LIBR,/IK,Y FISH CULTURE THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESENTED BY PROF. CHARLES A. KOFOID AND MRS. PRUDENCE W. KOFOID THE FARMER'S PRACTICAL LIBRARY EDITED BY ERNEST INGERSOL FISH CULTURE BY WILLIAM E. MEEHAN The Farmer's Practical Library EDITED BY ERNEST INGERSOLL Cloth z6mo Illustrated From Kitchen to Garret. By VIRGINIA TERHUNE VAN DE WATER. Neighborhood Entertainments. By RENEE B. STERN, of the Congressional Library. Home Waterworks. By CARLETON J. LYNDE, Professor of Physics in Mac- donald College, Quebec. Animal Competitors. By ERNEST INGERSOLL. Health on the Farm. By DR. H. F. HARRIS, Secretary Georgia State Board of Health. Co-operation Among Farmers. By JOHN LEE COULTER. Roads, Paths and Bridges. By L. W. PAGE, Chief of the Office of Public Roads, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Poems of Country Life. BY GEORGE S. BBYAN. Electricity for the Farm and Home. By FBANK KOESTEB. Fish Culture in Ponds and Other Inland Waters. By WILLIAM E. MEEHAN, Supt. Public Aquarium, Philadelphia. Village Improvement. By PAKRIS T. FAKWELL. In preparation. The Satisfactions of Country Life. By DR. JAMES W. ROBERTSON, Principal of Macdonald College, Quebec. In prep- aration. The Farm Mechanic. By L. W. CHASE, Professor of Farm Mechanics in the University of Nebraska. In prepara- tion. THE HON. WILLIAM E. MEEHAN. FISH CULTURE IN PONDS AND OTHER INLAND WATERS WILLIAM E. MEEHAN Formerly Fish Commissioner of Pennsylvania, Superintendent Public Aquarium, Philadelphia ILLUSTRATED STURGIS & WALTON COMPANY 1913 COPYRIGHT, 1915, BY STURGIS & WALTON COMPANY Set up and electrotyped. Publiahed June, 1918 CONTENTS CHAPTEB PAGE I POND-CULTTJBE OF BLACK BASS ...... 3 II SPAWNING OF BLACK BASS AND CASE OF FBT . . 24 III ROCK-BASS, CALICO-BASS, AND SUN-FISHES . . 49 IV CAT-FISH CULTUBE 59 V CABP CULTUBE 70 VI WATEB FOB TBOUT CULTUBE 86 VII TBOUT PONDS AND How TO BUILD THEM ... 93 VIII CONSTBUCTION OF A TfiOUT-HATCHEBY . . . .111 IX TAKING AND FEBTILISING TBOUT EGGS .... 126 X TBOUT HATCHING, AND CASE OF FBY 138 XI REABING YOUNG TBOUT .160 XII THE ATLANTIC SALMON .... ,. ; . . . 174 XIII HATCHING FISHES' EGGS IN JABS . . . . .178 XIV CULTUBE OF THE YELLOW PEBCH 188 XV REABING PICKEBEL AND MUSCALLONGE .... 200 XVI WHITE PEBCH, STBIPED BASS, SMELTS AND SUCK- EBS 207 XVII FBOG CULTUBE 219 XVIII MAKING AND MANAGING AN AQUABIUM . . . 234 XIX THE CULTURE AND CUBE OF GOLDFISH .... 252 INDEX . 285 ILLUSTRATIONS Portrait of the Author Frontispiece FACINO PACK Breeding-Ponds for Black Bass or Sun-fish 8 An Ideal Pond for Brood-Bass 8 Bass Hatchery at Mill Creek, Mich., Showing Retaining Wall to Prevent Flooding 12 Large-mouthed Black Bass (Micropterus salmoides) . . 24 Small-mouthed Black Bass (Micropterus Dolomieu) . . 24 Cribs Surrounding Bass Nests 42 Pond for Calico, or Grass, Bass, at Linlithgo, N. Y. . . 48 The Pumpkin-Seed or Sun-fish (Lepomis gibbosus) . . 54 The Long-Eared Sun-fish (Lepomis auritus) 54 The Calico, Grass, Bass (Pomoxys sparoides) .... 56 The Rock-Bass (Ambloplites rupestris) 66 Yellow Cat-fish (Leptops olivaris) ........ 60 Common Bullhead (Ameiurus nebulosus) . . ... ... . 60 Methods of Shading Trout Ponds . . ... . .... 96 Intake from a Trout Pond . . , : >- : ., : ., > . ; . . 104 A Dam and Covered Raceway . . ; . 3 > : m M w > .104 A Trout Hatching-trough 116 Feeding Mature Trout .... : . ;.. ... >: ... ... - H6 Chain-Pickerel, in an Aquarium ... : . ( .... 200 Striped Bass (Roccus lineatus) . 214 Common, or White, Sucker (Catostomus teres) . . . .214 FISH CULTUEE FISH CULTURE CHAPTEE I POND-CULTUKE OF BLACK BASS WHEN the propagation of bass was first un- dertaken in the United States, it was speedily discovered that it is impossible to express eggs and milt artificially from the ripe female and male. The handling of ripe bass produces a nervous condition which prevents their eject- ment, and affects even a fish taken from the nest in the act of spawning. Fish-culturists were then driven to resort to pond-culture ; that is, to prepare bodies of water in which the fish might naturally spawn and hatch their young. Temperature and Volume of Water. As bass naturally inhabit warmer waters than trout, it follows that water for a bass-cultural plant in the Northern States must not be directly from a spring or be of low temperature. 4 FISH CULTURE Eiver, stream or lake water, which during the spawning season will not fall below 55 degrees, preferably below 60 degrees, and only becomes muddy after exceptionally heavy storms, and then for a short time only, is necessary. Dur- ing the breeding season, higher temperatures than those named, and water perpetually clean, are very much to be desired. At 50 degrees the fish will not spawn; and at 45 degrees both eggs and fry will die. A great volume of water is unnecessary, al- though desirable, since it insures one against any fear of a shortage in drought. Under ordinary circumstances 500 gallons of water a minute will be ample to operate a very large plant, but, whatever the volume, it is of the utmost importance that it be under complete control. A fish-culturist who cannot regulate his water-supply is likely to lose two-thirds of his chances for successful work. Water that becomes roily through storms is not objectionable, provided the roiling is not continued too long or is of too frequent occur- rence, especially while the nests contain eggs. For a short time muddy water has no percept- POND-CULTUBE OF BLACK BASS ; A 5 ible effect on fry, or advanced fry, and is bene 7 ficial to mature fish. As a rule the best water for both kinds of bass is from a stream draining a lake. It is even more desirable when taken directly from the lake itself, because it is better aerated and probably contains more plankton, or minute surface forms of animal life which are essen- tial as food for advanced fry and young bass', and which are taken unconsciously by the large fish. Next to water flowing from a lake is stream water which is not too frequently spring fed ; and after this in value is river water. ^Choice of Site. Three conditions are neces- sary as a basis for successful cultivation of small-mouthed bass ; a favourable site, properly constructed ponds, and suitable water. Nearly all other problems which may and will arise are either subordinate or sequences. When seeking a suitable site for bass-ponds, a decided pitch in the ground is not vital, as it is only necessary to have sufficient for complete drainage. A relatively large area of ground is required if many thousand young fish are to be fed, say at least 25 acres. A pond of half 6 FISH CULTUBE or three quarters of an acre cannot be expected to yield more than 100,000 young fish, even with a suitable number of accompanying fry-ponds : indeed, not more than 50,000 or 60,000 could ordinarily be expected. Character of the Bottom. When the small- mouthed bass seeks a site for a nest it al- most invariably selects a gravelly or rocky bot- tom; but this is about the last selection the ex- perienced bass-culturist will make for his pond. His first choice would probably be a heavy clay through which water cannot percolate, or a spot where the bottom can be made water-tight by puddling it with clay. A stony or gravelly bottom is not desirable, at least for breeding- ponds, because the fish-culturist cannot have absolute control over his brood-fish, as it would be impossible to force them to use artificial nests. Mucky ground for smallmouth-breed- ing should be avoided, because in moving about the fish are apt to keep the water muddy, thus preventing frequent observation, a very im- portant feature in bass-culture. Swamp-land is worthy of very favourable consideration, be- cause, while the surface is apt to be wet and POND-CULTUKE OF BLACK BASS 7 soggy, the underlying material is likely to be clay or heavy loam, impervious to seepage. On the size and character of the gravelly spots or muck-holes in it must rest the availability of such property for the purposes of bass-ponds. A pond cannot be built over a muck-hole of any considerable depth. Dams and Reservoirs. 