UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA 
 AT LOS ANGELES 
 
 GIFT OF
 
 18
 
 THE MOTORMAN 
 AND HIS DUTIES 
 
 A Handbook of the Theory and Practice of 
 
 Electric Railway Car Operation 
 
 By 
 
 LUDWIG GUTMANN 
 Consulting Electrical Engineer 
 
 Sixth Edition Revised and Enlarged 
 
 By 
 
 LAWRENCE E. GOULD 
 Editor Electric Railway Review 
 
 CHICAGO 
 THE WILSON COMPANY 
 
 1907
 
 COPYRIGHT 1898 
 BY WINDSOR & KENFIELD PUBLISHING Co. 
 
 COPYRIGHT 1903 
 BY WINDSOR & KENFIELD PUBLISHING Co. 
 
 COPYRIGHT 1907 
 BY THE WILSON COMPANY
 
 TF 
 965" 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 The purpose of this book is to familiarize the 
 reader with the operation of an electric car. It will 
 be found to explain in. simple language, devoid of 
 
 io mathematics and technicalities, many points not gen- 
 
 * erally understood by the average employe who has to 
 do with the operation or care of electric railway roll- 
 ing stock. Such a knowledge cannot fail to make his 
 
 2 services more valuable to his company and more sat- 
 isfactory to himself, and it will also better fit him 
 
 ^ for promotion. 
 
 _. This book is intended not only to explain the 
 
 parts of an electric motor car, but to give some gen- 
 
 9 eral instruction and advice to those who desire to 
 make the handling of cars their livelihood. It is based 
 
 . on experience gathered during a number of years in 
 the electric railway field, instructing motormen in 
 
 ~$~ their duties and work, and on results and observation 
 
 .*- made while operating roads To explain some elec- 
 
 M trical effects it has been necessary to adopt a few 
 comparisons, which, though not exactly correct from 
 a scientific standpoint, give the reader a clear picture 
 of what is meant. 
 
 The author desires to acknowledge the generous 
 assistance of the manufacturing companies whose ap- 
 paratus is explained and illustrated in the following 
 pages. 
 
 238541
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Chapter I. PAGE 
 
 A GLANCE OVER THE ROAD ------- 1 
 
 Chapter II. 
 
 PRINCIPLES OF THE ELECTRIC MOTOR ----- 10 
 
 Chapter III. 
 GENERATING AND DISTRIBUTING POWER - 23 
 
 Chapter IV. 
 OVERHEAD CIRCUIT AND THIRD RAIL 39 
 
 Chapter V. 
 THE ELECTRIC RAILWAY MOTOR 52 
 
 Chapter VI. 
 CAR WIRING AND PARTS --------74 
 
 Chapter VII. 
 CONTROLLERS ---------- 92 
 
 Chapter VIII. 
 MULTIPLE-UNIT CONTROL -------- 116 
 
 Chapter IX. 
 OPERATION OF CONTROLLERS ------- 129 
 
 Chapter X. 
 BRAKES AND THEIR OPERATION ------ 140 
 
 Chapter XI. 
 How TO REMEDY TROUBLES 175 
 
 GLOSSARY 187
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 A GLANCE OVER THE ROAD. 
 
 One who will read and study as well as gain by 
 his practical experience will be worth to his employer 
 much more than is the average employe of today. 
 Therefore, he should be able to secure a position more 
 readily. It is evident that the more one knows about 
 his vocation the better compensation he can expect. 
 A man may start "on the platform" and by faithful 
 service and study he may advance to be a car inspector, 
 line inspector and eventually electrician of the road. 
 
 Anyone wishing to qualify himself for car serv- 
 ice can advance in two ways by experience in operat- 
 ing a car and by studying the theory of the eiectrical 
 equipment. For rapid advancement the practical work 
 should be accompanied by electrical reading. 
 
 The reader who desires to become proficient and 
 know more than just simply enough to run his car 
 over the road should be of a practical and mechanical 
 turn of mind. He should know something about the 
 use of tools and machinery. To become familiar with 
 the electric car equipment the best plan is to work at 
 first in the barns and repair shops. One will there
 
 2 THE MOTORMAN. 
 
 learn the practical side. He will have to mount motors 
 on trucks or repair defective pieces of machinery, and 
 by frequently handling them he will soon familiarize 
 himself with their names and uses. However, not 
 everyone can have such preparation for a position, and 
 for this reason we will do the next best thing, namely, 
 take an imaginary trip first over the road and then 
 
 Figure 1 Interurban Right of Way. 
 
 through the car shops, mentioning briefly the various 
 parts of the whole system and the devices that are 
 necessary to operate it. Such of these devices as come 
 under the control and care of the motorman and con- 
 ductor will be described in detail later on and the 
 principles by which they operate will be explained.
 
 A GLANCE OVER THE ROAD. 3 
 
 Essential Parts of an Electric Railway. To begin 
 with, every road has its right of way; the cars of the 
 city roads operate over tracks laid in streets, while 
 those of interurban roads (Figure 1) run over tracks 
 built on a private right of way located across the 
 country without regard to public roads. By cutting 
 down the hills and filling in the low places it is pos- 
 sible to build a track in the country over which the 
 cars can operate at much higher speeds than in cities 
 where the grades and curves of the rails must fit those 
 in the streets. It is also much more difficult to operate 
 cars through the crowded streets of a city or town 
 than it is on a fenced right of w r ay. 
 
 Nearly everyone is familiar with the track and 
 roadway of a steam railroad, and, as the better inter- 
 urban electric railways are built with tracks as near 
 as possible like steam roads, this subject need not be 
 thoroughly discussed here. The tracks of city roads, 
 however, are very different from those of steam rail- 
 roads. The latest kinds of track for street railways 
 have a very substantial foundation of concrete on 
 which the track rails rest, as shown in Figure 2. In 
 some cities ties are used and in others the rails are 
 sunk into stringers of concrete and held to the stand- 
 ard gauge of 4 feet S 1 /^ inches by iron tie-rods. 
 
 The electric current for use in operating the cars 
 as they move along the track is generated in the power 
 house and carried to the cars through a trolley wire 
 or third rail, which, in fact, are no different as regards 
 the movement of the car, except that the trolley wire is 
 hung above the middle of the track and is usually of 
 copper, while the third rail is supported alongside of 
 the track. 
 
 It should be understood that the electric current
 
 4 THE MOTORMAN. 
 
 in the wires may be serving to transmit hundreds of 
 horsepower of energy and yet the wire look "dead." 
 It is necessary to be cautious about coming in contact 
 with electric wires and nothing should be touched that 
 may be connected in any way with the circuit; other- 
 wise, a severe shock will be received. 
 
 Electric Cars. Probably the most important part 
 of an electric railway from the motorman's standpoint 
 
 Transverse Section 
 
 Longitudinal Section ' 
 Figure 2 Track Construction In City Street. 
 
 is the car. Cars are of two kinds with respect to their 
 operation motor cars or trailers. The motor cars 
 have complete equipments of electric apparatus so 
 that they can take power from the trolley wire and be 
 propelled along the track under the control of a motor- 
 man on the front platform. The trailer cars do not 
 have this electrical equipment, but are hauled by motor 
 cars, thus requiring the services of a conductor only 
 to collect the fares.
 
 A GLANCE OVER THE ROAD. 5 
 
 So-called open cars consist of a floor structure 
 usually with cross seats, a roof and a foot-board or 
 step all along the side of the car. To protect the pas- 
 sengers in rainy weather open cars are provided with 
 curtains which may be drawn down between the posts 
 which support the roof. Closed cars (Figure 3) have 
 sides up to about the tops of the seats and windows 
 fitted in between the roof posts and this siding. Plat- 
 forms are usually provided for both ends of closed 
 
 Figure 3 Single-Truck City Car. 
 
 cars and passengers must step onto these platforms 
 first before getting inside the car. 
 
 Both open and closed cars are used for city service, 
 but for interurban service the closed car body only is 
 used (Figure 4). 
 
 A motor car is composed of the following essen- 
 tial parts: 
 
 1. A car body for carrying the passengers. 
 
 2. Trucks and wheels for supporting the motors 
 and the car body. 
 
 3. Motors for propelling the car.
 
 THE MOTORMAN. 
 
 4. A device for 
 collecting the cur- 
 rent from the wire 
 or third rail. 
 
 5. Controllers for 
 feeding and regula- 
 ting the current used 
 by the motors. 
 
 6. Brakes for stop- 
 ping the car. 
 
 7. Devices for pro- 
 tecting the electrical 
 apparatus. 
 
 Figures 5, 6, 7 
 show different con- 
 structions of car 
 trucks, but these are 
 only a few of the 
 types which are in 
 general use. Figure. 
 5 shows a type of 
 -running gear used 
 on short cars of 
 from 25 to 30 feet 
 in length. Strictly 
 speaking this is not 
 a truck, but two 
 pairs of wheels, each 
 pair and its axle 
 being connected with 
 the car through 
 springs. Figures 6 
 and 7 show bogie 
 trucks which are
 
 A GLANCE OVER THE ROAD. 7 
 
 used with long cars, two such trucks being used under 
 each car. The essential parts of car trucks are two 
 sets of wheels mounted on axles which are held in posi- 
 tion by bearings. The bearings are fixed to side frames 
 
 which give the truck its rigidity. Springs are placed 
 between the bearings and the parts. 
 
 The brake rigging is also a very important part, 
 on which the car body rests in order to prevent too 
 severe jarring of the car body. In the case of the 
 
 Figure 6 Maximum Traction Truck for City Car. 
 
 "single truck'' the lower sills of the car are bolted 
 directly to the side frames of the truck, but where 
 double trucks are used a piece known as the truck 
 bolster extends between the two side frames and is 
 pivoted at its center to the car-body bolster.
 
 THE MOTORMAN.
 
 A GLANCE OVER THE ROAD. 
 
 The ' brake rigging, 
 which will be described 
 in detail in a later chap- 
 ter, is also a very impor- 
 tant part of the equip- 
 ment of the truck, and on 
 most modern electric cars 
 both hand and power 
 brakes are used. The 
 hand-brakes are operated 
 by manual force, but the 
 air-brakes utilize the 
 power from the trolley 
 wire, as will be explained 
 in a later chapter. 
 
 Figure 3 shows a car 
 mounted upon a single 
 truck, this being a type 
 of equipment suitable for 
 operation on city lines. 
 Figure 4 shows a double- 
 truck car built for use 
 on a western high-speed 
 interurban railway. Fig- 
 ure 8 is a floor plan of a 
 large city car arranged in 
 such a way that loading 
 and unloading is very 
 rapid. The location of 
 the different parts and fit- 
 tings is shown and an idea 
 of the relative dimensions 
 given.
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE PRINCIPLE OF THE ELECTRIC MOTOR. 
 
 Many persons have the idea that a dynamo or an 
 electric motor is so complicated a device that it takes 
 years of study to understand it. Nothing is farther 
 from the truth. The fact is that it is built on one of 
 the simplest principles, and if this principle is well 
 understood it will be easy to understand any machine, 
 because in analyzing we always go back to the simple 
 principle and leave out the many complicated addi- 
 tions which may be attached to a machine for one 
 reason or another. 
 
 Principle of the Magnet. A dynamo or motor 
 frame is a powerful steel magnet, and differs in prin- 
 ciple but slightly from the common horseshoe magnet. 
 Figure 9 represents a magnet 
 which one can buy in any hard- 
 ware store. To understand the 
 action of a dynamo or motor, it 
 becomes necessary to understand 
 
 this little magnet. It is a piece of flat steel bent into 
 the form of a horseshoe, which is hardened and after- 
 ward magnetized. It has been found that steel, when 
 hardened, will retain magnetism for a long time, that 
 is, for months and years; provided, that it constantly
 
 THE PRINCIPLE OF THE ELECTRIC MOTOR. 11 
 
 has some work to do. For this reason the keeper B is 
 always found with the magnet. The keeper or arma- 
 ture B is a simple piece of soft iron which, when 
 brought near to the end of the magnet poles or the 
 horseshoe, is attracted and held by the magnet. If we 
 attempt to remove this piece of iron B from magnet A 
 we find that it requires some force that it takes 
 energy to pull off the iron piece from the magnet. We 
 therefore are confronted by the fact that this bent 
 piece of steel has energy stored in it, and that this 
 energy is capable of doing work. The magnet, which 
 at first had to be charged, takes up energy which is 
 stored in it, and which afterward it can return to do 
 
 Figure 10. Figure 11. 
 
 useful work. It is similar to a spiral spring. We 
 have to spend energy to compress it (Figure 10), but 
 the moment we reduce the pressure we feel that the 
 spring tries to utilize the stored energy and force our 
 fingers apart (Figure 11). 
 
 If we. remove the armature from the horseshoe 
 magnet, the energy acts from one end of the magnet to 
 the other through the air. The energy or flow of 
 energy is not visible to the eye, but the results of this 
 force are made visible by the action of iron filings 
 when brought near to a magnet. With the aid of iron 
 filings it is found that this force is very intense near 
 and between the ends of poles, and spread in curves 
 the farther it goes out into the space surrounding the
 
 12 THE MOTORMAN. 
 
 magnet poles. Figure 12 gives a clear view of some 
 of these lines. The spots which are marked N, S, are 
 the places where the paper would touch the ends or 
 poles of the magnet, if it were held beneath the sheet 
 of paper presenting the figure. 
 
 The iron filings which are thrown on top of the 
 sheet arrange themselves in lines as seen. Between 
 the poles these lines appear straight, and become more 
 and more curved the longer the path becomes from one 
 pole to the other. It must, however, be borne in mind 
 that the sheet is but a single plane through the sphere 
 or globe surrounding the magnet, and that the power 
 of activity goes in all directions surrounding the poles, 
 as the branches and leaves surround the trunk of a 
 tree. These same curves 
 of activity can be seen to 
 go in all directions in 
 space by taking a small 
 compass needle and pass- 
 ing it from one pole to the 
 other. During its travel 
 
 ,, . . Figure 12. 
 
 the needle will change its 
 
 position with relation to the two poles, and will 
 always take such a position that its two ends lie 
 in line with the particular curve which unites it with the 
 two poles (Figure 13). It is owing to this custom of rep- 
 resenting this force by the curved lines that it became 
 usual to speak of " magnetic lines of force," which, 
 however, should not be considered as actual lines, nor 
 that they simply connect the two poles, but as a force 
 which threads through the whole length of the magnet, 
 as shown in Figure 14. This energy is vested not only 
 in the extremities of poles, but is the sum of the forces 
 of all the particles of steel constituting the magnet.
 
 THE PRINCIPLE OF THE ELECTRIC MOTOR. 13 
 
 The energy is in the magnet, but its manifestations 
 become apparent most strongly at the points where it 
 passes from the magnetic medium to a non-magnetic 
 one. Air is non-magnetic, while iron and steel are 
 strongly magnetic substances. Owing to the great 
 preference that the magnetism has for iron, it selects 
 the path indicated in Figure 14 rather than to go 
 straight from the pole N to the S pole through the air. 
 In passing through the iron the lines of magnetic force 
 cause the armature or keeper also to become a magnet. 
 The poles are marked N and S as abbreviations for 
 "North" and "South," because they correspond to 
 the poles or ends of the magnetic needle of a compass. 
 
 Figure 13. 
 
 Figure 14. 
 
 The keeper becomes a magnet under the influence of 
 the horseshoe magnet. 
 
 If we substitute for the keeper a permanent mag- 
 net, viz., a -piece of steel in which the poles are fixed, 
 we find that if the two magnets are faced N to S and 
 S to N, as in this figure, they will attract each other. 
 If placed so that the two N poles are together and the 
 two S poles are together, no attraction will take place, 
 but, on the contrary, they will repel each other; and 
 from this fact comes the rule "like poles N, N, or S, S, 
 repel each other: unlike poles attract each other." 
 
 Electro-Magnets. A great step in advance was
 
 14 
 
 THE MOTORMAN. 
 
 made when the following fact was discovered: It was 
 found that if a wire carrying an electric current and 
 a magnetic needle, delicately suspended, were brought 
 close to each other, the needle was deflected to one 
 side. If the current flowed in a wire above the needle 
 in the direction from south to north, that is, if the 
 wire itself was held in a direction due north and south 
 above the needle, and the current flowed north through 
 the wire, then the north-seeking end of the needle was 
 deflected to the west. If the wire was held above the 
 needle, but turned round so that the current flowed 
 
 Figure 15. 
 
 Figure 16. 
 
 from north to south, then the north-seeking point of 
 the needle was deflected to the east. Lastly, if the wire 
 was held below the needle, the direction of the deflec- 
 tion was reversed. It was clear, then, what long had 
 been suspected, that there was some connection be- 
 tween magnetism and electricity. 
 
 This experiment also showed that the electric cur- 
 rent could act through space, and acts on the magnetic 
 needle just as the horseshoe magnet did. If that is 
 the case, then it must disturb the space surrounding 
 it while a current is flowing; it must establish a sphere 
 around itself of the nature of a magnet, a sphere that 
 has magnetic properties. Investigating the space
 
 THE PRINCIPLE OF THE ELECTRIC MOTOR. 15 
 
 around the wire with iron tilings, we find a grouping 
 of the little iron particles (Figures 15 and 16), and that 
 the wire carrying a current attracts iron filings. Fig- 
 ure 16 shows a picture of the force around the wire, 
 while Figure 15 shows an end view of Figure 16. 
 
 Figure 17 represents a magnetic needle surrounded 
 by a coil of wire carrying a current. It appears that 
 we have here the principle of an electric motor with 
 this one difference, that owing to the arrangement of 
 parts the movement is not rotary. Motion is imparted, 
 but not continuous motion, in one direction. It is 
 
 Figure 17. Figure 18. 
 
 found further that if we take a spool of wire (Figure 
 18) without any iron near it and send an electric cur- 
 rent through it, as, for instance, from a battery B, 
 through the coil A, it behaves just as a magnet does; 
 viz., that it exhibits a north pole at one extremity 
 and a south pole at the other, and that it attracts one 
 end of the magnetic needle at one end and the other 
 at the opposite end just what we know will take 
 place if we have an ordinary straight magnet or bar 
 magnet instead of the spool with the current flowing 
 through it. 
 
 Lastly, one more phenomenon must be mentioned, 
 which will complete our picture. If we take a spool of 
 wire A (Figure 19) and connect it to another coil" B
 
 16 THE MOTORMAN. 
 
 several feet away, which is close to a magnetic needle 
 C, and we move a magnet D toward the first coil A, 
 then the needle momentarily is deflected. The needle 
 C is far enough away not to be under the directing in- 
 fluence of the magnet D. What takes place is this: 
 The sphere surrounding the magnet pole in its ap- 
 proach affects the coil A, and this disturbance in space 
 is the cause of the flow of an electric current in coil A, 
 which, passing through the coil B, disturbs the air sur- 
 rounding it and changes it into a magnet, which in 
 
 Figure 19. 
 
 Figure 20. 
 
 turn acts on the compass needle. Here we have one 
 of the earliest transmissions of power to a distance. 
 
 Principle of the Dynamo. Returning now to our 
 simple magnet (Figure 20), it will be clear and in ac- 
 cordance with facts that if a loop of wire, placed be- 
 tween the poles of a horseshoe magnet and connected 
 to a delicate instrument for measuring electric cur- 
 rents, is turned between the poles of this magnet, such 
 turning produces a temporary current which affects and 
 deflects the needle of the instrument. An electric cur- 
 rent is generated which flows from the loop to the in- 
 strument and back again, with the effect of deflecting 
 the needle of the instrument. What has been found 
 is that taking a magnet and turning a coil of wire in its 
 sphere of activity, or (as it is called technically) in its
 
 THE PRINCIPLE OF THE ELECTRIC MOTOR. 17 
 
 magnetic field, an electric current is created or gen- 
 erated in this coil. The reader will now see that if this 
 simple magnet, with a loop or a coil placed between its 
 poles, is conveniently arranged on a shaft so as to turn 
 it continually in the same direction (Figure 21), a cur- 
 rent will be produced that will last for some time 
 instead of being simply an impulse; this constitutes 
 a dynamo in its simplest form. Owing to its primitive 
 mechanical arrangement, and also owing to the weak- 
 ness of the permanent magnet, such an arrangement, of 
 course, gives but very weak currents and is not a corn- 
 
 Figure 21. Figure 22. 
 
 mercial device, but this fundamental idea can be recog- 
 nized in any and all of our modern machines. 
 
 The Dynamo. Now let us start once more with 
 our permanent magnet and go through the evolution 
 until we reach the dynamo of today. Figure 9 shows 
 the permanent horseshoe magnet with its keeper in 
 place. Figure 22 shows the keeper or armature, as 
 we will call it hereafter, some distance from the poles, 
 with the field of activity in the space between the poles 
 and the armature. The armature, under the influence 
 of the magnet, becomes also a magnet and must ex- 
 hibit poles, which are indicated by the letters N S, 
 N S, in such a way that a south pole of the armature 
 will stand before a north pole of the magnet. Under 
 these conditions the force exerted causes mutual at-
 
 18 THE MOTORMAN. 
 
 traction between the magnet and its armature, result- 
 ing in a motion of the smaller piece, which moves 
 toward the magnet, where all motion stops when it 
 rests against the poles. If we now wind a coil around 
 the armature, we will obtain a temporary current 
 which lasts as long as the armature is approaching the 
 poles (Figure 23), but as soon as the armature comes 
 to rest the current ceases. In a dynamo it is desired 
 to produce currents continually, and therefore it is 
 necessary to modify the form and relationship of the 
 armature to the magnet. This is shown in Figure 24. 
 In this case the armature is mounted on a spindle, a 
 
 Figure 23. Figure 24. 
 
 cylindrical piece of iron, which, magnetically consid- 
 ered, is a bar, as in Figure 22. Figure 25 shows a mag- 
 net like Figure 24 with the wires wound around the 
 cylindrical armature core. The wires and the shaft are 
 shown in section. The wire, which is to be rotated in 
 the space of magnetic activity, is placed as near the 
 poles as possible, as shown in section in Figure 25. 
 This figure is obtained by placing the magnet in the 
 plane of the leaf or book (Figure 26). The armature 
 and wires lie at right angles, penetrating through all 
 the leaves. If the armature in Figure 26 be cut off, 
 the end that projects on top is shown in Figure 25. 
 
 The Commutator. To use the currents generated 
 and bring them to devices, such as lamps or motors, 
 we have to make some provision for collecting the elec-
 
 THE PRINCIPLE OF THE ELECTRIC MOTOR. 19 
 
 trie current from the rotating armature to stationary 
 points. This is done by connecting the ends of the ro- 
 tating coils to metallic contact pieces or rings, called 
 a commutator, which will be explained later. 
 
 Field Magnets. To produce strong currents strong 
 magnets are needed. It was found that permanent 
 steel magnets were weakened when an armature with 
 winding was made to generate heavy electric currents. 
 It also was found that soft iron, when wound with 
 coils through which a current was sent, became a far 
 more powerful magnet than could be obtained in any 
 
 Figure 25. Figure 26. 
 
 other way. Therefore it became the practice to use 
 wrought iron, cast iron or soft steel magnets for dyna- 
 mos, and to magnetize them by a winding through 
 which an electric current is sent as long as the ma- 
 chine is working. Figure 27 shows our simple magnet 
 provided with energizing coils, which, to distinguish 
 them from the windings on the armature, are called the 
 field magnet windings, or, in short, the field windings, 
 because they belong to that magnet which establishes 
 the field in which the other part or armature is to ro- 
 tate. Between the magnet poles is the armature with 
 a winding and contact device or commutator. 
 
 If we now compare the complete dynamo with the
 
 20 THE MOTORMAN. 
 
 original magnet, we find that the only difference be- 
 tween them is that the dynamo is made more powerful 
 than the magnet by the application of the coils, and 
 the differences in the armatures are that the motion is 
 changed from a lateral to a rotary one; further, that 
 the armature is provided with a winding and a device 
 for conveniently taking off the current generated by 
 the rotating of the armature m 
 
 winding in the sphere of en- 
 ergy of the magnet. It there- 
 
 Figure 27. 
 
 Figure 28. 
 
 fore is clearly seen that there is no frictional con- 
 tact required between the armature and the field 
 magnet, an erroneous view so frequently expressed 
 by people not conversant with the subject. 
 
 We are now prepared to look critically at any kind 
 of a dynamo, from the simplest and weakest to the 
 largest machines built today, without confusion and 
 without the idea of great complication as regards the 
 nature of its operation, for now the single magnet with 
 the single loop between the poles will be ever present 
 before the mental eye. 
 
 Figure 28 shows the outline of an Edison dynamo, 
 one of the older types. The horseshoe magnet with its 
 windings will readily be recognized in this machine. It
 
 THE PRINCIPLE OF THE ELECTRIC MOTOR. 21 
 
 is built with its poles downward and its armature be- 
 tween the poles, which are extended so as to surround 
 the armature. Figure 29 shows a front and side view 
 
 Figure 29. 
 
 of the armature, the iron core being completely cov- 
 ered by the wire. On the right side may be seen the 
 contact terminals, called the commutator, which is 
 marked A. Figure 30 is a skeleton of a multipolar 
 
 (many poles) field mag- 
 net, which shows a 
 magnet with four poles 
 and consists of four 
 horseshoe magnets, one 
 of which is shown 
 shaded. The armature 
 is shown located be- 
 tween the poles. This 
 elementary description, 
 explaining the nature 
 of the generation of an 
 electric current, shows 
 
 clearly how simple is the principle underlying an elec- 
 tric machine. It is a magnet at rest combined with a ro- 
 tating piece of iron wrapped with wire, that constitutes 
 a dynamo ; and furthermore, a machine that is used as a 
 
 Figure 30.
 
 22 THE MOTORMAN. 
 
 dynamo may also be used as a motor. The name dy- 
 namo or motor changes with the service to be rendered. 
 If the machine shown in Figure 28 be driven by a steam 
 engine, and is supplying electric current, it is a dy- 
 namo; if, however, an electric current is applied to 
 it, and it does mechanical work, it is a motor. These 
 differences should be clear in the mind of the reader. 
 If there are parts he does not understand clearly, he 
 should discuss the subject with such persons of his 
 acquaintance as are competent to explain the matter 
 to him.
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 GENERATING AND DISTRIBUTING POWER. 
 
 Now that we have obtained a general idea of the 
 fundamental principles of the electric dynamo and 
 motor we can next more readily understand the power 
 
 Figure 31 A Large Power Station. 
 
 system of an electric railroad. We shall make a men- 
 tal inspection of the power generating and distributing 
 apparatus, beginning with the coal pile in the boiler
 
 24 THE MOTORMAX. 
 
 room and ending with the car in charge of the motor- 
 man. In a subsequent chapter it will be shown how 
 important it is that a motorman should recognize the 
 value of power and therefore learn to operate his car 
 in the most economical way. 
 
 The Power Station. To begin with, a power station 
 usually is a fireproof building in which are housed boil- 
 
 Figure 32 Boilers and Pumps. 
 
 ers, engines, dynamos and electrical switching appa- 
 ratus. Here the current is generated and, by means 
 of wires on poles along the track, it is distributed for 
 use in propelling the cars. The machinery in some 
 power stations is operated by water wheels, but the 
 larger number of power plants are run by steam 
 engines.
 
