THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESENTED BY PROF. CHARLES A. KOFOID AND MRS. PRUDENCE W. KOFOID '* arf ^ ^/~*^ &~^ 4* 5^ ^ ^./fc, ^~**-<-^-'^'J^7 (^ PHYSIOLOGY, GENERAL ANATOMY, AND PATHOLOGY, BICHAT. BY THOMAS HENDERSON, M. D. -ss==- PROFESSOR OF THE THEORT AND PRACTICE OF MEDICINE IN THE COLUMBIAN COLLEGE, WASHINGTON CITT. PHILADELPHIA: CAREY, LEA & CAREY CHESNUT STREET. 1829. Q. What functions depend on animal sensibility? ft. The external senses, and what are termed by Bichat the internal senses, as hunger and thirst. Q. What diseases arise from alterations of animal sen- sibility? ft. Pain in its various forms, itching, smarting, tickling, and so forth. Q. In what is animal contractility concerned? ft. In locomotion and the voice. Q. What is the essence of disease? ft. An increase, diminution, modification or alteration of some of the vital properties just named. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 13 Q. What does the treatment of disease imply? A. A restoration of these properties to a normal state. Q. Give an illustration of this. .tf. In inflammation your object should be to reduce organic sensibility; in dropsy or oedema to increase it. In convulsions you must reduce animal contractility; in palsy increase it. Q. What remedies act on sensible organic contractility? Jl. Emetics and purgatives. Q. Give examples of medicines which act on general insensible organic contractility* t/?. Tonics, and acids. Q. Do any act on the insensible organic contractility of particular parts? .#. Yes. Nitre in its action on the kidneys; mercury on the salivary glands. Q. How do remedies act in reducing animal sensibility? #. By relieving pain in the parts, as by emollients; or by rendering the brain insensible by narcotics. Q. Are medicines necessarily confined in their opera- tion, to the reduction, increase or modification of any one of the vital properties? Ji. No; they often operate on more than one of these. Of the Vital Properties and their Phenomena consi- dered in relation to the Solids and Fluids. Q. Why is it not unreasonable to suppose that the fluids are destitute of life? Ji. Because they never manifest sensibility and con- tractility as do the solids. 14 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. Q. What operation of the fluids and solids gives rise to organic sensibility? #. That impression of the fluids on the solids, which is not perceived by the brain, excites organic sensibility. Q. How does organic differ from animal sensibility? /?. In this, that animal sensibility is perceived by the brain. Q. What pathological principle do you found on the location of the vital properties in the solids? *&. As disease is but an alteration of these forces, and as these forces are found in the solids, therefore diseases are seated primarily in the solids. Q. By what avenues does Bichat suppose the fluids may become so changed as to cause disease? /?. By matters absorbed through the lacteals, the lungs, the skin, and through wounded surfaces. Q. How does he divide the fluids? #. Into those destined to composition, and those of de- composition. The first convey the causes of disease. Q. Are sympathetic impressions conveyed or seated in the solids or fluids? #. Always and essentially in the solids. Q. Does Bichat believe in the vitality of the fluids? *#. He does, but does not explain it. The blood pos- sesses vital properties greater than those in the chyle. Q. What speculation is founded on the vitality of the fluids? #. That it may influence their motions. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 15 Of the Properties Independent of Life. . Q. What are they termed? A. Properties of texture. Q. What are they? /?. Extensibility and contractility of texture. Q. What do you mean by the horny hardening? /?. It is a form of contractility which parts undergo after death, on exposure to heat, acids, &c. Q. How many kinds of horny hardening are there? #. Two; the sudden and slow. The first is produced by fire and acids; the second by neutral salts, air, alcohol, &c. Q. What textures are not susceptible of the sudden horny hardening? #. The hair, epidermis, and nails. Q. What textures are most susceptible of it? #. The fibrous, muscles, tendons, and nerves. Q. What state is incompatible with slow horny hard- ening? Ji. It cannot take place during life, but the sudden may, as you see in burns. Q. What destroys both kinds of this hardening? #. Putrefaction of the texture. Q. How many kinds of contractility are there? A. Five. Q. What do you understand by animal contractility? */i. The influence of the nerves on the voluntary mus- cles. Q. What is meant by sensible organic contractility? #. The action of the involuntary muscles from stimuli 16 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. Q. What is a third kind of contractility ? #. The contractility of texture from want of exten- sion, as it appears in the muscles, skin, arteries, veins. Q. Where is this contractility of texture obscure? #. In the nerves, bones, and cartilages. Q. What is the fourth kind of contractility? t/?. The horny hardening. Q. There is yet another contractility? #. Yes, and a very important one; it is the insen&ible organic contractility, which, by oscillation, forms the to- nic forces, or tonicity. Of Animal Organization. Q. On what does the existence of the vital properties depend ? /?. On organic arrangement, for when organization is destroyed, the vital properties disappear. Q. What are animal bodies composed of? /?. An assemblage of organs. Q. What are organs composed of? Ji. Of several textures. Q. What are the elementary textures? *#. Twenty-one in number; the cellular, nervous of animal life, nervous of organic life, arterial, venous, exha- lent, absorbent, and glandular, osseous, medullary, cartila- ginous, fibrous, fibro-cartilaginous, muscular of animal life, muscular of organic life, mucous, serous, synovial, glan- dular, dermoid, epidermoid, and the pilous. Q. In what do these textures differ? A. They differ in form; in their organization; in their properties of life, as contractility and sensibility. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 17 v. Q. How are these organized systems divisible ? #. Into those every where present as a base for all, and this Bichat calls the generative; and secondly, into the insulated. Q. Give examples of the generative tissues. *#. The cellular, arterial, venous, exhalent, absorbent, nervous. Q. What are the insulated textures? .#. Such as the osseous, cartilaginous, fibrous, mucous, serous, &c. Q. Is this distinction absolute? A. It is not; but so far true as to be physiologically important. Q. Which textures exist most generally? .#. The absorbent and exhalent. Q. Why is this the case? #. Because nutrition depends on them. Q. Which texture is next in extent? A. The cellular. Q. What tissues are first developed? #. The generative or general. Q. What do you mean by the nutritive parenchyma of an organ? Ji. The cellular, vascular, and nervous outline of the organ. Q. What is the nutritive matter of an organ? #. That which establishes a difference between the organs. Q. Give examples of this nutritive matter? A. The phosphate of lime and the gelatine of bones is one instance; the fibrin in the muscles is another. Q. Where is this nutritive matter deposited? 3 18 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. Ji. In the nutritive parenchyma just mentioned. Q. What is the first aspect of fetal formation? .ft. It is a mass of the generative tissues, in which each organ has its nutritive parenchyma in form ; and in which parenchyma the nutritive matter is gradually deposited, giving specific character to each texture and organ. Q. How is organization enlarged? /#. First, by an extension of nutritive parenchyma, and then by a deposition of nutritive matter. Q. In what does the elective power of an organ on the blood consist? #. In the peculiar organic sensibility by which it chooses or rejects appropriate principles of growth in the blood. Q. On what does the theory of secretion exist? ft. On the power of the peculiar vital forces, and sen- sibilities of textures, which select from the blood that which comports with these forces. Q. Why does the body grow for a certain period? #. It depends on the ultimate fact that composition ex- ceeds decomposition. Q. What is Bichat's theory of secretion? #. That the parenchyma of nutrition is uniform, that the nutritive, matter is various, and that the parenchyma of nutrition exercises an eclectic power over the blood, selecting materials for the various nutritive substances. Q. What do you mean by the life of a part? #. The properties of the texture which compose the part. Q. What do you understand by disease of an organ? #. Aberration from the normal condition of the vital forces of one of the textures of an organ. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 19 Q. Is disease confined at first to one texture of an organ? A. Yes; an organ is seldom attacked at first in all its tissues. Q. What governs sympathies? J2. Principally similarity of texture. Q. Is fever severest in serous or mucous disease? #. In diseases of the serous tissues. Q. How many sets of symptoms are there in inflam- mation? ft. Two ; those of the texture, and those of the organ. Q. What influence has texture on the general pheno- mena of disease? Ji. It modifies symptoms and duration of disease. Q. Be more explicit in your answer. Jl. The different textures in disease give different kinds of pain, different degrees of heat, and have a longer or shorter duration. Hence acute and chronic diseases are relative to the vital properties of the textures; as for in- stance, a serous texture goes through a disease sooner than an osseous tissue. Q. Why are the mucous, serous, and glandular tissues, so much oftener diseased than others? Jl. Because their functions require great energy in the organic sensibility and insensible organic contractility, and consequently liability to alterations of these, or in other words disease. Q. What is the correct nosological method? . That of the diseases which affect the several tissues. 20 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. Of the. Functions. Q. What is Bichat's classification of the functions? t/?. There are a few comparatively unimportant devi- ations. Q. Name a leading peculiarity in this nervous system of animal life. ft.. Its symmetrical character; the nerves go off in pairs. Q. What renders this duplicate organization evident? /?. Dissection and disease exhibit the right and left nervous system of animal life. In palsy one side will be affected, while the integrity of the other side is unimpaired. NERVOUS SYSTEM. 