'K wise man will not build a pond for breeding bass by throwing a) Sam across the stream which supplies the water for his establishment. There are cogent reasons for not using the bed of a stream for such a purpose, among which are the fact that the water-supply is beyond the owner's con- trol, and in case of heavy rains he stands a good chance of losing his entire stock. Not having entire control of the supply, the fish- culturist would also be at the mercy of varying conditions of water-temperature. Further- more, mud is almost certain to gather in the bottoms, and there is danger of eggs being smothered by it. All ponds for a bass-cultural plant should therefore be built to the right or left of the supplying stream, and the water let into them 8 FISH CULTURE by pipe or sluice, arranged as is recommended hereafter. The first work to be done is to make such arrangements as will insure the easy flowing of water from the sources to any part of the grounds. If the fall in the land is sufficient, a pipe of adequate size may be laid in the creek at the upper end of the grounds, or above them, so that the water can be carried to the pond by gravity. When such piping is not feasible, a dam must be built at the upper end of the prop- erty high enough to carry the water where de- sired. What may be called the reservoir, or supply-dam, should not be solid from shore to shore, but have a wide sluiceway at the chan- nel-point, closed by splash-boards or gates, which may be removed or opened during freshets to carry away the surplus water and maintain the reservoir at as nearly a normal height as possible. Where it can be done, an ideal plan is to establish a regular reservoir at the upper end of the establishment, where the water can rest awhile, subside and breed plankton, and from which the supply for^the hatchery can be drawn. POND-CULTUKE OF BLACK BASS 9 Concrete is the best material for dams across a stream, but whether built of concrete, timber or masonry, the lower face should not be per- pendicular, especially if the stream is large or its volume frequently changes, for if it is the falling water will rapidly wash a big pool at the base of the dam and is apt to cut under the foundation. To ensure permanency the lower face of the dam should be sloped, either un- brokenly or in a slightly reversed curve from the crown. The curved construction is the most approved form to prevent pool formation and undermining. Construction of Ponds. Ponds for black bass may be dug below the surface of the ground or built above it to accommodate the pitch of the land, the fancy of the owner, or the reputa- tion of the supplying stream for flooding. If the land is flat, and the water to be introduced by means of a dam across the stream, naturally the ponds will be dug below the surface, and perhaps in addition will need sides built up for some distance above. If the land has a decided pitch, then the natural course will be to build the ponds entirely or almost entirely above the 10 FISH CULTURE surface. Such construction may be considered as ideal, because perfect drainage is then cer- tain. Earlier bass-culture was conducted in ponds of very small dimensions, but with advancing experience the area for breeding-fish was in- creased, until now some almost approach the size of lakes. Few now in use for breeders are less than 200 by 75 feet; and the tendency is to make them much larger. Four to five acres, however, is about the limit that can conveniently be cared for ; and those who breed bass feel that even that space can be more satisfactorily handled, and with better results, when divided into two or three breeding-ponds than as a single body of water. Owing to the expense of constructing very large ponds, and the length of time required for their completion, it is ad- visable when starting a bass plant to build one or two ponds about 300 by 100 feet in order that there may be an early stock of young fish. Depth and Bottom. The bottom of a pond for fish-cultural purposes is divided into two parts, one called the " kettle," and the other the " spawning-shelf," or simply " shelf." The POND-CULTURE OF BLACK BASS 11 first is an area at the outlet end of the pond deeper than the shelf and intended as the winter quarters of the bass. The second is the area in which the bass spawn and spend the greater part of the year, and is the shoalest part of the pond, as well as of the greatest extent. Some culturists prefer to construct a bottom which slopes gradually downward from the upper or inlet end to the lower or outlet. Un- questionably fish seem to do as well in a pond of this character, and it does not necessarily mean a loss of the spawning area. Bass often build their nests in from six to eight feet of water, although in such instances it is usually late in the season. Ponds with a sloping bot- tom throughout are not nearly as easily handled and cared for as those in which the water over the spawning shelf is approximately of even depth. One desirable feature is the greater ease with which the action and progress of the fish may be watched during the spawning period, or at any other time. Close observation of bass is essential during the height of the spawning season. At times there will be fresh- ly laid eggs, eyed eggs, eggs just hatched, fry 12 FISH CULTURE freshly hatched, fry collected and ready to rise towards the surface of the water, all at the same time. Fry have been seen at nine oclock in the morning tight against the bottom, and at three o'clock in the afternoon swimming near the sur- face. On occasions fry may be hugging the stones on the nest, and half an hour later be swimming freely two or three inches above tho bottom. In deep water or on sloping bottoms, movements of the fry are apt to escape notice. Before the culturist is aware of it, he will find: the edges of his pond black with advanced fry which have escaped being impounded, and which he will find extremely difficult to capture in their entirety. Sides and Outlets. Ponds with sides of natural earth are better than those with sides constructed of concrete, stones or boards. Be- sides, the cost of artificial walls would be so great as to be almost prohibitive. The only drawback to the natural earth is the proneness of muskrats to pierce them with holes, which de- stroy the banks and often allow water to escape. The sides of a bass-pond should always be BASS HATCHERY AT MILL CREEK, MICH., SHOWING RE- TAINING-WALL TO PREVENT FLOODING. POND-CULTUKE OF BLACK BASS 13 sodded to the water's edge, both for beauty and for the encouragement of grasshoppers and crickets, which will occasionally fall into the water and furnish food for the fish. There should be a valve or regulating board at every water-intake, so as to guage and control the quantity of water used. The inflow-pipe or sluice ought to be carefully screened, in order to prevent the entry of any undesirable water- life, as eels, and mud-puppies (otherwise known as water-dogs or hellbenders) either of which can do considerable damage. The outlet of the brood-pond may be by splash-board or pipe, but whichever is adopted it must be enclosed by screens, to prevent either mature or small fish from escaping. The desirable place for the outlet is the centre of the breast of the pond. It is also very important that arrangements be made by which the water can be drawn off gradually when desired, so as not to create a suction sufficient to carry out of the pond any small fish, which may have escaped from cribs or pounds. Brood-ponds should contain aquatic plants, such as the common water-lily (Nymphia 14 FISH CULTURE odorata)* During hot summer days bass love to lie underneath the shade of its leaves, but care must be taken not to permit the plants to gain such a strong hold as to clog the pond and prevent free work. Quarters for Fry and Fingerlings. Ponds for the exclusive use of the advanced fry or fingerlings of bass are just as necessary as ponds for brood-fish. It is difficult to have too many ponds. It is recommended that there be not less than five fry-ponds for every brood- pond of about ten thousand square feet, and each of considerable area, with a combined area equal at least to that of the brood-pond. The more room there is for the advanced fry and fingerlings the less will be the amount of canni- balism. A large number of medium-sized ponds for advanced fry and fingerlings, instead of one or two large ponds, is preferable, because it is es- sential to control or closely supervise the fish, which cannot be done if the body of water is very large. The dimensions of the fry-ponds will be governed by the available ground, the quantity of natural food which