17 Viet. c. 107, Aug. 20, 1853. The dates of the concession and names of the places are the following : London, East India goods, 1799, tobacco, 1800; Liverpool, 1805; Bristol obtained the grant, 1805; and Hull, Newcastle, Plymouth, Portsmouth, Southampton, Gloucester, Bos- ton, Dover, Falmouth, Grimsby, Newhaven, 1805 ; Rochester, Lynn, White- liaven, Ipswich, Lancaster, 1806; Exeter, Sunderland, Chester, 1807; Colchester, 1808 ; Weymouth, 1809; Poole, 1810 ; Dartmouth, 1811 ; Stockton, 1815; Shoreham, 1819; Whitby, 1820; Swansea, Milford, and Bideford, 1821; Chichester, Barnstaple, 1822 ; Cowes, Rye, Bridgwater, 1823 ; Yarmouth, Wis- beach, 1825 ; Goole, 1827 ; Chepstow, 1828 ; Carlisle, Maiden, Essex, 1830 ; Lyme, 1831 ; Bridport, 1832 ; Berwick, 1833; Cardiff, 1834; Ramsgate, 1835 ; Penzance, Shields, 1836 ; Truro, 1837 ; Faversham, Fleetwood, Hartlepool, Woodbridge, 1839 ; Arundel, Scarborough, 1840 ; Deal, Gainsborough, 1841 ; Carnarvon, Maryport, Preston, 1842; Workington, 1843; Manchester, Newport (Monmouth), 1844; Fowey, 1848; Folkestone, 1849. Scotland : Greenock, Port-Glasgow, 1805; Leith, 1806; Dumfries, 1807; Aberdeen, 1812; Grange- mouth, 1815 ; Dundee, 1818 ; Glasgow, 1822 ; Montrose, 1823 ; Borrowstoness, 1824; Inverness, 1835 ; Irvine, and ; Arbroath, 1836; Alloa, Perth, 1837; Peterhead, 1840; Banff, 1841; Kirkaldy, 1845 ; Ayr, 1847. Ireland: Dublin, Belfast, Cork, Wexford, Coleraine, 1824; Sligo, Limerick, Newry, Waterford, Drogheda, Galway, Londonderry, Dundalk, 1825 ; Ross, 1834; Westport, 1836; Ballina, 1845 ; Skibbereen, 1846; Tralee, 1848. WAREHOUSEMEN AND CLERKS' Schools for Orphans and Necessitous Children, founded, 1853. WARFARE OF CHRIST, Order of, begun in White Russia, 1325 ; Poland, 1705. WARK CASTLE, Northumberland, built by .William Longespee, Earl of Salis- bury, circa 1220 ; Edw. I. resided at, 1296; the Countess of Salisbury successfully WARRINGTON WASHINGTON 893 defended it for Ed\v. III., 1341 ; it subsequently sustained II sieges by the Scots, and was taken seven times. WARRINGTON, Lancaster, founded , circa 1400; first bridge erected over the Mersey, by the 1st Earl Derby, 1496 ; a free Grammar School established, 1526 ; the Parliamentarians captured the town after a siege of 6 days, 1643 5 tne Scottish army defeated by the English, under Gen. Lambert, 1648 ; the bridge rebuilt, 1812 ; first lighted with gas, 1824 ; St Paul's Church erected, 1830 ; Library built, 1856 ; the Market erected, 1857 ; accident on the railway at, 7 persons killed, and 30 wounded, June 29, 1867. WARSAW, Poland, founded in the I2th century. A diet held at, 1566; sur- rendered to Chas. XII., 1703; insurrection of the citizens, who declared their independence, and drove out the Russian garrison with a loss of 2000 killed and 500 wounded, and 36 cannon, April 1 7, 1 794 ; besieged unsuccessfully by the King of Prussia, July, 1794. Two battles were fought with great determination before the city, Oct. 10, 12, 1794 ; the Poles defeated by the Russians under Suwarroflf, 30,000 citizens of all ages murdered, besides 10,000 Poles who were made prisoners, Nov. 6, 1794. The city occupied by the French, 1806 ; Na- poleon entered the city, Dec. 18, 1 806; made a Duchy and annexed to Saxony, Aug., 1807 ; serfdom abolished, 1807; captured by Austria, 1809 ; recaptured by the Poles, May 30, 1809; again visited by Napoleon, Dec. 10, 1812 ; taken by the Russians, Feb., 1813 ; annexed to Russia by the congress of Vienna, May 23, 1815, and ruled by a Russian Viceroy; the Emperor of Russia proclaimed, June 20,1815 ! tne new constitution proclaimed, Dec. 24, 1815 ; insurrection in.Nov. 29, 1830 ; the Czar dethroned by the Diet, Jan. 21, 1831 ; the Russians defeated at Growchow, losing 7000 men, Feb. 25, 1031; the Russian prisoners massacred by the mob, Aug. 15, 16 ; the Poles defeated and the town taken, Sept. 7, 8 ; the citadel built, 1832 ; conference held here between the Emperors of Russia, Austria, and the Regents of Prussia, Sept. 25, 1860; popular demonstration by the inhabitants, noo citizens killed by the soldiers, April 8, 1861; insurrection at, Jan., 1863; Gen. Berg appointed commander, Sept., 1863; an attempt made upon his life, Sept. 19, 1863. WARWICK, Warwickshire, fortified by the Romans, A.D. 50. The castle founded by Henry de Newburgh, 912 ; rebuilt, 1265 ; Cassar's tower is 147 ft high ; Guy's tower, 128 ft high, built, 1394. The town incorporated by Hen. VIII., 1546; a charter granted, 1554 ; Queen Elizabeth visited the town, 1572 ; James I. en- tertained by the town, 1617; serious fire which destroyed part of the town, Sept. 8, 1694 ; Will. III. visited the town, 1695, and Queen Victoria, 1843 J Shake- speare's Garden at New Place purchased for the nation for ^2000, Oct. 22, 1861. WARWICK, EARL OF, the king-maker, defeated and slain at the battle of Barnet, April 14, 1471. WARWICK HOUSE, Warwick Lane, Newgate Street, the residence of the king- maker, built, 1400 ; it was destroyed in the fire of 1660 ; rebuilt, 1668. WARWICK MAIL, robbed of ^"20,000 in bank-notes, whilst standing at Fur- nival's inn, Holborn, Nov. 21, 1827. WARWICKSHIRE NATURAL HISTORY AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOCIETY instituted at Warwick, May 24, 1836. WASHINGTON, N. America, founded by Act of Congress, 1790; the city founded, 1793; the House of Congress begun, 1793; destroyed by the British, 1814; recommenced, 1815; finished, 1828. Congress met the first time, May 30, 1808 ; taken by the English army under Gen. Ross, and the archives and library destroyed, as well ns the public buildings, Aug. 24, 1814; the Columbian College incorporated, 1821 ; the National Institute founded, 1840; the library, containing 35,000 volumes of books, several paintings, and 12,000 bronze medals, and part 894 WATCH WATERLOO BRIDGE of the House of Congress destroyed by fire, Dec. 24, 1851 ; President Lincoln assassinated by Booth in Ford's Theatre, April 14, 1865. WATCH, none by night in London, 1189; first appointed in the city of, 1268; the setting of the midsummer watch on the eve of St John the Baptist was one of the sights of London ; on some occasions the force amounted to 5000 ; this custom was abolished, I539> but revived, 1548; but it was shortly afterwards finally abolished, and substituted by a force organized by the City Marshal, and subse- quently by the present police force, 1839. W'ATCHES invented at Nuremburg, in Germany, 1478, and from their shape called the Nuremburg Egg ; first used in