 GENERATING AND DISTRIBUTING POWER. 25 
 
 Boilers. To make steam for running the engines 
 which drive the dynamos, a battery of boilers is neces- 
 sary. These boilers comprise two types, known as 
 "water tube" and ''fire tube." The fire-tube boilers 
 are seldom used except for very small plants. They 
 are called fire-tube boilers because the burning gases 
 from the coal on the grates pass through a number of 
 parallel iron tubes around which is the water. In the 
 water-tube boilers (Figure 33), the relative spaces oc- 
 
 Figure 33 Sectional View of Boiler. 
 
 cupied by the burning gases and the water are exactly 
 the opposite to fire-tube boilers; thus, in a water-tube 
 boiler there are a larger number of tubes containing 
 water, the temperature of which is to be raised, and 
 between which the hot gases are passed; the ends of 
 these tubes filled with water connect with cylindrical 
 "drums" in such a way that when the water in some 
 of the tubes that are over the hottest part of the fire 
 becomes heated, it can rise into one of the drums and
 
 26 
 
 THE MOTORMAN.
 
 GENERATING AND DISTRIBUTING POWER. 27 
 
 the cooler water in the drum pass down through tubes 
 in the hotter part of the fire, and thus a circulation 
 take place. 
 
 The water-tube type of boiler is more generally 
 used in large power plants because of its economy and 
 safety. 
 
 The fuel used for making steam in boilers usually 
 is coal, although some power plants find it economical 
 to burn crude oil. The grates on which the coal is 
 burned are built directly under the front of the tubes 
 in the boiler, and coal is fed onto them either by hand 
 or by mechanical stokers. The gases from the burning 
 coal make several passes between the rows of tubes 
 and then leave the brick setting which encloses the 
 firebox and boiler and connect with the stack. 
 
 Steam Engines. The steam is taken out of each 
 one of the boilers and fed into a large pipe called a main 
 header. From this pipe branches lead to the engine's 
 cylinders. Practically everyone is familiar with the 
 general appearance and mechanical operation of a 
 steam engine having as its essential parts a cylinder 
 within which a closely fitting piston is moved back and 
 forth by steam pressure. This piston transmits the 
 power thus generated through a piston rod and a con- 
 necting rod to a crank pin on the engine shaft. Thus 
 the back-and-forth motion of the steam-driven piston 
 is transformed into the rotary motion of the engine 
 shaft revolving in its bearings (Figure 34). 
 
 The electric generator whose elementary principles 
 we have already discussed is usually mounted on the 
 same foundation with the engines, so that the revolv- 
 ing part of the generator, called the armature, can 
 be driven directly by the shaft of the steam engine.
 
 28 
 
 THE MOTORMAN. 
 
 A heavy flywheel of large diameter is also driven 
 on the same shaft. This flywheel is for the purpose of 
 carrying the connecting rod over the dead-center and 
 
 Figure 35 Turbine Units and Condensers. 
 
 making the engine and dvnamo run at a uniform speed. 
 
 Steam Turbines. The steam engine and its 
 
 dynamo, as described, occupy a large floor space and 
 
 therefore require a comparatively large and expensive
 
 GENERATING AND DISTRIBUTING POWER. 29 
 
 building to cover them. There recently has been 
 adopted a type of steam-driven dynamo which occupies 
 much less floor space and is thought to be better 
 suited for electric railway power plants. This machine 
 is known as a steam turbine unit, several of which are 
 shown in Figure 35. It comprises a main shaft on 
 which are mounted a large number of blades inclosed 
 in a steel casing and having a general arrangement 
 very similar to a turbine waterwheel. The principle 
 
 Figure 36 Power Station Switchboard. 
 
 on which the turbine operates is simple, the steam in 
 it corresponding to the water in a waterwheel. A dy- 
 namo is mounted on the same framework with the tur- 
 bine, and the armature is built on the same shaft that 
 supports the. blades in the turbine. Steam turbines 
 are known as horizontal or vertical, depending on 
 whether the main shaft lies in a horizontal plane or 
 stands vertically on its end. 
 
 "We have now seen how the coal is burned under 
 the boilers, which generate steam and drive, by means 
 of engines or turbines, the dynamos which develop the 
 electric current that is to be used in propelling our
 
 30 THE MOTORMAN. 
 
 cars. If there are a number of such generating sets in 
 the power station the current from each dynamo is 
 brought by means of cables to a switchboard (Figure 
 36) where there are electrical meters for measuring 
 the quantity and quality of the current, and where 
 there are also switches for combining the current gen- 
 erated in each dynamo, so that the total output of the 
 plant may be fed out of the building and along a 
 transmission line to supply the cars. 
 
 Units for Measuring- Electricity. To transmit 
 electricity from one place to another a certain amount 
 of energy has to be spent in the transmission which is 
 thereafter not available for useful work. This loss of 
 energy is due to the resistance of the conductor which 
 carries the current, and will be readily understood by 
 its similarity to water flowing through a pipe. If we 
 transmit a volume of water to a distance through a 
 pipe under a certain pressure, the pressure of the water 
 at the further end of the pipe will be considerably less 
 than the pressure at the point where the water enters 
 the pipe. This loss of pressure is due to the friction of 
 the water against the walls of the pipe, and it will be 
 readily seen is greater the greater the length of the 
 pipe, and will be less for a given volume of water as 
 the size of the pipe is larger. And the same way with 
 an electric current : the longer the conducting wire the 
 greater will be the resistance, while by increasing the 
 diameter of the wire the resistance will be reduced. 
 The smaller the amount of loss in the transmitting 
 lines the more economical is the working of the system. 
 
 We have spoken of the volume, pressure and re- 
 sistance of water in a pipe as being analagous to vol- 
 ume, pressure and resistance of current flowing 
 through a conductor. The electrical unit of quantity
 
 GENERATING AND DISTRIBUTING POWER. 31 
 
 corresponding to the volume of water is called the 
 ampere. The electrical unit of pressure is called the 
 volt, and the unit of electrical resistance is the ohm. 
 According to Ohm's law, the current in amperes 
 equals the pressure in volts divided by the resistance 
 in ohms. This law is generally expressed by the 
 equation : 
 
 C = E-^R 
 
 in which C = current in amperes 
 
 E = electromotive force in volts 
 R = resistance in ohms. 
 
 Methods of Distribution. In general there are 
 three methods of supplying current to the cars. These 
 are here stated and will be described in detail later on : 
 
 1. The simplest plan is to feed all the current into 
 the trolley wire and an auxiliary wire or feeder cable 
 supported on the poles which hold up the trolley wire. 
 
 2. The "alternating current" system has prac- 
 tically the same general arrangement as System No. 1, 
 but differs in that it uses the so-called alternating cur- 
 rent. This current is generated in the same way as 
 that which we already have discussed, except that 
 there is a difference in the method of making connec- 
 tions between the armature coils and the brushes. We 
 have learned that on the end of the commutator shaft 
 there are placed a number of copper bars to connect 
 with stationary brushes which, by the nature of the 
 method of connections and the rotating of the arma- 
 ture, unite the many small currents passing in different 
 directions through the armature into a large current 
 passing to the outside wires in only one direction. 
 With the alternating current the method of connection 
 at the commutator end of the armature is even
 
 32 THE MOTORMAN. 
 
 simpler. In place of the many bars there are only 
 two, bent in the form of rings, over which the brushes 
 slip ; thus the currents passing in opposite directions 
 through the various armature coils are not fed to the 
 line as current all moving in one direction, but are 
 sent out in opposite directions as the different coils in 
 the armature pass by the north and south poles of the 
 generator. The fact that such current does not flow 
 steadily through a circuit in one direction, but flows 
 first one way and then the other in this circuit, brings 
 about the name "alternating" by which this current is 
 known. 
 
 ,3. The method for economically feeding long 
 lines comprises the use of what are known as alternat- 
 ing-current generators, the current from which can be 
 raised in pressure and fed at a small loss over a long 
 distance, say 50 to 100 miles, and then reduced in pres- 
 sure ; and by means of a combination of an alternating- 
 current motor and a direct-current generator, the prin- 
 ciple of which we already have considered, it may 
 again be converted into suitable current for use in 
 the cars and motors which we have mentioned. 
 
 The Direct-Current System. The electrical trans- 
 mission from a railway power station, according to Sys- 
 tem No. 1, is shown in diagram in Figure 37. To the 
 left will be noticed the dynamo, which is connected by 
 means of a commutator brush to the trolley wire (all 
 switches, circuit-breakers, safety devices, etc., at the 
 station and on the car have been omitted for the sake 
 of clearness and simplicity). Each electric car is indi- 
 cated by one motor, wheel, trolley and controller. By 
 following the arrows it will be observed that the elec- 
 tric current starts from the dynamo, goes to the trolley 
 wire, from there to the trolley wheels and to the con-
 
 GENERATING AND DISTRIBUTING POWER. 33 
 
 trollers ; from the controllers to the motors, the wind- 
 ings of which are indicated by a few turns, and from 
 there to the iron body of the motor, to the car wheel 
 and to the rail. Through the rails and return feed- 
 ers it flows back to the station, where the second brush 
 of the dynamo is connected to the rail. This completes 
 a circuit, through the dynamo, out over the trolley 
 wire, down through the motor and back through the 
 
 n 
 
 Figure 37 Path of Current for Direct Feeding. 
 
 rails, and current flows over this circuit whenever a 
 controller is put in operation. 
 
 Principle of the Transformer. Before describing 
 the other two systems it is thought best to describe the 
 transformer, which is an important piece of apparatus 
 used in both the alternating-current and direct-cur- 
 rent systems of distribution. 
 
 Alternating current has some properties that are 
 not possessed by direct current, the most interesting 
 one to us being that it can be raised in pressure with- 
 oirt the use of a generator. The medium which is used
 
 THE MOTORMAX. 
 
 to raise the pressure of alternating current is known 
 as a transformer. (See Figure 38.) 
 
 A transformer consists of a large body of iron, 
 around which are wound two coils of wire. "When an 
 alternating current is fed through one of these coils, 
 following the principles already mentioned, we see that 
 lines of force are 
 set up in the iron 
 around which this 
 coil is wound. We 
 have also seen that 
 if the lines of force 
 pass through a mass 
 of iron about which 
 there is a coil of 
 wire, a current will 
 be set up in this 
 wire; therefore, 
 when an alternating 
 current is fed into 
 one of the coils of 
 a transformer an- 
 other current is in- 
 duced in a second 
 coil. It should be 
 
 noted that the pressure of the current thus generated 
 is greater or less than that of the current passing 
 through the first coil, according to whether the num- 
 ber of turns in the second coil is greater or less than 
 the number of turns in the first coil. Transformers 
 usually are built with a definite ratio between the 
 number of turns in the two coils, so that if current is 
 fed in at a certain pressure it is known beforehand 
 at what pressure it will be taken out of the second 
 
 Figure 38 Section of Transformer.
 
 GENERATING AND DISTRIBUTING POWER. 35 
 
 coil. Thus it is seen that if there are alternating-cur- 
 rent generators at the power station the current from 
 these may be fed into a set of transformers and its 
 pressure raised to a comparatively high voltage say, 
 40,000 volts. 
 
 The Alternating-Current System. Experience has 
 shown that current can be transmitted over long dis- 
 tances with a comparatively small loss, if high voltages 
 are used, and therefore, in System No. 2 (Figure 39), 
 the general circuits include transformers for raising 
 the voltage at the power station, a set of wires known as 
 a transmission line for carrying the current to distant 
 points, and other transformers connected with the ends 
 of this transmission line which reduce the pressure so 
 that it can be fed to the trolley wire at a voltage low 
 enough to be used safely on the cars. 
 
 It should be noted that in this alternating-current 
 system, commonly known as the single-phase system, 
 there is no direct-current machinery. The types of 
 motors used under the cars are so designed that they 
 will operate on either direct or alternating current, and 
 so far as the speed and propelling power are concerned 
 very little difference will be noted in the movement 
 of a car over lines supplied by these two methods of 
 distribution. 
 
 Alternating-Current-Direct-Current System. The 
 method of distribution indicated as System No. 3 (see 
 Figure 40), is a combination of the other two systems 
 of distribution. It comprises alternating-current trans- 
 mission lines as in No. 2, and direct-current trolley lines 
 as in No. 1. The different parts of the system are as 
 follows : Alternating current is generated and by 
 means of transformers in the power station its pressure 
 is raised to an economical point for use on the trans-
 
 36 
 
 THE MOTORMAN.
 
 GENERATING AND DISTRIBUTING POWER. 37 
 
 mission line. This transmission line running along the 
 trolley poles feeds a number of substations which, on 
 the interurban lines, are located about 10 miles apart. 
 Each of these substations includes in its equipment a 
 set of transformers which reduces the transmission 
 pressure so that the current can be fed into an alter- 
 nating-current motor located in the substation build- 
 ing. This motor is directly connected to a direct-cur- 
 rent generator which generates current suitable for 
 operating the cars, usually at 600 volts pressure. By 
 means of feeder cables the current from the direct- 
 eurrent generator is fed to the trolley and then to the 
 cars. It passes through the motors and into tae 
 track rails, whence it returns to the negative side of 
 the generator in the substations. 
 
 For the sake of simplicity and economy in 
 construction, the armatures of the motor and the gen- 
 erator, which are used to convert the current, are 
 sometimes wound on the same core and used in a single 
 set of field magnets. When so combined the machine 
 is known as a rotary converter (Figure 41). It differs 
 little in principle or method of operation from the 
 motor-generator set first mentioned in connection with 
 substation apparatus. This system of transmission is 
 known as the alternating-current-direct-current method 
 of distribution, and is probably the most generally 
 used at the present time. 
 
 To assure clearness it probably will be best 
 to again state the three general methods of furnishing 
 power to cars. The first mentioned, the direct-current 
 system, uses only that kind of current which flows con- 
 tinuously in one direction. This system was the first 
 to be used for propelling electric cars, and is by far at 
 the present time the most generally used. 
 
 238541
 
 38 
 
 THE MOTORMAX. 
 
 The second system, known as the alternating-cur- 
 rent system, employs only current which alternates in 
 the wire. Car motors for this type of distribution 
 recently have been developed and many improvements 
 made in their control apparatus, so that for long lines 
 in the construction of which economy of transmission 
 
 Figure 41 A Rotary Converter. 
 
 is an important factor, this alternating-current system 
 is fast growing in favor. 
 
 As earlier stated the third method comprises the 
 combination of the other two, using alternating-current 
 machinery for generation and transmission and direct- 
 current apparatus for the propulsion of the cars. 
 At the present time practically all of our large city 
 systems and a great majority of the interurban lines 
 have their cars operated by this method.
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 OVERHEAD CIRCUIT AND THIRD RAIL. 
 
 In transmitting electric power certain precautions 
 arc necessary. The electric current has to be guided 
 by means of a conductor, which in practice is generally 
 copper wire, and, in order that the energy transmitted 
 shall be wasted as little as possible, the conducting wire 
 must be thoroughly insulated from the earth and from 
 all other conducting bodies. It was found at an early 
 day that there is a great deal of difference in the con- 
 ductivity of different substances. Some conduct the 
 current very easily, others less easily, and again others 
 do not conduct the current at all unless it is forced 
 through them under very high pressure. The first class 
 of substances, which are known as good electrical con- 
 ductors, includes all metals, and of the metals the best 
 conductors are- silver and copper. The last class of 
 materials, which do not conduct electric current, are 
 called non-conductors or insulators, and if a conductor 
 is attached or supported upon a non-conducting sub- 
 stance, the conductor is said to be insulated. Thus, if 
 we should lay bare electric wires in the ground we 
 would receive but little current at the far end, because 
 the earth is itself a conductor of electricity and would
 
 40 
 
 THE MOTORMAN. 
 
 return a greater part of the current to the dynamo. It 
 is evident, therefore, that the conductor must be in- 
 sulated from the earth and from all other conductors in 
 order to transmit the current to a distant point where 
 it is desired to use it. 
 
 Insulators. Perfectly dry air is one of the best 
 insulators known, while water containing dissolved 
 salts and other impurities, as generally found, is an 
 
 STRAIN INSULATOR 
 
 SECTION IXSCLATOR 
 
 IIAXGEK rrilVE 1'ULL-OVEH 
 
 Figure 42 Overhead Fittings. 
 
 excellent conductor. There is little chance for cur- 
 rent to escape from a wire supported on insulating ma- 
 terial unless moisture, acids or dirt are to be found on 
 the surface of the insulators, in which case a slight 
 leakage through the dirt or moisture will occur. The 
 best and most commonly used insulating substances 
 are porcelain, glass, mica, rubber, dry wood, silk, shel- 
 lac, paper and cotton. 
 
 The electric current has to be produced in most 
 by operating a dynamo by means of a steam
 
 OVERHEAD CIRCUIT AND THIRD RAIL. 41 
 
 engine, and this engine receives its energy from the 
 boiler under which coal is burned. The energy located 
 in the coal is utilized to evaporate the water in the 
 boiler, and the steam so produced actuates the engine, 
 which in turn operates the dynamo. The greater the 
 waste in electricity, the greater will be the coal con- 
 sumption. Therefore, the desire to avoid losses as 
 much as possible, such as leakage on electric lines or 
 faults or leakage on devices connected therewith, since 
 they form part of the circuit the moment the current is 
 allowed to pass into them. For this reason motors, 
 controllers and other parts attached to the car are 
 
 Figure 43 Sectional View of Strain Insulator. 
 
 carefully insulated, and the overhead conductor is held 
 in position by insulators of hard rubber, glass, porce- 
 lain, compounds of mica, or other substances put into 
 suitable shape under great pressure. 
 
 Some such insulators as used on electric railways 
 are shown in Figure 42. In most cases they consist of 
 two metallic parts which are separated from each 
 other by a strong arid thick layer of insulation. One 
 metallic part is then connected to the conductor which 
 is to carry the electric current, while the other is at- 
 tached to a pole, or span wire. This latter may be 
 regarded as connected to the earth, but the other end is 
 insulated from such contact by the interposed layer of
 
 42 THE MOTORMAN. 
 
 non-conducting material. Figure 43 shows such an 
 insulator in section disclosing its construction. 
 
 The circuits of most electric railways include the 
 high-tension transmission line of alternating-current 
 feed wires and the well-known trolley wire, such as are 
 shown in Figure 44. Besides the trolley wire method 
 of carrying current to the cars, there are the third-rail 
 
 Figure 44 Trolley and High-Tension Wires. 
 
 system and the conduit system. This third-rail sys- 
 tem has been mentioned before. 
 
 Third-Rail System. The third-rail system is one 
 in which a rail called the third rail is substituted for 
 the overhead trolley. The third rail may be placed 
 either between the two track rails or outside of them. 
 The third-rail system is at the present time assuming 
 considerable importance in the direct-current electric 
 railway field, and this type of construction is adopted 
 where heavy cars are made up into trains and operated
 
 OVERHEAD CIRCUIT AND THIRD RAIL. 
 
 43 
 
 at high speed. The reason that the third-rail system 
 is preferable to the overhead trolley in such cases 
 is that the weight and speed of trains requires an 
 amount of current which is too great to be collected 
 by the overhead trolley wheels, owing to their very 
 limited contact. In the third-rail system the sliding 
 contact is maintained by means of a shoe which slides 
 along the top or bottom of the third rail, and may be 
 
 Figure 45 Bracket for Under-Running Third Rail. 
 
 given sufficient area to carry any required amount of 
 current. 
 
 The first commercial installation of the third-rail 
 system was on the intra-mural railway at the World's 
 Fair in 1893.' It was next adopted by the elevated 
 roads of Chicago and afterwards on a branch line of 
 the New York & New Haven railroad. The system 
 was subsequently extended to various branches of the 
 same road. It was next used on the Albany & Hudson 
 Ry., after which it was installed on the Aurora, Elgin 
 & Chicago "Ry. There have since been built a large 
 number of such systems. The third rail, as shown in
 
 44 THE MOTORMAN. 
 
 Figure 45, is elevated about three inches above the 
 level of the track rails, and is supported on insulators 
 resting on the ties. In this country the third rail is 
 always located outside of the track rails. In the earlier 
 third-rail systems, insulators were made of wood, but 
 it has been found that after a year or two of service 
 the wood absorbs sufficient moisture to partly short- 
 circuit the insulator, and cause considerable loss 
 through leakage. 
 
 Aside from the location of the supply conductor, 
 there is no difference between the third-rail and the 
 overhead system, so far as the circuits upon the car 
 are concerned. 
 
 The third-rail system is applicable only to roads 
 running upon a private right of way, and is especially 
 adapted to the operations of cars in trains, which re- 
 quires a larger amount of current than can be collected 
 by one trolley wheel. Shoes are placed at the journal 
 boxes of all the cars, so that on a long train the cur- 
 rent is collected at a number of different points. 
 Where the road crosses a highway the third rail is 
 broken, stopping at each side of the crossing, and the 
 car is allowed to drift over the gap without current. 
 The continuity of the third-rail circuit is secured by 
 attaching an underground cable between the two ends 
 of the third rail, and these ends are built with a down- 
 ward curve so that the shoes, which can only drop 
 slightly below their normal position, do not make vio- 
 lent contact with the rail, but ride up on the curved 
 portion. 
 
 Conduit System. The conduit system is one in 
 which the conductors are carried in a conduit under 
 the surface of the street similar to a cable railway 
 conduit. Unlike the other system described the COD-
 
 OVERHEAD CIRCUIT AND THIRD RAIL. 45 
 
 duit system does not make use of the tracks for a 
 return circuit, but instead both the positive and nega- 
 tive conductors are supported on insulators fastened 
 inside of the conduit. The current is taken from these 
 conductors by means of a trolley extending down 
 through a slot in the surface of the road. This under- 
 ground trolley is called a plow. The conductors are 
 generally composed of copper bars and the plow con- 
 tains sliding contact pieces which rest on these bars. 
 One side of the plow collects the current, which is led 
 to the controllers and motors, after which it passes 
 again to the plow contact which is in connection with 
 the return circuit. 
 
 This system is in use in New York City and Wash- 
 ington, D. C., and in a few European cities where 
 overhead conductors are prohibited. It is very ex- 
 pensive to build. 
 
 Storage-Battery Cars. A storage-battery car is 
 one which has electric current stored in cells or bat- 
 teries in the car, which supply current to the car motor. 
 Such a car can run on any railroad track and requires 
 no wires or conductors outside of itself. The storage 
 cell consists of plates of lead immersed in acid, and 
 these cells are charged at the power station by putting 
 them in circuit with a dynamo, the electric current 
 causing chemical changes in the lead. These changes 
 represent a certain amount of electrical energy, which 
 is given out when the batteries are connected to the 
 car motors. The battery merely supplies current for 
 the car and the controllers are similar to those on 
 trolley cars, and the method of operation is the same. 
 Storage-battery cars are not very extensively used, as 
 the cost of operation is considerably higher than that of 
 trolley cars. This is chiefly due to the batteries, which
 
 46 THE MOTORMAN. 
 
 are expensive to install and which wear out rapidly 
 under the severe conditions of street railway work. 
 
 Electric Locomotives. For the purpose of moving 
 long trains of cars, switching freight cars and other 
 purposes where the power required is so great that the 
 motors cannot be mounted on the trucks of ordinary 
 cars electric locomotives are used and current is taken 
 from an overhead wire or a third rail, as with a trolley 
 car. These locomotives (Figure 46) are equipped with 
 motors of large capacity and their frames are very 
 heavy so as to secure sufficient adhesion to the track 
 
 Figure 46 Large Electric Locomotives. 
 
 to pull very heavy loads. The controllers and other 
 apparatus on electric locomotives are similar to those 
 on cars of ordinary size, being merely larger and 
 heavier to accommodate the larger current used. 
 
 In the great projects now under way tending to- 
 ward the electrification of the more densely traveled 
 lines of our larger steam railway systems, the electric 
 locomotive plays an important part. Such locomotives 
 are built with steel bodies and trucks equipped with 
 motors that give the locomotive far greater hauling
 
 OVERHEAD CIRCUIT AND THIRD RAIL. 
 
 47 
 
 capacity than can be had with steam locomotives. 
 Many inter-urban railways also use electric locomotives 
 for handling freight cars. It should be remembered 
 that the principles on which the locomotive depends 
 for its operation differ in no way from those governing 
 the operation of an electric car. 
 
 Overhead Trolley. Overhead trolley may be di- 
 vided into two general classes, according to the method 
 
 Figure 47 Trolley Bracket and Catenary Trolley Construction. 
 
 of suspension. The first and more widely known is 
 the common flexible suspension. The second is known 
 as catenary construction. (Figures 47 and 48.) 
 
 Each method of suspension requires for the sup- 
 port of the overhead material one or two lines of poles. 
 When one line of poles is used iron brackets are re- 
 quired to support the trolley wires over the center of
 
 48 
 
 THE MOTORMAN. 
 
 the track, and when two lines of poles are used span- 
 wires across the track from pole to pole support the 
 trolley wire. The trolley wire may be either round or 
 grooved in section. The round wire is supported by 
 means of soldered or clinched ears and the grooved 
 wire by means of mechanical clamps which hook over 
 its upper part. The ears in turn are held by what are 
 known as hangers, either insulated or non-insulated, 
 depending upon whether or not a strain insulator is 
 placed in the span or supporting wire. The span wires 
 usually are composed of stranded cable which has 
 been galvanized to prevent its rusting. 
 
 Figure 48 Anchoring Catenary Construction. 
 
 Catenary Construction. It is essential for high- 
 speed operation that the trolley wire be supported in a 
 plane parallel with that of the track rails. It is also 
 essential that there be very few sharp bends either 
 horizontally or vertically in the copper wire. With the 
 ordinary type of span or bracket construction such 
 kinks do occur, and with a car operating at high speed 
 there is a tendency for the wheel to break contact or 
 leave the wire at the bends which occur under the sup- 
 ports. The reason for these bends existing is because 
 each hanger is called upon to support a section of the 
 trolley wire about 100 feet long. To overcome this
 
 OVERHEAD CIRCUIT AND THIRD RAIL. 
 
 49 
 
 defect the catenary type of trolley construction is now 
 being widely used. 
 
 The essential parts of this catenary method of 
 construction include a messenger wire, supported 
 at points about 125 to 150 feet apart, these supports 
 
 Figure 49 Catenary Construction with Bridges. 
 
 being either span wires or brackets, as in the ordinary 
 type of construction, but including an insulator on 
 which the messenger wire rests, so that no path is 
 afforded the current from the steel messenger 
 cable to flow through the bracket or span wires and
 
 50 
 
 THE MOTORMAN. 
 
 thence to the ground by way of the poles. From 
 this messenger wire the trolley is supported at a 
 fixed distance above the track by means of frequent 
 vertical hangers. Inasmuch as the messenger itself is 
 insulated from the ground it is wholly unnecessary to 
 use insulated hangers between the trolley wire and the 
 messenger; in fact, the steel messenger cable supple- 
 ments the trolley wire as a conductor of electricity. It 
 
 Figure 50 High-Tension Insulator and Tie Wire. 
 
 is thus seen that with the vertical hangers spaced at 
 intervals of from 10 to 25 feet the trolley wire can be 
 supported with practically no kinks in its under sur- 
 face. Thus it is possible to operate the cars at high 
 speeds and use either the ordinary trolley wheel or 
 one of the sliding-contact type which will be described 
 later. 
 