83 Q. What relation does the size of the brain bear to the nerves, in man and quadrupeds? /#. It is in an inverse proportion. In man, the brain is very large in proportion to his nerves; in quadrupeds, ge- nerally, the brain is small and the nerves large. Q. What is the result of this? /#. That although brutes are superior in some of the senses to man, man in the sense of touch surpasses animals greatly. Touch implies intellect beyond instinct; hence the perfection of the organs of touch and the development of the brain, are, in man, in proportion to each other. External forms of the, Nervous System of Animal Life. Q. From what part of the brain do the cerebral nerves originate? A. From the cerebrum, tuber annulare and its conti- nuations, and from the medulla spinalis. Q. To what opinion did this origin of these cerebral nerves give rise? t#. As none originated from the cerebellum, the cere- brum was said to be the source of the voluntary, and the cerebellum that of the involuntary motions. Q. To what nerves does the cerebrum give rise? Jl. To the olfactory and the optic. Q. For what are these nerves remarkable? t/?. Their adhesion is firm at their origin from the brain, and they are much softer than most of the other nerves. Q. What nerves arise from the tuber annulare and its elongations? #. The motores communes of the muscles of the eye, the pathetici, the trigemini, the motores externi of the eye, 84 NERVOUS SYSTEM. the facial, the auditory, the par vagum, the glosso-pha- ryngeal, and the great hypoglossal. Q. Is the adhesion of these nerves to the brain strong? /?. No; they are so weak as to be torn by the raising of the pia mater. Q. What nerves arise from the spinal marrow? *&. The cervical, eight pairs in number; the dorsal, twelve pairs; five sets of lumbar; five or six sacral; in all amounting to thirty or thirty-one pairs. The spinal nerve, so called, which penetrates the cranium and again emerges from it, also arises from the spinal marrow. Q. Are the nerves elongations of the brain? /?. They are not; they are formed cotemporaneously with the brain, and are independent organs communicat- ing with the brain. Q. What has given rise to the opinion of the decussa- tion of all the nerves? Jl. The supposition is founded on the fact, that paralysis occurs on the side of the body opposite to the hemisphere of the brain that is injured. Q. Does anatomy prove this decussation? Ji. It does not. Q. Does palsy in the motion of a limb necessarily in- volve loss of sensation in the member? #. It rarely suspends sensibility. Q. On what do discordant hearing and vision often depend? Jl. Frequently on a diseased condition of the organ af- fected, which does not involve a morbid state of the brain. Q. What membranes are found about the nerves? &. The dura mater invests them to their exit from the brain and spine. The tunica arachnoides envelopes thr NERVOUS SYSTEM. 85 nerves from their connexion or junction with the brain, to their exit from the bony canal. The pia mater con- tinues on the nerves. Q. How do the tunics of the optic nerve differ from those of other nerves? Ji. It has a fibrous investment from its origin to the sclerotic coat. Q.- What nerves converge after their origin? *ft. The olfactory; all the rest remain separate. Q. What nerves go to their destination without com- municating with other nerves ? ft. The olfactory, the optic and auditory. Q. Do the nerves of the spine make their egress imme- diately opposite their origin ? #. They do not; the lower or lumbar run several inches in the spinal canal before they leave it. Q. Of what practical import is this fact? ft. In order that moxa should be applied at the origin of the nerves, the immediate exit of the cervical from the spine, and the long course within the spinal column which the lumbar pursue before their exit, should be well known. Q. How are the plexuses of the spinal nerves formed ? #. By each nerve sending a branch to the one above and below it. Q. How do you best understand the distribution of the spinal nerves? Jl. By taking them as they arise from the plexuses and not regarding them as pairs of nerves. Q. Are the plexuses confined to those at the exit of the nerve ? *fl. No other communicating chords form as the nerves proceed in their course. 86 NERVOUS SYSTEM. Q. what are the nervous trunks composed ? /#. Chords and filaments. Q. Do the chords of a nervous trunk communicate ? *ft. They do by filaments. The chords which end the trunk are not composed of the same filaments which com- menced them. Q. Why do you object to the opinion of their being distinct nervous chords which serve for sensation and mo- tion? *#. The inter-communication of the filaments forbids the supposition. Q. What do you mean by the termination of the nerve? #. The point where each filament ends. Q. How many modes of termination have filaments ? tf. They have three; with other filaments of the same system; with filaments of the system of ganglions, forming anastomoses; and filaments lose themselves in the organs. Q. How are the filamentary nervous communications to be distinguished? Jl. There are those of real anastomosis, and those of juxta-position and contiguity. Q. Why are sympathies not exclusively ascribed to nervous anastomoses ? J2. Because these anastomoses are rare, compared with the numerous and diversified sympathies, normal and ab- normal. Q. How many kinds of anastomosis are there? /#. There are three; viz. that formed by two branches of different nerves; the anastomosis formed by the branches of the same nerve ; and the one which arises from the union 'of two nerves of the same pair, or of different pairs at the median line. NERVOUS SYSTEM. 87 Q. Where is this median anastomosis seen ? Ji. In the superficial nerves of the neck and chin. Q. What feature in paralysis does this median anasto- mosis explain ? Jl. Probably some mobility in a part which is affected with paralysis. Q. What systems are destitute of nerves? #. The cartilaginous, the fibre-cartilaginous, the pi- lous, the epidermoid, and others, are unprovided with nerves. Q. What peculiarity is found in the terminations of the optic, olfactory, and auditory nerves ? Jl. The pulp of these nerves is expanded on the organs without the covering of the nerve. I Organization of the Nervous System ofJlnimal Life, Q. What is the organization of the nerves of animal life? A. Filaments in apposition form chords, and chords in apposition form trunks of nerves. Q. Is the internal organization of the nerves uniform? #. It is not it is singularly diversified. Q. What is the organization of each nervous filament ? *ft. An external membrane forming a canal; containing the medullary matter or pulp. Q. What is the nature and origin of the nervous coat? t#. It is the pia mater of the brain and spinal marrow. Q. What are the three great modifications of the pia mater ? /?. On the gray substance surrounding the brain and cerebellum it is red, highly vascular, loose, and easily se- 83 NERVOUS SYSTEM. parated and raised up ; on the white substance which in- vests the tuber annulare and its four elongations received from the brain and cerebellum, it is not so red, it becomes firmer, more adherent, not so easily torn; on the spinal marrow and nerves it increases in density, becoming whit- ish and resisting. Q. What purpose does this density of the spinal pia mater subserve? #. It serves as a protection and support to the spinal marrow, especially where the marrow, not filling the ver- tebral canal, would, without this firm coat, be liable to concussion. Q. What effects have acids on this nervous coat? Jl. They harden it immediately, but it soon regains its softness. Water hardens the nerves exposed to its ac- tion. Q. Whence does the medullary matter of the nerves originate? . It is continuous with the medulla of the brain and spinal marrow. Q. In what nerves is it most abundant? ft.. In the auditory and optic nerves. In the progress of a nerve to its termination it diminishes. Q. What general influence has loss of natural moisture on the whiteness of parts? /?. It destroys their whiteness. Q. In what respects do the cerebral and nervous me- dullary substances differ and agree ? #.. The cerebral medulla putrefies soon, the nervous slowly. Acids harden both; alkalies soften them. The ce- rebral substance is digestible; the nerve is not. Q. Is the medulla the same in all the nerves? NERVOUS STSTF 89 JJ. It appears to differ, in different nerves, in consist- ence, in the degree of moisture, in its colour, and other particulars. Q. On what does the different sensibility of the various parts depend ? *#. On the diversity of organization in the parts, on the different organization of the nerves, and on the varying , consistence and appearances of the medullary matter. Q. Is the nervous medulla a fluid? #. It resembles jelly, vjt is more like a fluid than a solid. Q. Have the nerves cellular texture? *ft. In the interior of the brain and spine there is none. When the nerves emerge from the cranium and spine, they have much cellular tissue around the trunks, 'chords, and filaments. Perhaps the nervous coat is the cellular texture condensed. Q. How do the arteries supply the nerves ? y the exhalents. Q. Is it not probable that the irritation is differently located in the two diseases? Ji. Perhaps it is seated in different vessels in haemor- rhage and inflammation. Q. What proof have you that in active haemorrhage the organic sensibility is altered? *fl. The previous symptoms of heat, pain, itching, show that it is altered. Q. In passive haemorrhages how are the vital forces of the exhalents affected? 160 EXHALENT SYSTEM. .#. The organic sensibility and insensible organic con- tractility are diminished. Q. What locality has haemorrhage in organic disease? A. Proximity to the mucous surface governs it; for in- stance, when the liver is diseased, the haemorrhage will be from the mucous expansion of the stomach or intestines; when the heart is diseased, the bleeding will be from the pulmonary mucous tissue. Q. Does the whole mucous tissue ever pour out blood at one time? ft. Never. Q. Why are the mucous tissues so liable to haemor- rhage ? /?. The short course of the blood in the capillaries to the mucous surfaces, and the general fulness of these tis- sues with blood. Q. Which mucous surfaces are least liable to haemor- rhage ? /?. Those lining the sinuses of the face and ear. Q. Is plethora necessary to active haemorrhage? #. It is not; for a mere local increase or alteration oi the vital forces will produce it. Hence there may be ac- tive haemorrhage without plethora. Q. How will you account for the varieties in the quan- tity of the menstrual discharge ? A. It varies as the vital forces of each uterus do. Q. What essential difference must be observed in the treatment of capillary and exhalent haemorrhage, and ar- terial ? Jt. In the haemorrhage from the two first named sources, medicines which act on the organic sensibility of the part EXHALENT SYSTEM. 