astronomical observations, 1500. The Em- peror Chas. V. was the first who had anything that might be called a watch, though some call it a small table clock, 1530. The fusee universally adopted, 1540. Watches first brought to England from Germany, 1597 ; first made in England, 1658; spring pocket ones invented by Hooke, 1658; Tompion in- vented the spiral or pendulum spring, 1658 ; repeaters invented by Daniel Quare, a Quaker in London, 1676; exportation of, prohibited, 9 & 10 Will. III. c. 28, 1698. Harrison's improvement, 1739, 1749, 1753; m 1759 he made his celebrated time-piece which gained him ^"20,000, the reward offered by the Board of Longitude, 1763 ; a tax was levied upon them in 1797, but meeting with much opposition was shortly afterwards repealed. WATER first conveyed to London by leaden pipes, 1237 ; nine conduits erected in the city, 1238; Cheapside conduit finished, 1285. Peter Maurice first ob- tained permission to supply Thames water to the citizens from his waterworks on London Bridge, 1582 ; destroyed by fire, Oct. 29, 1779. The Lord Mayor and Aldermen obtained permission to bring a fresh supply of water to the north parts of the city, 3 Jam. I. c. 1 8, 1605 ; amended by 4 Jam. I. c. 12, 1606 ; the power given by these acts transferred to Mr Hugh Myddleton, March 28, 1609 ; after five years of incessant labour and at a cost of ^"500,000, the works were finished, and opened, Sept. 29, 1613. There were water-carriers at the dif- ferent conduits who supplied the citizens with water. London supplied by eight companies, 1868 ; an act passed to regulate the supply to the metropolis, 15 & 16 Viet. c. 84, July i, 1852. WATER sold in the West Indies for one shilling a pailful, 1 73 1 ; sold in the streets of Exeter for a penny as late as 1785. WATER COLOURS, the Society of, established, Nov. 30, 1804 ; the New So- ciety of, established, 1832. The Institute of, established, July 29, 1834. WATERFORD, Ireland, City of, founded, 155; rebuilt by the Danes, 879; de- stroyed by fire, 980; captured by Strongbow, 1171 ; who rebuilt and enlarged it. 1175 ; made a Bishopric, 1096, Malchus, an Irishman, appointed the first Bishop. Richard II. crowned at, 1399 ; William III. resided at, and twice confirmed its privileges ; remarkable storm at, April 18, 1792 ; cathedral of, built, 1096; interior of the cathedral burned, Oct. 25, 1815; united with Lismore, - 1363 ; the Chamber of Commerce founded, 1815 ; both Waterford and Lismore united with Cashel and Emly, Aug. 14, 1833 ; the theatre burnt, April 5, 1837 ; Bishopric abolished, 1833. WATERLOO, battle. The allied British force, under Wellington, 67,655 strong, with 156 guns, defeated the French, 74,100 strong, with 240 guns, under Na- poleon, the allies lost 22,378 killed and wounded, Sunday, June 18, 1815. WATERLOO BRIDGE, London, built from the design of John Rennie, F.R.S. ; first stone laid, Oct. u, 1811 ; it has nine semi-elliptical arches, each 120 ft span and 35 ft high, length 2456 ft. Opened upon the second anniversary of the battle of Waterloo by the Prince Regent, June 18, 1817 ; cost ^"400,000. Toll reduced from a penny to a halfpenny, for foot passengers, Feb. 29, 1841. WATER METER WEAVING 895 WATER METER. Mr T. Taylor patented his meter, Dec. 15, 1852. WATERMEN'S COMPANY. An act of parliament for regulating watermen was passed in 1514, 6 Hen. VIII. c. 7 ; in 1545 the King erected several almshouses for decayed members of this craft at Westminster ; new regulations issued by 2 & 3 Philip and Mary, c. 16, 1555 ; incorporated, 3 & 4 Philip and Mary, 1556; arms granted, Sept. 18, 1585. Another act passed regulating the proceedings of the members of the company, I James I. c. 16, 1603; their Hall, at Three Cranes in Upper Thames-street, is first mentioned in this document; relieved from impressment by order in council, Feb. 8, 1627. Hall destroyed, 1666; hall re-erected shortly after the fire. WATERSPOUT upon Mount St John, in Cumberland, Aug. 23, 1749; a very destructive one near Aix, in the department of Mont Blanc, July 8, 1809; one at Hautersbach, on the Glatz mountains in Germany, which destroyed many houses and lives, July 13, 1827; at Glenflash, near Killarney, Ireland, which destroyed three farm-houses and other buildings, with seventeen persons, Aug. 4, 1831 ; one at Clidagh mountains, county Kerry, Ireland, by which a large district was torn up, and nine persons lost, Aug. 4, 1831. WATFORD MILLS destroyed by fire, two lives lost, June 9, 1814. WATSON, JAMES, tried for assaulting a patrol with a sword, on the night after the Spafields riots, and acquitted, Jan. 21, 1817; tried for high treason in con- nection with the riots, and acquitted, June 16, 1817. WAT TYLER'S INSURRECTION, on account of the oppression of the Poll Tax. The indecent conduct of one of the collectors to the daughter of Wat Tyler ignited the spark ; Wat Tyler knocked out his brains with his hammer. The rebels assembled on Blackheath under the command of Tyler, and demanded the total abolition of slavery for ever, the reduction of rent to ^d. an acre, full liberty to buy and sell in all markets, and a general pardon for all past offences, June 12, 1381 ; admitted into the city, burnt the Savoy and the Priory of St John's, Clerkenwell, June 13 ; murdered the Archbishop of Canterbury, June 14 ; killed in Smithfield by William Walworth, Lord Mayor, June 15. WAVRE, battle. The French, under Marshal Grouchy, defeated the Prussians, under Gen. Thielman, June 16, 1815. WAWZ, battle, between the Poles and Russians, when all the positions of the latter were taken by storm, and, besides the loss of 12,000 men, 2000 were made prisoners, March 31, 1831. WAX used by the Romans for covering their writing tablets (Ovid, Artis Amator. * 437)- Wax first used for candles about 1200; wax-tree brought from China before 1794. WAX CHANDLERS' COMPANY, incorporated, 2 Rich. III., 1484 ; grant of arms to, 2 Hen. VII., 1487; Hall rebuilt, 1852. WA VGOOSE. This annual feast, given by master printers to their workmen, now generally adopted by all trades, is of ancient origin. It was usually held in the autumn, hence the term "Wayzgoose," or stubble-goose, is mentioned by Moxon in his ' Mechanick Exercises,' 1683. WEARMOUTH MONASTERY, built by Bishop Benedict, 675. WEAVERS' COMPANY, incorporated, temp. Hen. I.; confirmed, Hen. II. ; arms granted to, 1487; confirmed, 1590; again confirmed, Aug. 10, 1616. Hall rebuilt after the fire of 1666 ; taken down, 1860. WEAVING. Allusions to this ancient craft