 The catenary type of construction is used most fre- 
 quently with those lines operating at high voltage.
 
 OVERHEAD CIRCUIT AND THIRD RAIL. 51 
 
 This choice is made because the trolley wire and mes- 
 senger can so easily be insulated for high voltages. 
 It is also an economical type to use because with the 
 aid of the strong steel messenger cable the distance be- 
 tween points of support may be increased and the 
 number of poles required greatly lessened. In the. 
 project of electrifying the New York New Haven & 
 Hartford lines near New York City, steel bridges are 
 used to support the messenger cable, as shown in Fig- 
 ure 49. 
 
 Transmission Lines. For the sake of reliability of 
 service the transmission lines which carry the current 
 from the power station to the substations, as earlier de- 
 scribed, should be built in a very substantial manner. 
 These lines as now built comprise wooden or steel 
 poles and steel towers, some of the longer lines being 
 supported on steel windmill towers. At the top of 
 each pole or tower are crossarms of wood which sup- 
 port at their extremities steel or wooden pins carrying 
 large insulators. These insulators (Figure 50) must 
 be made very carefully and of such dimensions and 
 materials as will prevent any leakage of the current 
 between the power wires and the poles.
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 THE ELECTRIC RAILWAY MOTOR. 
 
 We are now ready to look into the details of an 
 electric railway motor. In Chapter II were explained 
 the principles on which all dynamos and motors are 
 built. It was found that a motor is simply a magnet in 
 which the magnetism is produced by the electric cur- 
 rent, and in which one part, called an armature, is 
 caused to revolve by magnetic attraction between it 
 and the poles of other parts, called the field magnets. 
 It was also learned how the electric current is trans- 
 mitted through wires, and what precautions are neces- 
 sary to insulate or confine it to the proper wires or 
 conductors. 
 
 Let us go more into the details of the internal 
 working of the armature of the dynamo or motor, and 
 show the reason why in one case large engines are 
 used to produce the electric current, while at other 
 times the armature will turn itself and give out energy. 
 In Figure 29 is shown an armature complete. It con- 
 sists of a shaft on which is mounted an iron core 
 closely wrapped with wire. The ends of the wire coils 
 are connected to the contact terminals, called the com- 
 mutator, on which the brushes rest to collect the cur- 
 rent. An armature is represented in diagram in Fig-
 
 THE ELECTRIC RAILWAY MOTOR. 
 
 53 
 
 ure 5x. The iron armature core A is shown in the 
 form of a ring. The winding B is uniformly wrapped 
 around the core, and every three turns a wire is led to 
 the commutator C, which is divided into eight parts 
 because the winding shows eight coils. The number 
 of coils varies on different kinds of armatures. 
 
 Commutator and Armature. The commutator con- 
 sists of copper bars insulated from one another by 
 mica. These bars form the ends of the armature coils. 
 The bars are exposed to wear by rubbing contact, and 
 
 Figure 51. 
 
 Figure 52. 
 
 therefore are made heavier than the wires so as to last 
 a long time, and to be detachable when worn out. On 
 the commutator rest the brushes D, Dl. If the arma- 
 ture is traversed by a current entering at brush D, as 
 for instance when it is used as a motor, the current 
 passes to segment 1,. and from there through connect- 
 ing wire, A, to the armature wire proper. Here it has 
 a double pass, as shown by the arrows. Half the cur- 
 rent will follow the direction indicated by the arrows 
 on the upper half of the ring, and the other part of the 
 the current will follow the wires wound on the lower 
 half of the armature core. The two currents unite
 
 54 THE MOTORMAN. 
 
 again in the wire, E, enter segment 5, pass through 
 brush Dl, and leave the armature. This flow takes 
 place in whatever position the armature may be. For 
 instance, assuming the brushes D, Dl stationary and the 
 armature turning; if the armature had turned so far 
 around that segment 2 would be under the brush D, 
 then segment 6 would be under brush Dl. The cur- 
 rent would go to the armature winding through b and 
 leave it by way of f. In this way each one of the seg- 
 ments and connecting wires has to perform its work 
 in succession. The current in going around the core 
 makes a magnet out of the iron, as indicated by the 
 letters N, S. 
 
 For the sake of convenience in understanding, the 
 armature core may be also considered divided into two 
 half rings, as in Figure 52, the upper and lower; then 
 the current flowing around the upper half makes it a 
 magnet, and similarly the current in the lower half 
 will make that half become a magnet. The poles are 
 marked N and S. The poles caused by each half of 
 the current are indicated on the ring. An N pole on 
 one side and an S pole on the opposite side in each 
 half as produced, and both together make again one 
 N pole and one S pole, but of double the strength. As 
 long as the brushes stand in this position the magnetic 
 poles will stay in space in the same position, however 
 much the armature may rotate, because just as many 
 turns are leaving the brush on one side as are brought 
 under it from the opposite side. 
 
 The iron ring wrapped with the armature wire 
 represents in reality two half-circular magnets butting 
 together with similar poles. Whether these are curved 
 as in Figure 52 or have another form, for instance, be- 
 ing straight bar magnets, does not alter anything in the
 
 THE ELECTRIC RAILWAY MOTOR. 56 
 
 nature of the armature. Xor is there, as far as prin- 
 ciple is concerned, any difference between a ring arma- 
 ture, shown in Figure 51, and a drum armature. An 
 armature made for a street railway motor is generally 
 made of thin discs mounted in a compact way on a 
 shaft (Figure 53). All the wire in this case has to be 
 applied externally. It cannot be threaded through the 
 center as in Figure 51, but the results are the same. 
 Figure 54 is a diagram indicating a railway motor with 
 an iron core made of discs and the magnetizing copper 
 wire wound all around the surface. 
 
 Figure 53 Armature Core. 
 
 The diagram represents the armature in section. 
 Now suppose the brushes to be set as they are in Figure 
 51, then the current flowing in the coils with which the 
 armature core is wound will cause N and S poles in the 
 armature as shown. Current is also sent through the 
 coils on the field magnets, causing N and S poles in the 
 magnet as indicated. It will be evident that the S pole 
 of the armature will endeavor to place itself in front 
 of the N pole of the field magnet, being attracted by it 
 and at the same time repelled by the S pole near it. 
 Similarly the N pole of the armature will try to get in 
 front of the S field pole, being attracted by this pole 
 and repelled by the X pole ; but, as the brushes are sta-
 
 56 
 
 THE MOTORMAN. 
 
 tionary, the magnetic poles S and N of the armature 
 remain fixed in space between the poles, while the con- 
 ductors carrying the current and the core on which 
 they are wound are turning in the direction of the 
 arrow as long as a current is conducted into the arma- 
 ture. 
 
 In a motor, therefore, the electrical energy fur- 
 nished by some outside source causes rotation capable 
 of developing mechanical energy. In a dynamo it is 
 just the opposite. There is no electrical energy given: 
 it has to be produced. The wire coils passing in front 
 of the magnet poles generate current. 
 
 Figure 54. 
 
 Figure 55. 
 
 Figure 55 illustrates this action. The field magnet 
 N S changes the armature into a magnet with the poles 
 as indicated, the S pole of the armature approximately 
 facing the N pole of the field and the N pole of the 
 armature nearly facing the S pole of the field magnet. 
 There exists mutual attraction between the armature 
 and the field magnet. To generate a current, the arma- 
 ture must be turned between the energized field magnet 
 poles, which is equivalent to attempting the pulling 
 away of the armature poles from under the field poles. 
 This we know from the first experiment mentioned in 
 the book means the expenditure of energy. 
 
 Parts of Railway Motor. We can now look more 
 intelligently at the parts of a railway motor than we
 
 THE ELECTRIC RAILWAY MOTOR. 
 
 Figure 56 Interior of Railway Motor.
 
 58 THE MOTORMAN. 
 
 could at first. Figure 56 shows a railway motor with 
 its frame opened, giving a view of its interior parts. 
 The armature, A, is mounted upon a shaft and at one 
 end of the armature is the commutator C, consisting 
 of a cylinder of insulated copper bars, to which the 
 ends of the armature coils are connected. Surround- 
 ing the armature are four field magnets, or poles, P, 
 around which are wound coils of wire to magnetize 
 them for the purpose previously explained. The 
 brushes, B, conduct the current to and from the arma- 
 ture through their contact with the commutator. These 
 brushes consist of carbon 
 blocks which are held in 
 brush holders (Figure 57) 
 and pressed against the 
 commutator by springs. 
 The principal parts of an 
 electric railway motor 
 are : The armature, which 
 has been described and is Figure 57 _ Brush Ho ider. 
 mounted on a steel shaft; 
 
 the shell or case, which is a large box-like casting of 
 soft steel supporting on its interior the field magnets, 
 and the gears which transmit the turning power from 
 the armature shaft to the car axle. 
 
 The path of the current through the motor is as 
 follows : Starting at one of the brushes the current 
 passes through all the coils of wire upon the armature, 
 beginning at whatever commutator bar the brush hap- 
 pens to rest upon, and comes out upon another com- 
 mutator bar under the second brush. From this brush 
 the current is led through all the field coils wound 
 around the poles surrounding the armature, and this 
 completes the circuit through the motor. With the
 
 THE ELECTRIC RAILWAY MOTOR. 5S 
 
 current flowing through both the armature and the field 
 coils, both the armature and the field become magnets, 
 and each attracts the other in such a way as to cause the 
 armature to turn as previously explained. To reverse 
 the direction in which the armature revolves, which re- 
 verses the direction of the car, it is only necessary to 
 change the direction in which the current flows through 
 the armature, allowing the current to flow through the 
 fields in the same direction as before; or, we can also 
 
 Figure 58 Motor on Axle. 
 
 reverse the direction of revolution by permitting the 
 current to flow in the same direction through the arma- 
 ture and reversing its direction through the field coils. 
 If the armature current is reversed the magnetism in the 
 armature is reversed, the north pole becoming a south 
 pole and the south pole a north pole. In order to re- 
 verse the current in the armature the wires from the 
 armature brushes are led to the controller independ- 
 ently from the terminals of the field coils, so that the 
 connections of the armature terminals can be reversed
 
 60 THE MOTORMAN. 
 
 at the controller when it is desired to reverse the 
 direction of rotation of the motor. For this reason 
 there will always be at least four wires leading out 
 from the motor. 
 
 An electric railway motor mounted on an axle be- 
 tween the car wheels is shown in Figure 58. For the 
 sake of clearness one pair of wheels and axle have 
 been taken away from the truck. The motor consists 
 
 Figure 59 End View of Motor and Gears. 
 
 of two principal parts : the outer case, which is called 
 the field magnet and which is stationary, and an inner 
 rotating part called the armature. Figures 58 and 59 
 give a general idea of the appearance of the motor and 
 may be referred to together. On one end of the arma- 
 ture shaft 6 is keyed a pinion B, as shown in Figure 59, 
 but in service the pinion and the gear into which 
 it meshes are covered by a casting as B l C 1 in Figure 
 58. This pinion meshes with a gear which is fastened 
 on the car axle. The car axle passes through the bear-
 
 THE ELECTRIC RAILWAY MOTOR. 
 
 01 
 
 ing 5, as shown in Figures 59 and 60. Both solid and 
 split gears (Figures 61 and 62) are used. The split 
 gears are more easily handled for repairing, biit the 
 solid gears, which are pressed on the axles by hy- 
 draulic power, wear longer. 
 
 The manner in which the car is propelled will now 
 be made clear. In starting the car a current is sent 
 into the motor which causes the armature to revolve 
 
 Figure 60 Exterior of Motor. 
 
 and with it the pinion B. This pinion meshes with the 
 teeth of the gear C and turns it in a direction opposite 
 to which the pinion rotates. (See Figure 59.) As 
 the pinion B is much smaller in diameter than the gear 
 C, the car axle to which C is rigidly attached makes 
 a less number of revolutions than does the pinion which 
 drives it. In this way the power developed in the 
 motor is transmitted through the gears to the car axle
 
 62 THE MOTORMAN. 
 
 and the speed of the latter is much less than that of 
 the motor armature. 
 
 Returning to Figure 59, if the power admitted to 
 the motor turns the armature shaft 6 and pinion B in 
 the direction indicated by the arrow, then the gear C 
 will revolve in the opposite direction and the car wheel 
 2 will move from right to left as indicated by the arrow. 
 The function of the casing B 1 is to protect the pinion 
 and gears from dirt and mechanical injury. Some gear 
 
 Figure 61 Solid Gear. Figure 62 Split Gear. 
 
 cases are made of wood and steel, as shown in Figure 
 63. If filled with a heavy grease the gears are thus 
 lubricated and preserved, and at the same time the 
 noise which they make in running by this means is 
 greatly reduced. In all of the motors illustrated a lid 
 will be noticed over the commutator end of the frame 
 where the brushes are located. These lids are readily 
 removed, and their object is to facilitate inspection 
 of the commutator and brushes. 
 
 It will be noticed that all of the motors illustrated 
 have their field casings designed so as to entirely en-
 
 THE ELECTRIC RAILWAY MOTOR. 63 
 
 close the interior parts, and all the joints of the outer 
 frame are made tight enough to be practically water- 
 proof. Water and dirt would readily be thrown into 
 the motor from the car wheels if the parts were not 
 tightly enclosed, but by having the motor case close 
 tightly the windings are protected from water, which 
 would injure them. 
 
 Figure 63 Gear Case. 
 
 Figures 64 and 65 show two views of a car 
 motor. Figure 64 shows the frame closed about the 
 armature ready for operating. Figure 65 shows the 
 lower frame of the motor dropped, with the armature 
 in the lower position. This method of dividing field 
 magnets horizontally through the bearings and fasten- 
 ing the lower part at one side by means of hinges 
 provides for the inspection and repairs of the interior 
 parts of the motor.
 
 Figure 64 View of Motor from Axle End. 
 
 Figure 65 Motor with Case Open.
 
 THE ELECTRIC RAILWAY MOTOR. 65 
 
 Motor Suspension. In supporting motors upon car 
 trucks one side of the motor is held in position by the 
 bearings resting on and around the car axle. The other 
 side of the motor is not usually fastened rigidly to the 
 
 Figure 66 Cradle Suspension. 
 
 frame of the truck, but has springs placed at some point 
 between the motor and the frame in order to avoid the 
 sudden jar which would be occasioned in starting the 
 motor if it were rigidly connected. These springs also 
 serve to "greatly increase the life of the gear wheels, 
 as part of the shock in starting is taken up by the 
 
 Figure 67 Parallel Bar Suspension. 
 
 springs, without which the teeth would be liable to be 
 stripped from the gears. Figures 66, 67 and 68 repre- 
 sent the same motor with different styles of suspension.
 
 66 THE MOTORMAN. 
 
 Figure 66 shows what is called the cradle suspension, 
 which consists of an iron bar resting on heavy springs 
 which in turn rest on the truck. This method is de- 
 signed to relieve the motor bearings of the weight of 
 the motor, which being suspended in the line of its 
 center of gravity is supported without undue strains. 
 Figure 67 shows the parallel bar suspension and Figure 
 68 the nose suspension. The latter is the one most 
 commonly used. 
 
 Types of motors differing in some respects from 
 those previously illustrated are shown in Figures 69 
 
 Figure 68 Nose Suspension. 
 
 and 70. Figure 69 is known as the box-frame type 
 and differs from the split-frame type in that the 
 magnet frame is cast in practically one piece, forming 
 a cube with well-rounded corners and large openings 
 at each end into which the frames carrying the bear- 
 ings for the armature shaft are bolted. The armature 
 is put in place or removed through these end open- 
 ings in the frame. 
 
 Motors of this type are mounted or moved from 
 the truck by means of a crane from above when the 
 truck is out from under the cars, and no track pit is re-
 
 THE ELECTRIC RAILWAY MOTOR. 67 
 
 Figure 70 Motor with Diagonally Split Frame.
 
 68 THE MOTORMAN. 
 
 quired. In order to facilitate removing the armatures 
 from these motors a special tool is provided, upon which 
 the motor is mounted. The armature shaft is centered 
 on this tool and by removing the bolts from one of 
 the frame heads and moving the motor frame to one 
 end of the tool by means of the hand wheel, the arma- 
 ture is left entirely exposed and mounted upon centers, 
 where it may be readily inspected or repaired. A 
 more recent way is to stand the motor case on end, 
 
 Figure 71 Interpole Motor. 
 
 when by use of air or hydraulic hoists the armature is 
 lifted out. 
 
 Interpole Motors. Probably the most promising 
 improvement in direct-current railway motors for many 
 years is the introduction of the interpole or commutat- 
 ing pole motor. The commutation of high-voltage cur- 
 rent in railway motors has always been a most diffi- 
 cult problem for the designers of such machinery to 
 solve and the care of commutators and brushes forms 
 no small part of the duties of the mechanical and elec- 
 trical force of a railway company.
 
 THE ELECTRIC RAILWAY MOTOR. 69 
 
 Sparking on a commutator bites away a small 
 amount of copper and carbon at each spark, but does 
 not affect the mica between segments. If the sparking 
 is continued, the copper is soon eaten down, thus leav- 
 ing the mica sticking up. This ''high mica" in turn 
 makes the sparking worse and causes a general rough- 
 ening of the commutator, flattening of the bars, etc., 
 with consequent rapid wear of the brushes, which fills 
 the motor with carbon and copper dust, and sometimes 
 causes it to flash, ground, etc. Milling down the mica 
 below the copper prevents some of this trouble, but 
 does not go to the root of the matter. 
 
 In service a railway motor does not run contin- 
 uously with power on, but the time that it is operating 
 under load is varied by a certain amount of coasting 
 and stopping. During this no-load running the rough- 
 ening which has been caused by the action of the cur- 
 rent is partly corrected by the scouring and polishing 
 effect of the brushes without load. In many cases the 
 scouring action predominates so that the commutators 
 remain bright and clean and take on a good polish. 
 
 The purpose of commutating poles is to reduce 
 sparking. The commutating pole is an intermediate 
 pole of small dimensions, placed between the main field 
 magnet poles. It is used for reversing the direction of 
 the current in the armature coils when they are short- 
 circuited by the brushes. Thus, by magnetically in- 
 ducing a current of proper direction in the short-cir- 
 cuited coils, the sparking at the commutator, resulting 
 from the "kick" of the short-circuited coils, is avoided. 
 Since the direction of the current in the commutating 
 pole coils is reversed when the current in the armature 
 is reversed, they are equally effective when the motor 
 is reversed.
 
 70 
 
 THE MOTORMAN. 
 
 These motors are manufactured in six sizes, rang- 
 ing from 50 to 200 horsepower. They are built for a 
 standard of 600 volts. 
 
 The field magnet frames of these motors are sim- 
 ilar in design to those of the standard railway motors, 
 with the exception that the commutating poles are in- 
 serted between the main pole pieces, as shown in Fig- 
 
 Figure 72 Interior of Interpole Motor. 
 
 ure 72. The frames are made in both the split and 
 box types. 
 
 The Single-Phase Motor. The single-phase railway 
 system accomplishes the same results in car movement 
 that are secured by the use of direct-current equip- 
 ments, but it does this in many cases with less first 
 cost, less operating expense, increased flexibility and 
 greater simplicity. 
 
 At the substations the alternating-current power 
 which is received from the generators is merely re-
 
 THE ELECTRIC RAILWAY MOTOK. 71 
 
 duced in voltage by transformers and supplied at once 
 to the cars, instead of being changed into direct cur- 
 rent by transformers and rotary converters. The 
 equipment of such a substation is quite simple and may 
 be left without attendants. 
 
 One of the fundamental characteristics of alternat- 
 ing current ii the readiness with which it can be trans- 
 formed from one voltage to another. Where alternat- 
 ing-current motors are used, therefore, it is not neces- 
 sary as with direct current to supply power to the cars 
 at the voltage of the motors, but by the use of a trans- 
 former on the car the voltage of the trolley and that of 
 the motors may have any desired ratio. As it is en- 
 tirely feasible to employ a voltage of 11,000 (which 
 permits the distribution of a large amount of power 
 with a very small current) on a properly insulated 
 trolley wire, the single-phase system affords means of 
 operating even the heaviest cars or trains from an or- 
 dinary trolley wire of moderate size with no additional 
 feeders. 
 
 The single-phase railway motor does not involve 
 any particularly new or mysterious principle, but de- 
 pends for its operation upon an extension of the well- 
 known fact that reversing the current at the terminals 
 of a series direct-current motor does not reverse the 
 direction of rotation or interfere with the operation. 
 This principle holds good no matter whether the cur- 
 rent is reversed once every hour or once every minute. 
 Since an alternating current gives merely the same 
 general effect as a very rapid and continuous reversal 
 of a direct current the ordinary direct-current railway 
 motor rotates if suitable alternating current is applied 
 to it. 
 
 The single-phase motor (Figure 73) ordinarily is
 
 72 
 
 THE MOTORMAN. 
 
 wound for a voltage of from 200 to 250 instead of 
 500 or 550, as in the ease of direct-current motors. 
 The larger currents which must be handled on this 
 account necessitate greater brush capacity than in di- 
 rect-current motors, so that four brush arms ordinarily 
 are required with a four-pole motor or six with a six- 
 pole motor. 
 
 The standard trolley voltage for single-phase op- 
 
 Figure 73 Single-Phase Motor. 
 
 eration is 6,600, although voltages of 3,300 and 11,000 
 are also employed in some cases. 
 
 To reduce the trolley voltage for use at the motors 
 an oil-insulated, self-cooling "auto-transformer" is 
 used. As with direct-current motors, the speed of the 
 single-phase motor varies with the voltage at its ter- 
 minals, and the motor is controlled in this way. In 
 order to get a variable voltage for this purpose, how-
 
 THE ELECTRIC RAILWAY MOTOR. 73 
 
 ever, it is not necessary, as in direct-current practice, 
 to change the grouping of the motors, or to introduce 
 resistance into the circuit, but simply to connect the 
 motors to different taps on the auto-transformer. 
 
 The qualities which make the single-phase motor 
 suitable for operation on alternating current make it 
 operate equally well on direct current of the proper 
 voltage. It is often desirable to obtain the benefits 
 of single-phase operation with cars which for a part 
 of their route must run over the same tracks and use 
 the same power as direct-current cars, and by connect- 
 ing two or more single-phase motors in series for such 
 operation they can readily be arranged to run from a 
 550-volt trolley wire, as well as from a 6.600 or other 
 high-voltage one.
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 CAR WIRING AND PARTS. 
 
 We will now trace the electrical circuit through the 
 car. The current, as we know, conies from the power 
 station through the feed wires and troll ey wire, and 
 flows through the trolley wheel down the trolley pole 
 to the trolley base. 
 
 Figure 74 Roller-Bearing Trolley Base. 
 
 There are many styles of trolley bases. In Figures 
 74 and 75 two forms are shown. The trolley wire is 
 generally attached to the iron base below. The springs 
 are employed for the purpose of causing an upward 
 pressure en the trolley pole, which is not shown. The 
 pole can be removed from the trolley base and is held
 
 CAR WIRING AND PARTS. 75 
 
 adjustably in a socket. A great range of movement is 
 necessary in the springs and trolley pole, as the trolley 
 wire, suspended in the air, cannot be held at the same 
 height over all the course of travel. For instance, at 
 railroad crossings it is placed much higher so as not 
 to interfere with the railroad service and brakemen who 
 may be standing on the roofs of the cars ; again it may 
 be much lower in other places, such as bridges and 
 tunnels. 
 
 One type of trolley base, shown in Figure 74, is 
 mounted on an anti-friction turntable, which consists 
 of four roller-bearing wheels, revolving between chilled 
 
 Figure 75 Trolley Base and Tension Springe. 
 
 surfaces, above and below. It is self-oiling and weath- 
 erproof in every respect and is also constructed so that 
 should the pole be turned over in the opposite posi- 
 tion, the tension would be the same. The sleeve in 
 which the trolley pole is secured is two feet long, which 
 length gives the trolley pole a reinforcement. The 
 base is constructed so as to lock down and permit of 
 changing the pole while in a horizontal position. The 
 trolley pole is a long iron pipe-like pole on the end of 
 which is located the "trolley." This trolley wheel, 
 which consists of brass or special metal, is generally a 
 small, narrow wheel with projecting flanges. On in-
 
 76 THE MOTORMAN. 
 
 terurban roads where cars are run at high speeds 
 larger wheels, six inches in diameter, are used. 
 
 Pantagraph Trolley. For use on high-speed roads 
 operating at high pressures a pneumatically operated 
 pantagraph trolley has been devised which can readily 
 be raised or lowered by the motorman without leaving 
 his cab. In trains of several motor cars, moreover, 
 the trolleys on 
 the entire train 
 may be simul- 
 taneously c o n - 
 trolled from any 
 one point. This 
 trolley is normal- 
 ly held against 
 the wire by means 
 of a spring, but 
 is lowered and au- 
 tomatically locked 
 down by the ap- 
 plication of com- 
 pressed air. Ap- 
 plication of the Fjgure 76 _ sliding Bow Trolley . 
 air to another 
 point will then unlock the trolley and allow it to rise. 
 
 In the types of trolley shown in Figures 76 and 
 78 the current is collected by a rubbing or sliding con- 
 tact bar. 
 
 Third-Rail Shoes. Where the third-rail method is 
 used for distributing the current along the track to 
 the cars as we have described in Chapter IV. there are 
 shoes provided to make an electrical connection be- 
 tween the car wiring and the third rail. These shoes
 
 CAR WIRING AND PARTS. 
 
 77 
 
 Figure 77 Pantagraph Trolley Lowered. 
 
 Figure 78 Pantagraph Trolley Raised.
 
 78 
 
 THE MOTORMAN. 
 
 are mounted on a bar (Figure 79), which is fastened 
 between the two journal boxes so that it does not rise 
 and fall as the car moves over rough track, but always 
 remains the same distance from the track rail and the 
 third rail. The shoe is of such a shape and size that 
 when held by springs or its own weight it makes a 
 
 Figure 79 Attachment of Third- Rail Shoe. 
 
 continuous sliding contact on the head of the third 
 rail as the car moves along. One of the important ad- 
 vantages in the use of the third rail is that these steel 
 shoes last for a very long time and do not need re- 
 newing as often as trolley wheels. There is also 
 another advantage that no attention need be paid to 
 the shoes by the car crew when it is desired to switch 
 the car from one track to another or to back it in 
 the yards.
 
 CAR WIRING AND PARTS. 79 
 
 All current collectors, of whatever type they may 
 be, are insulated from the car body or trucks and the 
 path of the current from the connections with the 
 third-rail shoe or the sliding pantagraph trolley is 
 the same as that from the ordinary wheel-and-pole 
 trolley. 
 
 Main Switches. From the trolley base a wire con- 
 ducts the current to the canopy switches or circuit- 
 breakers over the platforms and passing through these 
 
 Figures 80 and 81 Overhead Circuit- Breaker. 
 
 it flows through another wire, generally concealed in 
 a corner post of the car, to a fuse box. The canopy 
 switch (Figures 80 and 81) is also sometimes called the 
 main motor switch, the overhead switch or the auxiliary 
 switch. These switches are generally provided with 
 what is known as a blow-out magnet coil, for the pur- 
 pose of blowing out the arc when the switch is opened. 
 Automatic circuit-breakers have recently been 
 used to a large extent to take the place of the fuse and 
 canopy switch. They are preferable for a number of 
 reasons, the chief of which is that they may be ar-
 
 80 
 
 THE MOTORMAN. 
 
 ranged to break the circuit when the current exceeds 
 any predetermined amount with much more accuracy 
 than a wire fuse, and they are thrown into circuit 
 again simply by the movement of a handle without the 
 necessity of replacing any of the parts, as with the 
 fuse. There are a number of circuit-breakers on the 
 market, all designed practically upon the same prin- 
 ciple, one of which is shown in Figure 82. 
 