161 are successful ; but in the case of the bleeding artery they have no effect. Q. How do you know that blood found in serous cavi- ties is exhaled? ft. Because, after the most critical examination, no ero- sion could be ascertained. Q. What serous cavities are least liable to these bloody exhalations? ft. The tunica vaginalis testis, and the tunica arach- noides. Q. Are the, bloody exhalations in serous cavities always from active haemorrhage ? ft. The exhalation of blood in these cavities is some- times passive. Q. Does the water in anasarca being reddish, imply active haemorrhage or febrile dropsy ? A. It does not, for the fluid of dropsy is often of this reddish hue in passive cases. Q. Are preternatural exhalations uniform? ft. They vary very much, as you may see in the vari- ous aspects of fluids in the different serous cavities. Q. Why are not secretions exhaled as well as fat, se- rum, and other fluids? ft. Because the glandular apparatus is different from the exhalent. Q. How does Mascagni suppose exhalations to be made? from its original course. Q. What are the external cavities of bones and their uses. ft. They give increased space for aponeurotic and liga- mentous insertions; they receive, lodge, and protect organs or portions of organs; they form grooves for the passage of tendons; they transmit nerves and blood-vessels through the bones, and those vessels which nourish the bones. Q. Are these grooves for the tendons, for example, those at the ends of the long bones, formed by the friction and pressure of the tendons, or are they of natural, primitive osseous development? ft. If formed by the friction of tendons, they ought to be deep or superficial in proportion to the action of the muscles and the age of the subject; they should not be found in the foetal cartilages; they would be very slight in infancy; on the contrary, they are fully developed at all periods of life, and are therefore original. Q. How are the cavities or foramina of nutrition in the bones divided? ft. There is that in the body of the bone which con- veys nutrition to the medullary canal; there are those which nourish the cellular structure at the ends of the bones; and there is a third set, viz. those which supply the compact texture. Of the Organization of the Osseous Texture. Q, What is the texture peculiar to the osseous system? 23 178 OSSEOUS SYSTEM, *fl. It is fibrous. The fibres being differently arranged so as to constitute the loose or cellular, and the compact, bony structure. Q. How is the cellular bony structure formed? /?. Unknown in the first periods of ossification, the cells appear in consequence of the absorption of the solid mass of cartilage, and in its place are deposited by exha- lation transverse bony fibres, which, by interlacing in every direction, and no more gelatine being thrown out, leave the cavities which are the cells of bones. Q. Can you present a clear illustration of your last an- swer? Jl. The os ethmoides is at one period a solid cartilage, but under the laws and in the process of ossification, the interlacing bony fibres are exhaled, and the cartilage ab- sorbed leaving cells. Q. Do the cells communicate with each other? *#. Conclusive experiments prove that the cells through- out the interior of a bone communicate universally. Q. How does the compact texture of bones differ from the cellular texture ? *#. The fibres of the compact texture are in dense juxta- positipn. Q. How do these compact fibres run in the long, flat, and short bones? *#. These bony fibres are longitudinal in the long, radi- ated in the flat, and run in every direction in the shortbones. Q. Do the fibres of this texture, in the apophyses, pur- sue the same direction as in the main bone? #. They do not; in some apophyses they are longitu- dinal, in others the course is entirely irregular. OSSEOUS SYSTEM. 179 Q. Are the bones larnellated in their compact structure ? Ji. They are not. If they exfoliate in scales, it is by an abnormal process, not by the separation of the natural structure; again, exfoliation does not always assume the form of scales or layers, for it sometimes takes place in a direction differing from the course of the supposed layers. The structure is one of condensed fibres. Q. What is Beclard's opinion as to the laminated struc- ture of the bones in general? #. He thinks, that from a general view of experiments, that the structure is laminated, connected with fibres, and with small areolated spaces abounding between laminated fibrous structure. Q. How does a bone become affected with rachitis? *#. In some degree by the absorption of the phosphate of lime, perhaps too by a diminished exhalation of it; but this diseased state arises principally from a separation of the osseous fibres from each other, by which a cellular instead of a compact bony texture is formed. Q. What is the usual general arrangement of the spongy and compact texture of the bones? #. The compact texture is the exterior, and the cellu- lar the interior part of the bone. Q. Is there no exception to this rule? ft. It is inverted in the case of the spongy bones of the nose. Q. Where is the compact texture of the long bones greatest? .#. It is greatest in the middle of the bones. Q. And why. is it so ? #. That it may give solidity to the bones, and enable. 180 OSSEOUS SYSTEM. them to resist fractures where they are most exposed to them, and that the size of the bone may be reduced, where such reduction is necessary, without injuring its strength. Q. What is the reticular texture of the bone? /#. It is a delicate modification of the cellular texture; and it supports the medullary texture of the bones, and offers points of insertion to the membrane of the medulla. Q. How is a light cellular structure at the ends of the bones advantageous? /#. The weight of heavy compact structure at the ends of the levers would be difficult to raise, and thereby im- pede locomotion. Q. Where are the compact and cellular structures found in the flat bones? /?. The compact is in the centre, the cellular is at the periphery. Q. What texture prevails in the short bones? #. The cellular structure principally forms them. Q. Of what do the osseous protuberances consist? #. Principally of compact texture. Q. What are the elements which enter into the com- position of the osseous texture? t/?. A calcareous and gelatinous substance. Q. What is this calcareous substance? /?. It is the phosphate of lime; and there are a few other unimportant saline matters that enter into the com- position of bone. Q. Is the proportion of the constituent parts of bony structure uniform ? /?. It is not; on the contrary, it varies much. The teeth have much more earthy substance than other bones. OSSEOUS SYSTEM. 181 Q. Is the softer substance plire cartilage or gelatine? #. That it is fibrous texture cannot be doubted ; it is neither exclusively cartilage nor gelatine; the phosphate of lime is deposited between these fibrous spaces, and thus constitutes bone. Q. What part of the bone possesses vitality and affords nutriment? Ji. The gelatinous substance. Q. What vessels deposite the calcareous bony matter? #. The red blood-vessels. Q. Does a different set of vessels deposite the gelatine? A. It is poured out by white vessels. Q. What is the aspect of osseous vascularity, at different periods of life? /2. The vascularity of the bones diminishes with age, and with this diminution of vascularity is a corresponding declension in the readiness to form callus. Of the Properties of the Osseous System. Q. What are the physical properties? #. The bones are extremely solid, and hard ; in the bones of young persons there is slight elasticity, which is entirely lost in advanced life. Q. Do the bones possess or exhibit textural properties? t#. Bichat supposes that in spina ventosa extensibility of bony texture is manifested ; and this is also exhibited in the distention of the antrum with polypus. On the contrary, the alveoli contract when the teeth are removed; the orbit contracts when a cancerous eye has been re- moved. 182 OSSEOUS SYSTEM. Q. What are the vital properties of the bones? +3. They have no animal sensibility in health, but ma- nifest it in very great degree in disease. They have no animal contractility; they are destitute of sensible organic contractility. One would scarcely admit an insensible or- ganic contractility in the firm structure of bones. Q. On what does the vitality of the osseous tissue de- pend? /?. It is dependant on organic sensibility and insensible organic contractility. These two properties they certainly possess. Q. What influence has the obscurity of the osseous vital properties on the diseases of that texture ? t/2. The vital properties of the bones are slow in the production and prosecution of diseased action. Q. There are two sets of symptoms in all acute diseases, what are they ? /?. Those that relate to the affected organ, and those that sympathetically connect this organ with the vital forces of other parts. Q. Are the bones readily acted on by the vital forces of other organs? /?. They are not; they remain unaffected. Their vitality does not admit of the sudden alterations in acute diseases. Q. In what part of the osseous tissue are the vital pro- perties seated? /#. In the cartilaginous or gelatinous substance. Q. What produces a morbid brittleness in the bones? #. A deposition of phosphate of lime, in quantity dis- proportioned to the gelatiiie. OSSEOUS SYSTEM. 183 Articulations of the Osseous System. Q. How are the general classes of articulations divided? Jl. Into those with, and those without mobility. Q. To what purposes are the articulations with mobility directed? Jl. They belong to the bones of locomotion. Q. Where are those without mobility found? *ft. In the bones whose union forms cavities to defend the important organs. Q. What motions do the articulations with mobility allow ? ft. There are four motions, viz. of opposition, circum- duction, rotation and sliding. Q. What do you understand by the motion of opposi- tion? #. It is simple flexion and extension abduction and adduction. Q. What is the motion of circumduction? A. Circumduction is a movement in which the bone describes a kind of cone, the apex of which is in the su- perior articulation, and the base in the inferior. Circum- duction comprises all the motions of opposition. Q. How does rotation differ from circumduction? #. In this, that in circumduction the bone has loco- motion, in rotation there is none; in rotation the bone turns on its own axis. Q. What is the sliding articulation? A. It is a motion appertaining to all the articulations, and one described by the term. 184 OSSEOUS SYSTEM. Q. What indicates the disposition to luxation in an ar- ticulation? /?. The number and freedom of its motions. Q. What articulations afford extension, opposition, cir- cumduction, and rotation? ft. The humerus and scapula, the femur and ilium. Q. What advantages arise from the location of these extensive motions at the upper part of the extremity? tfl. The joints are less exposed to accident and luxation; the powers of motion being located in the superior articu- lations, the whole limb has extensive motion, thereby making up for the necessarily limited motion of the joints below. Q. What form of articulating surfaces is necessary for these extensive motions? ./?. That the receiving surface should be concave, and the moveable one convex. Q. What are the principal differences between the mo- tions of the humeral and femoral articulations? /2. In the humeral there is much circumduction, but little rotation; in the femoral there is much rotation, but little circumduction. There is pronation and supination for the hand to compensate for the want of rotation in the humeral articulation; while the rotation of the femoral ar- ticulation renders pronation and supination unnecessary, in the lower extremity. Q. On what principle in the mechanical arrangements of the articulations, does the facility of circumduction de- pend? *ft. It depends on the " axis of the bone, and that of the motion being the same," as is seen in the humeral articu- OSSEOUS SYSTEM. 