can be bred, POND-CULTURE OF BLACK BASS 15 the convenience of handling, and the number of fish to be placed therein. Again, it is emphasised on general principles that the smaller the number of advanced fry; placed in a rearing-pond, the greater will be the percentage when the period arrives for their distribution. A pond of less than 30 by 20 feet ought not to be considered for a moment, since it would hardly rear 2,000 fish to be two months old, probably much less. About 2500 square feet, carrying approximately 20,000 advanced fry to the age of thirty days, or the fingerling stage, may be considered as a minimum. The depth of water in the fry-pond is an im- portant consideration. Young bass being rapid growers during the first few months, in order that they may develop freely and quickly should have the highest temperature of water naturally obtainable, so long as it does not ex- ceed 85 degrees. It is for this reason that fry ponds for bass are seldom more than two feet deep, with a minimum of 12 inches, and with a kettle at the lower end to facilitate the use of a net when the water is drained off to take out the fish. 16 FISH CULTURE The shape of a fry-pond is immaterial, pro- viding there are not many angles to prevent quick and easy seining ; yet it is an economy to have fry-ponds longer than their width, so that they may be more easily seined, since the method is to seine them lengthwise and not across. Fry-ponds are to be located as close to the breeding-ponds as possible, chiefly on account of convenience in transferring, and close to- gether, so that when sorting takes place the different sizes of fish may be quickly changed from one to another. If there be any consider- able number they should be divided into groups, each with a separate drainage system, and a separate water-supply; for, as high tempera- tures are necessary, such waters lose their health-giving qualities very rapidly. As soon as possible ponds enough should be built to have two complete sets for use in alter- nate years, so that while one set is used the other can be drawn entirely clear of water from September until March. Two sets of ponds will be found useful also because of the rapid growth of aquatic plants, an essential feature POND-CULTUKE OF BLACK BASS 17 of a brood-pond. The drawing off of water en- tirely from September until March is desirable because it encourages the growth of plankton, an essential feature in successful bass-culture, and also because it destroys the larvae of the dragon-fly, and of water-beetles, the water- beetles themselves and the crayfish, all destruc- tive although furnishing food for the fishes. Finally, the periodical drawing off of water as- sists in keeping algae in check, one of the greatest nuisances known to fish-culturists. Introduction of the Stock. For some years it was universally believed that mature bass must, under all circumstances, be intro- duced from their wild habitat into the hatchery in the autumn, to insure their spawning the fol- lowing spring. An impression prevailed that the fish required time to accustom themselves to their new environments, and to recover from the excitement or terror of capture and trans- portation. Those who entertained this view may have acquired it from the knowledge that some- times, after abortive efforts had been made to express eggs from a ripe female, she was un- 18 FISH CULTUEE able to perform that function herself. But tKe experiences of Dwight Lydell, and of the late Frank N. Clark, two authorities on the culture of small-mouthed bass, and the observations of others, seem to show conclusively that neither terror nor excitement can be taken as an explanation. Moreover, the same authori- ties demonstrated that small-mouthed bass may be introduced into hatchery ponds in the spring and spawn the same season only when intro- duced not earlier than ten days before the regular spawning period. It is therefore a hazardous procedure to depart from the prac- tice of autumn introduction in the case of the smallmouth. The spawning habits of the largemouths, on the contrary, do not seem to be affected or disturbed in any manner by the time of their capture. Whether caught in au- tumn, early spring, or when ripe, seems to them a matter of indifference, for when the breeding season arrives they follow the in- stincts of their nature and fulfil the function of reproduction. A cautious bass man will put off securing his supply of mature fish in the fall as long as he POND-CULTUKE OF BLACK BASS 1ft can safely do so. If lie captures them while the water is yet warm he is likely to lose many of his best specimens through fungus. Be- sides that, he does not want to begin taking care of a lot of fish and providing food for them until he has to do so. If the fish are in- troduced in the fall, as it is impossible at that time to distinguish sex, it is better to have more than needed. The trouble and cost of caring for any surplus during the winter is trifling. "When spring arrives, and the fish develop to the point where the sex can be determined, sorting must begin and continue until the requisite number of males and females is secured. Feeding Mature Bass. For a day or two after wild mature bass have been placed in a breeding-pond it is not worth while to at- tempt to feed them. It is better to allow them a little time to grow accustomed to their new quarters, and also to become quite hungry. One of the difficult tasks to accomplish is to induce small-mouthed bass to take other than live food, especially when there are no domes- ticated fish already in the pond; if bass are 20 FISH CULTUEE already there the work is greatly simplified, because the new comers, seeing the " oldsters " rush forward to the meal, are more likely to do likewise, if only to gratify their natural in- stinct to keep their fellows from getting any- thing they can possess for themselves. Bass-culturists naturally resort to beef lungs and liver if live food cannot be furnished. Some believe it essential to cut these into slices about the bigness of one's little finger, so as to make the pieces somewhat resemble worms or fishes, and give them a wriggling mo- tion as they sink, deceiving the bass into think- ing that they are alive. The experience of others shows that the energy expended in doing this is unnecessary, for small-mouthed bass can be induced to take lungs and liver cut in an ordinary meat chopper through the largest perforated plate, if time and patience are ex- ercised. As soon as smallmouths have be- come used to this food, they will eat it as readily and eagerly as trout. Bass, even in ponds, do not school as closely or move with the same speed as trout, there- fore artificial food must not be thrown at them POND-CULTUKE OF BLACK BASS 21 as rapidly or in the same manner as when feed- ing trout. At the outset, when teaching bass to take lungs and liver, only a piece or two at a time should be cast into the water, and then by the hand and not by means of a dipper or spoon. If the pieces can be thrown so as to cause them to skip a little, the chances of the fish taking them will be greatly increased. When feeding the first few times, mixing with it a few minnows will induce the fish to take the artificial food more readily. The best plan is to throw two or three little strips of lung, then a minnow or two, and immediately after a few more pieces of meat. Mature bass may become accustomed to tHe artificial food in a week or two, but the cul- turist need not lose heart if at the end of five or six weeks they have not yet brought them- selves to feed upon it. Efforts must be con- tinued, for sooner or later, success will be achieved. It will be a great aid if the feeder makes a practice of casting the food upon the water daily from the same spot on the bank of the pond, for fish soon become accustomed to their attendant and his ways, and if they are 22 FISH CULTURE hungry hasten to the customary spot when he appears in the hope of getting something to eat. One fish-culturist never passes his feed- ing-place without throwing some small objects into the water, even if it is only a handful of pebbles. The consequence is that whenever he appears there is a rush of fish after him and they will almost take liver from his fingers. Minnows. Small-mouthed bass grow sleek and healthy on liver and lungs, although it is admitted that minnows and