are frequent in the Bible. The severe treatment they received on the continent caused many to flee into England ; two weavers from Brabant settled at York, 1331. Edw. III., and subsequently Eliza- beth, encouraged these manufactures; the conduct of Philip and the revocation of the 896 WEDGWOOD WARE WEIGHTS AND MEASURES Edict of Nantes caused many to settle in different towns in England. The Flem- ings introduced dying and drapery into Kent, Norfolk, Essex, and other counties, 1507-9. The weavers of London petition against the introduction of French goods, 1713. The power-loom invented by M. de Gennes, 1678; the fly shuttle invented by John Kay, 1735 n ' s machine destroyed by a mob, 1753 ; the Jacquard loom invented, 1801; the hand-looms in England and Scotland in use were 240,000 in 1820, and in 1835, 55,000 power-looms. WEDGWOOD WARE first made at Burslem, 1759; improved, 1762. Queen's ware first made by this firm, 1763. Mr Wedgwood subsequently discovered the method of painting on vases without a glossy appearance. WEEK. A period of seven days is to be traced in the making of all things, Gen. viii. 10, and it is recognized by the Syrian Laban, Gen. xxix. 27. WEEKLY BILLS OF MORTALITY first issued in London, 1603. WEIGHTS AND MEASURES, invented before the Christian era; Charle- magne introduced into France a new system, circa 807 ; a standard for weights and measures established by 9 Hen. III. c. 25, 1225 ; exemplified by the 51 Hen. III. s. I, 1266 ; confirmed by 31 Edw. I., 1302 ; altered by 18 Edw. II., 1325 ; 14 Edw. III., c. 12, 1340; 25 Edw. III. c. 9, 1350. The Lord Mayor of London appointed to regulate the weights and scales used in merchandise by charter of Edw. I., 1273 ; their rights confirmed and extended by charter of Hen. VIII., April 13, 1531- The earliest mention of the 'Avoirdupois' weight occurs in a charter of 31 Edw. I., Feb. I, 1303, and also in the statute 27 Edw. III., s. 2, c. IO, 1353. This declares that there shall be but one weight, measure, and yard throughout the realm, and that after the ' Avoir du pois par balaunces.' The earliest standard of length was the Saxon girth or gyrd, the circumference of the body, altered by Hen. I. to the length of his arm (Ulna), noi. By general consent the measure was altered in the reign of Hen. III., ' an English penny, called a ster- ling round, and without clipping, shall weight 32 wheat corns in the midst of the ear, and 20 pence do make an ounce, and 12 ounces a pound ; and 8 pounds do make a gallon of wine, and 8 gallons of wine do make a London bushel,' 1266. Every city and borough were obliged to keep a common balance and weight, also standards of weights and measures, 8 Hen. VI. c. 5, 1429. Standard weights and measures to be made of brass and sent to every officer of every city and borough, 7 Hen. VII. c. 4, 1491 ; power given to have the weights and measures brought before the mayor and officers of the different towns, &c., to be examined and marked, II Hen. VII. c. 4, 1495 ; one measure and weight to be used throughout the kingdom by 12 Hen. VII. c. 5, 1496-7. A set of standards made for the Exchequer by order of Queen Elizabeth, 1587. Upon the union of Great Britain, by article 17, it was ordered that the same weights and measures should be used by all, 1706. Meat ordered to be sold by ' Haver du pois,' 24 Hen. VIII. c. 3, 1532 ; all weights used in the city of London to be either ' Troy weights or Haver de paix, and to be made of iron, and to be stamped by the Keeper of the Guildhall, Morley Maior,' Nov. 6, 1599. The Guild- hall wine gallon 224 cubical inches, altered in 1688 to 231 inches, and in the reign of Queen Anne it was ordered that the wine gallon should contain 231 cubic inches ; 63 gallons were to constitute a hogshead, 126 gallons a butt or pipe, and 252 gallons a tun of wine, 5 Anne, c. 27, s. 17, 1707. An act was passed to prevent the use of false weights and balances, 35 Geo. III. c. 102, June 22, 1795- The Coopers' Company had the right to measure and stamp all casks, &c. The plumbers to assay and try all lead weights by their charter, April 12, 1611. The Founders' Company by their charter are empowered to seize and mark all brass weights, Jan. i, Sept. 18, 1614. A committee appointed by the House of Commons to investigate the then system, but nothing was done, May 26, 1758 j a second committee appointed, Dec. I, 1758 ; reported, April 6, 1759. Two bills WEISKERCHEX WELL 897 brought into the House by Lord Carysfort, 1 765, but they were not proceeded with ; another committee appointed, who reported fully upon the subject, and made several recommendations, 1814. A commission of inquiry appointed in 1816, made their first report, July 7, 1819; second report, Sept. 18, 1820; third report, May 29, 1821. A bill was brought into the House for establishing a uniformity in weights and measures, May 20, 1822. Upon these reports an Act was passed, altering and amending the weights and measures, 5 Geo. IV. c. 74, June 17, 1824; further equalized by 6 Geo. IV. c. 12, March 31, 1825. The imperial gallon was substituted for the old gallon of wine of 231 cubic inches, the ale and beer of 282, the corn gallon of 268>i, and the Scotch pint of 103$ cubic inches ; the new gallon was declared to contain ten pounds of distilled water, avoirdupois, weighed in air, at a temperature of 62 degrees Fahrenheit, the barometer being at 30 inches ; the contents of the new gallon are found, therefore, to be 277-274 cubic inches, or rather more. Coal ordered to be sold by weight and not by measure, 5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 63, Sept. 9, 1835. The standards destroyed in the fire which burnt the Houses of Parliament, Oct. 1 6, 1834. A new commission appointed, May II, 1838 ; made their report, Dec. 21, 1841. A bill brought in by Mr Wilson and the Chancellor of the Exchequer repeals so much of the act of the 5th of George IV., chap. 74, as relates to the restoration of the imperial standard yard and the standard pound troy respectively, in case of loss, destruction, defacement, or other injury. The restored standard yard is established, being the straight line or distance between the centres of the two gold plugs or pins in the bronze bar deposited in the office of the Exchequer. The weight of platinum marked ' P.S., 1844, I lb.' deposited in the office of the Exchequer, is to be the legal and genuine standard measure of weight, and the imperial standard pound avoirdupois. The provisions of the 5th George IV., chap. 