185 lation, where there is much circumduction. The circum- duction of the femur is impeded by the distance of the axis of motion from that of the bone being the whole length of the neck of the thigh bone. Q. Give examples of articulations in which opposition and circumduction are alone met with. Jl. In the angle of the jaw is a conspicuous one; you see others in the wrist and radius, in the first phalanges. Q. Mention instances of the motion of opposition con- fined to one direction, without circumduction and rotation. A. The knee, the elbow, second phalanges of the fin- gers. These articulations are found in the middle joints of limbs, Q. What conformation marks these articulations of opposition, without circumduction or rotation? A. Prominences, such as condyles on the articular sur- faces j or eminences and cavities fitted for each other; these, with some other arrangements, prevent other mo- tions than those just mentioned. These articulations are remarkable for breadth of surface. Q. Why are luxations of these articulations more dan- gerous than others? ft. You must estimate the line of the direction of each fasciculus, and then you can decide on the action of the muscle. Development of the Muscular System of Animal Life. Q. What is the colour of the muscles in the foetus? A. The tinge is that of venous blood. Q. What excites the action of the muscles so univer- sally as they are seen to be at the moment of birth? Ji. The contact of air, which excites the brain to per- ception of impressions new to it; then the diaphragm is excited to motion, and respiration sends red blood to the brain; this blood proving an additional stimulus to cere- bral influence, the constant and active muscular motions of infancy are produced. Q. What effect has disease on the colour of the mus- cles? .#. Acute diseases have little effect; in chronic cases it often becomes pale; in dropsy it is quite pale. MUSCULAR SYSTEM. 229 Q. How does age affect muscular contractility of tex- ture? *#. It diminishes it remarkably. Q. Is the muscular fibre globular, hollow, or solid? #. Meckel and Home consider it globular; some ana- tomists suppose it to be an assemblage of vessels of a par- ticular order; others say it is solid and not penetrated by fluids. II. OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM OP ORGANIC LIFE. Q. Where do you find the muscles of this tissue? A. In the thorax, abdomen, and pelvis; and the heart and oesophagus, the stomach and intestines, the bladder and uterus, compose it Forms and Organization of the Muscular System of Organic Life. Q. What are the forms of these muscles? . They form hollow muscular cavities; they are with- out tendons; they do notarise from fibrous membranes, nor are they inserted into them ; they proceed from, and terminate in cellular substance; they have a thin, flat, membranous form. Q. What is the direction of the fibres? /?. It is not single as in the muscles of animal life, but ' they interlace in every direction. Q. What advantage is this interlacing of fibres ? *1. It favours the diminution of the diameters of the cavities formed by these muscles. 230 MUSCULAR SYSTEM. Q. Does cellular substance abound in these muscles? j2. Not at all; very little is found; hence it is that drop- sies are not met with in this tissue. Q. Are blood-vessels numerous here ? *#. Yes; blood is found in full proportion in this tissue. Q. Whence do they derive their nerves? /?. From the cerebral and ganglionic system. Q. In what organ of this tissue do the cerebral nerves predominate? A. In the stomach the par vagum. Properties of the Muscular System of Organic Life. 1. Properties of Texture. Q. For what properties are the organic muscles re- markable? /?. Especially for those of texture, viz. extensibility and contractility. Q. What is conspicuous in the extensibility of these muscles? /?. The rapidity with which it acts, and the extent of which it is susceptible. Observe this in the distention of the stomach and bladder. Q. Why are the muscles of animal life incapable of this rapid and great extensibility? fl. Perhaps because they are intersected by numerous aponeuroses, and because the layers of their fibres are very thick. Q. Do you not find in some of the organic muscles an extensibility of a peculiar kind? MUSCULAR SYSTEM. 231 tf. We do, as in the gravid uterus and aneurismatic heart. It is in these the result of nutrition, where thick- ness of parietes is added to extension. Q. When is contractility of texture most obvious in these muscles? .#. When they are empty. Q. What property or power empties them of their con- tents? t#. Organic contractility; and after this has emptied the hollow muscles, then contractility of texture closes them. Q. What regulates the degree of organic contractility in the organic muscles? .#. It is in proportion to the fleshy fibres; hence it is in such activity in the left ventricle of the heart, in the O3sophagus, and in the rectum. 2. Vital Properties. Q. Have the muscles of organic life much animal sen- sibility? t/2. It is slight. Harvey found the heart insensible, the bladder is so in living animals. Q. Is lassitude felt in these muscles? t#. It is probable that hunger may be partly owing to this. The sensation in the bladder when permanently contracted may be that of lassitude. Perhaps the feeble pulse after long fevers may result from a lassitude of the fleshy fibres of the heart. Q. What have you to say of the animal contractility of these muscles of organic life? *#. That from the nature of the property it is foreign 232 MUSCULAR SYSTEM, to them. Cerebral influence and irritation are necessary to animal contractility; now, as the will has no influence over these muscles, animal contractility cannot be expect- ed in them. Irritate the brain with the scalpel, with opium, intoxication, wounds of the head, mania, and while all these excite the animal contractility of the muscles of animal life, there being no such property in the muscles of organic life, they are unmoved. Q. But do you not find the brain affected by disorder of the muscles of organic life? #. No in most vomitings, the irregular motions of the intestines which take place in diarrhoeas, in affections of the heart, &c. the brain is not diseased. Q. In syncope is the brain or heart first affected? .#. The heart is. Q. The brain does certainly influence the stomach through the par vagum ? #. It does; but cutting the par vagum does not affect the stomach as the section of a nerve going to a muscle of animal life, does that muscle. While irritating the par vagum induces the stomach to contract, yet if both nerves of that pair be divided, violent vomiting is induced. Now you never induce contraction in a muscle of animal life by cutting off its supply of nervous influence. Q. Do you consider Bichat's arguments and facts with regard to the independence of the organic muscles of ce- rebral influence as conclusive? Jl. No. He is not convinced himself; for a mixed in- fluence is admitted, with the nature of which he is unac- quainted; but of one thing he is assured, that the cerebral influence on the organic muscles is entirely different from that on the animal muscles. MUSCULAR SYSTEM. 233 Q. What property predominates in the muscles of or- ganic life ? *#. Sensible organic contractility ; but organic sensibi- lity is also very conspicuous. Q. How are stimuli divided with reference to the sen- sible organic contractility of the organic muscles? #. Into natural and artificial. The blood is the natu- ral stimulus to the heart, the urine to the bladder, food and faeces for the stomach and bowels. Artificial stimuli are irritants applied after death, or in experiments. Q. How is the sensible organic contractility of this tis- ^ sue affected by natural stimuli? *ft. It is altered by changes in the quality and quantity of fluids. See how the heart is hurried when chyle enters it after digestion, and likewise when fluids are thrown into the veins. Q. Is this sensible organic contractility the same in all the organs? ft It is not. It is peculiar, inasmuch as each organ re- sponds to its peculiar or natural stimuli such is the blood to the heart, the urine to the bladder. Q. What is the state of this property at different ages? A. It is most active in youth; it becomes less so in adult and advanced life. The action of the heart, bladder, and rectum at these periods of life, will fully illustrate this. Q. Does temperament present different states of this property? *ft. In different temperaments, you see a predominance of this property, in some over others. Having no common centre or source of influence, as the animal muscles have, 30 234 MUSCULAR SYSTEM, the contractility of the organic muscles is seldom uni- form; one organ having a greater quantum than others. Q. Is stimulus applied directly to the organic muscles? #. No; a membrane interposes, as the continuous mem- brane from the blood-vessels in the heart, the mucous membrane for the stomach and intestines. Q. Does this property remain after death? *#. It is obvious after sudden general death ; you do not see it after death from chronic disease. Q. In which of the organic muscles is sympathy most frequently and actively developed? t/2. In the heart, next in the stomach, then the intes- tines, and lastly the bladder. In this order the sympa- thetic activity is conspicuous. Q. What are the two modes in which the heart sym- pathizes ? /#. By having its action enfeebled, as in syncope, and hurried, as in fever. This increased action is engendered in three ways; by foreign matters mixed with the blood, by preternatural irritability, and by sympathy. Q. What is the sensible organic contractility of the stomach? #. Vomiting. Q. Is bile found in the stomach in health? .#. Bichat says he has always found it in animals. Vo- miting is not occasioned by the bile, but by a sympathetic action of the fibres of the stomach, to which is doubtless superadded in some cases a sympathetic affection of the mucous lining of the stomach. It is these which occasion vomiting, not the 4 bile in the stomach. Q. What property in a tissue is affected by disease? MUSCULAR SYSTEM. 