crayfish, if they can be secured, are the best food that can be given. It is surprising what a quantity of minnows a few bass can devour and digest in a very short space of time. One hundred ma- ture bass can readily dispose of 800 of the small fishes without any trouble whatever in an hour, when fed to them two or three at a time. It is not advisable to furnish so many, however, for if the bass average two apiece, per day, they will not starve. Neither is it well to feed them in such a way that by the time the assistant is through all the minnows have disappeared. Some advocate feeding one half the number allotted for a meal, two and POND-CULTURE OF BLACK BASS 23 three at a time, and then casting in the re- mainder at once. It is argued that by this method many of the minnows will escape for the time being, and keep the bass busy for, half a day or more hunting them. This search- ing for the food some men declare to be bene- ficial. There is one important exception to this rule, however, namely, that just before the spawning time the minnows must be thrown in one at a time and eaten before another is tossed in. It is inevitable that some nests will be stolen and some may escape observation. When this is the case, if there are any number of minnows at large in the pond, they will have the time of their lives when they come upon the young bass. They know their opportunity and will seize it. They are much larger than the bass-fry, and a hundred or two healthy minnows can easily devour several thousand fry in two or three days; hence there must be no minnows alive and free in the breeding- pond at spawning time. CHAPTEE II SPAWNING OF BLACK BASS AND CAEB OF FEY HAVING considered the character of the pond, the quality and volume of the water-supply and its disposition, the next important point for presentation is that of the nests and their adjuncts. Bass nests in a hatchery are of two Mnds: those provided by the culturist, and those which the bass themselves make. Artificial nests consist of a box containing coarse gravel. The size of the box is some- times determined by the size of the fish in the breeding-pond, but ordinarily it is two feet square, with two sides open. The bottom is fitted with two strips, three to six inches wide. The thicker the strips, the deeper the bed of gravel. The top of the box is provided with a board to strengthen it, and on which to place a weight to keep the apparatus steady in the 24 LARGE-MOUTHED BLACK BASS (Micropterus Salmoides). .SMALL-MOUTHED BLACK BASS (Micropterus Dolomieu). SPAWNING OF BLACK BASS 25 water, as well as to act as a sunshade to the fish. A spot several inches deep and two feet square is excavated in the pond, the box is placed therein, and the hole filled with gravel, varying from the size of a goose-egg to that of a marble, to the top-level of the strips. It is policy to place some of the large stones in the centre, as a bass would do if it were construct- ing the nest. It is the male that selects the site for the nest and gets it ready for use. He does this before he has even looked about him for a mate. If he has started early in the season, say the latter part of May, while he is yet un- ripe or "hard," he sometimes digs for days before the nest is completed to his satisfaction. Construction of the Natural Nest. The nest-building season begins usually about the middle or latter part of May and sometimes does not end until after the first week in July. As a rule the site for a nest is selected with great care and with close attention to sur- rounding conditions. Bottoms with small loose stones, or with gravel or clean sand, are invariably preferred. Places with large rocks 26 FISH CULTURE or immovable stones are generally avoided. Early in the spring nests are located in shal- lows where the water is likely to catch the warming rays of the sun earliest and receive them the longest, but nests will often be located in places shaded throughout the day; and to- ward the close of the season they may be con- structed in seven or more feet of water, doubt- less because the shallows have become too warm for the proper hatching of the eggs. Wherever possible, a natural nest is placed in close proximity to a large stone, a sunken log or some other submerged object, which will protect it from being violently washed by the water in stormy weather. A site selected, the male bass clears away the mud and debris from a circular space, by ex- ceedingly rapid fanning motions of the pec- toral and ventral fins, and by slower sweeps of his tail. Leaves and sticks are carried outside the enclosure in his mouth. Stones and pebbles are pushed into place by means of his nose. Usually a slight concavity is noticed in the natural nest, and should be imitated in the artificial one. Sometimes a natural nest is SPAWNING OF BLACK BASS 27 found almost perfectly level, due it is believed to the rapid ripening of the male, which pre- vents his completion of the work. If he is nearly ripe, he is less likely to spend much time in construction, but devotes himself rather to thoroughly cleaning it and to working the larger gravel to the centre, the two most im- portant considerations. The larger stones are centred in the nest because it is among them that the bulk of the eggs are to be deposited. Courting the Female. When his house is ready, the male bass seeks a female and pays court to the first that he meets. He does so without ascertaining whether or not she is ripe, reserving for himself the privilege of reject- ing or divorcing her after she has been to the nest and proves unripe. On encountering a female he begins the most grotesque contor- tions. He will swim around her in erratic circles, will nip her gently on the cheeks and belly, rub against her and show himself off, in his way, just as proudly as a cock bird does when courting a hen. All the time he guides her steadily towards the nest. At times she appears to accompany him willingly; then 28 FISH CULTUEE again she displays indifference and even re- luctance at accepting his advances. When at last he has succeeded in coaxing her to the nest, it seems as if the coquette regarded his work of nest-building with scorn or contempt. She is apt to swim languidly several times over the nest and then leave it, to the evident perturba- tion of the male, for he redoubles his antics and contortions, exhibiting as many as a negro in a "cake walk," and guides her back again to the nest. This courting sometimes continues for two or three hours before the female consents to remain. Then if he finds she is hard, and the eggs cannot be expressed, he promptly drives her away and goes in search of another female, to whom he pays as assiduous court as he did to the first. Should she prove ripe, the func- tion of spawning is begun. If much delay oc- curs in meeting a ripe female, he does not accept the fact philosophically, but "runs amuck." He darts hither and thither over the pond, and at the first nest in which he discovers a ripe female, there ensues at once a free fight. The raging bachelor dashes into the peaceful SPAWNING OF BLACK BASS 29 household, and does his best to thrash the male owner and appropriate his mate. It is a bat- tle often to the death, a struggle in which no quarter is desired nor given, and in which the female is apparently an uninterested specta- tor, ready to accompany the victor. Whatever the outcome, the nest is nearly certain to be destroyed. On account of the propensity of the male to go to war when unable to find a ripe female, it is consid- ered best by some not to stock a breeding-pond with pairs, but to introduce females in the proportion of about five females to three males. The surplus is not lost, because it often happens that a male will nest a second time, if he comes upon a ripe female after he has hatched out the first lot of young and discards them. All fish-culturists, however, do not advocate or practice having the sexes in the proportion of five females to three males. On the contrary, the majority probably pair the fish evenly, and assert that no ill effects have ever followed doing so. It is a curious fact that no matter how many nests there are in a pond every male is able to distinguish his own from his neighbour 's. A male may be removed from the nest at one end of the pond, taken to the other and liberated, yet, even if the distance is a mile or