 Figure 82 Circuit- Breaker Cover Open. 
 
 The principal part of the automatic circuit-breaker 
 is a switch which closes against a spring, and which 
 is held in its closed position by means of a trip. In the 
 circuit of the machine is placed a magnetic coil, the pur- 
 pose of which is to attract an armature whose movement 
 releases the trip, permitting the spring to throw the 
 contact surfaces apart and break the circuit. The 
 cause of the armature being attracted and the trip re- 
 leased is this : The magnet coil is so wound that with a 
 normal amount of current passing through the magnet
 
 CAR WIRING AND PARTS. 81 
 
 is not strong enough to attract the armature, but the 
 moment an excessive amount of current is used the 
 strength of the magnet is correspondingly increased, so 
 that the armature is attracted and the trip released, 
 which opens the circuit. 
 
 Fuses. The next piece of apparatus in the circuit 
 is the fuse box, which is a device for protecting the 
 motors from an excessive flow of current. All of the 
 current flowing through the car motors passes through 
 one of these fuse boxes, of which there are several 
 styles on the market. The simplest fuse consists of a 
 piece of soft wire generally made of some alloy of 
 lead having a low current carrying capacity. This 
 piece of fuse wire will melt and open the electric cir- 
 cuit whenever the current flowing through the motors 
 is of such an amount as might burn the insulation on 
 the coils of the armature or the field magnet. When 
 too much current is permitted to flow through any wire 
 it becomes heated, and the greater the amount of cur- 
 rent the hotter the wire becomes. If, therefore, some- 
 thing should happen on the car to allow too much cur- 
 rent to flow through the motors the wire upon their 
 armatures and fields would become heated so as to 
 burn the insulation upon them, and eventually would 
 be melted if the circuit were not protected with a fuse 
 which would melt when the current exceeded a cer- 
 tain safe amount. The fuse is frequently a short length 
 of metal connected between two binding posts, and of 
 a material that will melt at a very low temperature, 
 although sometimes a small copper wire is used. When 
 copper is used it must be of a size much smaller than 
 any of the other wires on the car, so that it will melt 
 before any other of the wires in the circuit can get 
 dangerously hot.
 
 82 THE MOTORMAN. 
 
 In addition to the bare wire fuses just described, 
 there are various covered fuses such as those types 
 shown in Figure 84 and Figure 85. These enclosed 
 fuses have a fusible conductor which is enclosed in 
 a tube, and around the conductor is a special filling 
 which prevents any arc or. flash under short cir- 
 cuits. A fuse of this kind is a great improvement 
 over the old-fashioned bare wire fuses. They do not 
 blow with the loud report and heavy flash which ac- 
 company the blowing of a bare fuse. They are also 
 of advantage in not blistering the varnish and paint 
 
 Figure 83 Open Fuse. Figure 84 Closed Fuse. 
 
 of the car, which frequently happens with the uncov- 
 ered fuse. Another advantage of these fuses is that 
 they are inserted in the fuse box by simply pushing the 
 tube into its seat between clamping springs, and there 
 are no thumbscrews, the manipulation of which in the 
 old kind is a difficult matter in severe weather. 
 
 Lightning Arresters. The next device on the car 
 to which the current is led is the lightning arrester. 
 This is a device to deflect lightning from the circuit to 
 the ground before it has an opportunity to reach the 
 motors or other electrical apparatus on the car. There
 
 CAR WIRING AND PARTS. 83 
 
 is a strong tendency for a lightning discharge to take 
 the shortest and most direct path to the ground, and 
 it will readily arc over a small gap or air space or 
 will pierce through insulating materials to the ground. 
 If it were not for the lightning arrester, the lightning 
 would frequently jump through the insulation of the 
 armatures or field magnets of the car motor; and while 
 the very small current of the lightning discharge would 
 do no harm of itself, the arc which it would establish 
 
 Figure 85 Closed Fuse. 
 
 in jumping to the ground would be followed by the 
 line current from the trolley wire, which would burn 
 out the windings immediately. 
 
 The tendency of lightning to jump to the ground 
 by the shortest path is the principle upon which almost 
 all lightning arresters are designed. These devices 
 usually consist of some arrangement whereby the light- 
 ning easily can pass down the wire across to the 
 ground by jumping between points set a small fraction
 
 84 
 
 THE MOTORMAN. 
 
 of an inch apart. Various provisions are made by 
 different manufacturers to prevent the current from 
 the power station from following the lightning when it 
 is deflected to earth. Figure 86 shows a diagram of 
 the connections of the lightning arrester. One ter- 
 minal is connected to the wire from the trolley, the 
 other to the motor truck and thence to the ground. 
 The lightning jumps across between the points and is 
 thus led to the earth. 
 
 i 
 
 Figures 86 and 87 Lightning Arrester. 
 
 Figure 87 shows a complete arrester. The two car- 
 bon points are indicated by an arrow, between which 
 the lightning jumps on its way to earth. In order to 
 open this special circuit after the lightning has passed, 
 so that the current from the dynamo cannot follow by 
 the same path that is taken by the lightning to earth, the 
 circuit to the lightning arrester is automatically broken 
 by an electro-magnet which pulls the two carbons apart 
 as soon as current flows through the coil C. It will be
 
 CAR WIRING AND PARTS. 85 
 
 seen that the circuit of the lightning arrester or by- 
 pass is constantly open except when temporarily 
 closed while the lightning flash crosses it, and even 
 then it is a circuit of very high resistance. It is there- 
 fore clear that even though the lightning arrester is 
 connected to the trolley wire, yet no current from the. 
 trolley line goes through it. A kicking coil, Figure 88, 
 is used in connection with 
 the lightning arrester. 
 An inductive resistance 
 such as this coil is the 
 only resistance that offers 
 hindrance to the passage 
 
 Figure 88 Kicking Coil. 
 
 Figures 89 and 90 Lightning Arresters. 
 
 of static electricity, known as lightning, and yet allows 
 the trolley current to flow to the motors. The kicking 
 coil, Figure 88, is put in the circuit immediately after 
 the lightning arrester and its inductive resistance 
 tends to drive the discharge through the arrester be- 
 fore it reaches the motors or other apparatus.
 
 THE MOTORMAN.
 
 CAR WIRING AND PARTS. 87 
 
 After the line current has passed the point where 
 the lightning arrester is connected, it flows through 
 what is called the choke, or kicking coil, previously 
 mentioned. The object of this is to aid in making it 
 difficult for the lightning to flow toward the motors, 
 owing to an inductive kick in the spiral winding, and. 
 to increase the liability of its going to ground through 
 the lightning arrester (Figure 90). 
 
 After leaving the choke coil the current passes 
 through a heavy wire connecting with the controllers 
 on the platform. As will be explained in a later chap- 
 ter, these controllers comprise sets of switches which 
 are turned by the handle on top operated by the motor- 
 man. At different points in the revolution of this 
 handle the different switches in the controller connect 
 the motors in various ways with sets of resistance 
 which are mounted under the car floor. After passing 
 the controller the current is led through the resistance 
 and to one of the brushes in the motor case. From 
 this brush, as we have already seen in an earlier chap- 
 ter, the current passes through the commutator bars 
 and through the armature back to opposite commu- 
 tator bars and out through a brush on the other side 
 of the controller from where it entered. From this 
 brush the current passes through all the field coils in 
 the motor case, one after another, and then to the track 
 by way of the axle and rails. The track, as we know, 
 forms the return conductor carrying the current used 
 by all the cars along the line back to the dynamo in the 
 power station, thus completing the circuit. 
 
 Figure 91 is a diagram of the wiring in a car. The 
 two controllers are represented at the extreme ends 
 and the four car wheels are indicated by 1, 2, 3 and 4; 
 between these four wheels are shown the outlines of
 
 THE MOTORMAN.
 
 CAR WIRING AND PARTS. 89 
 
 the two motors. The heavy tube-like connection from 
 the controllers to the motors represents a hose which 
 surrounds the wires going to each motor. It protects 
 them partly from mechanical injury and partly from 
 dampness and water thrown by wheels or rails. The 
 resistance, hose and other devices are beneath the car- 
 floor. 
 
 Figure 92 is a diagram of the wiring of the type of 
 double-truck car used by the Chicago City Railway. It 
 will be noted that this car has four motors and three 
 main groups of wires or cables which connect the 
 motors and the resistances with the controller. 
 
 The auxiliary circuits for the lights, car heaters, 
 bells and air-compressor motor are also shown in de- 
 tail in Figures 93, 94 and 95. 
 
 This car wiring follows the practice recently 
 adopted on a number of elevated roads of putting all 
 wires under the car in iron pipe conduit. The motor 
 wires between controllers are bunched into three cables. 
 One of these cables contains the wires for motors 1 and 
 2, which motors are placed on one truck. The second 
 cable contains wires for motors 3 and 4, placed on the 
 other truck. The third cable contains wires going to 
 the resistance grids. The compressor wiring is run 
 in separate iron pipe conduit. The iron pipe conduit 
 for the main cables runs along the center longitudinal 
 sills of the car. The accompanying car wiring dia- 
 gram indicates these cables and the wires leading to 
 them, but is not intended to show the position of 
 the conduits. Each cable conduit has all its wires of 
 different color, so their is no confusion in repairing. 
 
 Where the taps are taken off from the cable to the 
 motor leads, a split cast-iron junction box containing 
 the joints is bolted on the conduit. These taps are led
 
 90 
 
 THE MOTORMAN. 
 
 i 
 
 f 
 
 I! 
 
 f
 
 CAR WIRING AND PARTS. 91 
 
 to a connection box, which is intended to make it pos- 
 sible to quickly disconnect the motor leads without 
 the inconvenience of disconnecting joints and remov- 
 ing joint insulation.
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 CONTROLLERS. 
 
 For controlling the speed of electric cars three 
 general methods have been employed, two of which, 
 however, are practically obsolete today. One method 
 is by means of a rheostat, which was the system intro- 
 duced by the Thomson-Houston Company. In this 
 method of control the motors were connected perma- 
 nently in parallel, and a rheostat was inserted in series 
 with the two motors, containing sufficient resistance 
 to reduce the starting pressure to less than half of the 
 total voltage. This resistance was gradually cut out 
 until the full voltage of the circuit passed through the 
 motors as the car reached its maximum speed. 
 
 Another method of motor control no longer used 
 for street cars is that in which the field coils are 
 divided into several sections, the sections being con- 
 nected in series with each other and also in series with 
 the armature in starting. By changing in successive 
 steps with the movement of the controller they are all 
 thrown in parallel, and in parallel with the armature, 
 when the car attains its maximum speed. A starting 
 rheostat is also used with this method of control, but 
 it is in series only on the first notch of the controller 
 when the car is starting from rest. Both of these sys- 
 tems are now practically out of use.
 
 CONTROLLERS. 93 
 
 The series-parallel method of control, which is now 
 universally used, and which has supplanted all other 
 methods, consists in grouping the motors on the car, 
 together with the starting rheostat, in series and grad- 
 ually, through the successive steps of the controller, 
 changing them to parallel connection when the car 
 attains its greatest speed. A number of controllers 
 are described in the following pages. 
 
 The car controller is a combination of switches 
 adapted to control the speed of the motors by admit- 
 ting more or less electrical energy to the motors as 
 the case may require. These changes of connections 
 may be made by a number of independent and separate 
 switches, but if this were done too many switches 
 would be required, and they would be slow and awk- 
 ward to operate, and would occupy too much room. 
 Experience has shown that a circular contact drum is 
 quick acting and a suitable device on which a great 
 many changes of connections can be made simply and 
 easily. The purpose of the controller is threefold : 
 
 1. To connect the motors into the circuit so that 
 current can flow through them. 
 
 2. To regulate the amount of current flowing to 
 the motors so as to make a gradual start and control 
 the speed of the car. 
 
 3. To govern the direction of travel of the car. 
 
 The electrical pressure on the trolley line (techni- 
 cally called voltage) is kept practically constant at the 
 power station. Therefore, if the current at full pressure 
 were admitted suddenly to the motors, and no means 
 provided to allow it to rise gradually, we would have 
 to expect a similar abrupt and sudden start by the 
 motors from a state of rest. Admitting the full cur- 
 rent would strain the electrical parts, and similarly the
 
 94 THE MOTORMAN. 
 
 sudden start from rest to high speed would tax the 
 bearings and other mechanical supports and gears, to 
 say nothing of the discomfort which the passengers 
 would experience by the jerk with which the motors 
 would start the car. 
 
 Resistance. To control the amount of current it 
 necessary to consume a portion of the pressure 
 
 is 
 
 Figure 96 Car Resistance. 
 
 under which the current flows by interposing some 
 material which offers a resistance to the flow of the 
 current until the motor has been gradually increased to 
 its normal speed. All the switches or contacts for such 
 grading or varying of resistance are mounted on the 
 drum of the controller (described later), while the 
 resistance itself is generally fixed at a convenient place 
 below the car body. Substances that offer resistance 
 to the flow of current are iron wire, iron strips or 
 plates, German silver, etc. For electric railway pur-
 
 CONTROLLERS. 
 
 poses iron plates or bands are generally used, which 
 are supported in an iron frame, the turns or convolu- 
 tions being insulated from each other and the fireproof 
 frame by mica. The complete device is termed a re- 
 sistance, though some call it a rheostat or a diverter. 
 
 Assume, for the sake of illustration, that the total 
 length of the iron resistance band is 40 feet, in 
 divisions of 10 feet each, these divisions being con- 
 nected to the controller 
 terminals by means of 
 wires mentioned in the 
 previous chapter. Now, 
 if this controller were 
 placed on the first notch 
 the whole 40 feet of iron 
 band would be in circuit 
 with the motor, and the 
 pressure that could 
 reach the motor re- 
 duced just the amount 
 that would be lost in 
 By turning the con- 
 10 feet of this iron 
 
 Figure 97 Resistance Grid. 
 
 so that but 30 feet 
 
 the 40 feet of iron band, 
 troller to the second notch, 
 band would be cut out, 
 would be in circuit. The pressure that could reach 
 the motor in this case would, of course, be greater and 
 its speed would increase. Turning the controller to 
 the third notch, but 20 feet, to the fourth notch, but 
 10 feet, of the resistance would be left in the circuit, 
 and at the fifth position the resistance would be out 
 entirely, causing an increase of speed with every re- 
 duction in resistance and a maximum speed when all 
 resistance was cut out. A resistance or diverter is 
 shown in Figure 96. Its terminals, by which, as just
 
 96 THE MOTORMAN. 
 
 explained, the resistance is subdivided (Figure 97), are 
 led to the controller. 
 
 Motor Circuits. In order to understand clearly 
 all the different changes and conditions that take place 
 by means of the controllers, it is desirable to make 
 the reader acquainted first with the different modes 
 of circuit connection and their names, and then imme- 
 diately apply them to standard types of controllers. 
 After the preliminary explanation some types in gen- 
 
 Figure 98. 
 
 Figure 99. 
 
 eral use will be described in detail, and the rest will be 
 understood after a simple statement of the successive 
 steps and changes as they take place. 
 
 If several parts or conductors are grouped so that 
 the total current flows in succession through all parts, 
 they are said to be grouped in ' ' series, ' ' as for instance 
 in Figure 98. The trolley, the main fuse and the re- 
 sistance carry the total current that goes to the motors, 
 and they are said, or each one of them is said, to be 
 in series with the motors. The motors are also in series 
 with each other, as the current flows first through one, 
 then through the other. It will be clear that if for 
 any cause the main fuse should melt, there would be a
 
 CONTROLLERS. 97 
 
 separation between the trolley pole and the resistance 
 and the current could not flow. 
 
 Another mode of connection is called "parallel" 
 or ''multiple" connection. This is shown in Figure 
 99. The full current supplied to a car goes down the 
 trolley pole, and if the motors are grouped, as shown in- 
 this figure, the current will divide and half of it will 
 go to one motor and the other half to the other motor. 
 Where the circuits of the motors are connected again 
 the two currents join and flow on as one through the 
 car wheel and rail. The two motors are connected in 
 parallel or multiple with each other. Hov/ever, this 
 
 Figure 100. 
 
 connection is not restricted to motors only. Any two 
 or more conductors placed in such a relation that the 
 original current will split up into several paths and 
 join at a place farther on are said to be connected in 
 parallel, or shunt, or in multiple. For instance, re- 
 sistance may be in parallel with or in shunt circuit to 
 the field coils of a motor (Figure 100), a connection 
 which is made in some modern controllers. 
 
 A third way of connecting parts is made by a 
 combination of the two ways just described. Some 
 of the devices with relation to others are in series with 
 one another and in parallel with others, and such 
 grouping is called series-parallel or parallel-series 
 connection. Figure 101 explains this clearly. It rep- 
 resents a condition of grouping of four motors, 1, 2, 3 
 and 4.
 
 98 THE MOTORMAN. 
 
 Evidently the current splits at A, divides into 
 two currents, one of which flows through motors 1 and 
 2, the other through motors 3 and 4. The volume of 
 current that goes through motor 2 must therefore be 
 the same as that going through motor 1, and the rela- 
 tion is similar between motors 3 and 4. At point B 
 the currents join and the total current flows to the car 
 axle and car wheel C. In this combination motors 1 
 and 2 are in series, and so are motors 3 and 4, but the 
 1 and 2 combined are in parallel connection with 3 and 
 
 Figure 101. 
 
 4 combined, and the whole combination is called series- 
 parallel. 
 
 Series-Parallel Control. Since 1893 an improved 
 form of controller known as the "series-parallel" con- 
 troller, has come into general use for single-car opera- 
 tion. The power required when first starting a car 
 with the motors in series is only one-fourth what it 
 would be with the same motors in parallel. Conse- 
 quently, in the modern controller the motors are in 
 series on the first few points of the controller as in 
 Figure 98, and after about half speed has been reached 
 they are connected in parallel as in Figure 99. Hence 
 the name, series-parallel controller. 
 
 The difference between the old method of control 
 and the new is that formerly, to reduce the pressure
 
 CONTROLLERS. 99 
 
 at the motor terminals at the start, a great resistance 
 was inserted to consume a part of the pressure and the 
 energy thus spent in the resistance was wasted. In 
 the new way the two motors are grouped in series first, 
 so that the current must flow through one motor before 
 it gets to the next (Figure 98), and therefore but one- 
 half the pressure reaches each motor. The energy 
 passing through the first motor (which causes the re- 
 duction in pressure for the other) is not wasted, as it 
 is doing useful work in turning the armature and in- 
 creasing the turning force necessary for starting the 
 car. 
 
 Practically all new cylindrical controllers in use 
 today may be divided into four classes, as follows : 
 
 Type B controllers, which may be either of the 
 series-parallel or rheostatic type, but which always in- 
 clude the necessary contacts and connections for oper- 
 ating electric brakes. 
 
 Type K controllers of the series-parallel type are 
 almost universally used. In these controllers one of 
 the features is the shunting or short circuiting of one 
 of the motors when changing from the series to the 
 parallel connection. 
 
 Type L controllers are also of the series-parallel 
 type, but differ from type K controllers in that the 
 circuit is completely opened when the change from 
 series to parallel is made. 
 
 One of the most important features of these types 
 of controllers is the magnetic blow-out by means of 
 which any arc forming between the controller ter- 
 minals is blown out. Other important features are the 
 cut-out switches and the interlocks. The cut-out 
 switches are arranged so that either motor on the two- 
 motor equipments, or either pair of motors on the four-
 
 100 THE MOTORMAX. 
 
 motor equipments, may be cut out without impairing 
 the operation of the remaining motors. The interlocks 
 prevent, as far as possible, the abuse of the controller, 
 as they make movement of any of the handles impossi- 
 ble unless the remaining handles are in such a position 
 that no trouble can result. These controllers are 
 built with hinge clamps, permitting the cover to swing 
 open from either side, or to be completely removed. 
 The parts of all these controllers are interchangeable, 
 permitting ease of repair and renewal. 
 
 In the following descriptions of controllers there 
 are included controllers which are no longer manu- 
 factured, but many of these older controllers are still 
 to be found on different roads where the old equip- 
 ments have not yet been discarded, and it was there- 
 fore deemed advisable to include descriptions of the old 
 as well as the modern controllers. 
 
 The series-parallel controllers manufactured at the 
 present time are as follows : K-2, capacity two 40-hp. 
 motors, 5 series and 4 parallel points; K-4, capacity 
 four 30-hp. motors, 5 series and 4 parallel points ; K-6, 
 two 80-hp. or four 40-hp. motors, 6 series and 5 paral- 
 lel points; K-10, two 40-hp. motors, 5 series, 4 parallel 
 points; K-ll, two 60-hp. motors, 5 series and 4 parallel 
 points; K-12, four 30-hp. motors. 5 series and 4 parallel 
 points; K-13, two 125-hp. motors, 7 series, 6 parallel 
 points; K-14, four 60-hp. motors, 7 series, 6 parallel 
 points; K-27, two 60-hp. motors, 4 series, 4 parallel 
 points; K-29, four 40-hp. motors, 6 series and 5 parallel 
 points; K-31, four 30-hp. motors, 4 series and 4 parallel 
 points; K-32, tw r o 40-hp. motors, 4 series and 4 parallel 
 points; L-2, two 175-hp. motors, 4 series and 4 parallel 
 points ; L-3, four 150-hp. motors, 8 series and 7 parallel 
 points; L-4, four 100-hp. motors, 4 series, 4 parallel
 
 CONTROLLERS. 101 
 
 points; L-7, four 200-hp. motors, 9 series and 6 parallel 
 points. 
 
 The electrical brake controllers are designated by 
 the letter B, and are as follows : 
 
 B-3, capacity two 40-hp. motors, 4 series, 5 parallel 
 and 6 brake points; B-7, two 100-hp. motors, 6 series> 
 
 5 parallel and 6 brake points; B-8, four 60-hp. motors, 
 
 6 series, 5 parallel and 7 brake points ; B-13, two 40-hp. 
 motors, 5 series, 4 parallel and 7 brake points; B-18, 
 two 40-hp. motors, 4 series, 4 parallel and 6 brake 
 points; B-19, four 40-hp. motors, 5 series, 4 p&rallel, 7 
 brake points ; B-23, two 60-hp. motors, 5 series, 4 paral- 
 lel and 7 brake points ; B-29, two 60-hp. motors, 5 series, 
 4 parallel and 7 brake points. The latter is similar to 
 B-23, but has a separate brake handle. 
 
 In Figure 102 is shown one of the type K con- 
 trollers of the General Electric Company. There are 
 many types of K control adapted for motors of differ- 
 ent ratings, but the principle of operation of all is 
 similar, so one description will suffice. On the top of 
 the controller are visible two handles. The one located 
 near the center of the controller top, called the con- 
 troller handle, is attached to a spindle which passes 
 through the whole length of the controller. On this 
 spindle is mounted a cylinder by means of which the 
 current is turned into the motors. The second han- 
 dle, called the reversing handle, is located at the 
 right-hand side and its purpose is to control the direc- 
 tion of the car. If this handle is pushed forward 'as 
 far as it will go, the car will go ahead when the con- 
 troller handle is turned to close the circuit. The car 
 will run backward when the reversing handle has been 
 pulled to the other extreme position and the controller 
 handle is operated as before. What takes place is this :
 
 102 THE MOTORMAN. 
 
 The reversing lever operates a small drum inside of 
 the controller which is provided with contacts. This 
 handle has three positions. The working of this handle 
 forward or backward changes the connections of the 
 
 Figure 102 K-2 Controller. 
 
 motor armatures so that the current flows through 
 them in one direction when the car is to go ahead, and 
 in the opposite direction when the car is to go back- 
 ward, as explained in the previous chapter. When 
 the reverse handle stands at the intermediate position
 
 CONTROLLERS. 103 
 
 between forward and reverse, the current is shut off 
 from the motor at that controller and the reversing 
 handle can be removed only when it is at this interme- 
 diate position. An interlocking arrangement pre- 
 vents any movement of the reversing handle except 
 when the large or power cylinder is at the "off" posi- 
 tion. This same locking device prevents any movement 
 of the power cylinder except when the reversing han- 
 dle is fully thrown into proper position and standing 
 At either "forward" or "backward." 
 
 The reversing cylinder, therefore, controls the di- 
 rection in which the car moves. The propelling of the 
 car and its speed are controlled by the controller handle, 
 with which the motorman has far more to do than with 
 the one just described. We will, therefore, go fully 
 into the details of changes that take place when the 
 controller handle is shifted from one point to another. 
 
 On the top of the controller there are a number 
 of points or dashes, and on the spindle is fastened a 
 finger or index which points to these raised marks as 
 the handle is moved around to admit current to the 
 motors. The high controlling lever on the top (Figure 
 102) turns the central shaft on which are mounted the 
 contact pieces or sections, which establish connections 
 with the stationary terminals located to the left. The 
 wires to the left connect with the terminal board in the 
 controller, to which are also attached the wires going to 
 the motors and to the second controller and resistance 
 boxes. 
 
 When the car is standing ready to start, the finger 
 points to the position marked "off." To start the car, 
 the handle is moved around in the direction of the 
 hands of a watch to the first point. This connects the 
 motors and resistance to the circuit so that the current
 
 104 THE MOTORMAN. 
 
 ftes/s/a/?ce Sf0for/fo.f Mofor/Vo.2 
 
 ^^Jw\/^ 
 ^^^ 
 
 J^ 
 
 \ 
 
 Figure 103 Motor Connection? on Successive Point*.
 
 CONTROLLERS. 105 
 
 flows first through the iron plates of the resistance, 
 then through one of the motors, then through the other 
 motor, and finally to the ground through the car truck, 
 wheels and rails. The motors are in this case what is 
 technically known as connected in "series." This is 
 represented in the diagram showing the connections on 
 the first point in Figure 103. The connections made on 
 all the following points of this controller are also 
 shown in the same figure and should be studied while 
 reading this explanation. On the second point it will 
 be seen that the connections remain the same as on the 
 first, except that two-thirds of the resistance has been 
 cut out of the circuit, so that more current may reach 
 the motors. On the third point, eleven-twelfths of the 
 resistance is cut out of the circuit, and on the fourth 
 point, all the resistance is out, so that the current 
 flows only through the two motors in series. 
 
 All resistance is now cut out and no power 
 is being wasted, as the current is doing only useful 
 work in the motors. We can therefore keep the con- 
 troller on this point for any length of time with econ- 
 omy, only the car will run a little less than half its 
 maximum speed. To increase the speed still more, we 
 move the controller to the fifth point. In doing this, 
 connections are made so that part of the current is 
 shunted through a resistance around the field coils of 
 the motor; that is, instead of having all the current 
 that flows through the armatures flow also through 
 the fields, a part of it is made to take a by-pass or 
 shunt around the fields. This has the effect of increas- 
 ing the speed of the motors, and they will on this point 
 run at half the full speed. In moving the controller 
 to the sixth point, an important change is made in the 
 connections of the motors.
 