235 %/?. That which predominates in a tissue. Q. Will you illustrate tins observation? .#. In those textures, the mucous, serous, and cutane- ous, for instance, where insensible organic contractility is predominant, acute phlegmasiae are most common, because this property presides over these acute inflammations. In the organic muscles, insensible organic contractility is fee- ble, the diseases therefore of these muscles are those of the predominant property, which is sensible organic con-, tractility. Hence aqute inflammation comparatively rarely attacks the muscular substance of the heart or sto- mach. Again, animal contractility being predominant in the muscular system of animal life, you find that property deranged in its diseases, Phenomena of the action of the Muscular System of Organic Life. Q. What is to be observed of the force of the contrac- tions of this texture? Jl. That its action is more uniform than those of the muscles of animal life; this action never being either con- vulsed or palsied, as that of the animal muscles is. Q. What controls the force of the contractions of the organic muscles? . Power adapted to function, and the circumstance of there being solid or fluid contents to evacuate. Q. In the animal muscular system antagonizing mus- cles act in inducing relaxation after contraction, as the triceps and biceps; now as there are no antagonizing or- ganic muscles, how is their relaxation effected? $. Dilatation is, from observation, proved to be as 236 MUSCULAR SYSTEM. much an active effort as contraction, in the organic mus- cles; the powers of both are s6 intermingled as not to be separable. Development of the Muscular System of Organic Life. Q. Is it the action of the brain at birth which sets the ' organic muscles into activity ? e#. The principle has been adopted that these muscles are independent of the brain. Q. What causes then excite them? <&. One cause is sympathy with the external skin, which is irritated by the contact of air at birth; another is, the excitement on the beginning of the mucous surfaces, and on the whole lungs, in breathing. Other causes are fluids taken into the stomach, the red. blood penetrating the or- ganic muscles, instead of fetal black blood; and lastly, the meconium stimulates the bowels. Q. Does growth in the external parts, and in the or- ganic muscles, cease at the same time? ft. No; each part has its period of full growth; the or- ganic muscles are longer in attaining this than others. The organic muscles are not subject to the irregularities of growth, that so remarkably characterize the animal muscles. Q. Why do nutrition and growth vary in different tex- tures? #. Because they depend on the vital forces, which vary in every tissue. Q. Which of the muscular systems is soonest exhausted? #. Both in exercise and life the animal muscular sys- tem is soonest exhausted. MUSCULAR SYSTEM. 237 Q. Does Beclard suppose that the brain influences the organic muscles? *ft. He thinks it does not ordinarily, but may contin- gently. Q. What'distinguished French pathologist was an in- stance of the controlling power of the will over one of the organic muscles? ft. Bayle could at will suspend the action of the heart. / * PATHOLOGY OF THE MUSCULAR TISSUE. Q. What are the diseases of the muscular system of animal life? /?. Rheumatism, lassitude, atrophy, and hypertrophy. Q. Is inflammation frequent in the muscular tissue? Jl. It is not; it arises in the cellular tissue of the mus- cles. Q. What is to be observed of the diseases of the mus- cles of organic and of animal life? A. That those of the organic muscles are various, from the variety of organs, and those of the animal muscles are few, from the uniformity of the texture. Q. What are the diseases of the heart? #. Inflammation, acute and chronic; syncope; palpita- tion; aneurism; rupture. Q. What is the pathology of syncope? /?. It is a loss of contractility in the heart. Q. What do you observe of the intermittent pulse in fever and disease of the heart? 238 MUSCULAR SYSTEM. Jl. That pulse is more dangerous in fever than in dis- ease of the heart. Q. What are the causes of palpitation ? A. It arises from fulness of blood; from excitation of the heart by mental emotion; from obstruction" to the pas- sage of blood through the lungs; it proceeds also from me- chanically distended stomach. Q. How do you distinguish suffocation caused by the heart, and that produced by the lungs? Ji. In that caused by the heart, the patient cannot bear the recumbent posture, there is violent dry cough. When the patient lies down, the heart presses against the lungs, and occasions the suffocation. Q. What is' the seat of polypus of the uterus? Jl. It is either on the mucous surface, or arises from the muscular tissue of the uterus. Q. What muscles are least affected with rheumatism? <&. The abdominal. Q. What symptom attends diaphragmatic rheumatism? Jl. Hiccup. Q. What occasions atrophy of the muscles of animal life? t#. Paralysis, tyi,ng up the artery which supplies the muscle. 239 ) MUCOUS SYSTEM. Q. Why is this called the mucous system? fl. From the fluid which is found on the surface of the tissue which composes it. , Of the Divisions and Form of the Mucous System. Q. In what form does this texture appear? /2. Always in a membranous form. Q. Where are these membranes found? ft. They line all the interior surfaces which communi- cate externally. Q. How are these membranes generally divided? /?. Into the gastro-pulmonary and genito-urinary. Q. Is there no mucous tissue which is not embraced in these two divisions? /?. There is a small mucous surface in the tubes of the nipple. Q. Give a general view of the gastro-pulmonary mucous membrane. /#. It lines the mouth, nose, anterior face~of the eyes, the ducts of the glands of the mouth and throat; it lines the Eustachian tube, the trachea, lungs, the oesophagus, stomach, the biliary, pancreatic and cystic ducts, the in- testines, and finally unites with the skin at the rectum. Q. Give a similar view of the genito-urinary mucous membrane. A. This is spread in men on the urinary canals up to 240 MUCOUS SYSTEM. the kidneys, along the seminal ducts and tubes; and in women on the urinary canals, on the vagina, uterus, and fallopian tubes, and by the opening of these tubes it com- municates with the peritoneum. Q. Is it common for the mucous and serous membranes .to communicate? /#. This just stated is the only instance. Q. State some interesting pathological considerations which refer to these two mucous surfaces. e/?. The diseases of these two great divisions of the mu- cous membranes are distinct, and sympathies radiate be- tween them comparatively rarely. But there are sympa- thies which play between them deserving recollection, such as that between the utero-mucous and pulmonary mucous surfaces, constituting vicarious haemorrhage from the lungs when menstruation is interrupted. The trans- lation of gonorrhoea to the mucous membrane of the eye is another instance. Q. Will you state some curious sympathetic irritations which arise in the courses of these two divisions of the mucous system? #. The irritation at the end of the penis occasioned by a stone in the bladder is one, and the itching of the nose occasioned by worms on the intestinal surface is another. Q. How many surfaces are presented by each mucous membrane ? Jl. Two; an adherent one to the neighbouring organs, and a free villous one. Q. What are the uses of the adherent mucous surface? .#. By its adhesion to the muscles of organic and animal life, it has a constant agitation, favourable to the secretion of mucus; it gives form to the organ it lines ; it gives force MUCOUS SYSTEM. 241 to the mucous surface, and it resists the contents of the mucous cavities. Q. Will you name an important aspect in which the mucous system deserves here to be considered:' tf. It is the constant exposure of the mucous surfaces to foreign bodies and matters; the tissue serves to defend organs from the contact of these bodies; in this office it is to the internal organs what the skin is to the external. Organization of the Mucous System. Q. What is the mucous chorion ? Jl. The layer and papillae of the free surface. Q. What is the texture lining the ear? ft. Its continuity with the pituitary membrane, its mu- cous discharge, its diseases, its want of fibres, prove it to be mucous tissue. Q. Where is the mucous chorion thickest? /?. In the gums and palate; it is finest in the sinuses of the face and internal ear. Diseases thicken it very much. Q. What is its texture? ft. It is soft and thick, like velvet, in the stomach and intestines; as it approaches the external openings, it be- comes denser. The extreme softness of the texture in the internal organs will not allow of the variolous pustule ; these pustules appear on the mucous surface, where its density will support their structure. Q. Where is the mucous chorion of the deepest colour? Jl. In the stomach, where blood gives it this colour; it is paler in the bladder and rectum. Q. What effect have the mucous surfaces on milk? 31 242 MUCOUS SYSTEM. *fl. The dried membrane coagulates it. Q. In what is the peculiar sensibility of the mucous texture seated ? #. In the papillae of the mucous chorion. Q. In what part of the mucous tissue does functional power, such for example as the secretion of gastric juice, reside ? t#. In the vascular net-work at the base of the villi, not in the villi themselves, as has been supposed. The villi are adapted to sensibility, not to secretion. Q. What experiment decided the function of the villi ? #. Irritate the villi after removing the epidermis, and great pain is felt; introduce an instrument so as to irritate the internal surface of the chorion, and no pain is felt. The base of the papillae is nervous, and the papillae receive the impression of foreign bodies. Q. Are these papillae susceptible of erection? #. Certain portions, as the tongue and nose, are sup- posed to have an erectile capacity, somewhat resembling the corpus cavernosum penis. Q. Whence proceeds the mucus which lines this texture? *ft. From the glands called mucous. They are found un- der the chorion; they are largest in the velum palati and mouth, and they are rounded in form. Q. What difference is observable in the serous and mucous fluids? *#. The mucus is secreted; the serum exhaled. Q. If the glands are seated beneath the chorion, how are they excited to secretion by foreign bodies? *#. These bodies irritate the extremities of the ducts which convey the mucus, and thus the glands are irri- tated. MUCOUS SYSTEM. 243 Q. What becomes of the mucus which is poured out so freely ? #. It is evacuated from the various outlets; it is en- tirely excrementitious. Q. What pathological consideration is inferred from the vast quantity of mucus secreted? .