more, it will not be long before he will be found 30 FISH CULTUEE back again on the nest he constructed. To prove this fact it is only necessary to catch a male, mark him and liberate him at once. While the black bass is usually satisfied with one female, monogamy is not an invariable habit. It is said that sometimes a male, seeing a female passing the nest, although he already has a mate, will rush out and bring in the stranger, and add her to the household. It is also said that occasionally, for some reason or other, before the female has finished ejecting her eggs, the male will become dissatisfied with her, drive her away and bring in another mate to take her place. Again, if a female is not attracted by the par- ticular male, he will sometimes have great difficulty in inducing her to remain. She will make efforts to escape while he is doing all in his power to keep her. Sometimes she succeeds in getting away, and mates with another male, but rarely without a terrible battle in which she may lose one or more of her fins, or be otherwise injured. It is possible that when the female is dissatisfied, it may not be due to a lack of attraction on the part of the male, but that she is not suited with the nest, particularly if it is restricted by an arti- ficial box. Behaviour when Spawning. The act of spawning and impregnation is exceedingly in- teresting. The male and female pass each other in opposite directions, pressing their SPAWNING OF BLACK BASS 31 bodies together, and thus assisting each other in voiding the eggs and milt which issue almost simultaneously, the eggs possibly an instant ahead of the milt. If the eggs do not come freely, the male will sometimes go to the length of pressing the abdomen of the female with his mouth, she working her tail rapidly as if to loosen the tissues ; indeed, frequent and plainly visible tremors shake both male and female from head to tail throughout the entire process. The female does not yield all her eggs at once. The larger the fish and the warmer the water the greater will be the number of eggs deposited at a single spawning. As a rule, one period of spawning covers about half an hour, but even then there is not an uninterrupted flow of eggs ; they issue in little spurts or jets, from 30 to 60 seconds apart. There may be, also, intervals from three to five minutes, dur- ing which the pair swim around the nest, coquetting with one another. At the end of half an hour there is a cessation of egg-laying, of indeterminate length, depending on the temperature of the water and upon the condi- tion of the female. As a rule, two or three 32 FISH CULTUEE days elapse before all the eggs are deposited. As soon as all the eggs are laid, the male drives the female away and assumes full charge of caring for the eggs and hatching them. He moves slowly back and forth a few inches above the nest, with intervals for rest of perhaps a minute, keeping his pectoral fins moving all the time, so as to fan away all dirt or sediment, and often raising his body to an acute angle so as to bring the fanning tail-fin closer to the eggs. Every few minutes he will carefully scrutinise all parts of the nest, to make sure there is no dirt anywhere ; and will make short excursions to see that no enemies nor curious fish are approaching too near. During this period he exhibits marked savagery, seems to have lost nearly all sense of fear. At such times a bass has been known to rush fiercely at a man's hand thrust into the water, and bite it with all his might. After the eggs have hatched, and when the culturist is dipping the advanced fry from the nest, it is not uncommon to have the old male rush at the net and sometimes tear it. It is unsafe for any fish to approach a nest while it is occupied SPAWNING OF BLACK BASS 33 by eggs or fry, for a bass will not hesitate to attack a fish three or four times its own size, and will invariably succeed in driving it away, unless, as before described, it is another black bass, one on a rampage for a mate. A bass of one and a half pounds will put to flight two or three carp of twenty to twenty-five pounds' weight. Bass which have been kept in breeding-ponds lose to some extent, in course of time, the viciousness they display in a wild state when spawning. Seeing mankind as often as they do, and receiving food from their keepers regularly, the fish become domesticated, and the regular attendant, if he moves quietly, can go around the pond and attend to his work without disturbing them. Still, it is always better at spawning time to approach a nest only when necessary, and then in the quietest and most inconspicuous manner possible. Domestication of bass never extends to a point where the male views a disturbance of his nest with resignation. While not always as vicious as when in a wild state, he will often display strong anger and bite a man's bare legs if he 34 FISH CULTURE wades into the water, or strike at Ms hands or at the net when the nest is being tampered with. During all the time of building the nest and watching the eggs, and until long after the little fish are hatched, the male bass does not usually take any food. If food be dropped into the nest he will pick it up and throw it outside. It is said to be a fact that if a fish has been killed, or for some reason driven from the nest while the eggs are still un- hatched, and another male comes along -and takes possession, instead of assuming charge and hatching the eggs as he finds them he will simply treat the eggs as dirt, clean the nest, and bring in a female to deposit a new stock. Another curiosity of the spawning period is the frequency with which a male will select for his mate a female much larger than himself. Out of forty-seven nests which I examined in one natural pond, two-thirds of the males were much smaller than the females; and, as a rule, a female bass is larger than a male of the same age. Except for a short time before spawning actually begins it is extremely difficult to dis- SPAWNING OF BLACK BASS 35 tingnish the male from the female, indeed most fish-cultnrists say it is impossible to do so, in spite of the contrary belief among fish- ermen. Jnst before spawning time the females are rounder in outline than the males. Barrenness occurs to a greater or less extent among all fresh-water fishes, but this does not imply that a female will be barren throughout her life. Some may be barren one year and never again until there comes what may be called a " change of life"; or barren for two or even three successive years, and then produce good eggs. Intermittent barrenness is more common among introduced fishes in captivity than among wild indigenous species. One of the most conspicuous ex- amples in the eastern United States is the rainbow trout, of which half of the females in a single pond have been barren in one year, and at the same time half of the males were either without milt, or yielded infertile milt. This, however, is merely an illustration of a well known law of nature, that changed environ- ment is likely to produce sterility in animal life. Preference for Natural Nests. Many men urge that artificial bass-nests should not be placed nearer together than ten to fifteen feet; and that the boxes ought to be so arranged that the fish on one nest cannot see the fish on an- 36 FISH CULTUEE other; yet in particular cases, where it was necessary for the nests actually to face each other, no trouble was experienced. Moreover, a number of bass have built natural nests im- mediately outside and against the boxes of some of the occupied artificial nests, and were not disturbed. Several other fish built natural nests close together and appeared to get along well. This becomes more significant from the fact that these bass were not domesticated in any way, but were wild fish caught during the spring in Lake Erie, and introduced into the breeding-ponds, where they built nests and spawned a few days after their arrival. In every pond fish will be found which ab- solutely refuse to make use of nests prepared for them, however carefully constructed, but will build their own, sometimes of inferior con- struction. Some bass have, on occasions, carried their apparently obstinate rejection of an artificial nest so far as to scoop out a hole in the muddy bottom, in which unfavourable situation eggs were deposited and hatched. Often the natural nests are