74, not hereby repealed, are to remain in force. Copies of the old standards are to continue to be legal. A committee appointed to superintend the construction of the new parliamentary standards of length and weight, June 20, 1843, made their report, March 28, 1854 ; an act passed legalizing, &c., the restored standards, 18 & 19 Viet. c. 72, July 30, 1855. The bullion standard altered, 16 & 17 Viet. c. 29, June 14, 1853. Inspectors of, appointed, 5& 6 Will. IV. c. 63, Sept. 9, 1835 ; amended, 22 & 23 Viet. c. 56, Aug. 13, 1859. An act passed to amend the acts relating to the standard weights and measures, &c., 29 & 30 Viet. c. 82, Aug. 6, 1866. A commission appointed to inquire into the condition of Exchequer Standards of weights and measures, May 9, 1867. First report of the Warden of the Standards made in 1867. The Metric System of weights and measures adopted in France, 1794-8. The ancient system re- vised, Nov. 4, 1800; the SysKme Usitd adopted, March 28, 1812. The system made obligatory by law, July 4, 1837 ; to come in force, Jan. I, 1840. This system has since been adopted in the Netherlands, Belgium, Greece, Spain, Portugal, Italy, Mexico, Chili, Peru, New Granada, Ecuador (to commence, 1866), Bolivia, Venezuela, French and Dutch Guiana, and partially in Germany, Denmark, and Switzerland. A bill was introduced by Mr Wm Ewart in the House of Commons, for legalizing the use of this system in this country, and made a law, 27 & 28 Viet. c. 117, July 29, 1864. (It is a permissive measure only.) WEISKERCHEN, battle. The Russians, under Gen. Luders, defeated the Ma- g'yars commanded by Bern, with a loss of 1300 killed and 2300 wounded, July 31, 1849. WELCH MANUSCRIPTS SOCIETY, established for editing and publishing Bardic and Historical remains, at Abergavenny, 1837. WELL, the celebrated Artesian, was commenced at Crenelle, near Paris, Jan. I, 1834, and completed after seven years' labour : the water flowed in a great quan- tity, of a temperature of about 25 degrees (80 to 86 Fah. ) ; the total depth about 57 898 WELLINGBOROUGH WELSHMEN 1795 feet. The borer fell into the cavity when the perforation had been made to the depth of 115 metres 377 feet. This was soon recovered, and was nothing to what occurred in 1837 ; then the length of the bars united together measured 1260 feet ; not only these broke, but the enormous metal spoon used to bring the materials to the surface also fell to the bottom of the cavity, from a height of 262 feet, and it required extraordinary exertions to recover it. This operation, which could only be worked with horse-power, occupied from May, 1837, to August, 1838. The immensity of this labour, for fifteen successive months, may be conceived, as the instrument had to act at a depth of 1500 feet. The works were continued without any fresh misfortune until April 8, 1840, when another part of the borer fell from a considerable height, with such force that it pene- trated the chalk below to the depth of 85 feet. A fourth accident occurred shortly before the successful termination v when the metal spoon again fell to the bottom of the bore, having nearly attained its extreme depth. It was put on one side by forcing it horizontally into the earth, so as not to obstruct the passage. This great work cost about 170,000 francs. WELLINGBOROUGH, Northampton. Charles I. resided here in 1626; the town burned, Aug. 14, 1831 ; and July 28, 1738, when 300 houses were de- stroyed. WELLINGTON, Duke of, born, May I, 1769. Administration of, commenced, Jan. 8, 1828 ; terminated, Nov. 16, 1830. Died, at Walmer Castle, Sept. 14, 1852 ; laid in state at Chelsea Hospital, Nov. 1 1 ; several persons killed and wounded by overcrowding, Nov. 13. Publicly buried in St Paul's, Nov. 18. WELLINGTON, the ship Duchess of, took fire in Sauger Roads, when the pilot, two officers, two passengers, and many of the crew, perished in the flames, Jan. 27, 1816. WELLINGTON BARRACKS, St James's Park, built and occupied by troops, March I, 1834 ; the military chapel first opened, May 4, 1838. WELLINGTON COLLEGE, Hampshire, founded as a memorial to the Duke of Wellington by public subscription, for the orphan sons of officers in the army ; ^"109,000 subscribed. The first stone laid by Her Majesty, June 2, 1856, and the opening inaugurated, Jan. 29, 1859. WELLS, Somersetshire, founded by Ina, king of Wessex, 706 ; hospital founded by Bishop Bubbawith, 1421 ; alms-houses founded by Henry Llewellyn, 1614 ; town-hall built, 1780. WELLS, cathedral of, built by Ina, king of the West Saxons, 706 ; bishopric erected, 905; archdeaconry, 1106 ; united with Bath, 1088 ; the first bishop was Athelm, afterwards Archbishop of Canterbury. Cathedral, Gothic, 415 feet long, 155 wide, 160 high ; the west front is 147 ft. broad ; there are upwards of 300 figures, 152 are life size. West front and nave built by Bishop Joceline, 1204-39 ; central tower, by Bishop Drokensford, 1320-37 ; North-west tower, by Bishop Bubbawith, 1408-20 ; South-west tower, by Bishop Harewell, 1366-84 ; cloisters, by Bishop Beckington, 1450-60; Chapter House, by Bishop de Marchia, 1292- 1301 ; the Library, by Bishop Bubbawith, 1407-1424; bishop's palace erected by Bishop Jocelyn, 1208-37 ; great hall built by Bishop Bumel, 1279 ; gate-house built by Bishop Beckington, 1443-1464. The clock made by Peter Lightfoot, I325- WELLS STREET, Royalty Theatre in, opened, May 20, 1787. WELSH COPPER OFFICE, incorporated, 1694 ; hospital built, Gray's Inn Lane, 1772. WELSHMEN forbidden to purchase land in England, 1401. WELSH TONGUE WESTMINSTER 899 WELSH TONGUE. An act passed for translating the Bible into, 5 Eliz. c. 28, 1562. WEM, Shropshire, greatly damaged by fire, 1676. WEMYSS, EARL OF, packet from Leith to London, wrecked, and ten passengers lost, off the Bramerton coast of Norfolk, Sept. I, 1833. WF.XLOCK MONASTERY, Salop, founded, 680; abbey built, 1081. WENTWORTH, Thomas, Earl of Strafford, beheaded, Dec. 29, 1641. WERBURGH, ST, church of, Dublin, burned, Nov. 7, 1754. WESLEY ANS. See Methodists. WESSEX, the kingdom of, founded by Cerdic, including Hampshire and the Isle of Wight, A.D. 500; Alfred succeeds to the throne of, 871 j taken by the Danes under King Guthrun, 878 ; retaken b'y Alfred the same year. WEST COWES CASTLE, built, 1539. WESTERFIELD ISLANDS in the Pacific Ocean discovered by Capt. Warden, 1830. The inhabitants are peaceable, and enjoy a regular domestic government. WESTERHANGER HOUSE, Kent, built, 1246 ; works company chartered by 21 George