#. Amongst others this, that the secretion, when sup- pressed, must give rise to disease. Q. What general difference is observed in the destina- tion of secreted and exhaled fluids? ./?. Secretions are excrementitious; exhaled fluids are recrementitious. One of many proofs of the excrementi- tious tendency of mucus, is the uneasiness an accumula- tion of it occasions, and the efforts by coughing to re- move it. Q. Is this texture full of blood-vessels? *#. It receives a great many blood-vessels. Q. Where is it most red? t/2. In the stomach; and the colour depends on a net- work of blood-vessels, which penetrate the mucous cho- rion spread on its surface, and embrace the papillae. Q. What results from the superficial situation of the blood-vessels? JL. The frequency of haemorrhage from the mucous tissue. Q. What arises from long exposure of portions of the mucous surface to the air? A. It is brought to resemble the skin; in certain cases of vaginal prolapsus, hermaphrodism has been affirmed. Q. Is there any reason to believe that the redness of the mucous membranes is owing to the blood being oxy- genated through their surfaces, as it is in the lungs? 244 MUCOUS SYSTEM, ft. Experiments contradict the supposition, Q. Does the redness of this tissue depend on the blood circulating in the arteries? 57 ) SEROUS SYSTEM. Q. Why is it so called ? .#. From the kind of fluid that constantly lubricates one of its surfaces. Of the Extent, Forms, and Fluids of the Serous System, Q. Name the principal serous membranes. ^?. They are the peritoneum, the pleura, the pericar- dium, the arachnoides, the tunica vaginalis testis. Q. What form does the serous tissue assume ? Jl. Always that of membrane. Q. What distinctive observation here arises between the serous and mucous membranous expansions? #. The serous membranes are spread out over the ex- ternal surface of the organs; the mucous membranes line, the interior of the organs. Q. Which is the most extensive system of the two? &. The serous tissue. Q. Mention another distinguishing trait in these two tissues. #. The serous tissues pour out, by exhalation, an albu- minous fluid; the mucous tissues secrete mucus. Q. Does the serous surface exceed the cutaneous in extent? A. It does; it is even probable that the serous exhala- tion exceeds in quantity the fluid prepared on the cuta- neous and pulmonary surfaces collectively. 33 258 SEROUS SYSTEM, Q. Is serum an excrementitious fluid? *#. Entirely the reverse; it is recrementitious. Q. What is the form of each serous membrane? #. That of a sac without an opening; like a double night-cap folded within itself. Q. Into how many parts can a serous membrane be divided? /?. Remembering that it is continuous, it may be di- vided into the membrane that lines the inner surface of a cavity, and that which invests the outer surface of the or- gans contained in that cavity. Take for illustration the costal pleura and the pulmonary pleura. Q. What do you understand by the free and adherent surfaces of the serous membranes? t/2. The adherent surface covers the organs; the free surface the interior of the sac. Q. What is Bichat's doctrine of organic life? Jl. That each organ has its peculiar life, resulting from a particular modification of its vital forces; this modifica- tion establishing one in the circulation, nutrition.and tem- perature of each organ. Q. Is any influence on these separate lives produced by the serous investitures? Jl. The serous membranes so insulate the organs as to favour the theory and operation of separate lives. Q. What influence have the serous investments on the spread of diseased action from one organ to another? Jl. They are unfavourable to such extension of morbid action. Q. In what pathological point do the serous and mucous tissues conspicuously differ? #. In their respective dispositions to form adhesions SEROUS SYSTEM, 259 You will observe that the serous surfaces are as prone to adhere, as you have seen the mucous tissues reluctant to do so. Q. Where are these serous adhesions most frequently found? ft. They occur most frequently in the pleura. They are seldom met with in the tunica arachnoides. Q. These adhesions vary much; will you describe some of these varieties ? #. Sometimes they are so extensive and close as to form but one membrane; again they are loose and easily separable. Then you will see elongations from the fixed to the free serous surface, these elongations have canals in them. Bichat thinks these elongations are original for- mations, not the result of diseased action; and lastly, there are adhesions of cellular layers, without these canals. Q. What is to be observed of the connexions of the se- rous and mucous membranes in disease? t/2. That as their organization differs, and as their vital forces vary, they are distinct and unconnected in disease. Q. What is the nature of the serous fluids? /?. It is a dew, a halitus in health; the serum is albu- minous in its nature. In disease it is found changed to pus, albuminous flakes, bloody, and fluids of various other colours. Organization of the Serous System. Q. What are the characters of the organization of serous tissue? Jl. It is a single, transparent, whitish, shining mem- 260 SEROUS SYSTEM, brane. It differs from the mucous tissue in having but a single layer. Q. What is the nature of this membrane ? #. It is cellular. It has the common organization of the cellular tissue, without any peculiar structure; it has not, for instance, any peculiar structure, such as the mus- cles have in their fibrin, or as the bones have in their phos- phate of lime. Q. What proof have you that this serous tissue is cel- lular? t#. It is proved to be so by the identity of function and that of disease; it is cellular, because it is inflated or infil- trated by air; and in the process of maceration, the absence of fibrous structure proves negatively the identity of the serous and cellular tissues. Q. What gives to some parts of the body a deeper black in putrefaction than others? t#. The blackness in putrefaction depends on the quan- tity of blood in the putrefied part. Q. In what pathological points do the serous and cel- lular tissues differ? < trunk. SYNOVIAL SYSTEM. 273 Q. What general observations have you to make on this tissue? Jl. That in its organization, properties, functions, sym- pathies, it resembles precisely the articular synovial sys- tem. Q. What do you mean by synovial fringes? A. They are elongations and duplicatures of the mem- branes, from which the synovia is almost exclusively ex- haled. Q. Are there not points of difference in the serous and synovial systems, besides those already stated? t#. The serous tissues have more blood-vessels, more lymphatic, and apparently fewer laminae. ( 274 ) GLANDULAR SYSTEM. Q. How do you define a gland? #. It is a body from which flows, by one or many ducts, a fluid, which this body separates from the blood received by vessels which go to it. Q. What important peculiarity is found in this system? #. That the texture peculiar to it is not precisely the same in all the organs that compose the system. The tex- ture of the liver differs from that of the kidney. Q. Name the glands. t#. Those on the head are, the salivary, the lachrymal, the meibomeian and ceruminous of the ear, and the amyg- dala. On the thorax, the mammae. In the abdomen the liver, pancreas and kidneys. In the pelvis, the prostate and testicles. On the trunk and face the mucous glands. Q. Are there glands on the extremities? t/2. There are none. Situation, Forms, Division, Sec. of the Glandular Sys- tem. Q. What is to be observed of the position of these glands ? /2. They are in two situations, sub-cutaneous, and deep- seated. Q. Does the motion communicated to the glands by the neighbouring parts, induce their excretion? GLANDULAR SYSTEM. 275 A. It does not. That operation is the result of vital ac- tion; still the motion given to some glands may be acces- sory to excretion. Q. Under what circumstances is this accessory motion necessary ? #. It is found wherever the parietes of the organ are not very powerful. Q. Besides the division of glands into sub-cutaneous and deep-seated, there is another, what is it? V?. Into single and double glands. The liver is a single gland; the kidneys are double, in pairs. Q. Is there the exact symmetry in two glands of the same pair as is found in the organs of animal life? #. There is not; because the harmony of action in ani- mal life requires the utmost exactness. Q. What circumstance materially controls these varie- ties of form in the glandular tissue? *fl. The fact of their being invested by a strong mem- brane has great influence in this respect. The liver, which is contained in a membrane, has much fewer varieties than the lachrymal, or the salivary, which are without such in- vestment. Organization of the Glandular System. Q. In what is the texture of the glands peculiar? #. The oblique or longitudinal fibrous linear arrange- ment met with in the muscular, osseous, nervous tissues,- is not seen at all in the glands. They are agglomerated, and slightly united by cellular texture. Q. How is the parenchyma of glands to be divided? rf. Into three forms. 276 GLANDULAR SYSTEM. Q. What are they? A. There is first, the glandular parenchyma with larger lobes, separated from each other by cellular substance; these larger lobes are resolved into smaller lobes, which are agglomerated ; and these smaller lobes are composed of glandular grains. Q. What glands are thus organized? *#. The pancreas, the salivary and lachrymal glands. Q. What is the second form of the glandular paren- chyma? #. It is that of glandular bodies connected by cellular substance without the lobulated structure of the first form. Q. What glands are examples of this? . The liver and the kidneys. Q. Designate the third form of the glandular paren- chyma. *#. The third form comprising the amygdalae and mu- cous glands have a soft, pulpy parenchyma, without lobes or grains. Q. Is the organization of all the glands included in these forms? #. It is not. The mammary glands and the testicles have a peculiar texture. Q. What peculiar effect does ebullition produce on this glandular texture? #. All the tissues acquire the horny hardening in the first ebullition, but as the boiling is continued they be- come soft. Now the glands differ from the textures in this, that the longer they are boiled the harder their sub- stance becomes. Q. What is the origin of the excretory ducts? *#. They arise as capillaries, one from each glandular GLANDULAR SYSTEM. 