 106 THE MOTORMAN. 
 
 As said before, when the controller is on the fourth 
 and fifth points, the motors are in series with each 
 other, the current flowing first through one and then 
 through the other. Consequently each motor gets only 
 one-half the pressure existing between the trolley 
 wire and ground. That is to say, by the time the cur- 
 rent has passed through the first motor, half of the 
 pressure has been used, leaving only the remaining 
 half to run the other motor. To increase the speed we 
 must now connect the motors so that they both will 
 get the full pressure from the trolley line. This can- 
 not be done abruptly. Some resistance must be intro- 
 duced into the circuit at the time this change is made 
 to prevent the car from jerking, just as it would have 
 acted on the first point had some resistance not been 
 interposed when first starting. Therefore, on the sixth 
 point, the motors are connected so that the current di- 
 vides and half flows through each motor. They arc 
 then what is technically called connected in "parallel." 
 They both get the full pressure, except that some re- 
 sistance is put in the circuit before the current gets to 
 the motors. A part of this resistance is cut out on the 
 seventh point. On the eighth point all of the resist- 
 ance is out and the motors are connected so that they 
 both get the full pressure and run at nearly full speed. 
 On the ninth point part of the current is shunted 
 around the field coils as on the fifth point, and the mo- 
 tors run at their highest speed. 
 
 At each point there is provided a notch on a wheel 
 or ratchet, mounted on the controller spindle inside 
 the controller case, which prevents the handle from 
 stopping between points when it is turned. At the 
 lower end of the controller are located the motor cut- 
 out switches, which enable one to operate a car with a
 
 CONTROLLERS. 
 
 107 
 
 single motor should the other one have become de- 
 fective. The operator will find an instruction card in 
 each controller, stating plainly how to throw the 
 switches to cut out the defective motor. It will be 
 
 Figure 104 K-6 Controller. 
 
 noticed that the cards do not read alike on the two 
 controllers of the same car. This is due to the differ- 
 ence in connection. Should it at any time become 
 necessary to cut out a motor, look for the instruction
 
 108 THE MOTORMAN. 
 
 card in the controller stand. To operate with a single 
 motor, the car will start on point 1 and reach its full 
 speed on point 5. A stop is placed on the controller 
 spindle, with which a pin engages, preventing move- 
 ment of the controller cylinder beyond the fifth point. 
 This is effected by either of these cut-out switches, 
 which, in being raised, operate the pin. 
 
 The K-4 controller is used in connection with 
 larger cars, where four motors instead of two are 
 mounted on the trucks. Its action is like the K-2 con- 
 troller, with the difference that instead of having two 
 motors first in series and later in parallel, there are in 
 the K-4 control two identical sets of motors with two 
 motors per set. The two motors of each set are perma- 
 nently grouped in parallel, and one pair is first placed 
 in series with the other pair or set. and finally the two 
 series are connected in parallel. 
 
 The K-6 controller, which is designed for two 80- 
 hp. motors or four 40-hp. motors, is shown in Figure 
 104. 
 
 The K-10 controller is designed for two 40-hp. 
 motors. It is a controller with nine notches. On the 
 first four notches the motors are in series and the re- 
 sistance in circuit. On the fifth notch the motors are 
 in series with the resistance all cut out. On the sixth, 
 seventh and eighth, the motors are in parallel and the 
 resistance in circuit. The ninth is for full speed, mo- 
 tors in multiple. The K-10 controller is shown in Fig- 
 ure 105. Field shunts are not used with this controller. 
 
 The K-ll controller is the same as the K-10, except 
 it is designed for heavier currents and larger motors. 
 
 The K-12 controller is like the K-ll, except that it 
 is made to operate four motors in two sets, the same 
 as the K-4.
 
 CONTROLLERS. 109 
 
 The K-13 is designed for two 125-hp. motors. It 
 is a 13-notch controller. The motors are in series up 
 to and on the seventh point. From the eighth to the 
 
 Figure 105 K-10 Controller. 
 
 thirteenth they are in multiple. The preferred running 
 notches are the seventh and thirteenth. No field shunts 
 are used. 
 
 The K-14 is for four 60-hp. motors, and is like the
 
 110 THE MOTORMAN. 
 
 K-13, except that it bandies four motors in two groups, 
 as does the K-4. 
 
 The K-27 controller is similar to the K-ll, but is 
 arranged for operation on a metallic circuit, having 
 contacts for opening both sides of the circuit. 
 
 The K-29 controller is similar to the K-6, but has 
 contacts for opening both sides of the circuit. 
 
 The K-31 controller is similar to the K-27, but has 
 reverse switch arranged for four motors. 
 
 The K-32 controller is also similar to the K-27, but 
 is of smaller capacity. 
 
 The L-2 controller is used for two 175-hp. motors, 
 and the L-4 for fou:.' 100-hp. motors. They have four 
 points in series and four in multiple. The handle is 
 operated contrary to the hands of a watch, or in the 
 opposite direction from most controllers. The first 
 half-revolution moves the controller through the series 
 points and brings them into full series. To throw 
 them into multiple the movement of the handle of the 
 controller is continued on around to the original off 
 position, and when the handle begins to pass over what 
 were the series notches on the first revolution, the 
 motors are thrown in multiple, so that when the handle 
 has completed a revolution and a half the motors are 
 connected for full speed in multiple. The current is 
 always off when the handle is at the left, and always 
 on when it is at the right. A brass dial on top of the 
 controller indicates whether the motors are in series 
 or multiple. 
 
 The L-3 controller for four 150-hp. motors has 15 
 points, eight series and seven parallel. This controller 
 is shown in Figure 106. 
 
 The L-7 controller for four 200-hp. motors has 15 
 points, nine series and six parallel.
 
 CONTROLLERS? Ill 
 
 The controllers for use with electric brakes are 
 known as the B type. The action of the electric brake 
 and the way to operate it are described later in the 
 chapter on brakes. Some of these controllers have a 
 double set of points or notches. Moving the handle 
 
 Figure 106 L-3 Controller. 
 
 in the usual way from off position starts the car just 
 as on other controllers. Moving the handle the other 
 way from off position applies the electric brake, if the 
 car is running. The capacities of the B controllers at 
 present manufactured and the number of controlling 
 points on each have already been shown in this chapter.
 
 112 
 
 THE MOTORMAN. 
 
 The B-8 controller has separate handles for power and 
 brake, as is also the case with the B-7, B-19 and the 
 B-29. 
 
 The B-23 controller has but one power and brake 
 handle. The B-3, B-13 (shown in Figure 107) and B-18 
 also have only one handle, which is operated in one 
 
 Figure 107 B-13 Controller. 
 
 direction for the power and in the other direction for 
 the brake, as just described. Of the B controllers the 
 B-13 is most generally used and its braking connections 
 are such as to render the skidding of the wheels prac- 
 tically impossible. 
 
 Controller with Contactors. The increased power 
 and higher voltages now being used on many electric
 
 CONTROLLERS. 
 
 113 
 
 railways have imposed new requirements in the design 
 of control apparatus for railway motors, mainly owing 
 to the more destructive character of the arcing in case 
 of a grounded motor or derangement of other appa- 
 
 Figure 108 K-28-J Controller. 
 
 ratus. To meet these requirements there has been de- 
 veloped an auxiliary equipment adapted for use with 
 practically all standard cylinder controllers, consisting 
 essentially of two standard Sprague-General Electric 
 Type M control contactors (see Chapter VIII) con-
 
 114 
 
 THE MOTORMAN. 
 
 nected in the main trolley circuit, and additional con- 
 tacts in the controllers for opening and closing the 
 contactors when the controller is turned off and on, 
 respectively. 
 
 By this means all heavy arcing is eliminated from 
 the controller as the power circuit is opened by the 
 contactors under the 
 car, and consequently 
 the wear and tear on 
 the controller fingers 
 and contact surfaces is 
 diminished, repairs min- 
 imized, and the possibil- 
 ity of burnt-out control- 
 lers practically prevent- 
 ed. A controller Type 
 K-28-J fitted with the 
 contactor attachments is Figure 109. 
 
 shown in Figure 108. 
 
 In addition, this equipment includes overload de- 
 vices known as MU tripping switches which interrupt 
 the energizing circuit of the contactor coils in case of 
 an overload, causing the contactors to open the main 
 circuit. These tripping switches perform the functions 
 of circuit-breakers and may be substituted for them. 
 
 The control connections are shown in the wiring 
 diagram (Figure 109). The auxiliary controller at- 
 tachments can be fitted to the following controllers: 
 K-6, K-10, K-ll, K-12, K-14, K-28 and L-4, with but 
 slight change. The automatic MU tripping switch re- 
 places the usual platform circuit-breaker and is smaller
 
 CONTROLLERS. 115 
 
 and more compact. This combination control is de- 
 signed for a single-car equipment and must not be con- 
 fused with the standard multiple-unit control for op- 
 erating several motor cars together, which is described 
 in Chapter VIII.
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 MULTIPLE-UNIT CONTROL. 
 
 On some electric railways where the traffic is heavy 
 it becomes necessary to run trains of several ears, 
 some or all of which are motor cars. It also becomes 
 necessary at times to divide these trains into smaller 
 ones or to add more cars as the traffic fluctuates, and 
 as it is obviously unpractical to have more than one 
 motorman to drive a train, means must be provided so 
 that each motor car of the train may be controlled from 
 the head end by one man. This method of control is 
 generally known as the multiple-unit system of control. 
 
 The multiple-unit control system is designed to op- 
 erate a train of two or more cars from a single master 
 controller or from any car in the train. The train con- 
 sists of several cars, each propelled independently by its 
 own motors and controlled as one car. Each motor car 
 is provided with two master controllers, one at each end 
 of the car in the motorman 's compartment. All master 
 controllers are connected to the train cable, which runs 
 the entire length of each car and is joined between cars 
 by the train cable-jumper. The current received 
 through the master controller and train cable operates
 
 MULTIPLE-UNIT CONTROL. 117 
 
 electrically controlled switches, known as contactors, on 
 each car, and establishes the motor control on their 
 respective cars. The motor control is local with each 
 car and can be governed by any master controller on 
 the train. The multiple-unit system allows the great- 
 est flexibility in the operation of cars, for one car 
 may be run alone or any number of cars may be coupled 
 together, each car being driven by its own motors as an 
 independent unit. 
 
 There are two systems of multiple control in use, 
 that of the General Electric Company, known as the 
 type M control, which is electrically operated, and the 
 Westinghouse multiple-control system, which is oper- 
 ated by means of compressed air, and known as electro- 
 pneumatic control. Each may be arranged for alter- 
 nating-current service as well as direct. 
 
 Type M Control. In the type M control the series- 
 parallel motor controller as described in the previous 
 chapter is replaced by a number of electrically oper- 
 ated switches, called contactors, which are placed under 
 each motor car. There is also a separate electrically 
 operated reversing switch called the reverser. These 
 contactors and the reverser fulfill the same functions 
 as the controllers on a single car, making the same 
 combination of the motors and starting resistances. 
 Instead, however, of being directly operated by the 
 motorman they are operated through a small controller, 
 called the master controller, to which all the con- 
 tactors and reversers on the train are attached by 
 means of a control circuit cable. This cable runs the 
 entire length of the train and is connected from 
 car to car by means of suitable couplers, and when 
 trail cars are placed between motor cars they also are 
 provided with cables. The platforms of each motor
 
 118 
 
 THE MOTORMAN. 
 
 car and, if desired, those of each trail car are equipped 
 with master controllers (Figure 110). 
 
 The master controller, type C-38-D, shown in Fig- 
 ure 111, although smaller than the ordinary controller, 
 is similar in appearance and method of operation. It 
 has separate power and re- 
 verse handles and contains 
 a magnetic blowout simi- 
 lar to that of the ordinary 
 controller. All the current 
 for the operation of the 
 contactors is taken from 
 the line and passes direct- 
 ly through whichever mas- 
 ter controller happens to 
 be in use ; and the handle 
 of the master controller is 
 generally arranged so that 
 if the motorman removes 
 his hand from it the con- 
 trol circuit will be broken 
 and the contactors opened, 
 shutting off all current 
 from the motors. The re- 
 verse handle can only be 
 removed when the power 
 
 handle is in the off posi- Controller ^witches m cab. 
 tion and the power handle 
 
 is mechanically locked when the reverse handle is 
 removed. 
 
 The contactors (Figures 112 and 113) each con- 
 sist of a movable arm with a removable copper con- 
 tact at one end, making contact with a similar fixed 
 contact piece, and a coil which actuates the arm when
 
 MULTIPLE-UNIT CONTROL. 
 
 119 
 
 Figure 111 C-38-D Controller.
 
 120 
 
 THE MOTORMAN.
 
 MULTIPLE-UNIT CONTROL. 121 
 
 supplied with current from the master controller. The 
 contactor is closed only when the current of the con- 
 trol circuit passes through its coil, and gravity, as- 
 sisted by the spring action of the contact piece, causes 
 the arm to drop and the circuit to open when the con- 
 trol circuit is broken. The contactor also has a pow- 
 erful magnetic blow-out. The reverser is somewhat 
 similar to the ordinary reversing switch with the addi- 
 tion of electro-magnets for turning it either to the 
 forward or reverse positions. Its operating coils are 
 similar to those of the contactors. A cut-out switch is 
 also provided, by means of which all of the control op- 
 erating circuits on any car may be cut out. 
 
 It is evident from the foregoing explanation that 
 there are two principal circuits (Figure 114 at end of 
 book) on a car with the type M control. First, the con- 
 trol circuit which passes from the line to the contact 
 shoe on the car, thence to the master controller, thence 
 through the various operating coils of the contactors 
 and reverses and thence to the ground return; second, 
 the motor circuit, which from the contact shoe passes 
 through the various contactors, thence to the motor 
 fields and armatures and thence to the ground return. 
 All of the contactors under each car taken together 
 constitute a series-parallel controller, and the different 
 combinations are indicated by the position of the mas- 
 ter controller handle. The diagram (Figure 116 at end 
 of book) shows the complete connections of the C-36-B 
 controller and its auxiliary apparatus for a four- 
 motor equipment. The running points on this con- 
 troller are 5 and 10, 5 being the series connection of 
 the motors and 10 the parallel connection. The inter- 
 mediate points are resistance points. As this system of 
 control is made up of separate electrically operated
 
 122 
 
 THE MOTORMAN. 
 
 switches, these may be located in any available posi- 
 tion and are generally placed under the car floor. 
 
 Electro-Pneumatic Control. The Westinghouse 
 multiple unit-switch train control system employs com- 
 pressed air to operate the controlling apparatus, elec- 
 tro-magnetic valves for controlling the admission of air 
 to the various cylinders and a 
 low-voltage control circuit for 
 actuating the electro-magnets. 
 The essential parts of this sys- 
 tem consist of a series-parallel 
 controller on which is mounted 
 an operating head consisting of 
 a number of air cylinders, a 
 master control switch and two 
 sets of storage batteries. With 
 some changes the system is 
 adapted for either alternating 
 or direct current operation. 
 
 In the unit-switch control 
 system the main drum of the 
 hand controller is replaced by 
 a group of 10 or 12 (according 
 to the size of the equipment) 
 Independent or "unit" switches, 
 each provided with a strong 
 magnetic blow-out and normally 
 
 held open by a powerful spring. Each switch 
 (Figure 115) is closed when desired by a suit- 
 able pneumatic cylinder, using compressed air from 
 the brake system. This combination of switches is 
 called a "switch group." The reverse drum of the 
 platform controller is replaced by a similar drum, ex- 
 cept that it is more liberal in capacity, built in a sep- 
 
 Figure 115 Unit Switch.
 
 MULTIPLE-UNIT CONTROL. 
 
 123 
 
 arate case and moved to the forward or reverse posi- 
 tion by one or the other of two cylinders having a 
 common piston rod. This device is called a "reverser" 
 (Figure 117). The overhead circuit-breaker is re- 
 placed by a "line switch," which is essentially the 
 same as one of the switches of the switch group, except 
 that it is placed in a case by itself and is provided 
 with an automatic trip, which causes it to open in case 
 of an overload or short-circuit. These three pieces of 
 
 Figure 117 Reverser. 
 
 apparatus effect the various necessary connections be- 
 tween motors, resistance and trolley. 
 
 Forming an essential part of the pneumatic cylin- 
 der for operating the switch group, line switch and re- 
 verser is a magnet valve which governs the admission 
 or escape of air to or from that cylinder. These mag- 
 net valves are operated by means of a small storage 
 battery, and their opening or closing is regulated by 
 means of a "master controller" to which their circuits 
 are led. The switch group, reverser and line switch
 
 124 
 
 THE MOTORMAN.
 
 MULTIPLE-UNIT CONTROL. 125 
 
 thus may be located in any convenient position, while 
 nothing but the master controller need be located on 
 the platform, and only the small low-voltage battery 
 circuits be carried to it. 
 
 For train operation the circuits from the battery 
 and magnets are carried to "train line receptacles" at 
 each end of the car, as well as to the master controllers, 
 and when two cars are coupled together the corre- 
 sponding receptacles on each car are then connected by 
 a multipoint "jumper," so that the circuits are con- 
 tinued from car to car. When several cars are con- 
 nected in this way the movement of a single master 
 controller closes simultaneously the corresponding 
 magnet circuits on all of the cars and thus operates 
 also the corresponding main circuit switches. 
 
 Connected to the piston rods which move the va- 
 rious switches are a number of small contact switches 
 which open or close auxiliary circuits between station- 
 ary fingers arranged to press on them. The^e auxiliary 
 contacts are called "interlocks," and the circuits which 
 operate the magnet valves of each of the various 
 switches are carried through the interlocks of other 
 switches in such a way that the switches cannot be 
 closed except in the proper order. 
 
 The unit-switch control system (Figure 118), how- 
 over, does not consist merely in replacing the ordinary 
 controller with a set of pneumatic switches, which may 
 be closed properly or improperly entirely at the discre- 
 tion of the motorman, but the action of the switches 
 is regulated by means of a "limit switch," so as to 
 give a uniform current through the motors while oper- 
 ating on the resistance steps; thus securing a smooth 
 and even acceleration of the car and protecting the 
 equipment from overload. This limit switch consists
 
 126 THE MOTORMAN. 
 
 of a coil, placed in series with the motor circuits, 
 which lifts an armature whenever the current exceeds 
 a predetermined amount. 
 
 The circuits for closing the various, switches of the 
 switch group are so arranged that it is not necessary 
 to move the master controller step by step to cause the 
 closing of the different switches, but, by placing the 
 master controller in a single definite position and hold- 
 ing it there, the circuits to the first switches are closed. 
 The closing of these switches then automatically closes 
 the next ones, etc., by means of the interlocks. The 
 circuit from the battery which supplies power for this 
 automatic operation is led through the secondary con- 
 tacts of the limit switch, so that as long as the current 
 through the motors does not exceed the desired value, 
 the different switches will close one after the other 
 almost instantaneously. Should the current through 
 the motors at any time exceed the desired amount, how- 
 ever, the armature of the limit switch will instantly 
 rise and thus prevent the closing of any more switches 
 until the current has fallen to the desired value. 
 
 The regulation of the current during starting is 
 thus taken entirely out of the hands of the motorman, 
 who simply advances the handle of the master con- 
 troller to the last notch and holds it there ; the closing 
 of the switches is then governed automatically by the 
 limit switch. In order to provide for the handling of 
 the car under special conditions, the apparatus is so 
 arranged that the motorman may readily notch up 
 more slowly than would be done by the limit switch, 
 or may stop at any notch ; also, by going to some extra 
 trouble he can short-circuit the limit switch and notch 
 up entirely independent of the current. 
 
 As ordinarily built, the master controller (Figure
 
 MULTIPLE-UNIT CONTROL. 
 
 127 
 
 119) for use with the unit-switch control system con- 
 tains three notches for forward running and three for 
 reverse. If the handle is moved to the first notch a 
 slow-speed resistance point is obtained which is used 
 principally in shifting cars. This first notch hence is 
 called the "switching" position. If the handle is 
 moved to the second notch, either with or without paus- 
 ing on the first one, the switches close one after the 
 other until the motors are con- 
 
 ; ^-? n nected in series. The second notch 
 
 m is therefore called the "series" 
 
 position, and is, of course, a run- 
 
 ^diCSBBfe ' ning point. If the handle is moved 
 
 lr . .,' V :^ to the third notch, either at once 
 
 , H,/|' or after pausing on one or both of 
 
 ^J^j the first two notches, additional 
 
 M ; I switches will then close in se- 
 
 ' ""' quence until the motors are con- 
 
 4 nected, in full multiple. The third 
 
 notch is called the "parallel" po- 
 
 |j : sition. 
 
 Figure 119 
 Master Controller. 
 
 An interesting detail to learn 
 in connection with this system of 
 control is the method of charging 
 
 the small storage batteries used for operating the mag- 
 net valves. Two batteries are carried on a car, and these 
 are connected to the air-pump motor circuit, as shown 
 in Figure 118. The two double-throw switches are 
 always thrown either both up or both down, so that 
 one battery is connected to the control circuit while the 
 other is being charged. Whenever the pump is run- 
 ning the battery which is being charged is connected 
 by the "battery-charging relay" to the circuit of the 
 pump motor. The resistance in series with the pump
 
 128 THE MOTORMAN. 
 
 motor is so adjusted, in connection with the relative 
 amount of time that the pump is running and the 
 control circuits are closed, that the battery will re- 
 ceive on the one hand sufficient current to charge it 
 properly, without, on the other hand, receiving enough 
 current to make it boil or gas. When this adjustment 
 once has been made, the batteries will require little at- 
 tention other than the reversal of the two switches once 
 each day. 
 
 Another detail of the equipment is the air-storage 
 system. A separate c; control reservoir" is piped to the 
 air-brake system, as shown in Figure 118, in connection 
 With a "governor" or check valve and a three-way 
 valve. Ordinarily the three-way valve is turned so that 
 the air is drawn directly from the brake system, but in 
 case of accident to the compressor or main reservoir 
 the three-way valve may be turned through a right 
 angle and the reserve supply of air in the control reser- 
 .voir thus be made available to return the car to the 
 car house. 
 
 In providing for the control of the different sizes 
 of motors most commonly used, two sizes of switch 
 groups are employed. This method of control, Avith 
 slight modification, is adaptable to either direct or al- 
 ternating current, or both, as shown in Figure 120 
 at end of book.
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 OPERATION OF CONTROLLERS. 
 
 The value of an employe depends upon the econ- 
 omy with which he can operate his car economy in the 
 way of preventing costly accidents, economy in power 
 and economy in wear and tear of the cars, trucks and 
 motors he runs. What has been said before has been 
 intended to prepare the reader for this chapter, which 
 deals directly with an employe's actual duties. It 
 does not require any special knowledge to be able to 
 get a car over the road. To operate it in the best possi- 
 ble manner is quite another matter. It is the main 
 object of this book to tell electric railway employes 
 how to make themselves valuable men ; how to operate 
 a car with greatest economy. 
 
 Let the operation of controllers first be considered, 
 beginning with the series-parallel controllers which 
 are in common use today. The operation of all the con- 
 trollers is very simple. They all have reverse levers at 
 the right of the stand or on the top, and the controlling 
 handle on nearly all is moved around in the direc- 
 tion of the hands of a watch to turn on the current, and 
 in the opposite direction to turn off the current. Be- 
 fore trying to start a car, first be sure that the brakes 
 are off, that the controller handle at the other end of
 
 130 THE MOTORMAN. 
 
 the car is on the "off" position and the canopy switches 
 are closed. Then move the controller handle to the 
 first notch. The car will start if all is right. After the 
 car is well under. way on the first notch, move to the 
 second, and so on to the last. In moving from one notch 
 to another do not stop the handle between notches, but 
 give it a push strong enough so that it will go to the 
 next notch. A timid or inexperienced motorman is apt 
 to turn the handle slowly, but this is bad practice. 
 
 Always wait long enough on each notch for the car 
 to gain speed before passing to the next notch. If this 
 is not done, much more current than necessary may be 
 used to move the car. The wheels may slip, the motors 
 will be strained and overheated, and there will be a 
 great drain on the power station generators, and wear 
 on machinery. When the notch is reached where the 
 motors are in series and there is no rheostat resistance 
 in the circuit, special care should be taken to let them 
 gain speed and run up to nearly the maximum speed 
 they can attain in this position before passing to the 
 higher notches where the motors are in parallel. When 
 the motors are thrown in parallel too soon in starting, 
 a waste of power takes place. This notch on which the 
 motors are in series with no rheostat resistance in the 
 circuit is indicated by a long mark on the top of the 
 controller. It is on this series point that the motors 
 exert the greatest pull with the least current, and it 
 should preferably be used when there is heavy pulling 
 to be done or steep grades to be climbed. 
 
 On looking at the points marked on the controller 
 tops it will be seen that some of them are marked with 
 longer or heavier marks than the others. Those points 
 with long marks are called "running" points, because 
 on them the motors may be operated for any length
 
 OPERATION OF CONTROLLERS. 131 
 
 of time without overheating or wasting current in the 
 rheostats. Among these running points there are 
 some to be preferred because on them the whole energy 
 taken into the motors is used to propel the car. These 
 preferred points are those positions on which no rheo- 
 stat resistance or diverter is left in circuit with the 
 motors. 
 
 On the K-10 controller the preferred running point 
 is the fifth, at which the motors are in series and resist- 
 ance all cut out. This should be used for slow running. 
 It gives half full speed. The ninth point is the high- 
 speed point, and is for use only on a level. Use of the 
 fifth or ninth points on grades is very wasteful of cur- 
 rent and hard on the motors, and little is gained by it 
 in the way of speed. 
 
 In shutting off current the controller handle should 
 be brought rapidly to the off position from whatever 
 point it may happen to be on, without stopping at any 
 point. To run the car backward when it is standing, 
 pull the reverse lever back and turn on the current as 
 when running forward. Sometimes it is necessary to re- 
 verse when the car is running ahead, in order to avoid 
 running into something. To do this, throw the con- 
 troller handle to "off" and pull back the reverse han- 
 dle. Then move the controller to the first notch. The 
 car will stop with a jerk and begin to go backward. 
 This way should be resorted to only when there is dan- 
 ger, and even then the car speed should be slow, be- 
 cause it is not a sure remedy. The fuse may blow and 
 thereby suddenly shut off the power on account of the 
 abnormally heavy current flowing. There is also a 
 possibility that one or the other motor may be per- 
 manently disabled. 
 
 There is one way, however, in which a violent stop
 
 132 THE MOTORMAN. 
 
 can be made with a series-parallel controller, even 
 when the power is cut off and the brakes fail. It is 
 done by reversing if the car is moving ahead, or throw- 
 ing the reverse level "ahead" if the car is backing, and 
 putting the controller handle on the highest point of the 
 controller. In this case the motors act as dynamos, gen- 
 erating current. This method may be used in emergen- 
 cies when the brakes are not sufficient and the trolley 
 has come off or the fuse has blown and the car is go- 
 ing down an incline. 
 