II. WESTERN EMPIRE divided by Valentinian I. into two divisions, the East and West, 364. WESTHAM ABBEY, Essex, founded, 1154. WEST INDIA DOCKS opened, July 12, 1806. See Docks. W T EST INDIES, the name given to the chain of islands in the concavity between the Floridas on the north, and the mouth of the Orinoco on the southern main- land of the American continent ; St Salvador, in the Bahamas, being the first land made by Columbus, 1492. These islands formerly belonged to different powers, but they mostly now belong to Great Britain. The Bahamas, Cuba, Do- minica, Jamaica, Hispaniola, Porto Rico, St Kitts, Nevis, Antigua, Montserrat, Guadaloupe, Martinique, St Lucia, St Vincent, Barbadoes, Trinidad, Grenada, and Tobago, are the principal, but there are many small isles and keys, as they are locally denominated. Abolition of the slave trade at, 1806 ; town of Basseterre, St Kitts, almost destroyed by fire, July 3, 1867 ; Island of St Thomas visited by a hurricane, which destroyed 80 vessels, and 4 mail steamers belonging to the Royal Mail Company, and about 500 persons were killed, Oct. 29, 1867 ; Tor- tola almost destroyed by an earthquake, Oct 30, 1867. WEST LOO, Cornwall, incorporated, 1574. WEST MALLING ABBEY, Kent, built 1090. WESTMARDEN, Sussex, totally burned, March 31, 1777. WESTMEATH, Ireland. The priory of St Mary founded, 1227, and an abbey founded, 1236 ; made a separate county by Henry VIII.; taken by Gen. Ginckell, 1688; the town nearly destroyed by an explosion, 1697; insurrection in, 1798; bridge of the Shannon built, 1844. WESTMINSTER, Middlesex. The earliest notice of this city is in the Saxon charter of King Offa, A.D. 785. The land confirmed to the abbey by King Edgar, 960; the road from Temple-bar to, repaired by Edward III., 1353. Made a bishopric by Henry VIII., but was abolished shortly afterwards. The re- sidence of the king fixed here, 1225 ; made a city by Queen Elizabeth, 1585 ; arms granted to, 1661 ; the streets first lighted with oil lamps, 1708, and an act passed which enjoined every householder to furnish a light before his door, 1716. The infirmary instituted, 1728; the lying-in hospital, 1765. Inundated by the Thames, Feb. 2, 1791 ; Bridge-street, Great George-street, and Parliament-street 900 WESTMINSTER ABBEY WESTMINSTER HALL altered and improved, 23 George II., 1750; Abingdon-street built, 45 Geo. III. c. 15, 1805. The palace court abolished, the last sitting held, Dec. 28, 1849 ; the flooring of the Catholic schools in St Peter's-street broke down at a meeting held for drawing prizes by lottery, many persons being injured, and two killed, Jan. 26, 1865. WESTMINSTER ABBEY, founded by Edgar on the site of the temple of Apollo, 951 ; rebuilt by Edward the Confessor, and dedicated to St Peter, Dec. 28, 1065 ; the Confessor buried, Jan. 6, 1066 ; William the Conqueror crowned, Dec. 25, 1066; the first council held, 1076 ; Rufus crowned, Sept. 26, 1087 ; coronation of Henry I., Aug. 5, noo; consecration of Bernard, Bishop of St David's, Sept. 19, 1115. Queen Matilda buried, May i, 1118 ; canonization of Edward the Confessor and translation of his body, Oct. 13, 1163; coronation of Richard I., Sept. 3, 1189; foundation of the lady chapel, May 16, 1220 ; Henry III. and Queen Eleanor married, June 20, 1236. The rebuilding of the cathedral inaugurated by Henry III. ; 1245 ; the building of the chapter house begun, 1250 ; the Parliament held its sittings in this building, March 26, 1256 ; eastern cloister finished, 1345 ; the death of 26 monks by the Black Death, 1348 ; the nave and cloisters continued by Abbot Langham, 1350 ; Jerusalem chamber and the south and west cloisters re- built, 1363 ; the abbey reopened after the rebuilding, Dec. 8, 1378 ; death of Henry IV. in the Jerusalem chamber, March 20, 1413 ; Caxton exercised the art of printing in the abbey, 1477; Henry VII. 's chapel founded, Jan. 24, 1503; the monastery dissolved, and the cathedral founded by letters patent of Henry VIII., Dec. 17, 1540; the dean and chapter endowed, Aug. 5, 1542 ; the great refectory taken down, 1545 ; the last sitting of the House of Commons held in the chapter house, Jan. 28, 1547 ; the records removed to this place, 1548 ; the shrine of Edward the Confessor finished, Jan. 5, 1557, and the remains entombed in, March 20; the sanctuary fell down, 1566 ; a fire happened in the cloisters which de- stroyed several MSS., 1694; the first stone of the new dormitory laid, 1722 ; finished, 1730; the building of the western towers completed, 1739; the gate- house removed, 1777; fire in the transept, doing considerable damage, July 9, 1803; restoration finished, 1810; the last installation of the knights of the Bath in the building, 1812 ; a fire discovered in the Triforium, April 27, 1829 ; the re- storation of the chapter house begun, 1866. Length of the abbey, including Henry VII. 's chapel, 530 feet ; height, 225 feet, 4 inches. Length of the nave, 166 feet ; breadth, 38 feet, 7 inches ; height, 101 feet, 8 inches. Length of choir, 155 feet, 9 inches ; breadth, 38 feet, 4 inches; height, 101 feet, 2 inches. WESTMINSTER BRIDGE designed by Charles Labelye, begun, Sept., 1738; first stone laid by the Earl of Pembroke, Jan. 29, 1739 ; the last arch finished, Aug., 1746 ; the western pier sunk and repaired, Sept. I, 1747 : it was 1223 feet long by 44 wide, cost ^426, 650 ; opened, Nov. 18, 1750; repaired, 1832-3; the old balustrades and alcoves removed, and the roadway lowered, and wooden pal- ings erected, 1845-6. Act passed to erect the present bridge, 16 & 17 Viet. c. 46, Aug. 4, 1856. The present bridge built from the designs of Mr Thos. Page; the first stone laid, 1854; the first half opened, March I, 1860; com- pleted and opened, May 24, 1 862 : length, 990 feet ; breadth, 85 feet : it has seven arches, the centre one having a span of 120 feet. An act passed regulating the traffic upon, 27 & 28 Viet. c. 88, July 29, 1864. WESTMINSTER HALL, built by William Rufus, 1097, Henry de Yeveley, architect : it is 239 feet long, 68 feet wide, and 90 high. King Alexander III. of Scotland entertained in this hall, 1256 and 1260 ; Sir William Wallace tried and condemned here, 1305 ; King Edward IV. kept his Christmas with great rejoicings in this ancient hall, 1483. Inundated by the Thames, Dec. 3, 1717 ; the roof repaired, 1748. The rebels were tried here, 1748 ; the scaffolding erected for the trial of, sold by the Duke of Lancaster for .400, Sept. 13, 1748. WESTMINSTER PALACE WHALES 901 Repaired and