277 point in a gland ; they unite and form ducts. These excre- tory ducts are known only in the glandular system. Q. Is the number and arrangement of these ducts uni- form in the glands? ft. They are not uniform in either respect. Some glands excrete by several ducts which do not communicate with each other; this you see illustrated in the nipple. There are some which excrete by a single duct; instances of which you see in the parotids, the sublingual glands, and the pancreas. There is a third set of glands which have reservoirs for their secretions, of which the liver, testicles and kidneys are examples. Q. Where do the excretory ducts open? /#. They all empty themselves either on the external surface, or on the mucous membranes. They never open on cellular or serous surfaces, for the secreted fluids are all intended to be thrown off from the body. Q. Can secreted fluids be introduced into the blood- vessels with safety? ,#. They may be thrown in through the veins, or the crural artery; but not through the carotids, for then they make a fatal impression on the brain. Q. What lines the excretories of the glands? *ft. The mucous membrane. Q. In what glands is there the greatest abundance of cellular texture? *ft. In those glands which have the organization of a granulated white parenchyma, such as the heart, the pan- creas, and the salivary glands. Q. In what glands is there least cellular substance? A. In those with compact parenchyma, as the liver, kidney, prostate and mucous glands. 278 GLANDULAR SYSTEM. Q. How do you explain the coexistence of extensive disease of the liver, and yet a secretion of healthy bile? #. The cellular texture of the organ is diseased, while the peculiar glandular structure is unaffected. Q. There are two causes for the size of the female breast, what are they ? *#. It may be large from the size of the gland, and from an undue portion of cellular texture is another. Q. How do the glands receive their arteries? Jl. Those not invested with membranous expansions receive their blood-vessels, on all sides, from the sur- rounding parts. Those which have membranous cover- ings receive these vessels at one point, usually in a fissure, and they enter at that part of the gland which is least ex- posed to external injury. Q. What are the ultimate arterial ramifications in a gland ? #. Each glandular grain receives a capillary artery. Q. Has arterial motion any other effect on a gland than to circulate its blood? A. Yes; it communicates an internal motion, very fa- vourable to their functions. Q. How does disease of the right auricle of the heart affect the liver ? Ji. By obstructing the flow of blood from the hepatic vein, it has a direct congestive influence on the liver. Hence at least one cause of the frequent simultaneous oc- currence of diseased heart and liver. Q. In what glands is there most blood ? #. It is in greatest quantity in the liver and kidney; and there is least blood in the pancreas, salivary, and la- chrymal glands. GLANDULAR SYSTEM, 279 Q. Are the nerves of the glands cerebral or ganglionic? .#. Some receive cerebral nerves, such as the salivary, lachrymal, &c. others are supplied by the ganglions. Q. Have the nerves influence on secretion? ANALYTICAL TABLE OP CONTENTS. SYSTEMS COMMON TO ALL THE APPARA- TUS. OF THE CELLULAR SYSTEM. General Remarks. - - - 52 Of the Cellular System considered in relation to the Organs, Of the Sub-cutaneous Cellular Texture 53 Of the Sub-mucous Cellular Texture. ..._. 54 Of the Sub-serous Cellular Texture. 55 Of the Arterial Cellular Texture. 56 Of the Venous Cellular Texture. 56 Of the Cellular Texture embracing the Organs on all Sides. 57 Of the Internal Cellular Structure of the Organs. Its relation to the other organs. Its properties. - - 58 Of the Cellular System considered independently of the other Organs. Cellular Texture of the Head and Face. ...... 59 Of the Cellular Texture of the Trunk and Extremities. Vertebral cellular texture. Cervical cellular texture. Pectoral cel- lular texture. Abdominal cellular texture. Cellular texture of the pelvis. Cellular texture of the extremities. - - - 60 Of the Forms of the Cellular System and of the Fluids it contains. Of the cells. Of the serum of the cellular system. Of the cellular fat. - - - 62 Organization of the Cellular System. Parts which enter into its organization. 66 Properties of the Cellular Texture. 1. Textural Properties. Extensibility. Contractility. - 68 2. Vital Properties. Animal sensibility. Organic sensibility. Insen- sible organic contractility. Sensible organic contractility. Sympa- thies. Character of the Vital properties. - 69 3. Properties of Reproduction. Influence of the cellular texture on the formation of cicatrices. Inflammation. Granulations. Suppura- tion. Contraction of the granulations. Adhesion. Union by the first intention. Influence of the cellular tissue in the formation of tumours and cysts. 71 Development of the Cellular Texture. States of the cellular system in the first age and in after ages. 76 PATHOLOGY or TIIK CELMTLAH Tissi i Diseases of the cellular tis __.--- 77 I ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS. 317 NERVOUS SYSTEM. General Divisions. 82 I. NERVOUS SYSTEM OF ANIMAL LIFE. Centre of the nervous system of animal life. Centre of the nervous system of organic life. Nervous system of animal life symmetrical. Relative size of the brain and nerves. 82 External Forms of the Nervous System of Animal Life. Of the cerebral nerves. Of the nerves arising- from the cerebrum. Of the nerves originating from the tuber annulare and its elongations. Of the spinal nerves. Of the decussation of the nerves. Of the nervous tunics. Communications of the nerves. Course and plex- uses of the spinal nerves. Nervous trunks. Nervous branches. Nervous anastomoses. Systems destitute of nerves. - Organization of the Nervous System of Animal Life. Nervous filaments and chords. Nature and origin of the nervous coat. Action of certain substances on the nervous coat. Medullary sub- stance. Comparison between the cerebral and nervous medullary substance. Cellular texture of the nerves. Blood-vessels. 87 Properties of the Nervous System of Animal Life. 1. Properties of texture, very slightly marked. 90 2. Vital Properties. Animal sensibility. Internal and external sensa- tions. Influence of the nerves on the animal contractility of other parts. Organic contractility and sensibility. Influence of the nerves on the organic properties of other parts. Sympathies of the nerves. 90 3. Properties of Reproduction. 95 Development of the Nervous System of Animal Life. State of the system in the fa-tus. In after life. Pathological states of the brain. - - - - - - .... 95 II. NERVOUS SYSTEM OF ORGANIC LIFE. General Remarks. Of the Ganglions. Definition. Situation. Form. Organization. Properties. Diseases. Development. Cerebral ganglions. Of the Nerves of Organic Life. Course. Plexuses. Structure. Properties. General remarks. 101 PATHOLOGY OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEMS OF ANIMAL AND ORGANIC LIFE. Diseases of the brain. Diseases of the nerves. - - 103 318 ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS, VASCULAR SYSTEM. I. VASCULAR SYSTEM WITH RED BLOOD. General Remarks upon the Circulation. Division of the circulation. Circulation of red blood. Circulation of black blood. General mechanical phenomena of the two circula- tions. General uses of the circulation with red blood. General uses of the circulation with black blood. - - - 107 Situation, Forms, and General Arrangement of the Vascular Sys- tem. 110 On the Organization of the Vascular System with Red Blood. Peculiar membrane of the arteries. Common membrane of the red blood. 112 Properties of the Vascular System with Red Blood. 1. Physical Properties. Elasticity. . - - - - 114 2. Properties of Texture. Extensibility. Contractility. 1 15 3. Vital Properties. Influence of the heart on the motion of the red blood. Of the pulse. Sympathies. 117 Of the Vascular System of Red Blood in different Ages. State in the foetus. Sabatier's division of the foetal circulation. Changes which take place at birth. State in after life. General observations. 120 PATHOLOGY OF THE VASCULAR SYSTEM WITH RED BLOOD. Diseases of the Arteries. 124 II. VASCULAR SYSTEM WITH BLACK BLOOD. Situation, Forms, Division, and General Arrangement. - - 126 Organization of the Vascular System with Black Blood. Peculiar membrane of the veins. Common membrane of the black blood. Valves of the veins. Action of reagents upon the venous texture. ^-Cellular texture. Exhalents and absorbents. Nerves. 129 Properties of the Vascular System with Black Blood. 1. Properties of Texture. Extensibility. Contractility. - 130 2. Vital Properties. Venous pulse. Vital forces greater in the veins than arteries. -Motion of the black blood. Parallel between the cir- culation in the arteries and veins. 131 Development of the Arterial System with Black Blood. State in foetal life. State in old age. - - 133 Of the Abdominal System with Black Blood. Venn portal circulation. Properties and sympathies of the abdominal ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS. 319 venous system. Peculiar membrane of the hepatic portion. Influ- ence of the injection of air into the veins. Common lining mem- brane of the abdominal portion. Course of the blood through the liver. Circulation of the abdominal veins. On the liver. Blood of the vena portarum. Spleen. Of the bile. Development. 134 PATHOLOGY OF THE VASCULAR SYSTEM WITH BLACK BLOOD. Disease of the veins. -------- 138 CAPILLARY SYSTEMS. Division. - - 141 I. GENERAL CAPILLARY SYSTEM. Its extent. Its division. Capillaries which carry red blood. Those which convey white fluids. Those which give passage to both red and white fluids. Causes upon which the number of capillaries in a part depend. Active and passive secretion and exhalation. Defi- nition of the general capillary system. Anastomoses. Pathology of haemorrhage. Relation of the general capillary system to the ar- teries and veins. The effect of this relation on the appearance of parts on dissection. How, notwithstanding the general communicar tion of the capillary system, the blood and the fluids differing from it remain separate. Irritation. Organic sensibility. - - 141 Of Inflammation. 145 Of the Capillary Circulation. The fluids. The motions of the fluids. Division of diseases. Influence of atmospheric changes. Blood- letting. 148 Of the Capillaries considered as the Seat of the Production of Jlnimal Heat 150 II. PULMONARY CAPILLARY SYSTEM. Definition. How all the blood of the general system can go through the pulmonary. Diseases of the lungs. Pulmonary circulation in diseases. Erectile tissue. 152 EXHALENT SYSTEM. General remarks on exhalation and secretion, and exhaled and secreted fluids. 156 General Arrangement of the Exhalents. Division. - - - 157 Properties and Functions of the Exhalent System. Vital properties. Natural exhalations. Morbid exhalations. 157 320 ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENT- ABSORBENT SYSTEM. Definition. - - 162 Of the Absorbent Vessels. Their origin. Termination. Course and division. Forms. -Capa- city. Anastomoses. Effects of obstruction of the absorbents Structure of the absorbents. 162 Of the Lymphatic Glands. Situation. Colour. Development. Texture. - 165 Properties of the Absorbent System. 1. Properties of Texture. Extensibility. Contractility. 