 It may never have to be used, and it is not cred- 
 itable to have to use it by letting a car get beyond con- 
 trol ; but the brake may give out or something else 
 happen beyond the control of the motorman, so it 
 should always be remembered, as it may save a sad acci- 
 dent some day. In case you have reversed and the fuse 
 blows, the instant it is felt that the power has been shut 
 off by the blowing of the fus, put the controller around 
 on one of the higher points named. This plan may also 
 be used in case the brakes fail and the trolley comes 
 off going down hill. It is a very violent way of stop- 
 ping, and injurious to the equipment. 
 
 Hints on Saving Power. It is not necessary that a 
 man be powerful to control an electric car. At first he 
 is apt to spend a.n unnecessary amount of energy at 
 the brake. Power may be saved and the car would be 
 subject to less wear and tear if handled not by pure 
 strength, but by proper judgment of time and distance. 
 It should be considered that as long as the controller 
 is not on the "off" .position power is tal;en into the 
 motors and consumed. If a car is to be stopped, turn 
 off the power some time ahead, because the energy 
 taken into the motor does not disappear the moment 
 the current is shut off. The motors and the car have
 
 OPERATION OF CONTROLLERS. 
 
 133 
 
 weight, and energy is stored in this moving body and 
 this energy must be spent before the car can come to 
 rest. Some men, because they have not the right judg- 
 ment, set the brake the moment the controller is placed 
 at the "off" position, and they must then work hard at 
 the brake and consume the energy still stored in the 
 moving car, by spending it partly in wear on them- 
 
 Figure 121 Curves Showing Power Required for Correct and Incor- 
 rect Handling of Controller. 
 
 selves, brakeshoes, car wheels, motors and gears. It 
 means wear all around, without benefit to anyone. 
 
 A test (Figure 121) made by the author between 
 a good and a poor motorman with the same motor car 
 and same load, on the same dry summer day, showed 
 that the better man used but one-half as much power 
 as the other. What became of the extra energy used 
 by the other man ? The answer is found in the barn at
 
 134 THE MOTORMAN. 
 
 the end of the day. The man who uses the most power 
 seems tired when he goes home in the evening, from the 
 hard work he had at the brake; and an examination of 
 the equipment will show the greater wear on brake- 
 shoes, constant trouble with brakes, softer car wheels, 
 which soon wear flat in spots, and frequent loose bolts, 
 all caused by this extra expenditure of energy by the 
 man of no experience or poor judgment. The simplest 
 thing in the world is to cut off the power ahead of time 
 and let the energy stored in the car spend itself by al- 
 lowing it to propel the car by its momentum for half a 
 block or so, when it easily can be stopped by setting the 
 brake. What has been said here, however, is not always 
 possible to do, and a motorman must use his judgment. 
 For instance, if the pressure (voltage) is low, or many 
 stops have to be made, or the motors have not speed 
 enough for the schedule time set by the company, a 
 motorman cannot act exactly as he would wish. But in 
 these cases the conditions are not normal. Such rules 
 can be used as a guide when a road is properly 
 equipped and the schedule time for a round trip is so 
 chosen, compared with the distance to be covered and 
 speed of the motors, that the motors can accomplish 
 their work easily. 
 
 When running up behind a team on the track and 
 it is seen that the car will overtake it before it gets 
 out of the way, do not crowd on speed and rush up 
 behind it, as is often done, only to be obliged to put 
 the brakes on hard to avoid a collision. Just as good 
 time will be made and much muscle and power be saved 
 by letting the car run along slowly enough to get the 
 team out of the way before reaching it instead of bring- 
 ing the car almost to a stop after having run up to it 
 at full speed.
 
 OPERATION OF CONTROLLERS. 135 
 
 Should the wheels slip or skid on going up grade, 
 bring the sand box into action, and if the car wheels 
 continue to slip then throw the controller handle to the 
 "off" position and turn it on again step by step. When 
 the rail is greasy or covered with snow so that the 
 wheels do not take hold of the rail, apply a little 
 sand before starting the car. Use the sand sparingly 
 and be sure that there is some left for future use. 
 
 Some Precautions Against Accidents. When ap- 
 proaching curves, switches, turnouts or railroad cross- 
 ings slow down the car so as to have it under control. 
 It is best to have the controller at the "off" position 
 and the right hand on the brake. The moment the 
 wheels reach the curve, switch or crossing put on the 
 power gradually, to carry the car over the curve or 
 crossing. Never let the ear stop on short curves such 
 as are frequently found on city lines, unless special in- 
 structions from the company have been issued on this 
 point. When taking curves or turnouts the conductor 
 should be on the rear platform ready to replace the 
 trolley should it jump the wire. If the trolley passes 
 the curve or switch properly, the conductor should 
 ring "go ahead"; if the trolley jumps he should ring 
 "stop." If the conductor has given his signal that 
 the trolley has jumped off the wire, the motorman 
 should keep his controller handle at the "off" position 
 until the conductor rings "go ahead." 
 
 When going around curves, crossings or other 
 places where the car may jump the track owing to 
 roughness of the roadbed, or where rails are laid very 
 low in a gravel road, and stones may wedge in the rails, 
 or when passing through flooded places or low places 
 where the rails are covered with water, slow speed 
 should be used. When going up grades, it is best to
 
 136 THE MOTORMAN. 
 
 put the controller on points where the resistance is cut 
 out, and, further, the car should not be stopped or 
 started on a heavy grade if it can be avoided. 
 
 When passing an overhead insulated switch or sec- 
 tion insulator, place the controller always at the "off" 
 position, unless on a grade or there are other instruc- 
 tions from the superintendent. 
 
 Going down grade have the controller handle at 
 the "off" position, the trolley on the trolley wire and 
 the brake set to such an extent that the wheels turn 
 slowly (not slide) so that the car remains under con- 
 trol, slackening the hold on the wheels when the grade 
 becomes less steep or tightening the grip of the brake- 
 shoes should the grade become steeper. Should the car 
 get beyond control or the brake suddenly give out, it 
 may be necessary to resort to reversing the controller, 
 as previously explained. It is a severe strain on the 
 motors, but may have to be resorted to, to prevent an 
 accident or to save lives. When so reversing keep the 
 controller in the first notch should it be effective; if 
 not, turn the handle very slowly to the higher notches, 
 as the fuse is liable to give out and the control by 
 means of current from the power station is gone. Should 
 the fuse blow there is then, as before mentioned, only 
 one more way to get the car under control, and that is 
 to throw the controller to the last notch, which causes 
 the motors to act as dynamos. This plan is available 
 only when there are two o* more motors on a car. The 
 current is generated by the rotation of the armature in 
 the field. The energy furnished is the momentum of 
 the descending car, which is out of your control and 
 disconnected from the power station. The current so 
 generated acts by means of the armatures as a brake, 
 and the car will slow up in the same measure as the
 
 OPERATION OF CONTROLLERS. 137 
 
 motors generate current. The means just described are 
 important to know, but should never be resorted to ex- 
 cept in extreme cases. 
 
 When stopping a car in the barn pull down the 
 trolley one foot or a foot and a half and tie it; also 
 see that both controllers are on the "off" position and 
 open the overhead or canopy switch. If for any reason 
 the trolley should be left on the wire in the barn some 
 of the car lamps might be turned on, which will be a 
 warning to the repair men. 
 
 Before starting see that the controllers on both 
 platforms are on the "off" position. Never place tools, 
 rubber boots or other wearing apparel, cotton waste or 
 the like on the side below the seat where the motor cut- 
 out or wire cable connecting controllers and motors are 
 located. Keep this place clean and free from dirt and 
 moisture. 
 
 When examining motors open the main or over- 
 head switch and take care not to let water drop into 
 the motor from wet clothing. When examining car 
 motors, fuse, etc., always open the overhead switch to 
 avoid shocks. When operating a car, any unusual noise 
 heard should be located. Loose bolts should be re- 
 ported and attended to, because by the fixing in proper 
 time of these small irregularities, which are caused by 
 jarring and constant operation of the car, grave trouble 
 can be prevented, and a car will remain much longer 
 in good repair if kept so and watched. 
 
 It is true that a "stitch in time saves nine." The 
 writer has seen plants where cars were neglected, bolts 
 could be picked up along the road, and on one occasion 
 a car was stalled because the lower half of a field mag- 
 net had dropped down and was wedged against the 
 stone pavement. Should a motorman notice irregu-
 
 138 THE MOTORMAN. 
 
 larities or defects on the overhead line or on the track, 
 the matter should be reported. 
 
 When operating on a road with steep grades be 
 sure that you are prepared in damp or slippery weather 
 to be able to get sand from the boxes. It is not suffi- 
 cient that there is sand in them ; it should be seen that 
 it is dry sand and that the valve is in such condition 
 as to allow the sand to pass through. 
 
 Never shift the reversing handle unless the con- 
 troller handle is on the "off" position, nor reverse 
 when the car is in motion except to prevent an accident. 
 
 When leaving the platform be sure that the con- 
 troller is turned off and remove the controller handle. 
 When on the road they should be kept in the hand, and 
 in the barn they should be left according to the rules 
 given by the company. The reason the motorman 
 should not leave the controller handle on the controller 
 is that accidents are encouraged. The author has fre- 
 quently seen that at country fairs, where people crowd 
 into the cars at both ends, people are apt to strike the 
 handle with baskets or coats held over the arm, and 
 can in this way start the car unexpectedly. Keeping 
 the handle in one's hand on such occasions leaves the 
 motorman in full control of his car and up to the re- 
 quirements of his duty and responsibility. 
 
 Young people do not realize the responsibility of 
 the position of a motorman; they may think it fun to 
 hide the handle when he has left the car for a moment. 
 Persons acquainted with the motorman have taken 
 such liberties when a car, for instance, was at the 
 end of a track and had to wait for five or ten minutes. 
 As the motorman is held responsible for his car he 
 should always have it under full control, and leave it 
 so no one can accidentally start it.
 
 OPERATION OF CONTROLLERS. 139 
 
 If at any time the power gives out in the power 
 station, for instance, by the operating of a circuit- 
 breaker, then bring the controller handle to the "off" 
 position, close the lamp circuit and wait until the lamps 
 light. 
 
 Before starting the car for a run, see that the 
 brushes and brush springs are in position (unless there 
 is someone else whose duty it is to keep the cars in 
 readiness for the motorman). Before placing the trol- 
 ley on the wire, look at both controllers and be sure 
 that they are both at the "off" position. Do not run 
 the car with the trolley pole in the wrong direction, be- 
 cause in this position it has no yielding properties when 
 it strikes a hanger or suspension wire. If it jumps the 
 wire it would bend the pole or cause trouble to the 
 overhead wire. 
 
 The operation of the brakes is one of the most 
 important duties of a motorman and one of the most 
 difficult. Accordingly, it is treated in a chapter by 
 itself.
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 BRAKES AND THEIR OPERATION. 
 
 The brake is a most important device for the 
 motorman, because its purpose is to control the car 
 when the power is cut off and force it to slow up or 
 stop at any desired place. The brake, when applied, 
 consumes the energy stored in the car by the motors. 
 This energy is overcome 
 by the friction of the 
 brakeshoes (Figure 122) 
 on the car wheels. The 
 better a motorman can 
 estimate the distance 
 and the less he has to 
 use the stored energy 
 by applying the brake, 
 the more efficient is his 
 
 Service, and the leSS is Figure 122 Brakeshoe and Head. 
 
 the power wasted. To 
 
 apply the pow r er up to the last moment and immedi- 
 ately afterward use the brake is a wasteful perform- 
 ance, although when stopping on a grade or when a 
 motorman has to make many stops and his time for a 
 round trip is measured closely with respect to the speed 
 of the motor in use, such action cannot be avoided.
 
 BRAKES AND THEIR OPERATION. 141 
 
 There are at present in use five kinds of brakes. 
 
 1. Hand brakes in which the power which draws 
 the brakeshoes against the wheels is supplied by the 
 strength of the motorman, either by the winding of a 
 chain on a staff or, as on a few roads, by a long lever. 
 
 2. Momentum or friction disc brakes in which the 
 momentum of the car furnishes power to draw up the 
 brakeshoes through the medium- of a friction disc or 
 clutch placed on one axle. 
 
 3. Air brakes, in which the power drawing up the 
 brakeshoes is compressed air acting against a piston. 
 
 4. Electric brakes, in which the retarding force 
 is the electricity generated in the motors which are 
 connected to act as dynamos, the motors in this case 
 being used to stop the car as well as to start it and 
 run it. 
 
 5. Track brakes, in which shoes carried at the 
 sides of the truck are pressed against the top of the 
 track rails with sufficient force so that the friction be- 
 tween the shoes and rail stops the car. 
 
 Hand Brakes. While hand brakes are used on all 
 electric cars, all but the smallest and lightest cars are 
 now generally equipped with some kind of power 
 brakes. Every truck has a brake mechanism consisting 
 of various arrangements of rods, beams and levers 
 by means of which the force applied to the brake 
 handle or the brake levers is transmitted to the brake- 
 shoes so that they may be pressed hard against the 
 wheels. Different makes of trucks have their own 
 styles of brake rigging. The number of different 
 makes, however, is too great to permit a detailed de- 
 scription of them all, and as the general arrangement 
 of all of them is more or less similar, a description of 
 two or three different styles of brakes will suffice.
 
 142 
 
 THE MOTORMAN. 
 
 Figure 124.
 
 BRAKES AND THEIR OPERATION. 143 
 
 Figures 123, 124 and 125 show three views of the 
 truck equipped with hand brakes. Figure 123 is a 
 top view, Figure 124 a front elevation and Figure 125 
 a side elevation. The brakeshoes, 5, are located close 
 behind the car wheels 1, 2, 3 and 4, the normal distance 
 between the brakeshoes and wheels being about one- 
 eighth of an inch. The shoes are supported by brake- 
 beams, 6, to which are fastened the brake rods, 7. The 
 other ends of the brake rods are securely fastened to 
 the cross beams, 8, which in turn engage at 9 with the 
 equalizer bar. At the ends of the equalizer bar are 
 secured the hook rods, 11, into which the brake chain 
 is hooked. The chain, brake staff and handle are not 
 shown in these drawings. A heavy spring, 12, is used 
 to remove the brakeshoe from the car wheels when the 
 brake is released. The action that takes place in brak- 
 ing the car is as follows: 
 
 When the motorman turns the brake handle around 
 one or more turns he winds up the brake chain and 
 pulls forward the hook rod, 11, thereby moving the 
 equalizer bar, 10, which in turn moves the cross beams, 
 8, 8. These cross beams in moving toward each other 
 move rods 7, and these in turn bring the brakebeams, 
 6, and shoes, 5, toward each other until the shoes rest 
 firmly against the car wheels. When the brake handle 
 is released, all the parts return to their former position. 
 The spring, 12, assists in this latter work and helps to 
 hold the brakeshoe away from the wheel. 
 
 It will be seen from this that all four brakeshoes 
 act at the same time. It is necessary to provide an 
 adjustment in every brake, because the brakeshoes 
 wear and the slack caused by this wear must be taken 
 up. In the truck just described this adjustment is made 
 where the rods, 7, connect to the brakebeam at points
 
 144 THE MOTORMAN. 
 
 14, near the shoes. These rods have threaded ends 
 that screw into sleeve nuts, 15, which are held in pock- 
 ets provided for them in the brakebeam. A self-lock- 
 ing device prevents these ends from turning loose by 
 the jolting of the car. The adjustment is made by 
 turning the head of the nut with a wrench. The head 
 is at the outer enclosed side of the nut, and turning it 
 to the right, or clockwise, shortens the rod and brings 
 the shoe nearer the wheel. The locking device does not 
 interfere with turning the nut with a wrench, but it 
 prevents the nut from turning due to the jolting of 
 the car. These adjustments are placed near the brake- 
 shoes, because this location enables the adjustment of 
 each shoe separately, and consequently all the shoes 
 may be regulated for an equal pressure on their wheels. 
 On double-truck cars, arrangements are made to 
 apply the brakes on both trucks, so that each will be 
 operated by one motion of one brake handle or one air 
 brake cylinder. This is accomplished in various ways, 
 generally by having either a fixed or floating lever in 
 the center of the car between the trucks, to which the 
 brake rods from each truck are connected. The cen- 
 tral lever is then connected to the brake staff by means 
 of a brake chain and rod, and by moving this rod and 
 the central lever to which it is attached, the brakes 
 on both trucks are operated simultaneously. Such an 
 arrangement of the levers for double-truck cars is 
 shown in Figure 126, and the following dimensions 
 show the proportion of the different levers. The length 
 of the floating lever, 1, is 48 inches, and the distance, d, 
 between the pins for the arch bar rods is 9 inches. The 
 length, b, of the truck lever is 13 inches. With these 
 dimensions of levers a pull of 65 pounds at the brake 
 handle, which is 15 inches in length, gives a total brak-
 
 BRAKES AND THEIR OPERATION. 
 
 145 
 
 ing pressure of 29,000 pounds, which is more than the 
 weight of an empty car. The proportion of the levers 
 recommended by the makers of these brakes is such as 
 to make (1-r-d) X (b-r-c) X (hX85) equal to the total 
 weight of the unloaded car. The chain is not coiled 
 around the brake staff on these brakes. Instead there 
 are two chains running in a double sprocket wheel, 
 which makes the operation of the brake very smooth 
 
 I'l ' " '.' Vp 
 
 I 
 
 Figure 126 Brake Levers on One Truck. 
 
 and permits the motorman to feel even a slight touch 
 of the brakeshoe against the wheel. If the working 
 chain breaks, the safety chain comes into operation, 
 thus preventing the disability of the brakes from this 
 cause. 
 
 The object of these brake mechanisms for double 
 trucks is to provide means for bringing an approxi- 
 mately equal pressure on all of the car wheels. This 
 is necessary in order to secure the maximum braking 
 effect, and also to prevent one set of wheels being
 
 146 THE MOTORMAN 
 
 locked more firmly than the others, which would cause 
 them to slide along the track without revolving and 
 produce flat spots on the wheels. 
 
 Electric Brakes. The electric brake has as its 
 fundamental principle the utilizing of the live energy 
 stored in the moving car to generate an electric cur- 
 rent in the motors independently of the power-station 
 current, and the use of this current to bring the car to a 
 standstill. By means of the type B controllers, as de- 
 scribed in Chapter VII, the motors are connected to 
 act as dynamos. This current is sent through resist- 
 ance and stops the car partly by its retarding effect 
 on the motors themselves and partly by a magnetic 
 friction disc mounted on each axle. If a car provided 
 with an electric brake is to be brought to a stop, the 
 action is as follows: The motorman first brings his 
 controller to the "off" position and thereby disconnects 
 the car from the line and power station ; then by mov- 
 ing the handle around to the left of the "off" position 
 to the special brake notches, the armature connections 
 are reversed and the motors are connected to form a 
 closed circuit through a resistance and the brake disc 
 magnets, as shown in Figure 127. The motors running 
 with the circuit closed in this way act as dynamos and 
 generate current. This current tends to stop the 
 motors and also to cause the magnetic clutch on the 
 axle to act and aid in stopping the car. 
 
 To operate an electric brake requires a little prac- 
 tice on the part of the motorman, but when the prin- 
 ciple is clear it is an easy matter. It first should be 
 understood that the amount of current generated in 
 the motors, and consequently the braking effect, de- 
 pend on the speed at which the motors are running. 
 If the brakes are to take hold evenly from the begin-
 
 BRAKES AND THEIR OPERATION. 
 
 147 
 
 ning to end of a stop the resistance which is in the 
 brake circuit must be cut out steadily. For example, 
 when it is desired to stop a car that is running at full 
 speed, the controller handle is moved to the first brake 
 point. The motors start generating current to retard 
 the car, but as the car slows down a little this current 
 begins to weaken, and the handle should promptly be 
 moved onto the next point to cut out some more of the 
 resistance from the brake circuit and allow more cur- 
 
 Figure 127 Circuits for Magnetic Brake. 
 
 rent to flow, and so on until the car is stopped. The 
 motorman should promptly advance the handle from 
 one point to the next of the brake controller as fast as 
 he feels the current failing on a point. The quickness 
 of the stop will depend on the rapidity with which the 
 handle is moved from point to point, and in emergencies 
 it may be found necessary to move two or more points 
 at a time. There never is need to reverse on a car hav- 
 ing an electric brake, because the brake will stop the 
 car more quickly than reversing and is not so hard on
 
 148 
 
 THE MOTORMAN. 
 
 the machinery. On grades it is necessary to use the 
 hand brake to hold the car while stopping, because the 
 electric brake lets go as soon as the car stops. 
 
 Magnetic Brakes. The Westinghouse magnetic 
 brake consists of a combination of a track brake with 
 the ordinary wheel brake. The track brakeshoe is 
 placed between the wheels on a truck and so connected 
 with the wheel brakeshoes that when the current in the 
 electro-magnet of the track brake draws the shoe down 
 
 Figure 128 Construction of Magnetic Brake. 
 
 on the rails this movement forces the wheel brakes 
 against the wheel treads. This not only adds the 
 track brake friction to the wheel friction for stopping 
 the car, but there is an increase in the wheel pressure 
 on the rails due to magnetic action. The construction 
 of this brake is shown in Figure 128, in which the parts 
 of the truck are in dotted lines so as to more readily 
 distinguish the brake apparatus. The electro-magnet. 
 a, dividing the track brakeshoe, b, into two parts, is 
 secured by pins to the two push rods, c, and suspended 
 at the proper distance above the rails by the adjustable
 
 BRAKES AND THEIR OPERATION. 149 
 
 springs, h. The push rods are secured by pins to the 
 lower ends of the brake levers, d, d. These brake lev- 
 ers are connected at their upper ends by the adjustable 
 rod, g, and at an intermediate point are pivoted to the 
 brakeshoe holders and the hanger links, f, suspended 
 from the truck frame. The push rods, c, are telescopic, 
 as shown in the sectional view of the one at the left, so 
 that a movement of the track shoe toward the right 
 relative to the truck frame causes the wheel brake- 
 shoe at the right to be applied to the wheel and the 
 connection, g, to be moved to the left, thereby apply- 
 ing the wheel brakeshoe at the left. The stop, i, pre- 
 vents the lower end of the brake lever at the left from 
 following the track brakeshoe. A relative movement 
 of the track brakeshoe to the left is obviously accom- 
 panied by application of the wheel brakeshoes through 
 corresponding movement of the parts in the reverse 
 order. 
 
 The brake-controlling device may be incorporated 
 in the running controller or may be a separate device, 
 placed by its side and operatively interlocked with it, 
 so that neither can, through carelessness, be caused 
 to interfere with the operation of the other. These 
 controllers, type B, were described in the previous 
 chapter. In the operation of the apparatus, the current 
 is supplied by the motors, running in multiple as gen- 
 erators, and is divided between the electro-magnets and 
 the diverter, in such ratio as to cause the track brake- 
 shoes to be drawn upon the rails with a force pro- 
 portionate to the braking requirements. The frictional 
 resistance of the rails to the motion of the track shoes 
 causes the wheel brakes to be applied with correspond- 
 ing force. Thus, to the ordinary retardation of the 
 wheel brakes is added that of the track brake. The
 
 150 THE MOTORMAX. 
 
 force of application depends upon the current and upon 
 the electro-magnets operating the brakeshoes. The 
 attractive force of the rails upon the magnets is under 
 the control of the motorman up to a limit of 150 pounds 
 per square inch of brakeshoe surface in contact with 
 the rails. The strength of the magnet is limited by 
 the sectional area of the rail, acting as its armature; 
 and where the weight of the car makes desirable a 
 magnet of greater strength, the track shoe is divided 
 into three parts, instead of two, and wound to form 
 a three-pole magnet, or two electro-magnets with one 
 common pole. With this brake the diverters or resist- 
 ances are arranged in two sets, one inside and the other 
 outside of the car. Those inside are used to heat the 
 car, for which the starting current and braking cur- 
 rent are ample. The two sets of diverters may be so 
 combined that any desired portion of the heat gener-- 
 ated may be used in the car and the remainder, if any, 
 pass into the open air. 
 
 The friction of the track brakeshoe also may be 
 adjusted to some extent through the angular inclina- 
 tion of the push rods, c. This would throw some of the 
 weight of the car upon the track shoes, the levers, d, 
 being correspondingly adjusted to reduce the wheel 
 brakeshoe pressure in proportion as the weight is trans- 
 ferred to the track shoe. The current declines with the 
 speed during a stop, and in bad weather, when the con- 
 dition of the rails is liable to be accompanied by wheel 
 sliding, the braking force operating the wheel brake 
 is correspondingly reduced, so that the force of appli- 
 cation of the wheel brakes is automatically propor- 
 tioned to the rail friction which rotates the wheels. If 
 by chance the wheels should slide upon the rails, the in- 
 terruption of wheel rotation cuts off the track-magnet
 
 BRAKES AND THEIR OPERATION. 151 
 
 current, through which the pressure of the brakeshoes 
 upon the wheel is instantly relaxed, and rotation of the 
 wheels is resumed without injury or serious loss of 
 time. 
 
 Straight Air Brakes. The straight air-brake sys- 
 tem has been universally adopted as the standard form 
 of power brake for electrically propelled cars, either 
 when operated as single units or when hauling one or 
 two trailers. The factors which have led to its uni- 
 versal use are: 
 
 (1) Positive control, (2) Simplicity, and (3) Ease 
 of manipulation. All of these features are possessed 
 by this system to a higher degree than by any other. 
 
 The straight air-brake system consists essentially 
 of a source of compressed air, a brake cylinder, and a 
 simple valve under the direct control of the motorman, 
 the use of which is to control the admission and exhaust 
 of the compressed air to and from the brake cylinder 
 as desired. A diagram showing the connections of the 
 different parts of one system is shown in Figure 129. 
 
 This straight air-brake equipment consists of the 
 following parts, as indicated by numbering: 
 
 1. Electric motor-driven air compressor. 
 
 2. Box for compressor. 
 
 3. Cage for supporting box and compressor under 
 a car. 
 
 4. Insulating coupling. 
 
 5. Reservoir for storage of the compressed air. 
 
 6. Automatic electric governor. 
 
 7. Cover for governor. 
 
 8. Insulating coupling. 
 
 9. Non-arcing enclosed fuse to protect the com- 
 pressor motor. 
 
 10. Brake cylinder with hollow piston rod ar-
 
 152 
 
 THE MOTORMAX. 
 
 Figure 129 Parts of Straight Air- Brake System.
 
 BRAKES AND THEIR OPERATION. 153 
 
 ranged to allow of the hand brake being easily applied 
 through the same lever system. 
 
 11. Pressure gauge. 
 
 12. Engineer's valve for admitting air to, and 
 releasing it from, the brake cylinder. 
 
 13. Handle for engineer's valve. 
 
 14. Cut-out cock for trailer connection. 
 
 15. Hose and coupling for trailer. 
 
 Figure 130 Air-Compressor Motor in Cradle. 
 
 16. Switch. 
 
 17. Whistle. 
 
 18. Independent valve for whistle. 
 
 19. Brake lever rigging. 
 
 20. 21. Pipe fittings. 
 