beautified, 1782 ; inundated by the overflowing of the river Thames to so great a depth, that the lawyers had to be conveyed away in boats, 1791 ; repaired at an expense of ,13,000, 1802 ; again repaired and made the entrance to the new Houses of Parliament, 1849. WESTMINSTER PALACE. The palace at Whitehall sold to Walter de Grey for 400 marks, 1 248 ; rebuilt by Edward the Confessor ; damaged by fire, 1 263. The king resided here, 1360 ; the Princess Elizabeth of York born here, Feb. II, 1466; damaged by fire, 1512; conveyed to Henry VIIL, Feb. 12, 1530; the trained bands reviewed by the king before the palace, 1532 ; a tournament held here, 1581 ; the Parliament formerly met in the Painted Chamber, but subse- quently removed to the Chapel of St Stephen, which was begun by William of Wykeham, 1330; destroyed by fire, Oct. 16, 1834; the present Palace or Houses of Parliament built from the designs of Mr Barry, begun, 1840 ; the Peers held their first sittings in the House of Lords, April 15, 1847, and the House of Com- mons, Nov. 4, 1852. WESTMINSTER SCHOOL founded by Henry VIIL, and a charter granted to, by Queen Elizabeth, June II, 1560. Three scholarships were founded by Archbp. Parker for the students of this school at Corpus Christi College, Cam- bridge, 1569 ; the building begun, 1599 ; a committee appointed by Parliament to govern this foundation, Nov. 15, 1645. The custom of performing plays on the founder's day, Nov. 1 7, is as old as the foundation of the school. The bicen- tenary celebrated, June 2, 1760; the tercentenary, Nov. 17, 1860. WESTMORELAND SOCIETY, established for the education of poor children of that county, whose parents had settled in London, 1 746. WESTPHALIA, Germany, anciently a Dukedom of the kingdom of Saxony, ceded to Hesse Darmstadt, 1802 ; created a kingdom by Napoleon I., Dec. I, 1807 ; constitution proclaimed, Dec. 15, 1807, his brother Jerome being ap- pointed king; Hanover annexed to, March I, 1810 ; ceded to Prussia, 1814. 189 persons killed by the explosion of a coal mine at Iserholm, Jan. 29, 1868. WESTPHALIA, Peace of, made at the close of the 30 years' war, with Sweden, Aug. 6, 1648 ; and with France, Oct. 24, 1648. WEST POINT, U.S., purchased by the United States, Sept. IO, 1790 ; amilitary school established, 1794 ; burnt two years afterwards ; rebuilt and opened, March 1 6, 1802. WETHERALL PRIORY, Cumberland, built, 1086. WEXFORD, Ireland, captured by the English, and the first treaty between the Irish and English signed, 1169 ; a charter granted to, 1318 ; a Parliament held here by the Earl of Desmond, 1463 ; confirmed by James I., 1608 ; rebelled against the government ; taken by Cromwell, when many of the rebels were exe- cuted, 1649. Insurrection in, 1798 ; total defeat of the insurgents at Vinegar Hill. WEYMOUTH, Dorsetshire, granted by Henry I. to the monks of St Swithin at Winchester, 1347 ; it supplied 20 ships and 264 sailors for the siege of Calais ; castle built, 1539 ; six ships fitted out for the Spanish Armada, 1588 ; bridge erected, 1770; visited by Geo. III. and family, July 16, 1789; second visit, Sept. 29 Oct. 29, 1804; the church of Melcombe Regis rebuilt, 1817. WHALEBONE found by the English at Cape Breton, 1321 ; first brought home, with oil, 1617 ; the importation of, regulated by 9 & 10 Will. III. c. 45, 1698. WHALE FISHERY encouraged by Edward II., 1322, and Edward III. ; the first discovery of, in Spitzbergen, by the Dutch, 1596 ; by the English, 1611 ; an act passed to encourage the fishery, 25 Chas. II. c. 7, 1672 ; encouraged by act of parliament, 22 Geo. II. c. 45, 1749. WHALES. One driven ashore in the Humbcr, 1570 ; another on the coast of Nor- 902 WHALLEY ABBEY WHIG folk, 1751 ; one near Berwick, 1752 ; 13 driven ashore in a storm on the coast of England, Feb., 1762 ; one killed above London bridge, Sept., 1781 ; another, 19 feet long, was killed at Execution Dock, Aug., 1796 ; a whale killed at Hull, Nov., 1797 ; another in the Thames, Sept., 1799 ; and another at Leith the same month ; one exhibited to the populace near London bridge, March, 1809 ; 98 driven on the beach at Lewis, in Scotland, April 25, 1832. WHALLEY ABBEY, Lancashire, built, 1178. WHEAT sold for 2Os. per quarter, equal to 6 now, 1193, 1194, and 1195 ; beans for I2d. a quarter, and oats for 4 1 7S9- WILTSHIRE ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOCIETY, instituted at Salisbury, 1853 ; Topographical Society, 1840. WIMBLEDON, Surrey. The Manor granted to Cromwell, afterwards settled upon Queen Catherine Parr, 1541 ; purchased by the Duchess of Marlborough for ^15,000, who rebuilt the mansion and bequeathed it to Earl Spencer, 1744 ; burned down, March 21, 1785; rebuilt, 1801. The Volunteers reviewed here by George III., July 4, 1799. The church rebuilt from the designs of G. G. Scott, 1834. The first meeting of the National Rifle Association held at, her Majesty firing the first shot, July 2, 1860 ; since held annually. WINCHCOMBE ABBEY WINDOWS 907 WINCHCOMBE ABBEY, Gloucestershire, founded by Renulnh, king o f Mercia, 798. WIXCHELSEA, Sussex, a monastery founded by Hen. III.; inundated, 1236 old town of, swallowed up by the sea, 1250; the present, founded by Edw. I.' on the Hill, 1287; Greyfriars' monastery at, built before the reign of Edw. Ill ' a battle took place off this town between the English fleet, under Edw. Ill and' the Spanish fleet, Aug. 29, 1350; 800 of the French landed here, 1359; taken 1380 ; the castle of, built by Hen. VIII.; the town incorporated, 1543. WINCHESTER, Hampshire, the Venta Belgantm of the Romans ; made the capital of Wessex, 855; Alfred held his Witan here, 880; six mints established by Athelstan ; seriously damaged by fire, 1141; town incorporated by Hen. II. 1184 ; castle built by Will. I.; enlarged by Hen. III., 1206; King John held a Parliament here, 1207; pillaged by the Barons, 1265; a Parliament held at, and the statutes of, passed, 1285 ; Edmund Earl of Kent beheaded here, 1330; Henry VIII. entertained Chas. V. of Spain, 1522; taken by the Royalists under Sir William Waller, 1644; by the Parliamentarians under Cromwell, 1645; Morley's College founded, 1672*; town hall built, 1713. Erected into a bishopric, 635. Cathedral commenced by Bishop Walkelin, 1079 ; completed, 1093'; altered and finished by William of Wykeham, 1405 ; length, 560 ft ; breadth, 208 ft; length of nave, 250 ft ; tower, 135 ft. The tomb of William Rufus opened and the remains found, Aug. 27, 1868. College founded by William of