166 2. Vital Properties. Animal sensibility. Organic sensibility. Orga- nic contractility. Character of the vital properties. Inflammation. Sympathies. - - - 166 Of Absorption. Influence of the vital forces on this function. Influence of medicines. Absorption of morbific matter. Causes which vary the natural type of the absorbents. Absorption at different ages. Structure of a gland. Sensible organic contractility. - - - - 167 PATHOLOGY OP THE ABSORBENT SYSTEM. Diseases of the absorbent system - 170 OF SYSTEMS PECULIAR TO CERTAIN AP- PARATUS. General Observations. - - 172 OSSEOUS SYSTEM. Definition. - ........ 173 Forms of the Osseous System. Long bones. Flat bones. Short bones. Bony eminences. Osseous cavities. 173 Of the Organization of the Osseous Texture. Texture peculiar to the osseous system. Texture with cells. Com- pact texture. Arrangement of the two osseous textures in three kinds of bones. Composition of the osseous texture. Parts which enter into the organization of the osseous system. 177 Of the Properties of the Osseous System. 1, Physical Properties. - - - - - ' - - 181 ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS. 321 2. Textural Properties. - .... 181 3. Vital Properties. Character of these properties. - - 182 Articulations of the Osseous System. Division of the articulations. Moveable articulations. Immoveable * articulations. 183 Development of the Osseous System. Period at which the osseous system is complete. Mucous, cartilagi- nous, and osseous states of the bones. State of the osseous system after its growth. Changes which take place in old age. Develop- ment of the callus. Of the teeth. Of the sesamoid bones. 187 OF THE MEDULLARY SYSTEM OF THE BONES. Origin. Properties. Division. Diseases of the medulla. Develop- ment. Functions. Spina ventosa. 192 PATHOLOGY OF THE OSSEOUS TISSUE. Diseases of the osseous tissue. ... 193 PATHOLOGY OP THE MEDULLARY SYSTEM. Diseases of the medullary tissue 195 CARTILAGINOUS SYSTEM. Division. Definition. ... - - 196 Forms of the Cartilaginous System. Cartilages of the moveable articulations. Those of the immoveable bones. Those of the parietes of cavities. .... 196 Organization of the Cartilaginous System. Peculiar organization of cartilage. Change effected in cartilage by disease. Common organization of cartilage. ... 197 Properties of the Cartilaginous System. 1. Physical Properties. Elasticity. Position of cartilages. 198 2. Textural Properties. 198 3. Vital Properties. Character of the vital properties. - - 198 Development of the Cartilaginous System. State in the first age. State in after ages. Diseases. - 199 FIBROUS SYSTEM. Of the Forms and Divisions of the Fibrous System. Of the fibrous membranes. Fibrous capsules. Fibrous sheaths. Fibrous aponeuroses, Fibrous fascia. Tendons. Ligaments. - - 201 41 322 ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS. Organization of the Fibrous System. Texture of the fibrous system. - ... 202 Properties of (he Fibrous System. 1. Physical Properties. 203 2. Textural Properties. 203 3. Vital Properties. Character of the vital properties. Sympa- thies. ^ 203 Development of the Fibrous System. Fibrous system in early years. 205 Of the Fibrous Membranes in General. General Remarks. - - - - 205 Of the Periosteum. - 205 Of the Fibrous Capsules. - 206 Of the Fibrous Sheaths. - - 207 Of the Aponeuroses. 207 Of the Tendons. - - 209 Of the Ligaments. - - 209 Of the Yellow Elastic Tissue, ------- 210 PATHOLOGY OF THE FIBROUS SYSTEM. Diseases of the fibrous system. - - - - - 21 OF THE FIBRO-CARTILAGINOUS SYSTEM. 10 Organs where it is found. Functions of the tissue. Organization. Properties. State of the system in after ages. - - - 212 MUSCULAR SYSTEM. General Division. - - - 214 I. Or THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM OF ANIMAL LIFB. Characters. - - - 214 Of the Forms of the Muscular System vf Animal Life. 1. Of the Long Muscles. .... 214 2. Of the Broad Muscles. - ' - 215 3. Of the Short Muscles. 216 Organization of the Muscles. Texture peculiar to their organization. Fibres. Their composition. ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS. 323 Parts common to the organization of this system. Cellular texture. Blood-vessels. -Nerves. - - - - - - 216 Properties of the Muscular System of Animal Life. 1. Properties of Texture. Extensibility. Contractility of texture. 219 2. Vital Properties. Properties of Animal Life. -Sensibility. Animal contractility. Animal contractility considered in the brain, in the nerves, in the muscles. Causes which excite animal contractility. Contractility in the foetus, and after death. Difference between ani- mal contractility and irritability. Parts in which animal contractility first and last ceases. Sensible organic contractility. Sympathies. Characters of the vital properties. 221 Phenomena of the Action of the Muscular System of Animal Life. Force of muscular contraction. Rapidity of contraction* Effect of muscular contraction. ..._.- 227" Development of the Muscular System of Animal Life. State in the foetus. During- growth. Effect of disease. - 228 II. OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM OF ORGANIC LIFE. Where found. - - - - 229 Forms and Organization of the Muscular System of Organic Life. Forms. Organization. 229 Properties of the Muscular System of Organic Life. 1. Properties of Texture. Extensibility. Contractility. 230 2. Vital Properties. Animal sensibility. Animal contractility. Or- ganic properties. Sensible organic contractility. Effect of stimuli, age, temperament, and death, on this property. Sympathies. Cha- racter of the vital properties. 231 Phenomena of the action of the Muscular System of Organic Life. Force of contraction. Dilatation. - 235 Development of the Muscular System of Organic Life. Causet which set the muscles of organic life into activity. Their growth. Controlling power of the will over the organic muscles. 236 PiTTTOLOGY OF THE MUSCULAR TlSSUE. Diseases of the muscular tissue of animal and of organic life. - 237 MUCOUS SYSTEM. Whence it derives its name. - 239 Of the Divisions and Forms of the Mucous System. Forms. Gastro-pulmonary and gastro-urinary mucous membranes. Pathological considerations. Surfaces. - - - 239 324 ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS. * ' Organization of the Mucous System. Mucous chorion. Mucous papillae. Mucous glands and the fluids they secrete. Blood-vessels. Exhalents. Absorbents. Nerves. 241 Properties of the Mucous System. 1. Properties of Texture. Extensibility. Contractility. - 245 2. Vital Properties. Animal sensibility. Properties of organic life. Sympathies. Characters of the vital properties. - 245 Development of the Mucous System. State at birth. After ages. Structure of the papillae. Mucous folli- cles. Alveolar structure, Membrane lining abscesses and fis- tulae. 250 PATHOLOGY OF THE Mucous TISSUE. Diseases of the mucous tissues. - - - - - - 252 SEROUS SYSTEM. Why so called. - - - 257 Of the Extent, Forms, and Fluids of the Serous System. Principal mucous membranes. Their forms. Extent. Fluids. Form of each serous membrane. Free surface. Adhering surface. Doctrine of organic life. Disease. Serous fluids. - - 257 Organization of the Serous System. Characters of the organization of the serous tissue. Nature of this membrane. Exhalents. Absorbents. Blood-vessels. Pathologi- cal phenomena. . 259 Properties of the Serous System. 1. Properties of Texture. Extensibility. Contractility. - 261 2. Vital Properties. Sympathies. 262 Development of the Serous System. * Progress of development. Alterations produced in the serous system by disease. - - - 263 PATHOLOGY OF THE SEROUS TISSUE. Diseases of the serous system. 264 SYNOVIAL SYSTEM. Points of resemblance and difference between the synovial and serous systems. Division of the synovial system. - 270 ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS. 325 1. Of the Articular Synovial System. Manner in which the synovia is formed. Appearance of the synovia. Form of the synovial membrane. Properties of the synovial tissue. Sympathies. Development. 270 2. Synovial System of the Tendons. Where found. Organization, properties, functions, and sympathies. Synovial fringes. ..-..--. 272 GLANDULAR SYSTEM. General Observations. - - - 274 Situation, Forms, Division, &?c. of the Glandular System. Position of the glands. Excretion. Division. Forms. - - 274 Organization of the Glandular System. Peculiar texture. Forms. Excretory ducts. Cellular texture. Blood-vessels. Blood. Nerves. - - - - - 275 Properties of the Glandular System. 1. Properties of Texture. Extensibility. Contractility. - 279 2. Vital Properties. Properties of animal life. Properties of organic life. Sympathies. Characters of the vital properties. - 279 Development of the Glandular System. State in the fetus. During growth. After growth. In old age. 283 PATHOLOGY OF THE GLANDULAR STSTBM. Diseases of the glands 284 DERMOID SYSTEM. Uses of this texture. , --..... 288 Forms of the Dermoid System. Wrinkles. Connexion of the skin with the subjacent parts - 288 Organization of the Dermoid System. 1. Texture peculiar to the Organization. - - - - 289 a. Of the Chorion. 289 b. Of the Reticular Texture. - - - . . . 290 c. Of the Papillse. - - - - . . . 292 Action of Different Bodies m the Dermoid Texture. - - . 293 2, Parts common to the Organization of the Dermoid System. Cellular 326 ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS. texture; its diseases and extent. Absorbents. Exhalents. Exha- led fluid '295 Properties of the Dermoid System. 1. Properties of Texture. Extensibility. Contractility. - - 298 2. Vital Properties. Animal sensibility. Parts governed by animal sensibility, and those which belong 1 to organic life. Disease. Sym- pathies. Characters of the vital properties. - 299 Development of the Dermoid System. State in the foetus. During growth. In old age. Oily matter of the skin. Morbid structures. 304 PATHOLOGY OF THE DERMOID TEXTURE. Diseases of the skin 305 EPIDERMOID SYSTEM. General Remarks. 309 Of the External Epidermis. Forms. Organization. No vital forces. Definition. Difference from other tissues. Pores. Connexion with the cutis. - - 310 Where found. PronerHfts and uses. Of the Internal Epidermis. Mucous Epidermis. 311 311 OF THE PILOUS SYSTEM. Organization. Properties ERRATA. Page 19, line 17, for and have, read and their diseases have. 20, " 14, for The senses, read Those of the senses. 22, " 15, for receptions, read reception. 26, tc 19, for is, read be. 29, " 20, for larger, read longer. 31, " 15, for r/e* *o be, read fo 6e. 33, " 25, for faculty -which, read faculty by -which. 41, " 14, for its, read their. 44, ' last, for seated in, read/rom. 47, 28, for that of, read z's Ma* of. 48, 1 , for brain, read lungs. 49, 9, for effluvia, read effluvia. 49, 23, forjorced, read inspired. 100, 30, for viscera, read organs. 105, 5, for wfen, read where. 107, 22, for on, read m. 113, 27, for Mz's d#er, read ^ fe'nwj^ membrane differ. 134, 25, for ventricles, read ventricle. 142, 18, for of healthy serous, read of serous. 145, 29, for irritation, read invitation. 277, 28, for tearf, read