 The application of the brakes by admission of com- 
 pressed air from the reservoir to the brake cylinder is 
 effected by opening ports in an operating valve, thereby 
 causing the piston in the cj'linder to move outwardly, 
 applying the brakes with a greater or less degree of 
 force, depending upon the size of the port that is tised, 
 and the length of time that it remains open. Thus the 
 motorman is able to apply the brakes with such pres-
 
 154 THE MOTORMAN. 
 
 sure, up to the maximum, and in as small a space of 
 time as is desired. After admitting air to the cylinder, 
 if the handle is placed in the position where all ports 
 are closed, the air already admitted to the brake cylin- 
 der is Detained there, thus holding the brakes applied. 
 A further movement of the handle to the release posi- 
 
 Figure 131 Air Compressor. 
 
 tion connects the brake cylinder with the atmosphere, 
 permitting the air to escape, thus releasing the brakes. 
 A graduated release of the brake may be obtained by 
 permitting a portion of the air in the cylinder to escape 
 and then returning the handle to the position where all 
 ports are closed.
 
 BRAKES AND THEIR OPERATION. 
 
 155 
 
 Air Compressor. The air compressor is directly 
 mounted on two oak planks supported in a cradle made 
 of Avrought-iron bars. The cradle is suspended beneath 
 the car from the floor beams, as shown in Figure 130. 
 
 The air compressor (Figure 131) consists of two 
 cylinders, with single-acting pistons connected to one 
 crank shaft which is driven by an electric motor 
 through gears. One piston compresses air while the 
 
 Figure 132 Air Compressor Disassembled. 
 
 other draws it into the cylinder. A disassembled view 
 of the motor compressor is given in Figure 132. 
 
 Compressor Governor. The current that is used 
 by the motor driving the air pump is controlled by an 
 automatic governor, one type of which is shown in 
 Figure 133. 
 
 The duty of the governor is to automatically con- 
 trol the operation of the air Compressor driven by its
 
 156 THE MOTORMAN. 
 
 motor, stopping it when the desired maximum pressure 
 is reached, and starting it when the pressure falls be- 
 low a set minimum. The difference between these pres- 
 sures is usually 10 pounds. It does this by automatic- 
 ally making and breaking the electrical circuit to the 
 motor as the pressure falls below or rises above the 
 pressure for which the governor is set. It thus fur- 
 nishes a steady supply of air for the use of the motor- 
 man in stopping the car. 
 
 The brake cylinder is shown in Figure 134 in con- 
 
 Figure 133 Oil- Break Air-Compressor Motor Governor. 
 
 nection with the hand-brake rigging as installed on 
 double-truck cars. The reader will note that the same 
 system of levers serves for both air and hand brakes. 
 
 Motor-man's Valves. The motorman's operating 
 valve is the device by which the motorman controls the 
 application of the brakes and is a highly important 
 part of the air-brake equipment. The duty which the 
 motorman's valve performs is to connect reservoir pipe, 
 train pipe and exhaust in such a way that air will flow 
 through the reservoir pipe into the train pipe, passing 
 thence to the brake cylinder, or will issue from the train
 
 BKAKES AND THEIR OPERATION. 
 
 157 
 
 pipe to atmosphere, depending 
 upon whether it is desired to 
 apply or to release the brakes. 
 
 The appliance essentially 
 consists of a sliding or rotating 
 valve with ports on its lower 
 face so arranged that tin ., 
 register at the proper times 
 with suitable ports in the 
 valve seat to make the neces- 
 sary connections for the de- 
 sired braking application. The 
 valve seat contains ports which 
 connect with the main reser- 
 voir, brake cylinder and at- 
 mosphere, respectively. 
 
 The valve is manipulated 
 by turning a removable handle 
 fitted to the end of the valve 
 stem or spindle ; this handle 
 moves through an arc of about 
 120 degrees in turning from 
 release position at the extreme 
 left to emergency position at 
 the extreme right. The handle 
 can only be inserted or re- 
 moved when the valve is in 
 lap position and all ports are 
 blanked so that there is no 
 connection whatever between 
 any of the three ports in the 
 valve seat. When the handle 
 is removed the mechanism is 
 securely safeguarded by a pro-
 
 158 THE MOTORMAN. 
 
 tecting shield, which prevents meddlesome persons 
 from getting a grip on the operating spindle either 
 with the hand or with a wrench. 
 
 Figure 135 shows a top view of one style of valve 
 and has indicated on it the various positions of the 
 operating handle for the different stages of setting and 
 releasing the brakes. 
 
 Operating Instructions. The motorman should 
 thoroughly familiarize himself with the air-brake equip- 
 ment so that he may obtain the full advantage of the 
 most efficient operation. 
 He should discard the 
 notion (if he happens to 
 be unfamiliar with the 
 details of the appara- 
 tus) that the air brake 
 is difficult and intricate 
 to understand in its de- 
 tails, because it is not. - , 
 Following is a summary 
 of the main points for Fi 9 ure 135-vaive Positions, 
 his guidance: 
 
 1. To start the compressor, close the canopy 
 switch. This will automatically close the governor so 
 that current will pass from trolley to ground through 
 the motor, thus driving the compressor. 
 
 2. Should the compressor refuse to work under 
 this condition, the fuse may be blown. If so, do not 
 put in a heavier fuse than specified for the size of the 
 compressor. If the fuse is in order, he should try to 
 locate the trouble, or should report the matter to the 
 proper person. 
 
 The engineer's valve is made with a detachable 
 handle which is only removable in what is known as
 
 BRAKES AND THEIR OPERATION. 159 
 
 "lap position," in which position the valve is neutral 
 in the same manner as the main controller is by remov- 
 ing the reverse handle. 
 
 A service application of the brakes is effected by 
 moving the handle of the engineer's valve to the first 
 notch on the right. As soon as sufficient pressure is 
 brought against the wheels, the handle may be moved 
 back into lap position, whereby the brakes remain set 
 at that pressure. If it is desired to increase the rate 
 of braking the above operation may be repeated. By 
 moving back the lap without releasing, the handle may 
 be removed and the brake released from the other end 
 of the car. ^ 
 
 By moving the handle from lap position to the first 
 notch on the left a slow release of the brakes is effected, 
 which release may be checked in the same way by mov- 
 ing the handle back to lap position, the same as in 
 service applications of the brakes. 
 
 An emergency application is effected by moving 
 the handle to the extreme right. This opens a large 
 port between reservoir and brake cylinder, giving an 
 immediate full reservoir pressure in the cylinder and 
 an instantaneous application of the brakes. 
 
 By moving the handle from lap position to the 
 extreme left a large .port is opened between the brake 
 cylinder and atmosphere, effecting an immediate re- 
 lease of the brakes. 
 
 When the brakes are not being applied or released, 
 the handle of the engineer's valve should always be on 
 the first notch to the left, or that of slow release. 
 
 The leverage and total pressure on the brake cyl- 
 inder is so proportioned that under ordinary circum- 
 stances, with a dry rail, the wheels cannot skid. If the 
 rail is in bad condition for stopping, the leverage and
 
 160 THE MOTORMAN. 
 
 pressure being the same as under normal conditions, 
 would probably skid the wheels, if the brake cylinder 
 is charged with the full pressure. In such instances 
 care should be taken not to slide the wheels by intro- 
 ducing too much pressure to the brake cylinder. If 
 the wheels slide, which can be instantly felt, the handle 
 is moved over to slow release, letting out air until the 
 wheels again revolve, then back to lap, and release 
 again just before the car comes to a dead stop. This 
 will prevent the disagreeable jar which follows if a 
 car comes to a dead stop with the brakes applied. 
 
 The quickest stop obtainable is made by applying 
 to the wheels, throughout the stop, the greatest pres- 
 sure possible without causing them to slide on the 
 rails, and the higher the speed the greater the pres- 
 sure that may be applied without danger of sliding. 
 Thus it is evident that in order to make a quick stop, 
 full pressure should be applied at once, and gradually 
 released as the speed falls; this method will also give 
 a smooth stop, as the rapid reduction of speed at the 
 end of the stop, which throws passengers, is avoided. 
 Therefore, in making a service stop, admit 25 or 30 
 pounds of air pressure to the brake cylinder quickly 
 at the beginning of the stop by partially opening the 
 large port, and release it little by little as the speed 
 drops, retaining about 10 pounds in the cylinder till 
 the car stops. A little experience will show the dis- 
 tance required in which to make a stop from a given 
 speed so that all stops will be made quickly, smoothly 
 and with but one application of the brake. 
 
 A succession of applications and releases while 
 making a stop imparts a very disagreeable motion to 
 the ear, is most wasteful of compressed air, and is bad 
 practice in every respect. For the emergency stop
 
 BRAKES AND THEIR OPERATION. 161 
 
 admit full pressure (about 60 pounds) immediately, 
 without even waiting till the controller is turned off; 
 then apply sand and release a little of the pressure as 
 the speed drops. 
 
 Upon receiving the signal to go ahead, turn the 
 handle to the release position before turning on the 
 electric power. When descending a grade a beginner 
 generally makes the mistake of putting the brake on 
 too hard at the start; it cannot be expected that the 
 instant the brake is applied the car Will take the speed 
 desired; make an easy application at first, hold the 
 handle at "lap" and give the car time to feel the effect 
 of the brake, then, if the speed is still too high, let in a 
 little more air; repeat the operation as often as neces- 
 sary until off the grade, in case it is a long one. 
 
 When leaving a car, always set up the hand brake, 
 as some one might tamper with the cut-out cocks. 
 Before starting from the car barn, be sure all cocks are 
 properly set and that there is a good supply of air in 
 the reservoir. Insert the handle in its socket in the 
 operating valve and throw it around to emergency, 
 then back to release, to see that it works freely. Try 
 the air brake both in "service" and "emergency" to 
 make sure that it has not been left improperly con- 
 nected, etc. After this trial, and as long as proper 
 pressure is maintained, the brake may be relied upon to 
 perform its duty. 
 
 Care must be taken in making up trains, that all 
 hose couplings are thoroughly united so that the air 
 will apply throughout the entire train. All the cut-out 
 cocks must be opened, except those on the rear of the 
 last car and on the front of the motor car, which must 
 be closed. In uncoupling the cars close the cocks and 
 disconnect the hose before pulling the drawbar pin.
 
 162 
 
 THE MOTORMAN.
 
 BRAKES AND THEIR OPERATION. 163 
 
 The air brake is essentially a labor-saving device 
 for the motorman, and it is scarcely necessary to ask 
 for his co-operation in the use and care of it. Its suc- 
 cess and general adoption for fast and heavy street 
 railway service depend very much on his interesting 
 himself in its use, and having an intelligent under- 
 standing of the functions of the various parts, that he 
 may readily notice when anything about them is not 
 working properly, and report the trouble before it be- 
 comes serious. Like the other apparatus of a street 
 car, the air brake will not operate indefinitely without 
 attention, and the old proverb of "a stitch in time saves 
 nine" applies in this case as in all others. 
 
 Emergency Features. The emergency straight air- 
 brake system for the combined operation of single cars 
 and short trains has been developed by the air-brake 
 manufacturers. The apparatus required does not dif- 
 fer greatly from that of a straight air-brake system. 
 The application and release of brakes, except in cases 
 of emergency, is made in the same way, that is to say, 
 air is admitted or exhausted from the brake cylinder 
 directly through the motorman 's valve. Two lines of 
 piping, called the reservoir and the train lines, run 
 through the train connecting the motorman 's valve 
 and emergency valves. Figures 136 and 137 illustrate 
 the system of piping connections used in one manu- 
 facturer's type of emergency straight air-brake equip- 
 ment. Figure 136 shows the equipment for motor cars 
 and Figure 137 shows the equipment for trail cars. 
 
 The desirable feature of this system is obtained by 
 the use of the emergency valve. The brakes are ap- 
 plied automatically in case the reservoir line pressure 
 is suddenly reduced, as would happen in an emergency
 
 164 
 
 THE MOTORMAN.
 
 BRAKES AND THEIR OPERATION. 165 
 
 application or if the train parts or a coupling hose 
 should burst. 
 
 With the straight air-brake system the train line 
 is not always under pressure, and the uncoupling of 
 the hose connections between cars is not an uncommon 
 accident and leaves the trail cars without air brakes. 
 With the emergency straight air-brake system, a break 
 in the train line has no effect on the emergency valve, 
 which still can be operated as ordinarily by throwing 
 the motorman's valve handle to the emergency position. 
 
 Automatic Air Brakes. The automatic air brake, 
 first designed for steam railway trains, is now coming 
 into general use for those electric railways that operate 
 more than two cars in one train. 
 
 The essential difference between the automatic 
 and straight-air traction brake systems is that in the 
 latter air is admitted to the train pipe to apply the 
 brakes and allowed to escape from it to release them ; 
 whereas, in the automatic system, air is allowed to es- 
 cape from the train pipe in order to apply the brakes, 
 and is admitted to it again to release them. With the 
 straight-air equipment the train pipe is never under 
 pressure except during an application of the brakes, 
 whereas the automatic train pipe is under pressure, ex- 
 cept in emergency applications, and this pressure is 
 greatest when the brakes are released. 
 
 Each brake cylinder in the automatic system is 
 provided with its own reservoir, called the auxiliary 
 reservoir, in which air is stored for use in this cylinder 
 only. The reservoir. which receives the compressed air 
 directly from the compressor is, in this case, called 
 the main reservoir, and furnishes the air to charge the 
 train pipe and auxiliary reservoirs, and to release the 
 brakes.
 
 166 
 
 THE MOTORMAN. 
 
 The connection 
 between each 
 brake cylinder and 
 its auxiliary reser- 
 voir and the train 
 pipe is made 
 through a triple 
 valve in a manner 
 to be explained 
 presently. 
 
 Figure 138 il- 
 lustrates the es- 
 sential parts of the 
 automatic brake 
 system and their 
 relative location, 
 as usually applied 
 to trains of two or 
 more cars. 
 
 The opera- 
 tions of the brake 
 are controlled by 
 the triple valve, the 
 primary parts of 
 which are a piston 
 and slide valve. A 
 moderate reduc- 
 tion of air pres- 
 sure in the train 
 pipe causes the 
 greater pressure 
 remaining stored 
 in the auxiliary 
 reservoir to force
 
 BRAKES AND THEIR OPERATION. 167 
 
 the piston and its slide valve to a position which allows 
 the air in the auxiliary reservoir to pass into the brake 
 cylinder and apply the brake. A sudden or vio- 
 lent reduction of the air in the train pipe pro- 
 duces the same effect, but, in addition (if a quick- 
 action triple valve), it causes supplemental valves 
 to be opened, permitting the air from the train 
 lent reduction of the air in the train pipe pro- 
 ducing a brake-cylinder pressure about 20 per cent 
 greater than that derived from the auxiliary reservoir 
 alone, and producing a practically instantaneous appli- 
 cation of the brakes throughout the train. When the 
 pressure in the train pipe is subsequently increased 
 above that remaining in the auxiliary reservoir, the 
 piston and slide valve are forced in the opposite direc- 
 tion to their normal positions, thereby restoring com- 
 munication between the train pipe and the auxiliary 
 reservoir and permitting the air in the brake cylinder 
 to escape to the atmosphere through the triple-valve 
 exhaust port, thus releasing the brakes, and at the 
 same time recharging the auxiliary reservoirs. 
 
 When the motorman wishes to apply the brakes, 
 he moves the handle of the motorman 's brake valve to 
 the right, which cuts off communication with the main 
 reservoir and permits a portion of the air in the train 
 pipe to escape; to release the brakes, he moves the 
 handle to the extreme left, which allows air to flow 
 from the main reservoir into the train pipe, restoring 
 the pressure therein. 
 
 A device called the conductor's valve may be 
 placed on each car, to which is attached a cord that 
 runs throughout the length of the car. In case of acci- 
 dent, by pulling this cord, the valve is opened and dis- 
 charges air from the train pipe, applying the brakes.
 
 168 THE MOTORMAN. 
 
 When the train has been brought to a full stop in this 
 manner the valve must be closed. 
 
 Should a train break in two, the escape of the air 
 in the train pipe applies the brakes automatically to 
 both sections. The brakes are also automatically ap- 
 plied through the bursting of a hose or pipe. In fact, 
 any material reduction of pressure in the train pipe ap- 
 plies the brakes, which is the characteristic feature of 
 the automatic brake. 
 
 An angle cock is placed in the train pipe at each 
 end of every car, which must be closed before separat- 
 ing the couplings, to prevent an application of the 
 brakes. A cut-out cock is also placed in the cross- 
 over pipe leading from the train pipe to the quick- 
 action triple valve, and also in the train pipe near the 
 motorman's brake valve, within convenient reach of 
 the motorman. The former is for the purpose of cut- 
 ting out, or rendering inoperative, the brake appara- 
 tus upon a car, if for any reason it should become dis- 
 abled; the latter is for cutting out the motorman's 
 brake valve upon all motor-cars except the first, in 
 case two or more are attached to the same train. 
 
 Operation of Automatic Air Brakes. After making 
 up a train the brakes should always be tested in the 
 following manner: With the brake-valve handle in 
 the running position, charge the train line and auxil- 
 iary reservoirs ; to determine when the charging is com- 
 plete, place the brake-valve handle in lap position and 
 when everything is charged, the black hand of the 
 duplex gauge will not fall. The motorman should 
 then apply the brakes by moving the handle of the 
 brake valve to the service application notch until a re- 
 duction of 10 pounds has been made in the tramline. 
 Then, after placing the brake valve on lap, the motor- 
 man should remove the handle, and, carrying it with
 
 BRAKES AND THEIR OPERATION. 169 
 
 him, proceed along the length of the train and see that 
 the cylinder piston of every car has moved out such a 
 distance as to indicate that the brakes are properly 
 applied on all cars of the train. He should then re- 
 lease the brakes from the last cab at the rear end ; then 
 again remove the handle and return to the front end, 
 examining all cylinder pistons. He should be careful 
 to see that they have moved back to full release, thus 
 indicating that all brakeshoes hang free. 
 
 For any purpose except testing brakes or making 
 an emergency application, the first reduction in train- 
 line pressure should be from five to seven pounds. 
 After the first five to seven pound reduction, the best 
 results are obtained by not using more than three or 
 four pounds at any one reduction ; this, however, must 
 be governed entirely by the circumstances. As from 
 13 to 15 pounds reduction in train-line pressure causes 
 an equalization of auxiliary-reservoir and brake-cylin- 
 der pressures, when making a service application, thus 
 fully applying the brake, a further reduction in train 
 line is simply a waste of air. The results of such a 
 waste are that the brakes are slower in releasing ; they 
 fail to release simultaneously; they cause shocks to the 
 train upon stopping; and they seriously overtax the 
 compressor. 
 
 In making the ordinary service stop, two applica- 
 tions generally should be made. The use of two ap- 
 plications instead of one in making a service stop is 
 better because this method of handling the brakes 
 quickly brings the train down from a high to a low 
 speed, is a safeguard against skidding of wheels, insures 
 greater accuracy in making stops and permits the 
 train to be brought to a standstill with a light reduc- 
 tion of pressure on the second application. 
 
 In releasing the brakes after making an applica-
 
 170 THE MOTORMAN. 
 
 tion in a service stop with the intention of immediately 
 making a second application, the brake-valve handle 
 should be moved to the full release and at once returned 
 to the lap position. In making ordinary station stops a 
 partial release of the brakes should be made at a suffi- 
 cient time before the train comes to a standstill to avoid 
 the backward lurch. Immediately upon the train com- 
 ing to a standstill move the handle to full release posi- 
 tion until the train line is charged to maximum pres- 
 sure, then bring it back to running position. This also 
 applies at all other times when the brakes have been 
 applied and full release is desired. 
 
 In making full release of the brakes the brake- 
 valve handle invariably should be moved to the full- 
 release position. If the brakes release after a service 
 application, examine all the brake valves in the train 
 until the trouble is located. Either a brake valve has 
 not been fully lapped or has a rotary valve leaking. 
 
 In case of emergency when it is essential to stop 
 the train in the shortest possible distance, the handle 
 should be thrown to the full emergency position and 
 left there until the train has come to a stop, or the 
 danger is passed. If the motorman has the brake par- 
 tially applied in service application, and should be sud- 
 denly flagged, he should put the valve handle in the 
 emergency position and leave it there until stopped. 
 As a last resort to prevent collision or to save life, a 
 motorman may reverse the motors. The reverse handle 
 should be thrown into opposite direction and the con- 
 troller handle moved to the second notch, which notch 
 is usually found to have the greatest retarding effect. 
 Motors may also be reversed in the event of the brakes 
 being inoperative, but in ordinary service conditions 
 motormen must never reverse the motors.
 
 BRAKES AND THEIR OPERATION. 171 
 
 In case the brakes apply suddenly without appar- 
 ent cause, the motorman should place the brake-valve 
 handle in lap position until a signal is given to release 
 the brakes. This prevents the escape of main reser- 
 voir pressure, thereby providing for a prompt release 
 of the brakes. 
 
 A burst train-line hose or train pipe, or the 
 breaking in two of the train, will apply the brakes; in 
 that event close the train-pipe cock immediately ahead 
 of the break and release the brakes to the rear of it by 
 opening the release valves in the auxiliary reservoirs. 
 The brakes ahead of the closed train-pipe cock can be 
 released by the motorman and operated to handle the 
 train until the fractured hose can be replaced. 
 
 In setting off cars the train-pipe cocks should be 
 clos< d first and the hose parted by hand and hung up 
 properly ; never leave the hose to be jerked apart by the 
 separating of the cars. Before setting the hand brake 
 on the set-off car make sure that the air brake has been 
 released. The foundation brake rigging of some cars 
 is so constructed that the hand and power brakes pull 
 against each other, in which case if the hand brake is 
 set up with the air brake applied, the leaking off of the 
 latter would release the brakes. 
 
 Storage Air Brakes. One system uses compressed 
 air which is stored in tanks, but is not compressed upon 
 the car, as previously described. At the car barn 
 or other central point a storage tank is provided 
 containing compressed air. The tanks on the car 
 are filled from this storage tank in a few moments. 
 A tank capacity is provided on the car to be sufficient 
 for from 300 to 500 stops, or several round trips over 
 an ordinary city route. The initial pressure in the 
 main reservoir on the car is usually 300 pounds per
 
 172 THE MOTORMAN. 
 
 square inch ; by a reducing valve this is lowered to 50 
 pounds or less, according to the speed and weight of 
 the cars. At this pressure the air enters the auxiliary 
 reservoirs on the cars. From the auxiliary reservoir to 
 the brake cylinder the air is controlled by the en- 
 gineer's valve. The brake cylinder is provided with 
 two pistons so adjusted as to be pressed toward each 
 other through the agency of a spring, or other similar 
 means. The motorman's valve provides for connecting 
 the air supply or reservoir to the space between the 
 pistons whereby the pistons may be separated against 
 the tension of the spring to apply the brake when it is 
 desired. 
 
 To release the brake a controlling valve is operated 
 to cut off the space between the pistons from the air 
 supply reservoir, and to connect it with the air space 
 of the cylinder behind the pistons; thus the pressure 
 on the opposite side of the piston is equalized and the 
 springs permitted to return to their normal positions. 
 
 The storage air brakes are operated in practically 
 the same way as other straight air brakes. 
 
 Hints on Handling Brakes. The description of the 
 brake mechanisms has been given more particularly for 
 those motormen operating cars on the small country 
 roads where frequently they are called upon to attend 
 to such mechanical matters. In large cities and on large 
 roads special inspectors are provided, and the author 
 wishes to impress especially on those motormen who 
 have inventive faculties, or imagine they have, or those 
 who like to do tinkering, that they should touch abso- 
 lutely nothing about the car equipment unless ordered 
 by the road officers or regulations to do so. The com- 
 pany cannot afford to have a man experiment with its 
 cars, especially when mechanics are employed to attend
 
 BRAKES AND THEIR OPERATION. 173 
 
 to all irregularities on the car or truck. Inasmuch as 
 this book is intended to tell a man how he should 
 qualify himself for the position, it must not only tell 
 him how to get a position, but also how to keep it. 
 However much a man might desire to fix his car, it is 
 not worth while to risk his position if he acts against 
 the rules of the company in doing so. 
 
 While starting a car from the barn try the brakes, 
 to see if they are right. Always be sure that the 
 brakes are fully off before starting the controller. On 
 grades it will be necessary to start the controller the 
 instant the brake is released. There is usually some 
 slack in the brake chain with hand brakes unless the 
 shop men keep them closely adjusted. 
 
 It should be the constant effort of the motorman 
 to avoid locking the wheels so that they slide or skid 
 along the rail. There are two good reasons for this. 
 In the first place, the instant the wheels begin to slide 
 on the rails the braking or retarding force is reduced, 
 or, what is the same, the motorman loses more than 
 half his retarding power. This has been fully proved 
 by experiment and by experience. In the second 
 place, there is danger that by this sliding along the rails 
 flat places will be worn on the wheels and rapidly 
 will pound with every turn of the wheels and quickly 
 grow worse, so that the noise becomes unbearable to the 
 public and the wheels must be turned down at consid- 
 erable expense or thrown away. A flat wheel on a car, 
 therefore, is no credit to a motorman, and on some 
 roads the penalty for a flat wheel is suspension. It is 
 often hard to avoid sliding the wheels when there is 
 sleet or mud on the rails, but this should be remembered 
 above all: never turn on sand after the wheels have 
 commenced to slide without first letting up on the
 
 174 THE MOTORMAN. 
 
 brakes so that the wheels can turn. The safer plan 
 when stopping on a slippery rail is to apply sand at 
 the same time the brakes are applied. Remember that 
 the ear can not be stopped so quickly by sliding the 
 wheels as by putting on the brakes firmly without slid- 
 ing them. In coining to a steep down grade be sure 
 to slow up before reaching the incline and set the 
 brakes gradually. If the wheels get to sliding on the 
 grade loosen up on the brakes until they begin to turn 
 again. Cars have run away down hills because motor- 
 men have lost their heads or failed to know and re- 
 member this point. 
 
 The wear or lasting qualities of the brakeshoes 
 and the power taken from the power plant by a motor- 
 man to run a car depend to a considerable extent on 
 his proper judgment of time and distance. The less 
 he absorbs the stored energy with the brake the 
 smaller will be the wear on brakeshoes and car wheels 
 and the smaller the power taken. 
 
 It is not a good plan to make gradual stops by 
 applying the brakes lightly a long distance back of 
 where you want to stop, as you lose time in getting 
 over the road in this way and require more power in 
 making up for it. Let the car drift with brake en- 
 tirely off until a short distance from the stopping 
 place, and then apply them hard enough to make a 
 comparatively short stop without sliding the wheels 
 or making it uncomfortable for the passengers.
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 HOW TO REMEDY TROUBLES. 
 
 On many large roads the motormen are expected 
 to do nothing beyond operating their ears, and when- 
 ever trouble occurs to a car on the road it is pushed in 
 by the next and the repair men at the barn attend to 
 the repairing. A motorman should, of course, always 
 abide by the rules of his company, and if it forbids 
 the opening of motors or controllers by motormen the 
 author does not mean these instructions to interfere in 
 any way with rules which may seem necessary to the 
 officers of large systems where the motormen are not 
 all well posted and where inspectors are employed 
 whose special work it is to remedy slight troubles and 
 where mischief may be done by the tampering of those 
 who do not understand the apparatus. Nevertheless, 
 there are many small roads where a knowledge of how 
 to remedy troubles is needed, and even on the large 
 roads -mentioned the man who understands his car can 
 save many delays if he knows how to report troubles 
 intelligently. 
 