larger and con- tain more eggs than those which are artificially SPAWNING OF BLACK BASS 37 built. A skilled bass-culturist in commenting on this peculiarity said: "In the use of the artificial or box nests, it is pos- sible that the female selected by the male may be an extraordinary fish. In their maneuvres back and forth on the nest, it is my opinion that the female sometimes becomes tired of her confinement, refuses all persuasion of the male, and will not remain on the nest until all of her eggs are cast. I noticed particu- larly in one season, that the larger fish nearly always occupied the natural nests, and it would naturally follow that there would be found the largest number of eggs. Of course this idea will not prevent an in- crease in the size of the artificial box, but even then, in my opinion, they are sometimes cramped for room." There is reason to believe that this opinion is nearly correct, and it leads to the thought that whenever the size and the character of the bottom of a pond will permit it, natural nests will be productive of more eggs and fish than the same ponds with only artificial nests. The bass-culturist quoted above, an ardent believer in natural nests, said further: "Where ponds are small in area, it is perhaps nec- essary that artificial nests of some character be used, 38 FISH CULTURE so as to provide more or less seclusion. From my observation and experience, I should prefer, where conditions permitted, to build no nests, but prepare for the spawning season by arranging the pond as follows: I should construct the edges or shores of the pond in irregular shape, allowing a point to pro- ject here and there, creating small bays, somewhat like one or two of the ponds at the Drayton Plains Hatchery, Michigan. Then instead of using the arti- ficial or box-nest, I should simply provide a sunshade, set upon props or sticks, leaving all sides free and open to the unrestricted movements of the fish. In a pond of large area, I am satisfied that this is ample shelter. It is only needed to protect the fish, while hovering over the nest, from the direct rays of the sun. The size and area of the pond would furnish the same seclusion that is given in a pond of smaller size by the box or Lydell nest." Bass-fry and their Care. When the young small-mouthed bass issue from the eggs they are exceedingly small and almost transparent; but in from 24 to 48 hours, depending on the temperature of the water, they change to dark brown and then to black, and resemble a newly hatched tadpole. There is no such quick change of colour with the large-mouthed bass, in which the early stages of development of the SPAWNING OF BLACK BASS 39 fry proceed much more slowly than in the case of the smallmouth. During the sac stage the fry of the small- mouth huddle close among the stones in the nest, a quivering and almost solid black mass. In this period they cling so closely to the stones that it is impossible to remove them without in- juring and killing large numbers. As the fish approach the advanced-fry stage they begin slowly to rise. When the metamorphosis is completed they approach close to the surface, provided the water-temperature is right. If when they are rising the temperature falls the little fish will drop at once to the bottom. The ascent from the nest to the surface is not sud- den but gradual, and by a series of upward and downward movements, covering a period of about three days. A rise of a few inches is the limit for the first day, and about a foot or more the second, if the water-conditions are favourable, or if there is that much depth. The shallower the water the more rapid will be the ascent, which means of course, a more rapid de- velopment of the fry, on account of a higher water-temperature. The third rise is usually 40 FISH CULTURE to within a few inches of the surface, regard- less of the depth of the water. Each day, as night approaches, the fry sink back to the nest, due to the fact that the water becomes cooler. After the lapse of a few days, if the advanced fry are not confined in cribs, the male parent crowds them toward the shore and abandons them. The period from the time of hatching to the time of abandonment, is from seven to ten days, under ordinarily favourable conditions. For about twenty-four hours after this, the little fish swim together in detached schools, gradually separating until they finally become almost solitary in their habits. They then ex- hibit pronounced cannibalistic habits, pursuing and devouring each other, or attempting to do so. In a wild state however, the young bass at this period of their lives do not terrorise other forms of fish-life. On the contrary, small yellow perch, shiners and even minnows, regard them as tidbits, and for days the young bass are kept busy escaping the maw of those who a few months later will in turn scurry to places of safety on their approach. SPAWNING OF BLACK BASS 41 Cannibalism of Bass. Of all fresh-water fish, the small-mouthed bass from infancy, and the largemouth from a year old, are the most inveterate cannibals. "Were it not for their high qualities as food and game, their intro- duction into any water could only be regarded as a misfortune. Cannibalism with the small- mouth begins within a day or two after they have become advanced fry, increases in inten- sity as they grow older, and continues until death overtakes the fish. It is this craving for the flesh of their own kind that makes it diffi- cult to rear bass to maturity in large numbers in captivity. When, with rare devotion, the male parent watches the eggs, cares for the fry and ad- vanced fry to the point of driving them to shore, preparatory to abandoning them, there is no indication whatever of his cannibalistic habits ; but no sooner has he driven them into shelter among the weeds where he leaves them, than his appetite returns, not only with full force, but whetted by his abstinence of two or three weeks when a housekeeper. At this critical moment, he will devour as many of his progeny 42 FISH CULTUEE as lie can catch. The young bass that escape have learned in a rude school what to expect from older fish, and, their instinct suddenly de- veloped by the object-lesson they have had, proceed at once to imitate their parent by try- ing to devour each other. Very rapidly the smaller and weaker succumb to the superior strength and speed of the larger. It is a struggle for existence and the survival of the strongest. No amount of food given is sufficient to en- tirely conquer this instinct of cannibalism. On one occasion 20,000 fingerlings were placed in a pond in July, to be retained there until October. They were fed six times a day, with ground fish, which they ate ravenously, and it was estimated that each day there was given about three times their aggregate weight in food; yet despite the quantity of food given and the oversight exercised, when they were counted the 20,000 fish in July had dwindled to 11,000 in October. Those which survived had grown wonderfully. None was less than four inches in length, and some were over seven inches. SPAWNING OF BLACK BASS 43 'Critis cmd Nest-boxes. When the eggs in the hatchery have all hatched in any one nest, a crib or screen is usually placed around it to confine the young fish until the time arrives to transfer them to the fry-pond. The nests vary much in size as well as in the number of eggs which are deposited therein ; consequently it is important that if a crib be used to surround the fry it should be of large diameter (usually 2 ft. 6 inches). A crib is a circular frame- work of heavy band-iron, with the sides covered with cheese-cloth or thin muslin of good quality. The top and bottom are left open. As it is im- portant that the top of a crib be at least six inches above the surface of the water, the depth will determine its height, which should not be less than four feet. Yet it is not a serious matter if a crib be of less size than the nest, because the male will keep the young outside of it close to the crib ; when these outsiders begin to rise, the attendants can gather them up with a scap-net, but under such circumstances it is impossible to prevent a few small bass from escaping, and the work of saving the advanced fry is very much increased. Those who have 44 FISH CULTUEE had experience in gathering fry from around cribs have noticed that with each