Wykeham, 1387; building com- pleted, 1396. St Cross Hospital founded by Bishop Henry de Blois, 1136; altered by Cardinal Beaufort, 1440 ; remodelled by the Court of Chancery, 1855.' Hyde Abbey founded by King Alfred, 900; he was buried here, 901. WINCHESTER CASTLE, built by William the Conqueror, 1086; Stigand the Archbishop confined in, 1072 ; the Empress Matilda besieged here, escaped in a leaden coffin, 1139 ; Richard I. resided at, 1194, and Hen. III., 1249 ; Depenser executed at, 1326, and Edmund of Woodstock, 1329; Arthur the son of Hen. VII. born here, 1486; visited by Chas. V., 1522; Queen Mary resided at, 1553; given by Jam. I. to Sir Benjamin Titchbourn, 1603; dismantled by the troops of Cromwell, 1645; Chas. II. began building a palace on the site of, 1683-4. WINCHESTER PALACE, Southwark, built by Bishop William Giffard, for his residence, 1 107 ; made a prison for the Royalists ; sold for .4380, Sept. 26, 1849 ; partially pulled down, 1790, and 1840. WINCHESTER SCHOOL, founded by William of Wykeham; the first stone laid, March 26, 1387; first occupied by the scholars, March 28, 1393 ; Hen. VI. visited the school, 1442 and 1444, Hen. VII., 1522 ; Edw. VI. confirmed their privileges. Library founded, 1629 ; the School House rebuilt, 1683-87; statutes revived by Royal commission, 1857. WINDHAM, FRANCIS, presented with jiooo for his care of Chas. II. after the battle of Worcester, 1 660. WINDING-UP ACTS. An act passed to facilitate winding up the affairs of Joint Stock Companies, when unable to meet their pecuniary engagements, 7 & 8 Viet. c. ill, Sept. 5, 1844 (the Joint Stock Companies winding-up Act), ir & 12 Viet. c. 45, Aug. 14, 1848; amended, 12 & 13 Viet. c. 108, Aug. I, 1849; further amended, 20 & 21 Viet. c. 78, Aug. 25, 1857; again amended, 21 & 22 Viet c. 60, July 23, 1858. WINDMILLS, first mentioned in England, 1180; King John authorized the erection of one, Dec. 3, 1199 ; the right of erecting in Normandy restricted, 1216 ; known in Spain, France, and Germany, 1209 ; wind saw-mills invented, 1633. m WINDOWS. Glass for windows discovered in several Roman villas in London and Pompeii, and glass is said to have been used in the third century ; imported and 908 WINDS AND MONTHS WINDSOR CASTLE used in private houses, 1177. Window tax ; a duty levied by 7 & 8 Will. III. c. 19, 1696 ; a new duty fixed upon houses having 20 or more windows, 8 Anne, c. 4, 1709; repealed and relevied by 20 Geo. II. c. 3, 1747; payment enforced, 21 Geo. II. c. IO, 1748; the duties refixed by 48 Geo. III. c. 55, June I, 1808; the size regulated, April 5, 1785 ; repealed, and a house tax levied instead, 14 & 15 Viet. c. 36, July 24, 1851. WINDS AND MONTHS, said to have been both named by Charlemagne, 788 ; the English government established an office for atmospheric observation, 1854 ; Admiral Fitz-Roy's weather-book published, 1862, Dove's Law of Storms. WINDSOR CASTLE, Berkshire. The castle began by William the Conqueror, about 1070, when he appointed Walter Fitz-Otho constable. Hen. I. held his court here, I no; William Rufus held his court, 1095, and confined the Earl of Northumberland a prisoner in the castle. Hen. I. rebuilt and en- larged the fortress, 11071110 ; King John visited, March 3, 1200 ; he resided at Windsor at the time of his signing Magna Charta; Hen. III. enlarged and improved the castle, 1229-48; Bernard de Savoy appointed keeper, 1242; a grand tournament held in the park, July 9, 1307 ; Prince Edward (afterwards Edw. III.), Nov. 23, 1312 ; the order of the Garter established here, June 24, 1348 ; the castle extensively repaired from the design and under the directions of William of Wykeham, 1359 1374, workmen being pressed for the works of; Edward the Black Prince 'married to the Countess of Kent, Lady Joan, in the chapel, Oct. 10, 1361 ; Hen. VI. resided here, 1453 ; the works of the chapel proceeded with, 1501-3 ; Hen. VII. received the King of Castile here, Jan. 31, 1505; Hen. VIII. removed to, from Greenwich, 1510; the supply of water completed from Blackmore Park, Oct. 9, 1555 > a dwelling erected for the poor knights, 1558 ; Queen Elizabeth resided here during the plague, 1572 ; the castle repaired and a new garden laid out, 1598 ; Jam. I. first visited the castle, June 22, 1603 ; Chas. I. left the castle, Feb., 1641 ; Colonel Venn appointed go- vernor by the Parliament, Oct., 1642 ; Chas. II. begun to repair the castle, 1665, and appointed Sir C. Wren his architect ; the ditch filled up, and a terrace made along the front of the castle, 1676 ; an act passed for the completion, i Anne, c. 27, 1701 ; the Duke of Kent appointed governor of, by Geo. I., Nov. 8, 1714; the castle altered and repaired from the design of Mr Wyatt, at a cost of 150,000, 1824 ; the first stone of King George IV.'s gateway by the King, Aug. 12, 1824 ; from this date to 1830, upwards of 80,000 were expended on the buildings. During her present Majesty's reign great improvements have been effected in the castle. The royal stables erected, to contain 100 stalls and standings for 40 carriages, at an expense of .70,000 ; the gardens enlarged, 5 Viet. c. I, Oct. 5, 1841 ; Frogmore added to the estates, 5 Viet. c. 2, Oct. 5, 1841, and the Keppel estate, 1843; the approaches to be improved by n & 12 Viet. c. 53, Aug. 14, 1848; a fire of a serious nature occurred in the Prince of Wales's tower, but was got under without extending its ravages, March 19, 1853 ; 27,000 Volunteers re- viewed in the Park by the Queen, June 20, 1 868. The town of: a charter granted to the town by Edw. I., confirmed by Hen. VI., May 19, 1460 ; charter of Hen. VII. , Dec. 4, 1509 ; the privilege of keeping swans on the river Thames granted to, at an early date. Corn market established, 1560 ; an act passed for paving the town, 27 Eliz., 1585 ; market house rebuilt, 1591 1594 ; charter granted by Jam. I., Aug. 26, 1604 ; a serious fire which destroyed part of the town, Sept., 1604 ; the High-street paved, 1629 ; riots in the forest, 1641, several of the deer killed ; rate levied upon the town for the support of the garrison, 1643 ; a mutiny amongst the soldiers in the town, Nov. 15, 1643 ; Chas. II. proclaimed king, May 12, 1660. Town Hall built, 1688; opened, Oct. 17, 1689; Dalchet ferry sold to the king, 1706; bridge built, 1770; rebuilt, 1812; an act for the better paving of the town, passed, 1769. A commission appointed to inquire WINDSOR WINIFRED'S WELL 909 into the boundaries of the forest, 46 Geo. III. c. 153, July 22, 1806. An act