 In enumerating many of the troubles to which the 
 cars and motors are subject and giving instructions 
 for their temporary remedy, the author wishes to place 
 in the hands of the motorman facts and means which
 
 176 THE MOTORMAN. 
 
 are helpful for such an occasion. However, no one 
 should think that, without practical experience, by 
 simply reading these lines, he can manage a car as 
 well as a man who has been operating one for years. 
 Practical experience is absolutely necessary, but in 
 connection with it this chapter will be very helpful 
 to the motorman. 
 
 A great deal must be learned by actual experience, 
 and success in economical operation on a car line de- 
 pends partly on the watchfulness of the motorman. 
 While operating his controller he can readily detect 
 irregularities, first, by the way the motors take the 
 current when the controller is operated, and secondly 
 when the car is under way, by the sound of the motors. 
 
 The economy which can thus be accomplished lies 
 in the fact that loose bolts, a loose connection and the 
 like are easily tightened. These are small troubles, 
 caused by constant jarring of the car, which are easily 
 attended to. However, if the car is not watched bolts 
 will be lost, bearings will come loose, the armature re- 
 volving at a high rate of speed may be rubbing against 
 the field magnet poles, or a wire working out of its 
 connection may cause a short circuit and blow the fuse, 
 etc. It will be readily seen that these small troubles, 
 if not attended to in time, are the causes of others far 
 more serious, yet a turn of the wrench or the screw- 
 driver in proper time may easily prevent such troubles 
 on the road. The well-known rule, "a stitch in time 
 saves nine," should be remembered at all times, and 
 besides this one: "cleanliness is next to godliness." 
 Keep the motors, connections and contact terminals 
 clean and dry. Before working around the electrical 
 apparatus pull off the trolley and open the overhead 
 switch.
 
 HOW TO REMEDY TROUBLES. 177 
 
 Failure of the Car to Start. If the car fails to 
 start when the controller is "on" and both overhead 
 switches are closed, the trouble is due to an open cir- 
 cuit, and probably to one of the following causes : 
 
 1. The fuse may have blown or melted. Open an 
 overhead switch or pull off the trolley and put in a 
 new fuse, removing the burned ends from under the 
 binding posts before doing so. Never put in a heavier 
 fuse than that specified by the company, as it might 
 result in damage to the equipment by allowing too 
 large a current to flow. The fuse may blow because 
 of some trouble on the car, as will be explained a 
 little further on. 
 
 2. On a dry summer day, when there is much fine 
 dust on the track, it happens that the car wheels do 
 not make proper contact with the rail and the car fails 
 to start. In such a case try to establish contact by 
 rocking the car body. Should this fail to work, the 
 conductor should take the switch bar or a piece of 
 wire and, holding one end firmly on a clean place on 
 the rail, hold the other against the wheel or truck. 
 This will make temporary connection until the car 
 has started. The conductor should be sure to make 
 his rail contact first and keep it firm during this oper- 
 ation or he may receive a shock. 
 
 3. If the track conditions apparently are good, it 
 may be that the car stands on a piece of dead rail, a 
 piece of rail on which the bonding has become de- 
 stroyed. In that case the car conductor would have 
 to go to the next rail section with a piece of wire to 
 connect the two rails and then order the motorman 
 to start his car. 
 
 4. A brush or two may not have been placed, or, 
 if placed, may fit too tightly in the brush holder, so
 
 178 THE MOTORMAN. 
 
 that the springs do not establish contact between the 
 brush and the commutator. If this is the case, remove 
 the brushes and sandpaper them until they go into 
 the brush holder easily. 
 
 5. The contact fingers on a controller are rough, 
 burnt, and perhaps bent so that the drum cannot make 
 contact. It may also be due to wear on both the con- 
 tact surfaces of the drum and the finger, which may 
 have been burnt and worn away to such an extent that 
 contact is not established when the controller handle 
 is placed in the first notch. Try to smooth the burnt 
 surface with sandpaper and bend the fingers or con- 
 tacts into their proper position. Should this fail, then 
 operate the car with the other controller. In this 
 case the conductor should be on the front platform 
 to handle the brake and give orders to the motor- 
 man when to start and stop, as the occasion requires. 
 Under these conditions the car should never be allowed 
 to travel at a high speed. 
 
 6. A loose or broken cable connection. This can 
 be located and placed and fastened in its position. It 
 is, in most instances, a cable connected to one of the 
 motors, rheostat or lightning arrester, and very sel- 
 dom in the controller stand. 
 
 7. A burnt rheostat. A rheostat may have re- 
 ceived too great a current for some time and the first 
 contact terminal may be broken. In such a case, if 
 temporary connection cannot conveniently be estab- 
 lished, the car will not start at the first notch, but at 
 the second it will start with a jerk. 
 
 8. If the car refuses to start on the first contact, 
 but starts all right on the second and acts normal 
 thereafter, then there is an open circuit in the rheostat, 
 either internally, or the first cable connection is broken.
 
 HOW TO REMEDY TROUBLES. 179 
 
 It may also be due to a worn controller and the con- 
 tacts may be blistered or burnt. Move the controller 
 handle slightly beyond the notch or go direct to the 
 second notch. 
 
 9. The field coil of a motor may be grounded so 
 that the fuse blows whenever the current is turned on. 
 Cut out the faulty motor, as explained in Chapter VII. 
 
 10. Armature or commutator grounded. Cut 
 out the motor as in case 9. 
 
 11. The lightning arrester is grounded by dirt 
 between the discharge points. Remove the dirt, as the 
 fuse will blow as long as the trouble exists. Should 
 this not be possible then disconnect the lightning ar- 
 rester, ground wire, insert fuse and go ahead. The 
 trouble lies in the arrester. 
 
 12. The car starts and the fuse may blow. This 
 may be due to a heavy load and the fuse not being 
 securely fastened to its terminals. The screws hold- 
 ing the terminals of the fuse should be tight, because 
 loose contact at these points will cause heating and an 
 increased resistance, and, in consequence, a quicker 
 burning of the fuse. 
 
 13. Case 12 also may happen with comparatively 
 few passengers. The load may be caused artificially by 
 having the brakes partially set or by dirt clogging 
 the space between the brakeshoes and car wheels. Re- 
 move the obstruction between brakeshoes, then insert 
 the fuse. 
 
 14. In car equipments, with motors permanently 
 in parallel, the fuse will blow if a field or armature is 
 short-circuited. Proceed as in case 9. 
 
 There are also other irregularities which may oc- 
 cur, as follows:
 
 180 THE MOTORMAN. 
 
 15. Some cables form a short circuit either under 
 the seat or below the controller, due to dampness, dirt, 
 damaged insulation, etc. This can readily be detected 
 by the smell of burnt rubber. Having found the place, 
 first open the overhead switch, then proceed to wrap 
 rubber tape around the bare place. If this is not on 
 hand, use some dry cotton or woolen rag torn into a 
 narrow band or else dry string. If the wires cannot 
 be separated far enough, place some short pieces of 
 dry wood between them and then tie them together. 
 
 16. The car starts and after the controller reaches 
 a certain point the fuse blows. One armature or a 
 field is short-circuited. Cut out the faulty motor and 
 go on with the other. 
 
 17. The car starts, stops and starts again. This 
 may be caused by a loose contact finger at the control- 
 ler or by a loose cable or wire. Remove the casing 
 from the controller, and if blisters are seen on the 
 drum of the controller examine the finger belonging to 
 this particular contact, clean it and screw it home or 
 bring it back to its normal form should it have been 
 bent. If the controller looks all right the trouble may 
 be found to be due to a loose cable connected to the 
 terminals of a motor. Take a screwdriver and tighten 
 all cables going to the field coils, armature and brush 
 holders. Also examine the brushes. If the commu- 
 tator looks dark and burnt it may be due to a brush 
 which has worn down to such an extent that the brush 
 springs do not press it against the commutator. In 
 this latter case substitute a new brush, but, if none is 
 at hand, cut out the motor and go ahead with the 
 other. 
 
 18. The car starts with a jerk, but afterward runs 
 smooth and normal. There is a short circuit probably
 
 HOW TO REMEDY TROUBLES. 181 
 
 in the rheostat. Examine the rheostat terminals and 
 remove the trouble, which may be due to the crossing 
 of the cables or a loose cable touching another ter- 
 minal. Should the trouble be internal, namely, inside 
 of the rheostat, do not touch it at all, but run your 
 car back to the barns and report the defects. 
 
 19. A motor field or armature coil may be burnt 
 out. Cut out this motor, which can be detected by the 
 smell of shellac and burnt cotton. 
 
 20. Should the speed of the motor increase beyond 
 normal, a field magnet coil is either short-circuited or 
 burnt out. The motor should be cut out. 
 
 21. Should there be heavy flashing and smoking 
 in the controller, it is due to dirt, moisture, metal dust 
 in the controller, or the too slow turning off of the 
 controller. Open the overhead switch and blow out 
 the dust from the ring terminals; also remove all dust 
 at the lower ends of the controller and see that it is 
 dry. 
 
 22. Should the lamps not light up on turning the. 
 lamp switch, see if the lamp circuit fuse is not blown. 
 If in good order either a lamp is not screwed home 
 into its socket or one of the lamps is burnt out. If 
 one is burnt out none will light up, because they are in 
 series. 
 
 There are also other irregularities which may occur 
 which it is well for the motorman to understand, al- 
 though he may not be able to remedy them. 
 
 23. One motor of a car becomes a great deal hot- 
 ter than the other. This may be due to uneven distri- 
 bution of work caused by difference in the magnetic 
 circuit of the two motors, or to one set of wheels being 
 smaller in diameter than the other, or to a ground in
 
 182 THE MOTORMAN. 
 
 the field coil or a short circuit in the field coil of the 
 hot motor. 
 
 24. Abnormal heating of one of the motor arma- 
 tures may be due to its striking the field poles when 
 rotating. 
 
 25. Heating of the motor may also be due to a 
 defective brake, caused by weak release springs or 
 too short a brake chain. 
 
 26. Heating also may be due to the oil or grease 
 used which does not melt properly, if at all. A full 
 grease or oil cup is no sign of proper lubrication. If it 
 is found that bearings heat, in spite of full grease 
 cups, take a clean stick, make a hole through the grease 
 down to the shaft, pour in soft oil and go ahead. It 
 may be well occasionally to feel the car axle bearings, 
 which get pretty warm when insufficiently supplied 
 with oil. 
 
 27. A sharp rattling noise when the car is trav- 
 eling at high speed is the consequence of an uneven 
 commutator. A commutator that is flat in places, or 
 a few bars that have become loose and project slightly, 
 cause the brushes to be quickly forced away from the 
 commutator by the high bars, and to be forced back 
 onto the lower ones by the brush-holder spring as soon 
 as a high bar has passed. This causes heavy sparking 
 at the brushes and excessive heating of the commutator 
 segments, besides the rapid wearing down of the 
 brushes. The rapid succession of these changes causes 
 the noise, and this can be remedied only in the repair 
 shop. It should be reported. 
 
 28. A dull thumping noise, also connected with 
 sparking at the brushes, may be due to the armature 
 striking or rubbing against the pole pieces. If this is 
 due to loose bearings the cap bolts.should bo tightened.
 
 HOW TO REMEDY TROUBLES. 183 
 
 but if on account of worn-out boxes the car should be 
 taken to the barn at a slow rate of speed, and reported 
 without delay. 
 
 29. If the car starts with a jerk and the gears 
 make considerable noise, the teeth of the pinion may be 
 worn, fit loosely in the gear, or the key seat on the 
 armature shaft may have been made wider by the con- 
 stant wear of a loose key. This trouble should be re- 
 ported as soon as possible. 
 
 30. Loud noise from the gearing is sometimes due 
 to loose gears, the teeth of which have too much play. 
 It is increased if the gear casing is partially opened, 
 caused by loose bolts, or when they are removed en- 
 tirely. The same trouble of improper meshing of 
 teeth in the gears may be due to a bent armature shaft 
 or a bent car axle. The trouble should be reported to 
 the car inspector or other proper authority. 
 
 31. Another noise frequently heard is the thump- 
 ing of a car wheel which has a flat spot. The trouble 
 may be due to natural wear, or due to poor track, 
 but the most frequent cause is the improper handling 
 of the brake, which is set too suddenly and prevents 
 the wheels from turning. If the brake is set too tightly 
 when going down grade, it will cause the wheels to 
 slide along the rails on four points, which, due to fric- 
 tion, become heated, with the result of softening that 
 part of the wheel, which will wear rapidly into a flat 
 place, causing a disagreeable hammering noise at every 
 revolution of the wheel. 
 
 32. If the motors start with a jerk or do not run 
 smoothly, the conductor should lift one of the trap 
 doors at a time, while the car is running, to examine 
 the commutator and brushes of each motor. Should 
 there be seen a flash all around the commutator or
 
 184 THE MOTORMAN. 
 
 connecting two brushes, then there is an open circuit 
 in the armature. Cut out the motor and proceed on 
 the trip with the other motor alone. 
 
 Short Circuits and Grounds. A short circuit on a 
 motor in a car means that by some cause or defect a 
 shorter circuit is found by the electric current other 
 than is properly provided in the system, and it has the 
 effect of weakening or disabling the part thus affected. 
 For instance, assume that to make the magnet of a 
 motor strong, there is placed around it 500 turns of 
 wire ; due to dampness or dirt, let there be cut out 300 
 or 400 turns ; then a current will flow through but 100 
 turns; the circuit has become shorter than was in- 
 tended by the designer. Such defects not only lead to 
 irregularity in handling, but cause a strain on the 
 dynamo in the power station. Every second that a 
 motor runs after something is wrong is liable greatly 
 to increase the damage. Therefore, cut out a defective 
 motor the moment it is discovered. Short circuits can 
 be caused by dirt and rain, by crossing of the flexible 
 wires joined to the motors and in many other ways. 
 A short circuit on a line means that nearly all or all 
 the necessary resistance which a motor or other trans- 
 lating device should offer when in good condition has 
 been removed by a defect, and now acts as a conductor 
 of very little resistance connecting the two wires con- 
 stituting the line. In a railway system this would 
 mean a direct connection between trolley wire and rail, 
 the current not properly passing through the motors. 
 A grounded motor, or a short circuit, means that 
 some part of the insulation has become defective and 
 that the current has found its w r ay to the iron core. 
 In most railway systems used at present the trolley wire 
 is one of the conductors, while the rails form the ^ec-
 
 HOW TO REMEDY TROUBLES. 185 
 
 ond or return conductor. A ground on a motor equip- 
 ment indicates that a part of the field or the armature 
 winding, through which the current should flow before 
 reaching the car wheel, has been cut out of action by 
 a defect. The car then will not operate so well, and, 
 depending on the seriousness of the defect, will go 
 slower or faster than when in good order. If a ground 
 cuts out a great deal of the motor circuit it is about 
 equivalent to a short circuit. If a guard wire, tele- 
 graph or telephone wire should fall over the trolley 
 wire and touch the ground it would establish an earth 
 connection, which is equivalent to a short circuit on 
 the dynamo. 
 
 Handling Live Wires. Should a wire be found 
 hanging over the trolley wire, but not reaching the 
 ground, it should be removed with the greatest of care. 
 It does not form a ground, as it may be several feet 
 away from the ground; however, it is charged by 
 touching the trolley wire. In trying to remove it with 
 the bare hands, standing on the ground, the man who 
 intends to give his services to remove the obstruction 
 forms himself the rest of the circuit and establishes a 
 ground through his body. The moment he touches this 
 apparently lifeless wire with his bare hands the cur- 
 rent passes through his body into the ground. 
 
 A wire covered with rubber insulation can be 
 handled, but even in this case the same precaution 
 should be taken, as no one can tell how good the in- 
 sulation may be. Frequently rubber insulation be- 
 comes brittle and hard when exposed to atmospheric 
 changes hot and cold weather, rain and snow and in 
 this state the insulation is worse than none, because 
 persons may think the covering still to be an insulator 
 when, in fact, it may be carbonized and itself a partial
 
 186 THE MOTORMAN. 
 
 conductor. In damp weather and with high voltages, 
 as now commonly used, such insulation should not be 
 relied on and should be treated as if the wire were a 
 bare one. 
 
 The construction man on his tower wagon handles 
 the trolley wire with bare hands, but it should be re- 
 membered that he stands on a high wooden ladder, and 
 therefore is well insulated from the ground. Even 
 in his lofty position he has to be on his guard, because 
 the trolley suspension wires in some cities are 
 connected to the iron poles without an insulator be- 
 tween them, only one insulator being provided, which 
 is interposed between the trolley wire and the span. 
 If he touches either one alone he is safe, but if he 
 touches the trolley wire and at the same time this 
 span wire attached to the iron pole, he establishes 
 a connection from the trolley to the ground 
 through his hands, arms and body and has to suffer 
 the consequences. In most towns the trolley suspen- 
 sion wires are now insulated at both ends, so that they 
 can be handled without danger. 
 
 It may be necessary to handle a live trolley wire 
 which has broken or fallen in the street, or a tele- 
 phone or other wire which has fallen across the trolley 
 wire. Never take hold of the \vire with the bare hands. 
 If it must be handled, put several thicknesses of cloth- 
 ing between it and the hands, if the cloth is dry. 
 Otherwise, use sticks and a rope to remove it.
 
 GLOSSARY. 
 
 Ampere The standard unit of electric current which 
 is equivalent to the current flowing through a cir- 
 cuit having one ohm resistance with a pressure of 
 one volt. 
 
 Volts 
 Current^ 
 
 Resistance 
 
 Armature The part of a motor or dynamo which re- 
 volves and produces power or generates current. 
 
 Arc An electric current flowing across the air gap 
 or space between the points of contact. 
 
 Brushes On railway generators and motors they are 
 blocks of carbon held in brass holders with light 
 springs to press them against the commutator, and 
 through which the current passes to or from the 
 commutator and armature, or from the stationary 
 conductor of the circuit to the rotary conductors 
 or vice versa. 
 
 Brush Holders Devices to hold the brushes; they are 
 adjustable so that the brushes can be lifted to 
 prevent sparking. 
 
 Bucking Motor A motor acting in opposition through 
 some defect. The motor must be located and cut 
 out of circuit, or turn off switches and have car 
 conveyed to depot.
 
 188 THE MOTORMAN. 
 
 Catenary Trolley A trolley wire which is supported 
 by hangers from a steel cable running just above 
 the copper wire itself. 
 
 Circuit-Breaker An automatic switch arranged to 
 open whenever the current becomes greater than 
 a certain predetermined amount. It consists of 
 a few turns of wire around an iron core, 
 which becomes a magnet of greater and greater 
 power as the current increases until it throws open 
 the switch or releases a catch which allows a spring 
 to open the switch. 
 
 Closed Circuit A circuit is closed when its conduct- 
 ing parts are so connected as to allow the cur- 
 rent to flow. 
 
 Commutator A set of copper segments separated by 
 thin strips of mica insulation in the form of a 
 drum; through the segments covered by the posi- 
 tive brushes the positive current passes to the 
 armature in a motor and from it in a dynamo. 
 
 Compound Winding The field magnets of a railway 
 dynamo always have two windings, through one 
 of which, the "series," the main current passes, 
 and through the other, the "shunt," a branch of 
 the main current passes. 
 
 Conductors The part of the dynamo, motor or line, 
 or circuit through which the current flows. 
 
 Counter-Electro-Motive Force The pressure generated 
 in the armature of the motor or dynamo. 
 
 Cut Off from the Line Open Circuit. Car disabled 
 by an open circuit. 
 
 Diverter A rheostat or resistance placed in circuit 
 with a motor to reduce the current. 
 
 Electro-Magnet An iron or steel core around which 
 a spool of wire is placed carrying current.
 
 GLOSSARY. 189 
 
 Electro-Motive Force The voltage or volts' pressure 
 in a circuit ; e. g., the trolley circuit has au electro- 
 motive force of 500 volts. The abbreviation is 
 e. m. f. 
 
 Field The part of a motor or dynamo which contains 
 the magnets. 
 
 Fuse A strip of metal, generally some alloy of lead, 
 which easily melts when too great a current is 
 flowing in the circuit. It is mounted usually on a 
 piece of porcelain called a fuse block. 
 
 Generator Has the same meaning as dynamo, but is 
 commonly used to denote the large machines in 
 the station. 
 
 Grounded Circuit A circuit in which the ground 
 forms part of the conducting path. 
 
 Horsepower The standard rate of work being 33,000 
 foot-pounds per minute. If a machine can lift 
 1,000 pounds 33 feet in one minute its capacity is 
 one horsepower. The abbreviation is hp. Elec- 
 trical equivalent, 1 hp.=746 watts. 
 
 Insulation A non-conductor, as air, rubber, mica, var- 
 nish, etc., through which electricity does not 
 readily pass. 
 
 Interlocking Device A part of the controller which 
 prohibits the motorman from reversing while the 
 current is on. 
 
 Lightning Arresters They are devices which offer a 
 by-pass to lightning to prevent damage to ma- 
 chines when the line is carrying a discharge of 
 lightning by conducting it to the earth. 
 
 Magnetic Blow-OutWhen switches are opened or cur- 
 rent shut off in controllers, an arc is formed which 
 is current passing through the air from one con- 
 ductor to the other. A magnet is placed near the
 
 190 THE MOTORMAN. 
 
 point where the arc is formed and draws it aside 
 and blows it out. 
 
 Ohm The standard of electrical resistance through 
 which one ampere of current will flow with a pres- 
 sure of one volt. Ohms = Volts -v- Current. 
 
 Open Circuit A circuit is open when its conducting 
 parts are disconnected in such a manner as to 
 prevent the current from flowing. 
 
 Parallel or Multiple Connection A circuit in which the 
 current divides and part passes through each mo- 
 tor, dynamo or other electrical device. 
 
 Poles or Pole Pieces The core ends which project on 
 the fields and conform to the shape of the arma- 
 ture, and generally carry the field windings. 
 
 Resistance An obstruction to the flow of current. All 
 substances have some resistance, but resistance 
 boxes or rheostats have iron wire or sometimes 
 carbon strips for the circuit. Resistance produces 
 heat in the circuit, and by this means the current 
 in passing through an electric car heater makes 
 the wires very hot. 
 
 Reversing Cylinder The part of the controller which 
 controls the direction of motion of the motors. 
 
 Rotary Converter A type of electrical machine for 
 changing direct to alternating current, or vice 
 versa. 
 
 Safety Stop An attachment which prevents the con- 
 troller cylinder from being turned past a certain 
 running position when a motor is cut out. 
 
 Series Connection When the current passes through 
 one motor, dynamo or electrical device and there- 
 after into one or more devices. 
 
 Short Circuit A short cut made by the current to 
 a path outside of the regular circuit.
 
 GLOSSARY. 191 
 
 Sparking The flashing of the current which occurs at 
 the commutator when there is poor contact, the 
 brushes are in bad order, the commutator is dirty, 
 or the dynamo or motor is carrying too heavy a 
 load. 
 
 Transformer A combination of coils of wire about 
 an iron core by means of which alternating cur- 
 rent can be changed in pressure. 
 
 Volt The standard of electrical pressure, or the pres- 
 sure to force one ampere of current through one 
 ohm resistance. Volts = Amperes X Ohms. 
 
 Watt The rate of performance of work measured 
 electrically ; the capacity of a dynamo or motor is 
 measured in watts and is the product of volts by 
 amperes. A kilowatt is 1,000 watts and is equal to 
 1.34 hp.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Acceleration, Automatic 126 
 
 Accidents, Precautions Against 135 
 
 Air Brakes, Automatic 165 
 
 Operation of 166, 168 
 
 Emergency Feature 163 
 
 Motorman's Valve 156 
 
 Parts of 151 
 
 Operation of 158 
 
 Storage 171 
 
 Straight 151 
 
 Air Compressor 155 
 
 Circuits 88 
 
 Governor 155 
 
 Air and Hand Brake Rigging 157 
 
 Alternating-Current Feeding System 35 
 
 Alternating-Current-Direct-Current Feeding System 35 
 
 Armature 11, 53 
 
 Core 54 
 
 Boilers 25 
 
 Fire-Tube 25 
 
 Water-Tube 27 
 
 Brake Leverage 145 
 
 Electric 146 
 
 Hand 141 
 
 Kinds of 141 
 
 Magnetic 148 
 
 Rigging 143 
 
 Brakeshoe 140 
 
 Brush Holder . . .58
 
 INDEX. 193 
 
 Car Wiring 87 
 
 Chicago City Railway 89 
 
 Cars 4 
 
 City 9 
 
 Hints on Handling 172 
 
 Interurban 9 
 
 Catenary Construction 48 
 
 Choke Coil 87 
 
 Circuit-Breaker 80 
 
 Commutator 18, 53 
 
 Conductor's Valve 167 
 
 Control Battery 127 
 
 Electro-Pneumatic 122 
 
 Series-Parallel 93, 98 
 
 Type-M 117 
 
 Type-M Circuits 121 
 
 Unit Switch 122 
 
 Varying Field 92 
 
 Controller, Type-K-28 113 
 
 Master 118 
 
 Type-B Ill 
 
 Type-K 101 
 
 Type-L 110 
 
 With Contactors 112 
 
 Controllers 99 
 
 Operation of 129 
 
 Reversing Cylinder 103 
 
 Conduit System 44 
 
 Contactors 118 
 
 Direct-Current Feeding System 33 
 
 Distribution, Methods of 31 
 
 Dynamo 17 
 
 Edison 20 
 
 Multipolar 21 
 
 Principle of 16 
 
 Electricity, Units for Measuring 30 
 
 Engines, Steam 27 
 
 Feeding 130 
 
 Fuses . . .81
 
 194 THE MOTORMAN. 
 
 Gear Case 63 
 
 Gears 60 
 
 Heater Circuits 88 
 
 Insulation 39 
 
 Insulators 40 
 
 High-Tension 51 
 
 Lighting Circuits 90 
 
 Lightning Arrester 83 
 
 Locomotives 46 
 
 Magnetic Lines of Force 12 
 
 Needle 15 
 
 Poles 13 
 
 Magnets 10 
 
 Electro 14 
 
 Field 19 
 
 Motor, Parts of 56 
 
 Principle of 15 
 
 Cars 4 
 
 Circuits 96 
 
 Connections on Successive Points 103 
 
 Interpole 68 
 
 Reversing in Emergency 131 
 
 Single-Phase : . 70 
 
 Suspension 65 
 
 Operation Around Curves 135 
 
 Failure of Car to Start 177 
 
 Parallel Connection 97 
 
 Power, Hints on Saving 132 
 
 Lost, Chart Showing 133 
 
 Station 24 
 
 Pressure 30 
 
 Push-Button Circuits 90 
 
 Repairs 137 
 
 Resistance 30, 94 
 
 Reverser 123
 
 INDEX. 195 
 
 Rheostat 94 
 
 Right of Way 3 
 
 Rotary Converter 37 
 
 Series Connection 96 
 
 Short-Circuits 184 
 
 Storage-Battery Cars 45 
 
 Switchboard 30 
 
 Switches, Main 79 
 
 Third-Rail Shoes 76 
 
 System 42 
 
 Track 3 
 
 Trailers 4 
 
 Transformer, Principle of 33 
 
 Transmission Lines 50 
 
 Trolley Base 74 
 
 Fittings 40 
 
 Pantagraph 76 
 
 Wire 47 
 
 Trucks 6 
 
 Maximum Traction 7 
 
 Turbines, Steam 28 
 
 Wheels, Flat 173 
 
 Wires, Live ... .185