succeed- ing attempt to gather in the little fish, they be- come wilder and harder to catch. If the crib be of sufficient size to completely surround the largest nest, all this work is easily avoided. The crib is slipped around the wooden nest, and as soon as it is finally settled, so that the lower rim is well imbedded in the bottom of the pond, the wooden nest is carefully lifted out. It is exceedingly important that the bottom of the crib be firmly planted in the floor of the pond, so as to obviate the possibility of any of the little fish escaping. It may be held in place by a board laid across the top and a stone placed upon it, but this is rarely necessary ex- cepting in localities exposed to very high winds. If the nest is a natural or stolen one, of course the only thing to do is to set the crib about it, for there is nothing to remove. Some bass-breeders, instead of employing a circular crib of iron, make use of a square crib with wooden frame having the same diameter, held in place by anchoring it with cords to stones or to stakes. SPAWNING OF BLACK BASS 45 Nourishing Fry. The general practice is to allow the fry to remain in the cribs until the sac is entirely absorbed, and the fish rise to the surface. It is important that the advanced fry be removed from the crib the moment they be- gin to swim freely, for the reason that in the confined space they will dart at each other, often nipping off the pectoral or anal fins. Experiments made in feeding fry in cribs be- fore transferring them to the fry-ponds have shown satisfactory results. A bunch of chara moss was suspended by a string from the board on top of the crib about midway from the bot- tom, and the little fish immediately attacked the small crustaceans (daphnia and cyclops) which swarmed therein. The little fish thus fed were held ten days in the crib after they had swum; to the surface, making the total age of the fish fourteen or fifteen days when they were finally transferred to the fry-ponds. They were more than double the size of the fish which had not been fed in the crib, and there seemed to be a' perceptibly smaller amount of cannibalism. It is believed to be advantageous to feed the -fish before putting them in the fry-ponds, both 46 FISH CULTURE as a possible diversion from their cannibalistic instincts, and because it promotes growth. Every pond should be abundantly supplied with such aquatic plants as are particularly affected by such plankton as daphnia and cy- clops, as it has been found that this food causes a more rapid growth among the advanced fry than any artificial food which can be given them. The best aquatic plant for this purpose is chara moss. The potamogeton is also rec- ommended very highly, but it is not so satisfac- tory as the chara moss, especially for small- mouthed bass, which most fish-culturists now try to rear, and which are the most difficult with which to succeed. The chara moss forms a thick mat over the bottom of the pond; so thick, indeed, that unless frequently thinned too great a quantity will form and smother the young fish. It is most important that there always be kept a clear space of water, about a foot in width, on all sides of the ponds. By heavy feeding, both with natural and artificial food, and with a favourable water-tem- perature, smallmouth fry should be brought to SPAWNING OF BLACK BASS 47 a length of one and a half to two inches at the end of thirty-five days. It is doubtful whether they could be retained much longer without a heavy loss through cannibalism, since up to this point it has taken continuous labour and the utmost vigilance to rear a satisfactory num- ber. Cultivating the Large-mouthed Bass. For large-mouthed bass the principal require- ments are a large pond, similar to that already described, and the same water, with the shelf well covered with chara moss or coarse grass. The largemouth will clear up spots in this moss or grass, deposit the eggs thereon and hatch them. No artificial nests are necessary. The natural nests may be surrounded by cribs in the same way as for the small-mouthed bass, and at the proper time the young may be re- moved to the fry-ponds. The large-mouthed bass are much slower in turning a dark colour than the smallmouths. During the fry stage, they are not quite as can- nibalistic, although after they are placed in the fry-pond, and begin to feed freely, there is 48 FISH CULTURE little difference in this respect. They can be carried, hatched, and reared in a much lower grade of water than can be used for the small- mouth, and hence the chances for success with them are increased. CHAPTER HI EOCK-BASS, CALICO-BASS, AND SUN- FISHES ALTHOUGH among the smaller fishes, the rock- bass, calico-bass (or grass-bass), and two or three of the sun-fishes, are well worth attention by fish-culturists. They afford excellent food, and their game qualities are not to be despised by anglers. Of the sun-fishes the bluegill, or Lake Erie sun-fish, attains a size suitable for the market, and has a distinct commercial value. Its flesh is firm, sweet, and of high grade. It rises readily to an artificial fly, takes bait with avidity, and gives the angler a short but brisk fight. The eggs of the sun-fish can be taken and fertilised artificially, and a gratifying percent- age hatched; but it is found to be easier, cheaper, less troublesome, and quite as satis- factory, to allow the fish to spawn naturally, 49 50 FISH CULTURE and care for the fry themselves. It is even possible to leave the young in the same ponds with the adults, until, through growth, over- crowding is evident. Some cannibalism will naturally follow this method, but usually not to a serious extent. It is confined almost wholly to the older fish. This is true especially of the long-eared and bluegill sun-fishes. However, as the sun-fish is so prolific, and the propor- tion of eggs naturally fertilised so very large, some may be spared to supply the maws of the parents, and yet leave enough to make a good showing for the fish-culturist. The habits of rock-bass, calico-bass and sun- fishes, just before breeding time, during this period and after it, are very similar to those of the black bass, with the exception that the sun-fish is more inclined to polygamy; and that none of the three named has as strongly de- veloped cannibalistic habits as the black bass. The rock-bass is more apt to devour its young, and these young are more likely to eat each other, than are any of the sun-fishes. The calico-bass seems to hanker the least for the flesh of its kind. A pisciculturist may there- SMALL BASS AND SUN-FISH 51 fore, with, some degree of confidence, have either rock-bass and calico-bass, or calico-bass and sun-fish, breeding in the same pond. Nesting Habits. Bock-bass and sun-fish are decidedly gregarious during the spawning sea- son, and their nests are often found closely mingled. The whole of the bottom, or both sides of a pond, have been observed so thickly covered with sun-fish and rock-bass nests that they almost touched each other, the occupants apparently dwelling in amity. The same type of pond may be constructed for the three species as for black-bass breeders. It is un- necessary to build artificial nests unless the bottom be more than usually muddy, although! these three species prefer sandy or gravelly places on which to deposit their eggs. They desire from one to three feet of water in which to spawn. It is a curious fact that in Pennsyl- vania the four principal species instinctively choose, when they have the opportunity, differ- ent degrees of depths. Calico-bass will often build nests in six feet of water. The common " pumpkin-seed" selects a very shoal spot, and begins nest-building a few days earlier than its W FISH CULTURE cousin, tie common or long-eared. The blue- gill follows a few days later. The common! long-eared sun-fish usually locates a little deeper than the pumpkin-seed, while the blue* gill seeks the deepest water of them all. Spawning Time. The sun-fishes and the rock-has s do not begin spawning quite as early as the black bass. In fact they rarely begin nest-building until the latter have almost fin- ished hatching their eggs. It is seldom, when the bass begins spawning the latter part of May or the first of June, that sun-fish have started to clean up their nests. It is not until the end of the first week, or the beginning of the