passed for the better regulation of the forest, 53 Geo. III. c. 158, July 21, 1813. A bridge erected over the Thames connecting the town with Eton, the first stone laid, July 10, 1822 ; the boundaries of the borough enlarged by 2 & 3 Will. IV. c. 64, July II, 1832 ; the Great Western Railway obtained a bill for a station at Windsor, Aug. 14, 1848, and the town improved. The Crown Princess of Prussia laid the first stone of Windsor new church, Nov. 21, 1863. WINDSOR, Naval and Military Knights of. The Naval founded by Samuel Travers, for seven naval officers, who were to receive .60 per annum, July 16, 1724 ; added to the Military Knights by Geo. III., June 23, 1798; an act passed for making better provisions for, 30 & 31 Viet. c. IOO, Aug. 15, 1867. The Poor Knights in future to be called Military Knights, Sept. 17, 1834. WINE, the invention attributed to Noah by the Jews, Gen. ix. 20, 21. Bacchus is said to have brought it from India to Greece, to whom the Hindoos give the name of Bala-Rama. The Armenians assert that Noah before the Deluge cultivated the vine outside the walls of Erivan ; the Egyptians attribute the invention to Osiris, or the Sun ; the Chinese ascribe the making of the first wine in their country to their Emperor Yu, or Ta-you, 2200 years before the Christian era. The wine of Helbon, made at Damascus, is mentioned by Ezekiel, B.C. 590 ; known in the time of Richard III. as wine of Tyre, because it was exported by that place. Wine was produced in Carthage, B.C. 550; France, in the time of the Romans ; and in France, A.D. 50, Martial condemned that of Marsillia (Mar- seilles) as being smoky, but that of Vienne on the Rhone (called Vienna) was much valued, though not so the Rhone wines in general ; the wines of Tarragona, in Spain, now Tarracon, were said to approach Falernian in excellence. Wine made in England, 1 140 ; Malmsey brought to England, 1468. An act passed limiting the prices of, 28 Hen. VIII. c. 14, 1536 ; Rheims wine known, 1328, and used at the coronation of Francis II., 1559; Gascony and Guienne wine was sold in London at 8 -'* - the means of bringing on the peace of Carlovitz, Jan., 1699. ZINC. Henkel discovered a method to extract it from its ores, 1720 ; a mine of. , discovered near Craven, in Yorkshire, 1809 ; known in China at a very remote period ; the export of this metal in 1864 reached 103,760 cwts. ; a mass of zinc ore, weighing 16,000 Ibs., exhibited at the Great Exhibition of 1861. ZINCOGRAPHY introduced into England, 1815 ; partially superseded copper- plate' printing, 1819-20. ZINDIKITES, a sect of Mahometans, who were a species of heretics from that creed. They maintained that there was no God, that the four elements wer^ eternal, that man is a mixture of them, and returns into them at his death, 950. ZINZENDORF, Count Nicholas Lewis, founder of the Moravians or Hernhutters, born, 1700 ; he began his theological teaching, 1722 ; banished his country, 1736 ; he visited England, becoming known to Wesley, 1738 ; his banishment revoked, 1 747 ; returned to England, after visiting most of the principal towns on the continent, and obtained an act of parliament to protect his followers ; he died at Hernhutt, 1760. ZIS^ OHN, the leader of the Hussites, and avenger of the death of John Huss, at iead of 40,000 men, whom he led to victory against his Catholic perse- cutors. His aim was to put down the intolerable pest of ecclesiastical tyranny. Going to meet the Emperor Sigismund at a conference, he was seized with the plague and died, Oct. u, 1424. ZIZYPHUS VULGARIS, brought to England from the south of Europe, circa 1639. The Zizyphus palenius is commonly called Christ's Thorn, and was brought to England from Africa about 1597. ZODIAC, said to have been invented 547 B.C., and that Anaximander was the in- ZOE ZWINGLIANS 923 ventor. The light called the zodiacal light of recent observations, sometimes observed, is thought to be electrical. Figure of, discovered by M. Fiot, at the temple of Denderah, 1820 ; removed to France, 1821. 5OE, daughter of Constantine IX., emperor of the East, who caused her husband to be poisoned, and married her gallant, a low-lived money-broker, placing him on tlie throne of the East as Michael IV., 1034, at 60 years of age. She took for a third husband Constantine, who succeeded to the imperial crown of the East, 1042. ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS. The society established, 1826; a plot of ground granted by the government in Regent's Parlc, and laid out by Mr Burton, 1827 ; first opened to the public, March 27, 1829. The Tower Menagerie removecl here, 1834. The museum removed here from Leicester Square, 1843. The in- - cubation of the great pythoness, Jan. 14, 1862. The Surrey Gardens established by Edward Cross, 1832. The first picture of Vesuvius exhibited, 1837 ; first volcanic eruption displayed, 1839. Sold in 1856, and the music hall erected from the designs of Horace Jones, cost .18,200 ; opened, July, 1856, and let to Mr Spurgeon for religious services ; 8 persons killed and 30 injured through an alarm of fire, Oct. 19, 1856; used temporarily for St Thomas's Hospital, 1864. ZORNDORF, battle, between the Prussians and Russians ; the first, under the re- nowned Frederick, who obtained a great victory, with the loss of 11,000 men only, the Russians lost 21,529, Aug. 25 26, 1758. ZOUAVES, origin of, in Algeria, 1833. ZULLICHAN, battle. The Prussians, under Frederick the Great, defeated by Russian and Austrian armies, 1 759. ZURICH, Switzerland, admitted into the Swiss Confederacy, 1351. Zwinglius preached the pure gospel here, 1517 ; Samson, a vendor of indulgences, ex- pelled from the canton, 1518 ; eight persons poisoned with sacramental wine, which had been drugged by the sexton, Sept. 4, 1776 ; university founded, 1834 ; insurrection in, upon the passing of the new educational law, Sept. 6, 1839 ; treaty of peace between Austria, France, and Sardinia, signed here, Nov. 10, 1859. ZURICH, battles. The French defeated by the Austrians, June 4, 1799 ; the Russians defeated here by Massena, Sept. 24, 1799 the former lost 13,000 men and all the artillery. ZUTPHEN, Holland, besieged by the English ; Sir Philip Sidney mortally wounded, Sept. 22, 1586. ZWINGLIANS, the followers of Zwinglius the reformer, the Luther of Switzer- land, 1518; he was killed in a battle against the Popish opponents of the re- formed doctrines, on the field of Cappel, Oct. n, 1531. - THE END. JOHN GUILDS AND SON, FKINTEKS. A 000 096 276 1