second week in June that sun-fish activity begins, but when a start is made, there re found to be specimens to continue it until the middle or the latter part of August. There ap- pear to be two distinct periods when there is a more pronounced industry and a greater number of fish on the spawning beds. The first period is from the beginning of June until the early part of July; the second is from about the first to the tenth or fifteenth of Au- gust. SMALL BASS AND SUN-FISH 53 Nest-making of the Sun-fish. Sun-fishes are small in body, but ambitious when it comes to nest construction. The house-building aims of the sun-fishes remind one of the frog, which, in the fable, endeavoured to emulate the pro- portions of the bull. Happily, unlike the frog, which is said to have burst in its efforts, the sun-fish achieves success in his ambitions to outclass his huge cousin, the black bass, in the size, symmetry, design, and even artistic char- acter of his house. A sun-fish's nest can, in nine cases out of ten, be distinguished at a glance from that of the small-mouthed bass, even where both have located on the same kind of bottom. The for- mer, is, in the majority of instances, from two to three times as large as that of the bass, and when he can select a sandy place where there is some coarse gravel the nest is almost in- variably a nearly perfect circle surrounded by a symmetrical rim of sand, several inches high. Thus the gravel is arranged in the center of a decidedly bowl-like depression, with almost mosaic exactness of design. This domicile, while fit in every respect for the accommoda- 54 FISH CULTURE tion of the female during the period of spawn- ing, is manifestly too large for her needs. Perhaps the size is due to the polygamous in- stincts of the male. Be this as it may, it is not an uncommon thing to see the male surrounded by two, three, or even as many as five, females when on the nest, sometimes fertilising the eggs of one after the other, and occasionally of two simultaneously. The sun-fish seems to be very sensitive to ob- servation during the process of spawning. Every few minutes the operation will be sus- pended while the male darts suddenly from the nest and encircles it a few feet distant; if any other fish happens to be near he will attack it savagely, drive it away, and return with a jaunty air to his mate or mates. Hour by hour and day by day the spawning is continued, until all the eggs of one or more females are deposited, and the bottom of the nest seems to be literally covered with small grains of coarse, translucent sand. In the majority of cases the females leave to the male the task of keeping these eggs clean until they PUMPKIN-SEED OR SUN-FISH (Lepomis gibbosus) LONG-EARED SUN-FISH (Lepomis auritus). SMALL BASS AND SUN-FISH 55 hatch them; but there have been instances where females assisted the male in the cares of parenthood. Care of Sun-fish Young. When first hatched, the fry behave very much like those of the bass ; but when they reach an advanced stage and rise towards the surface, they are not looked after with the same solicitude by the parent fish, but are discarded almost as soon as they have ab- sorbed the yolk-sac. The male sun-fish is an in- teresting creature at this period of his life, reminding one of a bantam cock; he is as quick to take offence, attack and fight, regardless of the size of his antagonist. A single male will frequently attack a mature bass or a huge carp, with as much ferocity and confidence as a black bass would chase a sun-fish were he the house- holder. Within a brief time after they have been de- serted by the parent, the young of the black bass scatter, each going its solitary way ; but the sun- fish cling together in schools, sometimes for two or three weeks; and in fact they may be found during the entire summer in groups of vary- 56 FISH CULTURE ing numbers. The young fish grow very rap- idly, and by September it is a joy to behold them in their shimmering opal coats. Artificial Rearing of Sun- fish Fry. Unless a culturist wishes to be very particular and save fevery possible fish, it will not be found neces- sary to surround a nest of sun-fish fry with a crib or pound, but he may allow them to scatter and dwell in the same pond with the old fish until ready to be disposed of. This method has one disadvantage in that the culturist can scarcely give more than a wild guess as to how many fish he is rearing. If he impounds fry, and removes the advanced fry to ponds by them- selves, he may make a reasonable estimate of what he has. Fish so removed will grow more rapidly than when left in the breeding-ponds, especially if the fry-ponds- have a good supply of aquatic plants which invite abundant plankton. In the early days of sun-fish life, the common, long- eared species seems to grow more rapidly than the bluegill. It is not until after it is about three months old that the bluegill starts, and then it speedily surpasses its more bril- CALICO- OR GRASS-BASS (Pomoxys sparoides). ROCK-BASS (Ambloplites rupestris). SMALL BASS AND SUN-FISH 57 liantly coloured cousin in size. An additional reason for removal is that rapidity of growth is gained when the young do not have to spend half their time in evading the attempts of the mature fish to devour them. It would be a waste of time and money to put in any such an artificial nest as is used for black bass. It would be cheaper to strip the fish and hatch the eggs. Rock-Bass. The nest of a rock-bass, while usually as large as that of a sun-fish, is some- times quite small, less in size than that of a small-mouthed bass, and no larger than that of an Oswego, or large-mouthed bass. Like the largemouth, the "goggle-eyes" will readily clean up a nest on masses of aquatic moss or chara. Polygamy has not been reported by any authority. The male guards its young more sedulously than does the sun-fish, and falls little behind the small-mouthed bass in this kindly duty. Calico-Bass. Calico-bass (grass-bass) prefer water that is quite deep for nesting purposes. For this reason it is most difficult to observe their habits during the spawning season. Why 58 FISH CULTUEE they select water so much deeper than the roct- bass and the sun-fishes can only be explained by the possibility that they prefer semi-darkness while spawning, an idea strengthened by the fact that a nearly related fish, the crappie, will spawn successfully only in cloudy water. CHAPTER IV CAT-FISH CULTURE IT is possible to take eggs from the cat-fish, but there is no necessity for doing so. Natural fertilisation is so nearly perfect, the care given by the parent to incubation and to the young is so faithful and unremitting, that it is needless for the fish-culturist to increase his stock by the artificial expression of eggs. Moreover, on ac- count of the spiny rays on the pectoral and dor- sal fins, the operation of stripping is unpleas- ant, and likely to be very painful, to the man who attempts it. Spotted Cat-fish. There is one species, the spotted cat-fish, which has thus far defied every effort made to handle it successfully, even by pond-culture. Hitherto the greatest experts in the United States have been forced to ac- knowledge complete defeat. Spotted cat-fish, 59 60 FISH CULTURE when transferred to hatchery ponds, absolutely refuse to breed, and show no signs nor indica- tions of spawning; for this reason it is attract- ing considerable attention. At one of the meet- ings of the American Fisheries Society, it was suggested that possibly success might be achieved if the fish were placed in running water instead of in ponds. Here is an unbroken field, but one of great value, since the " spotted cat " has few equals among fish for delicacy of flavour. Its successful introduction into waters which do not now contain it would mean very much for the public. The bullhead and yellow cat-fish offer no dif- ficulties whatever, and the white cat-fish com- paratively few, for artificial or natural breed- ing. In the matter of their propagation in ponds, the only unhappy feature is the large percentage of mature fish which are apt to die about the spawning period. The act of spawn- ing appears to be nearly as hard on white and yellow cat-fish, and even on bullheads, as on the shad or eel. One need not be surprised if he finds after the spawning period is concluded that he has lost nearly half of his stock.